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NATURE

A WEEKLY

ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VOLUME VII.

NOVEMBER 1872 to APRIL 1873

“* To the solid ground

O Nature trusts the mind that builds for aye.”—WorDswoRrtH

Fondon and Hety Pork :
MACMILLAN AND CoO.

1873

BOWIE TO TARATOL

airy J eae. LONDON, SAF Ha
R, CLAY, SONS, AND ‘FAYLOR, PRINTERS
BREAD SYREEY HILL

——————————

-_

A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

"© To the solid ground
Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WoRDSWORTH

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 7, 1872

THE LAST ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS

HE scientific results of the late eruption of Vesuvius
promise to be as important to science as the phe-
nomena were grand and awe-inspiring to the spectator.
Not only has Prof. Palmieri published an account of the
observations from his dangerous standpoint, in Italian and
German, which will shortly make its appearance here in
the English translation by Mr. Mallet, but M. Henri

‘Saussure has also published in the Geneva Bibliothégue

Universelle an account of an excursion made by him to
Vesuvius about the middle of last May, shortly after the
violent eruption of April. This account, given by such a
competent observer, is so interesting and valuable, from
all points of view, that it must be regarded as a most
valuable addition to the literature of one of the most
popularly-known volcanoes on our planet. For the better
understanding of the geographical features we may refer
our readers to the article in NATURE, vol. vi. p. 2.
Vesuvius, as Prof. Phillips has taught us, was formerly a
mountain forming a vast circle, whose central part, occupied
partly by a crater—which, without doubt, has been often
displaced within the limits of the circumference—was not
less than three kilometres in diameter, and the projecting
part of which, occupied at present by the cone, formed then
only a kind of plateau. The famous eruption of A.D. 79,
which happened unexpectedly after a very long period of
repose, entirely changed the form of the mountain. Very
little lava seems to have been given forth during that
eruption, which was characterised by tremendous showers
of stones and ashes, and by rivers of mud. This it was

that buried Pompeii and Herculaneum, the former being

covered by fifteen feet, the latter by thirty or forty feet

of débris, and which, at the same time, appears to have
formed, by accumulation, the presentmountain of Vesuvius,
- placed in the centre of the ancient circle, the work having

been completed by innumerable successive eruptions.
The Vesuvius group, then, is at present composed of

No. 158—vo., vit.

=

two distinct mountains—namely, the cone of Vesuvius,
and the rest of the ancient circle which form, to the north
and west, a vast amphitheatre, named Za Somma, Between
the two mountains is an elevated horse-shoe shaped valley,
the middle part of which bears the name of Aério del Ca-
vaillo, and the upper extremity, towards the east, that of
Canale del Inferno. This elevated valley is depressed
and widened towards the west, where it takes the name of
Gli Atri, and ends by being lost upon the slopes of the
Piano which form the buttresses of the two mountains,
and which emerge by various ravines into the plains
which stretch from San Sebastiano to Torre del Greco.

This description would be incomplete if we did not
mention a knoll or hillock, apparently insignificant, but
in reality of great importance from the part it plays in
giving direction tothe lava. This little eminence, named
Monte de Canteroni, has the form of an elongated saddle-
back ; it runs east and west, parallel with the western ex-
tremity of the crest of La Somma, rising towards Vesuvius.
It divides, as it were, in the direction of its length, the
outlet of the elevated valley, and as it does not reach the
foot of the cone of Vesuvius, it forms only an incomplete
partition which divides the currents of lava flowing out of
Atrio del Cavallo. At the lower or western extremity of
this saddleback is situated the Observatory.

The greatest overflows are always those which make
their way across the mass of the mountain; for when a
volcano has acquired a certain height, the weight of the
liquid column which issues from the vent becomes so
considerable that the incandescent matter must rush from
the fissures at a lowerlevel. But, for a certain number of
years, the centre of eruption of lava seems to have shifted
towards Atrio del Cavallo, in the elevated valley situated
between the two mountains,

In 1855 and the following years, eruptions made their
way or had been thrown upon this point, and have trans-
formed the elevated ‘valley into a sort of sea of lava,
which at present may be about 1,000 metres in breadth,
The burning torrent makes its way to the west, but on
leaving the valley of Atrio, it very soon encounters Mente
de Canteroni, which divides the current into two unequal
parts, giving to each a different direction, throwing back

B

_ already quite cooled on the surface.

2 NATURE

| Noo. 71 872

the principal stream on the left into Fosso Vetrana, and
the small part on the right, upon the slopes of the Piano.
The lava does not scoop out but only rolls along the
ground, the eroded ravines which furrow the sides of the
mountain becoming necessarily their natural channels.
Thus the successive currents have followed very nearly

the same channel, being superimposed on each other

through a great part of their course. When the lava
streams are of considerable depth, they often pass over
small inequalities of ground, and leap to right and left
when they strike against any considerable obstacle.

A good carriage road leads from Resina as far as the
Observatory, across the cultivated slopes which are
covered with houses. At less than a kilometre from the
Observatory, the road traverses the lava of 1858, which
has covered up the old route, and through which it has
become necessary to reopen the way. Almost imme-
diately after having passed the lava, the Observatory is
reached, where Prof. Palmieri sojourned during the ter-
rible days of the last eruption. This building, situated at

a height of 600 metres, is a substantial freestone struc-

ture of two stories, surrounded by beautiful terraces
which overlook the lava field on all sides, and the edges
of which are enclosed by a handsome railing not much in
keeping with the desolate aspect of the place. M. Pal-
mieri has been compelled, from the want of trained
assistants, to set up registering apparatus, and can obtain
certain connected observations only during the time of
his occasional stay at the Observatory. But for this cir-
cumstance, the last eruption would probably have been
foreseen for some time.*

From the Observatory, the summit of Mount Vesuvius
can be reached in two hours. The road skirts the im-
mense fields of black lava which stretch between Monte
Canteroni and the foot of Vesuvius, and which have been
formed by the recent eruptions as they escaped from Atrio
del Cavallo. The lava of April 26 M. de Saussure found
There would not
appear to be a greater amount of incandescence at the
‘bottom of any crevasse, although the matter certainly
preserves its heat under the superficial stratum, as was
attested by the great number of fumaroles encoun-
tered almost everywhere, These emanations escaped for
the most part from little kilns, or swollen crevasses,
which communicate by clefts with the deeper lava. Around
some of these fires there prevailed a strong odour of
hydrochloric acid, while other vents did not emit anything
but steam or warm air. These are, indeed, the successive
phases which mark these emanations of lava until they
reach complete coolness.

At first, the whole surface of the lava-streams seems to
exhale steam and hydrochloric acid, and the atmosphere
is filled with a disagreeable odour which makes breathing
uncomfortable, But very quickly the exhalations are
localised around the little centres of fire, whose activity
continues for many months, and emanations from which
are gradually modified. Thus, as seen from Naples at the
time of the visit, the whole of the lava appeared to be
smoking, and it was possible clearly to distinguish the tracks
of the whitish vapours which appeared to wander over the
surface ; but close at hand there was nothing to be seen but
the fumaroles, between each of which there is plenty of

* See description ot the Observatory, NaTuRE, vol. vi. p. 145.

space. The gas and the hot vapours which the lava emits

are charged with numerous substances, and become the
source of mineral deposits which fill the tourist with
wonder, One of the most curious phenomena observed —
is the power of burning lava fo retain an enormous
quantity of water and salt, which it does not allow to
escape until it begins to cool. The formation of salt is
shown generally over the whole stretch of lava emitted in
1872. Soon after the surface cools it is covered with a
light crust of salt, which forms in similar flowery patterns
on the beds of cinders that cover the plains, the cinders
themselves emitting everywhere hydrochloric acid. The
first showers caused this deposit rapidly to disappear,
and there remained on the 12th of May only scanty
traces, except on the lower surface of the blocks, where —
the rain had not the power to dissolve it. But the salt
continued to be deposited in the vents, from which were
detached beautiful crystals and graceful concretions ;
it continued also to be formed upon the great deposits
of cinders on the cone of Vesuvius, and, even on May 19,
the summit of the mountain, as seen from the Ob-
servatory, appeared from this cause as if sprinkled with
snow.

Next to salt, the substance which is formed in greatest
abundance upon the lava is chloride of iron, which
assumes the most varied tints according to its sur-
roundings, but is in general of a beautiful yellow,
often orange, and is easily mistaken for sulphur. A
multitude of other substances are deposited around the
smoke-vents, besides those which have been named.
These are for the most part metallic compounds, espe-
cially chlorides, and more rarely sulphur compounds.
There are chlorides of copper and lead, hematite and
magnetic iron ore, gypsum, &c. The peroxide of iron,
in particular, plays an important part in the life of these
fumaroles ; it appears to be formed by the decomposi-

tion of chloride of iron ; the protuberances of the scorize

are often covered with the substance, which gives them
the richest and-most brilliant variegated appearance.

The origin of these many substances has considerably
occupied the attention of chemists, and has not yet been
satisfactorily explained ; but the form of the concretions,
as much as the accumulation of substance, apparently
foreign to laya, indicate that theyareformedby sublimation. —

When the summit of the cone was approached, fine ashes
were found scattered about the transverse rents that are
apt'to be taken for ruptures caused by the concussions
accompanying the’ eruptions.
rather have formed radiating or longitudinal rents, while
these are perhaps only the effect of the settlement of -
the cinders which naturally tend to act in the direction of

But violent fissures would —

~*

4

the greatest slope,’and to give rise to fissures analogous to. .

those which are observed in the centre of the Alps. It is
to this same phenomenon that must be attributed the
step-like structure, traces of which are met with on the
external face of the summit of the mountain, and which is
probably owing to the fact that the lower edge of the
rents must be elevated by the settlement, while the upper

edge remains unaffected, or is itself lowered in supplying _

the matter which afterwards fills the rents. On the
outside face of the cone, these steps are scarcely more
than three or four inches in height, but on the margin of
the internal face of the south-west side of the crater are —

o%

~~ ae é

‘Noo. 7, 1872]

four large sharp-edged steps of more than a metre
high, arranged stair-wise, the formation of which can
scarcely be explained otherwise than bya deposit or a
flow of ashes accumulated at the end of the last erup-
_ tion,
4 A vast transverse funnel, much larger than it is broad,
occupies the south-west part of the summit of the cone,
and this gulf is itself divided at the bottom by a partition
of rocks which divides it intotwo compartments. A third
crater occupies the north part, and is separated from the
first by a considerable wall of rocks. This latter crater
opens into the great north fissure which descends into
Atrio del Cavallo ; it was opened during the last eruption
at the expense of an adventitious cone raised in 1855,
and appears to have been the most active, since it is
upon its side that the mountain is rent as far as the base
_of the cone ; however, it has not ejected any lava, this
having found its way out by the bottom of the fissure.
During the eruption the lava was raised as far as the
summit of the mountain—it has filled to the brim the
_ double crater on the south-west—yet two days after this
the lava had escaped by the south side ; for on the 24th
of April it overflowed the crater and formed three streams
on the south, the west, and the north-east, which flowed
down the slopes of the cone, and lost themselves among the
fields of lava underneath. After this event the lava fell
_ back to the bottom of the craters.
__ The depth of the crater may be estimated at about 130
metres. The bottom appears to be full of dééris and
ashes, but shows no sign of incandescence, nor of any
- adventitious cone ; no smoke ascends, and the volcano,
after its convulsion, has apparently fallen into a complete
sleep. The only signs of activity are seen in the nume-
_ rous unimportant jets of white vapour which escape either
from the bottom or from various points in the walls, and
which appear to dissolve in the atmosphere. Neverthe-
less, as seen from Naples, Vesuvius always appears with a
light smoke hanging over it, which is invisible on the
_mountainitself. On the side next Pompeii only, to the east
and north-east the slopes are macadamised by bomb-
like blocks of the size of the head. The crater mus
have projected from all sides a shower of such blocks
but over all the other parts of the mountain this de,
“posit must have been covered by a thick bed of ashes ;
and since these blocks are seen only on the east, it is evi-
dent that at the time of the last eruption of cinders a violent
wind must have blown them to the opposite side. The large
_ blocks, if they have been thrown up to the height of 1,500
_ metres, appear to have fallen back at a short distance
from the crater. Shot vertically, they fell so, while the
ashes, on account of their greater lightness, have been
carried to a greater distance.
The crater on the south-west is divided through and
through by a narrow rent, which is doubtless the pro-
longation of that which on the 24th emitted, half way up,
the lava which went in the direction of Torre del Greco.
This rent divides the south'crest, and may be traced upon
the walls of the crater, where it looks only like a simple
fissure ; itre-appears more distinctly on the opposite side,
Another disappears among the cracks of the rocks. This
_ rent exhaled at the summit of the crater burning gases,
_ which formed upon the sides abundant deposits. The
_ south crest was sufficiently filled up by sand to enable

a
.
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oP.
"

a

NATURE gaiee :

one to cross it, but such a quantity of sulphurous vapours
was emitted, that to escape being asphyxiated it was
necessary to make several rapid leaps. On the west side
of the crater the rent still gapes, and has not been filled
up, notwithstanding the heat which escaped.

The eruption of April 26 which followed the rending of
Vesuvius, reopening the same vent, suddenly made its way
to the same point, shattering the manifold bed of lava,
and ejecting to the surface immense blocks, probably torn
from their beds far below. Of this débris, mixed with in-
candescent lava, there is formed an elongated ridge of
about 50 metres high, from the base of which there sprung
an enormous mass of lava that swept over the little cone
of Atrio, The lava burst forth at first in all directions,
even a little behind in ascending the valley. It filled all
Atrio, without, however, encrusting anywhere the sides of
the rocks of the Amphitheatre of La Somma, and flowed
along the valley in the form of a current of about 1,000
metres broad. Subsequently encountering the ridge of
Canteroni, it was turned to the right, though a part of it
was separated by the upper extremity of this knoll, and
diverted to the left on to the slopes of Piano, where it
contorted somewhat the foot of the mountain, thanks to
the lava of 1858, which, having changed the slope of the
ground, prevented it from continuingits route. The prin-
cipal stream continued to follow the valley of the Fosso
de la Ventrana, running at the rate of about one kilometre
and a half in two hours, passing under the Observatory,
where the lava was seen to boil up at places and shoot
forth into little eruptions, projecting jets of steam and
scoriz ; then it was precipitated in a cascade of fire over
a wall of rock, and continued its course by the same
ravine as the stream of 1855, and for the greater part of
its course overrunning the lava of that year. It passed,
exactly as its predecessor did, between the villages of
Massa and San Sebastiano, sweeping away likewise a
portion of the houses, part of it at last lodging itself on
the south of Cercola, while a branch of the current con-
tinued in the direction of San Giorgio.

The imagination is unable to comprehend how such a
mass of matter could escape in a single day from a single
fire, and spread itself over an area of seven kilometres.
The elongated ridge formed in the Atrio, at the time of
the eruption, upon the site of the centre of the outbreak,
appears at present only like a huge bubble on the sea of
lava. It is composed of recent black lava, strewed with
enormous blocks of old bleached lava encased in the new.
These blocks are, without doubt, the débris of subjacent
beds which have been broken and driven back by the
lava at the time of its outbreak ; the mass of them en-
crusted with the same lava having formed a whole so
solid that it could not be swept away by the general
current. This ridge does not now overtop the surface of
the lava more than fifteen to twenty metres, from which
we may conclude that the bed of lava at this point has an
enormous depth.

The general effects of the eruption of 1872 have been
somewhat as follows, according to M. de Saussure :—

1, The mountain of Vesuvius has been divided by a
rent running nearly from north to south-south-west.

2. The lava, rising in the rent, has rushed along the
two sides, on the north tothe very foot of the cone, on the
south half-way down in much less abundance.

3. The summit of the mountain has been lowered and
flattened.

An examination of the lava of 1872 does not appear likely
to lead to any new results. Its mineralogical nature is
essentially the same as that of the other lavas of all ages
that have been found both on Vesuvius and in La Somma.
It is composed of a leucitic rock strewn with crystals of
augite, and destitute of vitreous felspar; whence the
names of leucitiferous or augitiferous, as one or other
substance prevails. The most ancient lava which forms
the body and crevices of La Somma, is in general
very pale; it often contains an abundance of leucite
crystals of the size of a foot ; but its composition is, quali-
tatively, essentially analogous to that of the actual black
lava. The lava of 1872 differs considerably in its
physical appearance from that of 1858, The last is
much less scoriated; it has a fleecy surface formed of
round embossments, shining and comparatively little
roughened. We might liken it to black whipped cream,
which has flowed along, forming arches, fibrous stalactites
twisted cords, which look at places as if vitrified. The
lava of 1872, on the contrary, is extremely scoriaceous,
and assumes a form almost like madrepore. On account
of the great shrinking of the material, it has been broken
up into blocks, entirely separated from each other,
and roundish, because the mass was as yet vitreous ;
porous, in consequence of the quantity of gas it enclosed,
and full of the most curious irregularities resembling
coral and vegetation, which render progress infinitely dif-
ficult. The difference of appearance, combined with a
thin layer of gray cinders which adheres to the lava of
1872, enables one to distinguish at once between it and
those of preceding years, It will be noticed also to the
north of the Observatory that the current has filled all the
bottom of the valley of Ventrana, while on the south it
has only run into the crevices of the old lava, surrounding
the knolls, separating, re-uniting, leaving here and there
inlets, as rivers without any determinate bed do at low
water. This difference of structure of the two lavas
seems to result from the very rapid cooling of that of
‘1872.

It is not easy to form a notion of the depth of this lava.
In the lower parts the bed is about eight metres deep,
with a breadth of about 800 metres; its borders form
moraines of 45°, which indicate the: small fluidity of the
matter at the time it reached the place. In Atrio del
Cavallo the moraine of the bed of lava which leans against
the foot of the rocks of La Somma is less elevated, but
the enormous waves in the middle of this surface argue in
some places a considerable thickness.

The successive eruptions which have taken place in
Atrio and which have piled up layer on layer, have enor-
mously raised the level of the ground. A German geo-
logist has conceived the idea of counting the layers which
form the vertical dykes on the rocks of La Somma. At
present the number would be hidden beneath more than
a hundred feet of lava. The stream which debouches
from Atrio has ended by considerably overtopping the
Observatory ; and that the latter has not been threatened
this year results from the fact that the saddleback of
Monte Canteroni, upon which it stands, rises in the direc-
tion of Vesuvius in such a manner that its eastern ex-
tremity (Croce del Salvatore) has hitherto performed the

NATURE

part ofa buttress in dividing the burning stream and divert-
ing the two currents into the ravines which slope rapidly
to the right and left of the height. But a new outbreak

will, without doubt, sweep away the eastern extremity of

this crest, and a succeeding one would easily be able to
send a stream of lava flowing as far as the Observatory.
Foreseeing this danger, M. Palmieri has raised above the
building a redan of a'very sharp angle. This will form but
a weak barrier, though it may be able to retard for a little
the progress of the devastating element. Since several of

more or less in danger. Let us hope, however, that
when that time arrives a worthy successor of Palmieri
may safely chronicle what is going on, and that another
De Saussure may be there to see.

WAGNER'S HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY

A Handbook of Chemical Technology. By Rudolph
Wagner, Ph.D. Translated and edited from the eighth
German edition, with extensive additions by William
Crookes, F.R.S. (London; J. and A, Churchill, 1872.)

VERY one who has studied chemistry from a scien-
tific point of view must have been more or less
struck with the fact that nearly all our manuals of
chemistry have much of their space occupied with de-
tailed descriptions fof various manufacturing processes,
and many must have asked why this is. It is not easy to
see what utility there is in describing, in works professedly
devoted to a scientific subject, such processes as those for
the manufacture of chamois leather, wine, vinegar, china
and earthenware, &c. &c.; and yet our largest and most
ambitious manual, in common with its smaller com-
panions, devotes scores of its pages to the consideration
of such subjects. This fashion is much to be deprecated
for many reasons: in the first place, these processes are
utterly useless to the student, as, in the majority of cases,
they illustrate no rule, elucidate no reaction. In the
second, it is utterly impossible to do full justice to them
in the space to which they must perforce be confined ;
and in the last, much valuable matter about the rarer
elements and reactions is squeezed out of place altogether,
or passed over with a mere mention.

This system has borne its natural fruit in the numberless
questions bearing on manufactures which are to be found
in all our chemical examination papers ; and the result is,
that many a man passes with credit on the marks gained
by answering such questions, while others who, perhaps,
have a much better knowledge of the science, fall behind
in the race, because they have not devoted their time to
Technology.

It is not difficult to see how this state of things arose,
It is not so many years (we were almost going to say
months), since chemistry was regarded by the public
much in the same way that they now look upon the

‘
the recent eruptions have happened on the Atrio side, it

would seem as if the chief centre of volcanic action was
tending towards that point, and there seems little doubt
that one of the next eruptions will place the Observatory

higher mathematics, as something very mysterious, very

good for a learned man to know—but utterly useless and
“unpractical” for all ordinary purposes. Such being the ~

1-4

writers of manuals no doubt felt it incumbent on
hem to gild the pill by introducing such matter as tended
o show that there was such a thing as/a practical appli-
cation of chemistry to the Arts.
However, that time has passed. Perhaps no science
as of late become so widely popular, and certainly none
hhas advanced so rapidly towards accuracy as chemistry.
It is, therefore, time for it to throw aside the crutches
upon which it was bound to support itself whilst struggling
for recognition and public favour, and to march boldly
forward, depending on itself alone. As a means to this
end, it is with great pleasure that we welcome Mr.
‘Crookes’s translation of Dr. Wagner’s work. He has
given us, in the form of a handbook, what could only
before have been obtained either by searching in special
treatises, or by reading much more cumbersome diction-
aries ; and the existence of this book cannot but have its
influence in setting free much of the space hitherto
occupied in educational works on chemistry, by perfunc-
_ tory descriptions of technological processes.
We most heartily join with Mr. Crookes in the hope he
_ expresses at the end of his preface—“ We cannot let this
work pass out of our hands without expressing the hope
that, at no distant date, chairs of Technology will be
founded in all our universities, and that the subject will
be included in the curriculum of every large school.”
_ Such an event could not fail to have the happiest effects
_ onall; for, while it would set free the scientific student
- from a subject he does not require, it would enable those
-wishing to become managers of works or manufacturers,
to study their special subjects in the best possible way.”
_ The work consists of 745 closely-printed pages, with
_ 336 illustrations, and a copious index. The subjects are
treated at considerable length, and with extreme lucidity ;
this is especially the case with the portions devoted to
metallurgical processes, where every step is carefully
traced, and all the latest forms of furnaces, &c., are repre-
sented by woodcuts. We notice, however, that the
section on electro-metallurgy is shorter than could have
been wished, and that no mention is made of the process
of depositing nickel upon iron, &c.
In the section on explosive compounds, we have full
_ details for the preparation of picrates, nitro-glycerin, gun-
_ cotton, &c., ; though the author, perhaps led away by his
chemical enthusiasm for these bodies, has treated gun-
powder somewhat shortly, and the very interesting results
obtained by the use of pebble, pellet, and prismatic
powders, we do not see noticed at all; in fact, this article
is decidedly behind the times. The preparation of salt,
sulphur, soda, ash, bleaching-powder, &c., are well and
fully treated, though we do not see Deacon’s process for
the preparation of chlorine mentioned.
_ The articles on glass and earthenware are remarkably
- good and full, as are those on cements and fime, paper,
_ sugar, and spirit. Since March 1868, two editions of the
work have been issued, making eight in all. Of the eighth,
and last, translations have been made into French and
Dutch, and everyone will thank Mr. Crookes for the quan-
- tity of new matter he has added, In conclusion, it need
~ onlybe said that the formule: are throughout molecular,and
that the metric system of weights and measures is used,'ex-
_ cept where English quantities were indispensable. We feel
$ure that this book will permanently take its place among

“5, oe es 5 Ee tae ee Ot
ese Pere pe Pm pany, cara oem ae
Pahl ics Bite aY 2: . a rat .

s ’ 2
f ie : +

“NATURE :

our manuals, and that the editor and translator will, in
future editions, correct any little faults and errors which
are, in so large a work, unavoidable ; while he will keep
it fully abreast of the times. R. F,

OUR BOOK SHELF

Ueber die Bedeutung der Entwichelung in der Natur-
geschichte. Von Dr. A, Braun, Berlin.

Ueber die Auflosung der Arten nach natiirliche r Zucht-
wah?, Von einem Ungenannten, Hanover. (London :
Williams and Norgate.)

THESE are two of the most recent of the numerous con-
tributions which Germany has made to the literature of
Darwinism. The first is an address delivered on the an-
niversary of the medical and surgical Frederick-William
Institute in Berlin, and is a tribute to the enormous im-
petus given to physiological research by the promulgation
of Mr. Darwin’s theories. The writer, however, while
fully adopting the principle of Evolution, leans to the
views which have during the last few years greatly spread
among naturalists, that any theory like that of natural
selection, which does not recognise an inherent law of
progress, is insufficient to account for the phenomena of
the transmutation of species.

The second of these pamphlets is a more noteworthy
production. The anonymous author also admits the prin-
ciple of Descent by Evolution, but contends that the'carry-
ing out of this principle, so far from leading, as is generally
supposed, to a multiplication of species and to a graduay
rise to more and more perfect organic forms, must neces
sarily result in a gradual diminution in the number o-
species, a fusing together of form after form, and a def
scent to more lowly, instead of an ascent to more highly
organised structures. With the origin of life he does not
concern himself, but only with its future ; and the succes-
sion of organised beings he compares not to a tree branch-
ing out into infinite ramifications, but to a river uniting in
itself an infinitude of smaller streams. Whether the propo-
sition is a serious one, or whether it is put forward as a
reductio ad absurdum by a furtive opponent of Evolution,
it is difficult to say ; but the argument is carried out with
considerable ability, and a strong point is made of the
acknowledged degeneracy of many races of men from the
condition of their ancestors, and of the gradual dying out
of tribes and the consolidation of the human family into
an ever decreasing number of types.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

The National Herbarium

You will, perhaps, give admission to a few remarks on Dr,
Hooker's instructive ‘‘Reply ”* to my ‘‘Statement” of 16th May,
1872, bearing in mind that;this ‘‘ Statement” was called for in
explanation of the grounds of my requirements and assignment
of space in the Museum of Natural History, to be built at South’
Kensington, for the reception, uses, ‘and applications of the
National Herbarium, on the conviction that such would be con-
tinued and maintained in the metropolis.

Dr. Hooker had put in the van of his evidence,} and recom-
mendations bearing on the reduction, limited applications,s and
subordination to Kew ||, of the Herbarium at the British Museum

* See Nature, vol. vi. p 516.

+ Minutes of Evidence of Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction.

t Ans. to Q. 6,683. § Ans. to Q. 6,684 and 6,685

NATURE

as regards supply,* nomenclature, and government, a summary
of the amount of botanical work represented by the 140 volumes
having the Herbarium at Kew as their cause or conditions,

Seeing that—were this summary to be held as decisive, ad-
ministratively, for carrying out his urgent desires—a Government
impressed with its responsibilities for the application of public
money, would place on retiring allowances the proportion of the
staff no longer needed in the Metropolitan Herbarium—there
was a motive in addition to my duty in response to the inquiry of
the First Commissioner of Works, to sift the grounds of Dr.
Hooker’s attack on the Department of Botany in the British
Museum. The anxieties of its officers were too well founded.

The argument from the amount of herbarium work at Kew
since the practice of transferring there the dried plants collected
in Government expeditions would be valid if such work could not
be done elsewhere, or if such work had not been done in the
Metropolitan Herbarium prior to the diversion therefrom of its
legitimate supplies.

But the ‘*Prodromus Flore Nove Hollandiz,” the
«¢ Observations Systematical and Geographical on the
Herbarium collected in the Vicinity of the Congo,” not to

cite other works of Robert Brown, well known to botanists—
and I may add the “‘ Plante Javanicze Rariores” of his successor,
John Joseph Bennett, F.R.S.—are examples of ‘‘ scientific
work ” at the London Herbarium, in relation to its legitimate
supplies, which will bear comparison with the “scientific work
which is turned out from the Herbarium at Kew.”

The circtimstance which, in the emergency threatening a
Department of Natural History in the British Museum I was
bound to submit to the consideration of Government, was that
the works added to Botanical Science, for which before its
supplies were intercepted by a “‘competing establishment” the
National Herbarium in London furnished the materials for
publication, were works of assigned duty. The officers of such
Herbarium had no trusts or responsibilities in relation to the
Royal Gardens, but gave their aid in naming the living Plants
at Kew ; leaving the officers in charge of those gardens free for
the works and applications for which a Nation ‘provides and
supports its collections of living plants. Had Robert Brown
been the director of such establishment, those who had the
inestimable pleasure and benefit of his intimacy know that his
devotion to the experimental and physiological duties of his
office would have been the prime and paramount subject of his
time and labours at Kew.

Permit me to exemplify my argument. In the “‘ Report of
the Royal Garden at Calcutta for 1870” (No. 585, 14th May,
1872) it is stated :—‘‘At the beginning of the year the total
stock of Ipecacuanha amounted to five plants in Sikkim and
seven in this garden. These represented the’ only surviving
offspring of a single plant received from Dr. Hooker of the
Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1866.—At the request of the Right
Hon. the Secretary of State for India, attention has for some
years past been given in Edinburgh to the propagation of
Tpecacuanha plants for this country, and during the past year
the supplies raised there began toarrive. Five ‘ Wardian Cases’
containing about 100 plants were received from Dr. Balfour of
the Royal Botanical Gardens at Edinburgh.” The Curator of
these gardens, Mr. McNab, referring to the earlier intro-
duction of living plants of Cephaelis [pecacuanha into the Kew
Gardens, and alluding to the slow and difficult method of its
propagation by the adopted methods of cuttings, proceeds to
describe the better method to which his experiments on living
specimens led.+ ‘‘ The roots or rather rhizomes of the Cephaelis

* Ans. to Q. 6,785, ‘‘ That the British Museum Herbarium and that at
Kew should be under one control, and the former be continuously added to
from Kew.” Inhis Ans. to Q 6,732, Dr. H. says—“‘ The trouble of supply-
ing the South Kensington Museum would be very trifling,”—which I think

robable.
B + McNab “ On the Propagation of the Ipecacuanha plant,” Transactions of
the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, vol. x. p, 318.

are peculiarly annulated (PI. iv. fig. 2). A few of them were
taken from one of the plants in the Botanic Garden during the

month of August, 1869, and, after being cut into transverse sec-

tions of different lengths, were inserted in a horizontal position
over the surface of a pot prepared with drainage and white sand.
This pot was placed under a hand-glass ina warm propagating

bed, and kept moist. A few weeks afterwards the root-cuttings

began to swell, and showed signs of budding, chiefly on the

upper cut surface, as in Pl. iv. fig. 3. In most cases only one

bud was developed, but in some instances two or more were
produced. When several growing plants are observed the root

can be cut through so as to form independent plants.” If this”
has not before found a place in the columns of NATURE it may

be deemed worthy of one, for, as the physiological botanist in
charge of the Edinburgh Gardens observes—‘‘ Understanding
that the Government intend to introduce the cultivation of this
plant in India,” and ‘‘in order to meet the demand which in
all likelihood will be made on nurserymen for plants of Cephaelis,
it is well to know how it can be propagated independently of
cuttings ” (Zé. p. 318).

To give another instance. In an obituary notice of Dr. Fred.
Welwitsch, the editor of a horticultural journal refers to the
species of a plant which bears his name as follows :—‘‘ The

[Woo. 7, 1872 7

Welwitschia mirabilis is about as remarkable a plant as the —

Rafflesia Arnoldi itself, and equally uncultivatable.’*
simple fact is, the ill success at Kew,
Edinburgh has had its chance.

As a popular premier once defined dirt, so a weed is a plant
multiplying in a wrong place. We may hope for a reversion of
the sentence on Wé/witschia when ‘‘ cones with ripe seeds ” and
* fine young plants ” have found their way to a botanic garden
whose officers are not diverted from experimental work, not
trammelled and obstructed by that wasteful weed—an overgrown
herbarium, The native conditions of existence of the Tumboa
may then and there be imitated so truly, with ample provision for
the descent of the tap-root, as to enable visitors to see the plant
alive, and Mr. McNab may even succeed in giving other horti-
culturists the opportunity of multiplying specimens,

From such instances—and they might be multiplied—of legiti-
mate successes, where a botanic garden is content to use the
herbarium in the contiguous metropolis, and has not the low
ambition of setting up a’ competing one in‘ the garden itself, I
infer an administrative advantage in maintaining the division of
labour, which worked well in the days when the Government
collections of live plants went to Kew, and those of dead plants
to London.

I do not merely suggest, but affirm, that the nation loses part,
perhaps much, of the benefit of the liberal grants and aids it
affords to its garden of living plants through the uncalled-for
and unnecessary accumulations there of collections of dead
plants and the resulting herbarian work. Dr. Hooker evades
the concluding argument of my statement, takes a personal
stand- point, assumes the tone of an injured individual, and
deems it unfitting to notice what he is pleased to call an
‘*insinuation.”

He who is most sensitive as to himself is often least mindful of
the feelings of others. If Dr. Hooker will read his answer to
Q. 6661 (op. cit., p. 434), he may, at least ought to, have some
sense of the pain he inflicted on fellow-servants of the State and
collaborators in science, on men at least his equals, and one of >
whom, in a recondite botanical problem, has shown himself his
superior,

The
One cannot be sure till

——-—-

Statements of a,certain character may be made by one —

careless as to cost in few words and at small loss of time. It ,

required the evidence occupying pp. 530, 531, of the published
‘*Minutes” of the Scientific Commission to show the ground.
lessness of the insinuation conveyed in the answer to Q. 6661, —
I will not now trespass further on your valuable space, Bat
* The Garden, Oct. 26, 1872,

1

A er

quences, meriting for it a thorough ventilation ; and I per-
mit myself to believe that you may not be unwilling to receive
further remarks on those points in my “Statement” to which
Dr. Hooker has condescended to reply.

_ Sheen Lodge, Oct. 30 RICHARD OWEN

S Physics for Medical Students

_ I AM and have been a “medical student” for many years, and
hope to live in that capacity for some years more. I admit that
Tought to know “ the relation between the surface temperature
_ of the body, the quantity of heat passing away from it, and the
amount of heat generated in the body by the food given to a
patient,” but I do not know all this, and I have never discovered
anyone who can tell me where I can learn it or how I can find
it out by any efforts of my own,

__ Moreover, I have been unable to get a clear and satisfactory
-answer to the following simple questions, and haye failed to find
_ anyone who will explain to me accurately how I am to set to
work to get the information so much desired :—‘‘ What is the
quantity of heat generated in the body by the food, and how is
it to be determined? How is the quantity of heat that passes
way from the body in a given time to be estimated with any-
thing approaching to accuracy?” If my friend and colleague
Prof. Adams will be so kind as to give answers to these ques-
tions in NaTuRE, I can assure him he will confer a great favour
upon many workers and thinkers in my profession, besides prov-
ing the value of such questions as that objected to by Mr. Heath
- for medical students. At this time we doctors are much in need
of physical help. I haye no doubt that physicists will be much
_ astonished at our ignorance, but never mind that; we are quite
_ ready to learn, and don’t mind being laughed at or even spoken
of with slight contempt by our physical friends if they will only
help us. Nay, we will suffer anything from those who will in-
struct us so that we may be able to set to work upon living
people who are ‘‘ generating ” and giving off heat, and determine
with accuracy the different rate at which heat is ‘‘ generated”
and given off under different circumstances.
__ Prof. Adams asks whether ‘‘the production of heat in the
human body by the consumption of food’ is ‘‘ carried on on
principles entirely different from those of the production of steam
ina boiler,” and seems to regard it as one of the “mildest of
_ questions,” in heat that can be proposed for a medical student to
‘answer, Will he answer his own question by asserting that the
_ principles are the same in the two cases? WHeat in the body,
steam in the boiler—heat, steam ; body, boiler !—or shall the
question be revised before it is proposed to the student ?
__ Lhave not the slightest doubt about the usefulness of a know-
ledge of physics to those who are working at medicine, and quite
agree that the rising generation of medical students should be
‘taught physics. But this is a very different thing from teaching
_ people to fancy that living things are mechanisms, machines,
galyanic batteries, or molecular apparatuses. I venture to think
‘that some of the most distinguished? physicists are too fond of
deserting their own department for the purpose of trying to make
ople believe that there is an analogy between steam-boilers and
Rass bodies, when no one has yet succeeded in proving that
_ there is any true analogy whatever.

__ King’s College, London LIonEL S, BEALE

——

_ Ty the last number of Nature Mr. Adams, of King’s College,
criticised the remarks made by Mr. Heath in his introductory
address upon the character of the London University medical ex-
-aminations, and of the first, the preliminary scientific, more
especially. It scarcely needed a column and a quarter of close
type for Mr. Adams to tell us that a medical man should be ac-
quainted with physical laws and phenomena, and that in his
Opinion the mathematical question quoted by Mr. Heath was
not too difficult to be fittingly placed in the examination paper.
‘The former point is beyond question, and the latter is not to be
settled by declaring the statement of the editor of the Zawcet to
be ‘‘shallow.” As to the view that a medical man should be
able to estimate precisely ‘‘the amount of heat lost through a
blanket or a seal-skin coat,” I will only say that it seems to me
_ that a slight ‘consideration of the physical and physiological con-
ditions involved, and their variations in different instances, will
: ss the hope that he will not waste his time in attempting
uch feats, simple as they may be deemed in physical laboratories.

T will not take up space in commenting upon Mr. Adams’ argu-

ments and illustrations in support of his position, since they‘do
but go to show that a medical man should have some knowledge
of natural philosophy and its applications to the conditions with
which he has to deal, and not that he should be driven to expend
his time, already overcharged with much more that is of no pos-
sible use to him, upon mathematical processes which concern astro-
nomers, chemists, and engineers. Thereis no doubt that to give a
scientific character to medicine, exact quantitative methods must
be applied to physiology and pathology, but it should be the
work of men specially trained and devoted to the purpose. It
has for some time past been commonly agreed that the medical
student’s education is such that he is urged to acquire a quantity
of information with little regard to its use and digestibility. He
has a great deal to learn ina short time. The chief part of his
education consists, or should consist, in observing and compar-
ing morbid conditions, and in learning or devising means for
their relief and cure. Whatever time he spends upon what is
not requisite, or has little direct bearing upon his art, implies
time mis-spent and injury to the sufferers he will later attend.
Prof. Huxley did not go too far in saying that the conduct of

hose who impose useless knowledge upon medical students is

mply criminal. F. Lynpon ATTWooD

Junior Athenzeum Club

NORTH POLAR EXPLORATION

N the last number of the Witthei/ungex Dr. Petermann
publishes his 67th paper on the Geography and Dis-
coveries of the Polar Regions, in which he gives an
abstract of what has been done during the last three or
four months,

The two projected Norwegian expeditions into the
Siberian Seas, under the guidance of Captains Jensen and
Mack, have at present been unfortunately frustrated ; the
former from a damage to the screw of the steamer, the latter
from inability to penetrate the masses of ice. However,
a projected scientific expedition for next year is exciting
much interest at Tromsé. The French Expedition, under
Ambert and Mack, has not yet put to sea, having been
detained by the delay in settling the estate of Lambert,
who left a large sum to be devoted to this purpose. This
is much to be regretted, as Captain Mack has already
distinguished himself by penetrating farther than any
other discoverer into the Siberian Sea.

However, the much-talked-of and bold expedition
under M. Octave Pavy, has, it is understood, at last left
San Francisco, with what results remains to be seen.
He expects to reach Wrangell Land by September 1,
making his way farther northward in sledges, and hoping
to come to open sea about May 1873. He will then
proceed towards the Pole by means of a raft of somewhat
novel construction, consisting of four hollow cylinders
provided with a deck, and capable of holding all necessary
provisions for Pavy and his small party for two years, by
which time he expects to have reached the Pole, and re-
turned to San Francisco. His companions are Dr.
Chesmore, who has travelled much in Alaska; Captain
Mike, who a few years ago attempted to cross the
Atlantic in a vessel of somewhat similar construction to
Pavy’s; Watkins, a renowned Rocky Mountain hunter ;
and two sailors of whaling experience: in all, the expe-
dition will consist of six men.

The latest news from the North American Expedition
is contained in a letter from Dr. Bessels to Dr. Peter-
mann, dated August 23, 1871, at which time the expe.
dition had reached Tessinsak, the most northerly Danish
settlement in Greenland, in lat. 73° 24° N., and long.
56° 12’ W. Further details as to this expedition will be
found in NATURE for September 19, ‘

One of the most important and best fitted out ex-
peditions is the Austrian one under Payer and Wey-
precht, which left Tromsé in July, for the purpose of
exploring the unknown region north of Siberia, to which
they are prepared to devote three years. By the latest
advices, about the end of July, the expedition was fairly
on the road to its field of labour, and Count Wiltschek

_the Hague.

8 NATURE

was to follow with a store of provisions, to be deposited
near the Ice Cape, on the north of Nova Zembla, in case
the expedition should be compelled to turn back.

Of the outfit and plan of the Swedish expedition we
gave an account in NATURE for August 29. It left Troms6
on the 31st of July, and when last heard of was off the
north-west point of Spitzbergen.

We are also favoured with a letter from Dr. Petermann,
dated Gotha, October 11, from which we learn that the
land on the east of Spitzbergen, which for the last 355
years has had a varying position on the map, has this
year for the first time been reached by Captain Altmann
of Hammerfest, and again on August 16 last by Captain
Nils Johnsen of Tromsd, in his little sailing yacht the
Lydeana, who landed and explored it. Captain Johnsen
saw the island first when in N. lat. 78° 18’ 46,'and E, long.
30°; in the maps of 1617 it was marked as Wiche Land,
between 784° and 753° N. lat. On the 17th of August he
anchored near to the north point in 79° 8’ N. lat. and
30° 15’ E. long., for the purpose of landing and exploring
the place. What Captain Altmann, looking from a
distance, took to be three islands, Johnsen found in reality
one, the high hills being connected by low lying land, with
several outlying islets. On no part of the land has he
found extensive snow-fields, and saw only one small
glacier on the south-east coast, while, on the contrary,
there are many large streams entirely free from ice. The
greatest length of the land Captain Johnsen has found to
be 44 geographical mfles. Large quantities of driftwood
extended here and there to about 100 feet from the coast,
and rose to the height of at least 20 feet. The island
abounds in the usual Polar fauna, the plentifulness of
seals, especially Phoca Groenlandica, being noted by
Johnsen. The reindeer on the island are spoken of as
the largest and fattest which anyone on board the
Lydeana had ever seen. The rocks seem to be princi-
pally of the quartz and argillaceous kind, and some fossils
have been sent to Sweden and to Zurich. ‘Captain
Johnsen explored the east, south-east, and north-east
coasts, and so far as his observations went, ice is
to be found only on the north coast.

The fact of greatest significance in this latest news
from these quarters is that for many months in the year
the sea around Spitzbergen is almost entirely free from
ice ; a position long and sagaciously maintained by Dr.
Petermann. ;

“ Of interest,” says the Academy,} in connection with

‘this subject is an account of the finding of the relics of

Barents’ expedition of 1597 to Novaia Zemlia, by Captain
Carlsen in 1871, prepared by M. de Jonge, and newly
published under the auspices of the Dutch government at
The pamphlet contains the journal kept by
Carlsen, and a minute description of the relics, accom-
panied by a photograph of these in a group, and charts
comparing the Novaia Zemlia of Barents with the island
as mapped from our present knowledge of it,”

RESEARCHES IN GREENLAND*

Wake I wrote to you last from Copenhagen, I antici-

pated that my season would be very short ; and
my anticipations were correct. The season, however, in
Greenland has been long and brilliant. In the middle of
May floe ice disappeared in Umenak Fiord, which was
fully six weeks earlier than usual; and in April, in God-
havn men went about in summer attire. When I arrived
(on July 6) the land was covered with flowers, the butter-
flies were beginning to appear, and almost all snow had
vanished from the sea-level up to 2,o00ft. Since then,
with the exception of a bad week in the Waigat, I have
enjoyed the most exquisite weather that it is possible to
imagine. In this arctic region it has only frozen on two
nights, and during the daytime the thermometer has

* Copy of a letter addressed to Mr. R. H. Scott, F.R.S., and kindly
forwarded by him to us,—Ep.

rangedffrom 50° to 70°. Until recently we have also had

a high barometer ; and, upon the whole, very little wind. —

I have been upon Hare Island for three'days, and have
also been to Umenak, but the chief part of my time has
been spent in the Waigat, where you would be surprised,
perhaps, to find that a great deal remains to be done. I
have found a great valley leading into the interior of
Disco, and have gone up it a hard day’s march.
ascended one of the highest of the peaks on the Nour-
soak side of the Waigat, and looked down upon the great
valley which occupies almost the whole of its interior.
The lakes, as given upon Rink’s map from reports of
Eskimo, do not exist, but there is one very large lake
which has a glacier or glaciers coming into it at perhaps
2,000 ft. above the sea. This valley is the most important
one hitherto discovered in North |Greenland, The river
flowing down it has the character of a river, and not of a

torrent ; and, after descending through many windings a —

course of at least 100 miles, it pours into the sea a volume
of water equal to that of the Rhone at the Lake of Geneva.
At half a mile from the shore I found the water fresh.

In Umenak Fiord I ascended a mountain of about
7,000 ft. with five Greenlanders, and took my theodolite
to the top. As you know the weight of the instrument,
you will be partly able to appreciate this performance.
The ascent, first over swamp, then over basalt dé477s which
reposed insecurely upon solid basalt, and finally, at the
top, up columnar basalt, was a sweet thing of its kind,
The picture of your humble servant being lowered by a
rope, dangling like a bundle from a crane, will, perhaps,
to some people, be more interesting than the results ob-
tained by the theodolite. These, however, were not unim-
portant.
almost the whole of the Umenak district (which contains
the highest mountains of Greenland proper), and a mag-
nificent ‘view of the “inland-ice.” I found the general

elevation of the mountains exceeded by about 2,000 ft, the ©
height previously assigned to them. Of the altitude of

the “inland ice” I shall write on a subsequent occasion,

A large part of my time in the Waigat was occupied by ©

the measurement of a base line. This was the most im-
portant piece of work that I undertook, and it was suc-
cessfully executed.

find its mountains to be about double the altitude that
they have been supposed to be; and Hare Island I find

to be twice the length represented upon the Admiralty —
Chart ; Hare Island has some points of particular interest.

I got from it a rather large collection of fossil plants, and
went to its top (1,800ft.). From the summit, at midnight,
I distinctly recognised the mountain called Sanderson’s
Hope, near Upernavik, which was distant from me 140
miles !

I have made an excellent journey, full of interest. My —

collections are at least as valuable as those of 1867
though, as far as I know, they do not contain anything of

the importance of the Magnolia. I have, however, even —
larger collections of fossil plants than before, and from —

localities which I did not visit in 1867. My stone imple-
ments are very numerous, and of good quality, and the
natural history specimens are not few in number,
gether I am very well content.
EDWARD WHYMPER
Written on board the brig ¥Hvalfisken as it proceeded
out of the harbour of Godhavn, Sept. 10, 1872.

THE HELVETIC SOCIETY OF NATURAL
SCIENCES

Pps 55th Session of this Society was held at the
ancient city of Fribourg on the 19th, 20th, and 21st

of August last, and of it we have again to tell of
an overwhelmingly hospitable reception by “our hosts —

of Fribourg;” a well-attended opening address by the
President, Dr. Thurler; sectional séances, at which

T have >

My peak, an isolated one, commanded a view of —

I find the Waigat to have in some ©
places scarcely half the width which our maps give it. I _

Alto-

Ss

a

N,

Wow. 7, 1872)

sr
many valuable papers were read, followed by fruitful dis-
" cussions ; a final general meeting to listen to something
that would interest all, and then the dispersion. This
_ Society appears to be satisfactorily accomplishing its pro-
_ fessed aim of increasing the interests of the people gene-
rally in scientific studies of establishing intimate and
familiar relations between men of science engaged upon

‘the same subject, and of fostering a harmonious spirit of
~ labour all over the country. We give an abstract of the
report contained in the Bibliothégue Universelle.

_ Prof. Volpicelli gave a paper on Atmospheric Electricity
and the best method of studying it. Having made ex-
periments, in calm weather, according to the methods
both of Franklin and of Peltier (in the former of which a
fixed uninsulated rod is used, connected with an electro-
meter by a wire, while in the latter a moveable metallic
_ point with similar connection is sent up into the atmo-
sphere), he found the results always contradictory as re-

_ gards the quantity, and sometimes also as regards the
_ quality, of electricity indicated. ’

On all the days in which the air was not much agitated,

‘the time and circumstances being the same, the moving
_ rod gave a greater quantity of electricity than the fixed ;
and the former often showed positive electricity, while
the latter showed negative.

It has been shown that the earth is a body negatively
electrified. It follows that any conducting substance is
electrified positively when it rises in the atmosphere, and
becomes negative, on the other hand, asit descends. The
indications of the metallic rod shot into the air are there-
fore modified by the influence of the earth, and do not

_ give a means of determining the electricity of the sur-
‘rounding atmosphere. Franklin’s fixed rod, on the other
hand, is free from these disturbing influences.

__ That aconductor gives positive electricity as it rises in
_ the atmosphere, and negative as it descends, may be

_ proved by experiment. Suppose, e.g., the fixed rod gives

negative electricity ; if a flame be applied to the point
of it, the apparatus will indicate positive electricity, The

_ flame produces an upward current of air, which, by its

motion, and under the influence of the earth, gives a
neutralising positive electricity, so that the point of the

fixed rod becomes positively charged. (It is necessary
that the flame should have a high calorific power.)

If the flame be now brought down to the ground, one
or other of three effects will occur :—if the flame is not
very strong, negative electricity will be indicated ; if

_ somewhat hotter, there will be no electricity at all ; if
very intense, the electricity will be positive. These effects
are readily explained as the resultants of two opposing
actions, the production of positive electricity by the as-
cending current of air, and the production of negative
through the influence of the earth on the descending
flame. The general inference Prof. Volpicelli draws is
the preferability of Franklin’s method to the other.
[ M. Miiller, professor at Fribourg, gave an account of
_ experiments on the lower Glacier of the Grindelwald, with
‘reference to the optical properties of glacial ice. His
experiments partly confirm the results obtained by MM,
Grad and Dupré, that thin lamellz of ice cut horizon-
tally at the base of the glacier, give, in Norremberg’s
_ apparatus, systems of coloured rings with a dark cross,
This property, moreover, appears only at certain separate
‘parts of the lamella, and the system of rings is always
‘more or less incomplete, which is sufficiently explained
by the irregular structure of the ice of glaciers, in which,
“necessarily, there are only distant traces of the mode of
_ original formation, Vertical sections gave no coloured
rings.

NL Louis Dufour described some important researches
on the Diffusion of Gases across diaphragms and the vari-
ations of temperature accompanying it. He studied the
_ cases (among others) of hydrogen and air, of air and car-
bonic acid. :

o

(TURE A

He distinguishes the diffusion at constant pressure, and
the diffusion with change of pressure, The porous vessel
containing the gas with slower diffusion contains also a
very sensitive thermometer, and is enclosed in another
vessel, in which the other gas circulates. A glass tube,
passing through the stopper of the porous vessel, can be
put in communication either with external air (pressure
constant) or with a manometer, The whole is enclosed
in an envelope of cotton. The thermometer is observed
with a cathetometer.

1. Diffusion at constant pressure.—First of all, taking
as example hydrogen and air, equilibrium of temperature
is established between the air outside of the porous vessel
and that inside; then hydrogen is made to circulate, and

it is seen that the thermometer in the interior falls, A

large number of experiments showed that there is always
a rise of temperature on the ‘side of the entering gas,
and a fall of temperature on the side of the escaping gas.
M. Dufour believes this change of temperature does not
take place throughout the gaseous mass, but only at the
surface of the diaphragm, He conceives that at the part
where the gas enters there is condensation and compres-
sion, causing development of heat. In the opposite case
vices is expansion of the gas, and hence absorption of
eat,

2. Diffusion with change of pressure,—In this case the
phenomenon is complicated by variations in the tempera-
ture according to the pressure. When the diffusing gas
enters the porous vessel, the thermometer indicates first
a slight rise of temperature resulting from rapid increase
of pressure ; it then falls, and to a much greater extent
(jj of a degree e.g.) commences again to rise gradually,
falls a little again, in consequence of the escape of the
other gas and the rarefaction produced ; then continually
rises. The effects are represented by a curve.

M. Dufour also studied the case of diffusion between
dry air and moist air. He observed there was
always diffusion between two quantities of air having
different degrees of humidity; and, contrary to what
one might expect from Graham’s law (the vapour of
water being lighter than air), the diffusion takes place
from the dry to the humid. The laws of variation of
temperature in this case conform to what M. Dufour ob-
served in the case of two gases. The diffusion is readily
indicated by a water manometer, and M. Dufour thinks
the principle might be applied in hygrometry. It is evident
that the general principle must have numerous applica-
tions in the organic world. M. Reichert described a
thermo-regulator, in which the mercury of a thermometer
which was placed in a heated liquid interrupted, on rising
to a certain point, the passage of the heat-producing
gas.
M. Mousson described a method for measuring the
dispersion in the different parts of the spectrum furnished
by a prism or any spectroscope whatever. The dispersion
varies, it is known, in the different portions of the spectrum
obtained with a prism, it is believed much less rapidly in
the red, much more rapidly in the violet. The law
according to which it varies changes according to the
different prisms and different substances used. M.
Mousson proposes a new simple process by means of
which the law can be directly determined for each spectro-
scope. It consists in observing with the spectroscope
the spectrum given by a network (réseau) of diffrac-
tion, of which the lines ought to be perpendicular if
the edges of the prism are horizontal. There is thus
obtained a curved spectrum, which is the graphic repre-
sentation of the law sought. :

Other papers in the section were by M. de la Rive on the
rotation of the electric discharge in rarified gases under the
influence of a magnet, and particularlyupon the mechanical
action which this discharge could exercise in its rotating
movement. M. E. Hagenbach expounded the principal
results of his beautiful researches upon Fluorescence :

re

i See 8 ee Ny STs pele” # a a tetera
ee} ’ : : ‘

I0-

and M. Volpicelli concluded the work of the section by
a communication on Electrostatic Induction.
Geology is the branch of Natural History which is
most cultivated in Switzerland. Notwithstanding its
small extent, that country has the most varied field for ob-
servation in the mountain-chains of the Jura and the
Alps; there are few important questions whose solution
‘cannot be found in these mountains; and many Swiss
names are found among those who have done most to
advance that science. During the last year geological
studies have received a great impulse in Switzerland by
the subsidies which the Confederation vote for that pur-
pose ; each year the State grants a sum in aid of the
researches of a certain number of geologists, and for the
study of a new part of the territory. The works which
result are published under the care of a special commis-
sioner of the Society of Natural Science. As might be
expected then, the Geological Section was very numerously
attended, and the papers read on the subject were many
and valuable. We learn from M. A. Fauzes’ general
lecture that the Society have taken similar steps for the
study and preservation of Swiss boulders to those taken
by the Royal Society of Scotland, whose report we gave
in a recent number.
M. V. Gross brought under the notice of the members
a series of objects belonging to the lacustrine! dwellings
of the Lake of Bienne, worthy of the attention even of
- those who have seen the richest collections of this kind.
There was the bit of a bridle almost complete belonging
to the station of Mérigen, which belongs to the age of
bronze ; at the present time only one similar fragment is
known. Incrustations of iron upon a bronze knife tend
to confirm what has already been conjectured, that at
the first appearance of iron it was regarded as a most
precious metal. The station of Liischersz, of the stone
age, has been discovered by M. Gross, and has furnished
axes of nephrite and jade of a size not hitherto met with in
lacustrine dwellings. It is known that these rocks are
not found in Europe ; and it is a question whether these
lake-dwellers obtained them by commercial intercourse

- with Asia, or whether these rare articles were preserved
as heirlooms in families from the period of their emi-
gration from their ancient Asiatic home.

M. Ch. Vogt communicated to the section the results
of his microscopic study of rocks. One of the questions
which he wished to resolve is whether the microscope can
enable us to know whether or not a rock has ever been in

“an igneous state. M. Vogelsang has discovered that the

volcanic rocks present what has been called the “ fluidal
structure,” a structure resulting from the disposition of
minute crystals disseminated throughout the vitreous
mass, and surrounding the larger crystals which have
been previously formed in the lava. This fluidal structure
is found in the porphyries, and proves their igneous
origin. But on examining the siliceous deposits of the
Geyser, M. Vogt found this same structure, and thus it does
not belong exclusively to the igneous rocks, but also to
those of aqueous origin, provided that they have been in
a viscous state. In his study of volcanic rocks, M. Vogt
has discovered that the trachytes, the basalts, and the
lavas, present common characteristics.

M. Lebert brought under the notice of the section a
magnificent series of specimens of amber, and expounded
the results of his researches on that substance, The
fluorescence of petroleum may be taken as a type of the
same phenomenon in amber. For naturalists the most
interesting of M. Lebert’s specimens are fragments of the
conifers which produced the amber, a piece enclosing a
movable air-bubble in a drop of water, and a great
number of other pieces enclosing insects in a perfect state
of preservation.

M. Frangois Forel exhibited a photograph of the fossil
man of Mentone, which represents him in the position in
which he was found. It would appear that this man was

not buried under a landslip, but that he must have been
interred by those who survived him, It is argued that,
because it is very unusual to inter the dead in a dwelling
for the living, we may conclude that this individual be-
longed to a nomad horde of the age of the reindeer, who
did not inhabit the cavern, but passed it from time to
time, and who buried this man in the place where he
died. We may mention here that in the Zoological sec-
tion Dr. Vonga read a paper on the same subject, he
having been present at the exhumation of the body. He
described the caves, and pointed out their probable mode

of formation. The body lay upon its left side in the posi- —

tion of sleep. It showed a circular crack at the base of
the skull, the thorax being broken at one place; the re-
mainder is in perfect preservation. The cranium is very
fine, all the teeth being preserved ; the lower jaw is long,
but the angle between the horizontal and the ascending
branches isaright angle. Dr. Vonga attributed the re-
markable preservation of the body to the properties of the
pulverised earth which covered it.

Several members presented to the section their studies
of various parts of the Alps, and M. E. Favre read a
paper on a section of the Caucasus. In the centre of the
latter chain a granitic formation is found. On the two
sides palzeozoic schists are presented, analogous to
those of Gratz, and connected by veins of crystalline
schist. They are less developed on the north side than
on the other. Upon the northern slope the Secondary and
Tertiary formations are in a very normal position, and
have but little inclination ; upon the other slope, on the
contrary, there are many zones of eruptive rocks, and the

Secondary formations are less disturbed. M. Favre also -

spoke to the section on the lower limit of eternal snow
and the glacial phenomena which he has observed in this
chain. ;

In the section of Zoology Prof. C. Vogt presented the
results of his researches upon the Phy//ofodes, especially
the Branchiopods and the Artemia.

M. Vogt confirmed the observation of M. Joly, that
among the Arfemie collected at Cette during the months
of July and August, no males were found, and that the
females reproduced by parthenogenesis.
much the more singular that large numbers of males are
found in other salt marshes inhabited by the same or
analogous species.

M. Auguste Forel presented to the section some curious
and interesting results of his researches into the nature
and habits of ants. Different communities of ants, even
when they are of the same species, are enemies to each
other. A single community of ants may possess many
nests, which are connected with each other by galleries
and tunnels. A community of ants may be either simple
or mixed ; it is simple when it belongs toa single species,
mixed when it belongs to two or more species living on
good terms among themselves. There are in each com-
munity, at one time at least, workers, some males and
females.

the workers of one species pillaging the ant-hills of
another species, and carrying off the cocoons. These, when

This fact is so

If we consider the mixed communities, we —
can distinguish, amongst others, slave-ants, obtained by

eel et

once hatched, become the auxiliary workers and friends

of their captors, doubtless believing that they are of the
same origin. The mixed community contains the three
sexes of the species who plundered, but only the workers
of the species pillaged,

The only paper apparently of importance in the Bota- :

nical Section was by Dr. Miiller, of Geneva, on a new

species of Loranthus from the Philippine Islands, which, _
from the position of the flowers, presents some very extra- _

ordinary but not yet well-established peculiarities,

Other papers of value were read in the various sections, —

and, considering that the meeting lasted only three days,

the amount of work gone through appears extraordinary; _

but then no mention is made of any excursions.

F

4

ses -,

THE WYANDOTTE CAVE AND ITS
—. fC FAUNA * '

‘T'HE Wyandotte Cave traverses the St. Louis
+ Limestone of the Carboniferous formation in Craw-
ford County, in South-Western Indiana. I do not know
whether its length has ever been accurately determined,
t t the proprietors say that they have explored its gal-
leries for twenty-two miles, and it is probable that its ex-
tent is equal to that of the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky.
Numerous galleries which diverge from its known courses
in all directions have been left unexplored.

The Wyandotte Cave is as well worthy of popular
favour as the Mammoth. It lacks the large bodies of
water which diversify the scene in the latter, but is fully
equal to it in the beauty of its stalactites and other orna-
ments of calcyte and gypsum. The stalactites and sta-

—

Fic. 1.—Orconectes inermis Cope, natural size.

gmites are more numerous than in the Mammoth, and
former frequently have a worn, or maccaroni-like
form, which is very peculiar. They twist and wind in
masses like the locks of Medusa, and often extend in
slender runners to a remarkable length. The gypsum
tosettes occur in the remote regions of the cave, and are
very beautiful. There are also masses of amorphous
gypsum of much purity. The floor in many places is
‘covered with curved branches, and, what is more beauti-
ful, of perfectly transparent acicular crystals, sometimes
mingled with imperfect twin-crystals. The loose crystals
in one place are in such quantity as to give the name of
“Snow Banks” to it. In other places it takes the form
of japanning on the roof and wall rock.
_ In one respect the cave is superior to the Mammoth—
n its vast rooms, with step-like domes, and often huge
stalagmites on central hills, In these localities the rock

Shey from the American Naturalist, to the kindness of the editor
y journal we are also indebted for the loan of the cuts.

q

7

*s

Suan ee ek
_ NATURE

II

has been originally more fractured or fragile than else-
where, and has given way at times of disturbance, piling
masses on the floor. The destruction having reached the
thin-bedded strata above, the breaking down has pro-
ceeded with greater rapidity, each bed breaking away
over a narrower area than that below it. When the
heavily-bedded rock has been again reached, the breakage
has ceased, and the stratum remains as a heavy coping
stone to the hollow dome. Of course the process piles a
hill beneath, and the access of water being rendered more

ec WG

Fic. 2. Fic. 3.

Cacidotea microcephala Cope.—Fig. 2: The mandible and palpi of right
side more enlarged. The outer palpus lies above the lateral plate, and
its origin was not seen. Fig. 3: The same; magnified 6'5 times.

easy by the approach to the surface, great stalactites and
stalagmites are the result. In one place this product
forms a mass extending from floor to ceiling, a distance
of thirty or forty feet, with a diameter of twenty-five feet,

eal
i ee

Fic. 4.—Cauloxenus styeius in position on the lip of Amdlyopsis spelaus,
enlarged.

and a beautifully fluted circumference. The walls of the
room are encrusted with cataract-like masses, and stalag-
mites are numerous. The largest room is stated to be
245 feet high, and 350 feet long, and to contain a hill of

%

Neca )

Fic. 5. Fic. 6.

Cauloxenus stygius.—Fig. 5: Antennal processes and muzzle more enlarged.
fig. 6: The animal viewed from below, with an infero-lateral view of
the cephalothorag,

175 feet in height. On the summit are three large stalag-
mites, one of them pure white. When this scene is lit up
it is peculiarly grand to the eye of an observer at the foot
of the long hill, while it is not less beautiful to those on

Fic. 7. Fic. 8.

Erebomaster flavescens.—Fig. 7: Male organ from below. Fig. 8: The
same ; magnified 7°6 times.

the summit. There is no room in the Mammoth Cave
equal to these two.

An examination into the life of the cave shows it to
have much resemblance to that of the Mammoth, The
following is a list of sixteen species of animals which I
obtained, and by its side is placed a corresponding list of
the species obtained by Mr. Cooke and others, at the
Mammoth Cave. These number seventeen species. As
the Mammoth has been more frequently explored, while
two days only were devoted to the Wyandotte, the large

-

. we
¢

12

number of species obtained in the latter suggests that it
is the richer in life. This I suspect will prove to be the
case, as it is situated in a fertile region. Some of the
animals were also procured from caves immediately ad-
joining, which are no doubt connected with the principal
one.

Of the out-door fauna which find shelter in the cave,
bats are, of course, most numerous. They are probably
followed into their retreat by the eagle and other large
owls. The floors of some of the chambers were covered
to a considerable depth by the castings of these birds,
which consisted of bats’ fur and bones. It would be
worth while to determine whether any of the owls winter
there.

LIST OF LIVING SPECIES IN THE TWO CAVES.

WYANDOTTE. Mammoru.
Vertebrata.
Amblyopsis speleus DeKay.
Typhlichthys subterraneus Girard.
Arachnida.
Acanthocheir armata Tellk.
Phrixis longipes Cope.
Anthrobia monmouthia Tellk,
Crustacea.
Orconectes pellucidus Tellk.
Czecidotea stygia Pack.
Stygobromus vitreus Cope.
Insecta.
Anophthalmus Menetriesii Motsch.
Anophthalmus Tellkampfii Erichs.
Adelops hirtus Tellk,

Amblyopsis spelzcus DeKay.

Erebomaster flavescens Cope.
Anthrobia.

Orconectes inermis Cope.
Czcidotea microcephala Cope.
Cauloxenus stygius Cope.

Anophthalmus tenuis Horn.
Anophthalmus eremita Horn.
Quedius spelzeus Horn.
Lesteva sp. nov.
Raphidophora.

orn.
Raphidophora subterranea Scudd.

Phora. hora.

Anthomyia. Anthomyia.

Machilis, Machilis.

Campodea sp. Campodea Cookei Pack.
Tipulid

Myriopoda.

Pirostrephon cavernarum Cope. Scoterpes Copei (Pack.).

The blind fish of the Wyandotte Cave is the same as
that of the Mammoth, the Amdlyopsis speleus DeKay.
Tt must have considerable subterranean distribution, as it
has undoubtedly been drawn up from four wells in the
neighbourhood of the cave. Indeed, it was from one of
these, which derives its water from the cave, that we pro-
cured our specimens. We descended a well to the water,
some twenty feet below the surface, and found it to com-
municate by a side opening with a long low channel,
through which flowed a lively stream of very cold water.
Wading up the current in a stooping posture, we soon
reached a shallow expansion or pool. Here a blind craw-
fish was detected crawling round the margin, and was
promptly consigned to the alcohol bottle. A little farther
beyond, deeper water was reached, and an erect position
became possible. We drew the seine in a narrow channel,
and after an exploration under the bordering rocks,
secured two fishes. A second haul secured another.
Another was seen, but we failed to catch it, and on
emerging from the cave I had a fifth securely in my hand,
as I thought, but found my fingers too numb to prevent
its freeing itself by its active struggles.

If these Amblyopses be not alarmed, they come to the
surface to feed, and swim in full sight like white aquatic
ghosts. They are then easily taken by the hand or net,
if perfect silence is preserved, for they are unconscious of
the presence of an enemy except through the medium of
hearing. This sense is, however, evidently very acute, for
at any noise they turn suddenly downward and hide be-
neath stones, &c., on the bottom. They must take much
of their food near the surface, as the life of the depths is
apparently very sparse. This habit is rendered easy by
the structure of the fish, for the mouth is directed partly
upwards, and the head is yery flat above, thus allowing
the mouth to be at the surface. It thus takes food with
less difficulty than other surface feeders, as the perch, &c.,
where the mouth is terminal or even inferior ; for these
require a definite effort to elevate the mouth to the object
floating on the surface. This could rarely be done with
accuracy by a fish with defective or atrophied visual
organs. It is therefore probable that fishes of the type of

WATURE 9° oe

'
r

[Wou. 7, 1872

the Cyprinodontide, the nearest allies of the Hypscide,
and such Aypswide as the eyed Chologaster, would possess
in the position of the mouth a slight advantage in the -
struggle for existence. “

The blind crawfish above mentioned is specifically dis-
tinct from that of the Mammoth Cave, though nearly
related to it. I callit Orconectes gnermis, separating it gene-
rically from Caméarus, or the true crawfishes, on account
of the absence of visual organs. The genus Orconectes,
then, is established to include the blind crawfishes of the
Mammoth and Wyandotte Caves.

Dr. Packard has described an interesting genus of Iso-
poda allied to the marine form /do/ea, which Mr. Cooke
discovered in a pool in the Mammoth Cave. He called
it Cecidotea. 1 obtained a second species in a cave ad-
joining the Wyandotte which differs in several important
respects. I call it Cecidotea microcephala. Both
species are blind. The new species is pure white. It was
quite active, and the females carried a pair of egg-pouches-
full of eggs. The situation in which we found it was”
peculiar. It was only seen in and near an empty log
trough used to collect water from a spring dripping from
the roof of one of the chambers. 1

The Lernazan, Canloxenus stygius Cope, is a remarkable
creature. It is a parasite on the blind fish, precisely as
numerous species near of kin attach themselves to various
species of marine fishes. The Wyandotte species is not
so very unlike some of these. It is attached by a pair of
altered fore-limbs, which are plunged into the skin of the
host, and held securely in that position by the barbed or
recurved claws, No parasitic male was observed in the
neighbourhood of the female, and it is probable that, as
in the other Lerneopfodide, he is a free swimmer, and
extremely small. The difficulty of finding his mate on an
active host-fish must be augmented by the total darkness
of his abode, and many must be isolated owing to the
infrequent and irregular occurrence of the fish, to say
nothing of the scarceness of its own species. on

The allied genera, Achtheres and Lern@opoda, present
very distinct distributions, the former being fresh wate
and the latter marine. Zern@opoda is found in the most
varied types of fishes and in several seas ; Achtheres has
been observed on perch from Asia and Europe, and on a
South American Pimelodus. It is to the latter that Cau-
Zoxenus is most nearly allied, and from such a. form we
may, perhaps, trace its descent ; modification being con-
sequent on its wandering into subterranean streams. The
character which distinguishes it from its allies is one
which especially adapts it for maintaining a firm hold
on its host, z.e., the fusion of its jaw-arms into a single
stem. ‘ f

Whether the present species shared with the AmébZyopsis
its history and changes, or whether it seized upon the fish
as a host at some subsequent period, is a curious specula-
tion. Its location at the mouth of the fish could scarcely
be maintained on a species having sight ; for if the host ©
did not remove it, other individuals would be apt to. ;

I may here allude to another blind Crustacean which —
took in the Mammoth Cave, and which has been already
mentioned in the Annals and Magazine of Natural His-
tory asa Gammaroid. Mr, Cooke and myself descended
a hole, and found, a short distance along a gallery, a clear
spring, covering, perhaps, an area ten feet across. Here
Mr. Cooke was so fortunate as to procure the Cecidotea
siygia, while I took the species just mentioned, and which
Iname Stygobromus vitreus, ‘The genus is new, and re-
presents in a measure the Wzphargus of Schiédte found in
the caves of Southern Europe. This genus has several —
species in fresh waters, which are of small size, and swim
actively, turning on one side or the other. un te

Of Insects I took four species of beetles, all new to
science ; two of them of a blind carnivorous genus”

Anopthhalmus, and two Staphylinida, known by their —
very short wing-cases and long, flexible abdomen, Dr.
George H, Horn has kindly determined them for me.

|

ne of them, the Quedius speleus, Horn, is half an inchin

ngth, and has rather small eyes; it was found not far
from the mouth of the cave. Dr. Horn furnishes me with
the following list of Coleoptera from the two caves in

question :—
Anophthalmus Tellkampfii Erichs. Mammoth Cave.
. a enetriesi Motsch, angu-
‘ latus Lec. Mammoth Cave.
4 eremita Horn. Wyandotte Cave.

tenuis Horn,

Wyandotte Cave.
striatus Motsch.

Mammoth Cave, Unknown to me.
< = ventricosus Motsch, Mammoth Cave. Unknown to me.
delops hirta Tellk. Mammoth Cave.
_ These are the only true cave insects at present known
in these faunze. Other species were collected within the
mouths of the caves, but which cannot be classed with
the preceding, as cave insects proper.

5 ”

Be Catops n. sp.? Wyandotte Cave.
." teen spelzeus Horn, Wyandotte Cave.
estev n. spa, Wyandotte Cave.

And another Alzeocharyde Staphylinide, allied to Zachy-
usa, also from Wyandotte Cave. No names have as yet
been given to any of these, excepting the second. A

ionograph of Catops has already appeared containing
‘many species from our fauna ; and as the work is inacces-
sible at present, I have hesitated to do more than indicate
the presence of the above species.

_ The cricket of the Wyandotte Cave is stouter than that
_ of the Mammoth, and thus more like the Raphidophora
_lapidicola of the forest. There were three species of flies,

one or more species of Poduride, and a Campodea not
determined. :

Centipedes are much more abundant in the Wyandotte
than in the Mammoth Cave. They especially abounded

on the high stalagmites which crown the hill beneath the
Mammoth dome, which is three miles from the mouth of
the cave. The species is quite distinct from that of the

Mammoth Cave, and is the one I described some years
ago from caves in Virginia and Tennessee. I call it

Spirostrephon cavernarum, agreeing with Dr. Packard
that the genus Pseudotremia, to which it was originally

referred, is of doubtful validity. The allied form found by

‘Mr. Cooke in the Mammoth Cave has been described by

Dr. Packard as Sfirostrephon Copet. It is eyeless, and
is, on this account alone, worthy of being distinguished
_ generically from Spzrostrephon. This genus may be then
named Scoterpes.

narum in the Mammoth Cave.

_ Two species of Arachnidans were observed, one a true
spider, the other related to the “long-legs” of the woods.
_ A species similar to the former is found in the Mammoth

Cave, and others in other caves, but in every instance
_ where I have obtained them they have been lost by the
_ dissolution of their delicate tissues in the impure alcohol.
_ The other forms are more completely chitinised, and are

easily preserved ; they are related to the genus Gony/eptes,
found under stones in various portions of the country.
_ Dr. Wood describes a species from Texas, and I have
_taken them in Tennessee and Kansas. In the Wyandotte

‘Cave I found a number of individuals of a new species, at
_ aplace called the screw-hole. Though living at a dis-
‘tance of four or five miles from the mouth of the cave,

this species is furnished with eyes. This species is
described as Evebomaster flavescens Cope. In its rela-

tionships it may be said to stand between Acanthocheir
_ and Gonylepies.

Besides Acanthocheiy, another blind Gonyleptid exists
in the Mammoth Cave, which I found several miles from
‘the mouth. It is blind like the former, but differs in

_ having many more joints to the tarsi, approaching thus
the true Pialangia, or long-legs.

__ Dr. Packard and Mr, Putnam have already discussed
_ the question of the probability of the origin of these blind

cave animals by descent from out-door species having
eyes. I have already expressed myself in favour of such
_ view, and deem that in order to prove it we need only

¥

I look for the discovery of S. caver-~

establish two or three propositions. First, that there are
eyed genera corresponding closely in other general cha-
racters with the blind ones ; second, that the condition of
the visual organs is in some cave type variable ; third, if
the abortion of the visual organs can be shown to take
place coincidently with general growth to maturity, an
important point is gained in explanation of the modus
operandi of the process.

First, as to corresponding forms; the 7yphlichthys of
the Mammoth is identical with Cho/ogaster, except in its
lack of eyes. Ovconectes bears the same relation to Cam-
barus ; Stygobromus bears nearly the same to Gammarus ;
and Scoterpes is Spirostrephon without eyes and no pores.

Secondly, as to variability. I have already shown that
in Gronias nigrilagris, the blind Silurid from the Cones-

. toga in Pennsylvania, while all of several specimens

observed were blind, the degree of atrophy of the visual
organs varies materially, not only in different fishes, but
on different sides of the same fish. In some the corium
is imperforate, in others perforate on one side, in others
on both sides, a rudimental cornea being thus present.
In some the ball of the eye is oval, and in others col-
lapsed. This fish is related specifically to the Asmzurus
nebulosus of the same waters, more nearly than the latter
is to certain other Amiuri of the Susquehanna river basin
to which the Conestoga belongs, as for instance the
A, lynx; it may be supposed to have been enclosed in a
subterranean lake for a shorter time than the blind fishes
of the Western Caves, not only on account of the less
degree of loss of visual organs, but also in view of its very
dark colours.

Thirdly, it is asserted that the young Orconectes possess
eyes, and that perhaps those of the 7yphdichthys do also.
If these statements be accurate, we have here an example
of what is known to occur elsewhere, for instance, in the
whalebone whales. In a feetal stage these animals pos-
sess rudimentary teeth like other Cetacea, which are sub-
sequently absorbed. This disappearance of the eyes is
regarded with reason by Prof. Wyman as evidence of the
descent of the blind forms from those with visual organs.
I would suggest that the process of reduction illustrates
the law of “retardation,” accompanied by another phe-
nomenon. Where characters which appear latest in em-
bryonic history are lost, we have simple retardation—
that is, the animal in successive generations fails to grow
up to the highest point, falling farther and farther back,
thus presenting an increasingly slower growth in this
special respect. Where, asin the presence of eyes, we
have a character early assumed in embryonic life, the re-
tardation presents a somewhat different phase. Each
successive generation, it is true, fails to come up to the
completeness of its predecessor at maturity, and thus ex-
hibits “retardation ;” but this process of reduction of rate
of growth is followed by its termination in the part long
before growth has ceased in other organs. This is an
exaggeration of retardation. Thus the eyes in the Or-
conectes probably once exhibited at maturity the incom-
plete characters now found in the young, for a long time
a retarded growth continuing to adult age before its ter-
mination was gradually withdrawn to earlier stages.
Growth ceasing entirely, the phase of atrophy succeeded,
the organ became stationary at an early period of general
growth, being removed, and its contents transferred to
the use of other parts by the activity of “ growth force.’
Thus, for the loss of lateassumed organs we have < retard-
ation,” but for that of early assumed ones, “retardation
and atrophy.” I ;

The mutual relations of this cave life form an interest-
ing subject. In the first place, two of the beetles, the
crickets, the centipede, the small crustaceans (food of the
blind fish) are more or less herbivorous. They furnish
food for the spiders, crawfish, Anophthalmus, and the
fish. The vegetable food supporting them is in the first
place fungi which, in various small forms, grow in damp

ed

—

~

NO Ge. NEN aia oie elt ek
A bh * > <i 4

Priaage ee By ea ee
“ “em w

Tae rs

14

places in the cave, and they can always be found attached
to excrementitious matter dropped by the bats, rats, and
other animals which extend their range to the outer air,
Fungi also grow on the dead bodies of the animals which
die in the caves, and are found abundantly on fragments
of wood and boards brought in by human agency. The
rats also have brought into fissures and cavities com-
municating with the cave, seeds, nuts, and other vegetable
matters, from time immemorial, which have furnished
food for insects. Thus rats and bats have, no doubt,
had much to do with the continuance of land life in the
caye, and the mammals of the post-pliocene or earlier

eriod, which first wandered and dwelt in its shades, were
introducers of a permanent land life,

As to the small crustaceans, little food is necessary to
support their small economy, but even that little might be
thought to be wanting, as we observe the clearness and
limpidity of the water in which they dwell. Nevertheless
the fact that some cave waters communicate with outside
streams is a sufficient indication of the presence of vege-
table life and vegetable dédris in variable quantities at
different times. Minute fresh water algze no doubt occur
there, the spores being brought in by external communi-
cation, while remains of larger forms, as conferva, &c.,
would occur plentifully after floods, In the Wyandotte Cave
no such connection is known to exist. Access by water is
against the current of small streams which discharge
from it, On this basis rests an animal life which is
limited in extent, and must be subject to many vicissi-
tudes. Yet a fuller examination will probably add to the
number of species, and of these, no doubt, a greater or less
number of parasites on those already known. The dis-
covery of the little Lernzean shows that this strange form
of life has resisted all the vicissitudes to which its host

_has been subjected. That it has outlived all the physio-

logical struggles which a change of light and temperature
must have produced, and that it still preys on the food of
its host, as its ancestors did, there is no doubt. The
blindness of the fish has favoured it in the “ struggle for
existence,” and enabled it to maintain a position nearer
the commissariat, with less danger to itself than did its
forefathers, E. D, Cope

SCOTTISH COAL FIELDS

7T°HE “Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute” for
August contains Prof. Geikie’s paper read at the
recent meeting in Glasgow “ On the Geological Position
and Features of the Coal and Ironstone-bearing Strata of
the West of Scotland.” The paper is meant chiefly for
the benefit of those who are acquainted only with the
British Carboniferous strata as seen in the English
coal-fields, and to point out the geological position of the
Scottish carboniferous deposits as contrasted with those
of England. A geological map of Scotland shows
that the Carboniferous formation is for the most part re-
stricted to that broad belt of undulating low ground that
extends from sea to sea, between the northern highlands
on the one hand, and the southern uplands on the other,
Throughout this area the strata are arranged in a series
of great basins with intervening ridges. The chief
basins, beginning in the east, the basins of Fifeshire,
and Midlothian being first; second, the Lanarkshire
and Stirlingshire basin; third, the broken and _ inter-
rupted basins of Ayrshire and the south. This system
is capable of being divided into four great series, which,
beginning at the top, are as follows :—(1) the Coal
Measures, (2) the Millstone Grit, (3) the Carboniferous
Limestone (4) the Calciferous Sandstone series.

From Prof, Geikie’s review of the more characteristic
features assumed by the Scottish Carboniferous system, it
is evident that the series which diverge most from those
that are typical of the English area are the Calciferous
Sandstones and the overlying Carboniferous Limestone

“

NATURE

«, Me
?

, 1872,

hs

series. In England, the strata that underlie the Coal
Measures and Millstone Grit are composed almost ex-
clusively of beds which have been amassed upon a sea
bottom, In Scotland, on the other hand, we find the ©
strata upon which the true Coal Measures and Millstone
Grit repose giving evidence of numerous interchanges of —
land, fresh or brackish watery and marine conditions ;
while at the same time we are assured that during the
accumulation of these underlying strata the eruption
of melted matter hardly ever ceased in central Scot-
land. ;

NOTES :

THOSE interested in the early history of geology will be glad
to learn that a work is announced as ready for publication, with —
the title, ‘A Book about William Smith and the Somersetshire
Coal Canal; being an Account of the Commencement of Strati-
graphical Geology in England.” The book is illustrated by a
series of consecutive photographs of the districts along the north
side of the Canal valley, and each photograph is accompanied
by a geologically coloured key, which shows at a glance the
outcrop of the various strata. This method is, as far as we
know, quite original, and serves to show clearly the data with
which Smith dealt in arriving at his discoveries,

THE Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, in re-
signing his office, referred to the progress made by the University
in encouraging new branches of study, He commented upon
the extension of the influence of the University over the studies
in the kingdom, and the increasing desire on the part of those —
engaged in the work of education to be brought more closely in
contact with the University. The yearly increase in the number
of candidates for the Middle-class Examinations, and the insti-—
tution of an examination for the higher grade schools, evidenced
the fact of the extending influence of the University, The Vice-

Chancellor referred to the munificence of the Chancellor, the
Duke of Devonshire, in providing a school for Experimental
Physics, and congratulated the University upon the approaching ~
completion of the building of the Fitzwilliam Museum. The
acquisition of the Leckenby collection of fossils to the Wood
wardian Museum was ‘a worthy proof of the liberality of the
Colleges and members of the University, as well asa graceful
acknowledgement of the services of Prof. Sedgwick. The do-
nations of Lord Walsingham and Miss Walcott were like-—
wise yaluable additions to the collections in the above-mentioned ,
museum. Among other bequests and donations, the Vice-Chancel-
lor particularly alluded to the bequests of Sir John Herschel and
the Rev. R. E, Kerrich, and especially to the generosity of the

Earl of Portsmouth in presenting the MSS. of Sir Isaac Newton, —

THERE has been a marked increase during the present term
in the University of Cambridge in the number of students who
take advantage of the privilege of being allowed to reside ont of —
their college, Since the scheme was established in 1869, eighty
students have been admitted, a considerable number of whom
devote themselves to the study of natural science, The Uni-
versity payments for nine terms’ residence, including the B.A.
degree, do not greatly exceed 30/., and even with books and ad-—
ditional instruction the amount need not be much over 507, Th: |
number of freshmen entered at the University this year is
622, as compared with 572 last year. ,

Dr. BRowNn-SEQquarp, the eminent physiologist, has resigned —
the chair of Comparative and Experimental Pathology in the
Faculty of Medicine in Paris, which he has occupied for several ©
years. It is understood that this is preliminary to establishing —
his permanent residence in Boston, U.S.A, ee

Ar a meeting of the Council of the Royal College of

ns, held on October 31, Mr. John Birkett, F. R:C:S.,
eon to Guy’s Hospital, was elected a member of the Court
xaminers, in room of Mr. George Busk, F.R.S,, who lately
ed the presidency of the college. Mr. Birkett, who isa
uber of several scientific societies at home and abroad, is
Examiner in Surgery at the University of London.

R. JOSIAH Mason, of Birmingham, the founder of the Erd-
on Orphanage and the Birmingham Science College, now in
i ss of formation, has received, through Mr, Gladstone, an offer
of knighthood from Her Majesty, in recognition of his munifi
cence in the causes of charity and education.

oc

A CORRESPONDENT of the Zimes describes an interesting /v/e
piven on Sunday, Oct. 27, by the Municipality of Florence on
the occasion of the inauguration of the new Florentine Observa-
tory, placed on a very striking eminence from which in former
times Galileo made most of his discoveries. Donati, the great
‘of the stars of Florence, and who was to have been the
Pp Eisident and great attraction of the /é#e, was prevented from
ending, as he had the day previously so hurt his leg by a fall
that he was confined to his bed. The Municipio of Florence,
Peruzzi at their head, had provided a splendid buffet, or dejeviner
d Ja fourchette, for the whole of the guests invited, the music was
excellent, and the view from the Observatory superb.

WE hear from Ceylon that there has been a deluge, which has
_ done considerable damage ; but the coffee districts are believed
not to have sufferedmuch. At Colomboa bank near the Pettah,
_ of native suburb, had to be cut through in order to allow the
‘water accumulated in the Jake and its neighbourhood to escape
into the sea. Mr. S. Green, of Colombo (a gentleman who takes
great interest in science, and has sent home to England a great
number of very interesting minute insects new to science, and
"who has a splendid telescope by Cooke, the best in Ceylon), says
in a private letter :—‘‘ We have had heavy rains here, which
have inundated a great portion of the Western Province. A
‘great many native houses have been destroyed, and one or two
lives lost. Many natives took refuge in the cocoa-nut trees around
their dwellings ; but some were found already occupied by snakes
that had climbed the trees to escape the flood. They were very
fierce, and maintained their position. A friend of mine going
over the paddy-fields in a boat, saw several dead snakes floating
_on the water, and others swimming about.”
_ THE British Medical Fournal informs us that among other
_ improvements about to be carried out at the Medical School of
the Charing Cross Hospital, a Demonstrator of Anatomy is
shortly to be appointed, with the annual salary of 150/. Pre-
: erence will be given to gentlemen possessing a knowledge of
Comparative Anatomy, as it is desired to associate a lectureship
on this subject with the office of demonstrator.
_ Tue following lecture arrangements are announced at the
Royal Institution for the coming season :—Six Lectureson Air
and Gas, by Prof. Odling, F.R.S.; Twelve Lectures on the
‘Three Lectures on Oxidation, by Dr. Debus, F.R.S. ; Four
ectures on the Artificial Formation of Organic Substances, by
Dr. H. E. Armstrong ; Four Lectures on the Chemistry of Coal
and its Products, by Prof. A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. ; Six
Lectures on the Comparative Political Institutions, of Different
7 ations, by Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. ; Three Lectures on
the Philosophy of the Pure Sciences, by Prof. W. K. Clifford ;
Three Lectues on Darwin’s Philosophy of Language, by Prof.
Max Miiller, LL.D. The Friday Evening Meetings will com-
‘mence on January 17. Friday Evening Discourses will prohably
> given by Wm. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., the Rev. Prof. T. R.
irks, Edward Dannreuther, Esq., Rafert Sabine, Sir H.
Rawlinson, F.R.S., Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S., James Dewar,
UE. J. Reed, C.B., . Emerson-Reynolds, Prof. W. K. Clifford
' - Prof. Tyndall, F, R S., Lord Lindsay, Prof, Odling, F,R.S.

eal waTURE

15

and others. After Easter:—Three Lectures on the Limits of
the Historic Method, by John Morley; Four Lectures on the
Evidence for the History of Rome from Existing Architectural
Remains, by J. H. Parker, C.B. ; Six Lectures by Prof. Tyndall,

F.R.S. ; Four Lectures by Prof. Odling, F.R.S. ; Three Lec-

tures on the Development of Music in connection with the
Drama, by Edward Dannreuther. In January the New Labo-
ratories for research will be open for the inspection of the
Members of the Institution.

THE following lectures are arranged to be delivered during the
ensuing season at the London Institution, Finsbury Circus :—
Educational Lectures, first course commencing Tuesday, Nov. 12;
a lecture on the Nutrition of the Body, by Prof. Rutherford ;
second course commencing Jan, 27, 1873, eight lectures on Phy-
sical Geography, by Prof. Duncan, F.R.S. ; third course com-
mencing Monday, April 7, six lectures on Elementary Botany,
by Prof. Bentley ; two lectures on Fungoid Organisms in their
relation to Mankind, by Prof, Thiselton’Dyer, Mondays, March
24 and 31. Evening Lectures: Cavern Researches, by W.
Pengelly, F.R.S.; Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, Nov. 6; and The
Cave Men of Mentone, Nov. 13 ; on Spontaneous Movements in
Plants, by Alfred W. Bennett, Nov. 27; on the Paraffin In-
dustry, by F. Field, F.R.S., Dec. 14; on Ancient Science,
by G. J. Rodwell, Jan. 15, 1873 ; on Fresco and Siliceous Paint-
ings, by Prof. Barff, Feb. 5 and 12; on the Result of recent
Meteorological Inquiry, by Robt. H. Scott, F.R.S., Feb. 26. On
Dec, 11, 1872, Mr. Austen will read a paper, to be followed by
discussion, on Peat as a Substitute for Coal. Prof. H. E. Arm-
strong will deliver a holiday course of four lectures, adapted to
a juvenile auditory, on Air, Earth, Fire, and Water, commencing
Dec. 30th.

Mr, J. JENNER WEIR, F.L.S., delivered a lecture last even-
ing at the Crystal Palace, on the Aquarium and its Contents.
The West Kent Microscopical Society exhibited their instruments
on the occasion.

THE following lectures will be delivered before the Bolton
Literary and Scientific Society (Subject not fixed):—J. Glaisher,
F.R.S., Nov. 19. On Coal and Coal Plants, by Prof. W.
C. Williamson, F.R.S., Dec. to, Where are the ‘Bones of
the Men who made the Flint Implements? by Wm. Pengelly,
F.R.S. The Gulf Stream ; what it does, and what it does not,
by Dr.'Wm. B. Carpenter, F.R.S., Feb. (day not fixed), An ele-
mentary course of six lectures on astronomy has been delivered
by the Rev. J. Freeston ; to be followed by one of eight lectures
on geology and physical geography, by J. Collins,

Tue birth of a hippopotamus is again announced to have taken
place at the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, on Tuesday
last.

A MDLLE, JAcozs is mentioned in the Dutch papers as having
successfully passed her examination in physics and mathematics
at the University of Groningen. This lady will be the first
female medical student in the Netherlands.

Dr. Druitt, well known as an author of standard surgical
works, as a leading Jabourer in the cause of sanitary progress,
and as the Editor of the Medical Times and Gazette, is compelled
by ill health to retire for two years to a more genial climate.
At a meeting attended by many of the leading members of the
profession-on October 31, it was resolved to initiate a subscrip-
tion with a view to the public recognition of his eminent services.

THE Persian Government, the School Board Chronicle tells us,
has engaged, through its representative at Paris, forty tutors fo
a Lyceum to be established in Persia on the ‘‘ model system” of
France.

a

16

THE meeting of Abbe Moigno’s Salle du Progrés of October
25 was so crowded that great numbers could not obtain admis-
sion. He commenced on Monday last a series of scientific
sotrées, which he hopes may prove permanent.

Pror, C, A. WuiTE informs us that the report of his paper on
the Geology of Iowa, read before the American Association for
the Advancement of Science which we*took from the Wew York
Tribune, was incorrect in several particulars. There is no
quartzite in the north-eastern part of fhe State, the Sioux
quartzite occurring in the north-western corner ; and the stoneless
area of drift should have been stated at 13,000 to 14,000, instead
of 20,000 square miles.

ON the night of July 8 last, the object-glass of the Equatoria
of the Alleghany Observatory was stolen, as also a few eye-
pieces belonging to the Transit. It is thought that the object of
the thief is to try to extort a large reward for its return, but Mr.
Langley, the director of the Observatory, has resolved not to
offer a reward, nor guarantee immunity from punishment to the
culprit. This he deems a duty to others who may have the
charge of similar instruments.

THE fifty-sixth session of the members of the Institution of
Civil Engineers will be commenced on Tuesday, November 12,
and will be continued thereafter on each succeeding Tuesday,
with the exception of a short interval at Christmas, till the end
of May. During the recess, the premises occupied by the Insti-
tution in Great George Street, Westminster—which were rebuilt
and greatly enlarged in 1868 —have been elaborately decorated.
especially the theatre, and additions have been made to the
- library. The members have been specially urged to contribute,
for reading and discussion at the evening meetings, well-authen-
ticated accounts descriptive of executed works in foreign coun-
tries, in which it is thought British engineering literature is at
present somewhat deficient. With regard to candidates seeking
admission into the Institution, the members of all classes have
been reminded that personal knowledge of the career and antece-
dents of every candidate is requisite, and only such “should be
recommended for election as are believed to be in every way
worthy of the distinction, and willing and able to advance the
interests of the society.

Amonc Messrs. Longmans’ annouftcements for the present
season are the following :—Electricity and Magnetism, by
Fleeming Jenkins, F.R.SS. L. and E, Professor of Engineering
in the University of Edinburgh, small 8vo. ; Geometric Turning,
comprising a Description of the New Geometric Chuck con-
structed by Mr. Plant, with Directions for its Use, and a Series
of Patterns cut by it, by H. S. Savory, 1 vol. 8vo., with nu-
merous illustrations ; Notes on the River Basins of the British
Isles, by Robert A. Williams, 16mo. ; Physical Geography for
Beginners, by William Hughes, 18mo. ; Catechism of Zoology,
by the Rev. J. F. Blake, M.A., fceap. Svo. ; Popular Lectures
on Scientific Subjects, by Prof. Helmholtz, translated by E,
Atkinson, 1 yol. 8vo. ; Introduction to Experimental Physics, by
Prof. Adolf F. Weinhold, translated and edited by Benjamin
Loewy, F.R.A.S., with a Preface by G. C. Foster, F.R.S., I
vol. 8vo. ; Handbook of flardy Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous
Plants, based on the French work of Messrs. Decaisne and
Naudin, and including the original woodcuts by Riocreux and
Leblanc, iby W. B. Hemsley, 1 vol. 8vo. ; A General System
of Descriptive and Analytical Botany, translated from the French
of E. Le Maout, M.D., and J. Decaisne, by Mrs. Hooker,
edited and arranged according to the English botafical system,
by J. D. Hooker, M.D., with 5,500 woodcuts, from designs by
L, Stenheil and A. Riocreux, 1 vol. medium 8vo.

Tue tenth part of the illustrated quarto publication upon the
butterflies of North America, by Mr. William H. Edwards, has
just made its appearance, ‘This should have completed the first

NATURE

a

.

|

volume, but as better specimens have been obtained of several
species heretofore figured, it ‘is Mr. Edwards’s intention to
furnish these in a new supplemental ‘number, with title-page
and indices. This work, in addition to the numerous coloured
figures and the elaborate descriptions of various species and their
varieties, contains a synoptic list of North American butterflies,
embracing 509 species, of which, previous to 1852, only 137
were known as belonging to North America. Sixty-one species
were added between 1852 and 1860, and 311 since the latter
year. There is every reason to believe that, with a thorough
exploration of other regions of North America, many more will
be found and added to this number. fe,

Tue formation in Manchester of a. Society for Promoting
Scientific Industry is advocated by Mr. Frank Spence, of the
Pendleton Iron Works. He says, in a letter to the A/anchester
Guardian, that the proposed society ‘‘ will deal only with
science in its practical applications—in the selection and perfec:
tion of all the instruments of production, not excluding the most
important, and, just now, to many a manufacturer, most em-
barrassing of them all, the worker.” He refers, as a precedent,
to the Société Industrielle de Mulhouse, organised, in 1825, for
**the advancement and propagation of industry, by the assem-
blage in a central situation of a great number of the elements of
instruction, by the communication of discoveries and of remark-
able facts, as well as by the initiation of original investigations, :
and by all the means which shall suggest themselves to the
members in order to insure its prosperity and the happy results
to which it may give rise.” This is an attempt at a movement
in the right direction. ‘

|

Pror. MarsH, having completed the determination of the
new species of fossil mammals and birds obtained during the
Yale College expeditions of the summers of 1870 and 1871, has
begun upon the reptiles, and has described five new species of
new genus, which he calls Zéinosaurus. These were large
carnivorous lizards; resembling the Varanide, or monitors, bt
differing in certain features pointed out by the professor.
are all from the tertiary bedsof Wyoming. Other species belong
to two new genera, Oreosaurus and Tinosaurus, together with a

q

new species of a genus, G/y/osaurus, previously indicated. 4

Dr. Hooker states that the rainfall for October amounted, at
the Royal Gardens, Kew, to 6°46 inches. Of this no less than
309 inches was recorded in theflast seven days of the month.
The rainfall for October registered at the Royal Botanic Gardens, —
Regent’s Park, seven miles distant from Kew, was 5°25 inches.

Les Mondes describes a curious experiment of M. R. P.
Lafond, Take a chameleon top, and place on the centre one of
the prismatic discs which can be bought with the article, and
instead of producing the singular optical illusions usually ob
tained from these discs by means of the fingers (in the same way
as the ‘‘checked action” of Wheatstone is produced), illumine the
table with a large Geissler tube. The result is described as
charming ; the most varied combinations of colours and desig
succeed each other, without any necessity for touching the
and consequently destroying the movement of the top. Mo
over—and this makes the plaything a veritable scientific instru
ment—we have here a beautiful demonstration that the light of
the Geissler tubes is intermittent. = Ps

Harper's Weekly announces the early publication of an im-—
portant work on American Natural History—the investigation of |
the Cetaceans of the western coast of North America, by Capt.
C. M. Scammon of the United States Revenue Marine. This
gentleman has for many years been directing his attention to the
subject, and has collected a large amount of material in reference
to the various species of whales and porpoises of the western
coast, together with their zoological peculiarities and their
habits. :

‘ALOGUE OF BRIGHT LINES IN THE SPEC-
TRUM OF THE SOLAR ATMOSPHERE *

\\/ITHOUT waiting to complete my entire report of the spec-
*™* troscopic work at Sherman, I send for immediate publica-
m, should you think proper, a list of the bright lines observed
in the spectrum of the chromosphere during the past summer.
_ The great altitude of the station (nearly 8,300 ft.), and the
consequent atmospheric conditions, were attended with even
advantages for my special work than had been really ex-
ed, although I was never quite able to realise my /ofe of
seeing all the Fraunhofer lines reversed ; unless once or twice
or a moment, during some unusual disturbances of the solar sur-
face. Everything I saw, however, confirmed my belief that the
origin of the dark lines is at the base of the chromosphere, and
at the ability to see them all reversed at any moment depends
erely upon instrumental power and atmospheric conditions.
In this view, a catalogue of the bright lines actually observed
5 of course less important than it would be otherwise ; still it is
not without interest and scientific value, since the lines seen are
urally those which are really most conspicuous in the chro-
spectrum, and this conspicuousness stands in important,
y no means obvious or even entirely simple, relations to
the intensity of the corresponding dark lines, when such exist.
‘There can be no doubt that a careful study of these bright lines
‘and their behaviour would yield much valuable information as to
the constitution and habitudes of the solar atmosphere.
In the catalogue, the first column contains simply a reference
number : a { refers to a note at the end of the catalogue.
The numbers in the second column refer to my ‘‘ Preliminary
Catalogue,” containing 103 lines, which was published a year
ago in the American Fournal of Science. In this column a +
indicates that some other observer has anticipated me in the
determination and publication of the line. As I have depended
for my information almost solely upon the Comples Rendus
d the Proceedings of the Royal Society (which give the ob-
ervations of Lockyer, Janssen, Rayet, and Secchi), it is quite
possible that some other lines ought to be marked in the same
manner.
_ The third column, headed K, gives the position of the lines on
chhoff’s scale, the numbersabove G being derived from Thalen’s
mtinuation of Kirchhoff’s maps. In this column an asterisk de-
notes that the map shows no corresponding dark line, a ? that the
exact position, not the existence, of the line is for some reason
ightly uncertain,
The fourth column, headed A, gives the wave-length’of the line
in ten millionths of a millimetre according to Angstrém’s atlas.
he numbers in this and the preceding column were; taken,
not from the maps themselves, which present slight inaccuracies
on account of the shrinking and swelling of the paper during
the operation of printing, but from the numerical catalogues of
Kirchhoff and Angstrom which accompany their respective
tlases. In the preliminary catalogue the numbers were derived
from the maps; hence some slight discrepancies in the tenths
of division.
_ The fifth column, marked F, contains a rough estimate of the
percentage of frequency with which the lines were seen during
six weeks of observation ; and the sixth column, B, a similar
estimate of their maximum brightness compared with that of the
hydrogen line C.
_ The variations of brilliance, however, when the chromosphere
as much disturbed, were so considerable and so sudden, that no
very great weight can be assigned to the numbers given. Nor is
it to be inferred that lines which have in the table the same index
f brightness were always equally bright. On some occasions one
of lines would be particularly conspicuous, on others, another.
With two or three exceptions, indicated in the notes, no lines
have been catalogued which were not seen on at least two dif-
ferent days. In the few cases where lines observed only on one
Occa,ion have been admitted to the list, the observations were
tt the time carefully verified by my assistant, Prof. Emerson,
50 as to place their correctness beyond a doubt. Many other
lines were “ glimpsed” at one time and another, but not seen
teadily enough or long enough to admit of satisfactory deter-
ation.
The last column of the catalogue contains the symbols of the

chemical elements corresponding to the respective lines. The

0
u

~ * Letter to the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey, containing a
Catalogue of Bright Lines in the Gar of the Solar Atmosphere, observed
‘at Sherman, Wyoming Territory, U. S. A., during July and August, 1872 ;
by Prof. C. A. Young, of Dartmouth College. Reprinted from advance
‘sheets of the American Yournal of Science and Art.

materials at my disposal are the maps of Kirchhoffand Angstrém,
Thalen’s map of the portion of the solar spectrum above G, and
“ Watts’s Index of Spectra.” Since’the positions of the lines in
the latter work are given only to the nearest unit of ‘‘ Ang-
strom’s scale,” I have marked the coincidences indicated by it
with a(w), considering them less certain than those_shown by the
maps.

In addition to the elements before demonstrated to exist in the
chromosphere, the following seem to be pretty positively indi-
cated—sulphur, cerium, and strontium; and the following with
a somewhat less degree of probability, zinc, erbium, and yttrium,
lanthanum and didymium. There are some coincidences also
with the spectra of oxygen, nitrogen, and bromine, but not enough,
considering the total number of lines in the spectra of these ele-
ments, or of a character to warrant any conclusion. One line
points to the presence of iridium or ruthenium, and only three
lines are known in the whole spectrum of these metals. The
reversal of the H’s deserves also especial notice.

No one, of course, can fail to be struck with the number of
cases in which lines have associated with them the symbols of
two or more elements. The coincidences are too many and too
close to be all the result of accident, as for instance in the case
of iron and calcium, or iron and titanium,

Two explanations suggest themselves. The first, which seems
rather the most probable, is that the metals operated upon by
the observer who mapped their spectra, were not absolutely
pure—either the iron contained traces of calcium and titanium,
or vice vers@. If this supposition is excluded, then we seem to
be driven to the conclusion that there is some such similarity
between the molecules of the different metals as renders them
susceptible of certain synchronous periods of vibrations—a re-
semblance, as regards the manner in which the molecules are
built up out of the constituent atoms, sufficient to establish
between them an important physical (and probably chemical)
relationship. I have prefixed to the catalogue a table showing
the number of lines of each substance, or combination of sub-
stances, observed in the chromosphere spectrum, omitting, how-
ever, oxygen, and nitrogen, and bromine, since with one excep-
tion (line 230), neither of them ever stands alone, or accounts
for any lines not otherwise explained.

The instruments and methods of observation were the same as
those employed in the construction of the Preliminary Catalogue.
Telescope, 9 x4; inches aperture—spectroscope automatic, with
dispersive force of 12 prisms.

The approximate geographical position of Sherman is long.
th, 53'2m. west of Washington, 'lat. 41° 07’ ; altitude above sea-
level 8,280 feet ; mean height of barometer about 22°1 inches,

Table showing the number of coincidences between the bright lines
observed in the spectrum of the chromosphere, and those of the
spectra of the chemical elements,

Fe, Ti,’ Siwy | 1 Ti, Sw) 3 |\Unknown.| 52 [ fetal.
So Bay Stay | ¥ ce Ga 2 |————!
© Sew) Znqw)| I Sein: I Fe, 64 | IIo
** ‘Go, Ce I > Ge; I Ti, 23 43
bec Fs OF Sh a Ca, | To 2
Gay. Cx; Ce; I eis) Ba, 8 13
> Ly. Zu, I a Et. I Siw) i) 14
Ti, Ba, Siw) I Mn, 6 12
Ba, La, E(w) I Ca, Cd, I Ce, 5 II
“* Ce, I H, 4 4
Fe, Ca, | 10 Ca, Co, I Na, 4 6
iuf 9 -Cr a Cs 4 | Io
“~Mn,| 4 “Sr, I Mg, 3 4
“Cr, 5 Sr, 3 6
“ Ni, | 3 | Sw Eqy | 2 Zn, 3 9
se es a hae Ew) 2 9,
Sa Frat e a Mn, Zn, I Ni, 2 6
“ Eq) | 2 Co, I 5
Cr, E(w) I Cu, I 2
in Ge; I | _ La, I 3
&> Co; I Ce, Co, I Ru, Ir, I It
§ Mg, I Cd, I
Sa I Na, Cu, I Li, I
“ Sim I j :
“ La, | 1. {lines marked |
with an * | 14 |

The numbers in the last column denote the whole number of
times that the symbol of each element appears in the catalogue,
either singly or combined with others. Laas

* Aosta NP a

NATURE

.

Catalogue of Bright Lines in the Spectrum of the Chromosphere. F. |B.
1872. a es eee 8
Bit (a2
. ay 4m
No | PC. ‘ni K. A Sa. E rere
PON aa
4 rr) Tt 534'0" 7055°? |100 | 12 a he
2 eae 654°3 6676’9 | 25 | 50] Fe, Ba(,) Bovng
1 3 3t | C.694°1 6561°8 |100 |100 ; rye hae
- 4 7114 6515°5 | 15) 4 2) 1
5 4 718°7 6496'°0 | 18] 5 Ba, 4/2
6 7307 6461°7 tale Ca. Zin
aloes 7340 64538 | 10] 6 3| 2
8 740°9 6438°1 5| 2] Ca, Cd, 86 | 25+ 1421°5 5370°5 | 10] 3
ot} 6 744°3 642999 | 20| 4 87 1423'0 53690 | I] I
10 750°1 6415'6 So er 88 1425°4 5306'5 I I
II 756°9 6399'0 5| 2 Fe, 89 1428°2 53640 r; 1
12 759°3 6392°6 Sy ae Fe, go |. 26+ 1430°1 530t'9 | 20! 10
13 67°?" 6373°? | 5| 2 91 1438°9 53524 | 4] 2
1 W082. A B37t 5 103 92 1446°7 | 53450 | I] 1 ra
15 978 °3 6346'r 10} 4} Ruth, Ir, 93 1450°S | ~ 5340°2 r 2 Fe, Mn, O(,)
16f; 8 823°5 | 62454 | 8) 5 & 94| 27 1454°7 5335°9 | 5 | 2) Ti, ZnGQ)
17t} 9 $27°6 6237'3 | 8] 2 95 1461°5 | 5329°1 6) 4 ae
18 830°2 6231°5 Se ibet Fe, 96 | 28 14628 53271 Cie ee) Ee; 5
- 19 836°5 6218°3 3.) 1 i, 97 | 29 1463°3. | 5327°6 5} 2 Fe, +53
20 839°2 | 6214°I A ee pyr 98 1464'8 | 53251 6} 2
21 845°7 6199°6 Sal ey? Fe, 99 | 1471°9* 5315'0 I I
22 849°7 6190°5 | 10] 2 Fe, toot] 31+ 1473°9 53159 | 99 | 50} Fe? O(,)R
23 859°7 6168°3 Ps a Ca, IOI 1476'8 5313°1 3 I %
24 863°9 | 6161°2 tty ae Ga; 102 1497°3. | 5292°0 I 1 | Ca, Breyer
25 870°9 6148'1 3) 2 Fe, Es) 103 | 32 1505°3 5283°4. | 20 | 10 its) 4
26 871°4 6146'8 ett ee 104 | 33% 1515'5 52750 | 30} 15 .
é 27| 10 874°3 6140°6 | 25 10 Ba, 105 | 34 E,1522°7 5269°5 5 | 4
28 876°5 | 613671 Fg hah | 106 | 35 Eg1523°7 5268'5 Wig
Y 29 8770 61356 Zr Fe, 107 | 36% 1527°7 5265°8 | 10| 4
30 8849 6121'2 ish ake Ca, Co, 108 1530°2 5263°3 I I
31 890°2 61099 Py ae Ba, 109 1538°5* 52562 2) %
32 894°9 6101'7 3| 2|Ca, Li, Zn(,) 110 1541'9 | 5254°1 I 2
33 9031 6083 | 3] 2 Ti, Il 1547°7 52497 | 3| 1
i 34 g12'1 6064°5 4 ta Fe, Ti, 112 1551°6 5246°3 3h
: 35 933'8 60180 Za Na Ba, 113 | 37 T50L'0 52390 4 |"2
Me 363 949°4 5990°0 | 10| 4 14 | 38 1564°2 52363 | 4} 2
37 9920 5913 ‘2 “Sul a Fe, 115 | 39+ 1567°5 §233'6 | 10} 8
38 | x1t | D,1002°8 5895°0 | 50 | 30 Na, 116 | 40 1569°6 52321 ri 3
* 39 | 12t | D,1006°8 5889'0 | 50 | 30 Na, 117 1575'4 5227'°5 I I
S 4ot + IOII'2 5883°0 Zane iy Fe, 118 | 41 1577'4 §226'2 10} 3
e Att 13+ | Dg1016-5* 5874°9 |100 | 90 119 1578‘! 5225°5 2 Wee
ty 42 1031°5 5852°7 et 2 Ba, 120 | 42 1580°1 52243 2| 2
ie 43 j 1135'1 5708°3 | eo Fe 121 1589°I 5216'5 ee
44 II51'I 5687 °2 PP AWE Na, 122 1590°7 5215°5 3 tele
: 45 1154°2 5683°5 | 5] 3 123 1592°3 52144 | 2] 2
46 11558 50815 | 2/| 1}|Na,Fe, N(,) | 124 1597°9* | 5210°5 rj} 1
47 | 1165°7 5667°8 2} 2 a 125 15989 5209°5 L jae
48 | 1167/0 56660 At eer 126! 43 1601 °5 52076 | 10} 6
49 | 1170°6 5661°5 | 15] 2] Fe, Ti, E(,) 127 | 44 1604°4 5205'2 | 10}| 6
50 | 1175/0 5656°7 | 8} 3] SW) NW 128 | 45 1606"4 | 5203°7 | 10} 6
51 11766 5654°4 a ee Fe, 129 | 46 1609°2 5201°5 Byers
~ 52 1187°I 5640°2 I I S(,) 130] 47 1611°3 5199°7 4) 2
53 1189°3 Ck Ac a ae aa 131 16139 51979 | I} 1
54 1200°6 5623°2 Bae x Fe, 132 | 48t 1615'6 51970 15 | 10
55 1207°3 5614°5 OH Fe, 133 1617'4 5195'0 I I
50 1229'6 5587°6 2| 2 Ca, 134 1618'9 5194°1 2h ee
57 1231°3 5585'5 Bi hx Fe 135 1627°2 51882 | 10} 5
58} rat 1274'2 55341 | 50 | 12 | Ba, Fe, Sr, 136 1628°2 5187°3 I I
5O):| sans 1281°3 5525'9 | 40} 5 e, 137 163175 5185°1 5} 2
60 1287°5 5518°7 | 15] 2 Ba, 138 | 49t| b,1634"1 51830 | 50
61 1298'9 55058 2 ee Fe, 139 | 5ot| b,1648'8 5172°0 | 50
62 1303°5 5500°5 2 ultak Fe, La, 140} 5i1t | b,1653°7 5108°3 | 40
63 1306°7 5496 | 2] 1] Fe, E(,) 141 | 52f | b,1655°6 5166'7 | 30
64 1320°6 5480°2 2 ix ion 142 1666"? 5160"? pg
65 1324'8 54759 |r| 1 i, 143 1671" 51548 | 3] 1
66 1328°7 54723 | 3] 1 144| 53 1673°7 BP52i5 }. Subs tat
67 | | | 433770 5462°3 1} rj Fe, N(,) 145 | 34 1677°9 5150°1 2 ||
68 | 16 13435 5454°7 | 10| 4 Fe, 146 1689°5 5142'2 ry} 2!
- COZ «| 1351" 544599 | 10] 4 | Fe, Ti, Br(,) | 147 | 17018 51330 rj) 1
5 70 1360°9 5435°'4 | 5 | 2) Zn, Br(,) 148 | 1704°7 5130°8 rj 1
m1 | 1362°9 54330 Biel az Fe, 149 1707°9 5128°6 ae) ee
y2t} 18 | 1364°3 5431°8 S05 150 1710°7 5126°7 Hint
731 19 | 136770 5428'8 Sry Fe, Ti, 151 1712°2 5125'5 Tae 3
74.| 20 13723 5424'5 | 25 | 6} Ba, Ti, S(,) 1524; 1713"4 5124°4 be ie: ae

aN
b

Op

SR

Ae ON
E +

On wn

(3)
Lawl

ie]
fos
i
°

K.

BRYN NRR RD SMD ee

ow
Omrn 0 OW

z

w& Nw
oSu 8S

Suu 8
Ww O mW OM

PUN RH NUN NWD He

10

15

be

ea

™ om
PAKW CON CON HOM RW NN DD MR RD ee

oo

DON HF HWNRUN A OHNE NUAWE NAN HN NOAA NAN HNN DOM

Fe, S(,) Zn(,)
Ss

Ww.

NOH SN UT NO

19
K. A. Boot By | E.
2665°9 4417°5 a Ti,
2670°0 4414°7 1] 1 {| Fe, Mn, O(,)
2680°0 4407°7 I I Fe, Ca,
2686'8 4404°2 es | Fe,
2696'0 4398°5 1{ 1 } Ti, Ce, O(,)
2698°2 4396°5 Pu eee
2702°5 439046 | 15| 3
27152 4388°5 BEC Be;
2718°5 4384°7 8:| 2 Ca, Ce;
2720°2 4383'5 I I
2721°6 4382'8 Be ee Fe, Cr,
2725'8 4380°4 Ey it
2728'0 4379°1 I I Ca,
27337 43755 el ed Fe,
27369 43742 | 8) 3 E(,,)
27620 43591 a Cr,
27757 | 43518 | 3] 1 Cr,
27957 | 4340° |100 | 65 Hi,
2798'0 4338°2 | 10} 2 Cr,
gop | aggpt | at ty Le,
251 28234 4324'0 Ti hp
252 2830°7 4320°1 Bolo Wy lt otey
253 28430 4313'5 I I aye
254 | 94 G.2854°2 4307°2 Jk a2 Ca, Fe,
255 | 95 2867°7 4302'1 3| 2 Ca, Fe,
256 | 96 2874°2 4298'0 Eyed Ca, Fe,
257 | 97 2894°5 4289°4 rj} 1 } Cr, Ca, Ce(,)
258 | 98 2928'5 4274°6 2, yee Cr, Ga;
259 | 99 2961°2 4260'0 AS | Fe,
260 | 100 2996'2 4245°2 | 30| 3 Fe,
261 30180 4235°5 | 30] 5§ Rey
262 3022'8 42330 | 15! § Fe, Ca;
263 | IOI 3040°0 4220°3 er ieee Ca, Sr,
264 | 102 3061°8 42153 | 40! 7 Ca, Sr,
265 3155°5 4173'8 ee
266 3187°0 4166°7 Eps Ga;
267 | 103t | h.3363°5 4101'2 |100 | 50 Hy
268 34310 40770 | 25) 2 3;
269 35260 4045'0 Fe Fe,
270 3793°3 3990"? 2) 1
271 3769 5 3970? 2\ 1 Fe,
272% 437785 39679 |75| 3} Fe, Ca,
2731 1H,3882'5 39328 | 50} 1 | Fe, Ca,
Notes

1. The position assigned to this line, first observed by Respighi
(a fact of which I was ignorant when the Preliminary Catalogue
was published), rests upon two series of micrometric measure-
ments, referring it to four neighbouring dark lines—the probable
error is about 3th of a division of Kirchhoff’s scale.

g. No. 6in PC. Position there given, 743?

16 and 17. Nos. 8andg of PC. Position given as 8168 and
827°6, by a mistake in identifying lines upon the map.

40. I have never myself seen this line reversed. Prof. Emerson,
however, saw it several times. It was first reported by Rev.
S. J. Perry, in NATURE, vol. iii. p. 67.

41. The position of this line has been independently deter-
mined by three series of micrometric comparisons with neigh-
bouring lines. My result agrees exactly with that of Huggins.

72. Erroneously given in PC, as 1363°1, which line does not
reverse, or at least was never seen reversed at Sherman.

100. The principal line in the spectrum of the corona. The
corresponding line in the spectrum of iron is rather feeble, and
on several occasions when the neighbouring lines of iron (1463,
&c.) have been greatly disturbed, this has wholly failed to sym-
pathise. Hence I have marked the Fe witha? Watts indi-
cates a strong line of oxygen at 5315 A.

152 and 156. Observed only on one day, but verified by Prof,
Emerson.

172. Called little C by Mr. Stoney.

179. Given by Lockyer as K 2054. Its position is a little
uncertain ; it seems to coincide with neither of the dark lines at
2051 and 2054, but lies between them, a little nearer to 2051.

189. Rather a band than a line.

222, The position of this line, which, however, like 189, is
rather a band, was determined by two series of careful micro-
metrical measurements.

*

ath

4

20

It was first discovered in 1869 ‘by Rayet, and has’ since been
named “f” by Lorenzoni, who, ignorant of the previous work

of several other observers, has claimed its discovery.

272 and 273. These lines were both reversed (by a narrow
bright stripe running down the centre of the hroad hazy band)
as constantly, whenever the seeing was good, as % or C itself;
The observation was difficult, however, and required the most
scrupulous exclusion of foreign light, and a careful adjustment of
the slit in the plane of the solar image formed by these particular

rays.

They were also found, to be regularly reversed upon the body
in the Zenumbra and immediate neighbourhood

of the sun itself,
of every important spot.

eee

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
CAMBRIDGE

Philosophical Society, Oct. 18.—The following were elected
officers of the Society :—President : Prof. Humphry. Vice-
Presidents: Prof. Cayley, Prof. Adams, Prof. Liveing. Trea-
Secretaries, Messrs. Bonney, J. W. Clark,
New Members of Council: Prof. Babington, Prof.
The following communica -
tions were made to the Society :—“On the form suggested by
M. Tresca, and adopted by the Commission Internationale du

surer: Dr. Campion.
and Trotter.
Stokes, Mr. Hort, Dr. M. Foster.

systéme meétrique, for the Métres Internationaux,” by Prof.
Miller, F.R.S.
“A Method for Levelling” (communicated), by Mr. J. C. W. Ellis.
The nature of these papers does not admit ofa brief abstract.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, October 21.—M. Faye, president.
In opening the meeting the President announced the death on
that morning of M. Babinet, Member of the Academy, Physical
Section.—M. Yvon Villarceau then read a note relative to a
letter from M. Magnac on the use of chronometers at sea which
he presented to the Academy. The note and letter related to
the compensation and rating of chronometers, and in conclusion
drew attention to the great and continuous care which ought to
be devoted to this subject by the Transit of Venus Expedition of
1874.—M. Pasteur then read an answer to M. Fremy’s two notes
read at the meeting of the 7th October. M. Pasteur’s observa-
tions were in support of his theory of the wine ferment
coming from the husk of~ the grape. He concluded
his observation as follows:—‘‘I declare both the theory
of the transformation of albuminous matters into ferment
cells by contact with atmospheric oxygen, and that of hemeor-
ganism, or the generation of ferment cells from fruit cells, to be
erroneous.”—Next came a vigorous reply from M. Chevreul to
certain ‘‘allegations contained in a report, by M. A. Gruyer, on
the International Exhibition of London, 1871.” At the conclu-
sion of the reply MM. E. Bequerel and Milne-Edwards made
some remarks on the subject, when the matter dropped.
—A note from M. R. Clausius, on the mechanical equa-
tion from which the ‘viriel’ theorem results was then
read, and was followed by a note from M. A, de
Caligny on the theory of the several systems of navigation
locks, a long paper relating to various kinds of locks, sluices,
floodgates, &c,.—This was followed by the continuation of M.
P. A. Favre and C, A, Valson’s paper on crystalline dissoci-
ation. The authors find that potassium and ammonium alum
are partially dissociated when rendered anhydrous, and that
chromium-potassium alum, when rendered anhydrous and then
washed, loses potassic sulphate. They also attribute the change
from violet to green of solutions of chrome alum, when heated,
to this cause, and state that there is nothing to prove that this
is not the case with all alums.—M. C. Sédillot then presented a
note on the phenomena of fermentation and their connection
with pathological physiology. The note related to certain re-
cent studies on zymology by M. F. Monoyer.—M. Tresca then
asked the Academy to open a sealed packet deposited by him
with it on September 9, 1870, and which contained the particu-
lars of the secret place where he and General Morin had de-
posited the standard metre and kilogramme during the events of
that time. He wished the Academy to open the depositary, and
to place the standards in the hands of the Government.—M. Ed.
Bureau then read a note on the value of characteristics deduced
from the structure of the stem for the classification of the Bigno-
niacee.—The concluding portion of M. Max Marie’s paper on
the extension of the method of Cauchy to the study of double in-
tegrals, &c., followed. —A note from Ed. Jannettaz on the coloured

NATURE

‘* A Method for Drawing in Perspective ;” and

[Woo. 7, 187

rings produced in gypsum by pressure, and their connection ¥
the ellipsoid of thermal conduction and with cleavage, was refe
tothe physical section, and M. C. Dareste’s studies on the ost
logical types of osseous fishes was sent to the section of zoolo
The commission for the Montyon prize for medicine and su
received a memoir on the three ‘‘psoric acariens” of the Horse
M. P. J. Mégnin.—A communication from MM. Chevallier
the manufacture of amorphous phosphorous matches was sen |
the commission on the unhealthy arts, —A suggestion for the useo
the tension of liquid ammonia as a source of motive power in aeri
navigation by M. Pollard was submitted to the commission of
aerostation ; and the PAy//oxera commission received a note rel:
tive toa remedy for that pest from M. Chatelain.—M. Yvon Vil
larceau then communicated a letter on the elements and co-ordi
nates of the planet No. 123 from M. Stephan, and also an extra
from aletter from M. de Magnac onthe determination of lonsituc
by chronometers.—M. Chasles presented a note from M. Hi. GC.
Zeuthen on quartic equations, of which one part is reduced to |
direct double.—A letter from M. P. Volpicelli on the probable )
nature of the Saturnian rings, and ona meteor observed at Romeon |
the 31st of August, was then read.—M. Th. du Moncel read a)
note on the accidental currents which arise in telegraphic wires |
one end of which remains isolated in the air, after which M. )
|

|
|
!
ct
})
F |

Pasteur presented a note, by M. Feltz, on the action of t
lisable sugar on Barreswil’s cupro-tartaric reagent. The author
experiments tend to show that cane sugar acts on the t i
the presence of an excess of alkali ; hence he distrusts deter:
minations made where both sugars are present. This paper wa
followed by a note from MM. Béchamp and Estor on the role
of the microzymes during embryonic development.—M. Tarry
then read a note on the aurora and magnetic storm of the 14

and 15th October.—M. E. Fournié demanded the openin|
of a sealed packet relating to cerebral physiology deposited
him on the 22nd of July, 1872, and after a note from M. e
Bandiera on a means of separating essence of citron from turpen-
tine had been submitted to M. Dumas, the session adjourned.

f
.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

EncLisu.—The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals: C.
Darwin (Murray).—The Causation of Sleep : James Capper, M.D. (Thin,
Edinboro’).—Underground Treasures ; how and where to find them; James
Orton (Worthington and Co.).

Foreicn.—(Through Williams and Norgate.)—Ueber die Auflésung der
Arten durch natiirliche Zuchtwahl.—Ueber die Bedeutung der Entwickelung

in der Naturgeschichte: Dr. A. Braun.—Sachs-reglster zu dem Reper-
torium: J. Schotte. 7

DIARY

T.7UL SDAY, November 7.

Linnean Society, at 8.—On the “Piopio” of New Zealand
crassivostris Gmel): T. H. Potts.—On the buds developed on
Malaxis:; George Dickie, M.D.

SUNDAY, November 10.
Sunpay Lecrurg Society, at 4.—On A Bar of Iron: John Hopkinson
D.Sc, ‘

, +

(<erae G |
leaves

TUESDAY, Novempegr 12.

Lonpon Institution, at 4—On Nutrition: Prof. Rutherford. (Educ:

tional course.)
THURSDAY, Novemser 14,

Lonpon MatHeEmArTIcAt Socrery, at 8.—Remarks on some Recent Gene
ralisations of Algebra : the President.—Sur les Fonctions Circulaires: J [.
Hermite.—Investigation of the Disturbance produced by a Spherical Ob
staole on the Waves of Sound: Hon. J. W. Strutt —On the Mechanic: 1
Description of a Cubic Curve: Prof. Cayley.—A Series of Models of.
Cubic Surfaces to Illustrate their Different Forms: Prof. Henrici.

CONTENTS Pp.

Tue Last Eruption oF Vesuvius. . . ...« « -
Wacner’s Hanppook or CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY .
Our Book SHzetF...... Be cy. ho
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :—
The National Herbarium.—Prof, Owen, F.R.S. ....,..
Physics for Medical Students.—Prof. Lionet BEALE, F.R.S.; F.
Lynpon Attwoop . 3 yl Se Saree
Nortu Porar ExpioraTion Rite we 1S ¢ 0 in a a
RESEARCHES IN GREENLAND. By EpwARrD WHYMPER . . .
Tue Hetvetic Socrery or NATURAL SCIENCES. . . . . . °
On THE Wyanpotte Cave anp iTs Fauna. By Prof. E. D.
Cope (With Illustrations.) .. .. ae i ay

Ww, ia oi

ScottisH COALFIELDS .

INOTES 5) jo + sé -¢ fp a RR etel ois) Baie aes ty pn
CATALOGUE oF BricHT Lines IN THE SPECTRUM OF THE SOLAR
ATMOSPHERE. By Prof.C.A.YounG .... 0... «=
Societies AND ACADEMIES . ... .

Safe aie as

RS en 0! 5.) ree bs

EXPLORATION OF THE SOUTH POLAR

4 REGIONS
FN the various explorations which the last few years
| have seen, it must be admitted that the South Pole

een neglected, and its rival, the North Pole, has had.

tall its own way. It is not to be wondered at, therefore,
hat Dr. Neumayer, with whom the Exploration of the
South Polar regions has been a cherished project from
his youth, and who for many years has lived in the hope of
some day having the privilege granted him of taking part
n an expedition on board a German ship that might have
ne honour of penetrating the South-Polar circle, and
ring up the mystery that lies beyond, will allow
state of things to continue without protest. Since
hope has been time after time frustrated, and
ause he fears that now it may never be realised, he
etermined to do what he can to rouse an active in-
tt in the subject among scientific men. By lectures
various parts of Germany, and otherwise, he endea-
oured some little time ago to set afoot an exploring party,
whose observations might have been of great use in connec-
ion with the now not very distant Transit of Venus, but in
this, too, he failed ; so that now there remains only the hope
hat, in connection with thescientific expeditionstothesouth
or the observation of that momentous astronomical event,
ymething may be done towards the realisation of the
‘darling scheme of his youth.” Hence, to awaken a
eneral interest in antarctic explorations, as well as to
how what remains to be done, Dr. Neumayer has re-
nted, in the form of a pamphlet, a long article of his
m the “Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkiinde,” on
subject, referring to his numerous lectures and
ritings on the subject, and has given a brief sketch of
he progress of discovery in the South Polar regions, and
admirable summary of the points to which any expe-
jon should direct its attention—to which, anxious to
iecond his efforts, we gladly draw attention.
_ Of maritime expeditions, those to the Polar regions have
lad a lasting interest for geographers, both as leading to
he solution of important scientific problems, and as being
f value from a more material point of view. The im-
jortance of scientific observation inside the Polar circle
S evident, Dr. Neumayer declares, to all who have any
howledge of the phenomena on the surface of the globe.
Vithout such observations there exists a void and a
imentable one-sidedness in our knowledge, offering a
rtile field for numberless, and mostly worthless, hypo-
aeses. What have been the results of efficient observation
the far north for the confirmation and correction of
ur. knowledge in the departments of magnetism, clima-
ology, the geographical distribution of plants and
nimals, the laws of ocean currents, is shown by a
uperficial glance at the history of the development of
hese departments of science. But Dr. Neumayer main-
ains that for the purpose of discovering ‘those general
aws which are necessary as guides and standards in the
hterpretation of phenomena in climatology and physical
€ography generally, the South Polar regions are much
er adapted than those of the North. A glance at the
lobe, he maintains, shows that such results can be
No. 159—-VoOL. vi.

obtained only by the expenditure of vast means and
laborious research in the north, on account of the nature
of the division of the land and water, which also throws
difficulties in the way of a satisfactory study of the
phenomena; whereas no such difficulties and distur-
bances are presented by the prevailing sea of the South

Polar regions. These statements could be proved by
many examples from physical geography, but it is only
necessary to refer to the valuable additions which have
been made by researches in high south latitudes to our
knowledge of the laws of the relation between the distri-
bution of the pressure of the air and of heat, and of the
laws of winds. Moreover, Dr. Neumayer maintains that
very valuable light would be thrown on the laws of the
distribution of living organisms by explorations in this
quarter, where there is scarcely any land but a few
scattered islands.

Dr. Neumayer then proceeds to give a sketch of the
history of discovery in the South Polar regions, dividing
it into three periods. The first of these periods begins
with the sixteenth century, and ends with the determi-
nation of the south point of America by Schoelten and
Lemaine in 1616. The second period extends to the
beginning of the present century, and the third from that
time onwards.

The voyages embraced in the first period were not
Polar voyages in the strict sense, for no one stepped over
the Polar circle, and their main object was to fix the route
to India and the Spanish colonies on the west coast of
South America. The expeditions which went south dur-
ing the second period had for their purpose to discover
and fix the limits of the great southern continent which
theoretical geographers supposed must exist in those re-
gions in order that the balance of land might be main-
tained. The expeditions which have gone out to this
quarter during the present century have had for their
purpose mainly the observation of phenomena for scientific
purposes,

Of the great voyagers belonging to the first period, it
can hardly be said that any made discoveries in what is
generally considered the Antarctic region. Sebald de
West, in January 1600, saw a group of islands in 50° 40’
S. and 59° W., which were called Sebald’s Islands, and
which were possibly the same as the Falkland Islands,
whose proper discovery falls to a later time. One of the
minor voyagers of this period, Dick Gerritz, discovered
an island group in 61° S. lat. and seems to have reached
64°. This ice-bound group was probably the same as
that now called South Shetland, although it is possible
Gerritz had seen Palmer’s Land. During this period dis-
coveries only reached the higher latitudes south of Cape
Horn ; in other circumpolar parts the 4oth parallel had
only been reached at the Cape of Good Hope; andin the
Indian Ocean, on the way to Batavia, the islands of St.
Paul and New Amsterdam were already known in the
beginning of the 17th century.

The earliest of the discoveries of the second period were
those of the famous Abel Tasman. The maps of Mer-
cator in 1628 attach the north coast of New Holland to
the great continent of Australasia, that spreads itself all
over the South Polar region, and annexes the discoveries
of Dick Gerritz to South America, The unrestrained
fancy of the geographers of the time even leads them to

c

a2 NATURE Bi uci

set down a continuation of the Cordilleras as running
through the “ great south continent.” This delusion Tas-
man destroyed, when, in the year 1642, he sailed round the
south of New Holland, and discovered Van Diemen’s Land;
he also discovered the west coast of New Zealand. La
Roche, in 1675, discovered South Georgia; while the
Malouins (1700-1712) place the Falkland Islands ac-
curately on the maps. The voyages of Hay and Lozier
Bonnet circumscribed considerably the extent of the south
continent in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans ; but through
the discovery of Cape Circumcision in about 52° S. lat.
and 10° E, long., it was believed a new proof of its exist-
ence had been gained.

Dr. Neumayer pays a very high tribute to Cook for the
restless energy with which he pursued his work, and the
vast and valuable additions he made to the then scanty
knowledge of these southern regions. The maps of 1762
have still the south continent prodigally displayed, reach.
ing as far as 20° S. into the Pacific itself; the maps of
1775 show not a trace of it, although, even so late as
1773, Kerguelen believed he had seen it in lat. 49° S. and
long. 70° E. ; what he saw was Kerguelen Island. It was
Cook who had the honour of proving that the “ Great
South Continent” was a mere chimera,

In March 1770, after the observation of the transit of
Venus, he found New Zealand to be anisland. On his
second voyage he passed to the south of Kerguelen Island
in February 1773, though he appears not to have seen it
showing there was no hope for theoretical geographers in,
this direction. In the previous month, January 17, he
passed the South Polar circle in E. long. 39° 30’—the first
time the feat had been performed by any explorer—sailing
as far south as 67°15’. In the (southern) summer of
1773-4 Cook explored the ocean from 175° to 98° W. long.,
and between 50° and 71° 10'S, lat., thus clearly proving
the non-existence of a great continent to the South Pacific,
In December 1774 he sailed from New Zealand to Magel-
lan’s Straits, to convince himself that there was no sign of
the supposed continent between 55° and 56° S. lat. There
he re-discovered the island of St. Pierre, seen by Duclos
Guyot in 1756, and a century earlier by La Roche, and
named it South Georgia, On his return he discovered
the Sandwich group, and narrowly missed the South
Orkney and South Shetland Islands. Cook set out on
his third great voyage of discovery in January 1777,
intending to lay down the exact position of Prince
Edward’s and Kerguelen Islands, and make observations
on the physical geography of the latter; but ere he could
accomplish his aim “ this greatest of all discoverers of the
18th century” met his sad death in February 1779,

A comparison of the maps of 1762 and 1785 will suffice
to show how much was accomplished by Cook. The
chief conclusion come to by the great navigator as the
result of his extensive explorations was, that outside of
the South Polar circle no stretch of land of any extent
could be found, and that if any such existed inside the
Antarctic zone, for all productive purposes, indeed even
for the sustenance and development of organic life, it was
useless, The labours of Cook gave thus a negative
result ; it remained to future voyagers to prove whether
any continent existed w7¢iz the Polar circle.

In the third period, that from the beginning of the
present century, we have to do with expeditions, which,

er

a
t

ne . a
| Mov. 14, 187%
inside or in the close neighbourhood of the South Pols 1)
circle, have sailed through and explored great stretches of |

ocean, and examined the coasts and islands of the Pola
zone. It is the explorers of this period who have con
tributed so largely to our knowledge of the physica
geography of the Antarctic regions.
In October 1808 Captain Lindsay saw the Bonnet)

Group, and in February 1819 Smith re-discovered Gerrit}
or Gerrard’s Islands, now known as the South Shetlands)
We are indebted for much of our knowledge of the region E| 4
south of Cape Horn to the zeal of the American whal
and seal fishers, Powell, Palmer, Pendelton, Fanning
and others. To these we owe the discovery of Palme
Land and the South Orkneys. All agree in describin|
these lands as wholly bound in ice, almost always en
veloped in dense fogs, and showing scarcely a sprig
vegetation. Here and there from out the mass of ic
projects a black peak, which, even at a distance, by i
showing no trace of the otherwise universal ice, proclaim
itself of a.volcanic nature. Numberless birds nestle o
these islands, on which no quadrupeds have yet been)
found; and on the warm sides of the volcanic cone }
nothing is to be found*but multitudes of living” penguins,
who use them as resting-places. In the surrounding se
is a’rich vegetable life, on which the seals and fishe
appear to thrive.
The re-discovery of the South Shetland Islands gave |
new impulse to Antarctic exploration, in behalf of which a
active interest now began to show itselfin Europe. The?
Russian Empire took the lead, and in July 1819 sent out)
two ships, the Wostok and the Merny, under the commani
of Captains Bellinghausen and Lazaren, who distin
guished themselves by their pluck and circumspection
They sailed round and defined South Georgia, and Belling
hausen endeavoured, under the meridian of Greenwich, toy
get as nearthe Pole as possible. However, after workin
his way with great difficulty as far south as 69° 25’ (1° 11
W.), the impossibility of penetrating farther through tht
immense masses of ice compelled him to turn north=)
wards. Another attempt under 18° E. long. was also in®
vain, and the advanced season compelled the ships t
return to Port Jackson. The expedition set out again in
November ; and on January 22, 1821, in 92° 19’ W. long.,)
reached 69°33’ S. lat., not far from the we Alus ultra of Cook,
On the same day, in 68° 27’ S. lat., 90° 45’ W. long., Bele
linghausen saw an island 4,200 ft. high, which he named)
“ Peter the Great Island ;” and on the 29th, in 68° 43’ 2c
S. lat., 73° 9’ 36” W. long, he saw land of great height
which appeared to him to be a cape belonging to a large)
continent. This he named “ Alexander Land.” The lane
was completely locked in ice, and in the sea itself all lif
appeared to be extinct. At the South Shetlands Belling:
hausen fell in with Captain Palmer, who told him of hi
discovery of Palmer’s Land.
The voyages of these Russian explorers, who returne¢ ed
home in the middle of the year 1821, were undoubtedly,
as South Polar explorations, the most important which
had hitherto been undertaken. They almost circumnav
gated the Pole at an average distance of 30°, explored a
larger tract inside the Polar circle than ever had been donee
before, and discovered the first Polar land. Moreover,
they completed a series of valuable hydrographical re
searches, and it is to be lamented that these are still)

cessible to all who are unacquainted with the Russian
la nguage.
- ‘The next important expedition after the Russian
on 1e was that of Captain Weddell, during the years
322-24, whose observations Dr. Neumayer considers
fectly trustworthy and very valuable, notwithstanding
aspersions of a subsequent explorer, Dumont d’Ur-
V ville, whose own expedition was resultless. Weddell’s
labours embrace valuable materials on currents, the varia-
‘tion of the compasses, and nautical and meteorological
‘matters. What is of great interest, is his voyage to a
high south latitude in January and February 1823. With
hh is tio little vessels, the ¥aze, of 160 tons, and the Beau-
Foy, of 65 tons, he made his way from the South Orkneys
between great masses of ice, and reached, on the 2oth
February, in 33° 20’ W. long., to 74°15 S. lat., the highest
vhich had hitherto been attained, He found the sea here
‘so free from ice, that he named it “ George IV. Sea,” and
expressed his belief that it would be an easy matter to
approach much nearer to the South Pole. Having con-
-vinced himself that no land of any importance existed in
this direction, he turned northwards.
In 1829 Captain Henry Foster was sent out by the
British Government for the purpose of making observa-
tions on the physical geography of these regions. He
fixed his quarters at Pendulum Bay, on the island of De-
‘ception, whose east end was fixed by Weddell at 63° 2’ S.
‘Tat., and 60° 45’ W. long. Foster stayed here from Jan. 10 to
“March 6, and carried on a series of valuable hydrographi-
cal observations. Among other things he determined the
length of the simple seconds pendulum. Before his de-
parture he fixed in an exposed position a self-registering
‘maximum and minimum thermometer, which in the
“year 1842 was found by Captain Smiles, who found the
minimum temperature during 13 years to have been —20°5°
Cent. Unfortunately the index of the maximum ther-
“mometer had got out of order and could not be read.
- Captain Biscoe, with two small ships, the 7/a and the
Lively, went out in the year 1830. The highest latitude
reached by him was 68° 51’ S., under 12° 22’ E.long. On
the 16th of March, 1831, he found Enderby’s Land, and
on February 15, 1832, he discovered Adelaide Island, one
‘of a series which runs in a westerly direction, each of
which bears the name of its discoverer. Behind these
towers to a considerable height the stretch of land now
known as Graham’s Land. From the observations of
Biscoe and others, we learn that beyond the 6oth parallel
of latitude east winds prevail. The results of this expe-
dition were of high importance ; but notwithstanding that
“some maintain Graham’s Land and Alexander Land to
have no connection, Dr. Neumayer believes this still
remains an open question.
* The discoveries of Biscoe to the south of the Indian
Ocean were to some extent confirmed by Kemp, who, in
the end of 1833, in 60° E. long, and just inside the Polar
‘circle, discovered the land known by his name. The
‘insular condition of this as well as of Enderby’s Land
“might be held as established, if any dependence could be
placed upon the statements of Morrgll, an American
voyager of 1823; in him, however, Dr. Neumayer puts
- little faith.
The Messrs. Enderby of London, in the year 1838,
fi tted out two little ships, the #//za Scott and the cutter

Tk TURE

23

Sabrina, the command of which they gave to Captain
Balleny. The scene of Balleny’s discoveries was the
waters south of New Zealand, a quarter hitherto but little
explored. On February 9, 1839, he discovered three
islands, the centre one being in 66° 44’ S. lat., and 163° 11’
E. long. He did not manage to make his way farther
south than 69° in 172° 11’ E. long. During the month of
February, he sailed westwards on the 65th parallel, and
on the 3rd March, in 118° 30’ E. long. and 65° 25’ S. lat.,
he found what is now known as Sabrina Land. More
than once previous to this he believed he had seen signs
of land, but the dense fogs prevented him from verifying
his conjectures. In pursuing these discoveries in lower
latitudes, the two little ships suffered much from violent
storms, in one of which the Sadrina was lost with all
hands.
(To be continued.)

BELGIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ASTRONOMY

Tableau de VAstronomie dans Vhémisphére austral et
dans V Inde.—De 0 Astronomie dans 0 Académie Royale
de Beleique, Rapport séculaire (1772—1872). Par Ed,
Mailly. (Bruxelles, F.Hayez, 1872.)

fete publications by the same author lie before us,
each meriting a separate notice. Of the first—an
extract from the Mémoires de Académie Royale de
Belgigue,—it is difficult to speak more highly in many
respects than it deserves. Learned and full as to its
matter, clear and perspicuous in style, it tells in a very
pleasant as well as instructive manner the story of southern
astronomy. A good deal of misapprehension, we believe,
exists as to the beauty of that part of the heavens which
is for everhid from European eyes. The Southern Cross
seems to be more remarkable for its associations than its
grandeur ; and Canopus, the only gem of extraordinary
brilliancy which never rises here, is yet outshone by our
familiar Dog-star. Some parts indeed of the southern
Galaxy are extremely luminous; and this may well be
admitted without subscribing to the assertion of a some-
what flighty Hellenic observer, that around the bow of
Sagittarius it gives light enough to read the smallest
print! and the marvellous variable 7 Argus, ranging
from rivalry with Sirius down to the edge of invisibility
without a telescope, is an object of interest for which, in
its own way, we might seek a parallel invain. But onthe
whole we may well feel that there is nothing in the hidden
region to compensate a voyage to gaze upon it. Nor
indeed is that region as extensive as, without reflection,
might be supposed. The part of the sky which never
rises being equal to that which never sets, its radius is the
distance of the pole from the N. horizon; and mere
inspection will Show that this is no preponderating portion
of the whole, if to the visible hemisphere we add all thit
part, which, though beneath the horizon at any one time,
will successively come into view at other hours of day and
night. All this is of course perfectly obvious to any
student of astronomy; but we mention it because the
idea is perhaps not often realised, how little, comparatively,
of the sky we lose in our latitudes, and that little not of
the most interesting character.
If, however, we exchangethe naked eye for the telescope,

‘we shall to some extent reverse our opinion. For our visible
heavens contain no equivalent to a Centauri, the finest as

well as the nearest of connected pairs ; or to such superb
agzlomerations of stars as 47 Toucani with its ruddy heart
and white border, or » Centauri, staring like a comet even

“to the naked eye; or all the richness of manifold combi-

nations in the Nubecula Major. Such are the regions
whose investigation by successive explorers has been so
well delineated in the pages before us. We have sketches
by a master’s hand of many an earnest labourer whose best
years were devoted to the undertaking. Among the rest we
recognise the youthful Halley, who commenced at the early
age of twenty the first regular telescopic survey of these un-
familiar regions, experiencing, in consequence probably of
his youth, the vexatious tyranny of some petty despot at
St. Helena, whose name, withheld by him, is not worth
digging up out of merited obscurity ;—Lacaille, the
diligent, the accurate, the honourable, who on his return
to France, out of 10,000 livres granted for his expenses,
notwithstanding his having exceeded his stipulated task,
insisted upon restoring the overplus of 855 to the
Treasury ;—Sir T. Brisbane, who had served under the
Iron Duke, in the Peninsula, and whose appointment to
the governorship of New South Wales led to acharacteristic
anecdote: Lord Bathurst having stated at head quarters
“qu'il avait besoin d’un homme pour gouverner la terre et
non les cieux,” and Brisbane having appealed to his old
commander as to whether his love of science had ever
interfered with his professional duties, the reply was,
‘Non, certainement, et je dirai que dans aucune circon-
stance vous ne ffites absent ni en retard, le matin, 4 midi,
ou pendant la nuit ; et qu’en sus, vous fournissiez le temps
a Parmée.”—Then we have the vicissitudes of honour and
contempt encountered by Dunlop, whose unintelligible
® Angosiades” (to borrow de Zach’s expression) at Para-
matta were more injurious to the progress of astronomy
than the blunders of the unlucky oid chevalier at Tarbes ;
—the unmerited troubles and vexations and mortal sick-
ness of poor Fallows, condemned to work with a bad
instrument, and abandoned without help till he found
his best assistant in his devoted wife ;—the brilliant

career of Henderson, the detector of the parallax of |

Sirius ;—the laborious attempts of Maclear to deduce the
solar distance from observations of Mars, whose fault it
certainly was not that the result was but partially satis-
factory ; and his more successful verification and correc-
tion of the meridian arc, not quite so accurately measured
by Lacaille a century before—all these are given in most
interesting recital, together with equally detailed notices
of many less generally known observers. We have also
a full record of a scientific expedition which has, perhaps,
attracted too little attention in England—that sent by
the United States to Chili; how Lieut. Gilliss erected
his observatory on the columnar rock of Santa Lucia, in
the middle of the town of Santiago, 176 feet above the
stre2t, where the stones could not be blasted for fear of
doing mischief below, and had to be split up by water
after being roasted with flame ; how the inhabitants came
up’at night by hundreds to see and gaze through the as-
tonishing aguina, and had their curiosity gratified by
the good-natured Americans, even to the sentry’s turn
last of all ; how the weather was almost too fine, drawing

so much upon their energies by the unremitting work of |

if

| 1772,

odical rains setting in none too soon, and Gilliss’s vital

was so dried up to the native standard of apathy, t
he required a month of horse exercise to set him rig
and how, with a staff so inadequate that they were obliged
to confine their work to a portion only of the southern
sky, 20,000 new stars were registered—a noble addition,
of which we have reason to hope for.the publicatioa at no
distant time, “
Such are a few only of the narratives with which
this admirable memoir abounds; and we only regret
that our cordial appreciation of its general excellence

is subject tosome few, though not material, drawbacks ~

in the way of omission. The graphic way in which minor
circumstances and incidents are interwoven in the rela
tion of less important undertakings makes us conscious
that the story of Sir J. Herschel’s memorable expedition
to the Cape has been told in a too compressed form,
and that details are comparatively absent which would
have furnished matter not only of interest but of instruc-
tion,

Edinburgh Review : it would, perhaps, be an unfair, but
it may not be an unnatural, inference that he had not had
an opportunity of fully mastering the magnificent record
of the Cape observations which astronomy owes to the

| liberality of the Duke of Northumberland. We miss, too,

the first outspoken challenge of the pseudo-planet Vulcan

uttered from a southern latitude, and justified by the ~

event—the retort, not over courteous, of Liais, “ L’obser-
vation du Dr. Lescarbault est fausse.”

opinions regarding its success. But we should be sorry

to appear even to detract from the merits of a memoir
which deserves, and will obtain, so high a rank among —

the materials for a general history of modern astronomy.
The second pamphlet is also extracted from the

“Livre commemoratif” of the same scientific body, and —

is a history of astronomy as connected with the Académie

Royale of Brussels, which has just reached the end of its —

first century. Its range is accordingly more limited, but

| the talent of its author has imparted a more than local —
The Academy, founded —
under the auspices of the Empress Maria Theresa in
experienced a total interruption through political —

value and interest to its contents.

troubles from 1794 to 1816. During its earlierffexistence -
it failed to awaken a scientific spirit in the Belgian pro-
vinces, and depended almost entirely upon the contribu-
tions of foreign talent, in which the conspicuous share

claimed by England is testified by the names of Need- —
A geodesical survey of Belgium —

ham, Pigott, and Mann.
being greatly needed, and the terms of some foreign as-
tronomer being found exorbitant, application was made
to Pigott, who was passing through Brussels in 1772 on
his way-to Spa. He immediately gave up his intended
journey, and applied himself to the undertaking with a
generous and disinterested earnestness which ought never
to fall into oblivion. For five months, accompanied by
his son, Mr, Needham, and his servants, he carried on

the survey at his own cost, and with his own instruments, —

sent for from his observatory at Frampton House, near

1 ah.

The candour of the writer has led him to state
that much of his recital is based on an article in the

And we should —
have preferred fuller information respecting the design —
of the great Melbourne reflector, and the conflicting —

ridge, Glamorganshire. His enterprise met with
1 the reward he desired in the rectification of maps,
which some towns had been misplaced to an extent
ive, ten, or fifteen leagues, or even more! At this
period there was actually no observatory in Belgium.
_ The varied labours and scientific insight of the Abbé
Mann, a native of Yorkshire, who had turned Roman
Catholic, served in the Spanish army, and become Car-
thusian, require more than a passing notice. Though
Halley had previously traced an analogy between the tails
of comets, the aurora, and electrical emanations, Mann
might be considered in advance of his time in referring
these phenomena, with light, heat, and magnetism (as a
modification of electricity) to the same general principle,
elementary fire ; and his view, expressed in one striking
‘sentence, “Tout est analogue et harmonique dans la
‘nature universelle,” would still be considered as the an-
nunciation of an eternal truth. The imperfection of their
‘instruments misled these sagacious reasonersas to the iden-
tity of the Galaxy, stellar clusters, and nebulz properly so
called ; but restricting their too general hypothesis to this
latter class, the anticipation is sufficiently striking which
_ refers them to assemblages of primordial light or electric
fluid, the luminous material of which the sun and stars
are formed, And the words with which Mann commences
his speculations are an embodiment of wise and sound
thought: “ On peut bien penser qu’une bonne partie de ce
"que je vais dire ne sera que des conjectures ; mais quand
les conjectures sont fondées sur des observations et des
' expériences, et qu’elles donnent des explications naturelles
des phénoménes, elles ne doivent pas étre exclues de la
physique, si on ne veut fermer la porte aux découvertes,
‘qui ne viennent pour la plupart qu’a la suite de quelque
_ conjecture heureuse, confirmées peu a peu par de nouvelles
_ preuves, jusqu’a ce qu’elles parviennent au point d’une cer-
-titude entiére.”
_ The doubts with which the first discovery of the planet
Uranus was received are recorded among these: early
"memoirs ; they are well known—more so, probably, than

an anecdote which was communicated to the present
_ writer by a friend of the illustrious discoverer. When Sir
Joseph Banks, and other fellows of the Royal Society, had
- failed to find the new object, Herschel had a portable tube
constructed of silk, packed it up with his mirrors, and
gave the doubters the meeting on the roof of Somerset
‘House, where, the planet having been exhibited, Sir Joseph
took off his hat and made him a bow, the rest of the com-
pany following his example.
_ After the reconstruction of the Academy, a considerable
time (1816-1834) elapsed before it gave signs of activity ;
and the state of science in Belgium may be conjectured
from the fact that in 1823 the question was seriously pro-
posed by that learned body whether the law of nutation
was accurately understood, and, as well as the planetary
perturbations, could be shown to be in accordance with
_ the Newtonian theory. Two years afterwards, indeed,
they decreed a prize to the Double Star Observations of
Herschel and South. But even this was not done without
such a singular deformation of the latter’s name as must
_ have much moved his choleric temperament, when he
recognised himself (not, perhaps, immediately) as “un
_ Anglais nommé Sawt!” However, during this period a
_ master spirit was introduced among the members, To

25

the energy and perseverance of Quetelet, among obstacles
of no uncommon kind, was due the foundation of an
Observatory at Brussels, which received its instruments in
1834; and with the election of this astronomer at that
period to the office of perpetual secretary commenced the
era of scientific and intellectual progress in Belgium. We
have not space to enter at length upon the subsequent
history of the Academy ; but will only indicate a few points
of interest with which some of our readers may, perhaps,
not be familiar, Such are the following :—

The extension, by Baron Behr, of the very curious rela-
tion between the periodic times of the four innermost
satellites of Saturn to the other members of the system,
the revolution of Hyperion being quintuple that of Titan,
The continuance of the alternate recurrence (1, 3; 2, 4;
5,73 9, 8), with a break in the order and value of the
relation, will be noted, as well as the probability that
either the apparent vacancy between Rhea and Titan is a
real one, or must contain ¢wo undiscovered satellites,
The periods of the satellites of Jupiter are known to be
only approximately commensurable ; but the Baron has
found that the revolution of the fourth equals twice that of
the third plus 4 of the difference between those of the
second and first. Then we have Capocci’s idea, in 1850,
of a parabolic mirror formed by the rotation of a vessel
of mercury, and utilised for a telescope by a large “ flat,”
with Krecke’s suggestion that a mass of melted metal
might thus be cooled into a permanent paraboloid; a
notice of M. Neyt’s (of Ghent) great success in lunar
photography with a silvered mirror of 9} inches; of de-
lineations of Mars executed in 1864, 1867, and 1871, by
Dr. F. Terby (from whom, by the way, we are expecting
a valuable monograph of this planet) ; and of a catalogue,
now in progress, of 10,000 stars. Besides these, there is
much valuable information relative to meteors, zodiacal
light, tides, geodesy, and similar subjects ; and the im-
pression of activity and progress conveyed by Dr. Mailly’s
excellent memoir is full at once of promise and pleasure,
We sincerely thank him for his labours, and wish him and
the Society of which he is so able an historian all possible
SUCCESS. T. W. W.

OUR BOOK SHELF

First Principles of Human Physiology, &c. By W..T.
Pilter, certificated Teacher of the Science and Art
Department. (London: Kempster, 1872.)

AMONG the least questionable services of the South Ken-
sington establishment are the classes which have been
held, under the superintendence of Prof. Huxley, and the
personal guidance of three of our best physiologists, for
instructing school-teachers in the elements of anatomy and
physiology. The present hand-book may be taken as one
result of these classes, and is interesting as an exhibition
of what physiology looks like from what may be called
the lay point of view.

The arrangement followed is that of Prof. Huxley in his
admirable “ Elementary Lessons,” of which in fact this
little book is a kind of diluted abridgement. Few readers
will be sorry to miss the comparison of the three Czsars,
with the quotation from Hamlet, and the famous story of
Mrs. A.; but even in his weakest moments the master
quotes Shakespeare, while the pupil introduces embellish-
ments without alleviation.

It is only fair to say that the author writes clearly, and
apparently has an intelligent understanding of the facts of

c ae at oe Oe ae ane ee ON ie, es .
i meee. Tes cy Re Nitta HS ‘Sir ye
: 7S Pe ee Cw ge Rea: Ae ee
26 ’ NATURE - —— [Noo. 14, 1872

physiology himself as far as he goes. Occasionally he
gives a useful illustration or a detailed explanation which
is not to be found in the Elementary Lessons, and there
are not many bad blunders. The account of a cell at p. 14
is obsolete, though too often found in the minds of
compilers of manuals and of examiners. Arteries are not
lined with mucous membrane. The account of long and
short sight is inexact. The corpora guadrigemina can
be seen without removing the cerebellum, and do not con-
sist of the olfactory and optic lobes, On the other hand
the “fold of nervous system on the arteries” is a very
happy expression, and the plasma of the blood exuding
through the capillaries is well compared to “a stream lost
in the sand.” The experimental illustrations at the end
of the chapters are good, and it would have been well if
this part of the plan had been more fully carried out,
together with some practical hints as to dissection and
microscopic observation. Unless these practical studies
are undertaken, the study of physiology is a mere cram-
ming of statements, and is quite unworthy of a place in
any scheme of education. If it is to be generally taught,
the most important thing is to show teachers how they
must set about it, and for this purpose directions can
scarcely be too minute.

The questions in the appendix are excellent, though it
was a pity to give only one specimen of an examination
paper. They of course presuppose dissection of a sheep’s
head and viscera, and acquaintance with some simple
physiological experiments. The woodcuts are very rough,
but most of them answer their purpose.

On the whole it is not likely that any shorter or simpler
manual than Huxley’s “ Lessons” can be written, that will
be of use for the serious study of the elements of physi-
ology by those who do not intend to go further. It would
cost much more time and trouble to go through it than
through the “popular” substitutes of which this is an
example, but, for that very reason among others, the
result would be far more valuable. E.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself vesponsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Our National Herbarium

Tr is with as much pain as surprise that I notice in your im-
pression of last Thursday a most unfair as well as ungenerous
attack upon the botanical establishment at Kew under Dr.
Hooker. it is not within my province to discuss the inaccura-
cies upon which the insinuations of bad cultivation are founded,
nor yet the extraordinary statement that the herbarium which
the constant experience of a long life has proved to me to be an
indispensable adjunct for the efficient working of a national bo-
tanical garden—that this ‘‘collection of dead plants,” as your
correspondent contemptuously terms it—has interfered with the
proper care of the garden. There is, however, one of the facts
mentioned which my long and intimate acquaintance with the
herbarium of the British Museum and its successive keepers, Mr.
Brown and Mr, Bennett, calls upon me to deny.

Foremost amongst the ‘‘examples of scientific work at the
London Herbarium” is given the ‘‘ Prodromus Flore Nova Hol-
landic:,” That great work, which at once placed Robert Brown
at the head of the botanists of the age, was published in 1810,
many years before the so-called “London Herbarium” was in
existence.

I would add that the second of the works named as an ex-
ample of scientific work at the London Herbarium was published
in 1818, two years before the death of Sir Joseph Banks, the
subsequent transference of whose herbarium formed the nucleus
of the “ London” or ‘* Metropolitan Herbarium.”

Nov. 11 GEORGE

BENTHAM

PERMIT me to correct some errors of detail into which Dr.
Hooker has fallen in his reply to Prof, Owen, printed in a recent
number of NATURE.

1. Prof. Owen has no official relation to the Botanical Depart-

ment, and, consequently, is not acquainted with the particular —
arrangements between the Trustees and the officers of thatde
partment. an
2. This department is open in summer from 9 to 6, and in
winter from 9 to 4. oem
3. The officers are required to be in attendance for six hours —
daily, but as this does not include an hour for dinner, the official —
hours are the same as at Kew, . :
$ WM. CARRUTHERS, ;
: Keeper of the Botanical Department
British Museum, Nov. 4 ;

The Beginnings of Life

ON reading a review of my recently-published work, “The
Beginnings of Life,” in the last number of the Academy, written
by Mr. H. N. Moseley, I could uot help feeling considerable
surprise at many of the statements which it contained. That —
such apparent ignorance of the facts should have been shown,
and that such an inadequate statement of the case should have
been made by a distinguished pupil of Prof, Rolleston,I was —
not prepared to expect. My first resolution was to pay as little
attention to the statements of the reviewer as they seemed to de- _
serve. It has, however, been strongly represented to me by
friends whose opinion I value that some of the statements ought —
not to be allowed to pass without comment or contradiction. (

Referring for a moment to the reviewer’s opinion that known
facts seem to warrant the notion that organic matter can only be —
formed “ by a series of gradations brought about by a succession
of complex conditions” (the process referred to in my work at —
vol. i. p. 94), I may remark that many facts bearing against this —
being the only possible mode of formation of organic matter are -
stated in vol, li, pp. 27-33, and 36. Protoplasm (existing as
Bacteria) is capable of growing indefinitely in a solution of —
ammonic tartrate ; and, to say the least, we at present know —
nothing concerning the existence of any long series of intermediate
conditions between the ingredients of the saline solution and the
protoplasm which rapidly grows therein. As I have said (vol. ii, —
p. 28), ‘The most simple not-living or mineral constituents
coming into relation with one another in the presence of pre-
existing protoplasm, appear, for aught we know to the contrary,
to fall at once into those subtle combinations which constitute the -
basis of living protoplasm, The rapidity of the process mocks
and defies all theoretical explanation. Bete at all events there
seems to be no laborious process of synthesis—no long
chain of substitution compounds before the final product
is evolved.” It has been commonly assumed that the pro-
cess of ‘‘ origination” is intrinsically different from the process
of ‘ growth,” so far as living matter is concerned. One of the
principal objects of my investigation, however, was to endeavour
to ascertain whether this assumption was warranted by the facts.
If experimental evidence seemed to show that an independent —
elemental origin of living matter was possible, we should have
a very! fair right to assume that the process of “ origination”
was not much more gradual or protracted than the process of
“ growth.” i

Turning now to the question of the nature of the evidence
concerning the origin of living matter, it appears that the re« —
viewer is content to admit what I have so frequently stated,
(NaTuRE, No. 35, p. 171, and No. 47, p.412; “‘ModesofOrigin
of Lowest Organisms,” p. 32), viz. that Bacteria develop in ~
solutions, or parts of solutions, in which no particles can be —
observed with the microscope. It is true that the reviewer even
says nothing about my having ascertained such a fact ; he assents
to it (notwithstanding the objections previously urged by Prof. —
Huxley), apparently because my friend and colleague, Dr. Burdon
Sanderson, has since been compelled to come to a similar con- —
clusion (Zhirteenth Report of the Med. Off. of Privy Council),
Bacteria appearing in such a manner in a solution, must —
either be the developed representatives of invisible germs thrown
off from some pre-existing form of life, or they must be deyeloped —
representatives of invisible germs on nuclei which had been
engendered de novo (vol. i. p. 297). Experimental evidence
alone can enable us tojdecide whether the latter of these equally
legitimate though rival hypotheses is atall tenable. Fortunately, —
however, the experiments to which we are compelled to resort
may be of the simplest description (vol. i. pp. 311, 337, and —
350). Suitable fluids require to be boiled fora time in a glass —
vessel, the neck of which, if not many times bent or plugged
with cotton wool, must be hermetically sealed in the flame of
the blowpipe before the process of ebullition has entirely ceased,

admitted now on all hands,” the reviewer says, ‘‘ that
nged ex to the action of boiling water destroys all
in solutions ; hence, if undoubtedly living things be found in
ions treated as above, from which have certainly been
scluded, the only possible explanation of the phenomena is that
fhe living things have been evolved de novo.” The reviewer
then states that Pasteur, Lister and others had tried such experi-
ments with a number of solutions capable of supporting life, and
found ‘‘ that no living things whatever developed themselves.”
sequently he states that Dr. Sanderson had also repeated such
experiments with similarly negativeresults, Strangely enough how-
er, the reviewer saysnothing concerning certain other experiments
made by M. Pasteur, (see vol. i. pp. 340,3 74—399), in which,
using different and more suitable fluids, living organisms were
ost invariably found in his experimental flasks ; and as he is
similarly silent concerning the multitudes of such experiments,
with similar results which have been made by Needham, Spal-
Ja ni, and Schwann, by MM. Pouchet, Joly, and Mussett, by
Professors Mantegazza, Jeffries Wyman, Cantoni, Hughes Ben-
nett, and many other experimenters, one is forced to conclude
er that the reviewer is ignorant of the whole history of the
ject and has not even read the book which he affects to

out explanation, is not quite easy to understand.

Without, however, exhibiting any consciousness of having
made material omissions in the statement of his case, the re-
viewer then proceeds to demolish and explain away the results
‘of my own experiments, as though they alone stood in the breach.
‘The process is summary, if not very original. Taking up the
iew previously expressed by a distinguished biologist, he ad-
“mits that ‘‘ the only possible answer” to the results which I ob-
tained (short of coming to a conclusion similar to my own) is to
Suppose “‘ that the bodies seen in the solutions were not living,
‘but dead, and had been there all the time.” Seeing, however,
what an abundance of evidence in disproof of such a supposition
has been given in my work (See Series a, Exps. 2, 4, and 5 ;
es 0, Exps. 2,4; Exp. 6 (p, 443), Exps. ¢ 7, 7, %, 5, %,
ther with very many of the experiments recorded in AAjen-
c), Ican only conclude that these portions also have unfor-
unately escaped the notice of my reviewer, more especially as
he ventures to state'that ‘The only attempt made to determine
whether the organisms observed in the solutions were living or
not, was in the case of Exp. 4, vol. i. p. 368.” With regard to
the reviewer's further statement that ‘‘the turbidity or scum in
the solutions was not caused by a development of organisms,
aut by some coagulation or similar alteration in the fluid,” the
“suggestionis really almost too puerile to be worthy of serious
notice. If freshly-filtered infusions of hay or turnip are pre-
‘pared in the manner above described; if they remain clear for
a time after they have been boiled ; if, in a few days, they gradu-
lly become turbid, and if, on subsequent microscopical examina-
tion, it is found that the turbidity is in all cases due almost
‘solely to the presence of myriads of Bacteria, Vibriones, and
perhaps Leftothrix filaments (such as are figured in vol. i,
Fig. 24), one can only renew a query previously put :—‘‘ Can
dead organisms multiply in a closed flask to such an extent as to
make an originally clear fluid become quite turbid in the course
of two or three days?” (‘* Modes of Origin of Lowest Or-
Ganisms,” p. x.)

_ It may be well to remarkhere, also, that the truth of the general
doctrine as to the possibility of the independent origin of living
matter, is in no way essentially bound up with the results of my
experiments with saline solutions. For reasons fully detailed in
my work, I am stronglyinclined to believe that the bodies figured
by me as found in these more or less pure saline solutions had
been formed therein. Fortunately, however, even if I were
quite wrong in the interpretation of this portion of the evidence,
there would still remain a superabundance of it in favour of the
truth of the general position which I and many others support
concerning the origin of life.

Like others who have written on the same side of the question,
the reviewer in the Academy shows a strong tendency to accept
in an unconditional manner the experimental results and conclu-
ms of some favoured worker. Formerly Pasteur’s experiments
were much lauded, and the existence of atmospheric germs was
believed (as he himself put it) to have been ‘‘ mathematically
demonstrated.” Now, however, M. Pasteur is thrown over-
board ; for, as the reviewer tells us, “ Dr. Burdon Sanderson
recently shown that in the case of Bacteria this view can no
ger be maintained,” It is a source of much satisfaction to
‘me that Dr, Sanderson’s yery conclusive experiments should have

icise, or else that he has acted in a manner which, with-

27

forced him to come to this conclusion, because they were con-
firmatory of others made independently by myself (‘Modes of
Origin of Lowest Organisms,” pp.30and91), and published some-
what earlier. But if the causes of fermentation and putrefaction
are not derived from the air, it becomes obvious that they must
be contained in the fluids employed. These causes are, however,
by no means necessarily germs of Bacteria, as Dr. Sanderson’s
language would seem to imply.

It now happens that Dr. Sanderson’s experiments are con-
stantly quoted as though they were irreconcilable with my own.
This, however, is quite a misconception. In many respects, as
I have in part already shown, our conclusions have been similar,
Dr. Sanderson has, however, employed only a limited number
of different solutions, and these mostly of a kind not adapted for
demonstrating the independent origin of living matter. He ex-
pressly states that he was interested only in the behaviour of
certain fluids, and having found, as others had done, that there
was no reason to believe that living matter could arise in them
de novo, he was quite content : though with reference to an inde-
pendent origin of living matter he says, ‘‘It will be quite unne-
cessary either to deny or to assert its possibility under other and
different conditions.” It certainly is somewhat unfortunate that
Dr. Sanderson should not have been induced to carry his experi-
ments a little further, and ascertain what would have been the
result of similar methods of experimentation with other fluids
(See vol. ii, p. cl.)—with infusions of hay or turnip, for instance.
But unless he also is prepared to reject, as untrustworthy, all the
experiments with positive results obtained by Pasteur, Pouchet,
Wyman, Cantoni, myself and others, Dr. Sanderson should,
from his present standpoint, be a believer in the possibility of
the independent origin of living matter.

The reviewer deals with the third part of my work in a
very extraordinary and summary manner. He looks upon
it as a tissue of ‘‘absurd statements concerning heterogene-
sis,” and does not think it worth his while even to mention
the fact that more or less similar phenomena have been
seen by many excellent observers—by Turpin, Kiitzing,
Reissig, Harte, Gros, Pringsheim, Pineau, Carter, Nicolet,
Pouchet, Schaaffhausen, Braxton Hicks, and Trécul—and that
the author whom he criticises, merely comes in as one capable
of supplying that confirmation which is commonly demanded
when we have to do with an order of facts not generally admitted.
The actual observations of all these independent investigators
are passed over and ignored, apparently because Mr. Moseley
is not able to undertand that phenomena which widen the
range of our experience are not necessarily “opposed to
all the accepted facts and theories of biological science.” He
does, however, criticise in a very characteristic manner one particu-
lar set of observations of my own of a startling nature, in which
the development of Free Nematoids, belonging to the genus Dif-
Jogaster, was seen taking place from a number of the altered
spores of a fresh-water alga named Vaucheria. After the reviewer
has done a little work at the subject himself, he will
doubtless become thoroughly convinced that the “ crucial obser-
vations ” to which he refers do unfortunately ‘‘lie outside the pro-
vince of heterogeny ” (see vol. ii. p. 37, note 1; and 519, note 1),
He seeks to set aside my conclusions by suggesting a series
of possibilities which are so -little recondite that they might,
even by an ordinary use of the imagination, fairly be con-
sidered to have been duly weighed by the observer himself.
Whilst the reviewer is also not ingenuous enough to confess that
I should in all probability be thoroughly familiar with the appear-
ance of Free Nematoids and their eggs, he, without the least hesi-
tation, again suggests an explanation whose only warrant seems to
exist in the supposed necessity for upsetting my statements. I can
assure Mr. Moseley, however, that after having worked for more
than three years at the subject of the distribution and anatomy of
Nematoids (Trans. of Linn. Soc, vol. xxv., 1865, p. 73; Philo-
soph, Trans. 1866, p. 545). I have never seen anything in
support of his altogether gratuitous supposition that “* conside-
rable variation in size may exist in the ova produced under vari-
ous conditions by individuals of the same species. ” :

H. CHARLTON BASTIAN

University College, Nov. 9

Physics for Medical Students

Your correspondents on this subject in the last number of
NATURE entirely agree with me that ‘‘a medical man should
have some knowledge of natural philosophy and its applications
to the conditions with which he has to deal ;” but there are one

or two points on which they seem to have misunderstood me.
As one of the examiners who set the question challenged by Mr,
Heath, I defended it, and pointed out that it bore a very close
relation to medical science, besides showing, by the simplicity of
the solution, that it was one of the mildest questions which could
be set.

If my friend Dr. Beale will refer to my former letter, he will
see that I nowhere regard the production and waste of heat in
the body as one of the mildest of questions.

I ask whether a medical student should not know something
of such important matters, and wish to imply that, in order to
know, he must acquire some knowledge of the simplest prin-
ciples of heat. He is not likely to acquire these unless
they form a part of the preliminary training of medicai
students. I presume Dr. Beale will admit that just so far as
man can be regarded as a molecular body, capable of absorbing
or radiating heat, to the same extent must the laws of molecules
apply to him ; for his position is untenable that medical men
need a knowledge of Physics, if the laws of Physics do not apply.
His remarks on materialism are not warranted by anything in
my letter, and do not apply tome. I will not attempt to answer
in these pages the general questions proposed by Dr. Beale, on
the heat-giving properties of food, or on the waste of heat from
the body, nor to describe the methods by which researches on
them have been or may be carried out, It is well known, anda
medical man who wishes to be stamped with a medical degree
ought to know, how much heat a given quantity of food is capa-
ble of producing, and also that this amount of heat is exactly
equivalent to a certain definite amount of energy: the form in
which this energy will show itself in the human body in all the
different stages of growth and decay, both in health and disease,
is essentially a question for medical men to study,

Physical Laboratory, King’s College W. G, ADAMS

Diathermacy of Flame

WILL you be so good as to allow me to draw the attention of
your correspondent, Mr. W. Mattieu Williams, to what appears
to be an oversight in his letter on ‘* The Diathermacy of Flame,”
published in your number of Oct, 17 last. Near the bottom
of col. 1, page 506, he says, ‘‘My flames were thus main-
tained at a constant mean distance from the thermometer ;”
and, farther on, ‘‘ Here, then, is a serlous discrepancy. I
get an increase of 4° by the first addition of two flames,
and by eight such additional pairs obtain an increase of 34° in-
stead of the 32° due to theoretical diathermacy,” &c. The
explanation of the discrepancy seems to be that the radiant heat
from a flame, like that from any other body, varies as the inverse
square of the distance, and therefore the total effect is propor-

(Hoa ea eae ee es &c., not BS ee Meee os &e.,

ms a” a”, a'’ ad a’ ad
where d, d", &c., are the distances of the flames from the
thermometer ; in which latter case the order of lighting the jets
would answer the desired object.

Without going further into the subject, I would also draw
attention to the desirability of keeping the gas at constant pres-
sure, in order that the flames may be always of the same size and
shape. It does not appear to be sufficient merely to record the
quantity of gas consumed.

The Castle, Parsonstown, Nov. 5 RossE

The Corona Line

Ir is rather absurd, as Capt. Herschel says, for an American
to carry on a discussion with a resident of India through a London
periodical ; but there are one or two points in his letter of July
29th which I should like to notice.

In the first place, let me acknowledge my mistake as to the
original proposer of a chart of the spectrum based upon a scale of
inverse wave-lengths ; the error arose in the manner Capt. H.
supposes. Let me add also my profound satisfaction—shared, I
am sure, by all who work with the microscope—on learning, a
few months ago, that such a chart is in preparation, and that
under the charge of a committee of the British Association.

Next, as tothe question, ‘f What guarantee was there that
No. 31 of the Preliminary Catalogue was the ‘coronal line,’
anterior to the Dodabetta measurements ?”

In 1869 the case stood thus, so far at least as my own observa-
tions are concerned:—In July I had found (not discovered, for

3g

(Woo. 14, 1872

2 r
Mr. Lockyer had anticipated me, although I did not kno
until October) that the 1474 dark line was generally reversed
the spectrum of the chromosphere. I had been led to exan
this part of the spectrum with especial care by the report of gre
lines seen by Pogson and Rayet during the eclipse of 1868.
On the forenoon of the day of the eclipse of 1869 (Augu:
this line was distinctly reversed at several points on the sun’s
limb, and with my instrament nogother bright line could be seen
near it. When, therefore, in the afternoon during the eclipse, I
saw in that part of the spectrum a strong, solitary bright line, I
considered myself warranted in identifying it with my old acquaint-
ance, 1474, particularly as the measurements of Prof. Har
with a one-prism instrument, accorded as well as coul
expected, *
In 1870 the matter was examined more critically. A
minutes before totality, the 1474 line being already distinctly
and even conspicuously, reversed, the cross wires of the spectro
scope micrometer were carefully adjusted upon it, and as soon as
totality began the corona all around the sun was thoroughly
plored without disturbing the micrometer setting. The bright
line remained entirely unchanged in position under the who
dispersive power of thirteen prisms, very bright near the moon’s
limb, but fading to imperceptibility at a distance of from 10
to 20’. ‘
It seems to me, therefore, that the Dodabetta measurements
must be regarded as merely confiming what was before full
ascertained. Of course it was highly desirable that the fact
should not be allowed to rest upon the testimony of any one
observer. q
Then as to another point—the puzzling coincidence between
the coronal line and a line in the spectrum of iron. s
The absence of hundieds of other and more important iron
lines from the coronal spectrum, and the difficulty of supposing
the vapour density of this metal less than that of hydrogen,
of otherwise accounting for its presence in such quantities in the
upper portions of the solar atmosphere, made it from the f
highly improbable that this line could be due to iron. Now
think I can add another fact pointing in the same direction
During the past summer, observing at an altitude of more than
8,oooft., I have repeatedly witnessed solar disturbances by
which the b’s, the E lines, and the double iron line 1463 K
(all in the same field with 1474) were considerably displaced and
distorted, while 1474, and some other lines of unknown origin
near it, were not in the least affected. I think therefore I may
say that 1474 does not usually sympathise with the lines of the
iron spectrum, and this adds to the probability that it is of
different origin. ig
But, on the other hand, so close is the coincidence, that the
more I examine the matter, the harder it is to suppose that we
have to do with a mere accidental juxtaposition. For one 1 am
very anxious to hear whether the new and unequalled instruments
of Dr. Huggins throw any further light upon the subject, and 1
should be very glad to hear that they show the non-coincidence
of the bright and dark 1474’s, because it would greatly simplify
the problems, but I cannot say that I expect such news. e
Now if the coincidence is absolute, there must be some reason
for it ; either the coronal matter exists in terrestrial iron as an
impurity, or the two substances have in their molecular consti-
tution some similar dimension, some common parameter, which
accounts for this identical vibration-period ; for I take it even an
absolute coincidence between the lines of two spectra entirely
independent in their origin is infinitely impossible—I mean of
course coincidence determined to be such by a spectroscope of
infinite dispersive power. ee
As to the numerous coincidences observable upon the charts
of Kirchhoff and Angstrém, between the lines of iron, titanium,
and calcium, it seems most likely that they originate in the
slight impurity of the metals used by the experimenters. Cer.
tainly the matter merits most careful investigation, for if this is
not the case a road would seem to be opened by which we may
hope ultimately to penetrate many ot thesecrets of metallic
molecules. C. A. YouNG
Dartmouth College, U.S.A. Oct, 10 ‘

Ww
-

Brilliant Meteors
ON Sunday evening, (Nov. 3), at 5.30, a magnifi

‘*bolide” was observed at Glasgow, shooting athwart the sky.
It made its first appearance in the Constellation Auriga (about

10° to the left of Capella) ; from thence it glided slowly across
the sky, shining with a brilliant gveez light, and exhibiting a pear-
shaped disc of one-third of the apparent diameter of the full
“moon. When it had arrived at the middle of its path (being
almost due north), its velocity abated, and its colour changed to
_ a whitish-dlue. The meteor, accompanied by a diminutive red
_ tail, and followed by a train of sparks, then regained its original
velocity, and gradually approaching the horizon, eventually
disappeared behind a cloud lying parallel, and close to the
horizon in the N.N.W. The whole time occupied during its
flight being 2°5”. In my letter reporting the auroral display of
_ Noy. to last year, I suggested the application of Photography to
_ the solution of auroral problems ; might I venture to ask if any
of your photographic correspondents have been able, during the
displays of this year, to prove the possibility of taking auroral
photos? I think the results would be interesting to most of your
readers. RoBERT McCLurE

Glasgow, Nov. 4

On Wednesday night the 6th November, whilst looking from
this place over the sea, directly west, a few minutes before ten
o'clock, I saw a meteor of large size subtending I should think
one-sixth the angular magnitude of the moon. It was accom-
_ panied by a short scintillating train, and moved slowly quite

parallel with the horizon directly north. Its elevation was about
15°, and its rate of motion I should think 14° per second. The
night was dark and somewhat cloudy, and the line described by
the meteor seemingly quite straight, - D, WINSTANLEY

Blackpool, Nov. 8

a

Day Aurora

WirTH respect to the ‘‘ Day Aurora” alleged to have been
_ seen by Secchi (see vol. vi.[p. 492) his description is not that ofan
_ aurora, especially as regards its position, which was far from
_ being at right angles to the magnetic meridian ; and as regards
_ the “fantastic rays (jets filamenteux)” whose ‘forms perfectly
_ resembled those of the solar protuberances,” they would therefore
__ be very unlike the rays of an aurora, T, W. BackHousE
- Sunderland, Oct. 30

ql
=

q
| JHE KATIPO OR VENOMOUS SPIDER OF
NEW ZEALAND

3 ipe OM the interesting “ Field Notes of a Naturalist in

i New Zealand,” which have been appearing in the

Field for some weeks, we extract the following description
of this hitherto little-known animal.

Among the invertebrata there is a venomous spider
known as the “katipo ;’ and, as this is almost the only
noxious inhabitant of the land, it may be interesting to

_ give some account of it, especially as there are some very
curious points in its natural history. The first scientific

_ notice of the existence of a poisonous spider in New
_ Zealand was furnished by Dr. Ralph, in a communication
- to the Linnean Society in 1856 (see Journal Proc. Lin.
Soc., vol. i., 1856, pp. 1, 2). Dr. Ralph’s paper contained

a short description of the full-grown spider, observations
on its nesting habits, and an account of experiments which

_ ke had made in order to test the potency of its venom.
_ The native name, katipo, signifies “‘ night stinger” (being
derived from two words, #akazz, to sting, and Zo, the
night), and, although more strictly applicable to the
venomous spider, it is often used to denote a wasp or
other stinging insect. The species has been described
and figured in the Transactions of the New Zealand
Institute (1870, vol. iii. pp. 56-59), under the name of
Latrodectus katipo, and is closely allied to, if not identical
with, one inhabiting Australia. The exact range of this
spider in New Zealand has not been accurately ascer-
tained ; but it appears to be rather local in its distribution,
while its habitat is’ strictly confined to the sand hills skirt-
ing the sea-shore, Along the coast from Wainui to

Bt

NATURE

1

29

Waikanae (on the north side of Cook’s Strait) it is ex-
cessively abundant. From Waikanae to Horowhenua it
is comparatively scarce ; but at the latter place, and fora
few miles farther north, it is said to be abundant. At
Manawatu, and thence along the coast for twenty or thirty
miles, it is very rare. At the mouth of the Wanganui
river, again, itis very abundant ; and a story is still current
among the natives of the district about a fishing party, all
of whom were bitten by this dreaded spider, and in two
cases with fatal results,

The writer then adduces several instances to prove
that the bite of the spider is occasionally fatal, and cer-
tainly very painful and distressing. But, he says, “Ihave
Satisfied myself that, in common with many other
venomous creatures, it only exerts its dreaded power as a
means of defence, or when greatly irritated; for I have
observed that on being touched with the finger it instantly
folds its legs, rolls over on its back, and simulates death,
remaining perfectly motionless till further molested, when
it attempts to escape, only using its fangs as the dernier
ressort |”

The cocoon or nest of the katipo is perfectly spherical
in shape, opaque, yellowish white, and composed of a
silky web of very fine texture. The eggs are of the size
of mustard seed, perfectly round, and of a transparent
purplish red. They are agglutinated together in the form
of a ball, and are placed in the centre of the cocoon, the
exterior surface of which is sometimes encrusted with sand.
The spider itself undergoes the following changes in its
Pont towards maturity :—In the very young state it

as its body white, with two linear series of connected
black spots, and an intermediate line of pale red; under
parts brown ; legs light brown, with black joints. In the
next stage, the fore part of the body is yellow, with two
black “ eye spots ;” sides black, with transverse marks of
yellowish white; dorsal stripe bright red, commencing
higher up than in the adult, and with the edges serrated.
At a more advanced age the stripe on the back is brighter,
with a narrow border of yellow, and the thorax and legs
are nearly black, In the fully adult condition, the female
of this spider is very handsome both in form and colour.
Examples differ considerably in size, the body, which is
almost spherical, varying in development from the size of
a pigeon-shot to that of a small green pea ; and in the
largest specimens the outspread legs, measuring across,
cover a space of only three-quarters of an inch ; thorax
and body shining, satiny black ; a stripe of bright orange-
red passes down the centre of the body, the edges being
tinged with yellow. At the anterior extremity this stripe
is broad and angular, and is surmounted by an open
narrow mark of white in the form of a nail head ; below
this, and immediately above the junction of the thorax,
there are two divergent spots of orpiment yellow, with
white edges ; legs’black, with the extremities inclining ‘to
brown. The male is considerably smaller, and has the
body shining blackish-brown, with an obscure narrow line
of yellow down the centre of the back, broader towards
the posterior extremity, and a similar interrupted line on
each side of the body.

The spider here described belongs to a genus which
contains several species in other parts of the world, also
reputed venomous. Walckenaér, writing of the Latrodec-
tus malmignatus, an allied species, common in Sardinia,
Corsica, and parts of Italy, remarks :—“ This spider is
certainly poisonous ; its bite causes, they say, in man
pain, lethargy, and sometimes fever ;” and Mr. Abbot, in
his account of Za¢rodectus in his “Georgian Spiders,”
states that its bite is “undoubtedly venomous.” It is
curious, also, as already noticed by Dr. Powell, that the
species of this genus,so widely distributed over the world
as to be found in Europe, America, Australia, and New
Zealand, should all agree in being black with red mark-
ings, for colour is of all characteristics the most variable,
and especially soin the case of spiders,

30

INSECT METAMORPHOSIS *

7BODY, whether learned or unlearned, is aware that
laser undergo changes in their shapes and habits. Great
numbers of popular works on natural history have made ee
description of these changes or metamorphoses familiar her
public ; and Newport, Duges, Heroldt, Fabre, and those eo
entomologists and naturalists whose names are household words
amongst us, have informed the scientific world upon the ana-
tomical and minute changes of structure which accompany ae
wonderful varieties in form and in method of life. The array ©
facts is enormous, and yet, with all this vast amount of fae
knowledge to build upon, very little progress has been made
towards recognising the cause and meaning of metamorphosis ie
biology—in the science of life. The facts and details of the sub-

ject have been accumulating, but the nature of its philosophy |

has been studied by very few naturalists, and il is only of late

years that Lubbock and Fritz Miiller, and a few others, have |

been stimulated by the light of the theory of evolution to ex-

NATURE

[Wov. 14, 1872

ine into it. Believing that the subject is increasing in interest,

| cal hee its peieteratien bears upon some of the most im-
portant theories respecting life, it is proposed to devote this lec-
ture to a description of the different kinds of metamorphoses in
insects, and to a consideration of the biological meaning of the
Bie ue eel to your recollection two instances of what
may be called perfect and complete metamorphoses. When
the tenderest cabbages are growing in the early summer, a
number of very small caterpillars or larve may be seen upon
the plants, devouring them in a regular and systematic =e
Avoiding the leaf-veins as indigestible, they nibble the juicy lea’ p
and consume daily more than their own weight. These pea
the gardener have small heads and ends, and the body is greenis|

and striped with yellow bands, being at the same time pen
At first very small in size, the caterpillars do not attract muc

attention, and especially, as after living for a few days, they pee
up out of the light, and look shrivelled and ill. Be pre
| time, the caterpillar in retreat bends its back violently, an

Fic, 1,—Metamorphosis

splits the skin of one of the rings or segments of the part nearest
the head, then a vigorous struggle enables the legs and the head
to be withdrawn through the crack, and the larva is noticed to
have attained a new skin within the old one. It crawls on to its
favourite plant and makes up for lost time, grows rapidly, and
really may be said to live to eat. It cares not for its fellows,
nor for any other leaves ; it is content with its own cabbage, and
has no ambition and no desire to quarrel or to move away.
During growth the powers of mastication and of digestion in-
crease, but they are checked several times by the larva having to
pass a period of quietude whilst a new skin is finished under the
old, and whilst this is cast off. These skin sheddings have a de-
finite relation to the increasing size of the insect, but they are
not simple changes of skin because the old one has become too
tight for its rapidly growing possessor. They accompany certain
important changes within the insect, and not only is the outside
skin shed, but the mucous membrane of the digestive organs

* A Lecture delivered before the British Association, 1872, by Prof.
Duncan, F.R.8.

of Tortoise-shell Butterfly,

and of the air tubes which enable the creature to breathe, suffer
also. They are really important elements in the metamorphosis,
which term includes the sum of the changes of shape, habit, and
instinct,

When full growth has been attained, the caterpillar crawls
from its cabbage and wanders restlessly about, even to con-
siderable distances, in search of a dry sheltered spot. After
having discovered such a locality, it fills up the space between
its hind legs with silk, and attaches this part of the body to the
wood or stone, as the case may be. The larva then hangs head
downwards, and forthwith begins to bend its head backwards,
upwards, and then from side to side, until, after a little practice,
it is enabled to touch the solid substance to which it is hanging
on either side of its body. Then some silk is secreted, and by
applying the mouth to the spots touched one after the other, a
fine sling of silk thread binds the insect down and prevents it
from being swayed to and fro by the wind. This is the last act
of the larva which shows any evidence of will. Then it begins
to look shrivelled, shorter than before, and broader behind the

= er “ : £ eee
nee a es ie 5 pe a Tie aa Eat ABs we a gt ME be BE
— ae = 7

Se ee

=~

and after a time the skin splits, and is shed with greater
less wriggling, A sticky, varnish-looking moisture covers the
different-looking thing which now presents itself, and dries
rapidly, and forms a case over the skin of the ‘‘ pupa ” beneath.
The alterations within and without the insect at this time, that is
to say, during three or four days after leaving the cabbage, are
rried out with great rapidity, and the future butterfly is well
shadowed at this period in the structure of the chrysalis or
ny Hanging as a chrysalis or pupa in a perfectly immobile
ondition, neither seeing, hearing, nor tasting, and losing very
little weight from the exhalation of its moisture, the insect lives
on for many months, and until spring has nearly ended. Then
the dark case splits, and a tender white butterfly crawls forth,
and, under the influence of warmth and the sun, becomes dry,

p
é
Ci

‘Fic. 2.—CEisophageal Epithelium.

stretches, and unfolds its crumpled-up wings, walks feebly upon
long legs, trails a short body, moves a curious flexible trunk in
front of its head, the result of the modification of its former jaws,
and takes to flight. The common white butterfly, whose solitary

_ flight is so zigzag and wandering, and whose flight in company is
so tumultuous, ascending and vibrating, lives for love, It has a
_ soul above cabbages, and rarely condescends even to sip or suck
_ the daintiest nectar from flowers. After a longer or shorter ex-
_ istence, it begins to lay eggs, and places them in the immediate

Fic 3.—Stomach Structure.

neighbourhood of the favourite food of the larva, which are
to come from them.
Another familiar example of perfect metamorphosis may be
studied in the instance of oneof the false wasps, Odynerus parielum.
_ This small wasp-like insect may be seen on the other side of the
Channel in great companies on lucern and clover when in full
flower. It is a solitary kind, and the male and female care
‘nothing for their companions, who rush and tumble over, in,
and about the flowers, sucking their sweetness, and squabbling

2

Fic. 4.—Pylorus.

and flying for the freshest corollas. Day after day this buzzing
busy crowd may be seen leading a life of happy enjoyment, feed-
ing, playing, and flirting ; but after a while an unusual excite-
ment is noticed amongst a large number of the insects. These
extend their flight beyond the favourite field, and seek the neigh-
bourhood of sandy clayey banks close by. They may be ob-
served digging their heads into the sand with great assiduity, and
pulling out sand grains, and gradually forming a hole, Each
wasp works independently of its neighbour. As soon as the hole

| out from the bank and opens into the tunnel.

>

31

is large enough to admit the wasp’s body, the legs remove, by a
process of brushing, the particles loosened by the jaws. After a
short time the wasp will be found to have made a tunnel, and the
constant out-pour of sand and clay indicates that excavation is.
still proceeding out of sight.

Soon the Odynerus perfects two or three chambers deep
in the bank and opening into the tunnel. She (for it is
the female who does the work) carefully pounds the insides
of the cavities and removes all roughness from them, and leaves
them as commodious hollows, water-tight, and not likely
to fallin. This is not all. On coming back into the light, the
wasp seizes cylindrical pieces of earth, and moulds them more or
less into shape with her jaws, and places them in front of each
other, and side by side, so as to form a hollow tube, which sticks
The free end of
this ante-chamber is left open, and the pieces of which the whole
is formed are gummed together and pressed. The tube is ex-

Fic. 5.—Stomach Structure of Pupa.

tremely fragile, and the pieces of it are not in contact everywhere,
Nevertheless, the Odynerus passes along it readily enough, but
no other insect of its size can do so. All this work is carried on
whilst the wasp appears to be in an intense state of excitement,
and when it is completed the insect flies off to the flowers again,
But not to return to its former habits. On the contrary, the
purposeless tumbling about of flowers, and the occasional sip of
nectar, are forgotten, and the flighty little vegetarian becomes a
ferocious and ardent huntress of prey. She seeks the small larvze
of a species of weevil which abounds about the plants, and seizing
one, digs her sting into it, so that a weak venom is introduced
close to the nervous system of the victim. The larva is paralysed

Fic. 6.—Stomach Structure of Imago.

at once, but not killed ; on the contrary, it remains motionless,
but lives. She then flies off with her prey to the bank, enters
the tubular ante-chamber, traverses the tunnel, and reaches one
of the chambers. Here she deposits her insensible victim, and
lays one egg close to it. Returning again to the field, she seizes
another larva, stings it, and carries it off to deposit it close to the
first. This procedure is repeated as many as thirty times, and
the chamber becomes full of insensible weevil larve and one
Odynerus egg. The other chambers are filled in the same man-
ner, and an egg is laid in each. Then the wasp comes out of the
tunnel for the last time, breaks down the tubular ante-chamber,
so as to hide the entrance to the tunnel and chambers, flies off,
and dies. She never sees her offspring, for which she, a vege-
tarian, has provided animal food in abundance, ,

:

32 . : NA TURE

The egg is soon hatched in each chamber, anda small, legless,

and extremely delicatelarva crawls forth, and seizesuponthe victim |

close to it. So tender is the Jarva that the least roughness of the
sides of the chamber would destroy it, and the least struggle on
the part of the poisoned weevil grubs would kill it; but all this
has been made safe, and the little thing eats into its living prey,
and when one is finished it attacks another, until all are eaten
up. This is the life of the larva, It is incapable of walking any
distance, and simply leads a life of gormandising on the flesh and
juices of weevil grubs, It never emerges from the chamber, and
when it has no more to eat, spins a cocoon of silk around itself,
and sleeps therein during the late autumn, the winter, and until
the spring, Then a change in form ensues, and a pupa, which
greatly resembles the perfect insect, appears under the skin
which is shed. In the course of a few weeks the perfect false
wasp escapes from the pupa skin, digs its way into the world,
and emerges to enjoy the destiny already described.

Many other false wasps which belong to the same group of
insects as this Odynerus have a somewhat corresponding life
cycle, and choose many curious kinds of prey, but the formation
of the safeguard of {the tubular ante-chamber places this kind in
advance of all others. It is then an example of very perfect
metamorphosis with high instinct, and, like in all other instances
of what is termed perfect metamorphosis, there is an intermediate
stage of a quiescent pupa between that of the larva and imago,
both of which are able to lead independent and distinct kinds of
lives, and to take food.

Considered as isolated examples, these two instances of
metamorphosis are perfectly inexplicable, except on the theory
that the successive changes—shape, structure, and habit—
were especially given to the species at their origin, by special
creation. When, however, the nature of the very different
metamorphoses of other insects, which closely resemble these
in structure, is examined into, this view does not give entire
satisfaction, and an uncomfortable feeling arises, that we with
finite understandings are tying down the operations and myste-
rious ways of Omnipotence to our own limited standard.

But before proceeding any further, it is necessary that the
nature of some of the structural alterations which occur during
metamorphosis should be stated. By so doing a distinction can
be appreciated between ordinary continuous growth or progres-
sive development, and the changes which occur during the per-
fect metamorphosis of an insect. Consider shortly the nature of
the change of outside form. A young larva of a butterfly or
moth has a head which is not separated by a neck from the long
body, and the whole is divided more or less distinctly into rings
or segments. The three segments next to the head form the
chest and support the true legs, and are succeeded by nine others
belonging to the body or abdomen, There are then thirteen in
all, The body segments are nearly equal, but the last is the
smallest, and it, together with some of the other rings, supports
what are termed false legs or claspers. They are continuations
of the skin, and do not exist in all larvz of butterflies and moths ;

and, although they are extremely useful in enabling the insect to
hold on and to crawl, they disappear in the pupa state with the
last skin-shedding. Thus there is the head segment, and three
chest segments, and nine body segments, and on the side of each
of these, excepting the head, is a point, which usually marks an
opening where air tubes or trachez enter the body to ramify over
the whole of the internal structures. When within the egg, and
before it was perfectly formed, the head of the larva consisted of
at least four separate pieces, but these united and coalesced in
one before birth. None were destroyed, but the edges of the
separate portions fused together. A corresponding fusion and
blending of certain of the chest and body segments occurs during
metamorphosis, and there is neither a destruction nor new crea-
tion of parts to produce the extraordinary difference between
the long body of a caterpillar, the short swathed figure of the
pupa, and the great chest and small abdomen of the butterfly.
The same anatomical elements are present, but they are more or
less modified,

The first skin sheddings of the caterpillar do not add
to or alter its segments, but the last skin shedding which
occurs during a period of immense internal change exposes the
pupa or chrysalis to view, and all the characteristics of the skin
of the larva are lost. On commencing this last skin shedding,
the chest segments, 2, 3, and 4 (Fig. 1) of the caterpillar, increase
in size, and the insect really soon begins to shorten. The small
Tortoise-shell butterfly larva is thus suspended, with its skin on,
for some ten or twenty hours before the chrysalis is revealed.

4 oe ee <

y. a * > eV x3
(Nov. 14, 187

During this time, the 2, 3, 4, and 5 segments become much en- |
larged and curved downwards by the action of the muscles of 7)
their under surface, which are repeatedly contracted and ex- |

panded slowly. The skin bursts, and the insect then exerts it- |
)
|

<
iy

self to the utmost to extend the fissure along the segments of
body, and gradually draws out its antennz, or feelers, and
weak but long legs, and immature“wings, all of which have been
maturing beneath the old skin, and are covered with an ex-
tremely delicate tissue. The false legs drop off with the old
skin, and the pupa hangs in this moist and curious condition for
a few minutes. Then it makes a few powerful efforts, and con- »
tracts and expands itself to the utmost by taking in air through
its air tubes and forcing it out again by bringing the segments
closer together. The result is to contract the body segments
along their under surface, and to diminish their length generally.
The front margin of one segment is drawn up within the hinder —
edge of the one in front, and especially in the case of the fifth and
sixth segments. ‘his contraction persists, and in the neighbour-
hood of the fifth is sufficient to initiate the small waist-like circular 7
division between the chest and the body, which becomes more dis-
tinct in the imago than in the pupa. Atrophy and shortening —
of the fifth and sixth segments occur ; and there are correspond- —
ing changes in the first and second segments, so as to commence
aneck. A gelatinous viscid fluid is secreted by the pupa, and it
covers all its delicate external skin, and by hardening aggluti- —
nates all beneath. After a while the true skin of the pupa, is
found separated by air from the dark pupa case outside, :
After the escape of the imago from the pupa case, if its wings be
removed, and its head, chest, and body be examined, thedistinction —
between the number of its segments and those of the full-grown —
larva will be readily appreciated. The nine body-rings of the —
caterpillar exist, but are much modified. The two terminal are
drawn up inside the body, and the first segment has joined itself —
to the last chest-piece. The shortening is very great, whilst the
enlargement of the rings which support the wings—namely, the —
third and fourth—with much consolidation and fusion of them,
does not compensate for it. As may be supposed, the shortening
of the internal organs must be extraordinary, and as a matter of —
fact the nervous cord is shortened, its ganglia are concentrated,
and the digestive apparatus is diminished in length in a remark-
able manner. q
The changes{in the digestive organs keep pace with those —
of the skin and general shape, and may be briefly described —
as follows:—When a caterpillar nips off a piece of a leaf
with its jaws, the morsel is passed into the gullet, which is a
short tube leading to the stomach. The gullet is composed of a —
mucous coat which is internal, and of a muscular covering which —
is external. The mucous coat consists of a delicate structure- —
less membrane, which is continuous with a corresponding tissue —
in the mouth in front and in the stomach behind. It is called —
the basement membrane, and that of the gullet is folded longways,
when it isempty. When the gullet is crammed with food, the
folds are obliterated and the membrane is stretched. All the in- —
side of this membrane is covered with a layer of delicate hex-
agonal cells, which are very small and thin, and consist of a plain —
cell wall and transparent fluid contents (Fig. 2). ‘They coverthe —
basement tissue like a pavement, and the morsel of food comes in —
contact with them, and they absorb and transmit any vegetable —
liquids which may escape from the cells of the leaf. Between
the hexagonal pavement cells here and there are oval depressions
filled with granular mucus. The basement tissue is slightly de-
pressed in these spots, and these crypts secrete a fluid whichacts
like the salivary glands of man upon starchy and sugary fluids.
Amongst the hexagonal cells are others which have their upper
surface produced into a short tooth-like projection, that fore-
shadows a remarkable structure in the perfect insect. Outside
the basement membrane is a single row of hoop-shaped muscular
fibres. They are broad and nucleated, but not striated. Each
fibre encircles the gullet, and tends, with the simultaneous con-
traction of its fellows, to diminish the calibre of the tube, and
to throw it into longitudinal folds, Their passive dilatation, on
the contrary, permits the gullet to become distended. They
haye, however, the peculiarity socommon in the circular muscular —
fibres of all animals, of contracting one after the other in series, —
and of dilating or expanding in the same rhythmical manner. The _
result of this progressive contraction is to force the contents of —
the gullet in the direction of the stomach. The alterations of
contraction and the expansion permit the layer of muscular fibres,
which is outside the circular set, and whose direction is longitu-
dinal, to pull up and shorten the canal, The long fibresare

ent of the gullet, and they are continued down the tube to the
_ stomach. They are closely packed, and are very distinct. When
the gullet is shortened by their contraction, any food in it is
brought nearer the opening into the stomach, and then it is forced
_ into that organ by the progressive contractions of the circular
fibres. The piece of leaf is lubricated by the granular mucus of
the crypts, and is squeezed by the contraction of the circular
fibres. Much of the contents of the cells of the leaf is thus set
_ free, and is absorbed by the mucous cells, and transmitted
through the basement tissue to the blood, which permeates all the
tissues more or less.
_. The stomach is large in comparison with the size of the
‘larva, is cylindrical in shape, and does not taper gradually
into the gullet in front and the intestine behind. The
calibre is many times greater than that of the rest of the digestive
_ canal. Like the gullet, a mucous layer, a basement membrane,
__and two sets of muscular fibres, enter into its composition. But
___ the mucous membrane differs in every particular, except in the
structureless basement membrane. The basement membrane is
_ densely covered internally by an aggregation of large cells of two
__ kinds, and the more activé the larva may be in its eating, the
__ more numerous and larger are these cells. One kind is elongate,
__ and narrow at the base, where there is ,an‘attachment to the mem-
brane, and rounded at the free end (Fig 3). They are thus more
or less club-shaped, and they are formed by a very delicate cell
wall, a nucleus and more or less granular, coloured, and liquid
_ cell contents. They are crowded together, and belong to what
is called columnar epithelium. They become less bulky,
_ thinner, and crooked, if the caterpillar is starved, and just before
the skin-sheddings also, Another kind is represented by large
globular cells, which are fewer in number compared to the others.
They are composed of a very delicate cell wall, of nuclei, and
liquid contents, and they burst in the ordinary process of diges-
tion, and appear to supply a gastric juice. The columnar cells,
on the contrary, absorb nutritious matters, and transmit them
_ through the basement tissue. These huge cells are very remark-
able, and all degenerate, and greater part are cast off during
skin-sheddings. A layer of circular or hoop-shaped muscular
fibres is found outside the basement membrane, and whilst those
of the fore part of the stomach are so closely applied to each

other, side by side, as to form a continuous circular muscular |

coat, those of the nether parts of the organ are wider apart, but
at the termination of the canal in the intestine they are again
concentrated, and not simply in one row, but in many, so as
to form a dense circular muscle or sphincter. The longitudinal
fibres are outside these, and are continuous in front with
those of the gullet, and they end in the tissue, which
connects the dense circular fibres of the sphincter together.
The large cells of the inner coat of the stomach are not found on
the basement membrane which covers the thick sphincter, and
they cease suddenly a short distance in front of it.

This part of the stomach is evidently in very constant and some-
what violent movement, for thejuse of thedensemassof circular fibres
is to compressand crush the food inits passageto the intestine ; con-
sequently, a cellular layer exists on the basement, which is suited
to bear pressure. The cells of this part resemble to a great ex-
tent those of the gullet ; theyare flat, hexagonal, and pavement-
like, but a great number of them have very decided tooth-like pro-
jections on their free surface (a, Fig.'4). | These projections occur

_ in numerous circular series, and they are sufficiently prominent to
wound a delicate vegetable cell passing over them, and submitting
to the pressure induced by the contraction of the circular fibres.
It is evident that if the muscular contraction be great, and the
cells of the leaf rather hard, these hexagonal tooth-bearers will
suffer from much and perhaps destructive compression.

But a very interesting structure is superadded to this part of the
digestive system in order to prevent such an accident to the deli-
cate mucous membrane. There is a layer of very large flattish
cells beneath the basement membrane and between it and the
circular fibres. Each of these cells (4) contains much fluid within
a very visible cell-bag, and thereare the usual nuclei. They are
notquitein opposition laterally, and they rest upon an expansion of
the muscular fibres, some granular fluid and nuclei intervening (c).
Their office is to act as cushions beneath the immediate seat of
pressure, and where the circular fibres are the strongest, there
they are best developed. This arrangement of, fibres, cushion

: cells, basement membrane, and delicate tooth-like projections, is

- continued to the extreme end of the stomach, There the circular

5 sphincter muscle exists, and the basement is folded more or less

"attached to a ring behind the mouth, and around the commence- |

Ongitudinally, so as ‘to admit of the calibre of the canal being
extended and contracted to the utmost. The cell teeth are found
here in angular series, and there is one circular row of large ones,
Microscopic examination of the dense mass of circular fibres re-
veals that the fibres are separate, stout, and that some of them
possess a structureless investing membrane (¢). The longitudinal
muscles of the stomach, which are extremely long and close to-
gether, end by forming one or even three processes, which are
united to the circular fibres, and the corresponding fibres of the
intestines take their origin in this sphincter. Many nerves and
air-tubes supply this part, which ends in an intestine of moderate
length, and which time will not permit me to consider.

These structures are all developed in exact relation with the gor-
mandising habits and the nature of the food of the cabbage-eating
larvae. The pieces of raw vegetable consist of cells with tolerably
stout walls, and these have to be broken into before any nutri-
tious matter can be let out to be digested, and the growth of the
insect is so rapid that the quantity of food swallowed and passed
along the stomach is very great.

This active stomach has periods of rest during the
skin-shedding, when the cells of its mucous coat “are cast
off and replaced’ by new ones. The day comes at last
when the caterpillar loses its love for cabbage and is to get
no more, and then, ere it hangs pendent before the alterations in
the size of the segments commence, changes may be noticed to haye
begun in the anatomy just described, changes which might take
place from disuse. The stomach is, comparatively speaking,
empty of food, the club-shaped cells are smaller and less round,
and the globular cells are broken up. The muscular fibres
appear thinner, wider apart, and more transparent. Immediately
after the agglutination of the outside of the pupa occurs, sensible
changes proceed in the digestive canal, and very rapidly. By
the fifth day the whole canal has become shorter, the gullet has
become thread-like’ and longer than in the caterpillar. The
stomach is not half the length or one-third of the breadth of its
former condition, and the intestine is longer than before. A
general atrophy of all the layers of muscular fibre exists, and the
dense muscular sphincter of the stomach with its peculiar fibres
has been absorbed and replaced by simple, separate, and delicate
circular muscles. The longitudinal fibres are wide apart, and
very transparent. The longitudinal folds of the gullet have dis-
appeared with the mucous crypts, and the basement membrane
is covered with a granular fluid, in which the remains of the old
hexagonal cells float. A mass of broken-down, club-shaped
globular cells occupies the small stomach, and a totally different
arrangement covers the basement. Cells packed closely together
here and there, and separated by lines of granules, indicate that
a new kind of mucous coat is being developed. ‘These cells
assume the hexagonal shape, are moderately tall, and contain a
few granules, and they extend over the place of the tootlied cells
at the sphincter, and join the cells of the intestine (Fig 5). The
toothed cells have disappeared, and the cushion cells of the region
of the sphincter also. All these structures are remarkably deli-
cate and difficult to manipulate, and it may be remembered that
they are not performing any function whatever.

When the imago escapes from its hard pupa case, and
when it has completed its metamorphoses, the digestive
canal presents further modifications, which are brought
about, however, during the imprisonment, The gullet is
longer, and has a sac-like crop projecting from it; the
stomach is narrower, and the intestine is longer. All the mus-
cular fibres are extremely delicate, and there are no new arrange-
ments of them. The basement membrane of the gullet is
developed on one side into a bag-shaped tissue, and the whole
of it is covered by extremely delicate cells, most of which have a
long hair-like process sticking up from them, which was fore-
shadowed by the tooth-like projection of the larva state. The
stomach cells have increased in height, and contain granules,
but they resemble those’of the pupa until the food is taken; then
the cells increase in size, and many are set free in a globular
form, and there is not a want of likeness between some of them
and those of the larva (Fig. 6). This long gullet, crop, and tubular
stomach, so flaccid from want of strong muscles, is admirably
adapted for the peculiar food of the perfect insect, The sugary
fluids of flowers require no crushing and rasping, and not much
digestion—so the hairs of the gullet-cells assist in the passage of
the syrup down the canal, and the gentle pressure of the delicate
muscles of the stomach suffices for its purpose.

To say the least, these are wonderful changes in the same
anatomical elements, and they indicate that metamorphosis in-

a

=>

de

eee Ta a ah abe"
Eire : a ON, yi : *

34
cludes modifications the result of disuse and alterations which
bear a prospective relation to the future wants of the altered
insect form,

It appears at first sight that this separation into different stages
of life is necessary for the insect, and that it must have a time
devoted to eating, digesting, and assimilating, a quiet condition
devoted to internal changes, and a stage where reproduction can
be carried on. But this generalisation fails when it is remem-
bered that some larvze eat and reproduce, and some imagos repro-
duce and lead bloodthirsty lives also. It is important to recog-
nise the distinction already hinted at. The growth of the young
embryo larva within the egg, and that of the escaped and skin-
shedding larva, is progressive, but the descriptions given of the
changes in the shape and in the anatomy of the digestive organs
of the pupa and imago, prove that they do not depend upon
simple progression from elementary condition to complexity. The
changes of structure belong to a different order of things to the
<p growth of the larva’s tissues ; they appear to be super-
a .

(Zo be continued.)

NOTES

THE Medals in the gift of the Royal Society have this year
been awarded as follows :—The Copley Medal has been awarded
to Professor Friedrich Wahler, of Gottingen, For. Memb. R.S.,
for his numerous contributions to the Science of Chemistry, and
more especially for his researches on the products of the decom-
position of Cyanogen by Ammonia ; on the Derivatives of Uric
Acid ; on the Benzoyl Series; on Boron, Silicon, and their
compounds ; on Titanium, and on Meteoric Stones. A Royal
Medal has been awarded to Professor Thomas Anderson, M.D.,
for his investigations on the Organic Bases of Dippell’s Animal
Oil ; on Codeine; on the Crystallised Constituents of Opium ;
on Piverin and on Papaverin; and for his researches in Physio-
logical andl Agricultural Chemistry. A Royal Medal has been
awarded to Mr. Henry John Carter, F.R.S., for his long-con-
tinued and valuable researches in Zoology, and more especially
for his inquiries into the Natural History of the Spongiada.
‘tne Rumford Medal, awarded every two years, has been
awarded ‘to Anders} Jonas Angstrém, For. Memb. R.S., for

his Researches on Spectral Analysis.

THE annual meeting of the Fellows of the Royal Society, for
the election of officers and Council for the ensuing year, will be
held, as usual, on the 30th inst. As we have before announced,
Dr. Sharpey, after a long period of service as secretary, resigns
his functions, which have been of such great advantage to the
Society, and by the performance of which he has earned the
thanks and respect of ail men of science, Prof, Huxley being
nominated by the council as his successor.

In the Boston Daily Advertiser for Saturday, Oct. 26, 1872,
the conclusion of Prof. Tyndall’s last lecture is thus reported :—
“There are three great theories which enable the human mind to
open the secrets of nature—the theory of gravitation, the me-
chanical theory of heat, and the undulatory theory of light.
These three pillars, as far as the human intellect is concerned, sup-
port the universe. To whom are we indebted for these dis-
coveries? To men who had no practical ends in view, and who
cared only for the truth. To-day, when there are so many
temptations to young men to leave pure science for practical
aims, it behoves us to look with sympathetic eyes upon the
investigator who makes all this knowledge possible. I met on
the steamship Russia a respected friend who ascribed the electric
telegraph to fa source to which I certainly should not have
thought of referring it. It is the direct outcome of men who
never made a shilling by it. Volta, Faraday, never made a shilling
by it. All honour to the men who make these discoveries,
Gauss and Weber, at the University of Gottingen, actually con-
structed a telegraph line from the physical cabinet to the observa-
tory. Give all honour to the men who apply discoveries, but do
not forget the men who make them. Many of you in this country

have made fortunes, and have shown that you know how to apply :

them, Look with sympathetic eye upon the investigators. Give
them opportunities. Do not overload them with other work.
‘Cast your bread upon the waters,’ and believe me ‘it will
return to you after many days,’ My course among you is nearly
over. I began it with some anxiety and end it with regret.

much to my assistants. I shall long and gratefully remember _
my reception on the occasion of my first lecture here. If I am
treated in the same manner elsewhere, I shall return to the old
country full of content, During my stay here I have heard ‘the ©
old country’ mentioned again and again.
your antecedents. Out of England’s loins you have come. Your
ancestry is stamped upon your faces, your laws, your politics,
and your characters. De Tocqueville, sympathising with demo-
cratic institutions, says, regarding England and America: “I~
refuse to regard these people as two ; one is the outgrowth of the
other.” Atrocious ignorance of each other is at the bottom of -
all our differences, I trust that hereafter each nation will respect

lis
has been harder for me at times than"I=had expected, and I owe —

You cannot abolish —

the individuality of the other; while thoroughly maintaining its

own,’ The lecture was listened to with great attention, and
loudly applauded at the close, Every point made in behalf of

the investigators, and upon our relations to the mother country, —

received loud approbation. Our report cannot do justice to Dr,
Tyndall’s earnestness in the latter portions of his lecture. It is
to be hoped that some of our so-called ‘practical men’ may
take to heart the lessons he has tried to teach them.”

THE late Prof. De Morgan, in a note to his article on Tables
in the ‘‘ English Cyclopzedia,” strongly expresses his regret that
the British Museum did not purchase Dr. Hutton’s valuable
mathematical library, and, consequently, the first set of mathe-
matical tables ever collected in England was dispersed. With a
view to avert a similar break-up, we may inform our readers that
at a very early date the mathematical collections of the late Mr.
Babbage must be disposed of. It is with reference to these that
De Morgan, in the above-cited article, acknowledges his indebt-
edness (‘‘ large and rare collection of Tables’’), Its excellence,
however, is not confined to this special department only. We
learn that catalogues will be issued in the course of a few days.

In reference to the Swiney Lectureship, which we announced
recently as having become vacant, we venture to hope the post
will not be thrown away on some one who is already well off,
and has taken his place in life, but that it will be given to some
young man who has shown himself well qualified for scientific
research, and who may thus be enabled to devote his time to
investigations which may lead to results of enduring value,
Several eminent men have already held this lectureship, in-
cluding, we believe, Dr. Carpenter.

Pror. WEIss, of the Vienna Observatory, has recently passed
through London, on his return from a tour of inspection through
the United States, where he has visited all the principal observa-
tories, in order to collect materials for a report on the instruments

demanded by modern science in a first-class observatory like that —

of Vienna, which is about to be removed and extended. It ap- —
pears that the 26-inch object-glass ordered by the American
Government, as soon as the completion of Mr. Newall’s magnifi-
cent instrument has established the feasibility of such an enors.ous
aperture, is already finished, and the mounting is in a forward
state.

Silliman’s Yournal for November mentions the death of the
Rey. John B. Perry, Professor of Primordial Geology in Harvard
College, and of Dr. John F, Frazer, Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy and Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania.

THE death is announced, in the Isle of Wight, on Friday last, _
of Dr. H. B. Leeson, F.R.S., for many years lecturer on chemis-
try at St. Thomas’s Hospital,

= University of Aberdeen certainly is not disposed to
elect science in looking out for a Lord Rector ; among those
oken of to be put up for the next election, are Mr. Darwin,
. Huxley, and Dr. Lyon Playfair.

WE are glad to call attention to the fund now being raised for
the education and maintenance of the family of Mr. John Cargill
Brough, subscriptions to which may be paid at Messrs. Robarts
and Lubbock’s bank. We understand that a considerable
amount has already been received.

_ THE winter course of lectures at South Kensington Museum
for the instruction of women in science and art was opened on
Monday by Prof. Duncan. The course is to consist of three
series—the first by Prof. Duncan, on ‘‘Cosmogony and the
- World as a Planet ;” the second by Prof, Carey Foster, on
“Physics ;” and the third by Prof. Rutherford, on “ Physi-
ology.” There was a large attendance of ladies.

{ THE Committee of Directors of the Crystal Palace have
resolved to extend the uses of that_Institution by ¢stablish-
ing practical engineering classes, in connection with their
School of Art, Science, and Literature, under the Principalship
_ of Mr. J. M. Wilson, Assoc. Inst. C.E. Such a preparatory
course will render pupils on entering an engineer's office at
once useful to their employers, and will enable them to take
__ advantage of the opportunities offered to them during the time
_ they are articled. These classes have been established for the
purpose of affording to students of civiland mechanical engineer-
ing the advantage of thorough practical instruction in the rudi-
ments of either profession, and in the manipulation of materials.
The classes are also available for gentlemen anxious to become
_ engineering draughtsmen, or to compete for the Whitworth
Scholarships, or to enter the Steam Mercantile Marine. The
course of instruction will consist of three terms extending over
welve months. One term will be spent in the drawing office,
one in the pattern shop and foundry, and one in the smith’s
fitting and erecting shops. The students will be engaged in
_ mechanical drawing, estimating and calculating, pattern-making,
and constructing machinery for the market. Lectures will be
_ delivered from time to time by the Principal, or by some eminent
_ professor, on subjects connected with theoretical and practical
engineering, and the students will be required to pass an exami-
nation upon such lectures at the expiration of each term. Con-
venient and extensive shops and offices, supplied with the best
engineering machinery, have been fitted up for the purposes of
the institution, The shops will be finished and the teaching
‘commenced on January I, or within a few days of that date.
The premium forthe year’s instruction will be fifty guineas. The
Crystal Palace is in many respects most suitable for such a pur-
- pose; for, irrespective of its being central and easy of access, it
contains so many engineering models, works of science and art,
hydraulic, pumping, and other machinery, that illustrations of
important works in great variety are always accessible.

Lorp F, Cavenpisu, M.P., presided on Monday at a meet-
ing of the committee appointed to consider the proposed plans
for establishing a College of Science at Leeds. The cost ori-
ginally estimated was 61,000/.; but the funds are not forth-
coming, and a committee was appointed to reconsider the
subject.

Sir H. C. RAwLinson, in his inaugural address on Monday

_ night to the Geographical Society, referred to two contemplated
African expeditions—one, got up by Livingstone’s friends, and
called the ‘‘ Livingstone Congo Expedition,” is to ascend the
Congo from above the rapids, and endeavour to penetrate to the
equatorial lake where Livingstone’s rivers are lost, and in the
vicinity of which it is expected the great traveller will be found
at the close of next year. Livingstone’s close friend, Mr. J.
Young, of Kelly, has taken upon himself the expenses of the

of

NATURE

"33
expedition to the amount of 1,5007. or 2,000/. A rival German

expedition has been officially announced as in preparation for
the same reason.

Tue following numbers are stated to have been sold of
Mr. Murray’s scientific books at his annual ‘‘sale” Jast week :—
6,200 of Mr, Darwin’s new work on the “ Expression of the Emo-
tions in Man and Animals ;” 1, 1000f Darwin’s ‘‘Origin of Species”
and other works ; 350 of Lyell’s ‘‘ Principles of Geology,” 2 vols. ;
goo of Lyell’s ‘‘ Students’ Elements of Geology ;” 1,500 of Kirk’s
‘* Handbook of Physiology ;” 300 of Sir Roderick Murchison’s
‘Siluria ;” 1,200 of Prof. Newth’s ‘‘ Natural Philosophy ;” 380
of Whymper’s ‘‘ Scrambles on the Alps.”

A TELEGRAM from Copenhagen states that Mr. Edward
Whymper has arrived there from his second journey of explora-
tion in North Greenland. He brings with him rich collections
of curiosities, among which are some very singular specimens of
fossil wood,

Tue Conversazione of the Photographic Society was held on
Tuesday evening last, and the Annual Exhibition of Photographs
will be open at the rooms of the Society, No. 9, Conduit Street,
till the 3oth inst., from nine till dusk, and on Monday and
Saturday evenings.

THE members of the Hunterian Society were received by their
President, Dr. Herbert Davies, on Monday evening last, at 23,
Finsbury Square. In the course of the evening some original
experiments were performed by Prof. Norris, of Birmingham,
showing some hitherto unnoticed manilestations of the attraction
of cohesion, with a view to explain the possibility of the passage
of blood corpuscles through the capillaries in certain morbid
states of the body, without the capillaries themselves being
destroyed.

ON the evening of November 5 two new planets were dis-
covered at the Paris Observatory. The first, discovered by M.
Paul Henry, about 9 o'clock, is of the 11th magnitude; the
second, discovered by M. Prosper Henry, is in magnitude 11°5.

Pror. WINLOCK communicates to 1,909 of Astronomische
Nachrichten carefully tabulated ‘‘ Results in Right Ascension
of Observations of 156 Fundamental Stars observed with the
Meridian-Circle of Harvard College University ” (in English).

Ir may not be generally known, says the Astronomical Register,
that amongst other works translated of late years into the Chinese
language are the following :—Herschel’s ‘‘ Outlines of Astro-
nomy,” by Wylie, 3 vols., sm. folio, China, 1859 ; De Morgan’s
‘¢ Algebra,” by the same, 8vo., 1859; Mac Gowan’s “‘ Law of
Storms,” China, 1853; Milner’s ‘‘ History of England,”
abridged, by Muirhead, Shanghai, 1856. There is also a
Treatise on Arithmetic, in Chinese, by Wylie, 1853.

THE committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund have just

received a first instalment of the work of surveying the Holy Land. |

It consists of the first three sheets of an Ordnance map of the
country, on the scale of one inch to a mile, based on an accurate
trigonometrical survey, and including the district between Jaffa
and Jerusalem, and the country north of Jerusalem towards
Nablous, and embracing an area of 560 square miles. The survey
has been already completed over an area of about 1,000 square
miles, and further sheets may be expected about the beginning of
the new year.

THe Ninth Report, just issued, of the Belfast Naturalists
Field Club, speaks of continued activity and enterprise on the
part of the Society. A considerable portion of the report is
oceupied by accounts of the various excursions, and short abstracts
are also given of a number of papers read at its meetings, many of
them having a chiefly local interest,

.

THE BIRTH OF CHEMISTRY
IV.

Iron, lead, quicksiluer.—Colours used for painting and dyeing.—
Glass. —Certain minerals known to the ancients. —Miscellaneous
processes.—Association of the seven metals with the seven greater
heavenly bodies.— Conseguent jintroduction of symbols into the
history of matter.

[RON was not in common use till long after the introduction of

copper. It is far more difficult to procure, because it is not met
with in the native state, and the fusing point is very high. The
metallurgy of iron is more complex than that of copper, and
when obtained it is a more difficult metal to work. According
to Xenophon the melting of iron ore was first practised by the
Chalubes, a nation dwelling near the Black Sea, hence the name
Chalups (x@Av) used for steel, and hence our word Chalydeate
applied to a mineral water containing iron. Steel was known to
the ancients, but we do not know by what means it was pre-
pared ; it was tempered by heating to redness, and plunging in
cold water. According to some, kuanos (vavos) mentioned by
Homer was steel ; but Mr. Gladstone prefers to conclude that it
was bronze. Iron was known at least 1537 B.c. It was coined
into money by the Lacedzemonians, and in the time of Lukourgos
was incommon use. It was used in the time of Homer for
certain cutting-instruments, such as woodmen’s axes, and for
ploughshares. Its value is shown by the fact that Achilles pro-
posed a ball of iron as a prize for the games in honour of
Patroklos. Neither iron money nor iron implements of great
antiquity have been found, because, unlike the other metals of which
we have spoken above, iron rusts rapidly, and comparatively soon
disappears. No remains of it have been found in Egypt, yet
Herodotus tells us that iron instruments were used in building

Fic. 3-—Egyptian Bellows.

Vifteenth Century n.c.

the pyramids ; moreover, steel must have been employed to
engrave the granite and other hard rocks, massive pillars of
which are often found engraved most delicately from top to
bottom with hieroglyphics. Again, the beautifully engraved
Babylonian cylinders and Egyptian gems, frequently of cornelian
and onyx, must have required steel tools of the finest temper.
We have no record of the furnaces in which iron ore was smelted,
but we know that bellows were in use inthe 15th century B.c. in
Egypt, and some crucibles of the same period are preserved in
the Berlin Museum. They closely resemble the crucibles in use in
the present day. The accompanying woodcut (Fig. 3) represents
a double pair of bellows, a furnace, fuel, and above perhaps a
crucible.

The native Indians prepare iron from hzmatite at the present
time by equally primitive bellows, which indeed resemble the
above very closely, and which, without doubt, have been un-
altered for centuries. A small furnace, A (see the accompanying,
section, Fig. 4),* is rapidly constructed of clay, and into
the bottom of this two nozzles, B, are introduced; these are
connected with the bellows by bamboo tubes. The bellows,
Cc, consist of cup-shaped bowls of wood covered with goat-
skin above, and connected with the bamboo below. In the
centre of the goat-skin cover a round hole is cut; the blower
places his heel upon this, which is thus closed, while at the same
time the skin is depressed and a blast is driven from the tube,
then he steps upon the second skin, and thus a continual blast is
keptup. The bent bamboo and string, D, is for the purpose of
raising the goatskin cover of the bellows after depression, which,

* We are indebted to Dr. Percy for permission to copy this figure from his
“ Metallurgy,” and to Mr. Murray for the other woodcuts.

it will be noticed, is accomplished in the Egyptian bellows b'
string raised by the hand. A piece of hematite is introduced —
with some charcoal, and after the lapse of some time, it isreduced —
by the carbonic oxide to a spongy mass of iron. Undoubted
a crude furnace and appliance of this nature was used by the
first smelters of iron. .
Although we hear less of lead than of the preceding metals, —
it was known to the Egyptians at ‘an early date, and it is men-
tioned by Homer. In the time of Pliny leaden pipes were used —
to convey water ; and sheet lead was employed for roofing pur-
poses, The chief supply of the metal came from a and’
Britain. Pliny believed that lead was reproduced in the mine,
so that if an exhausted mine were closed it would be fit to work -
again in a few years’ time. This idea of the growth of the
metals was very generally accepted by the alchemists. Tin and
lead were sometimes alloyed together by the ancients, and tin —
was used as a solder for lead. Litharge, or protoxide of lead, —
and cerussa usta (burnt ceruss), or red lead, were used by painters. -
Cerussa, which we now call ‘‘white lead,” or more strictly,
carbonate of lead, was prepared by exposing sheets of lead to”
the fumes of vinegar in a warm place, a heap of decomposing
manure for instance. A basic acetate of lead is formed by this —
means, which is partially converted into carbonate by the carbonic
acid given off by the decomposing organic matter. Cerussa was
used by Athenian ladies as a cosmetic. Cerussa usta was first
formed accidentally from cerussa during the burning of a house ~
near the Pirseus. Litharge is easily formed by heating lead above —
its melting point in air, when it absorbs oxygen gas, and the —
resulting oxide may be skimmed off. b
Mercury was common in the time of Pliny, but it is not men- —
tioned by earlier writers. It was found native in Spain, but was
more generally obtained by heating cinnabar (sulphide of mercury)

Tic. 4.—Smelting Furnace and Bellows used by native Indiansin the
present day, ‘
with iron filings in an earthen vessel, to the top of which a cover _
was luted. The iron decomposed the sulphide, and the liberated
mercury was volatilised and condensed on the cover of the —
vessel, whence it was collected. This method, described by —
Dioscorides, is the first crude example of d/sté//ation, which after-
wards became a principal operation among the alchemists and
chemists for separating the volatile from the fixed. Inthetime
of Dioscorides cinnabar was called wnium, but it became so—
largely adulterated with red lead that the term minium was ulti-
mately applied to the latter. Minium is still one of the names —
for red lead. Pliny was acquainted with the high specific gravity _
of mercury, and with its power of dissolving gold. Substances
were sometimes gilded by a gold amalgam. Mercury was also
used, as now, for extracting gold from its earthy matrix ; the gold- _
bearing rock was powdered and shaken up with mercury, which
dissolved out the gold ; the amalgam of gold and mercury was
then squeezed through leather, which separated most of the mer- _
cury ; the solid amalgam was heated to expel the mercury, and —
pure gold remained. Vitruvius states that gold was recovered
from gold embroidery by burning the cloth in an earthen pot, —
and throwing the ashes into water to which quicksilver was
added, :The latter attracted the gold and dissolved it ; the amal- _
gam was put intoa piece of cloth and squeezed between the
hands, and the mercury, on account of its fluidity, was forced
through the pores of the cloth, while the gold remained.
Native mercury was called argentum vivum (quicksilver), —
while mercury distilled from cinnabar was called hydrargyrum

So si cv 7 el hye,
ov. 14, 1872]

( Scp%pyupov, liquid silver), from which we take our present
‘symbol for the metal, Yg. The alchemists, among whom, as we
shall hereafter see, mercury was avery principal metal, call it by

with others of a more fanciful nature.
__ The ancients were not acquainted with any other metals in an
“uncombined state, except the seven mentioned above. Stidizene
or sulphide of antimony, was used in the East at an early period
for painting the eyelashes. It is still used forthat purpose, and is
called Zof/. Native carbonate of zinc was known, and black oxide
of manganese. The two sulphides of arsenic were known, and
- were used as pigments. The yellow suiphide was called auri-
pigmentum and arsenicum ; the red sulphide went by the name
of sandaracha. Auripigmentum became contracted into orfi-
ment, a word which we find both in alchemical treatises and in
_ our most modern treatises on chemistry,

The colours used by the ancients for painting were examined
by Sir Humphry Davy at the beginning of this century, and he
_ came to the conclusion that ‘‘the Greek and Roman painters
had almost all the same colours as those employed by the great
Italian masters at the period of the revival of arts in Italy.”
_ Various colours have been examined from the frescoes in

‘the Baths of Titus, from Pompeii, and from Egyptian tombs.
The colours of the Egyptians were red, yellow, blue, green,
black, and white. The red was bole, that is a clay deriving its
colour from oxide of iron; the yellow an ochre, also clay,

coloured by a paler form of oxide of iron; the green a mix-
_ ture of this ochre with a blue powdered glass, produced by

fusing together sand, carbonate of soda, and oxide of copper.

The black was ivory black, prepared by heating bones out of

contact with air until completely carbonised ; the white was
_ powdered chalk. These various colours were mixed with gum
_ and water before use. The Greeks and Romans used red lead

and cinnabar, as well as red ochre, and yellow protoxide of lead.
The blue powdered glass mentioned above was called xvavos by
_ the Greeks, Ceruleum by the Romans. Vitruvius describes the
method of preparing it; and Davy prepared a substance which
_ perfectly resembled the ancient colour, by fusing together fifteen
_ parts of carbonate of soda, twenty parts of powdered flints, and
three parts of copper filings. The green of the Romans was
_ carbonate of copper, and for browns they sometimes used dark
_ oxide of iron, sometimes oxide of manganese. The purpurissum
of the Romans was Tyrian purple, a very valuable colour ob-
tained from a shell fish, and much used for dyeing. In order to
obtain the colour for the purposes of painting, clay was placed in
the chaldrons of dye, so as to absorb the colour, and was after-
wards removed and dried, Jydicum purpurissum was probably
indigo ; Pliny mentions that the vapour possesses a fine purple
colour. Ivory black was called ZLiephantinum ; lamp black,
that is soot, was called A¢ramentum. The latter mixed with
water constituted the ink of the ancients.

According to Pliny, glass was first discovered by some Phceni-
cian merchants who were returning from Egypt with a cargo of
vatron (carbonate of soda), and who landed on the sandy banks
of the river Belus. In order to support the vessels they used for
cooking their food over the fire, they used some large lumps of
natron, and the fire was sufficiently strong to fuse it, with the
fine sand of the river. Hence resulted the first glass. What-
ever may be the value of this story, we find representations of
giass-blowing on the monuments of Thebes and Beni Hassan ;
and the Egyptians were well acquainted with it 2450 B.c. The
most celebrated manufactory of glass was in Egypt; and,
according to Strabo, a peculiar kind of earth found near Alexan-
dria was essential for the finer kinds of glass. The Egyptian
_ glass had nearly the same composition as our ‘‘ crown glass,”
which contains 63 per cent. of silica, 22 of potash, 12 of lime,
and 3 of alumina. The Phcenicians and Egyptians exported
_ la ge quantities of glass to Greece and Rome. The Egyptians
engravedand cut glass with the diamond ; they also possessed extra-
ordinary skill in colouring glass with various metallic oxides, and
combining several colours in the same vase, and they imitated
“precious stones with great success. We read of whole statues
made of emerald, but these were undoubtedly of emerald glass,
viz., glass coloured by oxide of copper. The Egyptians under-
stood the art of enamelling on metals. Aristophanes is the first
Greek author who mentions glass (r7)y tadov) ; he alludes to the
use of a lens of glass, as a burning-glass in the NepéAa:, which
play was actedin Athens. B.C. 423. Colourless glass was the most
valuable, and a small quantity of oxide of manganese was added
_ then as now for the purpose of decolourising it. A very ancient
opaque green glass, analysed by Klaproth, was found to contain

‘5 *

—_—s 7

a is lh

wre

_

- NATURE

the various names of mercurius, argentum vivum, hydrargyrum, |

37

65 per cent. of silica, 10 of oxide of copper, 7°5 of oxide of
lead, 3°5 of oxide of iron, and about 6 per cent. of both lime
and alumina. A red glass was found to be coloured by red
oxide of copper.

Dyeing was well understood by the ancients; the Egyptians
understood the effect of acid on some colours, and were acquainted
with mordants, that is, substances which “fix” the colourin oy
matter in the fabric, and prevent it from being washed out. The
most celebrated dye of antiquity was the purple of Tyre, dis-
covered about 1500 B.C., perhaps earlier. It was produced by
certain shell fish which inhabit the Mediterranean ; these are
spoken of as duccinum: and purpura by Pliny. A few drops only of
the dye were obtained from each fish, and the colour henc@became
very valuable, and was monopolised by the emperors of the
world. The Egyptians dyed linen with indigo, which they pro-

“cured from India, for they had considerable intercourse with
that country at an early period.

Lime was used for removing the hair from skins about to be
tanned. Leather made in the time of Sheshonk, the contem-
porary of Solomon, has been found in a good state of preservation,
For the process of tanning, they used the pods of the Acacia
Nilotica, a plant which, according to Sir G. Wilkinson, was also
prized for its timber, charcoal, and gum.

NVitrum was a term applied to carbonate of soda, or natron,
which, we have already seen, was used in the manufacture of
glass. The substance which we now call wire (nitrate of potash)
was probably known in India and China before the Christian era.
Dr. Thomas Thomson has suggested that when the real nitre was
imported into Europe, it received the same name as carbonate of
soda (nitrum) from the similarity of its appearance, and retained
the name on account of its greater importance. Roger Bacon
always speaks of nitrate of potashas nitre. The low Latin name
for soda became watrium, hence our present symbol for sodium,
Na.

Soap is first mentioned by Pliny; it was made by mixing
wood ashes, which contain carbonate of soda, with animal fat.
It was used solely asa kind of pomatum. The Greeks added
wood ashes to water to increase its cleansing properties.

The only acid with which the ancients were acquainted was
acetic acid, orvinegar. Jt has been suggested that the Egyptians
discovered nitric acid and nitrate of silver, because a silver stain
has been found upon some linen, but the evidence is insufficient.
We remember the story about Cleopatra dissolving two pearls,
valued at ten millions of sestertii, in vinegar ; although only a
story, it would seem to show that vinegar was the most powerful
solvent known. This is further indicated by the story of Hanni-
bal dissolving rocks by vinegar,

A number of minerals are mentioned by Pliny, but we can
recognise but few of them. Iron pyrites (sulphide of iron) was
used for striking fire with steel in order to kindle tinder, and was
hence called pyrites (mip, fire), or fire-stone. Sulphur was well
known, and was used for matches ; it was also apparently burnt
in a current of air, and the sulphurous acid produced employed
for bleaching purposes. Asphalt was used for embalming, and
undoubtedly also for torches.

Thus far we have become acquainted with the various
theories of the Ancients, in which changes in the composi-
tion of matte: are discussed, and with various processes by
which changes were actually effected. Before wé leave the
Ancients, and pass at one bound to the eighth century A.D., we
must notice the commencement of a symbolical system in the
history of matter, which in the hands of the Alchemists and early
Chemists assumed vast proportions, and still appertains to the
science of Chemistry. This system was commenced by the
association of the seven metals with the seven greater heavenly
bodies. We do not know at what period the metals were desig-
nated by the names and symbols of the planets: certainly
at a very remote age.

At a very early date the Chaldzeans represented the stars by
symbols, and these gradually increased until astrology became one
mass of symbols. Onthe occasion ofcertain religious ceremonies
the Kings of Assyria wore a necklace in which the sun, moon, and
stars were represented as emblems, for they were first worshipped
as emblems of the Deity. Sculptural representations of neck-
laces with seven discs upon them have also beenfound. Symbols
were carried before Egyptian priests, and their gods were repre-
sented with certain signs symbolical of their special attributes.
The Assyrian goddess Astarte, carries in her left hand.a symbol,(¢)
(Fig 5.) not very different from thecvw« ansaza of the Egyptians (a);
and the symbol (c) by whichtheplanet Venus wasafterwards repre-

sented by the astrologers and is still represented by astronomers.
Tn the celebrated ‘‘ Book of the Dead” (B.c. 1350), the most
perfectly preserved Egyptian ritual which the world possesses,
this latter symbol (cin the figure) occurs frequently among the
hieroglyphics. This is very noticeable in the ‘‘ Judgment scene”

a 6 c

Fic. 5.—a Crux ansata of the Egyptians ; 4 Assyrian symbol of Astarte ;
> f ¢ Later symbol of the planet Venus.
of the Turin papyrus, a copy of which exists in the British
Museum. The upper portion of the crux ansata was frequently
made more rounded in form, and it is obvious that if in addition
to this the cross was somewhat lowered, we should arrive
at the third symboi (c) shown above. The crux ansata (a), if
written quickly, could easily pass into this latter symbol (c). and
this may account for the occurrence of both symbols in the judg-
ment picture, to which we have alluded above.

Plato speaks of the sun, moon, and five planets, but does
not distinguish them by the names of gods; Epinomis men-
tions them in conjunction with the names of gods, It is
probable that the Chaldwans also associated the principal
heavenly bodies with the names of deities—San with the sun,
Hurki with the moon, Bel Merodach with Jupiter, Astarte or
Ishtar with Venus, Nergal with Mars, &c. The relative
position of the planets was generally as follows: the Earth
was the centre of the system; next in order came the Moon,
the Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; but these
positions were sometimes varied. {[t was known that Saturn
completed a revolution in about thirty years, while Jupiter re-
quired twelve years, Mars only two, and Mercury and Venus
occupi¢d about the same time as the Sun ; hence the above order.
As Saturn was farthest from the source of heat, and the slowest
in his motion, he was supposed to be of an icy character, and to
assert an evil influence. .

While speaking of the seven greater heavenly bodies, and the
seven metals, we may allude incidentally to the curious promi-
nence of that number in many matters—‘‘that mysterious num-
ber,” as Mr. Layard calls it, “so prevalent in the Sabean
system.” Thus (to select a few instances at random) we have
seven days of the week, seven wise men of Greece, seven won-
ders of the world, seven cardinal sins, seven-stringed lyre, seven
harmonic proportions, seven heavens, seven walls of Ecbatana,
seven gates of Thebes. The list might be extended almost
indefinitely. Among the Hebrews the number was specially pro-
minent. Not to mention the frequent allusion to it in the
Apocalypse, we may recall the incidents of the fall of Jericho :
the town was surrounded for seven days; on the seventh day the
walls fell at the blast of seven trumpets, which were carried
round the walls seven times by seven priests.

“We cannot tell why the seven metals were associated with the
seven deified heavenly bodies, unless it was because all things
‘which amounted to the same number were connected with them,
This, at least, we know, that long before the time of Geber, the
first writer on chemistry, the metals had received the same names
and symbols as the planets. ‘‘ There is abundant evidence,”
says Mr. Gladstone, “‘ of a correspondence between the seven
metals of Homer and the seven metals of the ancient planetary
worship of the East.” In the time of Homer only six simple
metals were known, and the seventh was the compound £wanos ;
quicksilver afterwards became the seventh simple metal, and re-
ceived the name and symbol of the seventh planet. The metals
were apportioned as follows :—

Cola 4: a ease ee Se
Silver. vn ptt RRR ole »))
Quicksilver Mercury. . 3
Copper . . s Venus) ia . . ates
Tin. ‘ . - Jupiter . ‘ ; alee
Tron : 5 ye Mars) ye ; ’ ig
Lead. : Saturn, : é sales

“MSS. on Alchemy.

A

14, 187. 3

Ilerodotus tells us that Ecbatana had seven walls, the outer- —
most of which was the lowest, and the others gradually ascended
like steps to the highest, which enclosed the king’s palace. They”
were each painted of a particular colour; the outermost white,
the second black, the third purple, the fourth blue, the fifth red, —
the sixth the colour of silver, the seventh the colour of gold. —
Undoubtedly these had reference to the seven greater heavenly
bodies. It is impossible to account for the colours, but it is”
curious to notice the particular colour which would fall to any
particular metal. Placing the planets in order as applied to the —
metals, we should have gold to goid, silver to silver, red to
copper, blue to iron, purple to tin, black to lead, the most de-
spised of the metals. It is probable that the Sabeeans associated.
these colours with the seven heavenly bodies. The temple of
Bel-Merodach, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar, and called by him
the ‘‘ Wonder of Borsippa,” appears also to have consisted of —
seven terraces differently coloured. The following is a portion —
of the inscription from a clay cylinder found among the ruins of
the temple :—‘‘I (Nebuchadnezzar) have completed the mag-
nificence of the tower with silver, gold, precious stones, enamelled —
bricks, fir, and pin .... This most ancient monument of ©
Borsippa is the house of the seven lights of the earth.” eS

How the symbols conferred upon the planets and after-
wards upon the metals arose it is difficult to say ; they are un-
doubtedly of Chaldzan origin, but to what extent they have —
since been modified no one can tell. They exist in early —
That the sun should be represented by —
a circle, the symbol of perfection, is no wonder. Again, that —
the moon should be symbolised by a crescent we can understand ;
but the others present greater difficulties. Among these, some
say we have the looking-glass of Venus, the thunderbolts of
Jupiter, the spear and shield of Mars, the scythe of Saturn, andthe —
caduceus of Mercury. In the temple of Hermes at Pselcis
he is represented with a staff hav'ng a serpent twining around it, _
from which it has been suggested the caduceus of Mercury may —
have been derived. Some see in 1/, not the thunderbolts, but
the throne of Jupiter; others the Zefa of Zeus; others, again, —
the Arabic 4, indicating that Jupiter was the fourth planet in —
order. Some, too, have seen in h the K of Kronos. It
is less difficult to understand why a particular metal wasassigned —
to a particular heaveoly body. Thus gold would naturally be |
associated with the sun, on account of its colour, perfection, and —
beauty, and because it was ever regarded as the noblest metal. —
For the same reason silver would fall to the moon, with its pale,
silvery colour and light. So, again, iron, the metal of war, —
would be associated with Mars; lead, the dull, despised metal,
with Saturn, the slowest of the planets ; quicksilver, the nimble
volatile metal, with Mercury, the messenger of the gods, ;

These signs became in the hands of the Alchemists the com-
mencement of a symbolic system in chemistry.

(Zo be continued.) G, F. RODWELL

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Royal Geographical Society, Nov. 11.—Major-General —
Sir H. C. Rawlinson, president, in the chair. The President,in —
his inaugural address, recapitulated the leading incidents which
have occurred in the exploration of Africa since June, at which
time we were in receipt merely of a brief telegraphic announce-
ment that Mr. Stanley had arrived at Zanzibar with despatches,
having left Livingstone alone and well at Unyanyembe; and
stated that, as the Society honestly consider Mr. Stanley's jour- —
ney to Lake Tanganyika to be in its results the most important
geographical achievement of the year, they feel that, in award-
ing him their medal, they are only discharging their strict duty,
while at the same time they are doing honour to Livingstone —
and promoting the great end of African discovery. The Presi-
dent then passed on to the history of the Society’s own Relief
Expedition, touching which he said :—‘‘ Much disappointment —
was felt atthe abrupt termination of this expedition. The com-
mittee of the Geographical Council charged with the manage-
ment of the Search and Relief Fund, after a most patient investi-
gation, delivered two reports to the subscribers, the purport of
which was that they disapproved of the conduct of Lieutenant —
Dawson in breaking up the expedition, and that they attributed
it toa lamentable error of judgment that he did not carry onto
the Doctor, as supplementary to Stanley’s relief, a supply of
arms, instruments, medicines, and other articles of which he
manifestly stood in need. The judgment delivered by thecom-
mittee has since been greatly fortified by letters written by Dr, P

ES

+

_ Livingstone on July ist, in which, in answer to his son’s letters
from Zanzibar, he deplores the break-up of the expedition,
showing how valuable would have been to him the arrival
of the officers at Unyanyembe, and he proposed subse-
quently to have utilised their services. At the same time,
it is only fair to Lieutenant Dawson to say that no imputa-
tion whatever rests upon his courage or his honour.

~ Let it be understcod, once for all, that there is not the remotest
ground for questioning the accuracy of Mr, Stanley’s statement.

It is positively certain that Stanley and Livingstone met at Ujiji
this time last year, that they travelled on an exploring journey
round the northern end of Lake Tanganyika, and subsequently
came down together to Unyamyembe, where the Doctor still was
at the date of his last despatches.” Referring to the sufferings
‘undergone by Livingstone, the President,said, ‘*it is not therefore
surprising that, while smarting under his losses and injuries, he
should have reflected with some bitterness on Dr. Kirk, the
Acting-Consul at Zanzibar, who was more or less concerned in send-
ing off the supplies, and in selecting the agents to be employed.”
After alluding to the complete reconciliation which it is hoped
has now been effected between Livingstone and Kirk, the
president at some length entered into Livingstone’s geographical
researches, and arrived at these conclusions:—‘‘ There can
be no reasonable doubt that this great water-system of Centrai
Africa belongs to the Congo and not to the Nile. The proofs of
the identity of the Lualaba and the Congo, derived from a com-
parison of height-measurements, of volume of water, of the
periodical rains and rise of the rivers, &c. have been put to-
gether very clearly in a paper by Dr. Behm, which has just ap-
peared in the current number of Petermann’s 4Mittheilungen,’
and many arguments arising from local information, as well as
from coincidences of natural history and ethnology, might be
added in corroboration. The only impediment, indeed, to a full
and clear understanding on this point is the remarkable fact that,
although Livingstone had followed down the gradual slope of the
Lualaba from the high plateau where it rises, 5,000 or 6,000 feet
above the sea-level, to a point where the barometer gave an eleva
tion of only 2,000 feet—that is to a point depressed 1,000 feet
below the parallel Nile basin to the eastward ; and although the
constant trending of the waters to the west haunted him with
misgivings, still he clung tenaciously to his old belief that he
must be on the track of the Nile, and even speculated on the
possibility of the great river he was pursuing debouching by
the Bahr-el-Ghazal. It must be borne in mind, however, that
Livingstone in his African solitude had no knowledge of
Schweinfurth’s discoveries. He had no idea that one, or per-
haps two, watersheds intervened between the Lualaba and the
head-waters of the Bahr-el-Ghazal ; nor does he seem to have
been aware that his great river at Nyangwé contained 19 times
the volume of water contributed by the western affluent of the
White Nile. When this revelation breaks on him, it is not too
much to suppose that he will abandon his Nile theory, and
rest satisfied with the secondary honour—if indeed it be
secondary—of having discovered and traced the upper course of
the Congo, which is emphatically called by the natives ‘the
great river’ of Africa,” The president then spoke of the
“Livingstone Congo Expedition,” to which we refer in
another column, ‘*The deputation of Sir Bartle Frere on a
mission to Zanzibar for the suppression of the slave trade, of
which Livingstone may hear before he leaves the vicinity of
Lake Tanganyika, will be to him an event of the intensest inte-
yest, and may thus have an important influence on his future
movements, Itis not impossible that Lieut. Cameron might
fall in with Baker’s flotilla on the Albert Nyanza, as reports have
reached us, though not as yet officially confirmed, that Sir S.
Baker had pushed on during last summer with a flying column
from Gondokoro to the point where the Nile leaves the Nyanza,
and had made arrangements for his steamer and boats to be
brought up in carts.”

Linnean Society, Nov. 7.—Mr. G. Bentham, president, in
the chair. On the buds developed on leaves of AZalaxis, by
Dr. Dickie. These buds, developed chiefly on the margins of
the leaves of Malaxis paludosa, are of interest from the very
remarkable resemblance which they bear to the ovules of Orchids,
representing an embryo enclosed in a loose enveloping testa.—
On the * Piopio” of New Zealand (A¢rofia crassirostris Gmel),
by T. H. Potts.

Chemical Society, Noy. 7—Prof, Williamson, F.R.S., inthe
chair. Papers were read by Mr. C, E, Stanford, on “the action of
charcoal on organic nitrogen,” being an account of his experiments

NATURE | | $8

‘i Dalia tai a

to ascertain the value of a method of deodorising and utilising fish-
offal and other offensive matters by mixing them with charcoal ; and
“on Iona pebbles.”—A communication entitled “ Mineralogical
Notices,” by Prof. Storey Maskelyne and Dr. Flight, was then
read by the former, giving a short description of several minerals
mostly new or from fresh localities —Mr.J.R. A. Newlands gave a
brief explanation of ‘‘a means of preventing explosions in coal-
mines,” which the author proposes to effect by erecting air-tight
chambers over the upcast and downcast shafts, and forcing air
through the workings by powerful air pumps or ventilating fans.
—There were also papers ‘‘on the specific heat of occluded
hydrogen,” by W. C. Roberts, and Dr. C. R. A, Wright, and
‘fon some probable reactions that yielded negative results” by
Dr. C, R. A. Wright. A specimen of bromocamphor was
exhibited by Mr. Williams, of the firm of Hopkin and Williams,
who stated that it was used medicinally as a nerve sedative, in
such diseases as delirium tremens.

Entomological Society, Nov. 4.—Prof. Westwood, presi-
dent, in the chair. Mr. S. Stevens exhibited an example of Pieris
Daplidice, and six of Argynnis Lathonia, captured by himself in
the autumn, at Dover ; also, from the same locality, varieties of
Pyrameis cardui, and Callimorpha dominula ; Sesia asiliformis,
Charocampa celerio, and Deilephila livornica from Brighton ; and
a dark variety of Pieris rape from Ireland, Mr. F. Smith ex-
hibited a large collection of Formicide sent from Calcutta
by Mr. Rothney. He also exhibited, and presented to the So-
ciety, the minute-book of the old Entomological Society, con-
taining records of the meetings between 1806 and 1822 ; incor-
porating also the minutes of the pre-existing Aurelian Society—
this had been given to him by Dr, J. E. Gray, Mr. Butler
exhibited the impression of the wing of a butterfly in Stonesfield
slate ; it was remarkably perfect, and approached nearest to the
existing South American genus Ca/igo. Mr. Davis exhibited a
large collection of beautifully preserved larvze of various insects.
Mr, Davis exhibited a collection of drawings illustrating the
traysformations! of Indian Lepidoptera. He also remarked con-
cerning the habits of the common gnat ; from July to the present
time he had, every day, found swarms of this insect in his house,
ail being females, which sex only is capable of inflicting painful
bites ; the windows were constantly closed, yet each day a fresh
swarm appeared to replace those destroyed, and he could not
account for their appearance, unless they (as he thought probable)
came down the chimneys. Mr, Miiller read notes on the habits
of a small beetle allied to Anobium, which he had bred from a
large oak-gall from California. The Rev. R. P. Murray com-
municated notes on variations in the neuration of certain Pafilio-
nide. A further portion of the proposed general Catalogue of
British Insects, comprising the /chneum onide, Braconide, &c.
compiled by the Rey. T. A. Marshall, was announced as pub-
lished, and notes thereon by Mr. Marshall were read.

Anthropological Institute, Nov. 5.—Dr. R. S. Charnock,
vice-president, in the chair, A paper was read on ‘‘ Man and
the Ape” by Mr. C. Staniland Wake. After referring to the
agreement in physical structure of man and the ape, and to the
fact that the latter possesses the power of reasoning, with all the
faculties necessary for its due exercise, the author proceeded to
show that it is incorrect to affirm that man has no special mental
faculty. He has a spiritual insight or power of reflection which
enables him to distinguish qualities and to separate them as
objects of thought from the things to which they belong. Ail
language is in some sense the result of such a process, and its
exercise by even the most uncivilised peoples is shown in their
having words denoting colours. The possession by man of the
faculty of insight or reflection is accompanied by a relative phy-
sical superiority. The human brain is much longer than that of
the ape, and he has also a much more refined nervous structure,
with a naked skin. The author here showed that the only phy-
sical fact absolutely necessary to be accounted for is the great
size of the human brain, and this could not be done on the hypo-
thesis of natural selection. Mr, Wallace’s reference, on the other
hand, to a creative will really undermines Mr. Darwin’s whole
hypothesis. After referring to the theories of Mr, Murphy and
Haeckel, the author stated that the only way to explain man’s
origin, consistently with his physical and mental connection with
the ape, is to suppose that nature is an organic whole, and that
man is the necessary result of its evolution. While man, there-
fore, is derived from the ape, as supposed by Mr, Darwin, it is
under conditions very different from those which his hypothesis
requires. According to this, the appearance of man on the
earth must have been in a certain sense accidental ; while, ec-

Mo

‘

a

cording to the author’s view, organic nature could only have
been evolved in the direction of man, who is the necessary result
of such evolution, and a perfect epitome of nature itself.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Oct. 28.—M. Faye, President.—
The first paper was a long reply to M. Pasteur’s late paper
on the production of wine, by M. Fremy; at its conclusion
M. Pasteur rose and defended his former position, after which
M, Fremy again returned to the attack, on the conclusion of
which M. Pasteur contented himself with saying that he had
already answered all objections. M. A. Trécul then read a note
on the origin of Ferments, on the conclusion of which M. Pasteur
made a few remarks, and the discussion dropped.—M. Yvon
Villarceau next read a paper on a new general mechanical theory.
M. Chevreul followed with the conclusion of his answer to
M. A. Gruyer’s report on the London International Exhibition
of 1871. MM. P. A. Favre and C. A. Valson’s researches on
crystalline dissociation came next. They concluded this, the
third paper, as follows :-—‘‘The result of solution is to give to
the elements of the dissolved bodies a reciprocal independence,
and the internal mechanical work necessary to produce this effect
is measured by the changes of volume which accompany solution,
and consequently by the quantity of heat brought into play when
the same effects of force are applied directly to the dissolving
liquid by means of equivalent actions.” —M. Is. Pierre and E,
Puchot followed with a paper entitled ‘*‘ New Studies on valeric
acid, and onits preparation on the large scale.” The authors assert

_ that valeric acid rotates the planeof polarisation in the same direc-

tion as cane sugar, while amylic alcohol rotates it in the opposite
direction. A paper on butyric acid, by the same authors fol-
lowed. The acid, prepared from butyric alcohol, exerts no
sensible action on polarised light; it boils regularly at 1555,
when the barometer stands at 760 M.M.—A paper on the exten-
sion of the Py//oxera in Wurope, by M. J. E. Planchon, was
then read. The author states that the insect is indigenous to
America, and that it is a recent importation into Europe.—A
memoir by M. Resal on the equation of movement of a funicular
curve, &c., was referred to the section of mechanics, and was
followed by an essay on the theory of running streams, by M.
Boussinesq.—A paper by Mr. Grace Calvert on the power pos-
sessed by certain substances of stopping putrefaction and the de-
velopment of protoplasmic life, was then read, after which came
the second of M. Dareste’s studies on the osteological type of
osseous fish ; it was referred to the zoological and anatomical
section.—M. Dumas then read some communications from the
Phylloxera Commission, which received at this meeting a com-
munication from M. Loarer.—The Lightning Conductor Com-
inission received five reports from M. W. de Fonvielle, who is
charged with a mission to England by thatcommission. A memoir
on fevers by M. P. Levers was sent to the commission for
administering the Bréant legacy, and that on the preservation
of articles of food received a paper from M. Lacc.—M. Yvon
Villarceau then presented M. Stephan’s Observations and
Ephemerides of the planet 123.—Then came some new observa-
tions on Summit and Thalweg Lines, by M. C. Jordan,—A note
by M. H. Delray on the purple of Cassius was then read. The
author proposes the following definition of this body, the true
constitution of which has not yet been satisfactorily determined.
He says that purple of Cassius isa lake of stannic or melastannic
acid coloured with finely divided gold, and that the latter has, by
reason of its combination with the tin oxide, lost its solubility in
mercury, just as many colouring matters become insoluble as soon
as they encounter vegetable fibre. He adduces several experi-
ments in support of this view.—A note from M. H. Violette on
the Fusion of Platinum followed. The author has fused platinum
in a wind furnace connected with the chimney-shaft of a large
factory, and fed with gas-carbon in small fragments. 50 grammes
were thus fused in an hour, but one of the secretaries of the
Academy suggests that the platinum was contaminated with the
carbon or silicon, and thus rendered abnormally fusible. M. de
Quatrefages then presented a note by M. de la Blanchitre on
changes of colouration produced in fish by the conditions of their
habitat, after which M. C. Sedillot presented some researches on
the physiological and anti-fermentescible properties of sodic
silicate, by MM. A. Rabuteau and F. Papillon; these
further experiments confirm the author's previous results,
with the exception that in some cases the action on
ferments is only temporary. The author hopes to be
able to explain this retarding action of the silicate in a future

NATURE

- aE X ad 4 =
; Ag x - wes

fas [Mov. 14,1872 —
communication.—This paper was followed by one on some —
chemical researches on the leaves of Zucalyptus globulus, by M. —
Rabateau. These leaves are used as an antiperiodic, and the —
author endeavoured to find in them an alkaloid, but did not
succeed.—M. Ch. Grad then read a paper on the quaternary for- —
mations of the Algerine Sahara, agd was followed by M. A. —
Béchamp with a paper on some researches on the physiological _
theory of the alcoholic fermentation produced by beer yeast.
The researches of the author tend to support the physiological
and not the chemical theory.—M. Jacquez then demanded the
opening of two notes deposited by him on the 23rd November, —
1857, and 4th January, 1858. The notes related to the action —
of borates in preventing putrefaction and the growth of mould,
and their use as an injection for subjects for dissection; thecon-
clusion arrived at in the first note is, that these salts are ex-
tremely efficacious for the above purposes.—A note by M.
Guynemer, deposited on the 3rd of January, 1870, and relating
to the November meteorites, was next opened.—A note by M.
Malessart on anew motive power obtained bya particular dis-
position of electro magnets, was submitted to M. E, Becquerel
for examination.—M. Lamson presented some drawings of a
machine, the motive power of which was produced by the action
of gravity. They were submitted to M. Dupuy de Lome.—M.
F, Thomas sent a note on the production of fluorine by the
action of cupric sulphate on an anhydrous fluoride, which was
submitted to M. Balard.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

EnGuisu.—The Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice and Glaciers ¢
J. Tyndall (H. S. King and Co.).—Elementary Treatise on Natural Philo-
sophy: A, Privat Deschanel, translated by Prof. J. D. Everett (Blackie and
Son).—Notes on River Basins: E. R. Williams (Longmans).

DIARY

THURSDAY, NovemBer 14.

Lonnon Matuematicay Society, at-8.—Remarks on some Recent Gene-

- ralisations of Algebra: the President.—Sur les Fonctions Circulaires: M.—
Hermite.— Investigation of the Disturbance produced by a Spherical Ob-
stacle on the Waves of Sound: Hon. J. W. Strutt —On the Mechanical
Description of a Cubic Curve: Prof. Cayley.—A Series of Models of
Cubic Surfaces to Mlustrate their Different Forms: Prof. Henrici—On a
‘Theorem Relating to the Polyedra with Triangular Faces, with Illustra~
tive Models: Prof. W. A. Clifford.

SUNDAY, November 17.

Sunpay Lecrure Society, at 4—On the Dawn of the Sciences in
Europe: Prof. W. K. Clifford.

MONDAY, November 18.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.

TUESDAY, NovemseErR 19,

ZOOLOGICAL Soctery, at 8.30.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—The Moabite Jars, with a Transla-
tion: Rey. Dunbar I. Heath, M.A.—Human Remains from Iceland:
Capt. Burton and Dr. Blake.—The Atlantean Race of Western Europe:
the late J. W. Jackson.

WEDNESDAY, Novemper 20,

GroLocicaL Socrery at 8.—On the Geology of the Thunder-Bay and
Shabendowan Mining Districts, on the North Shore of Lake Superior:
Dr. Alleyne Nicholson, .G.S.—On the Relations of the supposed Carbon-
iferous Plants of Bear Island with the Palzeozoic Flora of North America :
Dr. 5. W. Dawson, I’.R.S.—Further Notes on Eocene Crustacea from
Portsmouth: H. Woodward, F.G.S.—On a New Trilobite from the Cape
of Good Hope: H. Woodwara, F.G.S.

METEOROLOGICAL Sociery, at 7.—On the Storms experienced by the Sub-
marine Cable Expedition in the Persian Gulf, Noy. 1 and 2, 1869: Latimer
Clark, M. Inst. C.E.—On the Meteorology of Southland, New Zealand,
in 1871: C. Rous Marten.—On a Self-regist:riug Tide-gauge and Electri-
cal Barograph: H. C. Russell, Government Astronomer, Sydney.

THURSDAY, November 21.

Linnean Society, at 8.—On the Comfosite of Bengal: C. B. Clarke,
F.L.S.—On Diversity of Evolution under one set of External Conditions: —__
Rey. J T. Gulick. ;

CueEmica Sociaty, at 8,

CONTENTS

Pact
EXPLORATION OF THE SouTH Potar ReGions 4 ere)
BELGIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ASTRONOMY . . «+... . 4 + 23
Our Book SHELF. . . @ 0 we ne Teco ie Sel see are

Lerrers To THE Eprror:—
Our National Herbarium.—Grorce BentHaM, F.R.S.; Wm.

CARRUTHERS, FUR.S. . 5. 5 Say liebe be), dete)
The Beginnings of Lire—Dr. CHartTon BasTian, F.R.S.. . . 26
Physics for Medical Students.—Prof. W. G. Apams, F.RS. . . 27
Diathermacy of Flame.—Lord Rossz, F.R.S. . .... .. 38
The Corona Line.—Prof. C. A. YounG’. 5 5 3° 4) 2. ae
Brilliant Meteors.—Rosert McCLureE; D, WINSTANLEY . . . 28
Day Aurora.—T. W. BackHOUSE. 5 6» > + = « © = #8009

Tue Karivo, or Venomous Spiper OF New ZEALAND . 29°

Insect MeTAmorrPuHosis.
tions). . ea

i) ee 6 ened A bea ees

Tue Birtu or Cuemistry. IV, By G. F. Ropwe tt, F.C.S. (With mS

By Prof. Duncan, F.R.S. (With [dlustra-

as: Wey ee Pal ee ena

Lldustrations.) 0 ss + 0 0 ele wise Sn eles tls Oy) VSN
Sock pigs AND /ACADEMIES. .. Wc sks) pas lreuus ene een uke ale 38
DIARY pie nue Ve) 0. s 5 ye ads -n/uke gags te Mat rete anne Cae ae 4°

MR. BESSEMER'S SALOON STEAMER FOR
; THE CHANNEL PASSAGE
T HE prevention of sea-sickness by means of a swinging
cabin has nothing novel about it, but the originality
mii merit in the suspended saloon devised by
r. Bessemer, and now about to be actually constructed
in a ship specially designed for it by Mr. Reed, the late
chief Constructor of the Navy, are of the highest order.
‘The association of those names is in itself a sufficient
guarantee that the idea will be carried into execution with
complete security as respects the safety of the passengers
and the seaworthiness of the ship, and a full knowledge of
the scientific principles involved.
_ Persons suffering from sea-sickness complain not only
f giddiness arising from themselves and everything
out them being continually in motion, but also in
icular of a qualm which comes over them every
time the ship, or the part of it on which they are
standing, is descending, sinking, as it were, from under
their feet. An approach to this qualm is commonly felt
a garden swing during the descent, and also in
jumping from considerable heights. There can be very
e doubt that this is due to the fact that the intestines
e then wholly or partially relieved from their own weight,
and therefore exercise an unusual pressure against the
Stomach, liver, and diaphragm. This pressure produces
e qualm, and its rapid and frequent alternations cause
Sufficient irritation to produce in most people sea-sickness,
nd i in some persons more serious effects. Physiologists
re by no means agreed as to how much of sea-sickness is
to this cause, and how much to the reaction upon the
mach of the brain-disturbance, due in part, perhaps, to
actual motion of the head, but largely to the optical
t of the motion. It is pretty certain that all these
Causes contribute to produce the effect of sea-sickness, It
beyond doubt that they all aggravate it.
Mere swinging cots or small cabins go but a very little
ay to remedy any of these evils. Even if suspended in
wo directions, like a compass or barometer upon jimbals,
translatory motion, whether up or down, or to and fro,
emains wholly unaltered, and even the gecilatory motion
‘not got rid of, but only altered in character, being re-
ed toa minimum at a point near the middle of the
The distressing effect upon the eye of the relative
on of surrounding objects also remains. These effects
not be wholly eliminated by Mr. Bessemer’s inven-
pn ; but some of them will be very much reduced, and it
ains to be seen whether the.reduction is sufficient to
rid of the sickness.
The design, as settled by Mr. Bessemer and Mr. Reed,
cludes the construction of large steam vessels of light
aught, 350 feet long, 40 feet beam, drawing 7 feet of
ater, and worked by two pairs of paddle-wheels. In the
e of each of these is provided a well, or hole, for the
ion of asaloon 70 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 20 feet
constructed so as to form a box girder in itself, and
ended at its extremities upon a pair of trunnions, on
lich it can turn, so that it may be kept steady as the
el rolls from side to side. The saloon is not allowed
ng quite freely, but its motion is controlled by hy-
No, 160~-vot, vit, :

NATURE

| draulic machinery, acting either upon a rocking arm or a

4l

tangent bar (it does not appear as yet which has been
selected), which enables a man to regulate its position at
his discretion. This man sits opposite a spirit level, and,
by merely turning a handle which opens certain valves,
can keep the bubble of the spirit level at zero, so as to
keep the saloon virtually upright at all times. The chief
novelty of the invention consists in two points—the great
size of the swinging cabin or saloon, and the controlling
of its motion by hand, instead of trusting to self-adjust-
ment. Both these are very important improvements on
the simple swinging cabin.

This attempt to neutralise the motion of the vessel
addresses itself to one phase of motion only, namely the
rolling. Mr. Bessemer makes no attempt at correcting
either the translatory part of a ship’s oscillation, or the
pitching. Heconsiders that in large vessels such as he
proposes to use, both these motions will be small, and
not sufficient to cause sickness when once the rolling
motion is got rid of. We think there is very much to
bear out his view of the case ; but we also think that,
considering the difference which always exists between
experimental and actual circumstances, and especially
when we bearin mind that the plan does not correct the
whole of the motion, its absolute and entire success is
not by any means to be looked upon as a certainty.

The experiment recently made at} Denmark Hill must
be regarded rather as {showing the efficiency of the
hydraulic apparatus for regulating the motion, than the
effect of its being so regulated.

In the regular heaving of the sea, after the wind has
blown sufficiently long to cause regular waves or swell,
each particle of water describes a circle in a vertical
plane. At the surface, the diameter of these circles is the
whole height of the wave from valley to crest, These
circles rapidly diminish in size as their depth below the
surface increases. Taking into account this diminution,
as well as the effect of a ship’s breadth, it is certain that
the ship will not follow this circular motion at all to the
same extent as a cork floating on the surface. In mode-
rately heavy weather, it is probable that in such a ship
as is proposed by Mr. Bessemer, any fixed point could
describe a circle of five or six feet in diameter, quite
independently of any rotatory (or rocking) motion. It is
much to be regretted that the model at Denmark Hill
was not mounted ona crank or eccentric, so as to combine
this motion with the simple rocking, and to ascertain
how far it remained as a cause of real uneasiness, when
the rocking had been eliminated.

It is to be observed that a level does not give a fixed
direction when a ship is moving upon waves. Apart from
any rolling of the ship’s own, it gives, when its centre is
describing a circle uniformly, not the direction of actual
gravity, but the resultant of gravity and of the centrifugal
force. In fact, instead of being horizontal with reference
to the earth, it is horizontal with reference to the effective
wave surface. But as this is also the direction with re-
ference to which a man has to balance himself in sitting
or standing, it tells us what is practically, though not
actually, the upright, and therefore is probably a better
guide than a truly vertical or horizontal line.

It must not be supposed that the feeling of the deck
sinking under one, or the motion which produces this

D

Nas

effect, is an actual translatory motion shared by the whole
vessel. By far the greater part of it is due to rocking
about some centre (whether fixed or instantaneous), at
some distance from the passenger, just as a boy moves
really up and down on a see-saw, while the plank simply
rocks about a fixed centre. A very large portion of the
apparent motion of translation will therefore be cured by
neutralising the rocking; and so far as rolling is con-
cerned, we have no doubt that all rocking will be effec-
tually cured. Even as regards pitching, we are disposed
to think that in large vessels this is seldom very trouble-
some when there is pitching and nothing else. It is the
combination of pitching with rolling which is so difficult
to bear ; and we have reason to know that a vessel's pitch-
ing is almost invariably accompanied with a roll of very
considerably greater amount than the fore and aft motion.
Apart from the much more confused and distressing
character of the combined motion, we think that the
pitching would be found to be a much smaller effect than
is commonly believed, if the rolling were wholly got
rid of.

On the whole, while we are unwilling to commit our-
selves to any prophecy, either of complete success or of
partial failure, we think very favourably of the proposal.
As a mere scientific experiment it is one of the very
highest interest. As a practical design it offers a sure
prospect of realising a large part of its intention, and a
fair prospect of attaining a high degree of success. We
feel confident that it will save a great many who would
otherwise suffer, from being sea-sick at all, but we can
hardly hope that there will not be sufficient residual
motion in very heavy weather to cause some degree of
uneasiness to very sensitive persons; nor would we
venture to predict what will be the numerical reduction in
the proportion of persons relieved from sickness, or the
amount of alleviation to those not wholly saved from it.

It remains to say a few words on the question of safety.
The inquiry of the timid will be, What if anything goes
wrong? How will you control this great moving mass of
150 or 200 tons if a valve should give way or a pipe
burst? The answer is immediate. In case of accident,
the saloon would simply be disabled from moving inde-
pendently of the ship, and the worst that could happen
would be that the passengers would not get the relief
desired, but would simply be as in the saloon of an ordi-
nary vessel, and with much better ventilation. Even if
the machinery broke down badly, it would be the work of
a moment for those in charge to jam the saloon most
effectually, so as to make it a fixed part of the ship. The
hydraulic machinery is similar to that which has been for
along time used by Mr. Bessemer in controlling large
masses of molten iron, and has, therefore, been fully tested
and shown to be efficient.

SCIENCE IN CEYLON

SUPPLEMENT toa recent number of the Ceylon
LA Observer contains the first address of the new
Governor of Ceylon, his Excellency the Right Hon. W. H.
Gregory. Onthe opening of the session of the Legislative
Council, his Excellency proposes to take a vote of 50,000
rupees for the commencement of a Museum of Natural
History and Antiquities. The cost of the building when

NATURE ©

[NMov. 21, 1872
completed in the rough is to be 80,000 rupees. He says,
“the want of a museum in which may be represented thi
natural history, antiquities, and industrial products of
island has been forcibly urged on me by persons of
classes. For a comparatively small sum, conside ri
the object in view, a museum may be constructed, whi
shall not be a mere random collection of miscellaneo
objects, but a scientific teaching exhibition. To carry
out thoroughly our purpose, it will be necessary that th
head of the institution should be a person compet
from knowledge and scientific training to arrange
proper sequence the various specimens as they come m
to give information to the student, and probably to giv
lectures occasionally on the different branches of
collections, such as on the principles of classification,
habits, instincts, and economical uses of each cla:
The salary of the Director to be appointed is to be ;
liberal one, in order that a man of high acquirements maj
be induced to undertake the task. The archeology of
island is to be well represented in the museum, anc
contain reproductions of the many ancient inscrip
therein existing in the form of photographs, casts,
hand copies. The collection generally is to be stri
confined to the products of Ceylon. New regulations
to be made for the management of the forests and to’
vent the present waste of timber, for the carrying ow
which foresters are to be appointed. A hope is expresse
that the cultivation of cinchona will be extended, Th
soil and climate of Ceylon are peculiarly adapted to 1
growth of this plant, Ceylon samples of bark fetchin;
higher market price than similar ones from Ootacamunt
It is also hoped that the production of tea may be
up by the planters. Silk may, perhaps, also be added t
the productions of the island. The mulberry tree grov
quickly and vigorously in Ceylon, the worms are reé
ported hardy and to thrive well; but difficulties ari:
from the want of patient and skilled hands in th
winding of the silk. The dried cocoons would probal ]
have to be sent to Europe to be spun, as they are at pre:
in largely increasing quantities from various parts of 1
East. Regulations are to be made for the prese
of game, z.c., deer, elk, buffaloes, and pea-fowls, not fo
the benefit of the sportsmen, but for that of the native:
population. ;

The natives complain that bodies of strangers enter
district, drive into a narrow compass and shoot down an
wound large quantities of deer, the flesh of which is drie
carried away, and sold; that this wholesale destru ‘ia
goes on at all seasons; and that the breed of buff
is deteriorating by the slaughter of the wild males.
tame buffaloes are, in Ceylon, turned out loose into tl
jungle when not employed in the paddy fields or elsewher
and interbreed with the wild ones. During the whol
the Governor’s journeys in the northern and eastern p
vinces he saw only two deer and heard onepea-fowl, alth
riding over ground where, a few years previously, all k
of game abounded. We think the Governor was unluc
in his experiences. There are still plenty of peacocks |
be seen about Trincomalee, at least where we lately can
across upwards of thirty in one afternoon. It is still €
tremely desirable that the wanton destruction of gan
should be put a stop to, A close time is to be e
and driving prohibited except by the inhabitants of:

Re

Reference is further made to the late floods. Within

last fortnight a great calamity has befallen us. Inun-
ions to an extent unknown in the colony for a long
es of years have inflicted serious though only temporary
ge on a large tract of country. The loss of life, so
as I can ascertain, has been but small, considering the
denness and extent of the floods ; but many houses
e been swept away, and a large amount of native pro-
destroyed.”
_ It appears that a bridge on the Randy railway, that
‘over the Hanwella road, was broken down by the flood,
id at the time the Governor spoke traffic with the Central
vince was interrupted. Three persons employed in the
ment were drowned when the railway bridge was
away. Science is evidently not likely to suffer in
ie hands of Mr. Gregory.

EAN METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
rks to accompany the Monthly Charts of Metcoro-

logical Observations for No. 3 Square, extending from
the Equator to 10° N., and from 20° to 30° W. (Printed
for private circulation, by authority of the Meteorologi-
cal Committee of the Board of Trade.)
HIS portion of the Meteorological Committee’s workin
the discussion of Ocean Meteorology has been printed
he Committee for distribution among meteorologists
others, with the view of eliciting their opinions on the
ty of the method adopted, together with any sugges-
s they may have to offer. The chart issued with the
marks gives the results of the discussion of No, 3
uare of Marsden’s numbered squares for the month of
January. This square has been selected as the one of
eatest importance, and in which the largest number of ob-
ervations have been collected. It is divided in the chart
into 100 squares of 1° each, in which are set down, ina
mpact form, the results of the discussion as respects
wind, variation, atmospheric pressure, air and sea tempe-
rature, humidity, the currents and specific gravity of the
sea, and, in the margin, weather and cloud.
~ In attempting to give the results of so many subjects in
a small space, and with one printing, not a little has been
sacrificed to clearness. The chart has considerable merit
is an ingenious and compact tabulation of results ; but
ittle praise can be awarded to it as a chart or diagram
telling its own story at once clearly and readily to the eye
—a characteristic which charts specially addressed to
eamen ought to have. Printing in colours would intro-
luce some improvement, but as regards the important
subject of the winds more will be required, if the present
ethod of presenting the results be adhered to. By
this rnethod the arrow representing the largest number of
vind observations extends to the centre of the circle in-
sluded in each square ; and hence the arrows represent-

ng the winds of difzvent squares cannot be directly com-
gared together. Since such comparisons can only be
made by the arrows of each square being drawn to show
by their lengths the percentages each wind direction is of
the whole number of winds observed in the square, a
separate wind chart will be necessary in the text accom-
nying the charts.

Three small charts are given with the Remarks (p. 43),
showing the pressure and temperature of the air and the

_ NATURE

43

temperature of the sea. These have been constructed by
grouping the roo squares into twenty-five squares of 2°
each. As respects pressure, the isobarics are drawn for
every two-hundredths of an inch of mean pressure. The
outré forms of the isobarics are such as to suggest the idea
that the method of discussing the barometric observations
is faulty. An examination shows it to be so on two im-
portant points, which will appear from the following
extract from the chart of the observations of the four
contiguous sub-squares (Nos. 59, 58, 49, and 48), of which
the mean pressures are stated in inches, the number of
observations in each case being printed within brackets :—

ON,
29'882 29.963
(3) (14)
SN. | l
| 29°870 | 29°939
(2) | (15)
4°N.

30° W. 29° W. 28° W.

In the small isobaric chart these four results are treated
as of equal value, and the average of this 2° Square is
calculated by taking their simple arithmetical mean ;
accordingly 29’914 inches is entered as the mean. Now
a little reflection shows that the averages 29882 and
29°870 inches, based respectively on 3 and 2 observations,
are very faulty as approximations to the true averages of
their squares. In such cases the method of discussion is
to deduce the new averages not from the averages of the
four sub-squares, but from the whole of the observations
added together and divided by 34, the number of the
observations. By doing so we obtain in the above case
the average 29940 inches. Similarly we have dis-
cussed the whole of the 100 squares, and the result is the
disappearance of several of the anomalies in the new
isobarics drawn from the twenty-five new averages thus
calculated.

But other anomalies remain, which lead to the second
point on which the method of discussion is defective.
The method is thus described in the Introductory Re-
marks (page 1) :—

“The various hours at which the observations were
taken may not give the mean result for the twenty-four
hours ; still,as the same hours have been generally ex-
tracted, we may confidently hope that the temperatures
and pressures obtained from the means of the whole will
give very good relative results for comparing the meteoro-
logical state of one part of 10° square with that-of another.
In making the extracts the hour of each observation has
been recorded, so that any inquiry depending on the
hours might be carried out if thought requisite.”

The confident hope here expressed is very remarkable
in the face of the averages printed on the chart, of which
an example is given above. The truth is, comparable-
ness of the results of the different squares is not to be
looked for except in cases where the observations are
numerous. Since the daily range of the barometer is
large in these regions, averages based only on a few
observations—regarding the hours at which they were
made we have no information—are worthless in every
inquiry in which comparisons require to be made. Now
looking at the squares, we find from the chart that there

Cae Tad et ae

pen

44

are fifty-one out of the 100 whose pressure averages are
based on fewer than twenty observations ; thirty-five
averages on fewer than fifteen observations ; and sixteen
averages, or a sixth of the whole, based on fewer than
ten observations. Hence the incomparableness of the
results of the 1° and 2° squares, zfev se, and the general
unsatisfactoriness of this part of the work. The same
objections apply with perhaps equal force to the discus-
sions of the temperatures of the air and those of the sea.

Range corrections for pressure and temperature
over the region under discussion are not yet accurately
enough known to justify the committee in “ correcting”

' the results on the large chart by hypothetical corrections.
Since, however, it is most desirable to attempt a discus-
sion of the results of the squares, so as to arrive at a
knowledge of the approximate distribution of the tempe-
rature and pressure of this important part of the ocean ;
and since such a discussion necessarily calls for a preli-
minary preparation of the results by the application of
such approximate corrections for range as we are in pos-
session of, and which cannot be far from the mark; the
Meteorological Committee will require to give ‘he mean
day of the month and the mean hour of the day for each of
the averages of the squares. Indeed, without this addi-
tional information the results can scarcely be said to
possess any strict scientific value.

With this additional information, some highly interesting
questions suggested by the chart could be examined, such
as the relations of the pressure, air and sea temperature,
and humidity in these 1° squares, viz., Nos. 93, 94; 82,
83; and 72, 73, to the squares contiguous to them. But,
so far as the chart informs us, the interesting anomalies
here indicated may be due to no more than differences
in the mean hour of the observations of each square.

We should also wish to see added, as respects each
square, an enumeration of all the unusually low and un-
usually high observations of pressure and temperature
which have been made use of in calculating the averages.
This will be the more desirable as the discussion proceeds
into other parts of the ocean where barometric and ther-
mometric disturbances are of more frequent occurrence,
and where the number of observations is fewer than in
this No. 3 square “in which the largest number of ob-
servations have been collected.”

The vital importance of a knowledge of pressure and
temperature range in discussing Ocean Meteorology it is
unnecessary to insist upon. For this information we must
look, perhaps we may say exclusively, to the Boards of
Admiralty of this and other countries, it being only through
such bodies that systems of hourly or two-hourly observa-
tions at sea can be organised and carried out. May we hope
that, among the contributions to science which Prof.
Wyville Thomson will bring back from his circumnavi-
gation cruise, one will be data for the determination of
barometric and thermometric constants which are so indis-
pensable in the reduction of Ocean Meteorological sta-
tistics.

In offering these suggestions to the consideration of the
Meteorological Committee, we desire to express our deep
sense of the importance of this department of their work,
and our hearty thanks for the care they are taking to en-
sure its efficient execution ; and we may confidently hope
that the method of discussion finally resolved on will lead

NATURE

[Nov. 21, 187

to results which, taken in connection with similar disc’
sions undertaken by the Dutch, French, German, }
wegian, and other Governments, will place Ocean Meteor
ology on a broad and sound basis, and thus lead towa1
the solution of many questions vital, not merely to na
gation, but to a right understanding "OF the more complex
problems of the Land Meteorology of the Globe,

GIEBEL’S THESAURUS ORNITHOLOGIZ

Thesaurus Ornithologie. Repertorium der gessamm)
ornithologischen Literatur und Nomenclatur sam
licher Gattungen und Arten der Vogel nebst Synonymie
und geographischer Verbreitung. Von Dr. C,
Giebel. Erster und Zweiter Halbbinder. (Leipzig :
Brockhaus, 1872.) ‘a

N this work, we regret to’say, the performance does
not equal the promise. Nothing would be more ac
ceptable to the many students of the class of Birds than
such a “ Repertorium” as Prof. Giebel’s title seems to
indicate. Nor is there anything objectionable in the
manner in which he proposes to treat his son 1e-
what extensive subject, although other plans would be
equally or more convenient. But when we come to look
into details and to consider the mode of execution,
must condemn the work as almost useless to ornitholo-
gists from its errors and imperfections.
The first portion of the “ Repertorium” professes to
give us a complete list of the literature relating to orni-
thology, arranged under certain heads. But numerous
volumes and papers of the greatest importance to the
ornithologist are either altogether omitted, or are insert.
ed under wrong headings. For example, Cabanis and
Heine’s “ Museum Heineanum” is not alluded to at all,”
nor can we find Finsch and Hartlaub’s “ Ornithologie
Ost-Afrika’s,” Fraser’s “Zoologia Typica,” or Gilliss’s
* Astronomical Expedition” (Birds by Cassin) entered
under the proper heads, These are all works which a
working ornithologist would have occasion to consult fre-
quently. A long list might easily be made of simi
omissions. In the section of this part of the “Rep
torium” which treats of local faunas, many ridiculous
blunders are made. Memoirs referring to Africa and
South America are entered under Asia, and a number of
South American papers are attributed either to America
Septentrionalis, or America Centralis,
In the second part of the “ Repertorium,” call d
“ Nomenclator Ornithologicus,” it is pretended to giv
list of all the described genera and species of the class
birds in alphabetical order, with references to authoriti
synonymy, and other points. Nothing could be of greater
use to the ornithologist, if such a task were well or even
fairly well performed. But this, we regret to say, is:
the case, as anyone with previous knowledge of the sub-
ject will very quickly discover, on turning over Prof,
Giebel’s pages. It is, in fact, quite evident that the
“Repertorium” is a mere compilation, upon which, no
doubt, long and weary labour has been bestowed,
which, as is often the case with compilations, will be
very little value to the student, owing to the com
having had insufficient previous knowledge of his
ject.

1872] 3

OUR BOOK SHELF

leontographica. Beitriige zur Naturgeschichte der
Vorwelt, herausgegeben von Dr. W. Dunker and Dr.
. A. Zittel. Band XX. Lief. 5. September 1872.
ndon : Williams and Norgate.) .
S part of the “ Palzeontographica” contains a continu-
ation of Dr. Geinitz’s description of the fossils of the
Lower Quader Sandstone of the Valley of the Elbe in
ixony, and includes an account of the Brachiopoda and
he early families (Hippuritidee, Ostracidze, Spondylide,
and Pectinidz) of the Pelecypoda. The species are care-
fully described and beautifully figured, and the synonymy
and distribution of them are discussed at some length, so
| that the work must be regarded as indispensable for the
‘student of the Cretaceous rocks.
_ In some general remarks prefixed to his descriptions
Dr. Geinitz calls attention to the interest attaching to these
‘Saxon fossils, in some cases owing to their wide geogra-
hical range, in others to their long range in time during
e Cretaceous period. Thus of the species here noticed,
Ostrea carinata, diluviana,andhippopodium, Exogyra late-
‘alts, columba, and haliotoidea, Pecten membranaceus, and
curvatus, Vola phaseola, guinguecostata,and guadricostata,
and Zima tecta, are common to the Cretaceous rocks of
' the Elbe Valley in Saxony and of Southern India, in both
which localities the lower members of the Cretaceous
series (Neocomian and Gault) are wanting. Juoceramus
labiatus and Ammonites peramplus are also referred to as
fossils common to the two localities. On the other hand
a collection of Cretaceous fossils from the neighbourhood
of Colorado city and the north of New Mexico also in-
cluded examples of Znoceramus labiatus, Ammonites per-
amplus, Baculites baculoides, Inoceramus Brongniarti,
and a species resembling J/. striatus, evidently represent-
‘ing the Middle Planer of the Elbe Valley, and derived
from similar beds of Chalk-marl, over which lie beds with
Inoc. Goldfussianus, Baculites,and Scaphites, evidently be-
longing to the age of the White Chalk. These facts, as
Dr. Gcinitz remarks, furnish support to the assumption of
migrations of species from India to Europe, or from
_ Europe to America, long before the human race took the
same road.
__ The most interesting cases of the long-continued ex-
istence of species are those relating to the occurrence
_ thus low down in the Cretaceous series of species common
_ to these deposits and to the latest beds of this formation in
_ the province of Schonen in Sweden. Dr. Geinitz also
_ calls attention to the variations occurring in the species
here noticed, and to the apparent interdependence of many
of those in older and newer parts of the formation, so
that, as he says, “it is not difficult to sketch a regular
genealogical tree for various series.”

Theoretische Maschinenlehre. Von Dr. F. Grashof. In
_ vier Banden. Erster Band. Erste Lieferung. (Lon-
_ don: Williams and Norgate.)
THE first number of this work has been issued during the
‘present year. From the preface we learn that the object
of the work is the theoretical investigation of the pro-
_ blems involved in the theory of machinery. In the first
volume will be discussed the mechanical theory of heat,
the theory of hydraulics, and certain other parts of theo-
_ retical physics and of applied mechanics, which will be
useful in the subsequent portions. The second volume
will contain the elements of machines, of mechanical
-movements, and of governors, and also of mechanical
_ instruments—z.c., instruments for measuring time, velocity,
_ mass, force, and energy.
_. The third volume discusses the machines which serve
_ for the application of natural agents to technical purposes,
- machines for employing the power of animals, hydraulic
_ wheels, windmills, steam engines, and especially heat
- engines in the widest sense. Finally, the fourth volume

45
maschinen)—that is, machines for moving about and
hoisting solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies (locomotives,
screw-propellers, winding machines, rams, pumps, blow-
ing machines), also machines for the working and ma-
nipulation of rigid bodies, such as hammering and rolling
machines, sawing machines, &c.

The number which lies before us principally discusses
the mechanical theory of heat. This subject is entered
into with great thoroughness and profundity, and includes
an elaborate discussion upon radiant heat and many other
collateral matters. It need hardly be added that for the

perusal of this work a sound knowledge of mathematics
is indispensable.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Kew Gardens and the National Herbarium

Pror. OWEN has very imperfectly stated the facts respecting
the cultivation of the ipecacuanha plant at Kew and in India.

My friend Mr. McNab says of the ipecacuanha (Trans. Bot.
Soc., vol. x. 319): ‘It is a plant of remarkably slow growth ;
the largest plant in the Botanic Garden at Edinburgh is scarcely
one foot in height, although more than thirty years of age, and
has three leading shoots, each four inches in length. The method
hitherto adopted of propagating the Cephaélis (as far as I am
aware) is by cuttings, but of these not more than one or two can
be got at a time, and at long intervals.” :

It was the possession in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden of old
long-established plants, with well-developed, rhizome-like root-
lets, and the difficulty experienced there in obtaining cuttings,
which suggested to Mr. McNab a method of propagation. which
has since been found exceedingly successful, and for which he
deserves every possible credit. In a printed report to the Secre-
tary of State for India (11695) Dr. Anderson states: “ It was
when examining the old plants in order that the best method of
propagating might be determined on, that it occurred to Mr,
McNab that the numerous root-Jike tubers might be taken advan-
tage of as a means of rapidly increasing the plant.”

At Kew no such great difficulty has been experienced in in-
creasing the ipecacuanha by ordinary cuttings, the original speci-
men having during the last six years been by this means increased
manifold. On the other hand, the constant demand for cuttings
from the Kew plant has prevented the formation of the tuberous
rhizomes which in the case of the Edinburgh one were the result
of thirty years’ growth.

As far as the resources of Kew Gardens would allow, all
three presidencies of India were supplied with ipecacuanha plants,
not once only, but at various times. Most of these perished in
India, some from being planted in unsuitable sites, others from
accident ; and it was not till 1868 that its cultivation promised
success, upon which its propagation on an extensive scale was
ordered by the Government of India.

Of the plants sent to Calcutta from Kew, one which arrived in
1866 had in 1869 produced twenty plants (Anderson, I.c. p. 3) ; of
these twelve were sent to Sikkim, where seven were ‘‘ killed by a
coolie falling on them and completely smashing them” (Report
of the Calcutta Botanic Garden, April 25, 1871). The further

history of the remainder is detailed in Dr. King’s report, which ~

is quoted by Prof. Owen, but in a very unfair manner. The
passage which he has extracted proceeds as follows beyond the
point where he stops: ‘‘The five plants in Sikkim were, early
in the current year, submitted by Messrs. Gammie, Bierman, and
Jaffrey, of the Cinchona plantations, to a most successful experi-
ment in artificial propagation, by which four hundred cuttings
were obtained, the greater proportion of which have formed good

_ will be occupied with machines for doing work (Avde‘t- | roots, and are now fine healthy little plants.” |

wierd Sl ateen TCl 14 tik ah ete. 2
: id ee |

va

That the cultivation of ipecacuanha should be taken up at
Edinburgh is nothing more than might reasonably be demanded
of a garden maintained at the national expense. It was indeed
an arrangement which the residence at Edinburgh of Dr.
Anderson, the then Superintendent of the Calcutta Botanic
Garden, who was home on sick leave, rendered eminently de-
sirable, and one upon which I was fully consulted by the Govern-
ment, as appears in Dr. Anderson’s report already quoted. Nor,
in reference to the subject, should it in fairness be suppressed,
that not only has the successful introduction of the ipecacuanha
into India been due to the establishment at Kew, but that Kew
has at the same time supplied living plants to Ceylon, the Mau-
ritius, Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbadoes, Queensland, and various
home and continental gardens.

Prof. Owen again appears to have been completely misinformed
in respect to Welwitschia, which, he implies, had been sent
to Kew in a state fit for cultivation. A very large and old spe-
cimen with the tap-root chopped off before its arrival, was
placed for convenience in a pot of earth, and exhibited in the
succulent house, where it would be likely to attract much atten-
tion, and would also be in contiguity to other plants from the
same region. This was done without the slightest expectation
of its showing any disposition to grow, and solely to gratify the
public curiosity. On the appearance of symptoms of decay
from the dampness incidental to a greenhouse, it was at once
transferred to the museum, where it now remains. Prof. Owen,
apparently quoting a statement in my memoir on Welwitschia,
pointedly alludes to the fact that ‘‘cones with ripe seeds” had
been received at Kew, but he omits to give the following words,
“the albumen of which was perfectly rotten;” and when
alluding to my acknowledgment of the receipt of ‘‘ fine young
plants,” he does not add that these were Dr. Weliwitsch’s speci-
mens gathered years before.

Prof. Owen refers to my answer to Q. 6,661 in the evidence
given before the Royal Commission, as having by groundless in-
sinuation ‘‘inflicted pain on fellow-servants of the State and
collaborators in science, on men at least his (my) equals, and
one of whom in a recondite botanical problem has shown him-
self his (my) superior.” As Prof. Owen does not quote this
question and answer, I shall do so. They are as follows :—
Q. 6,661.—‘‘ Has there been insufficient space in the British
Museum for the reception of specimens for the enlargement of
its herbaria, or has any other obstacle interfered? ””—A. “‘ With
regard to the British Museum I do not think any person can
answer that except the officers of the establishment. I do not
think that the nature and extent of its botanical collections or
their condition is well known except to its officers.”

I leave it to the reader to say whether any possible insinuation
could be conveyed in such an answer, and, being unconscious of
any, shall conclude with expressing my conviction that here again
Prof, Owen has been misinformed. J. D. Hooxer

Royal Gardens, Kew, Noy. 15

The Diathermacy of Flame

I HAVE to thank Lord Rosse for pointing out an omission in
my communication on this subject. It was not, however, an
‘oversight,’ as Lord Rosse supposes, the source of error in
question having been duly considered, and its amount calculated,
when the experiments were made. It was neglected on account
of its smallness, As its theoretical importance is unquestionable,
and the amount of experimental error is likely to be much over-
rated, I gladly supply the following figures, which show that
this source of error was fairly negligible.

As heat, like all other radiant forces, necessarily diffuses with
the square of the distance from its source, my method of main-
taining a constant mean distance by lighting an equal number of
jets equidistant from each side of the middle flame, was liable to
an error equal to the difference between the square of the dis-
ance of the middle flame from the thermometer and the mean

of the squares of the distances of the other flames. The fiz
were } of an inch apart, and the middle flame was 14 in, dis
from the thermometer. Thus, in the first trial, when only th
flames were lighted, the distance of the nearest was 13¢ in., of
the middle 14in., and of the farthest 14}in. Taking } in. as
our unit, the middle flame was 56 distant, the nearest 55, and,
the farthest 57. 56” = 3136, 55? = 3025, and 57? = 3249
The mean of 3025 and 3249 is 3137, instead of 3136 as ex

mentally assumed; the error tin this case is thus only a
. a

Deri-

1
74°25,
of a degree, a quantity far too small for consideration in using
common laboratory thermometer reading only to half degrees,

Proceeding onwards, the error of course continued incre
until it reached its maximum, when the 1st and 17th jet ,
lighted. The 1st was 48 quarter inches distant from th ;.
thermometer, the 17th was 62, 48?=2304, 627=3844. The
mean of these is 3074, instead of the experimentally assumed
mean of 56°=3136. The difference is 62, i.e. re ip
the last increment of heat. Thus the maximum error was less.
than /'5 of a degreee, and the mean error lies between this and

of a degree. ;

of the 4° increase which my thermometer registered, or

I
784°25 i
As regards the last paragraph of Lord Rosse’s letter, I

would suggest that, with gas passing through a given orifi an
the passage of equal quantities neccessarily implies equal
pressure ; that in turning the micrometer screw of the sup-
ply tap so as to cause each additional pair of equal jets to
consume an equal additional quantity of gas, I was merely
admitting into the space between the tap and the jets a quantity
of gas just sufficient to maintain an equal elastic tension or
pressure in spite of the varying quantity issuing from the jets. 3

W. Marttieu WILLIAMS —

Skeletons of Wild Animals

Mr. CLARK, of Cambridge, in Nature of Oct. 31, remarks
on the general absence of skeletons, especially those of the Felidae,
in museums, and states that, so far as he knows, no European —
museum possesses more than skulls. It is with pleasure, there-
fore, that I draw his attention to the fact of the existence of a
perfect skeleton of thejlion in the Ipswich Museum. Besides this,
there is a skeleton of the mole, one of the dog-faced monkey
(Cynocephalus anubis), one of the dolphin, two very finely pre- —
pared skeletons of the boa constrictor, besides others of the
ostrich, &c, J. E. Taytor

Treble Rainbow ¥

Anour the middle of August, whilst standing on platform of
the station at Exmouth, I witnessed a phenomenon which I a
think is rare enough,to be worthy of record. The sun was about.
an hour off the western horizon, and the river, which is to the
west of the station, and is in that part about a mile and a-half
broad, was perfectly calm ; but there must have been a breeze
blowing overhead, for a heavy shower of rain came rapidly up
from the westward, and when it had passed to leeward displayed
the two ordinary rainbows brightly ; and not only these, for
between them appeared the arcs of a third bow cutting the other —
two, the inner one on the horizon and the outer about ten d
or thereabouts above it. This third rainbow appeared to
its centre as much above as that of the ordinary rainbow was —
below the horizon, and was due to the reflection of the sun from
the calm surface of the river. The arcs of the third rainbow ex-
tended but a very small distance beyond the secondary bow, but
were bright enough at the intersection to show a sort of check-
work of colours, which presented a most curious appearance.

Oxford, Nov. 5 A. Mattock ~

Circular Spraybows

THERE have been several accounts lately in NATURE of circular _
rainbows, but none of your correspondents have mentioned q
“ circular spraybows ;” of course, in themselves they are of no
great value, but under certain circumstances they can be seen.
so near that their brilliancy exceeds that of a rainbow,

The most perfect which I have seen was at the Falls of Foyers, —
off Loch-ness, at 8 A.M. on September 1, 1868, The previous"

-
A

Pe

y

a,

mB sb sf : ad
y had been wet, so that the falls had a greater volume of water
than usual. At that time the sun, as seen from the platform for
»wing the falls, was ascending just above the ledge of the rock
er which the water was precipitated, and on looking away from

it an entire rainbow was visible, excepting that part which was
caused by the shadow of the lower part of my body ; in conse-

quence of the spray being all round me, the proximity of the bow

added brilliancy to the colours, which surpassed anything of the

kind that could be seen inarainbow. 1 took no measurements.
Can any of your correspondents give examples of bows being
en on a cloudless background? Some years ago I saw a rain-

pow in what seemed a cloudless sky, but the surprising fact that
rain was lightly falling from this apparently cloudless sky shows
"that if there were not clouds there were drops of water-fall over

area, and which formed a background. I am aware of
G. H. H.

Mr. Rocematnn’s authority for such a phenomenon,

_ Birkenhead

: Elephas Americanus in Canada

- CapTain Howpen, of Millbrook, Ontario, has lately dis-
covered remains of this species in a field adjoining his residence.
They were found in the humus quite near the surface, and with

- the exception of the molars have been very much broken by the
Plough. The locality is a deep basin, depressed 100 or 150 feet

elow the surrounding hills, which may have been the basin of a
small lake or pond. The elevation is about 490 feet above Lake
Ontario, and 125 feet above Rice Lake, on the northern slope of
the drift-ridge which borders Lake Ontario on the north. The

discovery is interesting as extending the range of this animal in
- Canada, eastward, along this drift-ridge.

The remains hereto-
fore discovered have been confined to the western peninsula,
above the Silurian escarpment, or to positions so nearly adjacent
that they may have been washed down from this upper region.
The present discovery is at an elevation which precludes this, and
seems to indicate the presence of the living animal in this region.
Between the ridge and the present lake shore there are at least
two ancient lake beaches, one about 100 feet above the present

_ water level, the other a little over 200 feet. Neither of these

would bring the waters of the lake up to the level of the escarp-

_ ment ; so that at the time of these higher lake levels, the elephant
_ may have ranged over the western peninsula of Canada, and also

eastward over the drift-hills which extend nearly to the lower

end of Lake Ontario.

Victoria College, Cobourg, Oct. 4 N. BurwasH

F Reason or Instinct ?
CONSIDERATIONS on the nature of Instinct will ever engage

the attention of the student of Nature, and certainly interest in

the subject is not likely to flag at a time when psychological
manifestations and relations are being more and more sought
amongst the lower animals. Your correspondent of the roth of

October last touches on their power of enumeration, which, even

in the case of the sagacious dog, appears to be very limited.

Nevertheless, I have been assured by a reliable friend, now de-

ceased, that his wiry terrier would, at his order, run round the
table once, twice, or thrice, for a suitable reward.

The idea of alternation, and an example of memory, came
under my own observation some time ago at the Grotto del Cani,
near Naples, where I witnessed the somewhat unnecessary expe-
riment of the deleterious effects of carbonic acid on the unfortu-
nate dogs kept for that purpose. On walking to the cave, I
remarked that one of the dogs gambolled round the guide, whilst

the other followed at his heels with slouched tail and hanging
ear. The guide assured me that each dog knew when it was his

turn to be dropped into the heavy stratum of gas on the floor of

the cave, from whence, after partial suffocation, he is thrown into

~ the cool lake close by for resuscitation.

With reference to the gwasi-reasoning in adaptation of means
to an end, under exceptional circumstances, I adduce the fol-

lowing :—

Many caterpillars of Pieris rape have, during this autumn, fed
below my windows. On searching for suitable positions for pass-

ing into chrysalides, some eight or ten individuals, in their direct
_ march upwards, encountered the plate-glass panes of my windows ;

~ on these they appeared to be unable to stand. Accordingly, in

every case they made silken ladders, some of them five feet long,
each ladder being formed of a single continuous thread, woven in

3 elegant loops from side to side. The method here adopted is

similar in kind to that employed by the glacier climber, who cuts

S. M. Drach writes at p. 204.
tion derived from the 19-year cycle is called the Molad or
Moon-birth,” and I wish to ascertain how this so-called “‘mean
conjunction ” is arrived at.

foot-holes with his hatchet to enable him to mount the icy preci-
pices which impede him.

In the case of the above caterpillars, however, reasoning seems

to be but narrow, for one ladder was constructed parallel to the
window-frame for nearly three feet, on which secure footing could
be had by simply diverting the track twoinches. Some of these
insects have now passed into pupz, and are curiously supported or
slung by their well-known silken band across the thorax, under
the drip-stone of the window. Such facts, though simple, should
warn us against dogmatically fixing the points in the animal king-
dom at which instinct ends and reason begins.
overlap?

Do they not
G. B, BuckTon
Weycombe, Haslemere

Lunar Calendars

In a communication addressed to NATURE for 1871, Mr.
“The true mean conjunc-

T have before me the twonew Almanacks published by Vallen-

tine and by Abrahams, by which I find the ‘‘ moon-birth 4;
generally put down at about six hours after the time quoted in
the “Nautical Almanack” for 1873. From facts that have
reached me, I conclude that the data for these publications are
derived from a skeleton almanack printed by German Jews at

Altona, containing the necessary particulars for fifty and eighty

years in advance; and no doubt correctly calculated for that
locality.
by Jews in all countries, or whether they are at liberty to calcu-
late the time of new moon for their own meridian ?

I ask whether the data there given are to be accepted

I may take this opportunity to point out the following dis-
crepancy :—
True New Moon, Thursday, Nov. 20, 1873, 3.36 A.M.
Moeled Kisley, Wednesday, Nov. 19, 1873, 1.14. 1 A.M.,
according to Vallentine, but marked P.M. in Abrahams. Both
the latter must be in error, because in advance of true time.
Myors

Early Eclipses

IN looking through some back numbers of NaTuRE, I came
onapaper by Mr. Hind, in which he examines whether any
great eclipse took place at the time of the Crucifixion of Christ.
He says that ‘‘although a great total eclipse was visible at Jeru-
salem in A.D. 29, yet, in the year 33 no eclipse of importance
took place.” * Mr. Hind seems to have forgotten that in the
opinion of most divines, Christ was born four years before the
vulgar era, so that in the year 29 He would have been 33 years
old. Remembering this point, it seems highly probable that the
account of how “the sun was turned into darkness, and the moon
into blood” may be a correct account, not only of the occurrence
of an eclipse, but of an early observation of the now famous red
prominences. G,

Cambridge

Water-beetles

I HAVE to thank Mr. Buchanan White (NATURE, Sept. 12)
for the statement that ‘‘ many water-beetles are not only winged
but use their wings.”? My error as to fact, however, has no
effect on the argument of my letter (NATURE, Sept. 5), which
was, that although it is probable the first insects emerged from
the water with their wings formed, yet the existing aquatic in-
sects throw no light on the origin of the class,

JosEerH JoHN MurrHy

Old Forge, Dunmurry, County Antrim

= =

PHOSPHORESCENCE IN FISH

iG two recent numbers of NATURE, Nos. 153 and 154,

and more particularly the former one, attention is
drawn to the question of phosphoric phenomena connec-
ted with living fish ; but while it has been proved beyond
dispute that certain fish, Cyclopterus lumpus, for instance,
do possess highly luminous properties, the two cases in
point may, I think, be referred rather to the combined
effects of the microscopic Voctiluce.

he z quote from memory, and therefore perhaps not quite in Mr. Hind’s
words,

During my last dredging cruise off the coast of Portu-
gal, I enjoyed many opportunities of witnessing the
brilliant and varied aspects under which such phospho-
rescence exhibits itself, though instances more strictly
parallel with those quoted in the two communications
referred to, occurred, perhaps, while returning by steamer
from Lisbon, after its expiration.

On such favourable nights, as the vessel progressed
through the waters, shoals of small fish might be seen
darting away in every direction, themselves apparently
luminous, and leaving behind them bright tracks of phos-
phoric light, while now and then a fish of larger size
would make its appearance, producing a similar effect,
though of proportionately greater brilliancy. The coup
@@il produced by their countless numbers was most mag-
nificent, and in miniature vividly recalled to mind the
meteoric showers that periodically illumine our summer
nights. On all such occasions as the foregoing, the water
when closely examined was invariably found to be literally
teeming with JVocétiluca miliaris, its presence being
manifest again in the broad track of phosphoric light
visible for many hundred yards in the wake of the vessel,
while the shaft of the screw was brilliantly illuminated by
their countless numbers, excited into active display of
their phosphoric properties by the rapid revolutions of its
ponderous blades.

Had Mr. Hall examined the “ globules of fatty matter”
contained in the spray thrown on deck on the night he
refers to, with the aid of the microscope, he would no
doubt have traced the light to the same source, and
discovered that each luminous point represented a single
individual of the tiny rhizopod here mentioned. His
hypothesis that they were possibly portions of “ fatty
matter” thrown off by the fish themselves, seems scarcely
tenable, and more particularly if we accept, as we are
bound to, that the luminous tracks left behind as the fish
swims onwards are attributable to alike origin, and which
immediately suggests that such rapid desiccation would
exercise as ruinous an effect upon the poor animals’
organisation as befell the celebrated racing pigeon of
American notoriety, reported to have arrived at its desti-
nation bereft of every feather, lost one by one through the
friction attendant upon the high rate of speed at which the
bird had travelled.

In addition to Voctz/uca, innumerable other forms, such
as minute Crustacea, Salpze, jelly-fish, &c., contribute
towards the ocean’s nocturnal luminosity; but all these
latter, and more especially the Salpze, for the most part
display their light spontaneously, and are restricted to
local and comparatively small areas of the ocean’s sur-
face ; while in /Voctz/uca that luminosity is entirely latent,
being dependent upon natural or artificial disturbance
and excitement to bring it into action ; and though ex-
ceedingly minute, the separate individuals rarely measur-
ing the hundredth part of an inch in diameter, occur in
such abundance that the whole surface of the sea is
equally luminous when disturbed, being frequently so
plentiful off our coasts that their aggregated bodies form
a superficial crust of considerable thickness. Disturb-
ance of the water at such times is immediately responded
to by sheet-like flashes of luminosity, while any object
passing through the water appears to be aglow itself,
partly from the direct light, and partly from the reflected
light produced by these microscopic protozoa. On the
same principle the apparent luminosity of living fish is
easily explained. Swimming through the water they
necessarily disturb countless numbers of these living
organisms, whose emitted light, actively scintillating for
several seconds after the fish has passed, produces lumi-
nous tracks wherever the fish may travel, while its own
silvery scales borrow and throw back the earliest corus-
cations it awakens in its onward course.

W. SAVILLE KENT

ng oi ;
[Woo. 21, 187:

THE FLORA OF THE QUANTOCKS*

TRE geological formation and the historical associations —

of the Quantock Hills have been abundantly investi-
gated. Their natural productions, animal or vegetable, have
not yet, so far as I know, been described or catalogued, —
although they contain specimens in both branches of —
Natural History singularly rare and souglft after, and —
though more than one zoologist er botanist of note gazes —
on them daily from the windows of his home. A paper
whose conditions are that it should be light and popular,
and that it should not exceed ten minutes in the delivery, —
cannot throw much scientific light upon the plants of the
most limited region ; but it may reveal sources of enjoy-
ment and raise individual enthusiasm, and it may remind —
this meeting that the time has possibly come, when our
association should use the means at its command to en-
courage the gradual creation of such a flora and fauna of -
the county as no single naturalist, unassisted by a public
body, can in any case trustworthily compile.

In this beautiful valley, fat with the rich red soil that —
countless millennia have seen washed down from the
surrounding hills, the flora is everywhere so unusually rich
as to win the envy and delight of strangers. It has been
my lot to pilot botanists from all parts of England in
search of local rarities ; and I have found their chief rap ~
tures given not to the uncommon flower they had come to
see, but to the profusion of form and colour which includes ~
almost every English genus; manifest in the common
turnpike roads which skirt the hills, but revealed in full
perfection to those only who penetrate the interior of the
range. In the sheltered lanes of the less wooded combes;
in the road from Kilve to Parson’s farm, the foot path from _
the Castle of Comfort to Over Stowey, above all in the
lane from the Bell inn to Aisholt, the hedge banks and the
wide grass margins of the road are scarcely surpassed in
beauty by the mosaic of a Swiss meadow or an Alpine
slope. From the beginning tothe end of June the colours
are blue and yellow ; the blue represented by the ground
ivy, the germander speedwell, the brooklime, the late bugle
and the early self-heal, the narrow-leaved flax, the long
spikes of milkwort, and the varieties of the violet; the
yellow by the birdsfoot trefoil large and small, the St. —
John’s-wort, golden mugweed, and hop trefoil, the agri-
mony, the yellow vetchling, and the countless kinds of
hawkweed. Inthe hedges above are the mealtree and
guelder rose, the madder, white campion and lady’s bed-
straw, half hidden by the twining tendrils, white blossoms,
and tiny cucumbers of the bryony; while here and there,
where the hedge gives way to an old stone pit or deserted
quarry, the tall foxglove and the great yellow mullein stand
up, harmonious sisters, to fill the gap. By the middle of
July the colours shift. The flora of early spring is gone:
the milkwort shows its pods, the speedwelljits bushy leayes;
the yellow still remains ; but the blue has given way to
pink ; to the lovely musk mallow, the horehound, doves’
foot cranesbill, restharrow, painted cup, and calaminth.
With August a third change arrives; the small short —
clustering flowers are gone: instead of them we have the
coarse straggling fleabanes, ragworts, and woodsage: the
great blue trusses of the tufted vetch and the pure white
trumpets of the bindweed take possession of the hedges ;
the yellow sagittate leaves of the black bryony and the red
berries of the mountain ash warn us that summer is past.
Our September visit marks the closing scene. The flowers
are few and far between ; but the ivy bloom is musical
with bees, the hazels put forth clusters ruddy brown as
those with which the satyr wooed the Faithful Shepherdess;
the arum pushes its poisonous scarlet fruit between the
mats of dying grass ; and the meadows which slope up-
wards from the brooks are blue with the flowers of the
colchicum. oi

These are all common flowers, whose names and habits,

* Read before the Somerset Archzeological/and!Natural History Society ~
September 12, 1872,

if education did her work, we should learn.in childhood
from our mother and our nurse : it is their immense pro-
fusion, not their rarity, that calls for notice ; and they re-
esent but a small part of the hill flora. To exhaust this
fairly we must visit four different regions—the hill tops,
‘the bogs, the coppices, and the slopes toward the sea. Of
the first it is difficult to speak without a rapturous digres-
sion as their familiar sights and sounds occur to us—the
breeze that seems half conscious of the joy it brings, the
musical hum of bees, the warble of invisible larks, the
popping of the dry furze pods in the stillness, the quivering
air above the heather, the startled spiders with their
appended egg-bags, the grasshoppers, the green hair
streaks, the gem-like tigerbeetles on the wing, in the
distance the Mendips and the yellow sea, or the long rich
valley, closed by Dunkery and Minehead.

Heath, furze, bracken, and whortle berries, are the four
_ tetrarchs of the hill tops, giving endless shades of red, and
green, and yellow. The heaths are three, and only three
—the heather, the cross-leaved heath, and the bottle heath,
the last exhibiting rarely a white variety, which in the
language of flowers tells the tenderest of tales. From
beneath their shelter peep the eyebright, the spring
potentil, the heath bedstraw, and the creeping St. John’s-
_ wort; amidst them springs the uncommon bristly bent
Tass ; everywhere the green paths which wind amongst
_ them are carpeted with the mcenchia and the little break-
_ stone, and bordered by the red and yellow sheep’s sorrel
and the pale yellow mouse-ear, On many of the prickly
furze beds grows the wiry leafless dodder ; every ditch is
_ filled with masses of lemon-scented oreopteris, and every
patch of stones is hidden by the pink blossoms of the
‘mountain stone crop. At 800 feet above the sea we meet
with mat grass and the cross-leaved heath. Higher still
_ we find the slender deers’ hair, first cousin to the isolepis
_ of our greenhouses ; and highest of all grow, for those who
_ know their haunt, two species of the stag’s horn club moss.
_ The bogs are very numerous. They form the summits
_of the combes ; and some of them descend the hill until
they join a deep cut stream. All are covered with the
turquoise bloom of the forget-me-not and the glossy pel-
_ tate leaves of the marsh pennywort, and choked with the
little water Blinks. They all include liverwort with its
umbrella-shaped fructification, sphagnum, marshwort, and
-pearlwort ; and on their margins grow the ivy-leaved hair
bell, the lesser spearwort, the lousewort, and the bog
_ pimpernel. In a few of them are found the oblong pond-
weed and the marsh St. John’s-wort ; in twocombes only,
_ as far as I know, grows, alone of its genus, the round-
seaved sundew.
Of the coppices Cockercombe and Seven Wells are the
_ best known ; but their large trees check the growth of
flowers ; and the botanist will find more to please to him
‘in Butterfly Combe and Holford Glen, which are smaller
and less frequented, Here in early spring masses of the
_ white wild hyacinth rise amid last year’s dead leaves; here
‘grow the cowwheat, woodrush, golden rod, sheeps’ scabious,
wood pimpernel, wild raspberry, sanicle, and twayblade.
The helleborine is found in Crowcombe ; in Tetton woods
the rare pink lily of the valley ; in Cothelstone the adders’
tongue and mountain speedwell ; in Ashleigh Combe,
_ thelypteris ; in Aisholt wood the white foxglove, white
herb Robert, and white prunella ; while under the famous
_hollies of Alfoxden, sacred to the memory of “ Peter Bell”
_ and “We are Seven,” grow the graceful millet grass and
_ a rare variety of the bramble.

On the St. Audries slope the changed soil and the influ-
ence of the sea give birth to several new plants. The
autumn gentian, the tufted centaury, the round-headed
f oa and the sea starwort are abundant near the cliffs ;
“the perfoliate yellow wort is common; fluellen grows in
_ the stubbles, the lady’s tresses near the lime-kiln, the sea
_ pimpernell between the stones, the arrow-grass and hard-

grass just above the sea, to which we descend between

VATURE

banks covered, as no other banks are covered, by the mag-
nificent large flowered tutsan.

A few rare plants remain, which come under neither of
the groups described. The Cornish money-wort abounds
in a small nameless combe near Quantockshead ; the rare
white stonecrop is indigenous or naturalised at Over
Stowey ; the white climbing corydalis is found close to
Mr, Esdaile’s lodge ; the lady’s mantle, goldilocks, and
bistort grow in the Aisholt meadows; the stinking
groundsel hard by the remains of Coleridge’s holly-bower.
In the same neighbourhood I have twice found the purple
broomrape ; and Wilson’s filmy-fern, one of the rarest of
British ferns, is established in the Poet’s Glen.

I venture to hope that there is no one present to whom
this catalogue of plants is a catalogue and nothing more.
Our English wildflowers are so charming in themselves,
they awake in all of us so many associations, they
hold so large a place in our poetical literature, their
popular names reveal so many an etymological secret and
recall so many a striking superstition, that almost every
one, whatever be the line of his mental culture, is willing
to own their interest and to linger over their recital. To
the Shakspearian scholar they bring memories of Perdita
at the shearing-feast, of Ophelia in her madness, of Imogen
sung to her untimely grave, of the grey discrowned head
of Lear, with its chaplet of “rank fumiters and furrow-
weeds.” The lover of Milton points to the “rathe prim-
rose,” the eye-purging euphrasy, and the amaranth, which
was twined in the crowns of worshipping archangels. The
historian of the long-buried past sees in the Cornish money-
wort, the filmy-fern, and the Lusitanian butterwort of our
hills evidence distinct and graphic of the time when Scot-
land, Ireland, and Spain formed with our own peninsula
portions of a single continent. The student of folk-lore
tells his tales of the ceremonies which surrounded the ver-
vain, the St. John’s-wort, and the rowan, and of the strange
beliefs which clung to the celandine, the hawkweed, and
the fumitory. The etymologist will elevate the names
familiar to us allinto records of the origin and habits of
our remote forefathers ; he will disinter the fragments of
myth and history which lie embalmed in the centaury, the
peony, the carline thistle, the flower-de-luce, and the herb
Robert ; he will tell us how the laburnum closes its petals
nightly like a tired labourer, how the campion crowned
the champions of the tournament, how the foxglove, the
troll-flower, and the pixie-stool, bring messages from fairy
land ; how the scabious, the lungwort, the scrophularia,
and the wound-wort, bear witness to the grotesque beliefs of
a pre-scientific medical community. Of the botanist I
need not speak. Nota flower that blows but will furnish
him with the text of an eloquent discourse. Forms that
yield to other men artistic and sensuous enjoyment only,
lay bare before him secrets of structure and of function as
wonderful as those which characterise his own bodily
frame ; suggesting each its truth of design, and natural
selection, and adapted change, and mysterious organic
force. In the fructification of the orchid, the stamens of
the barberry, the hairs of the nettle, the leaf of the sundew,
he reads lessons as profound and similes as graceful, as
were taught to Chaucer, and Southey, and Wordsworth,

by the daisy, and the holly, and the lesser celandine. _

Year after year he greets the early spring with an enthu-
siasm which his neighbours know not, as one by one his
friends of many years, the snowdrop, and the violet, and
the crimson hazel stigma, and the stitch-wort, and the
daffodil, and the coltsfoot, come back to him like swallows
from their winter sojourn out of sight. Year after year, as
the seasons die away and the earth is once more bare, he
looks back delighted on the pleasant months along which
he has walked hand in hand with Nature ; for he feels that
his intelligence has been strengthened, his temper sweet-
ened, and his love of God increased, by fellowship with
her changes, study of her secrets, and reverence for her
works. } W. TUCKWELL

.

rp

INSECT METAMORPHOSIS *
Il,

MAY naturalists of eminence have insisted so strongly upon

the connection of the growth of wings and metamorphosis,
that I shall now proceed to examine into this part of the subject.
These beautiful organs of flight, so elegant in their outlines, so
exquisite in the artistic blending of their colours, so marvellous
in their minute construction, are popularly associated with the
perfection of insect life. A suspicion, of their existence arises
when the curious swathings of a pupa are examined ; but it re-
quires the patience of a Landois to trace these future glories of a
butterfly within the chest of the caterpillar but lately escaped
from the egg.

But in considering the relation of growth to metamorpho-
sis, it must be remembered that some insects have no wings,
and yet undergo. metamorphosis, and that others possess organs
of flight, and yet only submit to skin-shedding.

In describing the general form of the body of the larva, it was
noticed that the openings for the passage inwards of the air
tubes were visible on either side of each segment. The open-
ings, or stigmata as they are called, of the second and fifth seg-
ments of the larva, whose structures have been already described

‘in part, are very distinct, and they lead to large air-tubes which
branch off in all directions, and especially send a twig back-
wards and forwards along the inside of the third and fourth
segments respectively.

The openings, or stigmata, of the third and fourth segments,
on the contrary, are blind ones, and do not lead to tracheze or
air-tubes ; but the delicate offshoots of the second and fifth
masses of air tubes pass inside close to them, and it is on these
that the wings are developed as new organs, as new structures
fashioned out of the protoplasm of the blood. The wings are

Fic, 7.—Wing-Cells

acquired, and are added to the bulk of the belongings of the
larva. They continue to grow and to be perfected during the
whole of the life of the insect, until their function is called into
action. They originate after the escape from the egg ; but the
structures, upon the consideration of which so much time has
been spent this evening, originated during the embryonic or egg
condition, and clearly do not advance through long stages of
inutility and imperfection to one of use and perfect adaptation.

The first indication of the wing is observable in a caterpillar
four millimetres in length, and one day after birth from the egg.
The whole of the air-tubes are at that time as they are at
all others covered by a very delicate layer of cells, which sepa-
rates them, in fact, from the other tissues or blood, as the case
may be, and with which they are in contact. Some flat and
very small five-sided projections of delicate tissue are seen upon
the fine air tubes running along the inside of the third and fourth
segments,

There are four of these, two on either side, and the hinder are
smaller, but are close to the front pair. In this stage they are
composed of simple cells placed side by side to form the expan-
sion of the tissue, and they rest upon and cannot be separated
artificially or microscopically from the fine layer of cells which
intervenes between their bases and the air-tubes. The tissues
and cells of the air tubes remain intact, but these additional
structures are fixed upon them, and are destined for a very dif-
ferent series of developments.

When the caterpillar has changed its skin for the first time,
the expansions have increased in size and in complexity of struc-
ture. Each expansion is found to consist of a structureless, flat,

* A Lecture delivered before the British Association, 1872, by Prof.
Duncan, F.R.8., continued from p. 34.

pentagonal bag, which is very thin, and to contain a well-marked
layer of globular cells of nearly equal sizes. Moreover, at the
base of the expansion, where it rests on the cellular layer of the
air-tube, a crowded group of elongated cells is observed resting —
on this layer, and situated amongst the’globular cells and within
the structureless expansion. eS
These elongated club-shaped cells are sometimes fusiform, and
contain a structureless liquid, and attached within their equally
structureless walls isa nucleus and its contents. They did not
exist before the skin-shedding, but"are readily observed subse-
quently to it. The expansions of this tissue consist of the three’
histological elements just noticed, and out of them the futu
wings are gradually developed. ne
After the second skin-shedding of the caterpillar, the expan-
sions are found to have increased slightly in size ; and a care
microscopical examination detects an excessively delicate and
twisted cylindrical tube within each of the long cells which are
situated at the base of the expansion, and which would bein con-
tact with the air-tube, were it not for its investing cellular layer.
The nucleus of the elongated cell has been absorbed, and ii
walls look thinner, and their tissues appear to have been observed
to contribute to the twisted-looking thread which floats in the —
liquid contents. Itis evident that this thread-like tube is con-
nected through the cellular layer with the interior of the air-tube, —
but it is at present a simple tubular expansion of plain structure-
less membrane, and does not contain air. 'e
Alterations progress in the developing wings during the inter
val between the third and fourth skin-sheddings, and they be-

Fic. 8—Advanced Wing Development.

come sufficiently large as to be seen with the naked eye, for they
have attained nearly one-tenth of the length of the whole cater-
pillar. The globular cells within the structureless membrane are
found to have increased in size, and the delicate tubes of the
elongated cells to have increased in length and numbers. The
cell wall and nucleus are lost to sight in some instances, and the
twisted tubular connection of the undermining air-tube may be —
observed to have passed here and there amongst the globular —
cells. At this time these tubes take on the appearance of air.
tubes, and the delicate circular fibre which is seen in the other
air tubes of the caterpillar is to be recognised. fen
The next stage appears to bring about an increase in the num-
ber, length, and size of these coils of air-tubes within the bag-
like wing, and in the dimensions of the bag, but not of its
contained globular cells. ae q
By the time that the caterpillar leaves off taking food and
begins to attach itself by its tail end, preparatory to skin-
shedding for the last time, considerable progress has been made
in the development of the wings. The cord-like air-tubes have
grown sufficiently to reach nearly to the top of the wing, and
they branch off in several directions. They contain air, and are
surrounded by the layer of globular cells, but they are closer to
the under side of the wing bag than to the upper. Moreover,
the wing bag, so structureless hitherto, has acquired on its out-
side a glistening surface of extremely delicate cells, which is
called epidermis. Beneath this coating is the main thickness of

‘ : ae ray
_ the bag, and it is now found to be composed of large cells placed
side by side. Within it are the globular cells and the cord-like
_ branching air-tubes. By this time the wings which are visible
on the 3rd and 4th segments have approached the inside of the
_— skin of the caterpillar, and when this begins to separate before
f as cast, a glutinous secretion covers them with the whole
body.

The structure of the wings immediately before this period
recalls that of the membranous expansions with which aquatic
insects are furnished, with the aid of which they breathe and
_ move more or less rapidly under water. But the changes on the
whole of the wing which occur at this time, and during the four
or five early days of pupal life, soon make these organs compli-
_ cated. The changes are, however, part of a progressive de-
velopment. The wing veins, or nervures, without which the
wings would be flaccid and useless, are formed irrespectively of
the structures already described. Their path within the wings
has been marked out by the coil-like air-tubes, but they are
formed out of the protoplasmic matter which exists amongst the
layers of globular cells, and are elastic cords surrounded by a
cellular layer. Whilst they are developing, one or two wide
air-tubes degenerate, and finally disappear. The veins of the
wing are attached to the lower surface of the expansion so fre-

_ quently alluded to, and they grow with the increasing area of

_ the organs, so that during the early days of the pupa the wing

consists of an expanded wing membrane, which is cellular, and
which contains wing veins and large air-tubes, intermingled with
a great number of globular cells.

The beautiful microscopic scales of the wing begin to be
formed as soon as the glutinous case of the pupa is hardened,
for air soon passes between it and the delicate skin and members
beneath. By the fifth day all the wings are covered with recog-
nisable scales and hair, and then for a certain time, depending
upon temperature and the habit of the species, growth is arrested,
and things remain 7x statu guo. When the time comes for
emergence from the pupa case, the imago within awakens, as it
were, from a long hybernation, and after splitting its case it

_ comes forth a moist, weakly thing, with its wings crumpled upon
its sides, wet and unable to move. The sunshine, the dry air,
and the forcing in of air on the part of the insect into the large

_ air-tubes of the wing, enable those organs to unfold, to increase
in area, to decome dry, and at last to be of use.

It has, I trust, been made evident that the wings are progres-
sively developed, and that they grow from simple protoplasms
into all their beauty and complexity of form during the stages

___ after the escape from the egg.
__ They are acquired organs ; they are given to the insect during
its progress of change. Like the metamorphoses, they are
superadded to the original condition of the embryo or the young
_ within the egg. They are characteristic, to a great extent, of

metamorphosis, and thus the notion that the organs and these
states of change were both. acquired and superadded is worthy
consideration,

It now becomes necessay to inquire into the kinds of changes
which insects submit to during their evolution after birth. There
are perfect or complete, incomplete and retrograde metamor-
phoses, and some insects do not change their structures and
habits at all
c The cabbage butterfly and the false wasp afford examples of
___ perfect or complete metamorphosis, the completeness consisting

_ in the succession of an active larva, an immobile pupa, and an

_ active imago with different habits to the larva. ‘There is a

variety of this kind which is of some importance, and it may
be termed imperfect-complete metamorphosis. The silkworm is
a good example of this variety, and the organs of its mouth are

_ imperfectly developed. Such is also the case in many moths
__ and insects which do not take food of any kind.

Incomplete metamorphoses are observed in those insects which
have three stages of activity—active larvae, pupze which move
and are then called nymphs, and active imagos.

The common gnat undergoes incomplete metamorphosis, and

_ the dragon fly, which belongs to a different class, also. The

gnats skim over the surface of stagnant water and collect their
eggs together as they are laid one by one in a little boat-shaped
mass, the whole being covered with a gummy coating. This
floats, and the larva are hatched very soon from the under side.
j They commence a life of predacious activity, and undergo skin-
d sheddings. After one of these the insect comes forth, differing
in shape from the larve. It swims with the aid of two large
lamellce, something like a fish-tail, and when it requires air it

oes

ATU

5.

resents its back on the top of the water, and not its tail, as the
arva did. This is because there has been an alteration in the
disposition of the main respiratory tubes. These active pupz,
or nymphs, cannot eat or drink, and after swimming for some
days they come permanently to the surface. Then the last
stage of metamorphosis succeeds, and the tiny gnat escapes
without wetting its delicate wings, and to pursue a life which is
well known to you.

The nymph of the dragon-fly greatly resembles the larva, and
it seizes prey in the water and devours it. When the time is
come for the change into the fly the nymph crawls out of its
element on to a leaf, its skin splits on the back, and the sangui-
nary and active dragon-fly comes forth.

In these instances there is not that distinction in habit and
instinct which prevail amongst the insects gifted with perfect and
complete metamorphosis.

Retrograde metamorphosis is a doubtful expression of some
interesting facts. Sometimes a larva leads an active life, and is
elaborately and perfectly formed ; it changes into an immobile
chrysalis, and then the imago comes forth not only with defective
organs of mastication and motion, but also with indifferent legs
and scarcely a vestige of wings, Or both wings and legs may be
wanting, and there is not much resemblance to an insect left.

Thus the pretty caterpillar, which may still be found about
geraniums, and which looks like a harlequin from its curious
tufts of different-coloured hair, belongs to the vapourer moth.
It is a perfect larva, and very active. The chrysalis, or pupa,
is, like those of other moths, immobile and swathed. Two
kinds of moths escape—the males, which are pretty and perfect
moths, with elegant wings and great powers of fidgetty flight ;
and the females, which are ugly brown bags with small legs,
scarcely a vestige of wing, and incomplete mouths. They are
very unlike the male, and really have not the same activity,
energy, power of locomotion, or complexity of structure as their
larva.

Another species belonging to the genus Psyche has very
pretty male moths, but the female has no wings, legs, or feelers,
and looks like a helpless egg-bag. She never quits a curious
case made up of parts of flowers, in which the caterpillar and
the pupa lived.

It is quite clear that in these, insects there is no progressive
development from first to last in their metamorphosis.

Insects which do not undergo any metamorphosis are by no
means uncommon, but they all submit to theskin shedding. Such
insects are hatched from the egg, in shape and habit much re-
sembling the adult or full-grown individual, A considerable
number of the Orthoptera—insects which fold up their wings
longwise, of which the earwig, the cricket, and the grasshopper
may be considered as representatives—do not undergo the change
in form and habit which is so characteristic of most of the In-
secta. What alterations do occur are the progressive develop-
ment of wings and of the reproductive organs and skin shedding.
Most of the Orthoptera moult or change their skins repeatedly,
some as many as three times, and still they do not alter in form ;
a fourth skin shedding finds others with rudimentary wings,
which are small, crumpled, and visible. The fifth moult exhi-
bits the insects with perfect wings and full-grown. There is no
period of inactivity, and the insect pursues the same habits
throughout its lifetime. Its tissues are not subjected to such
changes as in those described.

Some few but very important and interesting kinds moult only
three times, and never have wings; and others, which only
moult four times, never have these organs in perfection.

To conclude this short review of the kinds of and exceptions to
metamorphoses, it must be brought before your recollection that
the unpleasant louse, the curious fish scale, and the podura, or
skiptail, do not undergo metamorphoses, and that their skin
sheddings are not attended by the development of wings.

Not only are there these varieties of change of structure and
habits, but there are modifications of each of them which relate
to the time and season at which metamorphosis takes place, and
the duration of its stages.

The next step in the inquiry as to the meaning of all these
changes in the philosophy of insect life, is to determine whether
insects which resemble each other have the same kind of meta-
morphosis—in other words, whether identity of metamorphosis
accompanies similarity of construction. Are the great groups
into which the vast class of Insecta is divided by a natural classi-
fication, capable of being equally well and meaningly classified
by the similarity or dissimilarity of their particular methods of

Lot a 7 a

change of structure and habit. The answer must be that, gene-
rally speaking, some of the groups which are widely separated
by dissimilarity of structure, possess the same kind of metamor-
phosis, and that some groups which resemble each other more
than others have not the same kind of changes.

It is impossible to classify the groups by their kinds of changes
of structure and habit without outraging the first principles of a
natural classification.

The next step in this inquiry is to decide whether all the mem-
bers of any of the great groups are metamorphosed in the same
manner, and whether there are any genera or species belonging
to one group which are exceptional in their method of change,
and which possess that common to the bulk of the insects of
another group.

The answers are as follow :—

Allthe members of any great group are not subject to the
same kind of change, but those of some very small families are ;
and some genera undergo a metamorphosis totally unlike their
closest allies in a group.

There is a very good example of the difference in the mode of
metamorphosis in some of the great groups, and of its evident
jndepantenes of structural affinity or likeness to be gleaned by
comparing the Orthoptera, the Coleoptera, and the Lepidoptera
—the grasshopper, beetle, and butterfly tribes respectively.

There is a greater resemblance in structure and general arrange-
ment of parts between the Orthoptera and the Coleoptera than
between the Coleoptera and the Lepidoptera ; yet the Coleoptera
resemble the Lepidoptera in possessing complete metamorphoses,
whilst those of the Orthoptera are incomplete or absent altogether.
Again, many families of the great groups have genera whose
species are influenced by very wide modifications of the same
kind of change. Thus amongst a family of the Lepidoptera one
kind passes through a perfect change like that already described.
A closely-allied moth will pass through the change twice in the
year; and in one the egg will remain unhatched through the
winter; in another the pupa will Jast through the autumn,
winter, and spring; in a third a perfect insect will hybernate
through the water ; in a fourth a caterpillar will be born, will
feed and increase in size, but will not turn to a pupa at once.
It will hide up and hybernate for months, and will be metamor-
phosed in the early spring. In a fifth a caterpillar will crawl
from the egg in August, and will not eat; but it hides up and
hybernates until the early summer, when it crawls forth and eats
and passes through a perfect metamorphosis. All these modifi-
cations, so irrespective of seasons, may be noticed in closely-
allied genera. The lace-wing family, or the Neuroptera, are a
yery natural group, and their separation from other forms, on
account of the general dissimilarity of construction, is as perfect
as any classification will permit. In this family all the kinds of
metamorphosis are tobe noticed. Some genera, like the dragon-
flies, undergo incomplete metamorphoses, and have active
nymphs, which do not differ much from the larva ; whilst others,
like the scorpion-flies and the caddis-flies, are subjected to
changes as perfect as those of a butterfly or moth, although their
structures are very diverse.

Seeing, then, that insects which so closely resemble each other
as to be placed as allies in every classification that follows the
order and system of Nature have to undergo different kinds
of change of structure and habit, it becomes necessary to admit
that the original structures of a species assumed their form ac-
cording to a law which did not regulate the metamorphoses.
These have no relation with the origin of the species, and are
independent of the anatomy of the individual. Like the struc-
tures of the wings, the stages of the metamorphosis are acquired
and superadded, It is credible enough that these wonderful and
various changes are for the benefit of the creatures undergoing
them ; and doubtless there has been in every instance a myste-
rious relation between these and external physical conditions at
some period or other. The metamorphoses are for the protec-
tion and preservation of the species, and may be esteemed
extraordinary aids in the struggle for existence. The fact of
there being Insecta which do not undergo metamorphoses,
but only the skin sheddings which are common to certain Arach-
nida, Myriopoda, and Crustacea,—all the Articulata, is very im-
portant in studying the philosophy of this knotty subject ; so
also is the fact that the orders of Insecta which contain both
these non-changing forms, and others which have a very incom-
plete metamorphosis, are of vast geological age. Probably
these Neuroptera and Orthoptera were the first insects—cer-
tainly they were amongst the oldest. These considerations must

ade

TURE

be associated with the method of development of wings—those :

acquired organs which are, nevertheless, not present in some
non-metamorp hosing Insecta. aa

The most convenient hypothesis by which the origin of meta-—
morphosis may be explained, and that which appears to be most
consonant with facts, is to be comprehended under the follow-

a

ing heads :—1. The insecta havea great geological age. 2, The

earliest did not undergo metamorphoses, but simply shed their
skins. 3. The first forms were wingless Neuroptera or Orthop-
tera. 4. That in order to meet the ng of changes in exter-
nal physical conditions during the evolution of varieties of the
original forms, the metamorphoses were acquired. 5. Incom-
plete metamorphoses preceded the complete,
were acquired independently of metamorphosis. 7. The kind
of metamorphosis depended upon peculiarities in the external
conditions, and its determination was defined by law.

If the phenomena of metamorphosis and the growth of wings
have been acquired, and were not implanted in the original
species to follow at once and inevitably, there should happen,
and there ought to happen—according to the analogy of nature
—instances where the part or the whole of the acquisition is
absent.

The degraded and almost wingless vapourer moth, the wing-
less Psyche, the wingless condition of the female of the winter
moth, and the useless wings of Climatobid, must have arisen, —
not by disuse, but by reversion to the ancestral condition. Why
should the gall-flies that affect the roots of the oak have no wings,
and those which make galls on the branches have them only in
the male, whilst the makers of the corresponding structures on
the leaf are perfect in their wings and metamorphosis? The idea
of disuse will not apply ; and certainly the wingless would enjoy
wings and make them useful. They are reversions to the ances-
traltype. There is a little false wasp called Metilla: it belongs
to a tribe eminently characterised by advanced instincts, and
rapidity and power of variation of flight ; yet the female is wing-
less, and low in its instincts. The wings would be useful to the
insect, and the males of an Australian species certainly think so,
for they carry their wingless ladies about with them under great
difficulties. It is, like the others, an instance of reversion. On
the other hand, the acquirement of the gift of imperfect meta-
morphosis may have been followed by that of the complete kind,
and then to that of the elaborate and apparently enigmatical —
changes undergone by some parasites, may haye been super-
added. -

Habits and instinct which change contemporaneously with the —
structural metamorphoses were doubtless acquired and are
handed down, generation after generation, in obedience to the law
of the descent and inheritance of useful gifts. Wonderful as the
acquisition is of certain mental powers at certain periods in
such humble things as insects, still it must be remembered that
man inherits mental peculiarities, which become evident at
different successive times of his life. A boy inherits mental
peculiarities which characterised the youth of his parents, and
others become evident in his adult age, which peculiarised his
father or mother at the same period. How, is beyond the
question and the fact is enough. 4

Sometimes, by examining the instincts of a group of closely

allied species of insects, and by noticing and comparing slight ;

differences .in their habits and metamorphoses, a hint may be
obtained how some very recondite peculiarity may have been
acquired and been transmitted, provided it were beneficial to the
creature. The most interesting instincts of the Odynerus which
were mentioned at the commencement of this lecture, were the
forming a tubular antechamber and provisioning the chambers
with stung grubs for an offspring which it neversaw. A con-
siderable group of mining false wasps make or excayate
chambers to lay their eggs in, and they, one and all, are in con- —
stant terror lest some interloper or parasite should enter their
underground workings, during their absence in search of food for
the future offspring. On arriving with the stung larva at the
mouth of their hole, which is closed up carefully by some before
flying off, they enter and run into the chambers in a great state of
excitement to see that the nursery is not taken possession of by
an intruder who intends to stop. So impressed is this instinct
upon them that, if the prey which is left outside during the rapid
inspection be removed a little way off, when it is replaced by the
insect the process of examination is repeated, and the insect will
do this over and over again, senselessly it is true, but in obedience
to an inherited and almost automatic impulse.

There is no doubt that a great number of futile egg layings and —

6. Organs of flight

v

4 ionings occur amongst those tribes on account of the entry

_ of parasitic insects who devour everything. So that an additional
instinctive act which could produce any alteration in the shape or
arrangement of the tunnel and chamber-making, which would
_ benefit and tend to preserve the future larva, would assuredly be
perpetuated by descending to subsequent generations. The ante-
_ chamber of Odynerus meets every difficulty and want. Its
- fragile nature will not permit the intruder to pass along without
_ breaking it down and covering the hole in the tunnel, and when
_it is broken down by the dying insect it effectually closes up the
scene of its labour and hides the offspring from harm. The only
satisfactory hint which can be gleaned respecting the origin of the
_ provisioning of chambers in which an egg is left, is obtained by
_ Fabre’s study of the habits of Bembix vidua. This mining wasp
lays an egg which hatches very shortly, and the little mother
visits its living offspring every day and brings it small larve,
stung to keep them quiet at first, and then larger larve as the
little cannibal increases in size. All this time the Bembix isa
vegetarian, but she is known to sip the honey which may be on
some of her victims.

_ The instinct of a Bembix may have been altered by its eggs
_ not hatching, anda series of victims may have been placed in the
_ chamber automatically, instinctively, and without what is called

_ reason. There is of course the possibility of memory existing

during the quiescent stage. Does the butterfly remember its

existence as a gormandising caterpillar, and therefore retain some
_ notion of the propriety of laying eggs over cabbages? Does
the Odynerus fly remember its underground life, and obey some
impulse to provide the unseen offspring with food different to

_ that which she loves? It is possible ; and as nothing is too won-

derful for psychologists, there may be something in the suggestion.

It is evident that the influence of external conditions which

are antagonistic to the comfort and well-being of many insects is
often neutralised by a happy and protective contemporaneous
change of form and habit. On the contrary, as in the instance
of larvze which hybernate and do not turn into pupz before
severe weather sets in, or in the case of hybernating butterflies,
all connection between existing external conditions and the time
and nature of the metamorphosis is often indistinguishable.

_ But this apparent anomaly may be explained when it is remem-

bered how long-lived many species and genera of insects are,
how persistent some forms have been through considerable geo-
_ logical periods, and to what numerous changes of climate they

_ may have been exposed during forced emigration, or even whilst

ing on the same area, The commingling of several insect
faunas which must have occurred over and over again during the
later geological period of the world’s history, will quite account
for closely allied forms presenting modifications of the general
kind of change of structure and habit.

All the relations of the metamorphoses to changes in the inor-
ganic kingdom of nature, z.2., to alterations in the external
physical conditions surrounding insect forms, is doubtless within
the scope of law. The insect host is innumerable, and the variations
in external physical conditions must have been repeated during
vast ages ; yet the kinds of metamorphoses and their modifica-
tions are few in number and are singularly pronounced.

=

y

NOTES

_ A very large number of noblemen and gentlemen, members
_ of the Society of Arts, have signed a memorial to Her Majesty’s
Government, in which, after referring to the great benefit
conferred by the opening of the Bethnal Green Museum, and the
immense number of people (upwards of 700,000) who have visited
it in three months, they ‘‘ submit that this museum could never
have come into useful existence, and have been instrumental in
conferring these benefits on the people, without the aid of Parlia-
ment; and they desire to press this fact upon the consideration
_ of Her Majesty’s Government, with the hope that they will sub-
_ mit to Parliament the policy so essentially national of voting
increased means to facilitate the establishment of museums,
_ libraries, and galleries of Science and Art in large centres of
_ population, wherever such localities are willing to bear their share
in the cost.”

THE list of candidates for the Mathematical School at the
University of Oxford numbers 132, against 206 in the Classical.

SS eee

Of these, 14 are candidates in honours. In the Natural Science

School there are eight candidates for the Final Examination, all
in honours.

At a meeting of the Arts School at Cambridge this week, a
discussion arose on the report of the Museums and Lecture
Rooms Syndicate, recommending the erection of additional
accommodation for students in physiology and comparative
anatomy. Mr. J. W. Clark and Prof. Humphry warmly ad-
vocated the adoption of the report, the latter remarking that the
sum was small, compared with that expended at Leipsic, Am-
sterdam, and other parts of Europe. No decision appears to _
have been arrived at.

AN anonymous friend has just given to the Council of the
Midland Institute the large ‘sum of 2,500/., to be expended in
scholarships for encouragement of the study of practical physio-
logy, more especially that branch of it which is concerned in the
amelioration of the sanitary condition of the poor. This noble
gift is prompted by remarks which were made by Canon Kingsley
in his opening address to the Midland Institute.

THE Academy announces the recent death, at Gittingen, of
the great mathematician Klebsch, at the age of forty.

A LARGE number of eminent physicians, chemists, and others
belonging to various countries in Europe, have formed themselves
into a union for the laudable purpose of constructing a general
European Pharmacopceia. At the meeting of the Pharmaceutical
Society, on November 6, Dr. Thudichum gave an interesting
address on the subject, in which he showed that during the last
200 years many men had tried to realise the idea of a general
pharmacopceia ; but as these attempts were mostly made by
single individuals, each of whom endeavoured to carry out his
own idea in his own way, failure was necessarily the result. It
is likely that the present co-operative attempt will be more
successful.

M. BaBineEt, of the French Academy, whose death we recently
chronicled, was born at Lusignan in 1794, educated at Metz, and
entered the Artillery, which he quitted in 1815. After having
been Professor of Physics in the College of Fontenay-le-Comte,
and afterwards at Poictiers, he went to Paris in 1820, to occupy
a chair of Physics in the College St. Louis. Until 1864 he was
also Examiner to l’Ecole Polytechnique in Physics, Descriptive
Geometry, Applied Analysis, and Geodesy. His lectures at the
Athenzeum on Meteorology did much to foster a taste for the
study of atmospheric phenomena. He was elected to the Academy
in 1840 in the section of Physics. Previous to this he had dis-
tinguished himself in various ways, having done much to perfect
the pneumatic machine, for which the Academy awarded him a
prize. Besides this, he invented a goniometer, which bears his
name, and in many memoirs recorded his optical experiments and
researches, besides doing much to popularise scientific studies.
The best of what he has written is collected in his “‘ Etudes et
Lectures sur les Sciences d’Observation.”

Two very interesting letters on Arctic Exploration appear in
the Zimes of Tuesday last. Capt. J. C. Wells writes that he met
Prof. Nordenskiéld’s expedition when returning in Mr. Smith’s
schooner yacht Samson from a cruise to the north of Spitzbergen.
The arrangements appeared very perfect, but the vessels were in
no way fitted to contend with the ice. Captain Wells is of
opinion that the North Pole may be reached during the summer
months. The vessel should leave England in April, to enable
her to arrive at the edge of the pack beyond Spitzbergen early
enough to take advantage of the breaking of the ice from the edge
of the main pack. Her return might be looked for in October
of the same year. ‘‘ At the present time,” he adds, ‘‘ Austria,
Germany, Sweden, France, Russia, and even Italy, are in the
field, striving, {either by actual exploration or by tentative efforts,
to form expeditions to reach the North Pole, simply for the ad-

vancement of science, while England alone remains inactive.”
Mr. B. Leigh Smith also writes that he met with the expedition
inside the Norway Islands near Hakluyt’s headland, on August
29. He believes they have made themselves comfortable for the
winter months, somewhere on the north coast of Spitzbergen,
and that no vessel has any chance of reaching them now.

Pror. CORFIELD has been elected Medical Officer of
Health to the parish of St. George, Hanover Square. Dr. Cor-
field’s appointment will make a vacancy in the Officership of
Health to the parish of St. Mary, Islington. Mr. Haviland and
Dr. Tidy will, we understand, again contest that appointment.

WE learn from the Medical Times and Gazette that there will
bea vacancy for a Demonstrator of Anatomy in the Charing
Cross School of Medicine. A salary of 150/ is attached to the
office, Among the candidates is, we understand, Dr. Murie,
late prosector to the Zoological Society.

FROM the same journal we learn that the Chair of Medicine
at the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland, is now vacant
through the resignation of Dr. Charles Benson, who had so long
and ably discharged the duties connected with it. We learn that
several candidates have already entered the field, and that the
selection of a professor will take place early in December.
Among the candidates are Dr. Samuel Gordon, Dr. James Little,
Dr. Henry Kennedy, and Dr. Arthur Wynne Foot, The emolu-
ments are about 150/. per annum.

THE French Government has lately struck a medal in com-
memoration of the discovery in 1868 by Dr. Janssen and Mr. J.
N. Lockyer of the method of observing the sun’s chromosphere
without an eclipse. The medal bears on the obverse the por-
traits of Dr. Janssen and Mr, Lockyer, and on the reverse the
chariot of the Sun, with Phcebus indicating the prominences
round an uneclipsed sun.

Mr, GLADsTONE and Mr. Darwin having declined the Lord
Rectorship of Aberdeen University, about to be vacated by Mr.
Grant Duff, M.P., the contest lies between Prof, Huxley and the
Marquis of Huntley, the Arts students mostly preferring the
latter, and the medical students the former.

Pror. Spar has been elected Rector of the University of
Vienna.’

THE Natural History Mastership at Clifton College is now
vacant, through the appointment of Mr. Barrington Ward to an
Inspectorship of Schools, The teaching of Botany, Geology,
and Physical Geography, and the elementary teaching of Mathe-
matics, are comprised within the duties of the office, as well as
the Curatorship of the Museum and Botanical Garden,

Ir anyone desires to know how lecturing, and especially scien-
tific lecturing, is managed and rewarded in America, let him (or
her) forthwith obtain ‘The American Literary Magazine and
Lecture Season,” published at the ‘* American Literary Bureau.”
Here he will find the names of lecturers willing to lecture on all
conceivable subjects, with the fees they are prepared to charge,
varying from 50 to 250 dollars per lecture; while one lecturer,
Mr. Froude, stands alone in his glory, priceless. The accuracy
of this appraisement of talent is however somewhat marred when
we read further that ‘to some of the above traveling and hotel
expenses are added,” while “‘terms may be modified for weak
organisations and deserving charities,” The managers of the
bureau frankly announce that ‘a lyceum course must be pushed
like any other business,” while they give the managers of these
institutions the valuable advice to “ ignore all party or sectarian
bias and choose brains.” On the principle of ‘‘ catching your
hare,” they therefore furnish the lyceums with eighty pages of
choice of lecturers and subjects, advising them to pursue the plan
of ranging ‘from gay to grave, from lively to severe,” and give

lecture (not too heavy), and one humorous lecture.” Dr. G. P.
Quackenbos, in ‘‘ Words considered humorously, and other-

wise,” an extensive programme, is undeniably cheap at $100;
while Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins nicely values his repertoire of ©
subjects from ‘‘The Age of Dragons” to ‘The Unity of Plan”
of the animal kingdom, at from $100 to $112. Dr. Youmans will —
lecture on ‘‘ English Institutions as Educational Hindrances ” for
from $100 to $125. Generals, Reverends, and ladies, are evidently
the favourites of American audiences. Who will not go to the
bureau where they can have a choice of Prof Fisk on

“Darwinism” for $100, and Miss Kate Stanton on ‘* Whom
to Marry” for $50? Although this may appear ludicrous

enough to English ears, yet it has its serious and undoubtedly
useful side. Some similar plan of providing unity of actio
and of organisation among English scientific lecturers would

of very great value. Will the scheme now under considerati

of the British Association effect this? e

7 eek <a yhg 4
their patrons ‘‘at least one concert, one reader, one scientific ,

4

THE following is from the School Board Chronicle :—**Ten
years ago the Federal Polytechnicon of Switzerland received from
unknown hands a legacy of 50,000 francs, accompanied by an en-
closed envelope, which, according to the testator’s injunctions, —
was not to be opened until ten years afterwards. The time
having now elapsed, the envelope was found to contain the name —
‘Johannes Schoch, citizen of Fischental.’ The testator had for-
merly migrated to Milan, and there, by his judgment and in- —
dustry, acquired a large fortune. The object of the donation was _
to secure competent teachers for the Polytechnic School.”

Tue Royal Institute of Science, Literature, and Arts, in
Venice, offers a medal of the value of 3,000 frances (120/,), to b
awarded in 1874 to the author of the best essay on the following —
subject :—‘* The advantages derived by the medical sciences,
especially physiology and pathology, from modern discoveries in
physics and chemistry ; with a retrospective view of the systems
which prevailed in medicine in past times.” The competition is
open to foreigners, and the essays may be written in French.

A PRELIMINARY meeting for the purpose of forming a Medical -
Microscopical Society, which has been talked of for some time, ©
was held on November 1, at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, A good -
deal of discussion ensued on the proposed society, and delegates —
from the various hospitals were appointed as a committee,

THE family of the late Prof. Sir James Y. Simpson have pre-_
sented a bust of the distinguished physician to the University of
Edinburgh, It has been placed in the library hall. wey

WE understand, says the British Medical Fournal, that the
medical students of the University of Aberdeen propose to issue —
a medical journal, which shall appear once a fortnight. Three ~
advanced students will act as editors. It bears the name of the
Aberdeen Medical Student. The undertaking shows very gratify-
ing vigour in the Aberdeen school. We wish the promoters !
the journal every success.

THE same journal informs us that the’ new Professor-
ship of Comparative Anatomy at the University of Dublin
will have an endowment of goo/. or 400/, a year, The
first holder will, we believe, undoubtedly be Dr. A.
Macalister, Professor of Zoology ; and in future the two —
chairs will go together, with an endowment, jointly, of —
6o0/. or 700/, a year. Practically, the election may be
considered as virtually decided. Trinity College will have
in future two Professors of Anatomy—viz.: 1. Pure Anatomy, —
Human and Comparative; 2, Mixed Anatomy, or Medical and
Surgical Anatomy. They will each have an income of 70o/.
Both professors must attend two hours daily in the disse ecting-
room. = : ys

are |

TURE

¥ We learn fee Biirper’s Weekly that the Hon. ee Knox, of

V Illinois, U.S., now in Berlin, has presented Hamilton
U. S., with 10,000 dollars for the improvement and
- endowment of its hall of natural history. —

_ Tue following is from the British Medical Journal :—“ Two
_ Russian ladies, Misses Olga Stoff and Sophie Hasse, have em-
_ ployed themselves during the autumn recess in investigating the

circulation in the spleen, by means of injection and microscopic
_ examination. Their researches, which were made on the spleens

of frogs, pigeons, rabbits, mice, rats, and various other animals,
as well as of the human subject, were carried on in Dr. Frey’s
laboratory, They have published an account of their examina-

tion and its results in the Cen/ra/blatt for Nov. 9.”

A MEMORIAL portrait of the late Rear-Admiral Sir James
Ross, the great explorer, subscribed for by several naval officers
and men of science, has recently been placed in the Painted Hall
_ of the Royal Hospital, Greenwich. What Sir James Ross did
_ for North Polar exploration is well known.

. THE 119th session of the Society of Arts commenced yesterday
__ evening, when the opening address was given by Major-General
_ F. Eardley-Wilmot, F.R.S., Chairman of the Council.

THE first course of the Cantor Lectures for the ensuing season
will be on ‘‘The Practical Application of Optics to the Arts,
Manufactures, and to Medicine,” by C. Meymott Tidy, M.B.,
Joint Lecturer in Chemistry and Professor of Medical Jurispru-
dence at the London Hospital, and will consist of five lectures, to
be delivered on the evenings of Nov, 25, Dec. 2, 9, 16, and 23.
A second course will be given during the session by the Rev.
Arthur Rigg, M.A., ‘‘On the Energies of Gravity, Electricity,
Vitality, Light, and Heat, especially with reference to their
measurement and utilisation.”

THE winter course of lectures at the Museum of Science and
Art,'Edinburgh, commenced on the evening of Noy. 18, with
the first of a series on “ Chemistry,” by Prof. Crum Brown, An
interesting programme has been arranged, including, among

other items, six lectures by Prof. Geikie on the “ Superficial

Formations of Scotland,” and as many on “Sound” by Prof.

Tait.

ACCORDING to the latest bulletin from Regent’s Park, young
Hippo, whose birth we chronicled a fortnight ago, and who is
now sixteen days old, is thriving famously, beiag plump and
well-developed, standing firmly on his legs, trotting briskly about
after his stupendous mama, and imitating all her actions, It is
to be hoped that the admirable precautions taken by those in
charge will be successful in preserving the life of the little stranger
till it can take care of itself.

THE following is from the Atheneum :—‘' The Maharajah of
Cashmere is desirous of having several scientific works translated
_ from the English into the Sanscrit language ; and as he under-

stands that there are many able scholars in England and Germany,

he has placed the matter in the hands of Col, Nassau Lees, who
is to select competent persons for the work. His Highness has
had some works already translated in Calcutta, He has requested
- that, as the first instalment of the European series of translations,
Prof. Liebig’s work on Chemistry, or some other standard work
on the same subject, should be one of the works translated. An
undertaking of this sort ought to prove most useful.”

It is understood that Dr. Schweinfurth, the eminent German
geographer, is about to return to Central Africa with a view of
continuing his explorations, especially in the line of botany.
His brother, a merchant at Riga, has contributed a large sum of
money, the interest of which is to be used by Dr, Schweinfurth
in his present undertaking ; the principal afterwards to be given
to the Polytechnic School at Riga to found a prize to defray the

travelling expenses of such explorers in the future as have been
students of that establishment.

WE hear that a most important desideratum in Biblical Archae-
ology has been supplied by the diligence of Mr. George Smith, of
the British Museum, who has discovered among the Assyrian
Records an account of a deluge similar to that recorded in
Genesis. Mr. Smith will read a paper on the subject next month
befere the Society of Biblical Archzeology.

WE learn from Harfer’s Weekly that with commendable
enterprise Messrs. Maynard & Dean, of Massachusetts, annoumce
their intention of publishing a periodical entitled American Orni-
thology, to be devoted to the scientific and popular history of
birds. It is to appear bi-monthly, at the rate of five dollars a

year, and will consist in part of popular articles on birds, and in |

part of more elaborate and technical memoirs. Each part will
consist of about forty pages, and will contain a coloured plate of
some new or little-known American species. In view of the
difficulty of sustaining special journals, this enterprise is one
of no little daring, but will, we trust, be justified by the
result, At present there are but two periodicals exclusively
devoted to birds; one of them, the London /é7s, published
quarterly ; the other, the Fournal fiir Ornithologie of Cabanis,
published bi-monthly in Leipsic.

Mr. WorTHINGTON SMITH records in the Gardener's Chronicle
some very curious cases of ‘‘mimicry” in fungi. He men-
tions several instances in which a rare fungus so closely imitates
another common one belonging to a diffetent sub-genus or even
genus in all superficial characters as to be with difficulty dis-
tinguished from it, and is always found in company with it. It
is difficult to conceive that this “mimicry” is of any value to
the ‘‘ mimicing” fungus except, as Mr. Smith suggests, that it
has certainly hitherto prevented the detection and consequent
destruction of rare fungi by collectors !

WE learn from the Academy that Prof. Tschermak has pub-
lished a new catalogue of the meteorites in the Vienna collection.
At the date of issue (October 1, 1872) the mineralogical museum
contained specimens representing 182 falls of meteoric stones,
and 103 falls of meteoric iron. Letters appended to the name of
each aérolite in the list indicate its position in a classification
which has been based chiefly on the constituent minerals, certain
distinctive physical characters of these minerals also being used
in arranging them in subdivisions.

THE Haggerstone Entomological Society, which was esta-
blished in 1868, and is composed of working men, commenced,
on Thursday evening last, its Annual Exhibition at No. 10,
Brownlow Street, about a hundred yards from the Haggerstone
Station on the North London line, and it is well worth a visit.
The members are all practical entomologists, meeting one even-
ing a week for the study of the science, with the aid of a good
cabinet of Lepidoptera, and other facilities for advancement ; and
this fifth exhibition shows that they have not worked in vain.
Among the specimens, which are at once rare and varied, are some
fine ones of the Vazessa antiofa. This is one of the rarest but-
terflies found in this country, but during the last season it was (as.
we announced some time ago) far more abundant than it had
been for many years before, and the Haggerstone collectors seem
to have bestirred themselves accordingly.

WE have just received the winter programme of the Chester
Society of Natural Science (President, the Rev. Canon Kingsley),
and a hopeful one it is, showing that the members are no
mere diletlanti, but are anxious for work likely to produce results
of high value in all the three sections into which it is divided—
Botany, Zoology, and Geology. Their district is the four squares
on the old Ordnance map of which Chester is the centre, and
much has already been done by the members to elucidate the

roe

natural history of that district, although the Society has existed
only 18 months. It numbers over 300 members. Dr. Stolter-
foth and Mr. Liddell are energetically working the Diatomacez
and Foraminifera of the Dee, and lists of these, we believe,
will shortly be published. Several other members are actively
at work in all three departments ; the results of this work we
hope to see in a permanent form, On the 27th inst., the
President, Canon Kingsley, will read a paper on “Deep Sea
Dredging,” and on January 30, Professor Boyd Dawkins one on
his favourite subject—‘‘ Cave Explorations.”

WE learn from the Atheneum that the Government of
Colombia, or New Granada, has extended for five years the
grant to Mr. José Triana to enable him to publish in London,
in Spanish, ‘‘La Flora Colombiana,” and the Botanical Geo-
graphy of Colombia,

WE are glad to learn that a good deal of attention is being
given to the systematic study of science in Glasgow by members
of the teaching profession actual and prospective. Mr. E. M.
Dixon, B.Sc. (London), one of the lecturers in the Established
Church Normal Training College, has for several sessions regu-
larly given a very comprehensive course of instruction in physi-
ology to the male students in training ; and this year the female
students have been introduced to the study of botany by Mr.
Robertson, another of the lecturers in the Glasgow Training Col-
lege. It is understood that the Free Church Normal College is
also about to do something in science teaching. Mr. J ohn Mayer,
F.C.S., has, during the last few years, had large classes of pupil
teachers in physiology, and of schoolmasters and assistant-school-
masters in physiology, chemistry, and metallurgy, the class for
teachers being held on Saturdays, soas to be suitable alike for
town and country students. It is evident that Scotland is becoming
more alive to the value of science as a means of intellectual dis-
cipline and culture. In many little towns and villages north of
the Tweed, special science classes are now in course of establish-
ment for the first time.

We learn from the Yournal of Botany that a Flora of Portugal
is announced as in preparation by Seiior Baroo de Castello de
Paiva. It will include all the additions made since 1804, the
date of Brotero’s excellent Flora Lusitanica.

AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE*

‘THE arrangements for an extended exploration of the Pacific

Ocean by the Navy Department of the United States, have
been brought almost to a conclusion, and it is understood that
the Portsmouth, under Captain Skenett, will leave New York
about the middle of November for the scene of operations.
The vessel will proceed, with only the necessary stops, by way
of Cape Hor, to the west coast, and will commence her work
in the Gulf of California. Two years will probably be spent in
the investigation of the hydrography of the peninsula, including
the entire gulf region, as also in the exploration of the Revillagi-
gedo group of islands. A subsidiary object, to receive a due
share of attention, will be a general investigation into the physics
and natural history of the deep seas and of the adjacent islands.
Dr. Street, the surgeon of the expedition, has already distin-
guished himself as a naturalist and a collector in the Darien
expedition, and will doubtless win new laurels on the present
occasion. ‘The astromomical department will be in charge of
Paymaster Tuttle, well known as the discoverer of an asteroid
and of a telescopic comet. The Marraganset, now on the
Pacific station, has also been detailed for the same service, and
will probably refit at Callao for the purpose. There are few
portions of America more interesting in a natural history
point of view than that to be immediately explored by this
expedition, the Galapagos themselves being scarcely more
noteworthy.. This is shown by the researches of Mr. Xantus

* Communicated by the Scientific Editor of Harper's Weekly.

,; Basin having been carefully explored by them,

| plies from Virginia City, v/@ Madison Valley.

obtained large numbers of specimens in all branches of
natural history, many of which were entirely new to science.
Colonel Grayson, in his explorations of Socorro Island, one of
the Revillagigedo group, found that, as at Cape St. Lucas, there

were many animals peculiar, or unknown elsewhere, most of —

them being then undescribed. ‘They have, however, lately been
published by Mr. George N. Lawrencefin a memoir of the col-
lections of Colonel Grayson.—Professor Marsh announces the
very important discovery of fossil quadrumana in the eocene de-
posits of the Rocky Mountains. The genera Limnotherium,

Zhinolestes, and Telmatolestes are, in his opinion, closely related to

the lemurs, especially in the correspondence of the larger bones.
The teeth are more numerous than in any known quadrumana,
some species having apparently forty—namely two incisors, one

canine, and seven premolars and molars on each side of each —
The professor also describes a new genus of large carni-

jaw.
vora, under the name of Zimnofelis /atidens, in which the canines

Nou. 21, 1872

‘and of Colonel Grayson. ‘The former gentleman spent several ;
years at Cape St. Lucas, in the service of the United —
States Coast Survey and of the Smithsonian Institution, and

,

’

and premolars of the lower jaw resemble those of the hyena, —

but with only two incisors on either side. The single species,
Oreocyon latidens, is supposed to have been as large as a lion.
Another novelty consists in a cretaceous reptilian, allied to
Mososaurus, and possessing peculiar characteristics. The animal
has been called Colonosaurus mudgei, after the discoverer, Pro-
fessor Mudge, who obtained the remains in Western Kansas.—
Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, of Montreal, has completed his investi-
gations into the deep-sea fauna of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
already mentioned as undertaken in continuance of those of
last year; and he is now engaged in preparing his report
for presentation to the Minister of Marine and Fisheries, at
Ottawa. The greatest depth reached by him was 310 fathoms,
off the south-western end of Anticosti, where he obtained
a Dbirgularia, and specimens of Pennatu/a additional to those
secured last year. He also found an interesting cup-shaped
coral about an inch across the disc. — Recent advices
from Mr. Stevenson, director of the Snake River division

of the United States Geographical Survey, under command 4

of Professor Hayden, announce the arrival of the entire
party at Fort Hall on the 11th of October, the Snake River
The party

reached the Geyser Basin the last of July, having obtained sup-

They followed
the Madison River to its source in a small lake, and crossed the
** divide” to Madison Lake, which they found to have no con-
nection with Madison River, but with an outlet about one hundred
feet wide, flowing in an opposite direction from the one given on
the maps. They followed this to its entrance into another lake
about five miles wide, and which proved to be the real source of
Snake River. They found a geyser basin near the sources of

| Snake River, with about two hundred springs of all sizes, some

of which spouted eighty to one hundred feet in height. Mr.
Stevenson divided his party above the Snake River Cajion into
two portions, one of which passed through the cafion, and the
other explored the Teton Pass, both meeting again at the lower
end of the cafion. The division under the immediate direction
of Professor Hayden reached Bozeman on the 14th of October,
having completed the season’s labours. Every step is said to
have been a success, and the amount of valuable material of

scientific and practical value to far exceed that of any previous

year. The Professor and his assistants proceed at once to Wash-
ington to prepare the report, to be presented to Congress for
publication at an early date. Just before closing his field labours,
Professor Hayden’s party had explored the Gallatin River to its
source, and completed the examination of the Yellow Stone by
descending it to Mount Shields River, thence returning to the
Three Forks. He expected to visit Helena before proceeding to
Washington, for the purpose of determining its latitude and
longitude. His astronomers had already fixed the geographical
position of Virginia City, Fort Ellis, and Fort Hall.—One of the
most striking of the many interesting discoveries of vertebrate
fossils made in the wonderfully rich formations of the West is
that of a fossil bird obtained by Professor Mudge in the upper

cretaceous shale of Kansas, and described by Professor Marsh,

The remains indicate an aquatic form about the size of a pigeon,

but differing widely from all known birds in having biconcave

yertebrze. The rest of theskeleton, however, is quite similar to

that of the average type, The species has beennamed Zcthyornis —

dispar,

ON THE ECLIPSE EXPEDITION, 1871*

I UNDERSTAND my duty to-night to be to give an account
of the observations made, not by all who observed the
eclipse of last December, but by the members of the party which
went out under the auspices of the British Association ; and it is
extremely fortunate that nothing more is required of me—first,
because most valuable work was done by the other parties, which
of itself would require more time to state than I have at my dis-
posal ; and secondly, because the amount of material obtained
by the members who were sent out from England, and by the
friends who met them at every point, is so great, that it would
be impossible in one discourse to give anything like an exhaustive
account of it. Here are some of the records in this portfolio.
You will see at once that even for one party I can only make a
selection, and I am perfectly aware of the extreme responsibility
which attaches to anyone who may venture to make a selection
out of such an enormous mass of material as we have collected.

Before I proceed to discuss the work done by the different
parties, it will be desirable to give an idea of the arrangements,
and for this purpose I have prepared several maps which will
enable you to see what the British Association parties did.

. In the first instance I may remark that the weather conditions
4 were somewhat problematical. Another point of great impor-
tance was that much of the ground was fortunately occupied, and

it was essential, when placing the parties, to bear these two con-
siderations in mind—the possibility of bad weather, and then the
. importance of so arranging matters that if some of the observers
were clouded out, belonging to our parties, then the story might
be continued by other observers.

Here we have a map of India, which gives you a general idea
of the path of the shadow during the eclipse. The shadow, you
see, strikes India on the western coast, and it runs down in a
south-westerly direction, and cuts the northern portion of Ceylon.

When we arrived in India we found that the Indian observers,
consisting of those well-known men Tennant, Herschel, Hen-
nessy, Pogson, and others, had determined, from their know-
ledge of the climatic conditions of India at that time of the year,
to occupy the central part of the line, and also a station at a low
level ; the eminent French physicist M. Janssen taking up his
___ position at the top of the Nielgherries. We were to station our-
___ selves either east or west, or both, of these parties. Whether

east or west would depend upon the monsoon, and the great
question that was being discussed on our arrival was, Was the
_ monsoon favourable?

I have not time to go into the many interesting points touch-
ing the answer to this question ; but I may say shortly that what
we heard was, that if the weather was likely to be bad on the
east side of the hill range, generically called the Ghauts, there
was a good chance for anyone occupying a position west of those
hills. What happened was that we did occupy the positions

marked by blue wafers on the map, namely, Bekul on the west

» coast, Manantoddy on the western slope of the Ghauts, Poodo-
cottah in the eastern plain, and in the island of Ceylon, first,
Jaffna, and secondly, Trincomalee.

Such were our arrangements. The parties were stationed
along the line of totality. Very different were the arrangements
of the Sicilian party of the former year. In Sicily we were com-

. pelled to throw ourselves across the line of totality in the direc-
tion which I have indicated on this map of Sicily.

Now what was the work wehad todo? If you will allow me
to refer to two or three results of the former Eclipse Expedition,
I will endeavour to put them before you without taking up too
much of your time.

One of the most important among the results obtained in the
eclipse of 1870 was this: far above the hydrogen which we can
see every day without an eclipse—far above the prominences, the
spectrum of hydrogen had without doubt been observed by two
or three of the American observers, who were more fortunate
than we were. Among them Prof. Young stated that the spec-
trum of hydrogen was observed to a distance of 8 minutes from
the sun ; he then adds, ‘‘ far above any possible hydrogen atmo-
sphere.” This is point number one.

Another of the points was this : the unknown substance which
gives usa line coincident, according to Young, with a line num-
bered 1474 by Kirchhoff, had been observed by the American

* A Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Monday,
March 22, 1872, by J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. (The chief results ob-
tained by the expedition have been taken from the ad interim Report pre-
sented to the British Association Meeting at Brighton. The lecture itself
dealt mainly with the methods and instruments employed.—J. N. L.)

“

NATURE

57

observers to a height of 20 minutes above the limb of the dark
moon,

Now, it was a very obvious consideration that if we got a
spectrum of hydrogen 8 minutes from the dark moon, when we
thought we knew that the hydrogen at the sun did not really ex-
tend more than 10 seconds beyond the dark moon, there was
something at work which had the effect of making it appear very
much more extensive than it really was ; and it was fair to assume
that if this happened in the case of the hydrogen, it might
also happen in the case of the unknown stuff which gives us the
line 1474.

In support of this view we had one of the few observations
which were made in Sicily, in the shape of a drawing of the
corona, as seen by Prof. Watson, who observed at Carlentini.
He saw the corona magnificently ; and being furnished with a

powerful telescope, he made a most elaborate drawing of it, a

rough copy of which I will throw on the screen. You will see
at once that we had in this drawing something which seemed to
militate against the idea that the 1474 stuff at the sun did exist
to a height of 20 minutes. According to Prof. Watson the
boundary of the real corona was clearly defined, its height being
far under that stated.

Next, we had another observation of most important bearing
on our knowledge of the base of the corona. TI refer to the an-
nouncement of the observation by Prof. Young of a stratum in
which all the Fraunhofer lines were reversed. It was asserted that
there was undoubtedly a region some 2 seconds high all round
the sun, which reversed for us all the lines which are visible in
the solar spectrum. We had, in fact, in a region close to the
photosphere the atmosphere of the sun demanded by Kirchhoff
at some distance above the photosphere.

Last, not least, we had the photographic evidence. There
was in Sicily a photographic station in Syracuse, and the Ame-
ricans had another in Spain. I now show on the screen a
drawing—it is not the photograph itself—but a drawing of a
photograph made by the party in Sicily ; what we have on this
photograph is a bright region round the dark moon, which is,
undoubtedly, solar, but stretching out right away from this,
here and there are large masses of faint light, with dark spaces
between them, which have been called rifts. Now the question
is, Is this outer portion solar ? ’

Having thus brought rapidly before you some of the questions
which we had principally to bear in mind, and, if possible,
settle (though that is too much to hope for in any one Eclipse
Expedition) in the work we had to do in India, I will next
bring to your notice some new methods of inquiry which had
been proposed, with the object of extending former observa-
tions.

I may here remark that the Royal Astronomical Society, in
the first instance, invited me to take charge of an expedition to
India merely to conduct spectroscopic observations ; but
although this request did me infinite honour, I declined it, be-
cause the spectroscope alone, as it had been used before, was,
in my opinion, not competent to deal with all the questions then
under discussion. I have told you that some of the most emi-
nent American observers had come to the conclusion that the
spectrum of hydrogen observed in the last eclipse round the
sun, to a height of 8 minutes, was a spectrum of hydrogen
‘*far above any possible hydrogen” at the sun. Hence it was
in some way reflected. Now with our ordinary spectroscopic
methods it was extremely difficult, and one might say impos-
sible, to determine whether the light which the spectroscope
analysed was really reflected or not ; and that was the whole
question.

It became necessary, therefore, in order to give any approach

to hopefulness, to proceed in a somewhat different way in the ~

1871 expedition ; and, in order to guard against failure, to sup-
plement such new observations by photographs ; and fortunately
we were not long in coming to a conclusion that this might be
done with some considerable chance of success.

T have here a train of prisms. I will for one moment take
one prism out of the train, and we will consider what will hap-
pen if we illuminate the slit of the lantern with a monochroma-
tic light, and observe it through the prism. If we render sodium
vapour incandescent, we know we get a bright yellow image of
the slit, due to the vapour of the metallic sodium only giving us
yellow light. But why is it that we get aline? Because we
always employ a line for the slit, But suppose we vary the in-
quiry? If, instead of a straight line we have a crooked line for
the slit, then we ought to see a crooked line through the prism.

eos

Now, allow me to go one step further: suppose that instead of
a line, whether straight or crooked, we have a slit in the shape
of a ring, shall we see a ring through the prism? You will see
that we shall. And then comes this question: If, when we
work in the laboratory we examine these various slits, illumi-
nated by these various vapours, why should it not happen that if
we observe the corona in the same way, we shall also get a ring
built up by each ray of light which the corona gives to us;
since we know, from the American observations, that there were
bright lines in the spectrum of the corona, as observed by a line
slit? In other words, the corona, examined by means of a long
train of prisms, should give us an image of itself painted by each
ray which the corona is competent to radiate towards us. —

Now let us pass to the screen, the screen merely replacing the
retina. We will first begin with the straight slit with which
you are familiar—we now have our slit fairly focussed on the
screen—we then in the path of the beam interpose one of these
prisms, and there we get on the screen a bright line. ‘

Now, to continue the argument, we replace the straight slit
by a crooked one, and you see we get a crooked image on the
screen, We now replace this crooked slit by aring. We have
now a ring-formed image on the screen. So that you see we
can use any kind of narrow aperture we choose, and as long as
we are dealing with light which is monochromatic, or nearly so,
we get an image of the aperture on the screen,

If we consider the matter further, it will be evident that we
may employ a mixture of vapours, and extend this result.

We will now, for instance, instead of employing sodium
vapour, employ a mixture of various vapours. You see now
that each ray given by these substances, instead of building up a
line image, is building up for us a ring image—that we have
now red, green, yellow, blue, and violet rings.

Now that was the consideration which led to the adoption of
one of the new attempts to investigate the nature of the corona
used this time. It was, to use a train of prisms, pure and simple,
using the corona as the slit, a large number of prisms being
necessary to separate the various rings we hoped to see, by reason
of their strong dispersion. On thescreen the rings to a certain
extent intersect each other; and it would have been easier to
show you the ring-form of the images if we could have used
more prisms than one.

If this is good for a train of prisms such as I have referred to,
_ it is good for asingle prism in front of the object-glass of a tele-
scope. Such was the method adopted by Prof. Respighi, the
distinguished Director of the Observatory of the Capitol of Rome,
who accompanied the expedition,

Now you may ask how would this method, if it succeeded, be
superior to the ordinary one? In this way. If we were dealing
merely with reflection, then all the rings formed by vapours of
equal brilliancy at the base of the chromosphere would be of the
same height, while if reflection were not at work, the rings would
vary according to the actual height of the vapours in the sun’s
atmosphere, and the question would be still further advanced if
the spectrum did not contain a ring representing the substance
which underlies the hydrogen.

Our ew spectroscopic equipment then was as follows :—

1. A train of five prisms,

2. A large prism of small angle placed before the object-glass
of a telescope.

3. Integrating spectroscopes driven by clockwork.

4. A self-registering integrating spectroscope, furnished with
telescopes and collimators of large aperture, and large prisms.
(This instrument was lent by Lord Lindsay.)

Now a word about the polariscopic instruments, referring you
to my lecture given last year for a general notion of the basis of
this class of observation.

A new idea was that observations to determine the polarisation
of the corona might be made with the same telescope and eye,
both with the Biquartz and the Savart.

By the kindness of Mr. Spottiswoode, who has placed his
magnificent polarising apparatus at our service, I hope to be able
to show you on the screen the mode of examining the corona by
means of those two instruments, so as to enable you pretty well
to follow what was actually done.

Let me begin with the Biquartz polariscope. In the first
instance I will throw on the screen a representation of the
corona itself, and we will then insert a Biquartz, and see its
effect when I flood the screen with polarised light. You now
see an indication of what would be observed supposing the
polarisation was due to polarised light diffused in the region be-
tween us and the dark moon and eclipsed sun, in which case the

NATURE

polariscopic effect would be observed getterally over the dark

moon, the corona and the region of the sky outside the corona,
But this is not all ; not only does this arrangement enable us to
determine the existence of such a general polarisation, but the —
vertical line in the Biquartz called the line of junction indicates
the plane of polarisation, when the colours on both sides of it
are the same; so that we have two colours strongly contrasted
in either half of the field when we are¥away from the plane of

polarisation, and a uniform colouring of the whole field when in —

or at right angles to that plane. By turning this prism through
go degrees, you see I entirely change the colours.

But we are not limited to the Biquartz in this inquiry. We
can apply the Savart polariscope. Having still our image ofthe
corona on the screen, I now replace the Biquartz by a Savart.

We now no longer see a line of junction with the similar or
different colours on either side of it, but lines of colour running
across the image. Iturn the prism. We first see the lines with
a white centre, then with a dark one; while at times they are
altogether absent. And as a departure from the plane, when we
use the Biquartz, gives us the strongest contrasts of colour, so
you observe that with the Savart under these circumstances all
indications of polarisation vanish.

Now, if we assume polarisation to be general, and the plane of
polarisation vertical, we should get those coloured bands, as you
see them there, crossing the corona and dark moon, the lines
being vertical and dark-centred. If the plane of polarisation
were horizontal, we should find the lines horizontal and the
central one white.

But so far as we have gone, we have been dealing with polari-
sation which is general, and we have not attempted to localise
polarisation at the corona itself. But I have here an apparatus,
by means of which, quietly, in this theatre one can see as
admirable an example as we should desire of polarisation,
assumed to be particular to the sun and not general—I mean
radial polarisation. We have simply a circular piece of mahogany,
or something else which polarises light equally well, with a hole
in the middle with sloping sides, cut as you see this cut, and then
we place behind it a candle, so that the light of this candle, after
falling on oiled tissue paper stretched across the aperture, can be
reflected to the eye by the sides, the direct light of the candle
being stopped by a central metallic diaphragm. We have now
a source of polarised light of a different kind from thé last. The
next thing we have to do is to introduce into a small telescope
exactly the same kind of apparatus we have there, though of
course on a much smaller scale, and examine the ring of light
seen when we put the candle behind the aperture. On examining
the ring of light which is now visible by means of this telescope,
which contains a Biquartz and analyser, I see the most exquisite
gradations of colour on either side the line of junction which cuts
the field of view and the bright ring in the centre into two.

Now, instead of the candle, we will employ the electric lamp ;
and instead of the eye, the screen; but I must inform you that
the great heat of the electric lamp prevents the appearance being
args successful on the screen, as the reflecting varnish is
melted.

In this experiment we cannot work with an image of the
corona. We must make our corona out of the image of the ring
we hope to get on the screen ; and then, by employing the
Biquartz in the same way as before, instead of getting similar
colours on either side of the line of junction, as we did when
we were working in the plane of polarisation, and getting the
greatest contrasts, as we did when we worked 45 degrees away,
you observe we get different colours in each part of the ring.

On the screen we now have a highly-magnified image of the
hollow cone of iron which I am compelling to reflect the light
from the lamp ; and by inserting this Biquartz I throw various
colours over different portions of that ring, which I beg you to
consider for one moment as the solar corona, and the colours
change as I rotate this prism. You will at once be able to
explain the different actions of this Biquartz in this instance.
The reflection, and therefore the plane, of polarisation is no longer
general, but varies from point to point of the reflecting surface.
It Ds in fact radial, and hence the delicate radiate arrangement of
colour.

Such, then, were some of the new methods and new instru-
ments we used for the first time in our researches. And I hope
you will allow me to use this term, although our work was con-
ducted a long way from the Royal Institution, the natural home
of research in England.

(Zo be continued.)

[Wov. 21, 1842

a

=.

_ V.P., in the chair.

Y, I

| SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDON 4

‘
Geological Society; Nov. 6,—Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S.,
A Report by F. T. Gregory, Mining Land
Commissioner in Queensland, on the recent discoveries of Tin-

ore in that Colony. According to this report, the district in
_ Queensland in which tin-ore has been discovered is situated
about the head-waters of the Severn river and its tributaries,

comprising an area of about 550 square miles. The district is
described as an elevated granitic table-land intersected by ranges
of abrupt hills, some attaining an elevation of about 3,000 feet
above the sea. The richest deposits are found in the beds of the
streams and in alluvial flats on their banks, the payable ground
varying from a few yards to five chains in extent. The aggregate
length of these alluvial bands is estimated at about 170 miles,
the average yield per linear chain of the stream-beds at about ten
tons of ore (cassiterite). Numerous small stanniferous lodes have
been discovered, but only two of much importance, namely, one
near Ballandean Head Station on the Severn ; and another in a
reef of red granite rising in the midst of metamorphic slates and
sandstones at a distance of about six miles. The lodes run in
parallel lines bearing about N. 50° E. ; and one of them can be
traced for a distance of nine or ten miles. The ore, according
to Mr. Gregory and Mr. D’Oyly Aplin, is always associated with
red granite, zc. ‘‘the felspar a pink or red orthoclase, and the
mica generally black ; but when crystals of tin-ore are found zz
situ, the mica is white.” The crystals of tin-ore are generally
found in and along the margins of quartz threads or veins in
bands of loosely aggregated granitoid rock, but are sometimes
imbedded in the micaceous portions. The report concludes with
some statements as to the present condition and prospects of the
district as regards its population.—Observations on some of the
recent Tin-ore discoveries in New England, New South Wales,
by G. H. F. Ulrich. The district referred to by the author
is in the most northern part of the colony of New South
Wales, almost immediately adjoining the tin-region of Queens-
land described in the preceding report. It forms a hilly
elevated plateau, having Ben Lomond for its highest point,
nearly 4,000 feet above the sea-level. The predominant rocks
are granite and basalt, enclosing subordinate areas composed
of metamorphic slates and sandstones; the basalt has generally
broken through the highest crests and points of the ranges, and
spread in extensive streams over the country at the foot. The
workings of the Elsmore Company, situated on the north-west
side of the Macintyre river, about twelve miles E. of the town-
ship of Inverell, include a granite range of about 250 feet in
height, and nearly two milesin length. The granite of the
range is micaceous, with crystals of white orthoclase, and is tra-
versed by quartz veins which contain cassiterite in fine druses,
seams, and scattered crystals, and by dykes of a softer granite,
consisting chiefly of mica, and with scarcely any quartz, in which
cassiterite is distributed in crystals, nests, and bunches, and also
in irregular veins of several inches in thickness. This granite
yields lumps of pure ore up to at least 50 Ibs. in weight. The
quartz veins contain micaceous portions which resemble the
** Greisen ” of the Saxon tin mines. The deepest shaft sunk in
one of the quartz veins was about 60 feet in depth. The author
noticed certain minerals found in association with the tin ore, and
the peculiarities of the crystalline forms presented by the latter.
In conclusion the author referred to the probability that a
deficiency of water may prove a great obstacle to the full de-
velopment of the tin-making industry in this district, but stated
that ‘‘it seems not unlikely that the production of tin ore from
this part of Australia will reach, if not surpass, that of all the
old tin-mining countries combined.”—‘‘ On the included Rock-
fragments of the Cambridge Upper Greensand.” By W. Johnson
Sollas and A. J. Jukes-Browne. The occurrence of numerous
subangular fragments in the Upper Greensand formation was so
far remarkable that it had already attracted the notice of two
alate observers (Mr. Bonney and Mr. Seeley), who had {both

riefly hinted at the agency of ice. While ignorant of the sug-
gestions of these gentlemen, the authors of this paper had been
forced tothe same conclusion. A descriptive list had been pre-
pared of the most remarkable of the included fragments, The
infallible signs of the Upper Greensand origin consisted in in-
crustations of Plicatula sigillum, Ostrea vesiculosa, and ‘* Copro-
lite,” without which, it was stated, the boulders would be undir-
tin; uishable from those of the overlying drift. The following gene-

.and the fauna of the succeeding Chalk.

subangular ; some consist of friable sandstones and shales, w hich
could not have borne even a brief journey over the ocean bed.
2. Many are of large size, especially when compared with the fine
silt in which they were imbedded ; the stones and silt could not
have been borne along by the same marine current. 3. The
stones are of various lithological characters, and might be re-
ferred to granitic, schistose, volcartic, and sedimentary rocks,
probably of Silurian, Old Red Sandstones, and Carboniferous
age. Such strata are not found iw si¢z in the neighbourhood,
and the blocks must have come from Scotland or Wales. Numer-
ous arguments were adduced in favour of their Scottish derivation.
The above considerations, that numerous rock fragments, some
of which are very friable, have been brought from various locali-
ities and yet retain their angularity, were thought sufficient
evidence for their transportation by ice; the majority showed
no ice scratches, but the small proportion of scratched stones in
the moraine matter borne away on an iceberg, and the small per-
centage of ice-scratched boulders in many deposits of glacial
drift, show that the absence of these strice is not inconsistent with
the glacial origin of the included fragments. Besides this the
stones of the Greensand consisted of rock, from which ice marks
would readily have been removed by the action of water, The
authors stated, however, that they had found more positive evi-
dence in a stone which was unmistakably ice-scratched, consist-
ing of a siliceous limestone, and preserved in the Woodwardian
Museum. The fauna, so far as it proved anything, suggested a
cold climate; though abundant, the species were dwarfed, in
striking contrast to those of the Greensand of Southern England
The authors concluded
that a tongue of land separated the Upper Greensand sea into
two basins, the northern of which received icebergs from the
Scottish-Scandinavian chain ; the climate of this was cold, that
of the southern basin much warmer. 7

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Nov. 4.—M. Faye, President.—
The first paper read was by M. Becquerel, on the solar origin of
atmospheric electricity. A large portion of the paper was pre-
liminary, and contains a sketch of modern solar discoveries ; the
subject is to be continued.—M. Pasteur then read a note on the
production of alcohol by fruits. His remarks referred to some
experiments by M. Lechartier, who has found that alcohol is de-
veloped in fruit on simple keeping.—Another note by the same
author followed, replying to some of M. Fremy’s late assertions.
To this M. Fremy replied, and was immediately answered by M.
Pasteur, who demanded the appointment of a commission to
examine his experiments, when M. Fremy arose and proposed
that he, M. Pasteur, and M. Trécul should work in common.
M. Dumas then stated that the Academy should grant the request
of M. Pasteur. M. Wurtz supported M. Pasteur’s demand,
and M. Pasteur then asserted that he would not agree to M.
Fremy’s proposed joint work, and urged the appointment of a
commission to examine the contested experimental evidence.
After this the discussion dropped.—Another of MM. Favre and»
Valson’s papers on crystalline dissociation was then read. The
authors described a new method for the investigation of the “ co-
ercive ” action of a salt on water at any temperature.—M, Faye
then read a paper on Mr. L. Rutherfurd’s lunar photographs.
—Next came a report on a memoir by Dr. Dufossé on the
noises and sounds which the sea and freshwater fish of
Europe can hear. The report recommended that the thanks
of the Academy should be awarded to the Doctor for his dis-
coveries. M. Max Marie then presented a paper on the elemen-

tary theory of Integrals of any order, and of their periods. M. _

Becquerel then presented an addendum to M. E. Jannettaz’s late
note on the coloured rings of gypsum. The note by M. Jan-
nettaz contained some additions to and corrections of his former
communication.—M. D. Colladon then presented a note on the
effects of lightning on trees, which was referred to the Light-
ning Conductor Commission. MM. Becquerel and Edm,
Becquerel made some remarks on this paper in relation to the
change in colour of stricken trees and flowers.—M, C. Dareste’s
third part of his paper on the osteological types of the osseous

fishes followed, and was sent to the Anatomical and Zoological ~

section.—M. Sainte-Claire Deville then presented a memoir by
M. F. Fouqué on some new processes for the proximate analysis
of minerals, and on their application to the lavas of the late
eruption of Santorin.—The //y//oxera Commission next received
a proposal from M. de Wissocq, proposing calcic sulphide and

ralisations were then put forward :—1. The stones are mostly | hydrosulphuric acid as remedies for the diseased vines.—M.

“id,

> 7 oF

Yvon Villarceau then presented the elements and ephemerides of
the planet 125, calculated by M. G, Leveau. This planet was
discovered by M. Henry at the Paris Observatory. Astronomers
having powerful instruments are requested to observe it, and
communicate their results, as it is exceeding difficult of observa-
tion. —M. Maurice Lévy then communicated a paper on the
theory of equations of partial differences of the second
order of two independent variables.—Next came a con-
tinuation of M. Th. du Moncel’s paper on the accidental
currents which are developed in telegraphic lines, of which one
end remains insulated in air,—Next followed a note by M. P.
Yvon on a photometer founded on the perception of relief, and
a note on the action of a copper and cadmium couple on a solu-
tion of cadmic sulphate, by M. F. Raoult, and M. P. Havrez’s
paper on the formulze for the laws of colour, and number of
**Chevreulian ” tints connected with the doses of different gene-
rating agents.—This long paper was followed by a note on the
paces of horses, studied by the graphic method, by M. E. J.
Marey. Several traces of trot and gallop movements accom-
panied the paper.—Mr. Grace Calvert sent a paper on the power
of certain substances in stopping putrefaction and preventing
protoplasmic life, which was then read, and followed by a note
on the febrifugic and anteperiodic properties of the leaves
of Laurus nobilis by M. A. Doran, and by a paper on
the causes of intermittent fevers, and the means of preven-
tion and cure, by M. E. Ferriére—M. Picot then read a
paper on the ‘‘antifermentescible ” properties of sodic silicate.
M. Ch, Robin presented a note by M. E. Dubrueil, on the
Capreolus of Zonites Algirus. This was followed by a note by
M. Carbonnier on the reproduction and development of the
telescope fish, This fish is of Chinese origin, its name being
Long-tsing-ya in Chinese (Cyprynus macrophthalmus Bloch).
M. Claude Bernard then presented a note by M. L. Ranvier, on
the annular strictures and inter-annular segments of the rays and
cramp-fish.—Another communication from M. Thomas on his
asserted discovery of fluorine was submitted to the examination
of M. Balard.—M. Le Baron Larrey presented an extract from
M. Berenger-Féraud, naval surgeon-in-chief at Senegal, on the
larvee and flies (7owches) which are developed ,in the human
skin, At the conclusion of the paper M. Emile Blanchard
made some remarks on it as regards the Cayor fly, no specimens
of which have yet reached Europe. M. Chevreul then presented
a copy of M. Paul de Gasparin’s work on the ‘‘ Valuation of
Arable Land in the Laboratory ;” and after some remarks from
him on M. Gasparin’s discovery of phosphoric acid in the sub-
soil waters of the Plain of Orange, the session was adjourned.
Noy. 11.—M. Faye, President.—The first paper was by Capt.
Perrier on the determination of a great geodesical base in Algeria.
—The President followed with a paper on the triangulation of
Algeria for the new military map of the province.—M. Becquerel
_ then read the second part of his paper on the solar origin of
atmospheric electricity. He considers that the protuberances
come from solar volcanoes, and that they are charged with posi-
tive electricity.—A letter from M. Faye to the author on his last
. paper followed.—M. Le Verrier then read a note on the deter-
mination of the secular variations of the elements of the four planets
—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.—Next came a paper
by M. Trécul on the origin of the lactic and alcoholic ferments.
The author is very severe on M. Pasteur, who, he states, if 999
experiments are favourable to spontaneous generation and one
_ against it, adopts the one and rejects the 999. This, of course,
drew a reply from M. Pasteur, and his reply an answer from M.
Trécul.—M. Pasteur then read a note on M. Fremy’s paper read
at the session of Nov. 4. M. Fremy answered M. Pasteur’s
criticisms, and M. Pasteur in a few words of answer again de-
manded a commission of inquiry.—M. Dareste then presented the
fourth part of his researches on the osseous fishes, after which
two papers on aerostation, by M. Hopin and M. Lamole
respectively, were sent to the commission on that subject.
—MM. Paul and Prosper Henry then announced the dis-
covery at Paris, on the night of November 5 and 6, of
two planets—126 and 127 of the 11th and 11°5 magnitude
respectively ; and M. Yvon Villarceau then read a letter on the
‘two planets by M. Stephan, who had received information and
observed them at Marseilles.—Next came a paper by M. H.
Durrande on the acceleration in the displacement of a system of
points which remains homographic with itself. At the conclusion
of this came a paper on ‘‘ Chloride of Lime ” (bleaching powder),

© by M.J. Kolb. The author gives a method of valuation of this

important commercial product.—M. Balard then presented M.

Scheurer-Kestner’s note on the loss of sodium in the preparation _
of soda-ash by Le Blanc’s process, The author decides that the
loss occurs in the “ waste,” and augments with the excess of
lime compounds,—M. Wurtz presented a note by M. G. Bou- —
chardat on the neutral combinations of Mannite and its hydrates.
—M. L. de Saint-Martin presented some researches on San-—
tonin.—This was followed by MM. Legros and Onimus, with
experimental researches on the physiology of the pneumogastric ©
nerve ; and by an account of ‘‘ Experimental Researches on the
Functions of the Brain,” by M. E. Fournie.—M. Brogniart then
presented MM, Renault and Grand’Eury’s paper on the Fossil
Botany of the Dictyoxylon and its specific attributes.—M. —
Béchamp then gave an account of some researches on thefunction
and transformation of mildews.—M. Pasteur presented a note —
by MM. G. Lechartier and F. Bellamy on the ‘‘ Fermenta-
tion of Fruits.’—M, A. Gaudin next read a note on ‘‘Some ©
arguments necessary to clear up the fermentation question ;”
after which came a note by M. A. Leclerc on the Estimation of
Manganese in soils and vegetables. After some observations on
the geometric markings of microscopic alge from M. J. Girard —
the session was adjourned,

DIARY F

THURSDAY, November 21.

Royat Society, at 8.30.—On the Mechanical Conditions of the Respiratory
Movements in Man: Dr, A. Ransome.—Further Experiments on the more
Important Physiological Changes induced in the Human Economy b
Change of Climate: Dr. Rattray.—On Linear Differential Equations, VI.
and VII. : W. H. L. Russell, F.R.S.

Linnean Socigty, at 8.—On the Comfosite of Bengal: C. B. Clarke,
F.L.S.—On Diversity of Evolution under one set of External Conditions ;
Rey, J T. Gulick. 3 <

CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—On some New Derivations of Anthraflavic Acid ;

W. H. Perkin.
SUNDAY, NoveMBER 24.

Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—On the Renaissance of Modern Europe ;
a Review of the Scientific, Artistic, Rationalistic, Revolutionary Revival,
dating from the 15th Century: J. Addington Symonds,

MONDAY, NovemsBer 25.
Royat GEOGRAPHICAL Society, at 8.30.

z TUESDAY, Novemesr 26.
Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 4,—On Elementary Physiology : Prof. Rutherford,

WEDNESDAY, November 27.

Royat Society oF LiTEraTuRE, at 8.30.—On Difficult Words and Phrases
occurring in Shakespeare’s Works, Part I. : Dr. C. M. Ingleby.

Society oF Arts, at 8.—On Technical Education, and the Means of Pro-
moting it: Thomas Webster.

Lonpvon InstituTioN, at 7.—On Spontaneous Movements in Plants: A,
W. Bennétt. A

Society oF TELEGRAPHIC ENGINEERS, at 8.—On Lightning ; W. H. Preece,

CONTENTS Pace
Mr. Bessemer’s SALOON STEAMER FOR THE CHANNEL PASSAGE. . 41
Science IN CEVLON . «0s 40 s).n (0s in ss) we ete
OceEAN METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ¢ 8 (op aan on
Greset’s THESAURUS ORNITHOLOGIZ . 2. +s 6 © 1 «8 ew 4h
Our Book SHELF . ole) ee ie fee) Gel je! Te int hs Pe net

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :—

Kew Mois and the National Herbarium.—Dr, J. D. Hooxer,

BSG Se SS ei Sk pecs
Diathermacy of Flame.—W. Martieu WI.uiaAms, F.C.S. .
Skeletons of Wild Animals.—J. E. TayLor o* atta gid ae
Treble Rainbow.—A. Mattock . . . ar
- Circular Spraybows . eA SN i Se
Elephas Americanus in Canada.—N. Burwasu . .
Reason or Instinct?—G. B, Buckron, F.R.S. . .
har iealendars yy 6, 1» |» sie tie chs dieu Ma °
CHE LYTRUCUDSES:. 20.0 e's yale gh aEe eos latte
Water-beetles.—J. J. Murpuy, F.G.S...... .
PHOSPHORESCENCE IN Fisu. By W. SAVILLE Kent, F.R,S.
Tue FLorA or THE QuANTocks. By Rev. W. Tuckwe.t, M.A.

Insect Meramorpuosis (II.). By Prof. Duncan, F.R.S. (With IZ
Usistpiations) yi. . ss 8 kee ie he ate se | <n
NorTEs?. Ge!) « eae oe ase

.
.
.
.
.

Cee Oe ea et he eC

ae er A ad

AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE

Neck. at Oe tes 56
On TRE Ecuipsz Expepition, 1871. By J. NonMAN Lockyer, F.R.S. 57
SocreTIES AND ACADEMIES . . . - oe a + + 5 so so oe BG
Le dil ee i i TRE

Errata.—vVol. vii. p. 14: inthe article on ‘Scottish Coal Fields,” for.
* Prof. Geikie” read ‘* Mr. James Geikie.”—Vol. vii. p. 15, col. x: in note
on lecture arrangements at Royal Institution, the second announcement
should have read thus—‘‘ Twelve Lectures on the Forces and Motions of
the Body, by Prof. Rutherford, F.R.S.E. ; Three Lectures on Oxidation,
by Dr. Debus,” &c,

a

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 28, 1872

* FERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION*

: 1? is one of the great attractions of the science of
4 Botany, an attraction common to all the other
_ branches of the study of Nature, that wherever we may
_ happen to be, and under whatever circumstances, some-
thing interesting and suggestive is continually brought
before the eye and mind educated to understand its
teachings, and no true naturalist ought long to be in a
difficulty seeking for a suitable subject for illustration.
At this season of dearth of flowers I hold in my hand a
basket of “Duchesse” pears. These have, after their kind,
been plucked in France before they were ripe, and some
few of them are hard, green, and flavourless ; others are
soft, full, and mellow, with a rich, delicate aroma—morsels
fit for the gods—while others have gone too far,and show
® the
¥ —“‘little pitted speck on garner’d fruit,
That rotting inward slowly moulders all.”

If you will allow me, I will, during the few minutes still
at my disposal, give you a brief sketch of what has been
done of late towards the explanation of the two pheno-
mena which are for the moment the most prominent in
connection with these pears, their ripening, and their
decay.
“These changes depend upon fermentation and putrefac-
_ tion, two processes which are very familiar, and which
have of late engaged the attention of some of the most
_ able and skilful men of science, both on account of their
_ vast importance in the economy of nature and of art,
and of the singular phenomena which accompany them.
_ These phenomena are very complex and difficult ; but
_ chiefly through the patient researches of botanists such
as De Bary on the one hand, and of chemists and phy-
_ siologists who may be represented by Pasteur, Lister,
_ Burdon Sanderson, and Hartley on the other—steady
progress is undoubtedly being made towards their solu-
tion, although much still remains obscure.
_ The character which most broadly distinguishes the vege-
table from the animal kingdom is certainly the power which
_ the former possesses when taken in mass of winning over
from the inorganic kingdom binary compounds which can-
hot contribute directly tothe nutrition of animals, decompo-
sing them, and re-combining their elements into organic
compounds suitable for the support of animal life. This
process—the decomposition of water into oxygen and
hydrogen, of carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen, and
_ of ammonia into hydrogen and nitrogen, and the re-com-
bination of these four elements while in a nascent condition
into starch, sugar, gum, protoplasm, &c.—is, so far as we
_ Know, carried on in plant-cells containing endochrome
under the influence of light, and in such cells and ‘under
such circumstances alone. We thus find that this truly
vegetable process is performed by a very small portion of
an ordinary plant. The cells of the internal organs of
plants and of large pulpy masses, such as these pears,
_ connected with the function of reproduction, are perfectly
colourless ; simple sacs of cellulose, containing in their

* From the Opening Address for the Session 1872-73 to the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh, delivered on Nov. 14, by Prof. Wyville Thomson,
F RS., President of the Society.

No. 161--von, vit.

PEN

NATURE

61

early condition protoplasm, and increasing and multiply-
ing by its agency; and afterwards containing other
substances in addition, such as starch and sugar, the
products of its assimilation and excretion. These masses
of protoplasm with their investing membranes composing
the so-called “cells” of the pear, feed, indeed, upon the
ternary and more complex compounds produced by the
leaves of the pear tree, and are aérated by the fluids which
are passing through the tissues of the pear tree; but,
secluded fromthe light, and developing no special colouring ©
matter, their reactions are not in the strict sense “ vege-
table ;” they absorb the organic compounds and breathe
the distributed air in the true animal sense, just as Amebe
would do, To take the function of respiration as a test,
they absorb oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide, while in
the green parts of plants, which alone perform the great
function of the vegetable kingdom in keeping up the
“balance of organic nature,” the exhalation of carbonic
acid is in the sunshine entirely masked by the exhalation
of oxygen—the product of its decomposition. A green
tree may be likened to that wonderful animated tree, one
of the oceanic Siphonophora, where a certain set only of
the polyps are set aside to feed and to supply nutrition
for the whole, while others, identical with these in essential
structure, feel, or sting, or reproduce the species, or palpi-
tate through the water as locomotive swimming-bells.

It is, perhaps, not easy at once to realise this difference
in the vital relations of the different parts of the same
plant, but it becomes clear enough in the case of pale
parasites, for example Czscwéa. The dodder possesses no
endochrome cells of its own ; it feeds like an animal upon
the organic compounds elaborated by its host. It con-
tributes in no way as a vegetable to the balance of
organic nature, and yet it is evidently a plant nearly
allied to the ordinary bird-weeds, with all the characters
of their well-known natural order.

These “ Duchesse” pears are separated from the tree.
They were probably separated physiologically before
they were taken off, for before we would consider them
fully ripe a certain shrivelling takes place in the cells and
vessels of the fruit-stalk at a kind of joint, and the com-
munication between the pears and the tree is at first
partially and then entirely interrupted. But the pear does
not die; it hangs out in the sunshine, and certain chemical
changes take place within it, still under the guidance of
vital action, sweetening it and developing its favour. We
learn from the beautiful researches of M. Bérard that if
fruit be placed to ripen in air or in oxygen gas, a consider-
able quantity of oxygen is absorbed and an equivalent
proportion of carbon dioxide is given off; that, in fact,
a notable quantity of oxygen is burned in a true process of
respiration. It is calculated by De Bary that the number
of plants in which chlorophyll is absent—that is to say,
which have no power of decomposing and re-combining
the elements of water, carbon dioxide, and ammonia,
and which consequently require to have their food pre-
sented to them in the form of organic matter—is fully
equal to that of green plants, say 150,000. These plants
are chiefly fungi. The part they play in the economy of
the organic world is wonderful. The moment a plant
gets worsted in the battle of life, becomes delicate from
uncongenial soil or other circumstances, or gets smothered
by a more vigorous rival, they set upon it and burn it.

E

»

62

NATURE

If we look just now in the Botanic Garden at any of the
old summer beds of half-hardy plants, we shall see them
shrouded in a maze and network of white fleecy mould,
That mould is a fungus finishing the work of extermination
which the frost has begun, and then burning the bodies. In
all the odd corners there are heaps of rotting vegetation.
These stems and leaves are not rotting of themselves ;
heat them to 212° F., so as to kill the seeds of the fungi,
and seal them up in closed cases, and although they will
slowly decompose, they will never rot. They are being
burned by the process of respiration of fungi just as effec-
tually as they would be if they were collected into a
heap, dried, and set fire to. Most of these fungi are very
minute, but each of them, when it is found in anything
like a well-developed condition, is thoroughly characte-
ristic. Still they are so small and so simple that it is
difficult to distinguish parts of those organs whose form
is not strongly marked.

I will give a brief sketch of the life-histories of one
or two of these fungi, and the first I will choose is a well-
known mildew, JZucor stolonifer. This species is often
found on juicy fruits, covering them with white woolly
patches scattered over with small black heads, and pro-
ducing a very rapid putrefaction beneath the surface of
the fruit. A number of delicate branching filaments form a
rich network in the substance of the fruit, filaments which
are easily distinguished from those of some nearly-allied
forms by their long simple tubes without partitions. These
delicate filamentous tubes, which are the parts first to ap-
pear, and form the basis, as it were, of the fungus, are called
the mycelium, and are found in almost all fungi. From
the mycelium, at certain points, long rather wide tubes
start from the surface on which the fungus is growing
obliquely into the air, and, after running along for a time,
again dip down and give origin to other tufts of my-
celium tube-roots, At the point where these roots come
off, as at the bud of a strawberry-runner, a little tuft of
tubular stems rises upvertically,and ends in roundvesicles
which at first are entirely filled with transparent proto-
plasm. These are cut off from the stem by a partition
which is at first flat, but afterwards assumes an arched
form, giving the space between it and the outer wall the
shape of a very deep meniscus. The protoplasm in the
space ultimately breaks up into a mass of black polygonal
spores, which escape by the giving way of the outer wall of
the sporangium. These spores are thus produced by no
process of true reproduction, but are simply separated
particles of the protoplasm of the parent plant. In hot
summer weather, chiefly on the surface of sour fruit,
Mucor stolonifer forms thick patches, with broad stolons,
and from these, twigs spread over the surface of the
fruit. When two of these twigs meet one another they
form large vesicular expansions, and then apply themselves
to one another. A diaphragm is formed across each of
the vesicles, thus cutting off the distal end of the vesicle,
which is filled with protoplasm. The double wall be-
tween the two cells gives way, and the protoplasm in the
two unites, as in the union of the cell-contents in the con-
jugation of Zyguema. These “coupling cells” have thus
become fused into a single cell called a zygospore, which
goes on enlarging, and is covered with a thick skin,

The simple spores, when scattered on moist ground,
send out filamentous shoots of mycelium, which in their

| in a solution in which it is fairly nourished without a —

turn originate stolons as before ; but the zygospores do not —
produce mycelial filaments when they germinate, but form
one or two sporangium-bearers directly at{the expense —
of the substance of the zygospore, and the ordinary course —
of growth is resumed from their spores. There are thus two —
modes of multiplication in JZ7ucorv—one by sporangia and
spores, non-sexual, a simple method of propagation by
buds—the other a true reproductive process, by the con-—
jugation of male and female elements. It seems to be —
only occasionally and under specially favourable circum-—
stances that the latter process occurs, and this mildew —
often goes on reproducing itself by spores alone for many
generations.
The life history of JZucor mucedo, one of the com-
monest of the mildews, is not yet thoroughly known. —
Here the cells are again simple and undivided, but each
sporangium-bearer usually ends in several large sporangia.
Under certain circumstances this sporangium-bearer —
sends out tufts of finely dividing twigs, each of which —
ends in a small sporangium, which, to distinguish it
from the larger form, has been called a sporangiolum,
At other times processes are produced from the main cells
which rise into delicate tubular branches, and give off
globular cells which are called conédia—simple external
spores, differing entirely in their character from the spores —
produced in sporangia; and if this mould be grown ~

full supply of oxygen gas, long fibres are produced

which break up into a multitude of separate bead-like

cells filled with protoplasm, and capable of reproducing

the organism, WYVILLE THOMSON
(To be continued.)

EXPLORATION OF THE SOUTH POLAR

REGIONS

Il.

HILE Balleny was making the discoveries to which
\ we alluded at the close of the previous article, two
other expeditions were actively pursuing their researches
and extending our knowledge of the Antarctic regions, —
a French expedition under Dumont d’Urville and an
American under Lieutenant Wilkes. Neither expedition
was originally intended for South Polar exploration, and —
to this among other reasons is it to be ascribed that the
results, with respect to the exploration of the South Polar
regions, are of but little value compared with those ob-—
tained by the almost contemporaneous English expedition,
From the South Shetlands D’Urville directed his course
to the south, and discovered on February 27, 1838, in 63°
10’ S, lat. and 57° 5’ W. long., a coast which bears the
name of Louis Philippe Land, and rises to a height of
between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above the sea, The general
outlines of this coast were already indicated on Weddell’s
chart. 1K:
Two years later we find the same explorer again active,
and with a better result, In January 1840 he left Tas-
mania for the south, steering for the region between 120°
and 160° E. long, On January 19, in 66° S, lat., he
found land from 2,000 to 3,000 ft. high, entirely covered
with snow and ice, On the 21st some of the sailors landed
on a little island consisting of gneiss, which D’Urville
named Adelie Land. On the 30th and 31st D’Urville sailed

round a promontory in 64° 40’ S. lat. and 132° 20’ W. long.,
- naming this part of the coast Clairie Land. Shortly after
this the expedition turned northwards, a number of the
men having been lost through illness. Dr. Neumayer
seems to think that the French constitution is not at all
well adapted for expeditions of this kind.

On February 25, 1839, four ships, under the com-
mand of Lieutenant Wilkes, set out from Orange Harbour
in Terra del Fuego, for the purpose of exploring
these southern seas. The season was, however, too far
advanced to admit of much being accomplished, though
one of the ships, the Flying Fush, under Lieutenant
Walker, penetrated as far southas the 7oth degree of
latitude in 100° 16’ W. long., and that at the end of March.
This in itself is a fact of some interest and value, that
so latein the season a point was reached as far south as
_ Cook and Bellinghausen attained to, two months earlier.

On December 27 of the same year the squadron left
Sydney, again for the south. Two of the ships, the
Flying Fish and the Peacock, were soon compelled to
return on account of injuries, so that there were only
the two vessels, the Vincennes and the Porfoise, left to
_ pursue their discoveries. On January 39, 1840, in
- 140° 2’ 30” E. long., and 66° 45’ S. lat., Wilkes saw for the
first time clearly and distinctly the land standing out of
_ the mist; to this he gave the name of “ Antarctic Conti-
nent.” Five days previously the Vincennes reached its
farthest south point, 67° in 147° 30’ E. long., where it was
hard bestead by the ice. Indeed both vessels during
their course along the coast had constantly to fight with
_ theice, and were frequently in the greatest danger of

being crushed. Wilkes found the coast girt by a wall of
"ice, 150 to 200 ft. high, behind which rose the mountains
to a height of 3,000 ft. He advanced thus to 98° E. long.,
and hoped on February 17 to be in a position to reach
the point in this quarter to which Cook had come in
1773 ; but the ice-wall compelled him to turn to the north-
east, quite away from the desired point. After he had

had to give up all hope of being able to penetrate farther
west, and returned to Sydney.
The expedition under Wilkes had travelled over a
stretch of 1,500 miles along the margin of the ice, and
frequently in sight of land. Even if through their labours
the continuity of the land through its whole extent was
by no means proved, yet the extension of Balleny’s dis-
covery in connection with that of D’Urville’s considerably
increased the probability of the existence of a great mass
of land in these regions. Moreover, the observations
made by Wilkes and his officers are of the highest value
to science. It has been latterly disputed to whom be-
‘longs the merit of having first discovered the Antarctic
- Continent, both French and Americans claiming it each
for themselves. But in the present state of our know-
ledge we must characterise such a dispute as perfectly
objectless, for Balleny two years earlier had discovered
his Sabrina Land, and had seen the coast at other points ;
therefore to him, if, indeed, an Antarctic Continent of the
extent indicated by Wilkes exists, the honour of discover-
ing it must be ascribed.
The researches initiated by Gauss and the Géttingen
Society into the nature of the magnetism of the earth had
given rise to a number of undertakings which had for

NATURE

followed the wall of ice to 62° S. lat. and 100° E, long., he’

63

their object to assist inquiry in this direction. From the
southern hemisphere trustworthy data were altogether
wanting, and on this account the British Government
resolved to send an expedition to the magnetic South
Pole, and that moreover, under the leadership of Captain
James Ross, who had spent the greatest part of his earlier
youth in the North Polar regions, and already in the year
1831 had discovered the magnetic North Pole. The re-
sults of his expedition, therefore, are incomparably rich
and valuable.

After some preparatory cruising, the two ships, the
well-known Erebus and Terror, well appointed for their
work, set out from Hobarton on November 12, 1840,
directing their course southwards, after a brief visit
to Campbell Island. On December 27 the first ice was
seen in 63° 20'S, lat., and 176° 30’ E. long., and on
January 1, 1841, the Polar circle was passed in 170° E,
long., where the ships first encountered the pack-ice,
Sir James, after careful consideration, determined to
endeavour to penetrate the inner masses of pack-ice
which, by the two previous voyagers, had only been
skirted, and on the oth, in 69° 15’ S. lat, and
176° 15’ E. long., came out into open sea. On the
11th land was discovéred in 71° 15’ S, lat., the moun-
tains of which, covered with perpetual snow and ice,
reared themselves high into the air. The highest of these
was named after Sir Edward Sabine, who for more than
half a century, says Dr. Neumayer, has devoted his
energies to researches in physical geography in all regions
and in all parts of the earth, and who has largely added
to our knowledge, especially of terrestrial magnetism,

The whole land, which Ross followed to nearly 79° S,
lat., he named South Vitoria Land, and an active volcano,
12,400 feet high, which he discovered on January 28, he
named Mount Erebus. The name of the Zerror was
given to an extinct volcano, somewhat higher than the
other, lying farther to the east. On the same day it was
found that farther advance was impracticable, as the ex-
plorers found themselves suddenly face to face with an
immense wall of ice, from 150 to 200 feet high, exactly
similar to that which had been seen by D’Urville, Wilkes,
and others. In the far distance over this wall they
descried mountain peaks of great height and covered with
ice : Ross named them after Parry.

In the vain attempt to reach the end of the ice-wall
or find an opening in which the ship could pass the
winter, they gained, on February 2, in 173° E. long., their
greatest south latitude of 78° 4’. The rest of the month
Ross spent in the further exploration partly of the
southern sea and partly of the coast of the newly dis-
covered Victoria Land from Franklin Island to the North
Cape, when he turned his course to the west in 70° 40’ S, lat.
In 68° S, lat. and 165° E, long, was seen a series of what
seemed either islands or mountain peaks belonging to the
continent, and farther on were seen the islands discovered
by Balleny. Ross found that the land placed by Wilkes
on his chart under 65° 4o’ S. lat. and 165° E. long., in
reality did not exist. As about the beginning of March the
young ice began rapidly to form, Captain Ross determined
to return northwards. On the return voyage, magnetic
researches of the highest value were made. More espe-
cially was determined the position of the line of non-
deflection of the compass.

64

On November 25, 1841, the expedition again shaped its
course southwards. On December 16, in 57° S. lat., Ross
reached the first ice, and on January 1, 1842, crossed the
Polar Circle in 156° 28’ W. long., surrounded at times by
pack-ice. On February 2, 1842, in 68° 23’ S, lat. and 159° 52’
W. long., the vessels reached open water, and on the
23rd of the same month, they approached, in 77° 49’ S.
lat. and 162° 36’ W. long., a perpendicular wall of ice,
only half the height of that in the neighbourhood of
Mount Terror. On this day also they reached in 161° 27’
W. long. their highest latitude, 78° 9’ 30" S., where they
observed unmistakeable signs of neighbouring land. On
the following day was commenced the return journey, and
on April 6 the ships anchored at Port Louis, in the
-Falkland Islands.

On December 17, 1842, Ross set out a third time for the
far south, this time to explore D’Urville’s Louis Philippe
Land, and to penetrate to the region which Weddell had
reached in 74° 15’. There is little to record for our
present purpose concerning this journey, but that, amid
the greatest difficulties and dangers from the ice, the two
plucky ships penetrated as far south as 71° 30’in 14°
51’ W. long., on March 5, 1843. On September 2, the
-two ships Zyebus and Terror reached England, and
fifteen months later, under the guidance of Sir John
Franklin, they set out again towards the north, from
which they never returned.

Such is a brief review of the progress of geographical
knowledge in reference to the South Polar regions.
In what follows it is not intended to give a comprehen-
sive analysis of the valuable material contained in the
journals of the various voyages concerning the nature and
physical conditions of these regions, but only to bring
into prominence what is of greatest importance, and, incon-
nection therewith, what is of importance to any expedition
that may yet be organised, to draw some general conclu-
sions as to the form of the South Polar regions. By this
means a rational plan may be suggested for the further
investigation of these regions.

In these observations the conditions as to ice claim our
attention in the first place, as they enable us to draw im-
portant conclusions with respect to the extent of the land
and the currents inside the Polar Circle, With reference
to the latter, the drift-ice is of special value, as it enables
us to recognise them in spite of the surface-currents
caused by the winds and obliterating the main pheno-
mena. In the southern hemisphere drift icebergs of
200, 300, and even more feet in height above the water
are common; and if we take into consideration that
their depth under the water must be six or seven
times greater, we shall be able to understand that the
movement of these ice-masses, which, moreover, are of
colossal extent horizontally, must be the result of various
forces working upon them. Under-currents, surface-
currents, and prevailing winds, have to be considered in
interpreting this phenomenon, according to the size and
proportion of the mass presented ; though the compara-
tively feeble surface-currents are of subordinate impor-
tance.

It would lead us too far here were we to attempt a
thorough discussion of all the modifying causes and phe-
nomena; it need only be mentioned that the water-
masses of the Polar zone move, so to speak, to lower

aa wa
: $4 oe ae

[Wov. 28, 1872

“ Antarctic Drift.” And by the south-east winds, which —
prevail in the southern summer, colossal masses of —
ice during that season push their way northwards, where
they partly break up, but partly also are driven back by
the north-west winds of autumn to the south. Although
nothing certain can be said concerning their course
towards the Pole, and only in particular circumstances is
a south-easterly return movement established, yet it may
in general be stated with regard to the masses which out-
last the summer, that their northward and southward
course may be explained by a periodical prevalence of —
the impulse from the surface or under-current. In
winter, when the Antarctic drift-current, on account of the
smaller differences of temperature and evaporation in
lower latitudes, is less powerful, will the impulse, strength-
ened by the north-west winds, be directed towards the —
south-east or the south? Also, the movements of the ice
during the other seasons can only be explained in this
way ; and on this account is the study of the various
ice-charts of considerable advantage, especially the chart
of the British Admiralty, on which are registered the re-
sults obtained from the commerce of the world.

The glacier ice-walls, of which we have accounts in
several narratives of voyages, are, through the almost
unbroken, and in winter specially rapid formation of ice,
pushed continually farther and farther on into the sea,
until at last, being insufficiently supported at the bottom,
and subject to the buffetings of the waves, they break into
pieces. Towards the end of the cold season this disinte-
gration is still further assisted by the great differences of —
temperature betwixt air and water in high south latitudes,
and with the setting in of September commences the
journey of the masses of drift-ice from the south. Jt is in
consequence of this that during the southern winter, —
scarcely any drift-ice is found on the great highways of
the world’s commerce. The result of a strict comparison —
is that the frequency of the occurrence of ice in June and
December is in the proportion of 1 to 13. Further, that
the prevalence of the drift-ice is greater in March and
April than in September and October, is only a further
proof of what has been stated, seeing that in the last-
mentioned months the ice is still in the neighbourhood of
the spot where it was formed, while in the former months
it has either not yet been broken up, or has not got
beyond the bounds of traffic on its return journey.

The masses of drift-ice do not everywhere move equally
far to the north: in some places they are met with much
nearer the equator than in others, as will be seen if we
examine the region around the poles on the charts on which
the position of the ice in the various months is laid down.
The causes of this inequality are to be seen partly in the
conditions of the current, but also in the difference of the
distances from the pole of the places of formation of the
various masses of ice : indeed, the greater this distance is,
so much farther to the north, ceferis paribus, will the ice
be driven. We might now attempt to construct an
average boundary line for the equatorial drift-ice, but
from the variety of the boundaries and the lack of material
for this purpose, its course would be very indefinite. We
shall best arrive at useful results if we draw these bound.
aries in accordance with trustworthy notes, leaving mean- —
while peculiar, and evidently altogether abnormal circum-

stances out of account. The ice is found in some pathways
of commerce in much greater forcethanin others. Accor-
_ding to the excellent map appended to Dr. Neumayer’s
pamphlet, the drift-ice extends farthest into the South
Atlantic Ocean, where it makes its way to the 4oth
parallel of latitude, while in the Pacific Ocean its
boundary coincides nearly with the 52nd parallel; in the
Indian Ocean the limit lies between the 4oth and soth
degree of latitude. Clearly the cause of the ice pushing
its way so far into the Atlantic Ocean is to be found in
the fact that most of the icebergs there met with have their
origin about Graham’s Land and the South Shetlands lying
far to the north, and, according to Towson’s observations,
they sail northward at a daily rate of ten miles in an
easterly direction, when once they are exposed to the
combined influence of the current and the westerly winds
It is easy to see that these attempts to fix an aver-
age boundary are fraught with difficulty, and therefore,
also, with uncertainty, especially when it is taken into
consideration that all parts of the ocean have not
been equally explored—many, indeed, not at all, or only
by single vessels. By an uncritical examination of all
the collected facts relating to the subject, one might
be led to very false conclusions. Therefore we ought to
examine most narrowly any conclusions which may be
drawn at first from the frequency of observation ; but for
so complicated an inquiry, the material within reach is by
no means sufficient, and therefore we must seek for help
from some other quarter. Those parts of the ocean are
best compared which have been explored by a nearly
equal number of ships. But this at present is the case
only along the regular routes in the South Atlantic, the
Indian, and the South Pacific Oceans, and therefore in
these cases an immediate comparison is admissible. By
such a comparison it is immediately perceived that in
each of the oceans places are found which are almost
free from drift-ice, and that throughout the whole year. A
specially valuable means of determining such places as
are free from ice, is the fact that, towards the equator, a
gap in the ice-boundary is shown, through which a ship
coming from lower latitudes may sail to the 60th degree
south without having to passthrough ice. These ice-free
areas may be set down as follow :— ;
1. To the south-west of Cape Horn the boundary of
the drift-ice reaches down to about 57° S. lat.
«. 2, Between the 6oth and 80th degree of E. long. the
boundary is found in 61° S. lat.
3. Between 160° E. and 175° W. long. it has the same
limit as in No. 2.
Of course, icebergs, which are influenced more by sur-
face currents and the prevailing winds than by under-

_ currents, are occasionally found in these clear areas;

especially is this the case in years which are exception-
ally abundant in ice, as was the case in 1854-5.

Let us inquire, now, what kind of explanation can be
‘given of these phenomena. These will naturally result,
in some measure, from the considerations previously ad-
vanced : either the place of their origin must be placed
far to the south of the places indicated, so that the ice-
bergs have a long journey to make before reaching the
highways of commerce ; or the conditions of temperature
within the region indicated are favourable to the melting
and disintegration of the ice; or finally the direction of the

NATURE

65,

current is such that the icebergs cannot reach the north,
The winds, so far as the present question is concerned,
can exercise no influence, for all round the Pole they are
nearly the same forthe same parallels. With regard to
the currents which are open to direct observation, it is
difficult to come to any fixed .conclusions, for these ob-
servations refer only to the surface-currents, which
are almost universally caused by the prevailing winds.
Besides, the observations as to currents of the usual
kind, for special purposes, are not to be relied on.
That an interchange of water takes place, besides
that in the way of the general drift, through powerful
currents, we know through many instances which need
scarcely be mentioned. The question is concerning the
position of these currents, their exact course in the various
oceans. But for this purpose the drift-ice offers a capital
means of solution, while the warm currents born of the
water from the equator, in virtue of their southerly direc-
tion against the advance of the ice, and in virtue of their
temperature, must be highly unfavourable to the con-
tinuance of this. Further, it is evident that the in-
terchange of water occurs along such routes as are
determined by the rotation of the earth and the configu-
ration of the lands and the bottom of the seas. These routes
will lead to places lying as far as possible from the Pole. All
three would agree in furnishing strong proofs that the area
is free from ice, if only we assume that the warm waters
of the equator proceed southwards towards the places
referred to.

In reference to that principal current of the ocean
which is always referred to in a theoretical view, it may
be said that the factshas been established that the equa-
torial waters, in their powerful currents from east to west,
are made to diverge by the east coast of the Continent,
and turned towards the Poles in both hemispheres. We
find the direction taken by the south in a current along
the east coast of America, of Africa, and Australia, from
which it then makes its way towards the south-east, and
when not to be recognised as a surface-current, it will be
found to have assumed the form of an under-current of
much greater force. The warm South American current
will probably split on the point of Graham Land; one
part makes for Alexander Land, the other towards that .
part where Weddel, after he penetrated the pack-ice,
reached water free of ice. The Australian branch tends
towards Victoria in the south of New Zealand, and made
it possible for Sir James Ross to reach the 78th degree
of S. latitude, while the Mozambique or African current
flows towards the Pole, beyond Kerguelen Land, between
Termination and Kemp Lands. Inthe first two cases we
have positive proof ; while with respect to the last, the
evidence for a correct judgment can only be obtained by
researches inthe high south. The direction of the axis
of the ice-free area is, in agreement with the general direc-
tion of the current, according to the present condition of
our knowledge, from north-west to south-east ; at least
this is true for the Indian and Pacific Oceans, while the
wedge-shaped form of South America must tend to
modify the general rule.

We know from several voyagers that a girdle of pack-
ice lies around the Poles, whose position and strength are
liable to change, though in a less degree than is the case
with the drift-ice. Naturally in this case, the evidence

66

NATURE

ae ,

| Woo. 28, 1872 4

necessary to a determination of the mean position is
still more scarce, and still more data must be ob-
tained to form a mean value, although the pack-ice
girdle thus obtained can only have an ideal importance.
If we follow the boundaries of this pack-ice girdle, we
notice to the south of New Zealand a bend towards the
south analogous to that of the drift-ice, only shifted in
accordance with the general direction of the current ; also
on the west side of Graham Land this tendency of the ice
to bend towards the south is noticed, for it is always in-
fluenced by the direction of the land. To the south of
Kerguelen Land the pack will only be to the west of
Termination Land, and, indeed, stretching in a direction
which makes us suspect another bend towards the south,

We must yet mention a sort of product of the drift, of
considerable importance in ascertaining the condition of
the drift and the ocean-currents, viz, the seaweed.
This is loosened from its position especially by drifting
icebergs, and turned adrift to the play of the waves.
This conglomeration of plants, which reaches a littie
above the surface, though the long fibres stretch deep
down into the water, shows the currents very correctly,
for it is as little influenced by the winds as a drifting
bottle. The curve that limits the place of growth is con-
fined, in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, to about the
6oth meridian of E. long., near to that of the drift-ice.
In some places this also holds good for regions to the
south of Australia and the south-east of New Zealand.
At all events, it can thus be understood how those
places which are free from drift-ice are also free from
drift-weed, a point of some importance when we consider
the fact that drift-weed is the attendant of icebergs.
According to the Dutch voyagers, on the west of the
meridian of Paul and Amsterdam are found weeds dif-
ferent from those on the east thereof, which points toa

different current.
(To be continued.)

TYNDALL’S RESEARCHES ON RADIANT
HEAT

Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Domain of
Radiant Heat. By John Tyndall, LL.D., F.RS.
(Longmans, 1872.)

pent’ years ago our knowledge concerning the ra-

diation and absorption of heat was very meagre,

We believe that the earliest experiment in this direction

is to be found in that wonderful book containing the

“Essayes” of the Florentine Academicians. There we

meet with the fact that the heat of the sun, converged by

a mirror, can ignite a pastile placed within a Torricellian

vacuum. A little later, in 1682, Mariotte communicated

to the Paris Academy of Sciences that the heat of a com-
mon fire, made very sensible in the focus of a burning
mirror, was entirely cut off by the interposition of a sheet
of glass. The mirror in this case must have been of
polished metal, These experiments were subsequently
repeated and extended by Lambert, who, assigning the
true cause, pointed out the necessity of employing metal,
and not glass mirrors, in the reflection of heat from terres-
trial sources. Lambert further showed that if the radia-
tion from a clear fire were converged by a large glass lens,
no heat was felt where! the brilliant focus was seen,

| stance.

whilst Hoffmann first collected the obscure heat of a

stove to a focus by a metal mirror. :
About a century ago Franklin made his experiments

with bits of coloured cloth on snow, and found that,

whereas colour strongly influenced the amount of solar

heat absorbed, it made little or no difference on the emis-
sion from a lamp or candle. Beyond the foregoing in-

formation, we believe little more was known in this
subject till, in 1777, Scheele published his famous treatise
on “Air and Fire.” But a great deal of ignorant talk,
clothing itself beneath a barbarous jargon, was prevalent —
at that time. Putting much of this aside, Scheele asks
himself the question, which he was unaware Lambert

had already answered, whether it was really the heat, or

only the light of a fire, that was reflected froma metal

mirror ; but first he seeks to know whether there are dif-
ferent kinds of heat. “There will be many,” he remarks,

“who will not hesitate to give an answer to my queries ;
for I am well acquainted with the vague phrases accor d-
ing to which everything is called Fire that hath a distant

similarity to it. But I am of opinion,” he naively adds, —
“itis best not to begin to read before one knows the
elements of the alphabet, and to withhold an answer till —
one has reflected on the following experiments.” Then
comes a series of admirably simple experiments, pregnant
with important results. As they deserve to be more
widely known than they seem to be, the reader will par-
don our quoting Scheele’s own words at length. They
are to be found in section 57 of his work already alluded
to :—‘ From these experiments ”—made in winter, before
an open stove, and with only a candle, a concave mirror,
and sheet of glass and metal, for apparatus—“it ap-
pears,” says Scheele, “that the heat, mounting with
the air in the stove, and passing through the chim-
ney, is materially different from the heat passing
through the door of the stove into the room, That
the latter heat departs from the centre, where it is
generated in straight lines, and is reflected from
polished metals under an angle which is equal to that of
incidence. That it unites not with air, nor can be

diverted by a current of air, into a direction different

from that which it originally had received. For that very

reason, the vapours of the breath are visible in this great

heat ; for since air and heatare really united during sum-

mer, and warm air can dissolve more water than cold air,
it likewise hence appears that this kind of heat is not
united with air, nor has this kind of heat probably rare-

fied the air ; and of consequence it becomes evident why
it causes no tremulous motion in sunshine. You may, by
means of a glass mirror, separate the light from this
heat, when the heat remains in the glass, and the radiant

light yields no heat. Hence it follows that the heat,
passing through the door of the stove, coincides, in some
points, with the light, but is not yet quite become light,
since it is not reflected in the same manner from a glass
surface as from a metallic one—a remarkable circum-
This heat is soon changed into the usual heat,
whenever it unites with a body, which may be observed
in the glass, andin the metallic concave mirror blackened
by soot, and in more instances. Represent to yourself,”
he concludes, “a little hillock of burning coals ; in this
case the heat darting from this hillock all around is that
which may be reflected by a metallic polished plate ; that,

on the contrary, which rises upwards, and may be driven
_ by winds to and fro, unites with air. I will call the first
kind, for distinction sake, Radiant Heat.” Thus arose
_ the termwe stillemploy. The whole passage reads as if
it were written almost at the present day ; and the lucid
_ style of the last sentence cannot fail to strike the reader.
_ This is the more remarkable if we contrast it with the

current ideas of the time, or even with Scheele’s own
description of the heat of contact; for a little further
on he states, “This heat is a peculiar acid, which has
admitted a certain quantity of phlogiston in its mixture.”

Soon after this Pictet made his well-known experiments
on the reflection of heat. In these he confirms the fact
of the reflection and convergence of obscure rays, and
discovers that the velocity of radiant heat is beyond the
_ reach of experiment. To him is also due our first know-
ledge of the apparent reflection of cold, a fact explained
some ten years later (1792) by Prevost, according to his
famous theory of exchanges.

The experiments on radiation published in England at
the close of the last and the early part of the present
century, will be familiar to most of our readers. It will
be remembered that Sir William Herschel established
the refraction of heat, and the difference in the quality
of solar and terrestrial heat ; that he confirmed Leslie’s
experiments on the heating power of different parts of
__ the solar spectrum, and first discovered that the maximum

heat was beyond the visible red (experiments subsequently
verified by Sir H. Englefield) ; that he also determined
the transcalency of various kinds and colours of glass,
both to white light and to the light of the spectrum.

Both Rumford’s and Leslie’s inquiries into the Nature
and Propagation of Heat quickly added to this know-
ledge ; to Leslie belonging the capital discovery of the
reciprocity of radiation and absorption. The accounts
in our modern text-books render a further allusion to
these experiments unnecessary.

A quarter of acentury now lapsed ; the attention of the
scientific world being diverted by the electro-chemical
discoveries ofthat period. One of the products of the new
activity thus aroused was the discovery of thermo-electricity
by Prof. Seebeck in 1822. Some ten years afterwards,
Nobili constructed the well-known thermo-electric pile.
Associating this instrument with a galvanometer, Melloni
at once turned Seebeck’s discovery into a thermoscope of
surpassing delicacy. The fruit of one man’s work thus
soon became the seed of new and more vigorous inves-
tigation. And so prolific was this seed in Melloni’s
hands, that the blackened ‘face of a thermo-pile is at
present considered the indispensable pre-requisite in every
exploration in “the domain of radiant heat.” For six
years Melloni pushed on with his researches ; determin-
ing the amount of heat transmitted through innumerable
solids and liquids—their relative diathermancy, as he ex-
pressed it—and using these determinations to investigate
the quality of heat emitted from various sources. But
the discovery with which his name will always be asso-
ciated is that each material possesses a selective absorp-
tion, a veritable heat-tint, to which he gave the name of
thermochrosis ; thus confirming and explaining a similar
fact previously noticed by De La Roche. Hence it was
that Melloni called the volume “La Thermochrose,” in
which he grouped together the investigations that he

NATURE

67

had published, in the “Annales de Chimie,’ and the
Comptes Rendus, between the years 1833 and 1839. The
appearance of these researches was characterised by M.
Biot as “un nouveau champ de découvertes, que M.
Melloni a exploité avec un sagacité une addresse et une
patience inimaginables ;” the subsequent verdict of phy-
sicists has not lessened this high opinion.

The interest awakened by Melloni’s inquiries was no
doubt the main cause of the rapid additions to our know-
ledge of the phenomena of radiation and absorption, that
followed. Among others, Forbes, Dulong and Petit, De
la Provostaye and Desains, Knoblauch, Jamin, Masson
and Courtépée, Miiller and Balfour Stewart, signalised
themselves by the value of their investigations in this
department of natural knowledge. But the whole of these
inquiries were directed to the behaviour of solids or liquids,
or the analysis of radiation itself. The influence of
gases and vapours on radiant heat was not entertained.
Melloni, indeed, thought such attenuated bodies could not
come within the reach of experiment ; for he had ascer-
tained that a column of air some 20 ft. long exerted prac-
tically no absorption on the radiation from his source.
Pouillet and Forbes, however, showed that the heat of
the solar rays are largely absorbed by our atmosphere ;
and Franz believed (though erroneously) that he dis-
covered a considerable absorption of heat by the air con-
tained in a tube only 3 ft. long.

Briefly speaking, this was the state of our knowledge
in this branch of Physics when Dr. Tyndall approached
the subject in 1859. After having wrought for twelve
years, Prof. Tyndall has now gathered into the volume
before us the important results his unremitting labour has
won, A summary of these results must be left to another
article. W. F. BARRETT

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

On the supposed new Marine Animal from
Barraud’s Inlet

As some interest seems to be excited as to the nature of the
animal that forms the long calcareous axis that has been received
from Barraud’s Inlet, I forward you a copy of a short notice I
read on the subject before the California Academy of Sciences,
July 17, 1871. also enclose a piece of the stem with some of
the soft parts still adhering to it, as it is possible its examination
by competent observers will determine if I correctly referred it
to the sponges.

“ An examination of the specimens received from Barraud’s
Inlet enables me to refer them to the Protozoa class, Spon-
gid or sponges. Although apparently nothing but the
calcareous stem has reached us, yet on some specimens I
found one end of the stem covered with a horny substance,
which, when moistened and examined under the microscope,
presents the character of a true sponge, being formed of a tough
sarcode arranged in the form of irregularly reticulated tubes, the
sides of which are studded with minute pores. The arrangement
of the sarcode round the axis is not circular, but has somewhat
the appearance of a Maltese cross. The central axis is formed
by calcified layers of a tough chitinous substance. In the
specimens we have received the greatest thickness is about { of
an inch, but the longitudinal fissures found in many of the stems
would indicate that they had shrunk. They contain about 80
per cent. of carbonate of lime. At each end the stem is tapered
off. The top terminates in a fine hair-like prolongation of
uncalcified chitinous substance. The lower part of the stem,
which in our specimens is the only part covered with sarcode,

c= : °

68

1
also tapers down to about the thickness of a straw, and here

there is no calcified axis. A thin section of the stem in its
thickest part showed that it had been formed in concentric
layers which were perfectly circular and presented nothing corres-
ponding to the stellate arrangement of the sarcode. These rings
undoubtedly represent different phases in the life of the animal.
I have counted as many as thirteen in one section, and should
they indicate animal deposits, this would give us thirteen years
as the time required for their formation, a period not too long
when we consider the length (upwards of seven feet) which some
of these stems have attained. Whether this specimen is new I
am not prepared to state, and shall not therefore name it, although
I believe it has not been before observed. Its generic relations
will, I think, be with Hyalonema and Euplectella, both sponges
of the Pacific.” James BLakE
San Francisco, Oct. 27

Misleading Cyclopzdias

CAN any of your readers inform me if there is such a thing
as a good and honestly constructed cyclopzedia—one that does
not send you hunting for information from one volume to another,
and refer you backwards and forwards to articles that do not
exist ?

I have been repeatedly annoyed by this kind of will-o’-the-
wisp, but have to-day met with such an outrageous example of
it, that, although it involves some trouble, I feel it to be a duty
to make a public exposure of it in your columns.

Requiring some facts on unusual atmospheric refraction, I
turned to ‘‘ Refraction ” in the ‘‘ English Encyclopedia.” This
article referred me to ‘‘ Mirage, Fata Morgana,” &c., for informa-
tion on this branch of the subject. Turning to ‘‘ Mirage,” I
found not a word, but another reference to ‘‘ Reflection and
Refraction, Atmospheric, Extraordinary.” Next I tried “Fata
Morgana,” again the same reference. Coming back to letter R,
I found the article ‘‘ Reflection and Refraction,” but was here
referred to ‘‘ Light, Optics, Refraction, Refrangibility ;” then to
letter A, ‘‘ Atmosphere, Atmospheric”—nothing on the ‘sub-
ject. Letter E, ‘‘Extraordinary Refraction”—nothing but a
reference back again to “ Mirage!” “Light, Optics, and Re-
frangibility ” contain ncthing on the subject. :

I was thus sent on a search through five volumes of the work,
and made to hunt out nine distinct headings for what does not
exist ; and what makes the matter worse is, that the writer of the
article “‘ Refraction,” at the end of the work, must have sown
that it did not exist when he referred back to ‘‘ Mirage, Fata
Morgana,” &c., which words have not a word of information
appended to them.

An alphabetical cyclopzedia is somuch the most convenient for
reference, and might be such an invaluable addition to a library,
that it is the more to be regretted that it should be brought into
disrepute by the absence of all efficient editorial supervision.

; A, R. WALLACE

Rainbows on Blue Sky

In Nature for Noy. 21 a correspondent asks for examples of
bows seen on a cloudless background.

T have seen this phenomenon twice at least. In one instance
I remember that the extremities of the bow were seen against
cloud, while the central portion bridged a space of clear blue
sky.

i more perfect example occurred on the 19th of February in
the present year. The following is a verdatim extract from my
notes of that day :—

“Peculiar rainbow at 11.50 A.M. ; perfect (except quite near
the extremities), fairly bright, but projected throughout its entire
length against clear blue sky. No rain was falling at the time,
nor was there any appearance of falling rain on the sky, but the
character of the clouds and of the weather was consistent with
the supposition of slight and partial showers.”

The phenomenon, although rare, does not seem to call for any
special explanation. In showery weather, especially with a low
barometer, one may sometimes see rain falling from a mere shred
of cloud, the sky round about being clear. In such a case it is
evident that there may be places whence an observer would see a
rainbow against blue sky. Even should there be no visible cloud
from which the rain seems likely to have fallen, the same ex-
planation will still serve, for the cloud may be too attenuated to
be visible, or may indeed be actually exhausted, the rainbow
being formed on its last drops.

NATURE

‘[Mov. 28, 1872

iw:
-

It scarcely needs to be pointed out, that'when a rainbow is
seen, as it usually is, against a cloud, the presence of the cloud
is accidental rather than essential, the bow being formed not on __
the cloud, but on the drops of falling rain, and those being gene-
rally much nearer to the observer than the cloud. ,

Clifton, Noy. 25 GrorGE F, BURDER

The Greenwich Date

I Am anxious to obtain the solution of a question which has
for some time perplexed me, and which is rendered more press-
ing than formerly, now that telegraphic communication is esta-
plished between England and Australia. a

It appears that a telegram sent on October 21, 3h. 5m. mean
astronomical time at Adelaide, was received on October 21,
21h. 40m. mean astronomical time at Greenwich. Now, to ob-
tain the Greenwich date of its despatch, we apply the longitude ~
in time, adding when the place is west of Greenwich, and sub-
tracting whenit is east. Adelaide is gh. 35m. east of Greenwich,
the date sought is October 20, 18h, 10m. But suppose a place
gh. 35m. west of Greenwich, then the date sought comes out
October 21, 13h. 10m., that is to say, the result of the operations
gives a difference in the day of the month at places where, in
fact, the day of the month must actually bethe same. The query
then is—in what part of the globe, and in what meridian, does
October 20 end, and October 21 begin?

Fleetwood Vicarage JAMES P£ARSON

Ocean Meteorological Observations

I PRESUME that anyone looking at the chart on page 43 of this
week’s NATURE, or reflecting on the circumstances under which
barometric observations at sea are ordinarily taken, will agree
with me that it would be wiser to give only two places of deci-
mals, and not indicate a degree of refinement which the observa- _
tions do not warrant. This point being granted (and even if it
is not I shall maintain the same line of argument), I submit that
the writer of the article is in error in saying on page 44: ‘* Range
corrections for pressure and temperature over the region under
discussion are not yet accurately enough known to justify the
committee in ‘correcting’ the results on the large chart by hypo-
thetical corrections.”

The daily range of the barometer in the very square under
notice was investigated under Admiral Fitzroy’s direction, and
the results were published so long ago as 1861, as the seventh
number of Meteorological Papers, under the title of ‘‘Inter-
tropical diurnal range tables of the barometer.’

It is very strange if this publication is unknown both to the
author of the work reviewed and to the reviewer, and yet it is so
cognate to the subject in hand that there would surely have been
some reference to it, had they been aware of what had already
been done. G, J. Symons

Nov. 25

Earthquake

AN earthquake was felt at the Cavendish Bridge Brewery, near
Derby, on November 13th, at 4h. tom, P.M. J
Mr. G. T. Eaton, who was in his greenhouse, says ‘‘ the glass
was very much shaken.” Mrs. Sandford was considerably shaken —
by a vibratory motion of her chair. Mrs, Eaton’s children, who
were upstairs, were alarmed. The windows rattled, and the —
glasses danced on the tables. The sky was dark and threatening,

with a slight fall of sleet and snow.

I have delayed sending a report until further evidence could be
obtained. It is now certain that the shock extended through
Shardlow; and the earthquake was also felt in the neighbourhood
at Aston, Castle Donington, and more particularly at Chellaston. —

E. J. Lowe

Highfield House, Nottingham, Novy. 24

—_—— *

The Birth of Chemistry q

Mr. RopwELt writes :— The Greek name for tin, ‘kassiteros’? _
(karotrepos), was perhaps derived from the Insulse Cassiterides —
or Scilly Islands ;” but he does not state how these islands came
by such a high-sounding name.

I have heard that the root word is Sanscrit, and was known ~
in India before the Phoenicians discovered Britain. A. H,

-PHYSOSTIGMA AND ATROPIA*
this remarkable memoir, Dr. Fraser has shown how

4
with a kind of exactness which has hitherto been confined
o purely physical inquiries.

_ That an antagonism exists between the physiological
action of atropia and that of the Calabar bean had been
strongly indicated by Kleinwachter and by Bourneville.}
Dr, Fraser has not only confirmed this, but has, by means
of a series of nearly 500 experiments, traced the character
and extent of this antagonism.
communication is not to give an account of the matter of
_ Dr. Fraser’s paper, but to explain shortly its method, we
refer the reader interested in therapeutics to the paper
itself for details.

_ The experiments were performed on rabbits, of as

Cy

a

le

tract of Calabar bean that would otherwise have caused

; death, Dr. Fraser proceeds to trace, by means of three

_ series of experiments, the nature and extent of this anta-

gonising action.

__ It is scarcely necessary to state that this action is of a

_ purely physiological character, the two drugs having no |

chemical action upon one another.

In describing these three series of experiments, we shall, |

_ for the sake of shortness, refer to the three variable quan-
tities mentioned above as follows :—

«= The dose of sulphate of atropia measured in

grains per 3 lbs. of rabbit.

* “ An Experimental Research on the Antagonism between the Actions of
Physostigma and Atropia.” By Thomas R. Fraser, M.D., Lecturer on
Materia Medica and Therapeutics. Trans. R. S. E. xxvi. 129—713.

ot Since the publication of Dr. Fraser’s preliminary note, Bourneville has
_ published a series of experiments satisfactorily demonstrating the existence

+ problems in experimental therapeutics may be treated |

As the object of this

| ditions of experiment may be varied.
the dose of physostigma ; (2) the dose of atropia; and

_ of this antagonism.

4

dition. The doses of the two poisons were administered
in the form of aqueous solutions, by subcutaneous injec-
tion.

It will be at once seen that, if we assume all the rabbits
to have been of the same size, age, and general condition,*
there are three quantities by change of which the con-
These are—(1)

(3) the interval of time between the administration of the
two doses. In the tabular summary of experiments, Dr.
Fraser has noted in each experiment the effect on the
pupils, on the heart’s action, on the respiration, on secre-
tion and excretion, and on the action of the voluntary
muscles. We shall, however, in this notice confine our-

_ selves to the general result, viz., recovery or death.

After proving, by means of upwards of 50 experiments,
that the administration of small quantities of sulphate of

nearly as possible uniform weight (about 3]bs.) and con- | atropia enables an animal to recover after a dose of ex-

2 = The dose of extract of Calabar bean (or of sul-
phate of physostigma) in units of 1°2 grain of ex-
tract, or 0°12 grain of sulphate of physostigma, per
3 lbs. of rabbit.f a

y = Interval of time in minutes between the adminis-
tration of the two substances, taken positive when
the atropia, negative when the physostigma is ad-
ministered first.

In the first series, y=5 ; inthesecond, y= —5; andin

* As a given dose of poiton affects a small animal more than it doesa
larger one, the doses were, for the purposes of comparison, multiplied by the
es aE
factor weight of rabbit in pounds = ar Pte
would have produced the same effect on a rabbit weighing 3lbs. This is
almost certainly not a perfect mode of correcting for difference of weight ;

; thus reducing them to the doses which

| but as the correction is always small—the animals being selected of as near

3 lbs. weight as possible—it may be assumed to be practically sufficient.
+ This unit was chosen by Dr. Fraser as being the minimum dose pre-
ducing death when no atropia was administered.

both x and z are varied, so as to obtain the limit which
separates conditions leading to recovery from conditions
leading to death.

In the third series, s is constant = 1’5 (that is, a dose
one-half greater than that which would produce death if
no atropia were administered) ; and x and y are varied,
so as to obtain sets of limiting conditions.

If the three variables, x, y, z, be expressed by means of
a system of three rectangular co-ordinates, the conditions
of each experiment will be represented by a point ; and
the points representing experiments resulting in recovery
will be separated from those representing experiments
resulting in death, bya surface passing through the points
representing sets of limiting conditions.

The three series of experiments make us acquainted
with three lines on this surface, viz., the intersections of
the surface and the three planes, the equations of which
are, y=5,y = —5,andzs=1'5.

Some further knowledge of the character of the surface
may be obtained from a consideration of the general con-
ditions. Thus, when no atropia is administered, the
limiting value of » is obviously the minimum fatal dose
of physostigma ; thatis,+=o,7=1. Inthe same way,
when z = 0, x = the minimum fatal dose of sulphate of
atropia for a 3lb. rabbit, = about 21 grains, or z = 0,
ot,

Again, there must be a limiting value of y ; that is, an
interval of time so great as to prevent the two poisons
acting simultaneously, the animal having either died or
completely recovered from the effects of the first substance
before the time for the administration of the second has
arrived. When y exceeds this value, the surface must
consist of two planes, the equations of which are, # = 21
and z= 1.

This limiting value is of course not necessarily the same
on the positive and on the negative side ; and, in fact, Dr.
Fraser’s experiments show that it lies very much nearer
to the plane y =o on the negative than on the positive side.

Beyond these values of y, the surface consists of two
plane sheets meeting in a rectangular ‘edge. Each of
these sheets separates points representing conditions un-
der which recovery takes place from conditions leading to
death ; but in the case of the sheet z =1 the space on
the one side represents recovery and on the other side
death caused by Physostigma; while in the case of the
sheet += 21 the space on the one side represents
recovery and on the other side death caused by a¢ropia.

If we look closely at the portion of the surface lying
between these limiting values of y, we shall see that here,
also, the surface consists of two sheets; in the one

dz. ry ake cy eee
dx '8 Positive, in the other negative ; in the one a small

increase of the dose of atropia tends to recovery, in the
other to death ; the one runs continuously into the plane
& = I, the otherinto the plane x= 21. These two sheets
meet in an edge, which is particularly well seen in the
sections by the planes y= 5 and y= — 5. (The various
lines above mentioned are represented, in orthogonal pro-
jections, in the accompanying woodcut.) There can be
no doubt that this edge is continuous with the rectangular
edges between the plane sheets before mentioned. The
conditions represented by points situated on this edge are
such that increase of the dose of either substance will
produce a fatal result, and that either increase or diminu-
tion of the dose of atropia will produce a fatal result.

This paper appears to us specially worthy of attentive
consideration, as the first systematic investigation of the
combined action of two poisons, and also on account of
the method employed in arranging the results of the in-
vestigation ; a method of which we have given a sketch
in this notice, and which seems certain to lead to in-
creased accuracy of observation, by giving the means of
a definiteness in the statement and classification of
results,

[Now 28, 1872

NOTES

Tue Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Ad:
vancement of Science have this week examined the Marquis of —
Salisbury and Sir Stafford Northcote.

THE Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society will be h
on Saturday next. -

e 7
At the meeting of the Royal Geographical Society held on
Monday night, the President stated that Mr. Young, the firm
friend of Dr. Livingstone, to whom we recently referred, had
sent him a cheque for 2,000/. to help to defray the expenses
the Livingstone Congo Expedition, which, under the comm:
of Lieut. Grundy, who is well acquainted with the West Co
of Africa, is expected to start for Africa during the course of
present week, Government, we are glad to say, has given th
expedition all the assistance in its power, furnishing letters to its
officers on the West Coast of Africa, for the purpose of pro-
curing the expedition all possible facilities, The War Office
has made a present to the members of the expedition of the
necessary arms, while the African Steamship Company has very
kindly given to the officers passages at half the usual price,
Lieut. Grundy thus starts under very favourable auspices. Si
Bartle Frere, the leader of the anti-slavery expedition from the
opposite coast, left England last Thursday, and is expected to reach
Brindisi in the course of a few days, where he will be joined by
Lieut. Cameron and his party, who are just about to leave
England. The party will then proceed, onboard the Enchantress,
through the canal to Zanzibar, where Sir Bartle Frere will give
his final instructions to those gentlemen who are to form the ex-
pedition. The president, Sir Henry Rawlinson, places every
confidence in Lieut. Cameron, and in the zeal of the officers by
whom he is accompanied ; he is determined to avail himself o}
every possible opening to penetrate into the interior of Africa,
for his own credit, for the advantage of science, and for the
purpose of aiding and relieving Livingstone. a

THE Khedive of Egypt is also about to send a force comprising
5,000 men, under Purdy Bey (one of his American officers) to
Zanzibar in transports. The ostensible object of the expedition
is to go into the {country which it is supposed that Livingstone
may be exploring, and to co-operate with him, if it be agree-
able to him ; but if he declines assistance, the expedition would
undertake on its own account a search for the sources of the
Nile, where, if discovered, the Egyptian flagwould be planted. —

THE scientific news which comes to us every other week from
France is refreshing and hopeful. There has been founded at
Bordeaux a scientific association embracing the whole of the
south-west of France, especially the Gironde and neighbouring
departments. It is connected with the French Scientific Associa-
tion, preserving, however, its autonomy and special organisation, —
its title being ‘‘ Groupe Girondin” of the French Association for
the Advancement of Science. Its seat is at Bordeaux, and, for
scientific purposes, it is divided into four sections, each section
corresponding to one or more sections of the French Association. ©
They are—1. Section of the Mathematical Sciences; 2, Physical
and Natural Sciences ; 3. Medical Sciences; 4. Moral and
Social Sciences. Each section meets monthly at Bordeaux, the ©
first in the first week of the month, the second in the second
week, and soon. The work of the sections consists of lectures,
exhibitions, and scientific discussions on the subjects proper to
each section, This provincial association intends to publish at
intervals such papers as are likely to be of general interest; fo
encourage scientific researches by pecuniary help ; and to give
prizes for the best memoirs on subjects to be proposed by it.
Most heartily do we wish the society success. ;

Sir JoHN BowrincG, whose death took place on Saturday
last, at the age of eighty, was better known to the public in_the -

da by no means unimportant position, as one of the most
itrenuous advocates of an international decimal system of weights
nd measures, ‘and as an old and and very regular attender of the
neetings of the British Association, where he devoted himself
hiefly to the Section of Economical Science.

Tr is expected that Sir William Jenner will be the President
he Pathological Society for the ensuing year.

Master and Fellows of Gonville and Caius College, Cam-
ge, have recently determined to appoint a prelector in
emistry to superintend the laboratory, and to have charge of
e chemical studies of the students at the college. The stipend
will be 200/.a year, and the przlector will have the status of a
Fellow of the college, The election will take place about the
I ‘idle of next month.

At a meeting of the Royal Society of Arts Sia Sciences of
fauritius, held on September 25, it was resolved that, like other
ientific societies which have met in London the Society should
mvey to Dr. Hooker the feelings of regret and sympathy with
ch they have learned that differences had arisen between him
Director of the Botanical Gardens at Kew, and the First Com-
ioner of Public Works. It is the earnést hope of the Royal
iety that Dr. Hooker, whom the Society has the honour to
ude among its members, as it did for many years his illus-
ous father, will succeed in maintaining himself with honour in
ie Directorship to which he has been raised by his merit and
= tecsive knowledge, and which he has held with such distinction
to himself and advantage to the public.

_ Tue Civil Service Commissioners have announced that on
ember 31 they will hold an open competitive examination for
appointment of clerk to the Curator of Kew Gardens. Can-
didates must be between the ages of twenty and thirty, and must
amiliar with the routine duties of the garden, and competent
irect the foremen in matters relating to their accounts. On
e same day the Civil Service Commissioners will hold an ex-
ination for the appointment of second assistant in the Her-
barium at Kew, for which persons between eighteen and thirty

who are skilled in practical botany will be eligible to compete.
Ineach case the Commissioners will apply to Dr. Hooker for a
Teport on the technical qualifications of the candidates.

| THE Times of India speaks of a rumour that the Government
intends to abolish the Deccan College, or rather to amalgamate
with Elphinstone College. By this plan, Government pretends
fo think, higher education would be advanced in India. But
he Mira Prakash, an Indian paper quoted by the Zimes of
dia, says the end would be much more effectually accom-
plished by appointing to both colleges a greater number and more
ficient teachers than has generally been the case hitherto. For
he two colleges there are thirteen professors ; but Elphinstone
lege is allowed two Professors of Mathematics, while the
n College has none, and no Professors of History and
olitical Economy. We hope the threat is a mere bait to
scertain public opinion. Intelligent public opinion, we believe,
‘ould certainly condemn the step, and urge Government to make
Preaching staff more numerous and effective.

A CORRESPONDENT writes to the A‘heneum :—‘*The ques-
ion of admission of women to medical degrees in Edinburgh
aiversity has been rather unexpectedly solved, at least for the
resent. Miss Jex Blake, a foremost champion of the move-
ment, has actually been plucked in her examinations, and sent
ack to complete her scientific studies.” Many people will be
quite unable.to see that this by no means surprising accident
ts in any way the great question of the unrestricted admission

of women to the privileges of university teaching.

_WE are delighted to notice that the Liverpool Daily Post has
for some time past been devoting about a column to science,

giving, besides notifications of the meetings of the numerous
learned societies in and around Liverpool, a selection of scien-
tific notes from this and other journals, We cannot give too
great praise for the step taken by this paper in the right direc-
tion, and we only wish that all other provincial, as well as
metropolitan, papers would follow the example, and give the
latest news of a power which a distinguished Frenchman recently
declared would soon become the ruler of the world.

IN a recent speech by the Rev. Mr. Tuckwell, he made some
pertinent remarks on the Future of University Local Exami-
nations, After referring with all due praise to the ‘‘ Regulations
of Oxford and Cambridge,” he was yet compelled to say that
without most serious modifications, the machinery of these
examinations will be insufficient to meet the demand of the time
which is surely coming, when compulsory universal public
examinations will be imposed upon all the English schools.
They show deficiency in four vital points. “They are ad-
ministered by the older universities exclusively ; but within the
last forty years a race of teachers has grown up, who owe to an
institution young yet already famous those feelings of loyalty and
affection which some of us associate with the more venerable
names of Oxford and Cambridge ; and these men will give in
their adhesion to no University examining body in which the
London University remains unrepresented. They are costly
to individual candidates: yet surely, from the wealth of the
Universities and from the large educational endowments now in
the hands of the School Commissioners, it would be possible
to find funds for the extinction or the diminution of this tax.
They unwisely limit subjects. Five optional subjects are per-
mitted to junior candidates, of which Scripture must be one.
They take up Scripture then because they must ; Greek, Latin,
and Mathematics, because these are supposed to gain higher
marks than anything else, and are the leading subjects in their
school work ; there remains the choice between modern languages
and science ; nine boys out of ten, under the pressure of parents
or teachers, take up French, and thus a severe though unintended
blow is dealt at physical science. Lastly, they are in no sense
compulsory; and the temptation to an unscrupulous master to
pick out a clever boy, and work him exclusively for high
distinction, while he starves the rank and file, is too obvious to
need further notice. When these four blots are wiped away ;
when the three Universities combine to hold one great exami-
nation once a year; when the fees are lessened or abolished ;
when free trade in subjects is set up ; and when all boys in every
school above a certain age are compelled to undergo the ordeal ;
then, indeed, and not till thea, we shall see such a system of
examinations, so perfect in theory, so priceless in its effect upon
school-teaching, as for the present we must be contented to
behold only in our dreams,”

AN astronomical and meteorological observatory is about to be
erected by the Russian Government at Tashkend, in Central
Asia, about 100 miles north-west of Khokan,

THE fossil man discovered at Mentone is at present being ex-
hibited at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris.

Mr. W. F. DENNING, of Bristol, noticed on Saturday even-
ing last a meteor of considerable brilliancy, It radiated from a
place at the extreme north-west part of Andromeda, passing
through the sword-hand of Perseus, and onwards through
Camelopardalus, becoming extinct, as if burnt out, on reaching
the head of Ursa Major. In its flight the meteor faded several
times and revived again with great rapidity. It did not leave
any train of light marking the path it had traversed, though it
emitted a spark in its course, In reference to its brightness Mr.
Denning says that it excelled Venus when at her maximum
degree of brilliancy.

Pror, Prazzi SMYTH, writing to the Atheneum, says that
the finest specimen of one of the ‘‘ casing stones” of the Great

72

Pyramid known at present to exist either in Europe, or even in
Egypt, was received last week in Edinburgh from Mr. Wayn-
man Dixon, a young engineer who has recently completed an
iron bridge across the Nile between Cairo and Jeezeh. The
specimen possesses, Prof. Smyth says, ina more or less injured
condition, five of the anciently-worked sides of the block, in-
cluding the upper and lower horizontal surfaces, together with
the levelled surface between. It was the exact angle of this
levelled slope which led the late Mr. John Taylor to what Prof.
Smyth calls “ the immortal archzeological truth, that the shape of
the entire monument was carefully so adjusted and exactly
fashioned in its own day to precisely such a figure that it does set
forth the value of the mathematical term 7, or does, vulgarly,
demonstrate in the right way the true and practical squaring of
the circle.” Whether this be the case or no, Prof. Smyth declares
that the length of the front foot of the stone, or that line or edge
from which the angular 7 slope of the whole stone commences
to rise, measures, “within the limit of mensuration error now
unavoidable, the number of just twenty-five pyramid inches,
neither less nor more. And twenty-five pyramid inches have
been shown to be the ten-millionth part of the length of the
earth’s semi-axis of rotation.” Prof. Smyth is very severe on the
Egyptologists of the British Museum for the manner in which
they conduct their department.

Tue Atheneum informs us that the first volume ofa Russian
translation of Mr. E. B. Tylor’s ‘‘ Primitive Culture” has ap-
peared at St. Petersburg. The German version of the same
work is also announced as being just about to appear; and a
French translation of Mr. Tylor’s ‘‘ Early History of Mankind,”
with notes by the translator, M. Emile Cartailhac, and by M.
Quatrefages, is stated to be in preparation.

CONCLUSIVE proof has been obtained by a correspondent to
Notes and Queries, that the treatise ‘On Probability ” is not by
De Morgan, but by the late Sir John William Lubbock. On
inquiry at the Museum, the little slip of paper containing the
original title was produced, and which gives the authorship to
Sir J. W. Lubbock. On the back of the slip was inscribed the
note—* Information from Prof. De Morgan, Dec, 62.”

WE see from the Z%es of India, that Mr. Griffiths, of the
Bombay School of Art, with a few of his students, intends, about
the end of December, to go to the remarkable caves of Elephanta,
to copy the very beautiful painted decorations which still cling
to the walls, in spite of damp, neglect, bats, and the relentless
teeth of time. These caves are on a small island in the harbour
of Bombay, about seven miles S.W. of the city, and contain
some very interesting Indian antiquities. They get their name
from the gigantic figure of an elephant which formerly stood near
the shore, but has now fallen to decay.

A CORRESPONDENT, Mr, W. B. Shorte, writes under date
Nov. 4, from on board the steamship Zanjore, Bombay, giving
us a few notes on the occultation of Venus, which he witnessed
on the evening of Nov. 5. A smalltelescope with a magnifying
power of about 100, anda pair of good binoculars, were the in-
struments employed. The planet shone with such lustre that it
was clearly seen by the naked eye even before sunset, and after
sunset appeared for some time as if resting on the upper part of
the dark limb of the moon. In a few minutes a very gradual
diminution of the planet’s light was noticed, and as the occulta-
tion proceeded a singular phenomenon was observed, namely,
the apparent ‘position of Venus within the moon’s circumference,
the planet actually appearing for some time as if situated upon
the disc of the satellite, though much diminished in size, and
shining as a minute point of light. This continued until the
moment of complete occultation, the Bombay time of which was
sh. 46m. 47s. The re-appearance on the illuminated edge oc-
curred at 6h, 26m, 32s., so that the planet was invisible for 39m.
46s. 23

NATURE

[Nov. 28, 18:
4
THE ORGANISATION OF ACADEMICAL

STUDY IN ENGLAND i

[NX connection with the question of the best application of the
endowments of Oxford and Cambridge, a public meeti
was held at the Freemason’s Tavern, on Saturday Nov. 16 by
members of the Universities and others interested in the pro-
motion of mature study and scientific research in England. The
meeting was called in response to a preliminary resolution
to the effect that ‘‘ the chief end to be kept in view in any redis-
tribution of the revenues of Oxford and Cambridge is the adequate
maintenance of mature study and scientific research, as well for
their own sakes as with the view of bringing the highest edu-
cation within reach of all who are desirous to profit by it.” ky

The Rev. Mark Pattison occupied the chair. He explained
that gentlemen present were not the representatives of any
political party or political movement, but were there simply for
an academical purpose. Neither were they to be considered as
having met to take an initiative : the initiative had already bee
taken by Mr. Gladstone in appointing a commission to inqui
into the revenues of the colleges and universities. They were
only there to discuss the direction which, in their opinion, ought
to be taken by any reform, initiated, not by themselves, but b
other people. -

Professor Rolleston, who was the first speaker, commenced by
remarking that until the end of the last century, it would be ad-
mitted that the Universities were neither seats of learning nor
seats of teaching. The first thing that was done was to make
them seats of examination ; and, as far as that is concerned, they
work tolerably well at this moment. The great danger is that
they should be made simply into that utilitarian sort of machine
—a machine for examining anda machine for teaching. The
speaker by no means wished that their capabilities in the way
of examining and that kind of work should be curtailed. Still
he thought it of very vital consequence, in this somewhat
utilitarian age, to make the Universities into places where
original research, and where the production of fresh facts and
means of knowledge, instead of the mere communication and
reproduction of it, should be recognised. One result of our
present examination system is that men who, as grown men and
during the whole of their university career, are subjected to the
ordeal of examination 7 /uturvo,do not look at what they have
under study as so much truth, but look upon it as something to
be reproduced on paper, and to further their designs on Fellow-
ships and Scholarships, and other pecuniary rewards. Now
when a man is kept for something like twenty-three or twenty-
four years of his life under that sort of training, he gets apt to
look at all work whatever of the intellectual kind, from th
point of view of the examination merely. Men get demoralised
by the process. They do not look at the truth for itself. They
have no notion of shovelling forward the elements of knowledge
into some area into which nothing has been before. That is
entirely a new vein tothem: and he thought one of the first
things requisite was that examinations should be considered
rather more the work of boys, and of people just emerging out
of boyhood, than that they should be prolonged into a sort of
struggle for men who have got to man’s estate. We have
then to consider:—how is it possible for us to encou
that which we feel is an advantage of a greater kind, altho
it is one which can only be shared by a larger number ?—How is.
it possible to encourage original research without sacrificing
soundness of learning inthe many? How can we encourage
the few toresearch without at the same time sacrificing the great
advantages which we do get for the whole public, by passing a
great number of mediocre men through the mill which does
make them useful machines for doing work in this country of
ours? There is a very serious objection which may be urged :—
**But how do you propose to encourage original research ?
Original research is a work of genius—you cannot fetter genius”
by law—you cannot tie a man who has this gift of original
research by rules and laws, You cannot give him definite
duties to perform, within a definite time; and then you are in
this dilemma:—a man has nothing given him to do—will
he notthen do nothing?” That is a very common saying
among people who have got effectually case-hardened by looking
at things in a schoolmaster’s point of view. A man who has
nothing to do, they tell you, will donothing. Now he believed
by using the system of examination judiciously, by rewarding
people for what they do and show under that particular ordeal,
and then by giving them something or another which does keep

them, so to speak, from beggary for the time being, it is pos-
ible then, by a well-adjusted system, to keep their minds open
‘to original research. But we know that funds must be found
for it. A man cannot prosecute research unless he has got
‘something to find him bread for the passing moment. Although
he thought we should be entirely wanting in our duties if we
laid aside the examination system, which has rescued the uni-
versities from the slough of idleness in which they were eighty
or ninety years ago, yet, he said, we neglect our duty even more
by neglecting the encouragement of men who have the capacity
for original investigation and research. Again, a man who has
not some notion of what original research means, is not fit to be
. teacher at all. He would go even further, and say, if a man has
the gift of original research, even if he entirely lack the power
of communicating, and, what is another thing, the taste for com-
-municating knowledge, he ought to have a place found for him.
A man of that kind is like a light shining all around ; setting
by his example and his work a higher tone to society, a man
who has the power of going into some new sphere, so that he
“may say to those whom he is teaching :—We are the first who ever
burst into that silent sea.
Dr. Carpenter then spoke of the different system pursued by
the German universities to that which prevails in our own.
_ Dr. Burdon Sanderson continued on the desirableness of fos-
tering at the universities a class of what in Germany is called
the Gelehrter, that is, said Dr. Sanderson, a man who not only
_ possesses as adequate a knowledge as other men do of subjects
in general, but has made a perfect study of some particular
- subject. The speaker then dwelt on the study of physical
science, and of physiology in particular, as it should be con-
ceived at an university.
__ The resolution ‘‘ That to have a class of men whose lives are
_ devoted to research is a national object ” was then carried.
Sir Benjamin Brodie said that he had the strongest opinion
_ that when the report of Mr. Gladstone’s commission is published,
and the true revenues of the colleges of Oxford are made known
to the House of Commoas and the world, the greatest surprise,
d he might also say, the greatest indignation will prevail. He
admitted fully that a great amount of good educational work is
done by the Universities, but certainly thought that the work is
totally disproportionate in every way to the machinery which
exists for its performance, and it is idle and useless to say that
‘we want an expensive collegiate system—a system of colleges
“manipulating actual revenues of thousands of pounds a year for
the purpose of educating, however admirably, 2,000 students
who, we may also say, absolutely pay for their education besides.
‘When those statements are made, as they will be made, as to
_ the property of the Universities and the Colleges, there will be
_ the greatest danger that we may have a reform which perhaps none
_of us wish for—a reform which may be no improvement at all,
_ but which may simply consist in the alienation from the purposes
_ of knowledge of these great funds. Now with regard to the pro-
motion of knowledge in various branches, this great object was
entirely lost sight of by the Executive Commission in 1854. He
believed that most persons in Oxford who are interested in real
education, are not very well satisfied with the fruits of this Com-
mission. The few things that they did in regard to the promo-
tion of knowledge were done partly with that view, and partly
“under the pretext of reviving old foundations, such as the Lin-
pean professorship at Merton College, and four professorships at
Magdalen College, and two or three other small institutions
which the University had long ago buried under ground. The
‘Commission dug these up, and therefore so far did something for
the promotion of science. And indeed it is impossible, unless
you absolutely destroy Oxford and Cambridge, to get rid of
every record of the idea that those universities are founded for
‘the promotion, and not solely for the diffusion, of knowledge ;
for that idea really runs through the whole university system.
The great libraries of Oxford and Cambridge, and also the great
collegiate foundations, bear witness to it. Now we wish to take
up this thread where our predecessors dropped it, namely, this
‘idea that the universities are institutions, not only for diffusing
knowledge and education, but for absolutely promoting know-
ledge and investigation. However, a much more important ob-
ject than that is the real welfare of the nation, as that welfare of
‘the nation may be promoted by the growth of science and know-
ledge. With regard to scientific research, men are really hin-
_ dered from investigation on all sides from the want of means of
subsistence, and means of work. Certain aids are afforded to
the investigators of science by existing institutions, by the Learned

NATURE

ini ‘

73

Societies of England and the Continent ; and we have also
two or three national institutions which certainly on such an oc-
casion as the present ought by no means to be forgotten, because
we shall be told that this is not an object for the nation to care
for. One of those institutions is the British Museum, which
really exists solely for the purpose of preserving knowledge.
Another institution is the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. We
have again private foundations: the Meteorological Observatory
at Kew ; the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford, and the like. All
those institutions are founded, not in the least with regard to
education alone, but for the purpose of promoting the growth of
knowledge. He thought it really very little use for us to be too
indefinite ; and that, if we wish to produce any result, we must
have some definite plan and programme. His own idea was tha
it would be very desirable to found in the universities of Oxfordt
and Cambridge certain specific institutions for the promulgation
of scientific research ; using the termscientific research in its widest
sense, and include in it all knowledge which is capable of being
made the subject of research ; but certainly specific institutions
should be founded for this object. It will not do to trust these
great institutions to the growth of mere ordinary professorships,
but he would certainly like to see certain specific institutions de-
voted to this object, which should represent the various great de-
partments of human knowledge. Those institutions to be con-
nected with professors specially selected for the objects which
they have to fulfil, and where the professors would be provided
with assistance and apparatus, and every means and appliance
which could really be valuable and useful to them for the pur-
poses of research ; and he did not think that much less, or any-
thing less, than this, would fulfil the object which we desire.

The Chairman moved, as the next resolution, ‘*That it is
desirable, in the interest of national progress and education, that
professorships and special institutions shall be founded in the
universities for the promotion of scientific research.”

Professor Seeley spoke on the question of prize fellowships.
He said the speeches to which he had had the pleasure of
listening had brought the question of University Reform to a
focus. He anticipated that this meeting, particularly if the
movement were followed out further, would convey to the
English mind an idea which it had perhaps no very great natural
capacity for conceiving. The preceding speakers, said the
Professor, have introduced to the Englishman to-night a charac-
ter for whom we have found it difficult to find a name, because
there is no name for him in the English language, and we have
been obliged to call him in the German Gelehrter, and in French
we call him a savant, but there is no English name for him.
He is a person who is engaged in mature study, and who lives
by his study; and we have made it plain that our object in
University Reform is one definite thing ; and that is to find for
this person at the same time as we find him a name, a career.
But we shall be met by an assertion that he already has a career
in England, and he has also a name—that he is, in fact, the
Fellow of a College. He wished to say a word or two first
about this Fellow of a College, and about certain popular
reasons for which it is supposed to be desirable always to have
such persons. If you were to ask most English people about
the English universities, they would say that the most glorious
feature about them is just this—that a young man may go up,
from any part of the country, without a penny in his pocket, and
may get 300/. a-year given him for life ; and to take away that,
is simply to take away the scholastic glory of England, and
whatever makes its universities superior to the beggarly univer-
sities of the Continent. To give a young man 300/. a-year, they
think, is a thing which explains itself; but if you come to
examine their meaning, you will hardly question that they are
looking at the matter as a question of charity ; that they want
the young man to receive so much to do him good, and to give
him a start in life.

He would, however, remark that he thought the objects of
charity should be those who stand in need of it, and are not
likely to be able to help themselves. But we carefully select
young men in the vigour of life ; and, not only that, but young
men who have shown themselves to be possessed of more than
ordinary abilities, that is to say, just the very young men who
can get on in life without any such help. He recommended, if
these institutions are retained, simply on the ground of charity,
that these fellowships should be given to men carefully selected,
whose abilities are less than those of others. Again, it is said,
how excellent a thing it is that a young man going to the bar, in
his first year of brieflessness, should have his fellowship to fall

74

back upon. That is partly the same object of charity; but
mixed up with it is another notion, that it is a good thing for the
bar that in this way men of high education are brought into it,
That is a very important question indeed, but he could not say that
it is a question which we of the universities are called upon to
discuss, There are other institutions which have charge of the

‘interests of the bar—let them consider it. We have in London
several great Inns of Court; and it is often said that they have
funds. If it be so, and if it be desirable, by means of fellow-
ships, to procure men of high education to enter the profession
of the law, let them establish fellowships themselves for that
purpose. That is a very simple course. But now comes the
question which this resolution deals with. Is this fellow of a
college, of whom we have been speaking, a person of
mature study, a person who devotes his life to advanc-
ing the bounds of knowledge? Of course it is quite
possible to mention the names of distinguished men, who
have risen to distinction in their particular branches as fellows.
But the question for us is, are fellows of a college, as a rule,
men who are preparing themselves for that career,—is their life
devoted to study and to knowledge—are they persons who are
either enlarging the bounds of knowledge, or are on the way to
enlarging them? He answered, confidently, they are not the
class of men. He did not charge them with being a class of
men with whom any fault whatever can be found. ‘They are not
what we are told they used to be many years ago. It would not
be possible, perhaps, to find instances of the torpid, vacant lives
which used to be led under the protection of a fellowship. They
occupy themselves nowin some way. They supply the scholastic
world, they supply the clerical world, sometimes they supply the
bar, they conduct a great many examinations in the country,
and they do a great deal of work which is very valuable ; but
mature study is a work which they do not, as a rule, engage
in, only with some exceptions here and there. The Professor
went on to say that fellows were neither chosen by the right kind
of electing body, nor according to the right method, for the
end of furthering mature research. He criticised the existing
terms of the tenure of fellowships, as well as the existing system
of examination at the universities.

The Chairman then put the resolution: ‘‘That the present
mode of awarding fellowships as prizes has been found unsuccess-
ful as a means of promoting mature study and original research,
and that it is therefore desirable that it should be discontinued,”
which was carried.

The Chairman then said that the subject of the professoriate
is of course a very wide subject, and it is impossible to do more
than just indicate the position which that question holds in our
scheme. It is desirable that we should make it clearly under-
stood that we are not aiming a blow at what is called the educa-
tional efficiency of the place. The question of the professoriate
is one which was first mooted twenty years ago as the question
of the professoriate v, the tutoriate, and it was regarded as a
revolution in the educational institutes of the University. The
question which we are now raising of converting the University
into a centre of mature study was not then raised. The question
of University reform turned entirely upon the educational ques-
tion of professors v. tutors. What the Executive Commission of
1854 did was not to substitute professors for tutors in any
great measure in the educational system of the University. The
storm that had been raised by the mere sound of the word
‘* professor” was so great that they were daunted, and did not
dare to propose any large creation of the professoriate. Things
are entirely changed now, and even if we confine ourselves only

* to educational requirements, we have not that battle to fight.
But we have the situation which the Commissioners of 1854
created for us, and that situation is this. They raised a certain
number of the then existing professoriates, and added to them a
few others ; and so called into existence a body of professors,
many of whom have been extremely valuable and influential
members of the University. But the situation of a professor in
the University at present, or at any rate of the philosophical
professors, is that of persons who are entirely outside the work-
ing of the system. For instance a very eminent professor once
advertised a course of lectures on accents simply. This course
of lectures he had prepared not only with very great pains, but
he had‘for years investigated the subject of the origin and growth
of the accentuation of language, in a way in which it had never
been done before. His work was an original work. He had
collected all the special programmes that bore on the subject,
and he had constructed a history of language accentuation. He

NATURE

advertised this course, and proceeded to give it. At the f
lecture the room was full ; but when they found that this was
original philological investigation, and not a lecture as to
rules for accenting the perfect participle of the Greek verb,
order that they might use it in Moderations, they immediatel
fell off, and left it. The consequence is that the professors 2
not at all working now as a portion of the system. Now if
say that we want to set up more of theseprofessors, University
men will say, ‘‘ Professorships areydoing no good as they are at
present. We are doing the work. It is we, the tutors, who
are doing the work of the place, and you professors are simp
ornamental.” This is the result of the way in which the Con
mission of 1854 set about its work. They were told that
great evil of the University at that time was that the colleg
had absorbed the University, and the first thing that a reform |
the University should aim at was the reconstituting the Universi
as against the colleges. Now, it is very important for us to
our attitude be understood to be quite different. We do not wan
as the phrase is, to rob the colleges to make the University rich.
The antithesis between colleges and university is #7, for our pur-
pose. We do not intend to perpetuate the mistake which the
Commissioners of 1854 did, and to take away a few thousand
pounds from the colleges, make it over to the universities, and
leave the colleges as they are. The speaker then went on to
specify the diversions of college revenues effected by the Commis-
sioners of 1854 by the endowment of professorships, and said tha
was not the kind of precedent which the present meeting was
anxious to see followed. We are agreed (he continued) in desir-
ing the creation of a body of resident students and teachers—rea
students and real teachers—and the attitude we shall take will
to say, ** We will leave the colleges exactly where they are. We
do not intend to rob the colleges and give the proceeds over to
the University, but we will gradually convert them into what we
wish to see them.” The supposed antithesis between professor
and tutor should be sunk entirely, in our point of view, and the
whole body of resident graduates should be brought into one
homogeneous association of teachers all working together—th
teachers naturally being of different ages, and consequently
different attainments. We would begin, as they do in German
with the privat docent, It has been very well said that the Z
docent is the order upon which the principle of German unive'
sities principally rests. The eminent professors of whom we hi
are not the actual working men of the place, but they are
men who have gone through the ordeal of working men as p77
docent, They have been trained to that European celebrity under
which we learn their names, but the Arivat docent are the working
men of the place. Now, instead of putting the tutors into an
attitude of hostility to the professors, as is the case at present, the}
might be reconciled to the professors by making them also pro=
fessors, but making them of a lower grade in the teaching system.
Of course there are various steps through which a successful tutor
should have opportunities of working himself up until he ma
hope to attain the highest eminence that the University can
afford him, Again (remarked the speaker) we must not endea-
vour directly to oppose the present examination system, however.
much we may be convinced of its effect, as actually carried oui
in sacrificing literary and scientific ability. We must endeavour,
as far as we can, to enfilter our system into the examination sys-
tem ; and for this reason we must not talk about professors who
can be planted there to pursue their original research only, and
make that our single object. We must take up the whole inst
tution of teaching in the universities, and we must endeavour to
impress upon the teaching the fact which has already been dwelt
upon, namely, that there can be no healthy intellectual training
unless the man who conducts it is a person who is himself capable
of, and has the opportunity of engaging in, original research.
That is the strong point ; but we must not set ourselves to go and
pull down the present system of examination directly. Another
notion of university reform which we shall have to meet is that
notion of transplanting a certain portion of the university revenue
into the manufacturing and commercial centres of the population.
That is an idea which, to those who attend to what one sees in
the papers on the progress of opinion on the subject of the uni-
versities, has evidently taken deep root, and which more or less
runs counter to our object—not altogether, but more or less, But
that idea has taken such deep root, that it is doubtful whether, if.
we were to try, we could prevent something of that sort being
done. Ifthese persons who are sent over to Manchester and
Liverpool are entirely under our direction, and are made\not
mere persons who go and deliver an evening lecture for the amuse-

ment of the fashionables in Manchester, then it would be very
desirable if something like a connection between the universities
and the centres of population could be opened. One great com-
plaint is, that the manufacturing and commercial interests have
outgrown us; that they no longer regard us; that they do not
think we have got anything worth having ; and of course it would
be very desirable to reconquer that class of society, and bring
them back ; and this tendency in the public mind, to dispose of
a portion of the University money, in sending it down to these
places, might be directed in such a way as to regain the possessors
of wealth for us. -

_ The Chairman put the resolution—-‘‘ That a sufficient and
_ properly organised body of resident teachers of various grades
should be provided from the Fellowship Fund,” which was also
carried.

After one or two more speeches, it was resolved to hold
The

g
Z

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

LONDON

Royal Society, Nov. 21.—‘‘On the Mechanical Condition
of the Respiratory Movements in Man,” by Arthur Ransome.—
‘Further Experiments on the more important Physiological
‘Changes induced in the Human Economy by change of Climate,”
by Alexander Rattray, M.D.—‘‘ On Linear Differential Equa-
tions” (Nos. VI. and VII.), by W. H. L. Russell, F.R.S.

Zoological Society, Nov. 19.—The Viscount Walden, pre-
-sident, in the chair. Mr. Sclater called attention to the two
_ Livingstone expeditions into the interior of Africa now in pre-
_paration, and urged the importance of endeavouring to have
zoological collections made in the countries about to be traversed

by them.—Mr. A. D. Bartlett read some notes on the birth of
‘the hippopotamus which had been announced at the last meeting
_ of the Society. Mr. Bartlett called particular attention to the
- fact that on one occasion the young one appeared to have re-
“mained under water, without coming to the surface to breathe,
for nearly fifteen minutes, and also pointed out that this was the
_ first instance of the hippopotamus suckling her young in cap-
tivity.—A communication was read from Mr. W. H. Hudson,
Buenos Ayres, containing notes on the habits of the Vizcacha
_ (Lagostomus trichodactylus), and giving some interesting details
of its manner of forming burrows and living in society with other
-animals.—A communication was read from Mr. George Gulli-
ver, F.R.S., containing observations on the size of the red cor-
-puscles of the blood of the Salmonidz and of some other verte-
brates.—Dr. A. Giinther, F.R.S., gave a notice of a snake from
Robben Island, South Africa, living in the Society’s gardens,
which appeared to belong to a new species proposed to be called
Coronella phocarum.—A communication was read from Mr, J.
_ Brazier, containing a list of the species of Cassia, found on
" the coast of New South Wales, with remarks on their habitats
_ and distribution. —A communication was read from Mr, Andrew
‘Garrett, of Tahiti, in which he gave a list of the species of
_ Mitride, collected at Rarotonga, Cook’s Islands.—A communi-
‘cation was read from Mr. W. H. Hudson, containing some

urther observations on the swallows of Buenos Ayres, being
supplementary to a previous paper on the same subject.—A
‘communication was read from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., contain-
ing notes on Profithecus, Indris, and other Lemurs (Lemuriana)
‘in the British Museum.

_ Linnean Society, Nov. 21, Mr. G. Bentham, president, in
_ the chair.—On the Comfosite of Bengal, by C. B. Clarke. The
author corroborated Mr. Bentham’s estimate of the very small
proportion of Comfosite relatively to the whole flora of flowering
plants in the Indian peninsula as compared with other countries.
3 in Bengal they show only the proportion of about one in twenty-
_ two, and in Malacca the still smaller proportion of one in
about forty-five species. The number of Indian species of Com-
posite in De Candolle’s “ Prodromus ” will probably have to he
- considerably reduced.—On Diversity of Evolution under one set
of external conditions, by Rev. J. T. Gulick.—The author reca-
_ pitulated the facts connected with the distribution of the Achati-
_ nelline in the Sandwich Islands, familiar to readers of this journal,
and drew some general conclusions.

f
Pa
-~:

75

Chemical Society, Noy. 21, Dr. Frankland, F.R.S., presi-
dent, in the chair.—A paper on the “ Standardising of Acids,”
by W. N. Hartley, was read by thesecretary. The author finds
it convenient to prepare the solution for rapidly standardising
acids by dissolving a known weight of metallic sodium in alcohol
and diluting the solution with water ; it is then ready for use.
A second communication on anthraflavic acid, by Mr. W. H.
Perkin, F.R.S., included an account of two new derivatives,
diacetyl-anthraflavic acid and dibenzoyl-anthraflayic acid.

Anthropological Institute, Nov. 19, Sir John Lubbock,
Bart., M.P., in the chair—Mr. Heath read a paper on the
Moabite jars and inscriptions lately purchased by the Germans.
The author entered first into the philological and other argu-
ments in favour of their authenticity, which the English authori-
ties had denied. Certain points in which the Moabite stone had
been hitherto considered to throw light upon the earliest forms
of Hebrew were shown to be decided differently by these jars,
so that the question was still-open. The following was given
as the inscription on the first jar:—‘‘ Inscription on his
jar dedicated by Jai, servant of Isaac in Mesha, such
as is raised in devotion to Nataracu. This is a devotion to

Dov, wife of Domiodu, the same whoin the might of
her knowledge has been incorporated with Mesho. She is

united with Hachuasho in Mesha, raised to unity with Daocush,
May he be gracious.” In the discussion which ensued it was
maintained that further evidence of the actual specimens or casts
from them was necessary to the final determination of the authen-
ticity of the jars—A paper by Capt. Burton was also read on
human remains from Thorsmork, in Iceland, describing the con-
ditions under which parts of a human skeleton were found
under a cliff where much rocky matter, possibly moraine, has
fallen. No date was given to the relics, which tradition assigned
to the time of ‘* Burnt Njah.” Dr: Carter Blake gave a par-
ticular description of the bones and skulls found, which appeared
to accord with those of the Norwegians. He was unable to
detect Esquimaux, Irish, Lappish, or Russian affinities. The
horse was larger than the present Icelandic horses.
Geologists’ Association, November 1.—Mr. T. Wiltshire
president, in the chair—‘‘On the Influence of Geological Rea-
soning on other branches of Knowledge,” by Mr. Hyde Clarke.

Entomological Society, Nov. 18.—Mr. H. W. Bates, F.L.S.,
in the chair.—Mr. S. Stevens exhibited an example of Vanessa
antiopa captured by Mr. W. C. Hewitson in his garden near
Weybridge, so lately as the Ist inst. Mr. H. Vaughan exhibited
Crambus verellus, a moth new to Britain, captured at Folkestone
by Mr. C. A. Briggs ; also varieties of Vanessa Atalanta and
Pyrameis cardui, Mr. Meek exhibited Mephopteryx argyrella, a
species of Phycide new to Britain, from near Gravesend ; also
varieties of Lepidopterous insects. Mr. Meldola exhibited a
beautiful drawing of the dark form of the larva of Acherontia
Atrofos. Mr. Wallace forwarded exuvize of some insect, appa-
rently of the family Zvxeina, which had committed ravages
amongst the dried mosses and lichens collected by Dr. Spruce,
in Brazil. Mr, Miiller read notes on the entomological papers
existing in the ‘‘ Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturfor-
schenden Gesellschaft,” from 1523 to 1864.

Celtic Society of London, Nov. 12.—Dr. Carter Blake
read a paper on the Celtic and pre-Celtic populations of
Western Europe. After pointing out the value to be attached
to traditions of pre-Celtic races, the author commented at
length on the extravagant statements of Schlotheim, Berghaus,
and Jagel with regard to the alleged diminution of the Celtic
race. He gavea description of the races maudites of France, .
especially of the Cagots, Burhins, and Chizerots, adopting the
conclusions of M. Francisque Michel, and denying the affinity of
the pre-Celtic tribes to the Basques or to the Laplanders, call-
ing attention to the confusion which existed between the various
definitions of the Celtic race, the “Celts” of history, of tradi-
tion, of philology, and of craniology not being in accordance
with each other. The author defined the cranial characters as
those which were most permanent and best defined, such
characters assigned to the Celt features, which had been described
by Beddoe, Pike, and Davis, and which the author amplified at
length. In conclusion he partially adopted the opinions of Dr.
Knox on the moral and mental characters of the Celts.

CAMBRIDGE

Philosophical Society, Noy. 11.—The foliowing communi-
cations were made to the Society by Mr. W. Kingsley. 1. Certain
advantages in E. B. Denison’s Gravity Escapement Clock for re-

ate >. ba? eae ge he,
i a8 t ; > ie de a

<i

Pm

76

cording time by electricity. 2. Description of a Remontoir Clock
invented by M. Groux. 3. Observations on certain districts in
North Wales with reference to the final wasting and disappearance
of the glaciers. In the last of these papers the author called
attention to the evidence that Wales had in the glacial epoch
heen occupied by a great ice sheet from which only the summits
of the mountains had projected. Much of the so-called drift on
them, he urged, was only moraine matter deposited and spread
on slopes during the retreat of this ice-sheet, when it had shrunk
up into true glaciers occupying the valleys. He described the
distribution of this and the arrangement of seme of the moraines ;
and in conclusion called attention to a very remarkable deposit
consisting wholly or almost wholly of diatoms, which existed in
many of the mountain lakes of North Wales. The diatoms in
‘these were identical with species which came from Greenland.

Norwicu

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, Oct. 29.—
A list of West Norfolk fungi was contributed by Mr. C. B.
Plowright. It appears that Mr. Plowright has collected and
identified no less a number than 600 species of fungi within a
radius of fifteen miles round Lynn; these have all been
gathered by himself, but he hopes, through the assistance of
several gentlemen in other parts of the country, to extend the
area included in the list, and add largely to the number of
species, the total number of British fungi being about 3000 species,

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, May 7.—Mr. Thomas
G. Gentry called the attention of the Academy to what he
regarded as a rare and remarkable case of hybridism, which
occurred between JMacacus nemestrinus, male, and A/acacus
cynomolgus, female. After exhibiting an alcoholic specimen
of the young, and a stuffed specimen of the mother which
was clearly identified as A/acacus cynomolgus, he detailed the
leading characters of the two parents. He stated that the
male differed from the female in being more robust and of greater
dimensions ; in the almost perfect smoothness of the face, which
is of a pale flesh colour, while in the female it is black and in-
vested with a close growth of short black hairs ; in the absence
of a crest upon the head of the male, which is a prevailing cha-
racteristic of the species (AZ memestrinus), and its presence in
the female, which is a prominent feature of the species to which
she belongs ; in colour ; and, lastly, in the unequal development
of the caudal appendage, which in the male is about seven inches
in length, and densely clothed with long hairs, while in the
female it is twice the length, and nearly naked for more than
two-thirds of its extent.

May 14.—Mr. Thomas Meehan observed that on several oc-
casions, he had offered some facts and suggestions tending to
prove that what are popularly termed Pine needles are not
properly leaves, but rather branchlets, which, through the real
leaves becoming attached for nearly their whole length to
the axis or stem, had of necessity taken on themselves the
office of leaves. Ie now wished to offer two additional ob-
servations in favour of the axial origin of these so-called
leaves. In plants in general the leaves unfolded contempo-
yaneously with the branches or axis. He could not call to mind
an instance where the axis first extended to its full length before
the leaves ventured to push forth from the nodes. ‘The axial
buds usually remained dormant until this final length was ap-
proached. When this occurred, or if anything happened to
destroy the apex of the growing shoot, then the axial buds
pushed into growth, and never to any great extent before. In
the Pine family we had the following axial experience :—The
buds which bore the needle were axial buds, situated at the base
of the scale—the adnated leaf as he maintained. These buds
remained nearly at rest until the axis had reached its full length,
and in this respect coincided with the ax al buds of trees in
general. A pine tree in the spring season presented the appear-
ance of an immense chandelier, with its long axial shoots as the
naked burners. In this respect it is apparent that, regarding the
fascicles of pine needles as branchlets, the law of folial develop-
ment coincidental with axial growth finds no exception in the
pine family. The next striking consideration was one derived
from the nature of the inflorescence. In vegetable morphology,
the floral system of plants was made up of neither leaf nor axis
separately, but conjointly of both. In the inflorescence of the
pine, the male catkins each took the place of a fascicle. The
axial bud at the base of the leaf scale, instead of a bunch of
needles, developed as a spike of flowers. This spike or catkin
is metamorphosed needks, If these needles were leaves merely,

~

NATURE

Lt "vin abet
ee a es .
ae he poe te as i “or ir li
~ Be nd snd aes
‘ b ae ale a vd ight <a >

mee sf 00. 33 187 2

we could hardly expect inflorescence to be formed from them
It would be an exception to regular rule. But regarding the
needles of the pine as rather axis than leaf, their development to
flowers acords with general law; and he held that it was more
philosophical to accept conclusions based on general law than to
Tr for new laws to account for apparent exceptions to general
rule. : i ¥

BOOKS REGEIVED.

EnG.tsu.—Biblical Psychology: J. L. Forster (Longmans).—A Manual
of Elementary Chemistry ; G. Fownes ; trth edition, revised and corrected
by H. Watts (Churchill).—Principles of Psychology, 2 vols.: H. Spencer ;
2nd edition (Williams and Norgate).—The Electro-thermology of Chemistry =
T. W. Hall (Edmonson and Douglas) —Figures Made Easy: L. Hens!
(Macmillan).—Easy Lessons in Arithmetic, Part I: Rev. B. Smith (I
millan)——Records of the Rocks: Rev. W S. Symonds (Murray).—.
dotal and Descriptive Natural History: A. Romer (Groombridge).—! !
Mary's Dream: A. F. L. (Groombridge).—Ivy, its History and Character-
istics : S, Hibtera (Groombridge).—Buds and Blossoms (Groombridge).—
On Building and Ornamental Stones: E. Hull (Macmillan). c
Foreicn.—Lehrbuch der Physik: Dr. Paul Reis (Leipzig: Quandt
Hiaindel).—Internationales Wérterbuch der Pflanzen-namen: Dr. W.
(Triibner) —Through Williams and Norgate :—Optisch-akustische Vo
schule; G, Mach.—Die Robbe und die Otter: J. C. G. Lucae.—Die
wendung der Spectral-apparates: K. Vierordt.

DIARY
THURSDAY, Novemser 28. }

Society or ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30—The Milites Stationarii considered ix
Relation to the Hundred and Tithing of England: H. C. Coote, F.S.A

MONDAY, DECEMBER 2,
ENTOMOLOGICAL SocigTy, at 7.
Victoria InstiTUTE, at 8.—Force and Energy: C. Brooke, F.R.S.

TUESDAY, DECEMBER 3. "

ZootocicaL Society, at 8.30.—On the Osteology of the Marsupiali
IV. Phascolomys. Bones of the trunk and limbs: Prof. Owen, F.R.S.
—Contributions to Ornithology of Madagascar, I[I.: R. B. Sharpe. __
Society or Bisricat ARCH#OLOGY, at 8.30.—On a Cuneiform Inscription
containing the Chaldean Account of the Deluge: G. Smith.—Address by
Sir Henry Rawlinson. :
Lonpon InstITuTION, at4.—On Elementary Physiology : Prof. Rutherford.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—Report on Anthropology at the
Meeting of the British Association at Brighton: Col. A. Lane Fox. 0
Some Implements bearing Marks Referable to Ownership Tallies an
Gambling from the Caves of Dordogne: Prof. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.
Discovery of a Flint Implement Station in Wishmore Bottom, near Sand-
hurst : Lieut. Cooper King, R.N.
InsTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.--Discussion on the Aba Sugar

Factory. ‘
WEDNIF'SDAY, DECEMBER 4. ap
GEoLocIcAL Society at 8.—On the Tremadoc Rocks in the Neighbour-
hood of St. David's, South Wales, and their Fossil Contents: H. Hick
F.G.S.—On the Phosphatic Nodules of the Cretaceous Rock
Cambridgeshire: Rev. UO, Fisher, F.G S.—On the Ventriculitida of
Cambridge Upper Greensand: W. Johnson Sollas. Observations on
more remarkable Boulders of the North-west of England and the Welsh
Borders: D. Mackintosh, F.G.S. 7
Society oF Arts, at 8.—On the Manufacture of Horse-nails by Machinery ;
J. A. Huggett. :
Microscopicat Society, at 8.
Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 7.—The Paraffin Industry: F. Field, F.R.S.

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 5.
Linnean Soctety, at 8—On the Skeleton of the Afteryx: Tho
Allis —On New and Rare British Spiders; Rev. O. P. Cambridge, M.
Cuemicat Society, at 8.—On the Reducing Power of Phosphorous and
Hypophosphorous Acids and their Salts: Prof. C Rammelsberg.
Hvpophosphites: Prof. C. Rammelsberg.—On New Analyses of some
Mineral Arseniates and Phosphates: Prof. A. H. Church. :

CONTENTS Patis
bey py ay AND PuTREFACTION. By Prof. WyviLtze THomsoN, ~
EXPLORATION oF THE Sout Porar REGIONS, Il. : 2 : * 3 3
Reps RESEARCHES ON RapianT Heat. By W. F. BARRETT,
LETTERS TO THE Eprror 1 eee ° aa R i
On the supposed new Marine Animal from Barraud’s Inlet.—Prof.
JAMES “BUAKE).. 4. isilins ealecde ious ee
Misleading Cyclopedias —A. R. Watvacz, F.Z.S. .
Rainbows on Blue Sky.—Dr.G. F. Burpger . . ..
‘the Greenwich Date.—Rev. J. Pearson . . . s ,
Ocean Meteorological Observations —G. J. Symons .

Earthquake.—E. J. Lowz, F.R.S. . . 2...
The Buth of Chemistry. a. Wileeas bse cohen
peep buISHA AND AtroriA. By Dr. Fraser. (With Diagram.)
OTES . CE ACU ES eg Way eit o Soya 0 (6 0 up tae
THE ORGANISATION OF ACADEMICAL STUDY IN ENGLAND .
SOcIETIES AND ACADEMIES\(:/ssaihel aioe asses ae

TARY) 00s o/c +) 0 Yop CD ee ta
BOOKS RECEIVED)... <: 2's SES CEE Steele

Yi
Errata.—No. 159, p. 30: The foot-line of Fig. 1 is erroneously given
** Metamorphosis of Tortoise-shell Butterfly,” instead of ** Metamorphosis
of Sphinx Ligustri.”—No. 160, p. 55, 1st. col, line 36: For * Prof.
Gcikie” read “ Mr. James Geikie.” 4

_ THURSDAY, DECEMBER 5, 1872

THE COMETARY STAR-SHOWER

© OME months have now elapsed since an announce-
ment by Mr. Hind informed astronomers that a
_ well-known telescopic comet, first seen in the years 1772
and 1805, and rediscovered in 1826 by the astronomer
Biela, of Josephstadt, in Bohemia, when it was first recog-
nised as periodic, would make its nearest approach to the
earth towards the close of this year ; and its apparent
__ place on successive nights was duly foretold, to assist them
_ in their search for its existence. On the last two occa-
_ sions of its expected returns, in 1859 and 1866, no signs
_ of the missing comet were detected. The favourable
circumstances under which it was expected to be ob-
served, during its last approach to the earth in 1869, and
the absence of any notice of its having been seen during
the last two months of its anticipated reappearance in the
present year, makes it hardly doubtful that, as an interest-
ing study and examination with the most powerful modern
telescopes, it has at length ceased to be any longer
visible. When at its greatest brightness in the year
_ 1805, it was seen by Olbers, with the naked eye, and
in its subsequent returns, it was frequently attentively
observed with the most powerful means and by the most
expert astronomers. During its appearance in 1846 it
_ was first distinctly perceived to separate into two portions,
_ gradually receding from each other until they gained a
greatest distance, which was estimated on that occasion at
_ 157,000 miles, The two portions remained visible as two
distinct comets at their next return in 1852, with a widened
- interval between them, which had increased to 1,250,000
miles, With nearly equal brightness, and with perfect
cometary appearance, these two bodies travelled side by
side, and journeyed together, doubtless, to separate still
_ further from each other in their further circulations round
_ thesun. Such is the telescopic history of Biela’s comet.
In the year 1818 a telescopic comet was discovered by
Pons, the astronomer, at Marseilles, whose date of
appearance, at least a year before the time of a
_ punctual return, cannot have been a reappearance of
Biela’s comet, but the position of its orbit, as far
as it could be calculated from the imperfect data
that were obtained, are so similar to that of Biela’s
_ that its relation to that comet appears not improbably to
‘be of the same kind as that which formerly connected
_ together the two portions of the recently divided cometary
pair, and the orbit and periodic time of this third comet
_ probably differ but little from those of the principal comet
from which it may fairly be presumed to have been
derived. Such groupings of comets on nearly parallel
_ courses appear to be distinguishable in the more remark-
_able cases, recently pointed out by Hoek, of some comets
with hyperbolic orbits ; and the revolution of more than
_ one telescopic comet is thought to have been discovered in
_ the same orbit with the periodically-returning cometof 1866,
with which the meteor-current of the great November star-
shower, at its recent return, was shown by Schiaparelli,
Adams, and Oppolzer, to be in remarkable agreement.
“In a later letter to the Zvmes, in August last, Mr.
‘Hind pointed out the satisfactory coincidence of
No. 162--voL, vit.

NATURE

77

which Prof. Schiaparelli, the former coadjutor of
Secchi, and now the able director of the Observatory
at Milan, was the first discoverer, between the orbit of
another comet of considerable brightness seen in 1862,
and the course of the meteors of the well-known August
star-shower, an unusually bright display of which was re-
corded shortly after the appearance of that comet in the
following year. Another example of distinct resemblance
between the orbit of a meteor current and that of a perio-
dic comet was early discovered by the German astrono-
mers Drs, Weiss and Galle in the case of the meteor shower
of April 19-20 and the comet I, 1861, to which Prof,
Kirkwood, of the State University in Indiana, U.S., has
lately added the interesting observation that the earliest
records of this meteor shower, as well as of a con-
spicuous star-shower annually visible about October 18-
20, indicate a periodic time in their maximum returns,
which corresponds, like that of the November meteor
system and its attendant comets, to an ellipse whose
major axis is very nearly the mean distance of
the planet Uranus from the sun. The time has
thus arrived when systematic observations of meteor
showers may be regarded as an important auxiliary
to astronomers in certain cases where the orbits
of comets are intersected by the earth’s path, by vying
with the telescope in detecting the hidden courses of such
comets as, by comminution or disbanding of their sub-
stance, have so lost their brightness, as at length com-
pletely to elude their search.

The probability that the orbit of Biela’s comet is
marked by a considerable meteor stream was first shown,
almost simultaneously, by the two eminent directors of
the national observatories at Vienna and Copenhagen,
Drs. Weiss and D’Arrest. The meteor stream to which
the comet appears in this instance to have given rise, was
principally observed in Germany, France, Belgium, and
the United States of America, in the yearse1798, and
1838, occurring on December 6 and 7 in those years ;
and again by the astronomer of Miinster, Dr. Heis, at Aix-
la-Chapelle, on December 6, 1847. Either of the perio-
dical returns of the comets, 1818, I., or of Biela’s comets, it
was found by Weiss and D’Arrest, would perfectly account
for the dates of appearance of these meteor-showers, and
for the observed direction of their radiation from a point
of divergence between Cassiopeia and Andromeda. The
situation of this meteor stream is such that the meteors
enter the earth’s atmosphere with almost the least pos-
sible speed, of about eleven miles per second, that
meteors can have; while the Leonides, or meteors of
November 14, penetrate it with a velocity which is about
four times greater, The position of the orbit is also such
that it undergoes very rapid changes by the attractions of
the planets ; so that, while encountering the earth on
December 7 in 1798, the meteor particles, at the last
visible return of the comet in 1852, must have extended
across that point in the earth’s course which it passed on
November 28 in that year. A few meteors from the
same radiant point were seen by the late Signor
Zezioli, of Urbino, the most zealous contributor of
shooting-star observations to Prof. Schiaparelli, on
November 30, 1867, diverging from the indicated place.
The probability that the shower formerly witnessed on
December 6 and 7 has thus advanced with the node of

F

48

the comet’s orbit to an earlier date in November, is now
fully corroborated by the conspicuous appearance of the
same meteor-shower which has recently appeared. Had it,
indeed, been possible to estimate exactly the motion of
the comet’s nodes during the interval since their pre-
vious return, the date on which the great meteor-shower
observed on Wednesday last occurred, might have been
accurately foretold. The Luminous Meteor Com-
mittee of the British Association requested observers
to co-operate for its observation on the evenings of the
28th to 3oth of last month, and to keep an occasional
watch for its return from the 25th until the last day of
November. The observations received from some of
these observers are ample proofs of their success ; and
among the copious descriptions of the shower which have
appeared by many expert astronomers throughout the
kingdom, little can be desired to increase the extent or
accuracy of the information which has been obtained.
Should it, however, be observed that a star shower like
that seen by Heis, and earlier observed on the 6th and
7th of December, is again visible on about the 5th of
December in this year, its connection with the companion

NATURE

comet I., 1818, of Biela’s comet, may become a matter of
interesting deductions from such observations, and of

further satisfactory investigations.
A. S. HERSCHEL

FERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION*
II.
N the interesting inquiry into the life-history of mildews,
a well-known one, abundant wherever organic matter,
in a somewhat inert state, is exposed to damp, Asferge/lus
glaucus, may be taken as wellas the Mucor mucedo. This
consists in the first place of a mass of mycelium fila-
ments, which are formed of delicate cells in chains, that
is to say, the fibres are divided into series of true cells
by diaphragms. The cells are full of protoplasm, at
first showing a distinct nucleus, and afterwards a num-
ber of vacuoles containing water. The filaments grow
at the ends, and new partitions there grow up—at
first close together, and afterwards separating and becoming
more distinct. Some of the filaments become spiral at
the end and finally develop peculiar reproductive organs
which will be noticed presently. <Asfergil/us frequently
presents for long nothing but this spreading jointed myce-
lium, feeding upon the surface, and penetrating into the
substance of organic matter, and rotting and burning it;
producing water, carbon dioxide, sulphuretted hydrogen,
yarious butyric compounds, and other products of decom-
position, without developing any special organs of its
own. In this state it is perfectly impossible to distinguish
it from the mycelium of many other fungi. No doubt there
are differences—there are marked differences from some
mycelia, for instance those of the Mucors where the filaments
are undivided—but most have divided filaments, and these
organs are so small, so simple, and so variable, that itis next
to impossible to appreciate the distinctive characters,
Under favourable circumstances, in the light and air,
Aspergillus rises into the form of a bluish mould. This
under the microscope shows a multitude of one-celled
upright stalks, which form a kind of fur on the surface

to the Botanical

* From the Opening Address for the Session 1872-7
yville Thomson,

Society of Edinburgh, delivered on Nov. 14, by Prof.
F.RS., President of the Society. Concluded from p. 62.

| Dec. ei 1872

which it has attacked. Each of these stalks, which —
may be called conidia-stems, is dilated at the upper —
end, and from this dilatation there project, bristling
all over the knob, a number of conical protuberances —
called sterigmata. Each sterigma becomes pointed —
towards its free end, and at length produces at the —
point a small round cell filled with protoplasm, which ©
remains attached to the sterigma bya fine pedicel. Behind
this cell, between it and the end of the sterigma, another
cell then forms, and then another, until little chains of cells —
stand out free from the ends of the sterigmata ; and as
all these are of the same age, they are symmetrical, and ;
of the same length. The farthest from the sterigmata
are, of course, the oldest, and some of these soon get dry
and ripe ; so that an impalpable dust of these propagating —
buds or conidia is perpetually coming off, wafted by the —
slightest breath, or even by the imperceptible convection- —
currents from which the air is never free, from the surface —
of a mould patch. The conidia are buds capable of ger-
mination, of producing plants which go through the same
course astheir parent, but they arenot reproductiveproducts.
At the ends of the spiral curls of the mycelium filaments —
at certain seasons, and under favourable circumstances,
large bodies are produced by a form of conjugation in
which cells are multiplied till they form a mass of con-
siderable size of a bright yellow colour, called a wévicle.
Some of the cells composing the utricle become dissolved,
while the greater number are developed into oval sacs
or asci, in each of which eight spores are produced,
These utricles are the true sexual reproductive organs.
We have thus two kinds of spores—conidia, which are
non-sexual buds, and asci-spores, the product of a form —
of sexual union. Asferg7/lus often bears conidia without
utricles, and this is always the case when the fungus is
badly nourished. It never, apparently, bears utricles |
without conidia, The appearance of the two modes of
reproduction is so different, that the name Aspergillus was, p
until lately,restricted to mycelium bearing the conidia form —
of multiplication, while the utricle-bearing filaments and
utricles were placed in another genus, Aurotzum. ,
When sown, say on a solution of sugar or on any other
suitable soil, the behaviour of the two kinds of spores is”
exactly the same. ‘The spores send out tubes, which —
take the character of mycelium ; and whose filaments in
either case subsequently bear conidia or utricles according —
to circumstances. 7
Botrytis cinerea, a fungus specially abundant on decay-
ing vine-leaves, produces conidia in elegant panicles, and
a utricle which assumes such large proportions, and such —
a definite form, that it has been placed in the great genus
Pesiza, under the name of P. fuckeliana. y
Not to multiply examples too much, I will briefly refer _
to a form, the life history of which is not yet thoroughly
known—the mould which so often occurs in sour milk, —
though itis by no means confined to that station— Oidium
lactis. The mycelium of Ofdium is extremely like that of
Aspergillus glaucus, having filaments divided into distinct —
cells by marked septa. From the mycelium long single ,
shoots rise in the air, and give off chains of conidia a

. . 7 ~
each shoot representing one of the sterigmata of Asfer-
gillus with its progeny. Oédium attacks all kinds o

_ or two water vacuoles ; each cell is about ;j, mm. in
diameter ; the cells are in twos or threes, or frequently
run together in strings, like a breaking up chain of gem-

a

table, such as a slice of carrot.

and, like many other innocent fungi, it has had the credit
of producing the Asiatic cholera, and rejoices, among
other synonyms, in the name of Cylindrotenium cholere.

- In solutions containing sugar we often find a mul-

titude of round or oval cells, precisely resembling the cells
which I have already described in other fungi ; a delicate

_ membrane surrounding a mass of protoplasm, with one

mules of a MZucor. These are the well-known Saccharo-
myces cerevisi@, the yeast fungus. In multiplying, which
they do with extraordinary rapidity, these yeast cells throw
up irregularly from the surface one or more buds, much as
other fungi produce conidia. These separate, and in
‘turn multiply in the same way; but the last stage in
the development of this fungus is one which brings
it into the regular series of ascomycetous fungi, the
formation of regular asci or utricles, which corre-
spond exactly with the asci of Aspergillus. These
contain four to eight spores, which, when placed under
favourable circumstances, vegetate in the ordinary way.
It is after the sprouting of fresh yeast has taken place for
some time in a fermenting solution, and has become
languid, that the formation of asci begins, and we can
produce them artificially by taking yeast out of a solution
of sugar, and placing it upon the surface of a fresh vege-
From yeast we pass toa
‘series of very nearly-allied forms, which, as we shall see
hereafter, perform a somewhat different function, the
difference altering their value prodigiously in human
economy. In sour wine and beer, in the process of
the manufacture of vinegar, and wherever we have
_ what is called the acetous fermentation, minute bodies
_ swarm in the solution which closely resemble yeast,
differing chiefly in the smaller size of the cells. Some-
times these appear in pairs, sometimes single, and some-
times as little vibrating jointed rods. The best known,
and perhaps the most mischievous, are the mould fungus
of sour wine, Mycoderma vini, and the “ mother of yine-
_ gar,” Mycoderma aceti. These are called Mycoderma
_ because the cells are entangled in a sort of slimy film,
_. From these we pass to another class of bodies
scarcely distinguishable from them morphologically, but

‘

_ usually even still more minute, which are universally

_ spread wherever putrefactive decomposition is going on,
Bacteria and Vibriones, These and the lactic acid, and

_ butyric acid yeast-fungi cannot, however, so far as we at

present know, be ranged with the Ascomyceti, but must
_ be placed in another group, for which the term Schyzomy-
_ cetihas been proposed parallel with the Nostocs among

_ Confervoids.

Having thus given a very brief sketch of the morphology

of this singular group of beings, I should wish to make one
or two general remarks, In the first place, with De Bary,
I would exhort you to remember that these beings whose
morphology we have been discussing, although they are
very small, are nevertheless A/avés, each going through its

* own life-history, and presenting at different periods, and in
connection with the performance of the different functions
of its life, definite forms like every other plant. You know

_ how to think about peas and beans, oats and rye-grass, and
after sowing a crop of peas you never jgo and watch it,

NATURE

79

wondering whether it will come up peas or barley. You
never watch the growth of a turnip, expecting to find it
gradually turning into a carrot ; and you never set aside
a bowl of gruel and wait till acorns come in it, and
wonder whether, if they do come, they will sprout into
cabbages or hedgehogs; and yet there are slight
difficulties in the study of the plants which we
have bzen describing which have led men apparently
otherwise well instructed to write reams of trash, gravely
advocating absurdities of essentially the same order.
These difficulties are in the first place that these plants
are extremely minute, and their investigation requires great
skill in manipulation, and great practice. Again, they are
enormously abundant, and their multiplying germs of all
kinds are so minute and all-pervading that it requires the
utmost experimental dexterity to separate them, to sow
them, and still more to exclude them.
select and sow one species, ten to one the seed is mixed
with the seeds of a multitude of weeds, and if during the
process we allow the most indirect and instantaneous
communication with the open air, instantly the enemy sows
tares among our wheat, and one of these, probably more
vigorous than the others, in the course of an hour has cut
short its weak struggle for life. Then the form of these
plants requires very careful study—some parts of them, such
as the universally diffused mycelium, are undistinguishable
in different species ; and so are the gemmules, conidia, and
spores examined singly. _It is often only when the
entire ‘ fructification ” is’ present that distinguishing
characteristics exist which one can grasp. Then there is
another difficulty—most of these plants present some form

of the singular phenomenon of pleomorphy ; perhaps not |

more so than other plants, but slight differences in form
tell greatly in such simple and critical organisms. They
present different forms at different periods of growth, and
under slightly different circumstances, It is therefore not
the appearance of the particular mould-fungus at any one
time which we have to consider, but its life history. In
this, however, as in all other such cases, we must apply
the ordinary rules of experience and common sense.
A plant of rhubarb, pink and clear, drawn up and forced
in a can, is very unlike the same plant grown outside,
with great green leaves and giving off a multitude of
multiplying buds from its root crown; and without
some little knowledge and experience it would be
difficult to identify either of these with the plant in the
autumn in its reproductive stage, shooting up its stately
axis with its myriad of white feathery flowers. The diffi-
culties in studying the small fungi are very great, but a
few men, not perhaps very many, are capable of dealing
with such difficulties, and by the application of the
methods and reasoning of such men as De Bary, Pasteur,
Lister, Burdon Sanderson, and Hartley, men trained in
skilful investigation and accurate thought, the wild mis-
conceptions which have lately gathered about the whole
subject are fast passing away.

I will now turn for a few minutes from the morpho-
logical to the physiological part of the question, from the
researches of M. De Bary to those of M. Pasteur.

These active little scavengers, the microscopic fungi,
live upon and in, spread their mycelium over and through,
and flourish on the surface of decaying vegetable and
animal matter; but it is not the decay which produces

If we attempt to —

80

NATURE

the fungi, it is the fungi which produce the particular form
of decay.

When a mildew is growing in the ordinary way in the
free air on the surface of a liquid containing sugar, or on
the surface of a plant, it absorbs oxygen from the air, and
combines the oxygen thus absorbed with carbon, the pro-
duct of the decomposition of the matter on which it is
growing, so that by this ordinary process of burning,
carbon dioxide and water are set free, while at the same
time putrefaction is kept up in the substance attacked,
If protein compounds be present, then ammonia, sul-
phuretted hydrogen, and other substances are likewise set
at liberty, making the putrefaction more offensive. The
fungus is, in this case, feeding upon the organic matter,
and breathing the oxygen just like an animal. It cannot
decompose carbonic acid if it be freely supplied with this
gas. Without any other source of carbon, it does not in-
crease. The relation of fungi to the other substances re-
quired for their growth is still uncertain, It has been
supposed, and experiment seems to favour the opinion,
that fungi can assimilate the nitrogen of ammonia and
nitric acid, and even that they can absorb and assimilate the
nitrogen of the air. I should think this very doubtful. It
would seem most probable that in their relation to their
surrounding sources of nourishment, their reactions are
the same as those of animals and of the pale parts of the
higher plants.

Pasteur has shown that the same plants which, when
growing fully exposed to the air and liberally supplied
with oxygen, produce putrefaction, will, when partially or
wholly excluded from the air, and deprived of a full sup-
ply of oxygen, produce fermentation—that is to say, will
induce and keep up a set of changes resulting in the pro-
duction, not of carbonic acid and water, but of alcohol,
or of acetic, butyric, or lactic acid.

The rationale of this process proposed for acceptance
by Pasteur is singularly beautiful, and will, if correct, cause
a great change in our ideas of the vital relations of these
lower living forms. He believes that ferments are living
beings with this special property—that they can perform
all their vital functions without being in contact with
free oxygen gas; that they can take the oxygen which is
necessary for their respiration, and for other changes in the
organic matter upon which they are feeding, from organic
compounds containing oxygen, such as sugar; that they
can decompose and burn these, and in doing so induce
in a large quantity of fermentable material the con-
version of sugar into alcohol. Pasteur cites the following
experiment :—

If we half fill a flask with a fermentable liquid such as a
solution of sugar, and having taken all care to exclude all
other germs, sow on its surface some spores of Mycoderma
vini or Penicillium glaucum, the fungus grows and flour-
ishes on the surface, feeding on the organic matter in the
solution, absorbing oxygen from the air, and throwing off
carbon dioxide. In this case no alcohol is produced. If
we now shake the flask, the film of fungus sinks through
the liquid, and for a time there is no further change ; but
after resting a little, if the temperature be kept up, bubbles
of carbon dioxide begin to rise from the fungus, which
continues to grow, although more slowly. Fermentation
sets in instead of putrefaction, and alcohol is produced in
sensible quantities. The one great change which has been

produced in the circumstances of the fungus is that it has —
now been almost wholly excluded from contact with free _
oxygen, while in its former condition it was bathed in it. —
Upon this change, according to Pasteur, depends its now ~
acting as a ferment instead of inducing putrefaction.
A ferment, then, is a living body which is special in this
respect; that it is capable of performing all the functions —
of its life apart from free oxygen; it can assimilate —
directly oxygenated matters such as sugar, and derive -
from them the requisite amount of heat, and it further
can produce the decomposition of a much greater weight of —
fermentable matter than the weight of the ferment in action, d
Pasteur has found that ferments such as yeast lose their —
fermenting power— that is to say, the amount of organic —
matter decomposed diminishes and approaches the weight
of the ferment employed—exactly in proportion to the
amount of free oxygen supplied.
Pasteur has also shown, and this is one of the most
curious results of his investigations, that the same fungus
does not incite or maintain the alcholic, the acetic acid, —
the lactic acid, or the butyric acid fermentations ; but
that these changes are produced by different species, —
nearly allied but distinguishable from one another under —
the microscope ; the specific differences between them
extending to this strange difference in their powers of —
nutrition or respiration which induces different reactions —
in a fermentable fluid.
In the course of the foregoing remarks we have digressed —
widely from our text, the ripening and rotting “ Duchesse
dAngouléme” pears ; but, before concluding, let us fora —
moment recur to them, and see how far the facts and —
theories which I have brought before you are applicable —
to the considerations from which we started—their ripening —
and their decay. This ripe pear, during its early growth, -
was green. The cells in its outer layer contained chloro- —
phyll, and contributed their quota to the shaking asunder —
of the elements of carbon dioxide and water under the ©
influence of light—to the nutrition of the pear tree. Its —
inner pale cells grew, amply supplied with food from the —
elaborated sap, and with oxygen suspended in the perco-
lating fluids and passing through the many ducts. Thus —
at that period growth was going oa, and neither fermen-
tation nor putrefaction. Sugar, starch, and various sub-
stances were then laid down in the ce'ls, and when the -
pear had acquired its full growth, the connection with —
the tree was cut off, but the surface of the fruit remained —
still freely exposed o the air. A considerable quantity —
of sugar is now decomposed in the interior of the fruit,
and the result is the production of a trace of alcohol and —
certain ethers—the development of the flavour of the
pear ; but shortly the outside softens by the ordinary pro- —
duction of water and carbon dioxide in contact with the —
oxygen of the air, the pear loses flavour again, and —
commences to decay. M. Bérard has shown that ifa —
ripening fruit be placed in an atmosphere of carbon diox-
ide no such softening occurs. The changes are much less
rapid, the inner cells of the pear act as a ferment, and —
while carbon dioxide is still given off it is now at the
expense of the sugar, and a large quantity of alcohol is
the result. M. Pasteur tried this experiment with four
dozen “ Monsieur” plums taken nearly ripe from the tree; _
twenty-four of these were placed in an atmosphere of
carbon dioxide, and after several days, during which time -

_ 6°50 grammes of absolute alcohol, and a corresponding
_ quantity of sugar was destroyed ; the other twenty-four were
left in contact with the air, and had became soft, watery,
and sweet. It is the active vitality of a living plant,
which consists of materials very suitable for their con-
_ sumption, which prevents its being attacked by these pro-
- moters of putrefaction and fermentation. Our pears, after
_ burning their substance for a time without any new supply,
become weak, and fall an easy prey to their persecutors.
The moment the soil is free there is no want of seed. I need
_ not reopen the old question and repeat that every breath
of air is full of it. It is said that ifyou want a thoroughly
good pasture, the best way is to fallow your ground and
leave it for thirty years. During that time you will have
over it a battle-royal for life. Every possible kind of
seed will come to it from the four winds of heaven, and
for a time it will be a wilderness of weeds; but soon the
good old law begins to work, and the weak go to the wall,
and the fallow bears a close sward of native British
grasses. The same takes place in our pear, only what
takes thirty years in a field is compressed into thirty
hours, and probably-before a much longer time has
elapsed, its surface is enveloped in a luxuriant microscopic
jungle of Mucor stolonifer. WYVILLE THOMSON

THE FINDING OF LIVINGSTONE

How I found Livingstone in Central Africa. By H.
M. Stanley. (London: Sampson Low, Son, & Co.)

R. STANLEY’S bold march from Zanzibar to the

Tanganyika, and his perfect success in meeting
with and relieving the greatest of our modern travellers
precisely at the right moment, will ever form one of the
happiest and most romantic pages in the story of African
exploration. F

Remembering the watchword of his mission, “‘ Go and

find Livingstone,” and that this, not the discovery of new

- countries, was his great object, it seems almost invidious
to notice that Mr. Stanley’s journey must take a minor
place among African travels of exploration, adding little
to our knowledge of the exact geography of the continent,
The path which he traversed is for the most part a
frequented caravan route, running parallel to, and occa-
sionally touching, the lines passed over and described by
Burton, Speke, and Grant. Without the basis given by
the labours of these explorers, Mr. Stanley’s work would
have had but small value, since he himself has not made
a single observation of position or of elevation, and the
compass-bearings contained in some parts of his book are
not in any way checked for magnetic variation. Still,
very considerable portions of Mr. Stanley’s route pass
through lands hitherto untrodden by Europeans, some
parts even unvisited by Arabs, and of these he is undoubt-
edly the discoverer.

Three frequented caravan routes lead from the coast
near Bagamoyo towards Unyamyembe, and of these Mr.
Stanley chose the most northerly and direct, the others
having been traversed by Burton, and Spekeand Grant. In
following this new line, Mr. Stanley has been able to mark
out more clearly than the former travellers the separate
basins of the Kingani and the Wami rivers of the coast-

7 they seemed quite firm and fresh, they gave to analysis

land ; and he points out the important fact that the latter
might be navigated with ease by light-draught steamers
for a distance of 200 miles inland from the port of Whinde
at its mouth.

At the base of a spur of the Rubeho mountains, the
edge of the high plateau of Eastern Africa, the unexpected
scene of a walled town presented itself. This was Sim-
bamwenni, the capital of Useguhha, and the recently-built
stronghold of an usurper, “another Theodore on a small
scale”; “the houses in the town are eminently African ;
the fortifications are on an Arabic-Persic model; well-
built towers of stone guard each corner; four gates are
facing each cardinal point, and, set half-way between the
several towers, permit ingress and egress to the inha-
bitants.”

Beyond the mountains which face the coastland, Mr.
Stanley’s route converged in the dry region of Ugogo to
that of Burton and Speke, and hence to Unyanyembe he
passed over their track. Arrived at Tabora in Unyan-
yembe (the name Kazeh, applied to this capital by Burton,
appears to be now unknown), Mr. Stanley found the whole
country to westward overrun by the gangs of Mirambo,
the turbulent chief of Ugoweh, a place some 60 miles
north-west of Tabora. This chief sternly refused passage
to the Arab traders unless they would aid him in a warfare
he was about to wage against the Sultan of the Wanyam-
ueziin Unyanyembe. After taking part in an ill-directed
and unsuccessful attempt to dislodge the obstructive
Mirambo, Stanley determined to strike out for himself a new
path outside the disturbed region. In carrying out this
resolve he led the way, in a semicircular track of more
than 209 miles, through the forest countries of Utakama,
Ukonongo, and Ukawendi, first south, then west and
northward to where he again fell in with the ordinary
trade route. The whole of the geography of this detour
is new and interesting, and it forms the chief portion of
the discoveries which are particularly Mr. Stanley’s own.

The path chosen lay round the southern tributaries of
the Malagarazi river, the largest known tributary of the
Tanganyika, and along the water-parting between this
basin and that of the Rungwa river farther south, which
Mr. Stanley affirms to be also an influent of the lake,
flowing through the marshy plain called Rikwa (the Rukwa
lagoon of Burton and Speke). The direction of flow of
the Rungwa is a most important point, since it had been
suggested as probable that the Tanganyika might have
its outflow through this marshy country to the Lufiji river
on the east coast. This theory appears now to have no
foundation.

Passing over the arrival at Ujiji, and the most fortunate
conclusion of Mr. Stanley’s direct mission in meeting the
great traveller there, the next perfectly new portion of this
journey is that in which Livingstone and Stanley together
explore the head of the Tanganyika.* “ We found that the
northern end of the lake was indented with seven broad
bays.” “The fourth bay (at the head of which was the
delta of the Rusizi), was about three miles in depth,
and penetrated half a mile farther inland than any other,”
“ Soundings indicated 6 ft., and the same depth was kept
to within a few hundred yards of the principal mouth of
the Rusizi.” ‘ We ascended about half a mile, the current
being very strong (from six to eight miles an hour), and

* Mr, Stanley prefers the spelling Tan-gan-ika,

about ten yards wide, and very shallow. The question,
‘ Was the Rusizi an effluent or an influent?’ was settled
for ever.”

Much, if not the whole credit of this discovery, the
most valuable geographical point of the journey, is due to
Mr. Stanley, who suggested to Dr. Livingstone the de-
sirability of its examination and the completeness of the
circumnavigation of the head of the lake, along with the
presence there of the most experienced of African tra-
vellers, leave no possible doubt remaining. The view
first taken by Burton and Speke is amply confirmed, |
and the Tanganyika has certainly no outlet at its northern
end.

When approaching Ujiji, Mr. Stanley heard a sound as
of distant thunder in the west, and on asking his guides if
it were thunder he was told that it was Kabogo, “a great |
mountain on the other side of Tanganika, full of deep |
holes into which the water rolls,” “ Many boats have been |
lost there; . . . The sound of the thundering surf

which is said to roll into the caves of Kabogo was heard _
by us, therefore, at a distance of over one hundred mile
away from them.” This story, in which Mr. Stanley him-_
self does not appear to place much confidence, has sug-
gested a possible outlet of the Tanganyika to the Lualaba —
system by subterranean rivers through the mountains
which enclose the lake on the west ; but, besides the ex-
treme improbability of such a phenomenon, it is to be
remembered that Livingstone, in coming to Ujiji from the
Cazembe’s territory, must have passed close to these
dreaded caves, and would not have gone by them without
exploring, or at least hearing of their existence. Itisnot —
recorded that Mr. Stanley consulted Livingstone on this
subject. ~
A remarkable fact, which, taken in connection with our
knowledge of the insignificant drainage to the Tanganyika,
seems to lend still further confirmation to the view first ex-
pressed by Burton that “the Tanganyika, situated like the ©
Dead Sea, may maintain its level by the balance of supply _

z

View on Lake Tanganika,

and evaporation,” is Mr. Stanley’s observation of a clearly |
marked high-water line of the lake on the rocky slope of a |

promontory south of Ujiji. ‘“ This went to show that the
Tanganyika, during the rainy season, rises about 3 ft.
above its dry season level, and that during the latter
season evaporation reduces it to its normal level.” On
the contrary supposition of the existence somewhere of
a considerable outflowing river from Tanganyika, it is
difficult to account for such a rise and fall in a lake of
upwards of 10,000 square miles in extent.
The occasional descriptions of landscape throughout
the volume are exceedingly graphic ; for example, the de-
scriptions of the forest scenes in the newly traversed

region of Ukonongo (p. 322) or of the park-like and pas-
toral country of the coast slope (p. 167). With such an
appreciation of the great landscape features of the chang-
ing belts of country through which he passed, it is to be
regretted that the pictorial illustrations of Mr. Stanley’s

book should, with so few exceptions, be devoted to per-
sonal incident. As in many books of travel, so here,a
ship, a wild boar, an elephant, or a house, form —
the subject of the majority of the pictures, the real
scenery of the country being thrown in only as a
background to these objects, drawings of which maybe
readily obtained at home. :
It is also a matter of regret that the chief map accom- —
panying the volume does but scant justice to the observa-
tions recorded in its pages ; a much more detailed repre- —
sentation of the routes might have been given. We look
in vain, for example, for the position of Mount Kibwe,
which is frequently mentioned as one of the highest peaks
of the mountains of Usagara, and which is the subject of
perhaps the best illustration in the book. Again, “Mu-
kondokua had been reached after three hours’ march
direct west from Misanza,” but upon the map these places
are shown relatively north-west and south-east ; Imreras, —

¥

chief settlement in U kawendi, and the objective point

of Mr. Stanley’s return-route from the lake with Living-
_ stone is not to be found. The spellings of map and book

- are accompanied by a page of elaborate drawings.

are frequently at variance.

- Two chapters of geographical and ethnological remarks
may have some value to the student, but do not appear to
_add much to the exhaustive descriptions of Burton in his
“ Lake Regions.”
_ Mr. Stanley gives very minute and apparently accurate
descriptions of the various fishes of Tanganyika, and these
It is
unfortunate, however, that some of the fishes to which the
same names are applied by Burton and Stanley do not
agree in their dimensions ; thus, the AZ7voro, according to

_ Burton, is “a long bony variety, in shape like a large
_ mackerel ;” whilst Stanley’s AZ/vuro is a “thick fleshy

fish, 18 inches long and 154 inches round the body.”
_ The excellent chapter on the organisation of the expe-
_ dition, in which Mr. Stanley gives to future explorers the
benefit of his anxious study of the requirements of the
expedition at starting, the native currency, quantities of
cloth, beads, and wire necessary for the journey, the hire
of native porters, and such like, deserves the highest com-
mendation ; and the truth of his remark that “however
Stay-at-home people may regard the merits of his book,
the greatest praise and the greatest thanks will be be-
stowed upon it by travellers who may succeed me in East
Africa” is already on the point of being verified.

a OUR BOOK SHELF

Nachirdge su der Schrift tiber Inschriften und Zeichen in
lebenden Bdumen, sowie iiber Maserbildung. Von
Prof. H. K. Géppert. (Breslau: E. Morgenstern.)

_ Pror. GOPPERT published in 1869 in the Fahrbuch des

pendix,

Schilesischen Forstvereins some observations on the singu-
Jar inscriptions and other marks found within the stems
of living trees, to which the present pamphlet is an ap-
The original tract was illustrated by four litho-
‘graphic plates, and in this publication we find two
more, illustrating the mode in which injuries to the wood
become entirely covered over and concealed by the sub-

_ sequent formation of cambium and growth of bark. The
visitor to the British Museum will observe some very

curious instances of this phenomenon in the botanical de-
partment, which possess the additional interest that the
exact period is known when the inscriptions were made,
and consequently the age of the subsequent overgrowth

can be determined.

Des Préparations MicroscopiguesTirées dv Regne Végétal,
et des différents procédés a employer pour en assurer
Ya conservation. Par Johannes Groénland, Maxime
Cornu, et Gabriel Rivet. (Paris: F. Savy, London:
Williams and Norgate.)

_ OF the 75 pages of which this book consists, only the

mr,

last 25 properly relate to the subject which is indicated by
the title ; all the rest are occupied by descriptions, of a
very detailed and apparently accurate kind, of apparatus
and various accessories to microscopic work, such as all
but the most inexperienced are necessarily perfectly
familiar with. A classification and account of the various

_ kinds of turntables fills 8 pages at the beginning ; dia-

monds and scalpels are afterwards treated of, with the
method of sharpening the latter. A simple plan of
mounting needles for dissection, which consists in in-
_-serting their blunt ends into the pith cavity of pieces of
fresh twigs cut of the properlengths, andthenallowed todry,

and consequently shrink tightly upon them, will, no doubt,
be found useful. The handles, however, for crochet-needles
which are sold at berlin-wool shops achieve the same end by
a simple mechanical contrivance. The triangular needles,
bythe way, mentioned bythe authors, are known in England
as glovers’ needles, and are kept by some instrument-

makers. Microtomes are discussed very minutely ; they
are, no doubt, very useful; but excellent sections are
habitually made by those who use no contrivance of any
kind. Imbedding in stearine is recommended in the
case of Rivet’s most ingenious section cutter ; but when
this is done it will be found that, with a little practice, the
instrument can be quite dispensed with. It will hardly
be worth while, therefore, for any one who wishes seriously
to work at vegetable histology to expend 28 fr. upon it. A
good hint is to coat the object to be cut with a thick solu-
tion of gum-arabic, which is to be allowed to quite dry
before putting it into the melted stearine, By this expe-
dient, when the section is thrown into water as soon as
cut, the stearine is said to detach itself, and gives no
further trouble, The manufacture of a slide and covering
glass (pronounced s/iade and coveur) requires an explana-
tion of 16 pages. It is, perhaps, a doubtful compliment
to find only the mechanical side of English microscopy
getting any recognition. It may possibly be all we deserve ;
still, no serious worker in England would waste his time
in carrying out the directions given here for cutting, trim-
ming, and polishing the edges of glass slips, which can be so
easily purchased ready-made. Directions for making pre-
servative solutions form the last chapter, and these are
probably of some value. A medium prepared by adding
4to 5 parts (by weight) of glacial acetic acid to 100 parts
of distilled water, with which 2 parts of chloroform have
been agitated for some time, is stated to preserve the
endochrome of minute alge without contraction, and to
have the enormous merit, when vegetable tissues are
worked with, of absorbing bubbles of air. Another liquid,
composed of 75 parts of water saturated with camphor, an
equal quantity of distilled water, and 1 part of glacial acetic
acid, is recommended in the warmest terms for the pre-
servation of fresh water alge. A great deal still remains
to be done in the methods of vegetable histology. Noone
in England has probably as yet tried perosmic acid for
plant tissues ; and staining, which has proved so important
an aid to animal histologists, never enters into the minds of
the authors, even to the extent of mentioning the familiar
carmine ; much less the solution employed by Hanstein
for colouring the cell-wall, consisting of equal parts of
rosaniline (magenta) and aniline-violet (mauve) dissolved
in alcohol.* Schulz’s process for demonstrating the “ in-
tercellular substance” characteristically concludes what
the authors have to say. On the whole, any person wish-
ing to practise the preparation of vegetable microscopic
objects merely as a matter of business on a large scale,
will find it useful to possess this book,
Wt. ds

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous —
communications. ]

Ipecacuanha Cultivation at Kew
I HAVE just received No. 158 of NATURE, containing Prof.

Owen’s letter ‘On the National Herbarium.” In that letter

Prof. Owen quotes several sentences relating to ipecacuanha cul-

tivation in India from my last report for the official year ending

March 31, 1872, on the Calcutta Botanical Garden, with the

object of substantiating an insinuation of bad cultivation at Kew.

He does not, however, quote the whole of what I wrote about

ipecacuanha in the report referred to, and the result is, that a

* Bot, Zeitung, 1868, p. 703. :

+

1
casual reader of his letter would form the impression that, but for

Edinburgh, ipecacuanha would not have been introduced into
India, and that, consequently, the Kew establishment cannot be
relied upon for the dissemination of useful plants among the
British possessions abroad, which is, I imagine, one of ‘‘the
works and applications for which a nation provides and supports
its collections of living plants.”

My report having been quoted with such an object, I wish to
state that the success of ipecacuanha cultivation in India had
been practically settled before any of the plants propagated at
Edinburgh had arrived in that country, In the year 1866, and
long before Government had begun to show any official interest
in the matter, Dr. Hooker sent an ipecacuanha plant to the Cal-
cutta Botanical Garden, the offspring of which, in Sikkim,
amounted, in the month of September, 1871, to nearly 400—
quite a sufficient number to assure a successful start to propaga-
tion on alarge scale. The subsequent arrival in India of con-
siderable supplies from Edinburgh has, indeed, made assurance
doubly sure; but the fact remains that to Dr. Hooker is India
indebted for the first beginning of this important cultivation.

If the establishment at Kew stood in any need of a testimonial
as to the valuable assistance rendered by it in the introduction
into India of plants of economic or horticultural interest, it would
not be difficult to furnish a list sufficient to fill a good many
columns of NATURE of the names of plants and seeds sent—many
of them quite unsolicited—from Kew to Calcutta within the last
ten years, to go no farther back.

GrorGE KING,

Superintendent Calcutta Botanical Garden
Nice, Nov, 26

The Great Meteoric Shower

As you will most probably have received from many other
correspondents a general description of the magnificent spectacle
on last Wednesday evening, I will confine my remarks princi-
pally to those observations which bear directly on the most im-

ortant point at issue, viz., whether this meteor stream can be
identified with the well-known comet of Biela, Having searched,
during the autumn, on every available occasion for a glimpse at
the approaching comet, and the almost unvarying cloudiness of
the early morning sky having rendered even the negative value
of the observations well-nigh useless, I read with delight the

rediction of Dr. Weiss, and felt the greatest interest in its
ulfilment,

Immediately I had noticed that a meteoric shower was in pro-
gress on the evening of the 27th, I directed the two assistants of
the observatory, who have had considerable experience in tracing
the paths of meteors during the last few years, to devote their
whole attention to the accurate determination of the radiant
point. In the meantime, with the assistance of three of the
students of the philosophy class and of the meteorological assis-
tants of the observatory, I noted the rate per minute, the velocity,
direction, magnitude, &c., of the falling bodies.

The Radiant was found to be on the line joining y and 51 An-
dromede, and twice as far from 51 as from y. This gives as
the R.A., 26° 37’, and N,. Decl. 43° 48', agreeing very well
with the prediction,

The Epoch is somewhat in advance of that predicted ; but
this cannot be wondered at, as the comet has not been seen since
1852, and, in three complete revolutions round its orbit, it could
scarcely have been expected not to have been subjected to con-
siderable unknown perturbation, either from planets whose
masses are imperfectly known, or perhaps from some neighbour-
ing meteor-stream,

The time of the maximum was about 8h, rom. p.M., but the
numbers did not much diminish before 9 p.m., G.M.T. Be-
tween Sh. 47m, 30s. and gh. om, the computer of the observatory
counted 512, which gives 40 per minute for one observer, and there-
fore at least 100 per minute invisible, From 9 to 10 o'clock, at
which time the sky became clouded, and remained so till morn-
ing, the mean rate was about 53 per minute, and almost,constant
from minute to minute, though varying much during each
minute. At certain moments they were exceedingly numerous.

Thus, at gh. 19m. nine appeared at the same instant at a point
near ® Andromede. yh | ;
A very peculiar feature of the display was the parallel motion —
of many stars that became visible at the same time. Thus, at
gh. 16m. five burst out close by y Andromede, and travelled —
eastward together ; at 9.25 four went together from y Androme- —
dee to the Pleiades,
More than nine-tenths of the meteors were very faint, and the ~
larger ones seldom attained to any very considerable magnitndia }
Most had tails ; the almost invariablescolour being a white star
with a greenish-blue trail. The tails of those falling S.E. were
observed to bend somewhat towards the E., and to be straight
only during the first half of their path. The ratio of the num-
bers falling S.E., to those falling N.W., wasas 3 to 2, but this
excess may in part be accounted for by the position of the
Radiant. More of the larger meteors went S. than N., and
more W, than E. The track of the larger bodies rarely, if ever,
exceeded 50°, and their velocity was very noticeably less than
that of the 13th and 14th November shower, as might be ex-
pected, if their absolute velocities are comparable, the Radiant —
for November 27 being so far removed from the apex of the
earth’s way. S. J. Perry
Stonyhurst Observatory, Dec. 1

ALTHouGH it is probable that you will reeeive full accounts of -
the meteoric shower of Wednesday, November 27, yet the fol- —
lowing notes, imperfect though he be, may have some interest.
I was prevented by indisposition from observing it myself, but —
the numbers were noted by Captain Brinkley, grandson of the —
great astronomer, and his sons :— ?

“Mr. Charles B., at 3 P.M., observed a bright meteor; —
Capt. B., at 4.35, another; at 5.20 the young men came in to
announce an extraordinary display ; and Capt. B. noted 34 in —
Im, 30s. ; Capt. B., looking north at 5.40, marked 95 in 5m. ; —
Mr. John B., looking south at same time, marked 147 in 5m.; —
the radiant point was a litle 5.E. of the zenith; Mr. J.B, ato, —
marked 26 in Im, ; Capt. B., at 12, marked only 7in 5m, Many —
were large, and left trains.”

It was remarked that the night was unusually light, while ~
clear. A very thick fog appeared before the dawn of Thursday,

Castleknock, Dublin, Noy. 29 Tea

A Fine display of shooting stars was observed here on Wed- —
nesday, 27th inst. I first noticed them at 7.20 P.M., Greenwich —
time, and watched them till about 8, when the sky became
obscured. They were occasionally seen again till 9.30. When
first observed they appeared to radiate from the zenith,.and to be.
more numerous towards the north-west and south-west ; many —
passed over the constellation Cygnus. A. W. Scorra

St. David's College, Lampeter, Nov. 30

Durinc the recent star-shower, my attention was given espe: —
cially to observations connected with the flight of individual
meteors, As on many previous occasions in the presence of rare
natural phenomena, I was keenly mortified with the deficien
of my own scientific training ; but I send a few gleanings, if —
anheweps a useful grain can be found amongst them. The ©

rightness obviously increased with the distance traversed, but —
in many cases no increase of brightness was perceptible for the
first third of the course, The extinction was not instantaneous
but only very rapid, the distance traversed towards extinction
being perceptible though very small; perhaps because the
velocity seemed to diminish as the brightness increased. The
trainin many instances was forked, being brightest on its edges,
the luminosity of which lasted for some time after the inter- —
mediate space was dark, This seems incompatible with the
hypothesis that the train is a mere optical result, or that the
brightness of the train arises, as in lightning, from incandescen|
particles of the atmosphere. In one or two instances the bright- _

ness of the train was granular, resembling the light of a partially —
resolved nebula, or of the Galaxy, Ina few instances the path:
of the meteors appeared to show remarkable deflections. On

notably, at 6h, 25m., close to Vega, resembled an ‘'S” drawn
out nearly straight. a
The course of a body passing with great velocity though an
elastic medium tends to follow the direction of least resistance, —
It is only in poetry that t
“The lightning falls with never a jag.”

though, as compared with that of electricity, planetary
e locity a say twenty miles per second, yet this error in a
very attenuated atmosphere would produce an intolerable

amount of resistance right ahead.

_ Looking for deflections arising from this cause I saw, or
fancied I saw, some very remarkable ones, such as no rules of
foreshortening or perspective would account for.

inhill, Dec. 2 Henry H, HIicGiIns

I Horr last night, Nov. 27, was generally clear. It was so

here, and we were treated to the most splendid meteoric shower

that I have ever seen. I went out quite by chance into my
garden at 7 P.M., and saw it in its full glory. I counted in a
very few minutes 500 meteors, and then lost count, there being
far too many to count all. On several occasions I saw as many

as twelve in the sky at once : their radiating point seemed to be

about & Cassiopeize, and from that point they floated in every

direction—north, south, east and west. Atthat time, Cassiopeia

pie immediately above one’s head, the effect was magnificent.
alpas, Nov. 28 Epmunp V. Picorr

ON the 27th inst. a very fine display of meteors was observed
here, which continued from about 5 P.M. to a late hour.

During 20 minutes of casual observation I counted 70 meteors
—viz., from 7.45 to 8.5 P.M. One or two very fine ones were
° ed, one of which, having a northerly direction, left a
luminous trail lasting for about 15 seconds, The radiating point

Was situated about 10° to S. and E, of the zenith. The apparent
yelocities varied considerably, no doubt due to the angle at which
each meteor was seen. The appearance of the tails also varied,
some giving a quiet steady light, others wavy or sparkling ;
reddish sparks appear to have been observed. At 9.35 I counted
11 in 2 minutes.

I have constructed the annexed diagram from my rough ob-
servations. Wart

Glasgow, Noy. 29

A VERY fine shower of shooting stars was observable at
Boltsburn, Rookhope, in Durham, on Wednesday night (27th
‘inst.). I first noticed them about half-past seven, when they
were very numerous; their directions were chiefly downward,
towards nearly all points of the horizon. The radiant point
seemed to be situated near the Great Bear, but of this I could
not make myself perfectly satisfied. They varied much in mag-
nitude and lengthof track. Some of the larger ones left a streak
of reddish light on their track, which lasted a second or two.
About eight o’clock I counted, in fifteen minutes, 600, which
came within my field of vision from a doorway having a southerly
exposure. The regularity of occurrence was such as to approxi-
mate closely to 200 during each five minutes, How long the
phenomenon continued in the latter part of the night I had not the
; Saeed of ascertaining. OHN CURRY

ookhope, Durham, Nov, 29

THE following are the observations which I was able to make
‘on the ie shower of meteors on Wednesday last :—
The

rst which I’saw was at 5.25 2.M. Between 5.35 and

Peden

5.50, 150 were counted by one observer in the sky towards N.E.

At 6.26, in four minutes, five observers counted 310. At 6.40,
in two minutes, five observers counted 316. At 8,37, with a
hazy cloud to N., six observers, in five minutes, counted 553.
At 8.45, in fifteen minutes, one observer counted 528 while
facing 5.1,

A very few, among so many, left visible streaks of light after
the meteor itself had disappeared, fifteen seconds being the
longest time any of them remained visible. ‘They appeared to
radiate from a point a little to the south of « Cassiopeia, many in
the vicinity of that star having courses of less than a degree in
angular measurement. ;

Towards 10 P.M. clouds covered the greater part of the sky,
so that only unusually brilliant meteors could be seen ; they were,
however, again visible, but in decreased numbers, at 11.30.

Birkenhead, Noy, 29 G.. Hie

A VERY well sustained shower of meteors was observed here
and at many other stations in the early part of Wednesday
evening last, Nov. 27. Unfortunately, however, the weather
was very unfavourable for observation at this city, and but very
few of the meteors constituting the ‘‘shower” came under my
notice, The first shooting star was noticed at 5h. som. It wasa
very brilliant one, and must have equalled Venus when at her
maximum. This meteor passed down the northern sky near
Dubhe, in Ursa Major, and left sparks in its flight. Very soon
afterwards—at about 5h. 55m.—four other bright meteors,

succeeding each other very rapidly, were visible. The most
remarkable fact in connection with them was the great co-
incidence in their apparent courses among the stars. ‘They all

appeared to diverge from a point westward a few degrees from
Polaris, and passing downwards became extinct in Ursa Major.
At 6h, 5m. I commenced a careful watch of the sky in conjunc-
tion with a friend, and during the interval from that time until
6h. 30m, seventy-four additional meteors came under our obser-
vation, At 6h, 3om. the sky was much overcast, and though
all the stars were invisible, yet for a short time subsequently I
saw several flashes of light in some portion of the heavens,
which must have been originated by the bursting of meteors of
considerable magnitude. During the time that I was enabled to
witness the appearance of meteors, the sky was very much
obscured by clouds and mist which rendered nearly all the stars
imperceptible. I could, however, faintly see Polaris, Vega,
aand B Persei, 6 and « Cassiopeix, and y Andromed, and was
enabled from the paths of the various meteors seen, to find the
exact situation of the radiant point. This was situated at a
place between Perseus and Andromeda, and about 5° north of the
brilliant star Almaach (y) in the latter constellation. This is at
Right Ascension th. 56m. Declination 46° North, I saw several
meteors in close proximity to this point, They had very
short paths. I also noticed two meteors which were apparently
quite stationary, and after brightening disappeared. ‘The largest
that were seen passed between Ursa Minor and Ursa Major, and
several were also noticed in the neighbourhood of a Lyrae (Vega).
No shooting stars were seen in the western sky, as it was overcast.
I did not notice any trail of light after the disappearance of any
of the brightest meteors, nor did I hear any noise as of an
explosion, subsequently to the extinction of any one of them.
I principally directed my attention to the accurate determination
of the radiant point, and to the numbers of meteors visible.

It may be considered remarkable that such a comparatively
small number of shooting stars should have come under observa-
tion at this city. The tacts are, that, owing to the extremely
cloudy state of the atmosphere, only an exceedingly small pro-
portion of the meteors which actually existed were seen. During
the whole time of observation—i.c., from sh. 50m. to 6h. 30m.,
a period of 4om.—it was very cloudy and misty, and but few of
the brighter stars were visible, and these were hardly discernible.
Under these circumstances, then, it is evident that only the
brighter class of meteors could have been perceptible, while the
smaller ones, which constituted the great majority of those seen
at other stations, must have been utterly invisible. From these
facts, I believe that no meteor less in apparent brightness than a
second-magnitude star was seen here. Under more favourable
atmospheric conditions, no doubt, the meteor shower would have
been a grand spectacle from this place, and have equalled in
intensity the display as described by other observers at different
stations.

It does not seem improbable that the recent exhibition of
November meteorites was originated by the earth passing through

the node of the periodical comet of Biela. It has been discovered
quite recently that an analogy exists between the orbits of comets
and meteoric showers ; but in reference to this interesting part
of the subject I would, however, without occupying further space,
direct attention to a paper by Prof. Alexander 5. Herschel, which
appears in the monthly notices, R. A. S., vol. xxxii, No. 9.
Several correspondents describe an aurora borealis visible on
the 27th ; and it may be appropriate to note here that a very
brilliant display was witnessed at Bristol on the 24th, at about
3AM. It was very intense at that time. On the previous and
subsequent nights lightning was very frequent, and meteors more
numerous than usual, WILLIAM F, DENNING
Bristol, Nov. 30

THERE was a magnificent meteor-shower here on the evening
of Wednesday last, the 27th. My attention was first called to
it about half-past five o’clock, and I watched it at intervals until
about seven, when the sky became overcast with clouds. It
really was a shower, and no mistake, the sky at times quite
sparkling with meteors. Their point of origin appeared to be in
the neighbourhood of Cassiopeia, and their general direction
towards the west and norih, though several radiated to the east
and south. Some, after becoming invisible, as if passing bebind
some intervening cause, suddenly emerged in all their bright-
ness and then suddenly vanished. The streak left behind was
in some instances a continuous, smooth line, in others the ap-
pearance was that of a row of sparks strung together. The
finest meteor, and the one of longest duration, that I noticed
became visible near Cygni, and continued its course to a point a
little to the south of Vega. It resembled a small rocket. On
the following evening the sky was too overcast to make observa-
tions. THOMAS FAWCETT

Blencowe School, Cumberland, Noy. 30

THE splendid meteor-shower of November 27 was well seen
at St. Andrews. My attention was not called to it until after
the meteors had begun to decline in frequency ; but they were
still at about 8h. 30m. G, M.T., so numerous as to give consider-
able confidence in assigning their radiant point, about which
they were seen shooting out in all directions. Isawat least two,
whose paths were foreshortened almost to a luminous point.
These appeared very close to the radiant near two stars in the
right foot of Andromeda, which in the maps of the Society for
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge are numbered 51 and 54,
orinabout R.A. 25°, N. Decl. 48°. The sky became overcast ;
but abovt 11h. 30m., meteors were still falling in directions
which confirmed my previous estimate of the position of their
radiant. The sky was again clear at th. 30m. A.M., but I saw
no more meteors.

I have since seen, in a table by Schiaparelli, from observa-
tions by Zerzioli, 1867-69, and under the date November 30. a
radiant point in R.A. 17°, Decl. 48°, which agrees closely with
that which I have ventured to assign to the remarkable shower
of November 27. P| W. Swan

St. Andrews, Noy. 30

Metamorphosis of Insects

Tue description of the development of the Lepidopterous
wings, and the illustrations which were included in my lecture
on Insect Metamorphosis, were taken from Landois’ admirable
cssay in Siebold and A. Kolliker’s Zeitschrift (1871).

Nov. 25 P, MARTIN DUNCAN

PRIZES OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES

AT its annual public meeting on Noy. 25 last the French
Academy of Sciences awarded its prizes for the years 1870
and 187i. M. Faye gave a brief introductory address, in which
he touchingly alluded to the misfortunes to science arising from
the late war, to the various preparations for the forthcoming
transit of Venus, the metric commission, and other matters of scien-
tific interest. It ison account of the war that at this annual
meeting the Academy had to award prizes for two years, namely,
for 1870 and 1871. The list of prizes was as follows:—
Competition ef 1870,—1. ‘The G:and- Prize in the mathe-

matical sciences this year was offered for a paper on the modifi- F
cation which light undergoes in its mode of transmission andin
its properties, in consequence of the movement of the luminous —
source and the movement of the observer. This prize was not —
awarded, but a bonus of 2,500 francs was given to M. E, |
Mascart. ;
2. The Poncelet Prize was awarded to M. C. Jordan for his
treatise on Algebraic Substitutions and Equations. . &
3. The Dalmont Prize was gained by M. Maurice Levy for
his four memoirs on (1) Running Water, (2) The Pressure of
Earths, (3) The Interior Movements of ductile Solids, (4) Curvi- —
linear Co-ordinates. }
4. The Lalande Prize in Astronomy to Mr. Huggins, forhis
Discoveries on the Physical Constitution of Stars, Nebule,
Planets, and Comets. The Commissioners for this prize speak
in the highest terms of Mr. Huggins’ discoveries, declaring that
they mark a brilliant epoch in this new branch of science. a
5. The Montyon Prize in statistics, to M. A. Potiquet for his
work entitled, ‘‘L’ Institut de France, &c. ;” and honourable men- _
tion was made of M. A. Thévenot for the agricultural part of
his work entitled ‘General Statistics of the Canton of
Ramerupt,” and to M. A. Castan for his memoic on the Influ-
ence of Temperature upon Mortality in the City of Mont-
pellier. $
6. The Jecker Prize.—MM. Clermont, Gal, and Grimaux, —
each obtained, by way of bonus, the sum of 1,700 francs for
their works on Organic Chemistry.
7. The Barbier Prize was awarded to M. Personne for his
Researches upon Chloral. pa
8. The Desmaziéres Prize to M. de Notaris for his work
entitled ‘‘ Epilogo della Briologia Italiana”; while honourable _
mention was made of M. C. Roumeguére for his work entitled —
‘* Cryptogamy Illustrated ; or, History of the Natural Families
of the Acotyledonous Plants of Europe.” a
9. The Thoré Prize to M. J. C. Schiédte, for his work upon —
the Metamorphoses of the Coleoptera, 2
10. The Bordin Prize, for the Comparative Anatomy of Anne- —
lids, to M. Léon Vaillant for his works on that subject. 5
11, The Savigny Prize was divided between M. Issel for —
his work entitled,‘* The Malacology of the Red Sea” (Italian),
and Mr. MacAndrew for his researches into the Malacologic ~
Fauna of the Red Sea. a
12, The Bréant Prize. The reward of 5,000 francs, the whole
of the annual interest ‘of the legacy, was divided between M.
Grimaud (of Caux), for his Researches concerning the Trans-
missibility of Cholera, and M, Thalorzan, for his work entitled
‘*New Origin of Asiatic Cholera.” Honourable mention was —
made of M, Bourgogne, jun., for his work entitled ‘‘ Cholera —
Epidemic in the Communes of Condé, Vieux-Condé, Fresnes,
and Escaupont, during the year 1866,” ee
13. The Chaussier Prize, to M. Tardieu, for his works on
Legal Medicine. a
14. The Montyon Prize in Medicine and Surgery. Two prizes —
of 2,500 francs were awarded—(1) To MM. Lancereaux and
Lackerbauer for their treatise on Pathological Anatomy; (2) To _
Dr. Chassagny, for his work entitled ‘‘ Method of Continued
Tractions, The forceps considered as an agent of prehension
and traction.” Bonuses of 1,200. francs were given—(1) To
MM. Colze and Feltz, for their researches into Infectious
Maladies, &c.; (2) To M. Jousset, for his experiments upon the
Poison of the Scorpion; (3) To M. Decaisne for his memoirs
upon the Temperature of Sick Children, and on the influence of
Alimentation upon the composition of Female Milk; (4) To |
M. Despies, for his work on Ulceration and the Ulcers of the
Neck of the Uterus. The works of M. V. Fumouze upon —
the Spectra of Absorption of the Blood of M. Bergeret, on the —
Changes of the Urine, and of Bile in various Diseases, were —
honourably mentioned, =
15. The Godard Prize was awarded to M. C. Mauriac for his
work entitled ‘‘ Essay on the Reflex Symptomatic Neuralgias of
Blenorrhagic Parastatitis.” wy

16. The Montyon Prize, in Experimental Physiology, to M. — “4
J. Raulin, for his Chemical Studies on Vegetation. a

17. The Montyon Prize, fora paper on Unhealthy Occupa- —
tions, was awarded to M. Guibal for his System of Ventilation
applied to the Airing of Mines.

18, The Gegner Prize to M. Duclaux.

19. The Tremont Prize to M. Leroux, who will hold it for
three years. F

20, The Laplace Prize was obtained by M. II. B, X. Bou‘:

4

1871.
1. The Poncelet Prize, in Mechanics, to M. J. Boussinesq.
__ 2, The Lalande Prize in Astronomy to M. Borelly for the
Discovery of the Planet Lomia.

3. The Montyon Prize in Statistics to M. E. Cadet, for his
work on “‘ Marriage in France.” Honourable mention was
given to Dr. Ely for his work on “The Army and the Popula-
tion. 3

__ 4. The Jecker Prize in Chemistry to M. Schutzemberger for
his works on Organic Chemistry.

_ §. The Barbier Prize in Botany to M. Duquesnel, for his
‘memdir on “‘ Crystallised Aconitine.”

6. The Bordin Prize fora paper on ‘*The part played by
Stomata in the Functions of Leaves,” was not awarded, and is
withdrawn from competition ; but a bonus was given to M. A.
Barthelemy.

_ 7. The Desmaziéres Prize was not awarded either, but a bonus
of 500 fraics was given to M. Husnot for various works on the
_ Cryptogamic Flora of Martinique.
8. The Bréant Prize.—A sum of 5,000 francs, the whole
annual interest of the legacy, was awarded to M. Chauveau for
his experiments upon Virulent Virus and Maladies.
_ 9g. The Montyon Prizes in Medicine and Surgery.—Two
prizes of 2,500 francs were awarded—(1) To M. Grehant for
his Physiological and Medical Researches on the Respiration of
_ Man; (2) To M. Blondlot, for a series of memoirs concerning
the disputed questions of Medicine, Chemistry, and Physiology.
Three sums of 1,500 francs each were awarded—(1) To M.
_ Bérenger-Féraud for his work entitled ‘‘ Treatise on the Direct
Union of Osseous Fragments in Fractures ;” (2) to M. Duclout
for his work entitled ‘* Account of three cases of Vesico-vaginal
fistula,” &c ; (3) To M. Leon Colin for his Treatise on Intermittent
_ Fevers. Honourable mention was made of (1) M. Raimbert,
(2) M. Bucquory, (3) M. Hajem, (4) MM. Krishaber and
© Peter.
to. The Godard Prize to Mr. J. Jolly for his work on Cancer
of the Prostate ; honourable mention being made of M. Puech.
11. The Montyon Prize in Experimental Physiology was
‘divided between M. Chantran for his Observations on the
Natural History of Crabs, and M. A. Guis for his Memoir on
the P th of Ligneous Plants. Honourable mention was given to
_M. Mehay for his Essay on Beet-Root Sugar, and a bonus to
MM. Cheron and Gonjon for their Researches on the Functional
4 a of the Nerves and Muscles duriag the intra-uterine
ie.
12. The Montyon Prize for Works, &c., bearing on unhealthy
occupations, Of this, 2,500 francs were awarded to M. Golden-
berg for the methods adopted by him for securing the healthiness
_ of his Manufactories. A bonus of 2,000 francs was given to
_Mdile. C. Garc:n and to M. Adam for their Automatic Sewing
Machine; anda similar sum to M. Loavel for his process ot
preserving grains 7 vacuo.

13. The Tremont Prize was awarded in 1869 to M. Le Roax,
who holds it for three years.

14. The Laplace Prize was awarded to M. L. A. E. Sauvage,
dux in 1870 of the Polytechnic School, and who has entered
the School of Mines.

MRS. SOMERVILLE

ARY SOMERVILLE (born Fairfax), long ago
; known for her scientific researches and long
well known for her popular and educational scientific
works, died in the neighbourhood of Naples, where she
has lived for some years, on Friday, November 29, aged
nearly 92 years, having been born on December 26, 1780.
‘She belonged to a good Scotch family, her father having
been the late Vice-Admiral Sir William George Fairfax,
was a great reader, learned Euclid surreptitiously while
“quite a girl, and at the same period got up a knowledge of
Latin in order to be able to read Newton’s Principia,
and was educated at a school in Musselburgh, near Edin-
burgh.
__ Her first important contribution to science was made
in 1826, when she presented to the Royal Society a paper
gn the magnetising powers of the more refrangible solar

a

rays, the object of which was to prove that these
rays of the solar spectrum have a strong magnetic
influence. This paper led to much discussion, which
was not set at rest till the researches of Riess and Moser
showed that the action upon the magnetic needle was not
caused by the violet rays.

Mrs. Somerville’s first work of any extent was hor
“Mechanism of the Heavens” (1831), written at first at
the request of Lord Brougham, as one of the series of
publications by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge. As, however, the work was on too large a
scale, and, according to Sir John Herschel, to whom
the MS. was submitted, as it was written for posterity, and
not for the class whom the society designed to instruct, it
was published as an independent work, eliciting from all
quarters the highest encomiums, especially as being the
work of awoman. It was founded to some extent on La
Place’s treatise, though the authoress exercised her own
judgment in the acceptance or rejection of his theories.

Her next work “On the Connection of the Physical
Sciences,” was published in 1834, and was referred to by
Humboldt as “the generally so exact and admirab‘e
treatise.”

In 1848 appeared the work by which, perhaps, she
is most generally known, her “ Physical Geography,”
which, along with some of her other works, has passed
through many editions, been reprinted frequently ia
America, and translated into several foreign languages.
Notwithstanding the numerous works on the same sub-
ject that have since appeared, Mrs. Somerville’s book still
holds place as a first authority, even with the initiated.

In 1869 appeared her last work, “On Molecular and
Microscopic Science,” which, to quote a writer in the
Edinburgh Review, “contains a complete conspectus of
some of the most recent and most abstruse researches
of modern science, and describes admirably not only the
discoveries of our day in the field of physics and chemis-
try, but more especially the revelations of the microscope
in the vegetable and animal worlds.” The fact that Mrs.
Somervilie was close on her goth year when she published
this work, in which is contained a vésumé of the most in-
teresting results of recent scientific investigations, may
give one some idea of the undying vizour and clearness
of her mind, as well as of her intense love of science.

So long ago as 1835 Government recognised Mrs.
Somerville’s great meriis, by bestowing upon her a literary
pension of 300/. ; and in the same year she was made an
honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society, the
only other lady on whom this honour was conferred having
been Miss Caroline Herschel. The Geographical Society
awarded Mrs. Somerville the Patron or Victoria Medal in
1869, and about thirty years earlier the Fellows of the
Royal Society subscribed for her bust, which was executed
by Chantrey, and now adorns the Society’s library. She
certainly deserved all the honours she obtained, for during
her long life she has done very much to raise the standard
of scientific text-books, and to spread among general
readers the accurate results of scientific research.

Dr. William Somerville was his wife’s second husband,
her first husband having been Captain Greig, a naval
officer, fond of mathematics, and who took pleasure in
giving his wife instruction in his favourite subject, thus
probably giving her mind a bent towards science which
has led to important results.

NOTES

One of the most cheering Ministerial outcomes that we have
read for a long time is to be found in Mr, Gladstone’s speech, on
Tuesday, at the Society of Biblical Archeology, an outcome
which indicates, we take it, on the part of the Government, that
the lamentable condition of research in England has at length
forced itself upon them, and that the policy which has done such

<a>

an infinity of harm, and the fruits of which we are reaping, is at
length to be reversed. In the speech to which we refer Mr. Glad-
stone said :—‘*‘I do not at all deny that many fields of inquiry
have been so much widened and deepened of late years, that it is
both becoming and proper for the Government from time to time,
according to circumstances and occasions, to take part in, and
“give encouragement and assistance to, those things, many ee
which indeed cannot be prosecuted without that assistance.”
The paper read at the meeting to which we refer was one by
Mr. G. Smith on a Chaldean account of the Deluge which he
has recently deciphered. This communication was of such high
importance that we hope to be able to refer to it at length next
week.

THE next meeting of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science will be held at Bradford, not on September 19,
1873, as was fixed at the Brighton meeting, but for the con-
venience of many who have objected to the date, a fortnight
earlier than that time. The Vice-Presidents appointed are Earl
Rosse, Lord Houghton, Mr. W. E, Forster, M.P., and the
Mayor of Bradford (Mr. Thompson). At Bradford an exe-
cutive committee of sixteen persons, and also a larger general
committee have, as usual, been appointed to prepare for the
next meeting of the Association, anda public subscription, which
isnot to be less than 4,000/., has been opened, for the purpose
of defraying the estimated expenses in connection with the visit
of the Association to the town. Of this sum 1,500/. will be
required for the erection of a temporary building as a reception
room. At a meeting held the other night 1,000/, were contri-
buted on the spot, including 250/. by the Mayor.

Ar the recent second M.B, examination at the University of
London, the Scholarship and Gold Medal in Medicine were
awarded to Mr. B. N. Dalton, of Guy’s Hospital, the Gold
Medal in Medicine to Mr. W. Ottley, of University College, the
Scholarship and Gold Medal in Obstetric Medicine to Mr. Robert
Eardley Wilmot, of King’s College, the Gold Medal in Obstetric
Medicine to Mr. W. C. Greenfield, of University College, the
Gold Medals in Forensic Medicine to Messrs. M. Harris, of Guy’s
Hospital, and W. Ottley, of University College.

THE Brakenbury Natural Science Scholarship at Balliol Col-
lege, Oxford (80/, per annum for four years), has been awarded
to Mr. R. B. Don, of Clifton College. No fewer than four other
scholarships in Natural Science have already been gained during
the present year by boys from Clifton College, viz., two at St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge, one at Christ College, Oxford, and
one at Magdalen College, Oxford.

VicE-CHANCELLOR BACON has decided that the conditions of

the legacy under which sums of money were left by the late Mr.

- James Yates to endow the Professorship of Mineralogy and Geo-

logy at University College, and to found a Professorship of

Archeology at the same college, have not been fulfilled, and that

the legacies have therefore reverted to the heir-at-law of Mr
Yates.

In accordance with the anticipation we have already ex-
pressed, Dr. Macalister has been chosen to fill the newly-founded
chair of Comparative Anatomy at Trinity College, Dublin. Dr,
Macalister continues to hold the Professorship of Zoology in the
University of Dublin.

Mr. J. A. WANKLYN has, according to the Chemical News,
become a candidate for the Chemical Preelectorship at Cam-
bridge.

Mr. E, G, Pirr has been appointed Medical Officer of the
south district of St. George’s-in-the-East.

Mr. Bass has eae mae with Doe ‘towards the eree-
tion of a free library.

A MADAME DE PERINOT has left to the French Academy
Sciences a legacy of 20,000 francs for the foundation of a prize, |
be awarded every two years, for the purpose of assisting antes
nomers and encouraging astronomical researches.

THE two Actonian prizes of 105/. have been awarded by tl
Managers of the Royal Institution t@ the Rev. George Henslo
and to Mr. B. Thompson mpage for “ Essays on the Theory of
the Evolution of Living Things.”

Tuer Baroness Burdett Coutts’ prize for the best essay on the
Isochronism of the Balance-spring was divided by the adjudicators
equally between Mr. Palmer, of Leominster, and Mr. Moritz
Immisch, of Regent Street, neither taking precedence of the
other. p

Ir is satisfactory to learn that 116 citizens or New York have
lately tendered to Mr. B. Waterhouse Hawkins an expression
of their sympathy with him in his grief at the loss of his model
of the gigantic fossil reptiles of North America, which were
broken to pieces and carted off as rubbish by order of certain
unenlightened officials of the public parks, as mentioned in
NATURE some time ago. Mr. Hawkins has presented some
casts of the pelvic and other bones of Hadrosaurus (one of the
most interesting of these restorations) to the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons.

Tue new Medical Microscopical Society will meet at § P.M.
on December 6, in the college dining hall, St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital, to sanction rules, elect officers, and receive names of
intending members, &c. >

Messrs, L, REEVE and Co, announce a new and important
part of Bentham and Hooker’s “Genera Plantarum” at the
commencement of the new year. It will include Dna
Valerianaceze, Composite, and Rubiacez.

WE have received from Mr. Quaritch, of Piccadilly, a list of
yery valuable books he has for sale from the libraries of ©
late Dr. Robert Wright, F.R.S. late of Madras, of the late Pro
Babbage, of the late Mr. G. R. Gray, F.R.S. of the British
Museum, and the library of an architect. .

THE official Report of the Proceedings of the Meteorologi
Conference at Leipzig in August last will appear in the Jo :
of the Austrian Meteorological Society, and is now in the press.
A translation is being prepared by Mr. Robert H. Scott, and
will be issued under the authority of the Meteorological Con
mittee as soon as possible after the appestanite of the German a.
original.

We have received the first number of the Telegraphic Fourwtaly :
whose expected appearance we announced some time ago, and
to judge from the prospectus to the first issue, it promises to
perform good services to the scientific and industrial department _
with which it is connected. From one paper we learn that the —
total number of marine cables laid is 213, measuring 43, 783%
miles.

WE have received from the United States Government copies”
of their official tri-daily weather-map and bulletin, containing the
result of meteorological observations takensimultaneously at about: d
eighty stations.

WE learn from the Photographic News that Dr. Vogel, tet
President of the Berlin Society for the Advancement of Photo- i
graphy, and instructor in the art at the Royal Industrial College, i
has been made a Professor. Thus we have the first instance of —
the appointment of a Professor of Photography, and we heartily”
join the German photographers in their congratulations on
chair being so worthily filled. Dr. Vogel is about to pallet
photographic dictionary.

*: ar ia that Pelt. of « Reliquiz Aquitanice ” is in the
press. This "serial work, descriptive of the Caves of Perigord
and their contents, has been interrupted of late by the death of
M. E. Lartet and the disturbances in France. The executors
and friends of the late Henry Christy are proceeding with the
work as expeditiously as possible, but do not expect to produce
quite as many parts as originally contemplated.

THE School Board Chronicle tells us that an international
college such as appears to have been the ideal of Mr. Stuart
Mill has existed for some time in the Canton of Zurich. This is
the Institution Breidenstein, in which there are at present as
many as eighty-eight pupils, representing fourteen different
nations from the two hemispheres. These scholars speak nine
_ different languages between them.

_ WE have received the last three numbers of the Horological
Journal, and, judging from its contents, it seems well calculated
to accomplish one of its chief purposes, to spreada knowledge
_of the scientific principles upon which the art of watch and
clock making is founded. It well deserves the support of all
_ those for whose benefit it is intended.

CONSIDERABLE changes, says the Quarterly Meteorological
| Fournal, are in progress in the meteorological organisations of
_ yarious countries. In France, M. Jules Simon has reversed
the action of the Imperial Government, and placed the entire
_ meteorological system under the Observatory of Paris. The
Observatory of Montsouris, which C. Ste.-Claire Deville had
" established with much care, has been placed under the Observa-
tory, and most of the meteorological work“of the latter establish-
ment has been transferred to it. The Bulletin International is
now dated from Montsouris, but the series of observations at the
Paris Observatory has not been suspended. M. C. Ste.-Claire
‘Deville has been appointed Inspector-General of all the French
' Meteorological Stations, except those in connection with the
_ telezraphic system. In Denmark, Captain N. Hoffmeyer has
been placed at the head of the newly organised Institute. In
Sweden, the intention of the Government to establish a central
Institute in Stockholm in the year 1873 is announced, and the
_ Observatory at Upsala is to be the central station. In Berlin
‘arrangements are reported to be in progress for the founding of
_@ morecomplete meteorological organisation than that now ex-
isting, whichis of old date, and is in connection with the Statis-
tical Bureau.

Harper's Weekly announces the death, at Reading, Pennsyl-
_ yania, at the age of fifty-six, of Mr. William M. Baird, a gentle-
man who was much interested in natural history, and especially
in ornithology. Mr. Baird, while residing at Carlisle, Pennsyl-
yania, commenced in 1838 a collection of the birds of the
county, in which he was assisted by his younger brother, Prof.
§. F. Baird, of the Smithsonian Institution ; and the two carried
on their labours in common for many years, during which time
they published conjointly descriptions of two new species of
‘small fly-catchers discovered by them in the vicinity of Carlisle,
as also a list of the birds of Cumberland County. Having
adopted the profession of the law, Mr. William Baird was
obliged to give up his active labours in ornithology, and the
‘work was continued by his brother, who, on receiving an ap-
pointment in connection with the Smithsonian Institution at
_ Washington, carried to it the conjoint collection, which formed,
' in a measure, the basis of the magnificent series of North Ame-
rican birds in the institution, and which has served as the
“material for so much research on the part of naturalists in
_ America and other countries.

_ On November 26, the first Annual General Meeting of the
_ National Union for improving the Education of Women of all
_ ¢lasses was held at the rooms of the Society of Arts, Lord Lyttel-
fon in the chair, The two principal resplutions were that “the

meeting, feeling the inadequacy of the supply of good schools for
girls, pledges itself to promote the establishment of such schools,
andalso to aid all measures for extending to women the means
of higher education beyond the school period of life; and that
the meeting, feeling the necessity of thorough training for teachers,
and of some recognised test of their efficiency, pledges itself to
promote measures for the attainment of those objects.” The
grand principle upon which the Union is founded, is ‘‘ that the
human faculties and intellect have been impartially given, and
belong in equal degree to both men and women.”

WE notice that a new method of lighting gas has been invented
by Mr. J. Billington Booth, of Preston, the working of which
was shown by him the other night in that town. By this
method the whole of the street lamps can be lighted simul-
taneously from any distance. The apparatus constituting the
invention, the Preston Chronicle tells us, looks like a mod-
erately-sized globular inkstand of glass, surmounted by a tube of
the same material, with a metallic top; by screwing off the
burner it can be very easily attached to any lamp, chandelier
pipe, or ordinary gas-jet. The base or globular portion is filled
with a deep red-coloured liquid, so cheap that three pennyworth
will serve the lamp for a year. Over the liquid and within the
glass tube there is a plate of zinc, with a piece of graphite or
gas coal, and between these and a thin coiled platinum wire,
fixed over the cup of the general vessel, into which a gas-burner
is inserted, galvanic communication is obtained. Ignition is thus
effected : A pipe is screwed to the top of the gaspipe ; pressure
on the gas in this pipe causes a simultaneous depression upon
the chemical solution which occupies a lower level in two side
tubes; the gas occupies the vacuum caused by the displaced
liquid, and then ascends toa chamber connected with the burner,
while the displaced liquid is pressed into two side-tubes effecting
contact with the zinc and graphite, and generating galvanic
activity. This is communicated to the platinum wire, and
excites its catalytic power ; the wire being then exposed to the
ascending jet of gas, immediate ignition takes place.

AN invention by Mr. J. A. H. Ellis, of Boston, U.S., is described
in the Zndustrial Monthly, by means of which, it is said,
enormous amount of heat wasted in exhaust steam is profitabl
utilised. The method consists in passing the exhaust steam from
an ordinary steam-engine through the tube of a boiler filled with
the bisulphide of carbon (which boils at 110° Fah.), in the same
way that smoke and the products of combustion are passed
through a steam-boiler filled with water. The result is, according
to our authority, that the bisulphide boiler will be rapidly heated
up to 212° Fah., the resulting vapour being able to keep an
engine going, and do a large amount of work, if the supply of
exhaust steam is sufficient. By this means one large steam-engine
might keep not only itself going, but supply the necessary power
to a number of neighbouring small ones, the latter being thus
able to dispense with fire and all attendance. The Judustrial
says the method.is actually at work at Fitchburg, Massachussetts.

From the British Medical Fournal we learn that at the last
examination in anatomy held at the University of Berlin, two
candidates alone, amongst the thirteen who presented themselves,
obtained the notice “‘good.” Ouse of these was a Japanese
medical student called Sasumi Satoo. The intellectual labour
and the amount of perseverance necessary to gain this success
will be appreciated when it is known that in November 1869,
the time when Sasumi Satoo was sent by his father to Berlin, he
did not even know the German characters. The first five months |
he applied himself exclusively to the study of German, and he
acquired in the remaining six months the knowledge of all the
subjects, including Latin, which were required for the first exami-
nation. The father of Sasumi is the principal physician to the

| Mikado, and enjoys in Japan great celebrity as an operator,

THE BIRTH OF CHEMISTRY
Vis ,

The Alchemists.—Origin of Alchemy.—Hermes Trismegistus.—
Greek MSS. on Alchemy.—Their probable authorship and age.

WE speak here of the alchemists almost for the first time, and
we must now turn our attention to the origin and growth of
their dogmas, and to their work. We have already seen that the
word xnela is first found in the Lexicon of Suidas, and that he
defines it as ‘‘the preparation of gold and silver.” He further
tells us, under the same heading, that the books on the subject
were sought for by Dioclesian and burnt, lest the Egyptians
should become rich through their knowledge of the art, and
should thus be able to resist the Romans, Now, the people
who professed a knowledge of the art of making gold were called
alchemists. The word alchemy, as we have previously shown,
consists of a Coptic root united with an Arabic prefix, and signi-
fies the Aidden or obscure art. Alchemists were those who
practised this mysterious art. We can well understand why
the professors of such an art should maintain the utmost secrecy ;
to divulge such magic would be to make all men equally rich ;
hence it was necessarily a hiddenart. Neither did the books on
the subject avail much, for they are filled with some of the most
incomprehensible nonsense that ever was written, Yet the
literature of the subject is enormous. The volumes on alchemy
in our large libraries are to be counted by the hundred. In 1602
Zetzner published, in Strasburg, a ‘‘Theatrum Chemicum,” con-
taining more than a hundred tracts on alchemy, selected from
- various notable authors. A century later Mangetus published
his ‘‘ Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa,” in two large folios, con-
taining a hundred and twenty-two alchemical treatises. We
have previously given the titles of a few Greek MSS, on alchemy.
The list has been extended to eighty-three. Arabic and Persian
MSS. on the subject are not uncommon. There are treatises
in Spanish, Italian, German, Dutch, and English on alchemy,
and, more numerous than all, treatises in Latin, in every large
library. Let us endeavour to get from the tangled mazes of this
hieroglyphical literature some idea of alchemy, and of its in-
fluence upon chemistry.

We are, perhaps, puzzled at the outset to comprehend how
any one man, much less thousands of men, could have deluded
themselves with the belief in the possibility of transmuting one
kind of matter into another :—crude lead, or tin, or mercury, into
weighty, lustrous gold. But this was not the greatest wonder of
the age. At the time when alchemy arose, and throughout the
period during which it most flourished, the belief in theurgy,
witcheraft, necromancy, and magic of all kinds was rife among
all classes ; and surely it was less wonderful to change lead or
tin into gold, than to call up the spirit of one’s ancestor, or to
confer perpetual youth upon a nonagenarian! It is, for won-
derment, as compared with the greater magic of the day,
as the process for the conversion of benzine into aniline
compared with spirit-rapping ; or as a demonstration of specific
inductive capacity compared with a manifestation of psychic
force. Alchemy was considered to be perfectly rational not
two centuries ago, and was among the lesser forms of magic,
inasmuch as it did not require the influence of supernatural
causes.

The growth of the idea is not difficult to trace. The ancients
had persistently asserted the change of one element into another.
Thales, as we have scen, evolved the ten thousand forms of
nature and kinds of matter, from water, Anaximenes from air, by
successive transmutation. Aristotle, whose physical views were
accepted without question by the alchemists, had endeavoured to
show by clever argument that, if you transfer a quality of water to
fire, you obtain air ; while if you transfera quality of earth to air,
you get water; and so for fire and earth, and that from these
elements all things proceed. This was readily accepted by
Middle Age thinkers, The alchemists reasoned, plausibly enough;
—if fire becomes air, air water, and water earth, why may not
one kind of substance formed from these elements be changed
into another kind of substance of somewhat the same nature, and
certainly more similar than air and water, or water and earth ?
Why may not lead, compounded of these elements in certain
proportions, be changed into gold, compounded of these elements
in certain other proportions? There have been falser modes of
reasoning than this in the history of science.

Let the ancient Greek theory of the transmutation of the
elements be once literally accepted, and the alchemical belief in

transmutation follows naturally ; it is a minor application of the
major proposition, There is nothing to wonder at in this ; the
human mind seldom moves by fits and starts ; an essentially new
mode of thought and new form of belief is rare, and many appa:
rently new dogmas are united with older dogmas in the closest —
manner, and are in fact direct emanations from them. Such
was the alchemical idea of transmutation. Admitting the
possibility of the process, a man would naturally ask himself
*€ What do I most desire to make?” What in this world pro-
cures the greatest amount of happimess, and of power?” For
what have men slaughtered each other by the thousand in open
war, or singly and secretly in the dead of night? For what h
kingdoms been sold, great tracts of land ceded, and people be
ground into serfdom till they rose and rioted against th
oppressors? For what have princes and cardinals been creat
emperors and kings destroyed, and the eternal peace of troub
souls promised? Ina word, for what will man dare all thin
sacrifice all things ; for what will he toil during a lifetime ; to w
will he devote all his intellectual energies ? This is surely the thing -
for the ready acquirement of which we may devote much time and
thought, and this thing is go/d. This is the key to the pro-
digious masses of alchemical literature, and to the mysteries an¢
anomalies connected with men who often wasted their whole lives —
and all they possessed in the endeayour to change baser metals
into gold, 4 =
If we consult alchemical MSS., no matter the date or author, —
or language, we find constant mention of Hermes Trismegistus, —
who was indeed considered, and sometimes designated, the father
of alchemy. Ina treatise attributed to Albertus Magnus we are
told that the tomb of Hermes was discovered by Alexander the
Great, in acave near Hebron. In this was found a slab of
emerald which had been taken from the hands of the dead —
Hermes by Sarah, the wife of Abraham, and which had inscribed —
upon itin Phoenician characters the precepts of the great master
concerning the art of making gold. The inscription consisted o
thirteen sentences, and is to be found in numerous alchemical
works. It is for the most part quite unintelligible, and in style
closely resembles the great mass of Middle Age alchemical litera=
ture. _
The following is cited as the inscription of the “ Smaragdine
Table,” and is to be found in very early MSS. in various lan-
guages :— 3
1. I speak not fictitious things, but that which is certain and
most true, : A
2. What is below is like that which is above, and what is”
above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of
one thing. a
3. And as all things were produced by the one word of one
Being, so all things were produced from this one thing by adap-—
tation.
4. Its father is the sun, its mother the moon ; the wind carries
it in its belly, its nurse is the earth.
5. It is the father of all perfection throughout the world.
6. The power is vigorous if it be changed into earth. —
7. Separate the earth from the fire, the subtle from the
gross,‘acting prudently and with judgment. §
8. Ascend with the greatest sagacity from the earth to
heaven, and then again descend to the earth, and unite together
the powers of things superior and thingsinferior. Thus you will —
obtain the glory of the whole world, and obscurity will fly far
away from you. E
9g. This has more fortitude than fortitude itself; because it
conquers every subtle thing and can penetrate every solid.
to. ‘Thus was the world formed. ‘
11. Hence proceed wonders, which are here established. 4
12. Therefore I am called Hermes Trismegistus, having three
parts of the philosophy of the whole world. 4
13. That which I had to say concerning the operation of the
sun is completed, E; cine
The story and the inscription, together with all books attri-
buted to Hermes, are no doubt the production of monks of the —
Middle Ages, albeit they are attributed to Hermes, who is
asserted to have lived about 2000 B.C. In spite of the obvious —
worthlessness of the inscription of the emerald table, men have
not been wanting who have laboured long and lovingly to proye —
its authenticity, to interpret it, and to show that it is in goo
sooth a marvellous revelation, full of sublime secrets of consider- —
able import to mankind, as,
Hermes Trismegistus is generally asserted by the alchemists to
have been a priest who lived a little after the time of Moses.
According to Clemens Alexandrinus he was the author of forty~

F.

speaks of him in the ‘‘Phzedrus” as the inventor of numbers
nd letters. He was in fact the Egyptian god of letters, and as
such of course could be described as the author of multitudinous
yorks. He was the deified intellect, and hence has often been
confounded with Thoth, ‘the intellect.” Sir Gardner Wilkinson
aks of Hermes as an emanation of Thoth, and as representing
he abstract quality of the understanding.” The woodcut (Fig.
representing Hermes, is from a temple at Pselcis, which was
cted by Erganum, a contemporary of Ptolemy Philadelphus.
smay be well to note the extent of the symbolism associated
vith the sculpture ; in one hand Hermes holdsthe Crux ansatq,

symbol of life, in the other a staff, associated with which are
‘a serpent, a scorpion, a hawk’s head, and, above all, a circle sur-
rounded by an asp, each with its special symbolical signifi-
ance. On the Rosetta stone Hermes is called ‘“‘the great
and great,” or twice great; he was called Ziasmegistus, or
thrice great, according to the twelfth aphorism of the emerald
able, because he possessed three parts of the wisdom of the

Fic 6 Hermes Trismegistus ; from the Temple at Pselcis.

hole world, which in his light of deified intellect he might
well do.
Perhaps no author is more often quoted by the Alchemists than
Hermes, the supposed father of their art. They called themselves
hermetic philosophers. Alchemy is often called the Hermetic
rt, or simply Aermetics. ‘To enclose a substance very securely,
by placing it in a glass tube and fusing, or sealing, the mouth
of the tube, was called securing with ‘‘ Hermes his seal,” and
the echo of the idea lives amongst us yet ; for,-in our most modern
eatises, the expression ‘‘to seal hermetically” may be found,
Petrus Hauboldus, of Copenhagen, was surely one of the most
enterprising publishers of his day, for he had the temerity to
publish a book entitled, Wermetis Aegyptiorum et Chemicorum
Sapientia. A book square as to its dimensions, small as to its
type, drier than dust as to its contents, of four hundred odd
pages, of two centuries of age, writ in Latin, with a sprinkling of
racted Greek, and floridly dedicated to Jean Baptiste Col-
t. A book wherein the author endeavours to prove that alchemy
known before the flood, that Hermes Trismegistus was a real
‘personage, the inventor of all arts, the father of alchemy, and
much else besides. We may well imagine that the author of such
axtreatise was no ordinary man, and our conjecture proves a
tolerably correct one, Olaf Borch, whose Latinised name because

g1

the more resounding Olaus Borrichius, was apparently the great
mainstay of the University of Copenhagen ; at all events, he was
simultaneously Professor of Philology, Poetry, Chemistry, and
Botany, and we must either imagine that in 1660, professors were
difficult to procure in the Kingdom of Denmark, or else that
Olaus Borrichius was such an astounding genius that he could
readily undertake the duties of four diverse professorships at the
same time. We can scarcely imagine three greater antitheses
than the philological faculty, the poetical faculty, and the
chemical faculty ; but here we find them united, or assumed
to be united, inone man. Yet more, Borrichius was appointed
Court Physician, and Assessor of the Supreme Court of Law.
He was the very personification of all learning, if we may judge
by the treatment he received from his countrymen. In addition
to the work mentioned above, he wrote several on philo-
logy, on the quantity of syllables, on the Greek and Latin poets
on medicine, chemistry, and botany. It is strange that a man
who, presumably in his capacity of judge, was in the habit of
sifting evidence, and of avoiding hasty generalisation, should have
endeavoured with much elaborate argument to prove that Hermes
Trismegistus was a real personage ; that his Smaragdine table
was really found by the wife of Abraham, and that it contained
matter of the highest import to mankind. We must imagine
that in this matter Borrichius allowed the imaginative faculty
due to his poetical temperament to exert an undue influence
over his more sober judgment. He is equally at pains to assert
the authenticity and antiquity of the various Greek MSS. on
alchemy in the libraries of Europe. He specially mentions a
MS. by Zozimus of Panapolis, on the art of making gold, in the
King’s Library in Paris; and Scaliger tells us that this same
MS. was written in the fifth century. M. Ferdinand Hoefer is
apparently penetrated by the Borrichian spirit of faith and ima-
gination, and he unhesitatingly accepts the early date attributed
to the Paris MS.

M. Hoefer traces the rise of Alchemy to the fourth century of
our era ; it was then knownas the “‘sacred art” (ars sacra ; réxyn
t<pa), and one of the chief writers on the subject was the said
Zozimus of Panapolis. The principal Greek MSS. attributed to
Zozimus, which exist in the Bibliothtque Nationale, have the
following titles :—(a#) On Furnaces and Chemical Instruments ; —
(8) On the Virtue’ and Composition of Waters; (vy) On the
Holy Water ; (5) Onthe Sacred Art of making Gold and Silver.
In the latter, Zozimus mentions that if the ‘*‘ soul of copper,”
which remains above the water of mercury, be heated, it gives off
an aériform body (oda mvevuarixoy), and this (says M. Hoefer)
was probably oxygen gas, while the soul of copper was oxide of
mercury, A second author of early Greek MSS. was Pelagius,
who alludes to two writers named Zozimus—one the ‘‘ Ancient,”
the other the ‘‘ Physician.” A third author, Olympiodorus,
who calls the “sacred art” chemistry (xnuela), quotes Hermes
Democritus, and Anaximander as alchemists. ;

Democritus (not to be confounded with the Greek philosopher
of that name), in his ‘* Physics and Mystics,” informs us how he
invoked the shade of his master, Ostane the Mede, and how the
spirit appeared and accorded him mystical communings. Synesius,
the commentator of Democritus, lived, according to M. Hoefer,
about fifty years after Zozimus (say 450 A.D.) ; but a treatise on
the Philosopher’s Stone is in existence which claims Synesius as
its author, which mentions Geber, who lived at least 400
years later. Mary the Jewess, who is often alluded to by later
alchemists, was a contemporary of Democritus, and a writer on
alchemy; she also invented various chemical vessels, among
others a bath, to gently transmit heat by means of hot sand or
cinders, which (according to M. Hoefer) is still called after her,
a Bain-Marie.

We cannot assign to the Greek MSS, in the Bibliothéque
Nationale the antiquity which M. Toefer and others so readily
accept ; and we must still hold to our opinion that they and
all other known Greek MSS. on alchemy are the produc-
tion of later centuries, and are probably the work of Greek
monks. In the first place, who was Zozimus? Was it
Zozimus the Anti-pope, who succeeded Innocent I., or Zozimus
the Sophist of Alexandria, or Zozimus the historian? No one
can tell. It cannot be pretended that any of the Paris MSS.
are in the actual writing of Zozimus. One of thein is entitled
‘* Zozimus the Panapolite, on the Chemical Art, to his Sister
Theosebia ;” but, according to the ‘‘ Biographie Universelle,” it
was Zozimus of Alexandria who dedicated books to his sister
Theosebia, and he lived in the third century B,c., while Zozimus
of Panopolis lived in the fourth century A.p, Here, then, we

have a discrepancy of 700 years, and a clear confounding of
Zozimus of Alexandria with his namesake of Panapolis.
Suidas attributes chemical works to the former, but we must
remember that the word xnpela does not occur before the eleventh
century, A.D. The director of the Bibliothéque Nationale,* ina
recent letter for which we have to thank him, writes as follows :—
“Ta Bibliothéque Nationale ne renferme aucun manuscrit grec
de Zosime de Panapolis qui puisse attribué a une époque
antérieure au XIII. Siécle. Le plus ancien de ceux qu'elle
posséde ne remonte pas plus loin que cette date.” Everything
tends to prove that the MSS. were not only written, but com-
posed at a period posterior to the fifth century. The fanciful
titles of some of them show us that their authors adopted
any name they pleased; thus we have ‘‘the Epistle of Isis,
queen of Egypt, and wife of Osiris on the sacred art, ad-
dressed to her son “Horus,” in which we find a solemn oath
dictated to Isis by the angel Amnaél, who swears by Mercury
and Anubis, by Tartarus, the Furies, and Cerberus, and by
the dragon Kerkouroboros. The whole thing is plainly a
blending of eastern and wes‘ern thought : personages of Egyptian,
Greek, and Roman mythology, with angels of the Talmud, and
genii of Arabic lore. We are glad to find that M. Hoefer
breaks freely away from the too confident Olaus Borrichius, as
to the authenticity of Hermes Trismegistus. He admits that the
books which bear his name are spurious, and concludes that
their author, “vivait probablement a l’époque critique du Chris-
tianisme triomphant et du paganisme 4 l’agonie.” But if we
_take this as the time of Constantine the Great, we must venture
to attach a later date to these writings.

We recently had an opportunity of examining the MS. in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, attributed to Zozimus and to the fifth
century; a MS. which, from its frequent mention in both ancient
and modern works on the history of chemistry, possesses special
interest. It is entitled ‘‘Zozimus on Chemical Instruments and
furnaces, and on the Holy Water” (Zwolwou wep) dpxdvwv kat
kapulvav Kai rep) Tov Oclov vdaros), and it is a well-preserved MS.
of the thirteenth century, written on vellum. The few drawings
which it contains are asserted to have been taken by the author

Fic. 7.—An Alembic, and Symbols from Greek MSS. on Alchemy.

from a temple at Memphis. The Alembic (/ in the accompanying
woodcut, Fig. 7) is copied from this MS., in which also the line of
symbols (a) is found. These symbols occurred in almost every
Greek MS. on alchemy which we examined, but we could find
no clue to the curious porcupine-like animal. The symbol ¢ is
clearly of astronomical origin, and is not often met with in later
works. The MSS. are for the most part devoid of figures, and
not so full of symbols as later alchemical treatises.

We have endeavoured to prove (a) that no reliable date can be
assigned to existing Greek MSS. on alchemy, and (A) that the
accepted date is too early. Even if we could prove that a
man named Zozimus, livingin the fourth century, wrote treatises
on alchemy, we could not use the existing MSS. for any exact
purpose connected with the history of science with safety ; for,
since we have no such MS. earlier than the tenth or eleventh
centuries, it would be quite impossible to determine whether

* This library has so often changed its name of late, that we think it
necessary to mention that we mean the library in the Rue Richelieu, which
is called by old writers the Bibliothégue du Rot sometimes the Bibliothégue
Royale, lately the Bibliothégue Impériale, still more lately the Bibliothéque
Communale, now the Bibliothégue Nationale., Juncker in his Conspectus
Chemia, in speaking of various writers on alchemy cites ‘‘ Zozimus Panapo-
lites celeberrimus et magni cognomen adeptus, cujus varia scripta extant in
Bibliotheca Regia Parisiensi,”

additions had been made during transcription. The facts
simply these :—There exist in various parts of the world G
MSS. on alchemy, none of which are older than the tenth cent
Many of these bear the names of mythical personages of Egypti
mythology, some of ancient Greek philosophers, some of peo!
who are supposed to have lived in the fourth or fifth centur
A.D. When we remember that no ancient writer makes ment
of alchemy or chemistry, that the word xnyela is first used in
eleventh century, and when we further bear in mind the condi
of the intellectual world in the fourth and fifth centurie:
think we may well admit that further evidence is necessa)
fore we can assert that alchemy arose in the fourth century
deed we are of opinion that, in spite of all that has been writ
on the subject, there is no good evidence to prove that alch
and chemistry did not originate in Arabia not long prior to th
eighth century, A.D.

G. F. RoDWELL

ON THE ECLIPSE EXPEDITION, 1871* —
IL \

I MUST now state very briefly some of the results of out
work ; and first, the certain results, —-

We were able to make out the structure of the corona. We
know all about the corona so far as the structure of its loy
brighter strata, that portion, viz., which I referred to in my
ture last year as being visible both before and after totality, is
concerned. You may define it as consisting of cool prominence:
that is to say, if you examine a prominence any day wit!
waiting for an eclipse, and then go to an eclipse and examine
lower portion of the corona, you will find the same phenom:
minus the brightness. You find the delicate thread-like f
ments which you are now all so familiar with in prominence
filaments which were first thrown on a screen in this theatre ;
cloudy light masses, the mottling, the nebulous structure, are
absolutely produced in the corona, as far as I could see it with
telescope with an aperture of 6} inches ; and I may add that t
portion some five minutes round the sun reminded me forcibly
parts of the nebula of Orion, and of that surrounding » Arg
depicted by Sir John Herschel in his Cape observations,

We have shown that the idea that we did not get hydr
above 10 seconds above the sun is erroneous; for we obta!
evidence that hydrogen exists to a height of 8 or 10 minut
least above the sun; and I need not tell you the extreme
portance of this determination. One of the proofs we hay
that lies in this diagram, showing the observations made by Pro!
Respighi, armed with an instrument the principle of which
hope you are now familiar with.

Just after the sun disappeared Prof. Respighi employed
prism to determine the materials of which the prominences wh
were then being eclipsed were composed ; and he got the pron
nences shaped out in red, yellow, in blue, and in violet light ;
background of impure spectrum filling the field, and then as |
moon swept over the promineaces these images beceme invisibi
he saw the impure spectrum and the yellow and violet
gradually die out, and then three bright and broad vizgs pain
in red, green, and blue, gradually form in the field of view of hi
instrument ; and as long as the more brilliant prominences wer
invisible on both sides of the sun he saw these magnifice
rings, which threw him in a state of ecstacy, And well
might.

These rings were formed by C and F, which shows us
hydrogen extends at least 7 minutes high, for Aad we not
dealing with hydrogen we should have gota yellow ring as *
because the substance which underlies the hydrogen is more
brilliant than the hydrogen itself, and in addition to the red
ring and the blue ring, which indicate the spectrum of hydroge
he saw a bright green ring, much more brilliant than the others,
bult up by the unknown substance which gives us the Kirch-
hoff line, 1474. :

Now at the time that Prof. Respighi was observing the
beautiful rings by means of a single prism and a telescope
some four inches aperture, some 300 miles away from him—
was at Poodocottah and I was at Bekul—I had arranged
train of prisms which you see here so that the light of the sun
should enter the first prism, and after leaving the last one should

* A Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Mond ay;
March 22, 1872, by J. Norman Lockyer, F.R,S. (concluded from p. 5

enter my eye. And what I saw is shown, side by side with
Respighi’s observations, in this diagram, in which I have
arated the rings somewhat, so that there should be less con-
fusion that in the actual observation. Here is Prof. Respighi’s
first observation. He gets indications of C, D*, F, and the
hydrogen line near G. He was observing the very lowest,
brightest region of all, and therefore 1474 was obliterated by the
brightness of the continuous spectrum ; but as the eclipse went
‘on D3 was entirely obliterated, and afterwards he got C and F
building up rings together with 1474, which was not represented
n the lower regions of the prominence—not because it was not
there, but because, as I have already insisted, of the extreme
brilliancy of the background. Now my observation was made
intermediately as it were between the two observations of Prof.
Respighi’s. Let me show the observations together,

Respighi ... CD? F G Prominences at beginning
of eclipse.
Lockyer .... C 1474 F G Corona at 80 seconds from
commencement.
1474. F Corona at mid eclipse.

a Respighi ... C

Note that I had no object-glass to collect light, but that I had
more prisms to disperse it ; so that with me the rings were not
so high as those observed by Respighi, because I had not so
much light to work with: but such as they were I saw them
' better because the continuous spectrum was more dispersed, and
because, with my dispersion, the rings—the images of the corona
' —therefore did not so much overlap. Hence doubtless Respighi
missed the violet ring which I saw, so faint, however, that both
that and 1474 were almost invisible, while C shot out with mar-
vellous brilliancy, and D* was absent.

_ These observations thus tend to show, therefore, that instead
f the element—the line of which corresponds with 1474—exist-
ig alone just above the prominences, the hydrogen accompanies
‘it to what may be termed a great height above the more
“intensely heated lower levels of the chromosphere, including tae
‘prominences in which the lower vapours are thrown a greater
height. With a spectroscope of small dispersion attached to the
Targest mirror of smallest focus which I could obtain in Eng-
land, the gaseous nature of the spectrum, as indicated by its
clure, that is, bands of light and darker intervals as distin-
guished from a continuous spectrum properly so called, was also
rendered evident.

These are results of the highest importance, which alone
are worth all the anxiety and labour connected with the expedi-
tion.

But there is more behind.

_ The photographic operations (part of the expense of which
was borne by Lord Lindsay) were most satisfactory, and the
solar corona was photographed to a greater height than it was
observed by the spectroscope, and with details which were not
observed in the spectroscope.

Mr. Davis was fortunate enough to take an admirable series
‘of five photographs at Bekul, and Captain Hogg also obtained
feme alae ; but I am sorry to say the latter lack somewhat
in detail
I have prepared two lamps, because I am anxious to exhibit
the photographs two at a time, that you may compare one with
the other. [This was done.] You see that so far as the camera
goes—and mark this well—the corona was almost changeless
during the whole period of totality; this is true, not only
for ce. place, but for all the places at which it was photo-
Z raphed.

Bos exhibit two other photographs—one taken at Jaffna and
the other at Ootacamund. Actinically the corona was the same
d practically changeless at all the stations. You see that,
ough not so obvious as in the other case, there is the same
sin ilarity.

Before I leave the actinic corona, I am anxious to show you
an image of it, taken during the American eclipse of 1869 in a
‘camera exposed to the sun during the whole of the totality ; to
a certain extent in our recent photographs we have reproduced
what was photographed in 1869.

The solar nature of most, if not all, of the corona recorded
on the plates is established by the fact that the plates, taken in
different places, and both at the beginning and end of totality,
closely resemble each other, and much of the exterior detailed
“structure is a continuation of that observed in the inner portion
independently determined by the spectroscope to belong to the

sun

7

NATURE 3 An

While both in the prism and the 6 inch equatorial the corona
seemed to form pretty regular rings round the dark moon, of
different heights, according to the amount of light utilised by
the instrument, on the photographic plates, the corona, which,
as I have before stated, exceeds the limits actually seen ia the
instrument I have named, has a very irregular, somewhat stel-
late outline, most marked breaks or rifts ({gnored by the spectro-
Scope), occurring near the sun’s poles, a fact perhaps connected
with the other fact that the most active and most brilliant pro-
minences rarely occur there.

From the photographs in which the corona is depicted
actinically we pass to the drawings in which it is depicted
visually. I would first call attention to two drawings made by
Mr. Holiday, who formed part of the expedition, and in whose
eye every one who knows him will have every confidence.

First there is a drawing made at the commencement of the
totality, and then a drawing made at the end. There is a won-
derful difference between the drawings ; the corona is in them
ba much more extensive than is represented actinically on our
plates.

Here is another drawing, made by Capt. Tupman, in which
again we have something absolutely different from the photo-
graphs and from Mr. Holiday’s sketches, inasmuch as we get an
infinite number of dark lines extending down to the moon, and a
greater extension than in the photographs, though in radial
places the shape of the actinic corona and some of its details are
shown,

Now the corona, as it appeared to me with the naked eye,
was nothing but an assemblage of bright and dark lines, it
lacked all the structure of the photographs, and apppeared
larger ; and [ have asked myself whether these lines do not in
some way depend on the size of the telescope, or the absence of a
telescope. It seems as if observations of the corona with the
naked eye, or with a telescope of small power, may yive us such
lines ; but that when we use a telescope of large power, it will
give, close to the moon, the structure to which I have referred,
and abolish the exterior structure altogether, leaving a ring round
the dark body of the moon such as Prof. Respighi and myself
saw in our prisms, and in the 6-inch telescope, in which the light
was reduced by high magnification so as to bring the corona to a
definite ring some five minutes high, while Prof. Respighi, using
a 4-inch telescope and less magnifying power, brought the
corona down to a ring something like 7 minutes high.

And here we have an important connection between spectro-
scopic and telescopic work. If we employ a telescope in which
the light is small or is reduced by high magnification, we bring
the corona to a definite ring, and perhaps here we have the
origin of the ‘‘ring-formed” coronas.

Many instances of changing rays, like those seen by Planta-
mour in 1860, were recorded by observers in whom I have every
confidence. One observer noted that the rays revolved and dis-
appeared over the rifts.

We have next to deal with the poiariscopic observations.

Mr. Lewis, in sweeping round the corona at a distance of 6’
or 7’ from the sun’s limb, using a pair of compensating quartz
wedges as an analyser, which remained parallel to itself while
the telescope swept round, observed the bands gradually change
in intensity, then disappear, bands of a complementary character
afterwards appearing, thereby indicating radial polarisation.

Dr. Thomson at Bekul saw strong traces of atmospheric, but
none of radial polarisation, with a Savart. With the same class
of instrument the result obtained by myself was precisely similar ;
while on turning in the Biquartz, at the top and bottom of the
image of the corona, zc., near the sun’s equator, faint traces of
radial polarisation were perceptible for a short distance from the
moon’s limb, Captain Tupman, who observed with the polari-
scope after totality, announces strong radial polarisation extend-
ing toa very considerable distance from the dark moon,

Leaving the extreme outside of the corona as a question to be
determined at some future time—and it can well wait—let us
come to the base of the corona, and deal with the region to
which I have already referred, close to the sun.

What was the general conclusion at which we arrived on this
important point? Before I state it, let me tell you the instru-
mental conditions of the inquiry. We can use such a spectro-
scope as the one with which you are all familiar, and so arrange
matters that the slit shall be carried by a clock, so that it may
follow accurately the edge of the moon ; but if the least varia-
tion in the rate of motion takes place, the observation is ren-
dered almost valueless, But if we employ a spectroscope, in

PaaS at | ce

| NATURE —

94

which we sum up the light—do not localise the light, but throw
it together —it does not matter whether your clock goes well or
not, you are certain to have a result worthy of credit. But if
you employ such an instrument as Prof. Respighi employed,
and abolish the slit altogether, the weight of any observations
made with such conditions is very great.

Captain Maclear, who was observing with me at Bekul, has
undoubtedly shown that when the light of our atmosphere is
cut off by the interposition of the dark moon, we see very many
more bright lines than we do when this is not the case, the lines
being of unequal height.

Mr. Pringle, also at Bekul, showed that, at the end of to-
tality, many lines flashed into one of these instruments, carried
under these difficult conditions. :

Captain Fyers, the Surveyor-General of Ceylon, observing
with a spectroscope of the second kind, saw something like a
reversal of all the lines at the beginning, but nothing of the kind
at the end. rahe

Mr. Fergusson, observing with a similar instrument, saw re-
versal neither at the beginning nor the end.

Mr. Moseley, whose observations are of great weight, says
that at the beginning of the eclipse he did not see this reversal
of lines. Whether it was visible at the end he could not

_tell, because at the close the slit had travelled off the edge of the
moon. :

Prof. Respighi, using no slit whatever, and being under the
best conditions for seeing the reversal of the lines, certainly did
not see it at the beginning, but he considers he saw it at the end,
though about this he is doubtful. :

From the foregoing general statement of the observations made
on the eclipse of last year, it will be seen that knowledge has
been very greatly advanced, and that most important data have
been obtained to aid in the discussion of former observations.
Further, many of the questions raised by the recent observations
make it imperatively necessary that future eclipses should be
carefully observed, as periodic changes in the corona may then
possibly be found to occur. In these observations the instru-
ments above described should be considered normal, and they
should be added to as much as possible.

I had intended, if time had permitted me, to point out how
mach better we are prepared for the observation of an eclipse
now than we were when we went to India, and how a system of
photograph record should be introduced into the spectroscopic
and polariscopic work ; but time will not allow me to do more
than suggest this interesting topic. I am anxious, however, that
you should allow me one minute more to say how very grateful
we feel for the assistance rendered by all we met, to which as-
sistance so much of our success must be ascribed. I wish thus
publicly to express the extreme gratitude of every one of our Ex-
pedition to the authorities in India and in Ceylon for the assist-
ance we received from them, and our sorrow that Admiral
Cockburn, a warm and well-known friend to Science, who
placed his flagship at the disposal of the expedition, and the
Viceroy, whose influence in our favour was felt in every region
of India whither our parties went, and to whom we gave up our
ship, are now, alas ! beyond the expression of our thanks. We
are also anxious to express our obligations to the directors and
officers of the Peninsular and Oriental Company for the magnifi-
cent way in which they aided us. If they had not assisted us as
they did, Science would have gained very much less than she
has done from the observations of the last eclipse. .

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS
Tur Fournal of the Quekett Microscopical Club for October
1872, contains but three papers, of which the first is a short one
by Dr. Guy, F.R.S., on the “ Hand Illuminator Microscope,”
which is followed by a more elaborate communication of con-
siderable length, by Mr. M. C. Cooke, on *‘ Old Nettle Stems
and their Micro-fungi,” in which twenty-seven species of fungi
are enumerated and described which develop themselves on the
old stems of the common nettle,—C. H. Peck, of Albany, U.S.,
communicates an article on the disease of plum and cherry
trees in the United States known as ‘‘black knot,” and his
observations on the structure and growth of the Sfheria
moaybosa (Schweinitz) which accompanies, or causes, these
gouty excrescences. The record of the proceedings of the club
completes the contents of the present number.
Bulletin de V Académie Royale de Belgique, No. 7. This num-
ber contains a paper, by M. P. J. Van Beneden, on the fossil

whales of Antwerp, in which he describes several new
among others, one (named Cetotherium) characterised chiefly
the articular condyle on the inferior maxillary, and forming
transition-type between the Balzenoptera and the Cetodo:
Four species of Cetotherium are described. G,. Dewalque

a description, with plate, of a new fossil sponge, met with ii
Eifel system ; a species of the Astraospongium of Roemer,
named from the six-rayed star fornts composing it. A new mi
of estimating the advantage of binocular vision over monoculé
as regards the brightness or clearness of objects, is proposed t
H. Valerius. He employs Foucault’s photometer, which co
sists of a long box, having a glass disc fixed in one end of it, z
a pasteboard diaphragm in the direction of the axis of the bo
moveable to or from the disc with screws. Lights are placed
either side of the diaphragm, which thus forms shadows on
disc, andthe diaphragm is so adjusted that the shadow from e
light occupies half of the disc. The lights having been so
justed that the disc seems uniformly lighted, their relative inte
sities are as the squares of the distances separating them from t
disc. M. Valerius uses, for his purpose, a prismatic tub
through which he observes the disc of the photometer. It coi
tains a vertical screen which conceals one-half of the dise fro
one of the eyez. Suppose the disc to be receiving equ
quantities of light from the two sources, the observer, on lookit
through the tube, finds that the half-dise seen with only one e;
appears less illuminated than the other. The equality is restor
by moving one of the lights, and the distance of the motion
measured.—This paper is followed by one on formule
Ballistics, by J. M. De Tilly.—In the literature departm
Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove gives an interesting account
certain documents which he examined at Hatfield House, beari
on the later history of Mary Queen of Scots. He discusses
celebrated casket letters, two of which are preserved at Hatfiel
and are considered by him to be translations from the Scotch text,
The letters are given in lithograph.—E. Varenbergh communi-
cates an account of a journey made by three Flemish gentlem
to Nuremberg in the thirteenth century; an exact statem
being made of the expenses incurred in travelling. One or t
minor articles complete the number. an

Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie.—No. 7 (1872)
commences with a paper of careful research, by H. Knoblauch,
on the passage of heat-rays through inclined diatherma1
plates. The rays, polarised by a Nicol’s prism, were caused
pass horizontally to the plate, which was moveable about a
tical axis, and, passing through it, affected a thermopile. T
things determine the passage of radiant heat through inelin
plates—the nature of the ray’s polarisation, and the absorpti
of the substance composing the plate. These two influences
fully investigated and their effects described.—A continu
account, by Hagenbach, of researches on Fluorescence is follow:
by a somewhat mathematical paper by Ketteler (also a co
tinuation), on the influence of astronomical motion on optical
phenomena. Dr. Stoletow discusses at some length the ‘* Func-
tion of Magnetisation” of soft iron, and a description is give:
G. Vom Rath, of the meteoric stones which fell at Ibbenbiin
in 1870. W. Beetz, in a short note, contests the assertion
Zollner, that an electric current is generated in the flowing
water, pointing out that, in the experiments made, the ele
phenomena probably arose from the actual formation of a volt:
element consisting of two different metals (of tap and pipe), a
the water, so that the same thing might be observed though t
water was at rest. Zollner’s theory of terrestrial magneti
connects itself with the observation in question, as he
the flowing liquid masses in the earth’s interior generate electric
currents by their motion, This number contains, in addition,
two contributions on the structure of hailstones, and one or two
other short notes.

No. 8 contains the concluding part of Herr Hagenb
researches on Fluorescence. His experiments, made wit
great variety of substances, confirm Stokes’s laws. He co
siders that all the rays are capable of exciting fluorescence. T
maxima of the fluorescence varied from 7 (in chlorophy!
downwards. The spectrum of the fluorescent light vari
also for different substances, but no necessary connecti
was apparent between the ‘‘intermittence” in :
fluorescence of the ordinary spectrum, and that in th
fluorescence spectrum. Change of solvent often displaced
the maxima. He points out the similarity between ‘phospho-
rescence and fluorescence, and thinks these are phenomena dif
ing not in kind, but only in degree.—In the next pay

95

\. Helland adduces a large amount of evidence to show that the
fjords in Norway have been formed by glacial action.—H, C.
Vogel describes some careful experiments on the spectrum of
aurora, which he compared with the spectra of various gases in
Geissler tubes. He regards it as a modification of the air
‘spectrum ; one line of the former, at least, corresponding with the
maximum brightness of the latter, while the remaining lines
probably appear in the spectra of atmospheric gases under
certain conditions of temperature and pressure.—A new mode of
Measuring rate of rotation is proposed by A, Schuller. The
principle is briefly this: A disc divided into three sectors (black,
red, and green), rotates on a horizontal axis ; a seconds pendulum
fitted with a screen, in which is a vertical slit, oscillates at the
back of it, and a ray of light passes through the slit and disc to
a telescope through which the observer looks. The recurrence
of particular colours observed gives a means of estimating the
speed of rotation.—Among the remaining papers are one on a
block of lava from the recent eruption of Vesuvius, one on com-
pounds of thallium, and one on a new form of the Noé
thermopile. :

seo

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNDON

_ Mathematical Society, Nov. ‘14.—Mr. W. Spottiswoode,
_FE-R.S., President, in the chair.—The following gentlemen were
‘elected as officers and members of council for the ensuing
session :—President, Dr. Hirst, F.R.S. ; Vice-Presidents, Prof.
Crofton, Mr. S. Roberts, and Mr. Spottiswoode ; Treasurer,
Mr. S. Roberts; Secretaries, Mr. M. Jenkins, Mr. R.
Tucker; other members, Prof Cayley, Prof. W. K. Clifford,
Mr. T. Cotterill, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Rev R. Harley,
Prof. Henrici, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Mr. J. Stirling, and Mr. J. J. Walker. Messrs. Glaisher
and Harley were elected in the room of Dr. Sylvester and the
Hon. J. W. Strutt. The new president having taken the chair,
alluded in feeling terms to the loss the mathematical world and
the Society had just experienced by the death of Dr. Clebsch, of
Gottingen, who had been elected a foreign member in December

Mr. Spottiswoode then read his paper, “Remarks on
some recent Generalisations of Algebra.” It gave an analysis
of methods used by Prof. Peirce, of Harvard, in his ‘‘ Linear
Associative Algebra,” and by Dr. Hermann Hankel in
his ‘‘Vorlesungen iiber die complexen Zahlen und _ ihre
functionen,” Parti. Prof. Henrici exhibited a series of models
‘of cubic surfaces, and pointed out the several singu-
larities, and explained how the models were constructed.
Prof. Clifford next read a paper ‘‘On a theorem relating to
‘polyhedra analogous to Mr. Cotterill’s theorem on plane
polygons,” and exhibited several illustrativemodels. The plane
‘theorem is “for every plane polygon of 7 vertices there is a curve
of class #— 3touching allthe diagonals ; the number of diagonals
is such as to exactly determine this curve and no more; and
when the curve touches the line at infinity the area of the
polygon is zero,” The analogous theorem in space should
‘therefore apply in the first instance to those solids whose volume
can be expressed as the sum of tetrahedra,+having one vertex at
_an arbitrary point of space, and the other three at three vertices
‘of the figure; that is to say, it should apply to solids having
‘triangular faces. For such solids the author finds that the
analogy is very complete and exact. Defining the plane which
‘contains three vertices and which is not a face, as a diagonal
plane and a line joining two vertices, but not {being an edge asa
diagonalline, he proves the following theorems :—“Forevery poly-
hedron of # summits having only triangular faces (A faced #—
-acron, Cayley) there is a surface of class —4, touching all the
‘diagonal planes. This surface contains all the diagonal lines.
‘The diagonal planes and lines are so situated, however, that the
conditions of touching the planes and containing the lines are
' precisely sufficient to determine a surface of class ~—4. When
this surface touches the plane at infinity, the velume of the solid
is zero.” Prof. Clifford then’ proceeded to apply these proposi-
tions to polyhedra having other than triangular faces.—A paper
“by the Hon. J. W. Strutt was, in his absence, taken as read.
Its title was ‘‘ Investigation of the disturbance produced by
a spherical obstacle on the waves of sound.” The problem to
_ which chief attention is given in the paper is that of a rigid
spherical obstacle, which is either fixed, or (more generally) so

supported that, when disturbed from the position of equilibrium,
it is urged back by a force proportional to the displacement.
The mathematical solution is worked out without any limitation
as to the size of the sphere ; but in drawing conclusions from it,
attention is confined for the most part to the case when the
diameter of the sphere is small compared to the length of the
sound waves. Mr. Strutt then considers the problem of a fluid
spherical obstacle, working it out in full for a very small sphere ;
and afterwards he investigates anew the same problem by a very
different analysis, not restricted to the case of a sphere or an
abrupt variation of mechanical properties on the one hand, but
on the other less general in requiring the variation and the
region over which it occurs to be small. In conclusion he indi-
cates the solution of the problem when the source of sound is at
a finite distance from the obstacle, the primary waves being
accordingly spherical instead of plane.—The following abstract
of M. Hermite’s paper ‘“‘sur V’integration des fonctions circu-
laires,” was furnished by Prof. Cayley. M. Hermite’s paper
relates to the integral

S (sin a, cos x) dx

where / is any rational function of sin x, cosx. The substitution
of ate where c= 4/ - 1, converts this into an integral of the form

Po dz, where = is a rational function of z, viz. #, z and
Fare each of them a rational and integral function of . The
last mentioned integral is treated by the ordinary method of the
decomposition of rational fractions; and the gist of the paper
is in the transformation of the resulting expressions back from
the new variable z to the original variable x, so as to obtain the

required integral | f (sin x, cos x) dx, in terms of the circular
functions of x.
of the form i

and integral function of z, sin x, cos v: and # x is of the form

It is shown that the process leads to an equation

(sin x, cos x)= x + & x, where 1 ~ is a rational

x t p—
~x=C+a cot vot tei cot ——+, &e,

+4 cot 8 5, Beet 428 4+, &e.
eee 2 ax 2

each series, and also the number of the different series,
being finite: so that the integration is made to depend upon
the integrals

[ Ml «dx and / cot —* dx=2 log sin =

The paper contains processes for the complete determination
of the coefficients, C, a, @,, &c. and other interesting matter.
Meteorological Society, Nov. 20.—Dr. ‘ripe, president, in
the chair.—On the storms experienced by the Submarine Cable
Expedition in the Persian Gulf on November 1 and 2, 1869, by
Mr, Latimer Clark. The first storm occurred at 9 o'clock at
night, when the vessels of the expedition were about 130 miles
from Bushire, and burst upon them without any preliminary
warning, lowering the temperature by nearly 30° in a few
minutes. It was accompanied by heavy rain and much light-
ning and thunder, and progressed from N.W, to S.E. After
the tempest had lasted for two hours the wind changed to a gale
from §.E., and subsequently fell calm as before The next day
the cable was spliced up, and paying out had scarcely re-com-
menced, with a strong south-east wind, when notice was re-
ceived that another violent storm from the north-west had passed
Bushire, and was on its way down the Gulf. At 3 o'clock
black clouds were seen rising, and at 3.52 the storm burst forth
with the same suddenness and fury that characterised the previous
one, Being daylight many phenomena were observed which
were missed the night before. As the clouds approached they
gathered into a peculiar form, resembling the cap of a large
mushroom, extending across the heayens from one horizon to the
other. The lower edge had a rounded and wrinkled margin, but
was very sharply defined ; the surface was composed of innu-
merable similar strata, as if melted pitch had been poured out
and allowed to solidify in numerous cakes, each rather smaller
than the one below.* Suddenly there came a profound calm,

* This is the form of cloud mentioned by M, Poey in Nature, Vol. iv.
No. 103.

96

NATURE az ;

and a few hundred yards ahead the squall was seen approach-
ing. The sea was elsewhere covered with full-sized waves, but
under the influence of the hurricane it became one dead-level of
creamy foam, the top of every wave being swept off into spray
as soon as it arose. When the squall struck the vessels the
thermometer fell at once from 81° to 53° ; torrents of rain swept
the decks, accompanied with continuous thunder and lightning.
After two hours the wind changed into a gale from the south-
east, followed by a calm. It was noticed that the barometer
was unaffected till the last moment, but as soon as the storm
arrived it rose two-tenths of an inch, and fell again as it passed
over. The electrical instruments, although of the most
sensitive character, were not at all affected during the storm.
The other papers read were “On the Meteorology of South-
land, New Zealand, in 1871,” by Mr. C. R. Martin, and
‘‘On a Self-registering Tide-gauge and Electrical Barograph,”
by Mr. H. C. Russell, B.A., Government Astronomer, Sydney.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Nov. 18.—M. Faye, president, in
the chair.—The meeting commenced with another instalment of
the ferment controversy, M. Pasteur rising and objecting to M.
Fremy’s remarks as reported in the Comptes Rendus of the last
meeting. M. Bouillaud followed, expressing his regrets that M.
Pasteur’s proposition with regard to the experiments had not
been acceded to. M. A. Trécul then rose, and regretted that
certain words which had appeared in the same number had not
been uttered at the meeting. He then read a note criticising M.
Pasteur’s remarks at that meeting. The discussion then dropped,
and M, Tresca read a note on the best form for the international
standard meters. He proposes a section like the letters H or X.
—M. Bouillaud then read a paper on the theory of the produc-
tion of animal heat—M. F. Perrier read a paper on the
prolongation of the French meridian into the Sahara by means
of the trigonometrical junction of Algiers with Spain.—The next
paper was by M. Jeannel on the natural production of nitrates
and nitrites. Among other conclusions the author arrives at
this, that ‘‘calcareous humus” in drying determines the com-
bination of the elements of the air.—M. Max Marie presented
the concluding paper of his series on the elementary theory of
integrals of any order and their periods, after which followed a
paper on a new method of analysis founded on the use of imagi-
nary co-ordinates, by M. F. Lucas.—M. C. Dareste presented his
fifth paper on the osteological types of osseous fishes.—*‘ Studies
on the ventilation of transports” was a paper by. M. E. Bertin,
giving the results of some experiments on ventilation made on
board the Calvados and Garonne, transports. The apparatus
used, worked by the waste heat of the furnaces, evacuated 35,000
cubic metres of air per hour from the lower decks.—Notes on the
Phylloxera were received from M. Saint-Pierre and M. Loarer.
The former has found the insects on the wild vines of Vaucluse
known as Jambrusgues, and hence considers that the general
opinion that this disease is the result of cultivation is erroneous.
Both letters were sent to the P/y//oxera Commission, and
notes from M. F. Barilla ona remedy for cholera, and M. G.
Fabretti on the transmission of infectious miasmata were sent to
that appointed to administer the Bréant legacy.—A note from
M. Curral on the realisation of perpetual motion in the planetary
system was submitted to the examination of M. Phillips,
while a note from M. Andru on the quadrature of the circle
was, in accordance with a very old rule of the Academy, con-
sidered as not received.—M. Serret then presented a note on the
planetoid 116 Sirona, by M. F. Tisserand.—M. J. Bourget’s
Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Kundt’s acoustic experi-
ments followed, after which came a note on “ Magnetic Energy ”
by M. A. Cazin.—M. E. Becquerel next presented a note on the
multiplicity of images, and the theory of accommodation, a
paper on optical physiology, by M. F. P. Le Roux.—M. Sainte-
Claire Deville then communicated an account of M. Cailletet’s re-
searches on liquid carbonic anhydride and M. F. Pisani’s descrip-
tion and analyses of a new silver amalgam from Konsberg in Nor-
way.—M. Becquerel presented M. Aug Guerout’s researches on the
action of sulphurous anhydride on recently precipitated insoluble
sulphides. The author finds that a hyposulphite is the result of
the reaction which takes place in three successive stages, these
are the formation of a sulphite and hydrosulphuric acid, the
decomposition of the latter, and of the sulphurous anhydride into
sulphur and water, and the combination of this sulphur, whilst in
the nascent state, with the sulphite formed at first.—A note on
the geographical distribution of the Percina by M. Léon Vaillant
came next ; and then M. A, Gaudry’s note on a tooth of Z/ephas

primigenius from Alaska. The tooth contained as much
23°97 percent. of organic matter.—Next came M. A, Laboulbéne’s —
paper on the elevation of central temperature in cases of acute
pleurisy, on the abstraction of the liquid from the pleura, the
temperature rose from 0°'2 to 0°°3 C. after the operation.—M, —
Béchamp followed with observations on M. Pasteur’s paper, in
which he stated that the wine ferment came from the grape skin. —
_

BOOKS RECEIVED. LB

Encuisu.—How I found Livingstone in Central Africa: H. M. Stanley
(Sampson Low and Co.) —A Report on the Expedition to Western Yunan, —
vid. Bham6: Dr. Anderson, Calcutta.—Mineral Phosphates and Pure Fer-
tilisers: C. Morfit (Triibner).—The Physiology of Man; Nervous System:
A. Flint (Appleton and Co).—Elements of Zoology : Andrew Wilson (A aad
. Black).—Small Pox and Vaccination: Dr. C, Both (Triibner).

Foreicn.—Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen: Dr. F. Cohn, Heft II.

DIARY

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 5. *

Rovat Society, at 8.30.—On the Colouring Matters derived from Aromatic —
Azodiamines. 2. Safranine: Dr. Hofmann, F.R.S , and Dr. Geyger.—
Synthesis of Aromatic Monamines, by intra-molecular atomic interchange: _
Dr. Hofmann, F.R.S.—Investigation of the Attraction of a Galvanic —
Coil on a small Magnetic Mass: J. Stuart.
Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30—On Certain Prevailing Errors respect- —
© ing French Chambered Barrows: Rev. W. C. Lukis, M.A. TS
Linnean Sociaty, at 8.—On the Skeleton of the Afteryx: Thomas —
» Allis. —On New and Rare British Spiders: Rev. O. P. Cambridge, M.A, —
Cuemica Society, at 8.—On the Reducing Power of Phosphorous and
Hypophosphorous Acids and their Salts: Prof. C. Rammelsberg. —On
Hypophosphites: Prof. C. Rammelsberg.—On New Analyses of some —
Mineral Arseniates and Phosphates: Prof. A. H. Church.

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 6,

Geotocists’ AssociaTion, at 8.—On Coal Seams in the Permian at Ifton,

Shropshire, with Remarks on the Supposed Glacial Climate of the Permian

oe D. C. Davies,—Note on a Well Section at Finchley: Caleb —
vans.

»

“4

SUNDAY, DecemBEr 8. " :
Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4 —On Arctic Experience ; with a descrip-
tion of the Esquimaux ; John Rae, M.D.

MONDAY, DscemBeEr 9.
Royat GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30,

TUESDAY, DECEMBER Io. ,

Lonpon InstITUTION, at4.—On Elementary Physiology : Prof. Rutherford.
PuoroGRAPuHic Society oF Lonpon, at 8.—Landscape Photography: F,
C. Earl —A New Actinometer ; J. R. Johnson.

WEDNESDAY, Decemper 11,
Society or ARTS, at 8.—On Galvanic Batteries: Rey. H. Highton.

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 12.

Royvav Society, at 8,30.

SocigTy OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.

Lonpon MariHeMarticat Society, at 8.—On Geodesic Lines, especial
those of a Quadric Surface ; and on the Mechanical Description of certain
Quartic Curves by a modified Oval Chuck: Prof. Cayley.—Note on the
breaking up of the Inharmonic-ratio Sextic: J.J. Walicer,

CONTENTS P.

eae Srar-sHower. By Prof. A. S. HERSCHEL,
FERMENTATION AND PutreFAction, II. By Prof, Wyvitte Tuomson,

(With Wlustration.) te 6 ahs

oe" co eae

Tue Finpinec oF LivincsToneE.
Ova Book SHELF.
Letters TO THE EpriToR:—
Ipecacuanha Cultivation at Kew.—G. Kino, F.L.S. . . . . «
Great Meteoric Shower (With Diagram).—Rev. S. J. Perry,
F.R.A.S.; A. W. Scott; Rey. H. i. Hiaains ; E. V. Picorr;
J. Curry ; W. F. Dennine, F.R.A.S; T. Fawcett ; W. Swan
Metamorphosis of Insects.—Pror. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.. . .
Prizes OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES . . . « « s
Mrs. SOMERVILLE
WINGERS ee 2 eis odie Seen as (ss
Tue BirtH or Cuemistry, V. By G. F. Ropwe tt, F.C.S. (With
Ulisesyations.) ....'.s! os Wel eneena iss at ee
ee Ecuirse ExrepirTion, 1871, II. By J. Norman Lockyer
ScientiFic SERIALS. . . .
SocrETIES AND ACADEMIES .
LCS Sal Se aero =
Books REcEIVED. ... . ies we

I MT aay nr

”

Errata.—No. 157, p. 540, 2nd col, 1. 15: For “ 2328"3 = 2,250,821,000,”
read ‘‘2328"3 X 2,250,821,000 ;” p 541, 1st col, 1 14 from bottom: for
‘‘absolute certainty” read ‘‘supposed absolute certainty,” No. 160, p
47, 1st col., ]. 14; for ‘* water-fall” read ‘ water falling.’

en
*

NATURE

97

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 12, 1872

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND UNIVERSITY
ENDOWMENTS

‘AJ OTWITHSTANDING the great development of

scientific education, and the firm and prominent
position which Science holds in public estimation, it must
be admitted that a profound dissatisfaction and anxiety
are the prevailing feelings with which the conditions and
prospects of English science are regarded by the culti-
vators of knowledge. To the outside observer these senti-
ments appear simply captious and unreasonable. When
so much has been done, why on earth should we com-
plain? The truth, however, unhappily is, that in the
midst of our apparent abundance we have still a great
deficiency ; and those fruits and results of Science, in the
way of scientific research and discovery, which afford
the true measure of our scientific condition, have by
no means proportionably increased. Indeed it may be
doubted whether the annual harvest of scientific truth is
even as abundant as twenty or thirty years since, when
Science had hardly penetrated even the outer crust of
English society. The character of our scientific periodicals
is essentially altered. The Journal of the Chemical
Society, for example, of which the original and proper
function was to print the investigations of English
chemists, now appearsto exist simply to inform us of
what is accomplished elsewhere. The volume for the
year 1871 is a stout octavo of 1,224 pages; of these,
however, not more than 154 are occupied with original
communications read before the Society, while the rest of
the volume is filled with innumerable abstracts of the
investigations of the chemists of Germany and France.
Ten years ago the same journal contained on the average
at least 400 pages of original matter.

Now, the perfection of science, in all the various aspects
in which it appears as an instrument of human progress,
is manifested only in scientific inquiry ; and to the scien-
tific mind no technical skill, no abundance of informa-
tion, can he a substitute for this, or compensate for its
absence.

This view of the condition of Science is not invalidated
by the circumstance that a certain number of distinguished
Englishmen are to be found whose scientific work is of
the highest order.

In this country there are now, as has been the case in
each generation for the last two hundred years, a limited
number of individuals of powerful intellect and elevated
aspirations, who have made scientific research the main
purpose and object of their lives. Of such we have hap-
pily sufficient living examples to preserve among us the
true type of the scientific investigator, and to dispel the
apprehension of intellectual degeneracy. The labours,
however, of modern Science are on far too extensive a
scale to be carried on simply by the efforts of eminent
individuals. Science requires the services of a class
devoted to the extension of knowledge, precisely as other
classes of society are devoted to commerce, to politics, or
to agriculture. Such a class does not exist among us,
and its absence is the greatest defect in our social system.

Undoubtedly there are many causes which interfere
with the growth of such a class. The unremunera-
No, 163—vVoL, VII.

tive character of scientific work, the want of intelli-
gent appreciation on the part of the public, of even the
value and importance of such work by which the student
is deprived of that most powerful stimulus to exertion,
the sympathy and support of others, deter many from the
career of Science. Moreover, the very spread of scien-
tific knowledge and education is, in its results, by no
means in all respects favourable to the pursuit of pure
Science. A demand is created for the services of scien-
tific men in a technical direction which it is very difficult
to meet, and which induces the student of Science to turn
his attention to the practical and remunerative rather than
to the theoretical aspect of his vocation. Many a man,
too, of genius for research is compelled by the sad neces-
sities of life to labour at the oar for the service of the
community, is drafted into the ranks of popular lecturers
to amuse the public with ready talk and brilliant experi-
ments, or spends a life which he would willingly devote
to scientific investigation as an officer of health, or an ana-
lytical and manufacturing chemist.

Such impediments, however, to the indulgence of men’s
higher tastes and desires, have their root in the very
organisation and necessities of modern society, and are
not peculiar to English life. But Science has in this
country one special difficulty to contend with—the utter
apathy in regard to the advancement of knowledge which
has so long prevailed at the English Universities, which,
without any doubt, is the main cause of our disasters.
In Germany the universities are the very centres of
intellectual progress ; and we might reasonably have
hoped that here also amid the distractions of
modern life these great institutions would have afforded
at least one refuge for science and learning, and have
supplied the few who might possess any exceptional capa-
city for these pursuits with the means of existence and
the means of work. Such, indeed, was undoubtedly the
main object to which these noble institutions were
destined by their founders, who equipped them with all
the appliances necessary for the cultivation of the know-
ledge of their day. But, unfortunately, they fell into
wrong hands, and the class to whose protection and care
these great interests were confided betrayed in every way
the trust committed to them; until at length abuses
reached such a point that, after a prolonged agitation,
university reformers succeeded in obtaining the inter-
ference of the Legislature in the form of the Executive

| Commission of 1854. The unsatisfactory way in which

this commission proceeded to remedy the evils com-
plained of is even now not generally understood.
When we consider the profound importance of learning
and scientific discovery, not alone to the material and
physical, but also to the intellectual and moral progress
of the nation, we might well have anticipated that in any
reform of the universities the first object of our statesmen
and legislators would have been to provide for these great
interests, and to restore the endowments of the university
in this respect to their ancient uses. But the commission
did nothing of the kind ; its efforts were mainly directed
to the suppression of pecuniary jobbery. But this having
been effected, the further changes which they introduced
proceeded upon the lowest possible estimate of the
functions of an University, which they appear to have

regarded not at all as a national instrument for the —

G

98

furtherance of knowledge, but simply as a superior kind
of Grammar School. Of the University, as thus under-
stood, pecuniary prizes were to be the motive power, and
competitive examination the regulating principle. The
resources of the colleges were dealt with from this point
‘of view. Numerous scholarships were founded for the
support of students, on a scale so extensive, that, as has
been computed, one-third of the students of Oxford are
thus subsidised during their University career. The
remainder and greater part of the endowments was nearly
all devoted to fellowships, varying in value from 200/. to
300/, ayear ; on these two objects it is estimated that at
least 120,000/. is annually expended by the colleges of
Oxford.

The fellowship which they thus created is indeed a
unique and singular institution. It is a life-estate con-
ferred by a corporate body, without exacting in return
any services whatever from its possessor, either to the
college or to the community at large; and the chief
result of the labours of the Executive Commission, whose
business it was to reform the University, was the establish-
ment of this gigantic system of sinecure pensions, conferred
upon young men in the prime and vigour of life, as the
reward of having passed a successful examination. When
the ordinances framed by the Commissioners come fully
into operation, there will be, in Oxford alone, about 300
sinecure fellowships.

In the arrangements of the Commissioners the most
contemptuous disregard was manifested for the interests
of science and learning. A few professorships of ancient
date founded by men of a very different stamp, which
the colleges had suppressed, were revived, but no real or
adequate provision was made even for the maintenance
of lecturers and professors necessary to carry on the
education of the place, and out of these vast funds, not
a sixpence was devoted to the advancement of knowledge
or the promotion of scientific or literary research, or
to the support of museums and laboratories.

These arrangements were not based upon any very
high estimate of human motives and desires, and it
would have been surprising indeed if an ideal University,
devoted to the interests of learning, knowledge, and truth,
shouid have sprung from such ashes, As a matter of fact,
complaints are heard on all sides of the futility of this
system, and the necessity of a redistribution of the college
endowments is widely felt. In this movement the Govern-
ment have taken the initiative by the appointment of a
Royal Commission to inquire into the revenues of the Uni-
versities and Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. These
revenues have never as yet been fully disclosed, but we
may anticipate that a good deal of surprise and even in-
dignation will be felt when the amplitude of these re.
sources is contrasted with the inadequate results attained
by them. Another contingency will then arise, to be de-
precated by every lover of knowledge, the possible aliena-
tion and dissipation of the noble inheritance of science
and learning which has been so inappropriately employed.

It was in connection with these questions and with the
view of considering the best application, in the interests of
mature study and scientific research, of the endowments
of the Universities and Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge
that the public meeting was held at the Freemasons’
- Tavern on November 16, of which the report appeared in

NATURE

I

Le ee ee ee ee
eS a a i a a a Eee

| Dec. 12, 1872
this journal on November 28. The spirit and purpose of
those present at this meeting will be best understood from
the resolutions passed by it. These resolutions were :—

1. That to have a class of men whose lives are devoted
to research is a national object.

2, That it is desirable, in the interest of national pro-
gress and education, that professorships and special
institutions shall be founded in the Universities for the
promotion of scientific research,

3. That the present mode of awarding fellowships as
prizes has been found unsuccessful as a means of pro-
moting mature study and original research, and that it
is desirable that it should be discontinued.

4. That a sufficient and properly organised body, of
resident teachers of various grades should be provided
from the Fellowship Fund.

The Society for the Organisation of Academical Study,
founded at this meeting, is constituted by no means in
the exclusive interests of the natural sciences, but for the
sake of the totality of knowledge. The apprehensions
which are felt in regard to the condition of research
in the physical sciences, are similarly and equally
felt in other departments of knowledge, and the
objects of this Society are such as to secure the good-will
and adhesion of every genuine student.. Much con-
sideration will be necessary to devise really practical
arrangements, by which such ideas may be carried out.
On this point the evidence of those distinguished persons 7
who have been examined before the Science Commission P:
will be of the greatest value ; but it is to be hoped that all
those who are familiar mae the requirements of the
several departments of Science will turn their serious
attention to the subject, and give to the Society the benefit —
of their co-operation and advice, with the view of here-
after laying before the Government an adequate and
practical scheme for the re-constitution of the Colleges
and Universities, not simply as educational bodies, but
as national foundations for the preservation and extension ~
of knowledge. B. C. BRODIE

’

THE METEOROLOGY OF THE FUTURE .
{* would be a curious inquiry which we commend to

those learned in statistics, to determine how. m a
millions of observations have been made in the British
Isles on dry and wet bulb thermometers, on barometers,
and on other meteorological instruments. It would be a
still more curious inquiry, seeing that the infinite industry
displayed in these observations shows that the importance
of the study of Meteorology is universally conceded, to —
determine why it is that meteorologists, state-endowed
and otherwise, have, as a rule, been content to grope their .
way in the dark, and not only not seek to find, but per- —
sistently refuse the clue, which, if followed, would bring
them into the light of day. When some one some cen-
turies hence—thank heavens, we have always that to look
to in all branches of research—comes to consider the work
done by meteorologists during the present century, he
will, unless he be some patient German Dryasdust deter-
mined to examine all minutes of Boards of Visitors, all
Kew Committee Records, and the like, give up the task
in the most utter despair, and on the whole perhaps er
is-the best thing that could happen.

“pis 14, 182)

Surely in Meteorology, as in Astronomy, the thing to

hunt down is a cycle, and if that is not to be found in the
temperate zone, then go to the frigid zones or the torrid

zones to look for it, and if found, then above all things,
and in whatever manner, lay hold of, study it, record it,
and see what it means, If there isno cycle, then despair
for a time if you will, but yet plant firmly your science on
a physical basis, as Dr, Balfour Stewart long ago sug-
gested, before, to the infinite detriment of English science,
he left the Meteorological: Observatory at Kew; and
having got such a basis as this, wait for results. In the
absence of these methods, statements of what is happen-
ing to a blackened bulb in vacuo, or its companion ex-
posed to the sky, is, for research pene, work of the
denth order of importance.

I said the thing to hunt down is a cycle. Now it may
Be asked,—Is there anywhere on earth a weather cycle?
but anyone who asks this question will at once answer
it himself—the question would certainly suggest the trade-
winds and monsoons, which are short-period cycles. But
is there anything more than this ?

When I was preparing to go to India last year to
observe the eclipse, Mr. Ferguson, the able editor of the
Ceylon Observer, who happened to be in London, was
good enough (he was good enough to us all afterwards, and
the Eclipse Expedition of 1871 have much tothank him for)
to give me much valuable local information about the
time of the year at which the monsoons broke up in the
island, Nor was this all; he added that everybody in
Ceylon recognised a cycle of about thirteen years or soin
the intensity of the monsoon—that the rainfall and cloudy
weather were more intense every thirteen years or so.
This of course set one interested in solar matters thinking,
and I said to him, “ But are you sure the cycle recurs every
thirteen years ; are you sure itis not every eleven years ?”
F adding as a reason that the sun-spot period was one of

eleven years or thereabouts, and that in the regular
~ weather of the tropics, if anywhere, this should come out.
This conversation Mr. Ferguson thought fit to re-
: produce i in the Cey/on Observer,and I have now lying before
~ me a cutting from a number of that paper I saw in India,
(unfortunately it is cut too much, for both date and writer’s
"mame are gone) from which I make the following extract,
“The period is not ¢hzrteen years but eleven (as Lockyer
states it). In the tropics, or at least, here in Ceylon,
where we enjoy the regular changes of the two monsoons,
5 the basic period runs five or six years dry, and five or six
years wet. These make e/even, and they form the medium
cycle of ¢hree—the grand cycle of thirty or thirty-three
years—being three periods of the eleven cycles. But I
- must premise here that though I adopt these figures as
noting a general run of cycle, itis by no means to be
expected that, always, these changes shall run with mathe-
matical correctness in given grooves, for there may be
thirteen at one time, and next Tg giving a grand
cycle of thirty or thirty-three years.”
It will be seen then, that those who are not professed me-
; teorologists recognise not only the eleven-year period in
the Ceylon rainfall, but possibly also a higher one still—
i that of thirty-three years. In the press of work that has
~ fallen | ‘upon me since my return to England, after my
three n months’ absence, I have been prevented from taking
the opinion of my meteorological friends upon this most

important matter; but now there comes evidence on
the question from an authority whose facts and opinions
at once settle the matter.

Mr. Meldrum, of the Mauritius, to whom belongs the
honour of having established that the number of cyclones
in the Indian Ocean and the West Indies varies with the
sun-spot area, has lately attacked the rainfall of the
Mauritius, Queensland, and Adelaide from the sun-
spot period point of view, with results which are simply
startling, although Mr. Meldrum very properly puts them
forward to stimulate further inquiry, and not as final.

Mr. Meldrum’s step from cyclones to rainfall is a very
obvious one, because it is well known that cyclones are
generally accompanied with torrential rains. The years,
therefore, in which cyclones are most frequent should
be more rainy than the years in which they are
less frequent. But Mr. Meldrum remarks, in his paper
communicated to the Meteorological Society of the
Mauritius, “to make the rainfall a fair test of the
existence of a periodicity of cyclones in the Indian Ocean
it would be necessary to know the annual rainfall over the
same area for the same length of time. If such rainfall
had no periodicity, we should have reason to doubt a
cyclone-periodicity ; but if there was a similar rain-peri-
odicity, it would, so far, be a confirmation of a cyclone-
periodicity.”

Accordingly, as it is impossible to determine the rain-
fall over the ocean, the law of the cyclones of which has
been approximately determined, there remains but one
course open, to observe the rainfall on the nearest points

of land. This is as follows for the above-named sta-
tions :—
BRISBANE. ADELAIDE. PORT LOUIS.
Years. Rainfall. Years. Rainfall Years. Rainfall
Inches. Inches. Inches.
1839 19'840
1840 24107
1841 17 956
1842 20°318
1843 17192
1844 16°878
1845 18°830
1846 26°885
1847 27°613
1848 19°735
1849 25°444
1850 19°274
1851 30°633
1852 27°3 {0
1853 -26°995 1853 39'829
1854 153401854 39°435
1855 23145 1855 42°665
1856 24°921 1856 46'230
1857 = 21156 1857 -43°445
1858 21°522 1858 35°500
1859 14342 1859 = 56°875
1860 54°63 +1860 19670 1860 45°165
1861 69°44 1861 68 733
1862 28°27 1862 28°397
1863 68°82 1863 33°420
1864 47°00 1864 24147
1865 24°11 1865 44'730
1866 37°24. 1866 20°571
1867 6104 1867 35970
1868 35:98 1868 64°180
1869 54°30 1869 = 54°575
1870 7906 1870 45°575
1871 45°45 1871 41610

100

Now, we know, to start with, that the years of minimum
and maximum sun-spot frequency were as follows :—

1833, 1844, 1856, 1867

Min. epochs oi Mette
eas 1837, 1848, 1860, 1871 (?)

BLA M5)
and Mr. Meldrum has shown that these years were also
those of minimum and maximum cyclone frequency.
Let us begin by examining the Port Louis Observations,
embracing nineteen years (1853-1871).

Taking the rainfall in each minimum and maximum
epochal year, and in one year on each side of it, Mr. Mel-
drum gets—

Years. Rainfall. Total Rainfall.
Tons 2 42°665

Min. 1850 ee) 4030 133°340
1857. « + 43°445
i 1859 . 56°875

Max. 41860 . . . 45°166 170°774
| 1361 scans 733
1866 . 20°571

Min. EOOY Japnuss >, £35:970 120°721
1868 . . . 64180

“ These figures show a marked excess of rainfall for the
thre years comprising the maximum sun-spot year
(1860), which was also the year of maximum cyclone
frequency.

“ Tf in place of one year, we take two years on each side
of the epochs, we shall get—

Years, Rainfall, Total Rainfall.
SEA. oe, ustalens BOSS
TORS: ¢ wes AzIODS

Min. 1856 ~ « 467230 207'281
1857 . . + 43°445
DOSS 357500
1858 . 357506
1859 . 56875

Max. J 1860 45°166 234 677
I86E % 1) «68733
1862s.» 20:397
1865 . 44°730
1866 . 20°571

Min. 4 1867 . 33'970 220'026
1868 . . . 64°180
1869 . -» + 54575

Here, again, a similar result is shown. It is not so well-
marked as the former one, partly owing, Mr. Meldrum
suggests, to the rain-gauge having been removed in
1866 to a temporary Observatory, where the rainfall was
probably somewhat greater.

“ So far, then, as the Port Louis observations enable us
to judge, it may be said that during the last twenty years
there has been a rainfall-periodicity corresponding with
the cyclone-periodicity in the Indian Ocean south of the
Equator.

“ This may be considered as confirmatory of the correct-
ness of the cyclone period ; for if the rainfall a¢ one sta-
tion shows a corresponding periodicity, much more should
a mean of the rainfall at many stations within the whole
cyclonic area do so.”

Mr. Meldrum next passes on to the Australian observa-
tions, remarking that, although Adelaide and Brisbane
are a long way outside the area for which the cyclone
period was determined, there also the rainfall tables seem
to point to a similar periodicity.

-

Pe Se ee ee ee Se en re > ~ eh oe
: re ey oo a. eee Se eee ea NG ever Re

NATURE

i

+

24 ua
(Dec. 12, 1872 >

The Adelaide twenty-two years’ observations give: =

Years. Rainfall, Total Rainfall. ‘
1843, «(5 jon pakoe

Min. < 1844 =. ») Jaieze 52'900
1845 .| . » %oe30
1847 27°613

Max. } 1848 . 19°785 72793
1849 . 25°444

: 1855 23°145 ,

Min. igeh aerate 24°921 69'222 ey

TOyi7. a= aae 217156

By taking five-year periods we get :—

Minimum= 109076 inches.
Maximum=118°95I_,,
Minimum=1Io6'090_—s—=»»

We next come to twelve years’ observations at Bris-
bane, for which science is indebted to Mr. Edmund
McDonnell. Comparing them with the Mauritius obser-
vations for the same period, we cannot but be struck with
a resemblance, which comes out still more forcibly when
we take three-year periods, thus :—

Years. Port Louis. Brisbane.
1860 45166 54°53 }
1861 68°733 7 142'296 69°44 152°34
1862 28°397 28°27 i
1863 33°420 68°82
1864 24°147 ? 102'297 47°00 13993
1865 44°730 2411
1866 20°571 * 37°24
1867 35°970 7 120'721 61°04 134'26
1868 64°180 35°98
1869 54°575 ) 54°36
1870 45°575 ¢141'760 79°06 178°87
1871 41010 § 45°45

At both stations the epoch of minimum rainfall is co-
incident, or nearly so, with the epoch of minimum
amount of cyclones, which is itself coincident with the
minimum amount of sun-spots ; and that at, or near, the
maximum of sun-spots and cyclones, we have also a
maximum amount of rainfall.

Mr. Meldrum’s important paper concludes as follows ;—
“ From what has been said it will, I think, be admitted that —
at least a case of supposed periodicity of rainfall has been
made out, and that it is highly desirable that the matter”
should be further investigated. This can be done chiefly
by long-continued observation under the same conditions
as to locality, size of gauge, &c., and perhaps to some
extent by ascertaining, if not the actual rainfall, at least
the years remarkable for the comparative absence or —
abundance of rain in former times. :

“Jt should be remarked that some localities are
probably much more favourable than others for showing
the operation of a general law of this kind; for there
may be local causes affecting the rainfall so powerfully
as to completely mask the effect of a weaker but more
general cause ; and therefore it would be no proof of the ;
non-existence of a connection between rainfall and sun-
spots to show that the observations taken at such and —
such places were not in conformity with the supposed
periodicity. : tae!

“We should be inclined to think that the best mode of
testing the matter would be to obtain records of obser-
vations carefully made for a long period in some of the
islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, for examples

far removed from the disturbing influence of Continents,
and then to take a mean of all the observations.

“The Adelaide and Brisbane observations would seem
to indicate a rainfall-periodicity altogether independent
of a cyclone-periodicity, both being apparently the natural
consequences of one and the same law. But it would be
rash to say more at present, and I should wish it to be
understood that the object of this paper is simply to
stimulate further inquiry.”

Since Mr. Meldrum’s results have reached me, I have
tested the Cape and Madras rainfall, to see if the same
result is to be got from them, and with the following
results :— .

Cape. Inches.
f 1847 ae 22'4)
Max. 1848 bine 23'2 res
( 1849 OV ee a 230
1854 wet apts 20'°0
Min 1855 nee “24°5 ¢ 63'9
1856 raat e 194
1859 Tae 36°7
Max. 1859 Peet 29'I ( 91'2
1851 25°4
1866 ag 19'2
Min. 1867 =ase 22'9 ¢ 62'0
1868 J 199
1869 32°3 t nt
Max. | 1870 28° 62°3
(For two years only)

From the Madras observations at my disposal only one
maximum and one minimum can be given :—

Cape. Inches.
1843 ce ice & 410 )
Min. 1844 cy nt ay 45°0? 125
1845 Rae 39'0 |
1847 cera 81'0
Max. 1848 oe 40°0 ( 175
1849 irons 54'0

Surely here is evidence enough, evidence which should
no longer allow us to deceive ourselves as to the present
state of meteorology. A most important cycle has been
discovered, analogous in most respects to the Saros
discovered by the astronomers of old, Indeed, in more
respects than one, may the eleven-yearly period be called
the Saros of meteorology, and as the astronomers of
old were profoundly ignorant of the true cause of the
Saros period, so the meteorologists of the present day
are profoundly ignorant of the true nature of the con-
nection between the sun and the earth.

What, therefore, is necessary in order to discover the
true nature of this nexus? Two things are necessary, and
they are these. In the first place, we must obtain an
accurate knowledge of the currents of the sun, and
secondly, we must obtain an accurate knowledge of the
currents of the earth. The former of these demands the
united efforts of photography and spectrum analysis, and
the second of these demands the pursuit of meteorology
as a physical science, and notas a mere collection of
weather statistics. When these demands are met—and
in spite of the Mrs. Partingtons who are endeavouring to
prevent this, they will soon be met—we shall have a
Science of Meteorology placed on a firm basis—the

Meteorology of the Future.
) J. NORMAN LOCKYER

a”
NATURE

Iot

HARTING’S HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS

A Handbook of British Birds. Showing the distribution
of the resident and migratory species in the British
Islands, with an Index to the records of the rarer visi-
tants. By J. E. Harting, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 8vo. Pp. 198.
(London ; Van Voorst.)

R. HARTING’S “ Handbook of British Birds” will
be of much use as an easy work of reference to
the many students of the feathered tribes of these islands,
although it can only be employed as a supplement to one
of the standard authorities on the same subject. It con-
sists of two parts—first, a list of the British birds, properly
so called, being residents, periodical migrants, and annual
visitants ; and, secondly, a list of rare and accidental
visitants. In the former part a short account of the dis-
tribution of the species within the British Islands is given ;
in the latter a complete list of a//the recorded occurrences
of the species within the same limits. In the latter cas
the list seems to have been very carefully compiled, and
will be of great use to the collector, who, without it, would
have to refer to a dozen different journals and periodicals,
in order to ascertain how often any “rare visitant” had
been previously noticed.

Mr. Harting’s estimate of the total number of “ British
birds,” ordinarily so-called, is 395, being 43 more than
that of the third edition of Yarrell’s History. “ Of these,
in round numbers, 130 are Residerts, 100 Periodical
Migrants, and 30 Annual Visitants, the remainder beinz
Rare and Accidental Visitants.” The last-named cate-
gory, it will be observed, forms a large proportion of the
total number of species usually included in the British
list, being at the preseat time 135 out of 395, or rather
more than one-third of the whole, And this is a propor-
tion which is certain to be considerably increased as time
progresses, not a year passing without the arrival of one
or more stragglers from distant lands, the occurrence of
which has not been previously recorded.

The composition of the “ Accidental ” list is a matter of
considerable interest. Mr. Harting classes 14 as Asiatic,
11 as African, and no less than 43 as American. “It is
extremely difficult,” our author remarks, “ to believe that
the non-aquatic species of the last category have actually
journeyed across the Atlantic, and performed a journey of
1,700 miles on the shortest route, vid Newfoundland ;
but that most of them have actually done so seems proved
by the fact that they have never been met with in Green-
land, Iceland, and the Faroe Isles (the only countries
through which they would otherwise have passed by a
change of route) ; and that many which have thus found
their way to England or Ireland (as, for example, Age/eus
pheniceus, Cuculus americanus, CeryleAlcyon, Egialitis
vociferus, Totanus solitarius, Tringa bonapartit, Botaurus
lentiginosus, and others) have never been met with on
any part of the European continent. As might be ex-
pected, at least half the American species found in this
country belong to the orders Grallatores and Natatores,
while of the fourteen species of Insessorial birds, none of
them, with the exception of Ageleus phaniceus, has oc-
curred half-a-dozen times. This plainly shows that their
appearance on this side of the Atlantic is the merest
accident, and not the result of any continued and suc-
cessful attempt at migration, In some instances, at

102

>

least, it is not unreasonable to suppose that these small
birds must have availed themselves, to a great extent, of
the rigging of passing vessels, or have been brought to
this country in cages, from which they have been allowed,
accidentally or designedly, to escape.”

As regards the nomenclature and arrangement of the
birds contained in his lists, Mr. Harting has not, we think,
been quite so successful as in his accounts of their range
and of their occurrences in the British Islands, The
American Cuckoos are certainly not referable to typical
Cuculus, and ought to stand as Coccyzi. LEvrithacus (not
Erythaca) is the correct spelling for the generic name of
the Red-breast, as any Latin dictionary will show. Th=
Hirundinidz are typical Passeres,and should not be placed
between the Bee-eaters and Swifts, as Mr. Harting pro-
poses (p. 35). The Ibises should not be referred to
the family “Tantalide.” Tantalus is nothing more or
less than a form of Stork, and should be placed under
the Ciconiide ; whilst the Spoonbills (arranged by Mr.
Harting as an independent family, really appertain to the
group of Ibises (Ibididae), The interposition of the Cranes
between the Storks and Herons is most unnatural.
There can be no question that the nearest relatives of the
Grues are the Bustards and Rails. What can be the ob-
ject of inventing such a family as the Petrocinclide (p.
99)? The Spine-tailed Swift is by no means a Cyfselus,
as Mr. Harting calls it (p. 127), but belongs to a dif-
ferent sub-division of the Cypselidz, distinguished by the
structure of its feet. Lastly, when such excellent genera
as Coccyzus and Chetura are rejected, it is going a little
too far to follow Coues and Bonaparte in adopting such
a mere section of Procellaria as 4 strelata,

It would not be difficult to extend our criticisms in this
direction, but it is only fair to say that such minor defects
will not seriously interfere with the great usefulness of Mr.
Harting’s “ Handbook of British Birds.”

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Clematis as a Garden-Flower. By Thomas Moore,
F.L.S., and George Jackman, F.R.H.S. (London:
Murray.)

A NOTICE of a book of this kind may at first sight seem
out of place in a scientific periodical. Those stray threads,
however, of biological investigation which have at various
times attracted curiosity rather than study, and have, at
‘any rate, been for the first time methodised in Dar-
win’s “ Animals and Plants under Domestication,” will
depend upon works of this kind for their further develop-
ment. It is hardly generally understood that the produc-
tion of what are called in popular language, “‘ Florists’
flowers” rests on two perfectly different principles and
methods of procedure. The one is obvious enough; it
may be calied an accelerated natural selection, consisting
as it does of merely growing on a very large scale the
plant which it is desired to improve, and then selecting
repeatedly from the sports which are sure to occur those
which conform most nearly to some preconceived standard.
But the other and far less thoroughly understood method
consists in destroying the fixity of ancestral type by per-
sistent and involved hybridising. At first the hybrids are,
as might be expected, intermediate between their parents ;
after a time, however, the seedlings from crosses exhibit
variations of habit and characters which could not possibly
be expected, and which, consequently, make the business
of raising new horticultural varieties almost as speculative
‘as a lottery. Florists’ flowers are, consequently, the ex-

NATURE

~S
25
7

“[Dec. 12, 187

pression of the action of laws of which we at present know
next to nothing, but the investigation of which is of the
highest interest. The only possible way of pursuing it
is obviously the careful comparison of a hybrid offspring
with its various progenitors, somewhere amongst which
the latent characters must lurk concealed which reveal
themselves often so unexpectedly. A book of this kind is
naturally, therefore, turned to in the expectation of its
supplying facts of the kind required. A difficulty, how-
ever, diminishes, as in other cases, its value in this respect.
Horticulturists, as a body, are far from unsympathetic
towards scientific inquiry ; but business operations cannot
always be carried on in a scientific spirit. When crosses
are made for the purpose of producing new forms, it is
generally done on a large scale, and quite promiscuously, ©
merely avoiding what practical tact points out as unde-
sirable strains. No record is kept, and the seeds are often
sown in a single batch ; consequently, if a striking variety
makes its appearance, it is often all but impossible, as for
trade purposes it is not necessary, to assign to it its proper
ancestry. Take, for example, a garden Clematis, named
after its producer, C. Fackmannz (botanically, by the way,
a hardly legitimate appellation). All that can be certainly
said of it is that, amongst others, C. Viticed/a and C. lanu-
ginosa hold a prominent place in its ancestry. The first
is a European species producing an abundance of mode-
rate-sized, rather dark-coloured flowers. The latter is a
native of Japan, producing large pale-coloured flowers
rather sparingly ; it is the parent, more or less remote,
of most of the garden hybrids raised within the past ten
years, It is from these sources, therefore, with proba-

bility, that C. ¥ackmanni derives its good qualities. In

another hybrid, where, it having been raised by an ama-_
teur horticulturist, the history is known, the relation of ~
the qualities of parents and offspring is all but inexpli-

cable.
already alluded to, which bears pale lilac flowers as much
as eight inches across, with C. Fortunez, also of Japanese
origin, with white flowers rather smaller and of a different
character. He obtained, amongst other forms, C. Law-
soniana, which possesses flowers as much as wine and ahalf
inches across, and of a vosy purple; yet it could not pos-
sibly owe either its size or colour to its immediate parents,
That questions of this kind should be dealt with in what
is after all a purely horticultural work, is a striking proof
of how little reason there really is to despair about the
general interest excited by scientific work. The whole of
horticulture is, in a sense, a vast field of biological research,
with results all ready to hand, It is due entirely to Mr.
Darwin that the attempt has been made to gather them
in. Perhaps the authors will hardly care, at least at
present, to have their book stigmatised as too scientific.
It contains all that can be desiderated of the pure garden-
ing of its subject, and is capitally illustrated with plain
and coloured illustrations, TO ne

Synopses of Subjects taught in the Geological Class, a

College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Uni-
versity of Durham. By David Page, LL.D., F.G,S,
(Edinburgh and London: Messrs. Blackwood.)

THESE Synopses are most comprehensive, and will, we
are sure, be of some value to students and science-
teachers. They embrace the subjects taught in the junior
and senior divisions of Dr. Page’s class. In the former
division the subjects follow each other thus :—Physical
Geology, Elements of Biology, Physical Geology and
Lithology, and Descriptive and Historical Geology.
Under the heading of “Senior Division,” we find Phy-
sical Geology and Mineralogy, Mineralogy, Descriptive
Geology and Palzontology, Paleontology, and Economic
Geology. The Synopses are characterised by the same
clearness and precision for which Dr. Page’s text-books
are so justly noted. On glancing over the pages, we were
surprised tofind in the “Tabular Synopsis of European For-

2, 1872

Mr. Anderson Henry crossed C. lanuginosa —

mations” a “ Metamorphic System” underlying the Lauren-
tian, and an“ Azoic Cycle,’ preceding the Paleozoic,
Now there may be a Metamorphic System of older date
than the Laurentian rocks, and strata deposited during
“ Azoic” times may also exist; but at present we have
no knowledge either of the one or the other. Murchison,
we thought, had settled once and for ever that the
crystalline schists of the Scottish Highlands were of
post-cambrian age. © ine xe

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
' by his c ondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications.| —

The Wational Herbarium

PERMIT me, in your columns, to give shortly the grounds upon
_ which I made the statement that no herbarium of any kind ex-

~ isted at Kew Gardens during the time of the Aitons, but that the
Banksian Herbarium was often, and for a long time systemati-
cally, used for naming the Kew plants (NATURE, Oct. 3, 1872,

. 450), which statement is thus dealt with by Dr. Hooker
Teaena: Oct. 24, 1872, p. 516):—“ Nor was the naming of
the Kew plants carried out in London, as is supposed. There
was a large herbarium in constant use at the Royal Gardens at
the very period alluded to, the breaking up of which, when it
Was proposed to give up the Gardens, necessitated the formation
of another.” Pe:

Instead of my statement heing a supposition, it was hased ‘on
the following data :—1. The lists of the plants sent up from Kew
Gardens to be named by Solander when Curator of the Banksian
Herbarium, which were duly entered in the “garden book,” still
preserved in the Botanical Department here. 2. The continuance
of this practice to a recent date, as evidenced by the following
article in the engagement between Mr. Brown (Solander’s suc-
cessor in the Banksian Herbarium) and the trustees of the
British Museum when he became keeper of this department in
June 1872, “‘that Mr. Brown have full liberty to assist the
Superintendent of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, in like
manner as during the lifetime of Sir Joseph Banks.” 3. The
specific statements in several official reports of the late Sir W.
J. Hooker, such as this from-one dated 31st December, 1854 :—
“* Till 1853 our garden was utterly destitute of the two former
appendages,” viz., an herbarium and library. arte
~ I was surprised to read Dr. Hooker's declaration that his evi-
dence is “ unequivocally opposed” to the transfer of the collection
of dead plants from the British Museum to Kew. In this case I
have completely misunderstood his position in the repeated
attempts that have been made to destroy the scientific position of
the National Herbarium at the British Museum. In 1858, when
the trustees of the Museum were induced to inquire into the
necessity for the existence of the herbarium in London, they ex-
amined Dr. Hooker among other witnesses, and in their finding
they say, “‘Sir W. Hooker, Dr. J. Hooker, and Dr. Lindley
have given reasons in favour of the removal of the collections
from the British Museum to Kew, with the view of rendering
that establishment more complete.” Other testimony, however,
had more weight, and so they were ‘‘ unanimously of opinion
that it is not desirable to recommend the translation of the
botanical collection from the-British Museum to Kew.” (Return,
House of Commons, 1859, No. 126, p. 12.) Ten years after, in
the memorial presented through the Board of Works to the trus-
_ tees, Dr. Hooker proposed that a ‘‘ Reference Herbarium,”

‘consisting of the ‘‘ British Museum Herbarium, /nws the speci-
mens required for Kew” should be kept at the Museum for the
use of ‘botanists, geologists, amateurs and others resident in

London, or passing through it, who may want information which

at would not be worth their while going to Kew to procure.”
“And more recently, in his evidence before the Science Commis-
ssioners, Dr. Hooker repeats this proposal with somewhat more
of detail. The great scientific working herbarium to which all
botanists should come should be at Kew (Q. 6,683). To secure
“this, “the two herbaria should be arranged under one head”
4Q. 6,685). ‘I could bring the collection under one system”
{Q. 6,730). It would be the duty of the first herbarium in the

country (?.e. Kew) to supply the British Museum (Q. 6,745).
The specimens, ‘‘on their arrival at the British Museum, could
be put into their places by the officers there, the Operation being
as simple as that of putting books on a shelf ;” and in future “a
subordinate could intercalate the additions ” (Q. 6,732).

No doubt these proposals (excluding that made in 1858, on the
death of Mr. Brown, and before the appointment of Mr. Bennett},
contemplate the maintenance of a collection of dead plants ia
London. But a collection from which ‘‘all specimens of interest
only to the scientific botanist have been removed to Kew”
(NATURE, vol. iii. p. gor), and consisting only of the worthless
duplicates of the two amalgamated herbaria, would be utterly
useless for scientific purposes, and its maintenance would unques-
tionably be a waste of public money.

I will only add, that there is certainly nothing to prevent Dr,
Hooker “‘ recruiting” the British Museum Herbarium from that
at Kew to any extent, at once, and without the intervention of a
Royal Commission. It is quite certain that the trustees and my
predecessors, like myself, would have welcomed sets of the
numerous collections, made at the expense of the British Govern-
ment, which have been distributed from Kew to “ America,
Paris, Austria, Prussia, Hanover, Holland,” &c., but none of
which have ever been sent to the National Herbarium at the
British Museum ! W. CARRUTHERS

British Museum, Dec, 2

THERE is no inconsistency between Sir W. Hooker’s state-
ment, quoted by Mr. Carruthers, that ‘‘till 1853 our garden was
utterly destitute” of an herbarium and library, and mine that in
the Aitons’ time there was a large herbarium here, kept up for
naming the garden collections. Sir W. Hooker of course re-
ferred to the period during which the gardens had been public
property. - The herbarium in question was broken up when Kew
ceased to be a private estabiishment. The words quoted by
Mr. Carruthers ought hardly in fairness to be detached from the
context. Sir W. Hooker’s meaning was, of course, that the
gardens, as a public department, possessed, till 1853, no official
herbarium or library. He goes on to speak of his own private
ones, by means of which the work of the garden had been
carried on ever since he became director, and which, having at
his death been purchased by the Government, form, with
those presented by Mr. Bentham and others, the foundation of
the present collections.

It is necessary to mention this, as otherwise Mr. Carruthers?
quotation might lead anyone unacquainted with the facts to sup-
pose that the work of Kew Gardens up to 1853 had been con-
ducted without any herbarium or library whatever.

Mr. Carruthers is mistaken in implying that I ever suggested
the supplying the British Museum with ‘worthless duplicates ”
from Kew; and equally so in stating that ‘‘none” of the collec-
tions distributed here have ever been sent to the British Museum.
Such an assertion is no encouragement to send more. Nor does
the fact that no return of any kind has ever been made by the
British Museum for some thousands of specimens that have been
sent to it from Kew, offer much inducement to continue such
gifts. Itis the clear duty of this, as of other similar establishments,
to distribute its duplicates to such institutions as exert themselves
to make a suitable return. This is the case with the Herbaria
of America, Russia, Prussia, Holland, &c., and, in fact, with all
kindred establishments with which Kew corresponds. It is the
acquisition by this means of authenticated specimens from almost
every seat of botanical research, which more especially gives to
the National Herbarium of Kew Gardens the incomparable
Position it now holds. Jos. D. Hooker

Royal Gardens, Kew, Dec. 3

The Meteoric Shower

WHILE the observations of the recent meteoric shower con-
tinue to attract general attention, the following notes of some
descriptions of the display that have reached me, which will con-
tribute useful results for comparison with published accounts of
the phenomenon that have already appeared, will, perhaps, be
interesting to your readers :—

On the nights immediately preceding that of the star-shower
the sky was at some places unclouded, and observations of
meteors were recorded. The large meteor described in a recent

i, ys ee
ore

104

Nis eo ee Syn re &

NATURE

°, r

| Dec. 12, 1872

t= -
Os EN =m!
‘

I

number of NATURE as having been seen by Mr, Denning at
Bristol on the evening of the 23rd ult., as well as a single other
shooting star noted during a watch of the sky whenever it was
clear by the same observer on that evening, seem, from their appa-
rent courses, to have been both possibly directed from the now
well-known radiant point of the meteors of Biela’s comet, but
only a small number of shooting stars appears to have been
visible on that night. During a watch for ten minutes, kept at
four different times between half-past 7 and half-past 9 P.M. on
the following evening, near Regent’s Park, in London, Mr. H.
W. Jackson observed, in each watch, a shooting star as bright
as a first-magnitude star directed in each case from the recently
determined radiant point ; while, with an equally uncloudy sky,
on the following evening of the 25th, three small meteors from
the same radiant point, and two brighter ones from other direc-
tions, were seen by Mr. Denning at Bristol between 8 and 11
P.M. in two intervals of a watch for half an hour. A small
meteor of the same stream was recorded by Mr. Denning on the
26th, but their numbers on this, as on the previous nights, were
evidently inconsiderable, a clear view of the sky on the night of the
26th, between 11h. 20m. and 12h. 4om., affording Mr. Jackson, at
Tooting, no observation ofa single meteor. The time of first
approach and commencement of the bright star-shower seen on
the evening of the 27th ult. must therefore have been later than
shortly before 1 o’clock on the previous morning. A completely
overcast state of the sky after midnight on the night of the shower
appears to have prevented observations ofits close, and probably
of its complete extinction on that night, after the greatly-
diminished intensity which it had then attained; but a corre-
spondent in London informs me that, in spite of the densely
overcast state of the sky, which prevented any view of the
~ shower from being obtained in the metropolis, an ex-
ceedingly bright meteor was seen to flash like lightning
through the clouds at about 4 o'clock, AM., on the
28th. On the evening of the 28th Mr. Greg watched for
shooting stars, and for any remnants of the star-shower of the
previous evening which might be visible, at Buntingford, in
Herts ; but although the sky was quite clear he failed to see any
meteors. A strict watch for outlying meteors of the shower was
also kept by two observers at Hawkhurst, in Kent, on the even-
ing of the 28th, where the sky was quite cloudless between 9h.
and 1th, 15m. P.M., but without success, only four shooting
stars of ordinary character being visible during more than two
hours of their simultaneous watch. An interval of about forty-
four hours is thus clearly determined in which the first indica-
tions of the star-shower must have arisen, reaching the maximum
of its intensity towards the middle of the period, and disappear-
ing so completely before its termination as to leave the whole
expanse of the sky almost as perfectly free from shooting stars
as it was before its commencement.

In addition to the early appearance of the shower recorded in
Nature of the 5th inst. as having been seen near Dublin, I
have received the following communications from observers
relating to its early visibility and abundance. At Brancepeth,
near Durham, Mr. Joseph Lawson first began to count the
meteors at 5 o'clock, and continued to enumerate them until,
towards 7 o’clock, their constantly increasing frequency obliged
him to desist. During the last half hour of his estimation the
rate of their appearance was about ten per minute, while a total
number of 1,000 meteors was counted between 5 and 7 o’clock.
The rate of their appearance in the first was thus little less than
that of their appearance in the latter portion of his watch. Mr.
S. J. Miller, at Wisbeach, first noticed the abundance of shoot-
ing stars at 5h. 4om., and counted in three minutes twenty
meteors, or about six or seven per minute. Soon after this, at
about 6 o'clock, their number was ten or twelve per minute.
During their appearance before 6 o'clock, Mr. Wood,
at Birmingham, considered them to be falling from
5h. 45m. when he first observed them, at a rate of about
fifteen per minute, while the result of his enumeration
between 6h. and 7h. was at least 600 meteors, and in occa-
sionalintervals between 6h. and 7h. 15m., when the sky became
gradually overcast, the average rate of appearance was found to
be increasing nearly uniformly from 8 to 10 per minute, showing
that the intensity of the display before 6 o’clock was little
inferior to the maximum which it appears afterwards to have
gradually attained. At York the first attempt to estimate their
numbers was made by Mr. T. H. Waller, at 5.30 o’clock, when
the meteors were found to be appearing at the rate of 12 or 15
per minute. At 6 o’clock their numbers had increased to about

20, and at 7 o'clock to about 30 or 40 per minute for one

observer. At 8 o’clock the best determination of their numbers

was however obtained by two of Mr. Waller’s scholars, who,

standing back to back, counted 79 meteors in Im. I5s. or 31

meteors per minute for each observer. The principal maxima

of the shower at about 6h. jom., and 8h. 15m. P.M., as mostly
clearly shown by the continuous observations of Mr. Lowe at

Highfield House, and by Prof. Grant, who was assisted in his

observations at the Glasgow Observatory by Prof. G. Forbes, are

also generally indicated by the observations which I have re-
ceived, and the gradual diminution of the shower after 9 o’clock
was observed at Newcastle-upon-Tyne as well as by some of
the observers who combined in their watch for its appear-
ance for the British Association. The frequency of the
meteors after 9 o’clock was regarded by Mr. Wood as not more
than a quarter of what it was at about 6 o’clock, when they were
first seen, yet these numbers continued for some time to be con-
siderable and quite unusual, Near Rothbury, in Northumber-
land, repeated estimations of their abundance were made by Mr.

G. A. Lebour in different parts of the sky, and at different times

between the hours of 7 and 10 o’clock, with the following

results :—
From 7! 20™ to 7h 28™ 100 meteors falling perpendicularly
in the west (the east cloudy).

100 meteors falling vertically in the

east (the west cloudy).

7 48 100 ” ”

9 15 Meteors too numerous to count at
gh., falling in showers at 9h. 15m.,
especially in the north ; one bright
red with beautiful red streak,
which lasted more than Io seconds.

Meteors still falling, but in smaller
numbers.
In 20 minutes after 10 o’clock 35 meteors were seen by one

observer in a clear part of the sky, which scarcely exceeded a

quarter of the sky. In 10 minutes after 11 o'clock ten meteors —

only were counted in the same space, and in 20 minutes after 12

o'clock 9 meteors only could be seen. The rate of decrease of

the shower from shortly before 10 o’clock until after midnight
was thus apparently more rapid, and the decline of its intensity
appears to have been considerably more complete than the first
brightness and progress of its gradual increase may be concluded
to have been during the earliest hours of its observation,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Dec. 7 A. S. HERSCHEL

7 35

7 45
yn)

7 40

I0 oO

The De Novo Production of Living Things

WILL you allow me to ask Dr. Bastian to state in your
columns, in reply to this note, the specific gravity of the turnip
infusion, to which a “fragment” of cheese has been added, and
which, he states, has rarely failed to give him positive results ia
his endeavours to obtain evidence of the de ovo production of
living things from dead matter. If Dr. Bastian should be un-
able to give the specific gravity of the infusion, perhaps he will
be so good as to state accurately the weights of water, turnip,
and cheese employed. Iam, of course, acquainted with the
directions he has already given, but wish to avoid any objection
from him or others on the score of improper preparation of the
infusion to results which I may obtain and publish.

E. Ray LANKESTER

Exeter College, Oxford, Dec.7

The Birth of Chemistry

Your correspondent, ‘‘ A. H.,” in alluding to my mention of
the /usule Cassiterides, inquires whether the name was derived
from a Sanskrit source. The word xastrepos is used both by
Homer and Hesiod, and it is possible that it may have been
borrowed from the Sanskrit Zastira, and that tin was first pro-
cured from India, The Sanskrit word for tin— sastira—is clearly
related to the verb 4ds, to shine. It is strange that the Arabic
word for tin is £dsd7r, closely resembling the Sanskrit, although
there is no family relationship between the languages, Possibly
the Pheenicians first procured tin from India, and gave it a
name resembling its native name Aastira ; then the Greeks con-
verted the Phoenician word into kacotrepos, the Romans bor-
rowed the word from the Greeks, and the fact of the scarce

metal being found in certain islands north of Spain was sufficient
to secure for them the distinctive title of Jvsule Cassiterides, or

Tin Islands. G. F. RoDWELL

The Greenwich Date

Unper this heading, in your numberfor Nov. 28, a letter
signed ‘* James Pearson” ends thus :—‘ The query then is—in
what part of the globe and in what meridian does October 20
end and October 21 begin?” As well ask where a circle ends
and where it begins. See an article at the end of Bayle’s Dic-
tionary, entitled, in the second Rotterdam edition, 1702, ‘‘ Disser-
tation sur le jour,” vol, iii. p. 3118 ; in the London edition, 1741,
** Dissertation concerning the Space of Time-called Day,” vol. x.
p. 365. The difficulty, as Bayle shows, is in the nature of
things. Let an equatorial railroad go round the world in twenty-
four hours, with a station at every 45th meridian. At noon of
October 20, Mr. West takes ‘‘a return ticket”? westward ; Mr.
East takes one eastward. Both reckon by solar time. At every
station Mr. West finds it noon, and on his return home reckons
noon October 20 ; but the station-master reckons noon October
21. Mr. East at 45° sees the sun set at 60’clock. At 90° he
finds midnight ; at 1 3 the sun rises at 6 o’clock on October 21 ;
at 180° it is noon. ere the two passengers pass each other,
Mr. West reckoning it to be noon of October 20, Mr. East noon
of October 21. At 135° W., Mr. East sees the sun set 5 at 90°
he finds midnight ; at 45° the sun rises at 6 o’clock on October
22, Onhis return home Mr. East reckons it to be noon of
October 22. Here then are three different reckonings, and prac-
tically the keeping of Sunday, Christmas Day, &c., on different
days in different countries exists at this instant and must exist for
ever. Practically also those who sail eastward round the world
get one more dinner than those who stay at home. Those who
sail westward round the world get one dinner less than those
who stay at home, and two dinners less than those who sail east-
ward, when both voyages are completed. ;

GEORGE GREENWOOD
Brookwood Park, Alresford, Nov. 30

Mr. Pearson’s query, in NATURE of November 28, does not
admit of any exact or scientific answer, for there is no natural line
vof demarcation or change, and the settlement is entirely a matter
of usage or convenience. It is not very many years since the
dates at Manilla and Macao were different; and till the cession
of the Alaska Territory to the Americans, the date there was
different from that in the British Territory adjoining. The rule
now generally held is, that places in E. long. date as if they were
arrived at by the Cape of Good Hope, and places in W. long. as if
they were reached via Cape Horn—a rule that the width of the
Pacific renders practically convenient. Afloat, the rule is for a
ship making a passage to change her date on crossing the meridian
of 180°, or as soon after as the captain may find convenient ;
repeating or omitting a day, according to the direction in which
she is going ; but a ship merely cruising across the meridian,
with the intention of returning, does not generally change her
date, so that ships having different dates may and do. occasion-
ally meet—a very marked instance of which occurred during the
Russian war, when our squadron from the Pacific joined the
China squadron on the coast of Kamschatka.

And thus, according to established usage, October 21 at Ade-
laide, and October 21 at the hypothetical place in gh. 35m. W.
long., are different days; in the two places October 21 has a
different meaning. J. K. Laucuton

Royal Naval College, Dec. 1

THE Rey. J. Pearson is correct in the method of finding the
corresponding Greenwich date, although its numerical perfor-
mance is incorrectly performed in his letter,

It is absolutely necessary for practical purposes to draw the
line somewhere, and it is drawn in England an her colonies as
well as in America and Russia, at the meridian 180° E. of
Greenwich. The limit, therefore, of the longitude to be added
to or subtracted from the Greenwich date will not exceed twelve
hours.

_ It is usual for sailors, when crossing this meridian, to skip a
day, or to reckon the same day over again, according as the
meridian has been reached from the eastward or westward.

105

An instance of this apparent anomaly is furnished in the
Appendix to the “ Nautical Almanac” for 1874. The time of
the phenomenon of the transit of Venus over the sun’s disc takes
place generally about December 8, 16h. Greenwich astronomical
time. Its recorded local astronomical time for the middle of the
transit at Auckland, New Zealand (long. 174° 42’ E.), is Decem-
ber 9, 3h, 40m. ; but for Woahoo (long. 158° W.) the time of
the first, contact of Venus with the sun’s limb takes place at
December 8, 3h.°4°7m: EpWARD ROBERTS

Blackheath Road, Greenwich, Dec. 2

Comets’ Tails

CaN any of your readers refer me to a work by a recognised
authority in astronomy in which I can find the method by which
the direction of a comet's tail, as regards that of the heliocentric
radius-vector of the head, has been calculated from observation ?
Or, more briefly, have we axy proof whatever that there is other
than an occasional chance coincidence of these two directions ?

Gas

REMARKS ON THE ZOOLOGY OF THE
FAROE ISLANDS

AS I have already announced in this paper, I started
with the Danish expedition in September from
Copenhagen, and arrived after a very fortunate voyage of
four days in Torshavn, the little capital of Faroe in the
isle of Str6m6. There I intended to remain while our
steamer, with the geologists and engineers, went to the
southern island (Suderé), where the miocene coal deposits
are to be seen some hundred feet above the level of the
sea in the basaltic rocks near the village of Qualb6. As
to their researches about the extension of the coal-fields
in Suderé, directed by Prof. Johnstrup, and as to the pos-
sibility of taking the coals over to Copenhagen at a reason-
able price, I cannot say anything now, as the report must -
first be made to the Minister of the Interior, who will per-
haps afterwards publish the results. Some words, however,
about my own zoological researches in Torshavn will, I
think, have some interest for the readers of NATURE.

I remarked in my preceding paper that no wild
mammals were known to occur in the islands, except
some species of the genus,Mus. This is, as I now
know, not quite correct ; for some thirty or forty years
ago the northern hare (Lepus a/pinus) was introduced into
the islands, and it seems to have met with very favourable
conditions of life, as it is now spread in considerable
numbers over Strém6, and has also been brought to
Oester6. The hare finds ample food in the grasses cover-
ing the ground ; the large rocks spread everywhere pro-
tect him, and no mammals or birds of prey endanger his
life, with the exception of Corvus corax, or the little alco
aesalon, which sometimes might take the younger ones.
The occurrence of the Masco tslandicus is too rare to do
any serious damage to the hares. Besides these, they
have also endeavoured to introduce the “ripers” (Zetrao
lagopus) so common in Iceland and Norway, but those
set free have perished without breeding. These birds
require food and protection from trees, which, as it is
known, do not occur in these islands.

The rats found in the northern islands of Faroe (al-
though they have not yet come to all the islands) be-
long to the species Mzs decumanus, which here, as
nearly everywhere in Europe, has nearly destroyed the
smaller black rat (1/us rattus), still, however, to be found
in some houses of Suderé. In the “ fields” still another
species of rat is said to occur, not heretofore seen by
naturalists. Mr. Randrop of Torshavn, who has taken great
trouble in order to secure a specimen of the animal, the
footsteps of which he has seen, thinks it is the Lemmus
norvegicus, but he could never get it. Among the large
aquatic mammals the “ Grindehval” (Delphinus globiceps)
is known to be of great importance here, as nearly every
year large flocks of it are taken, which they drive to the

eT Pe ees

ae

106

shore by boats, and the flesh of which is divided after old

northern laws still in use in thiscountry. Some hundreds
of this whale had just been killed in Westmannshavn
(west side of Strémé) some days before we arrived, and I
still could examine pieces of the animals brought to Tors-
havn. I immediately looked after external parasites, but
would not have got them if Sysselmand Miller, the well-
known magistrate and naturalist of Torshavn, had
not had the kindness to give me some specimens,
These are two species of Cirripedia, one of them
being an O/‘on, which often attaches itself to the
teeth of the dolphin, where it easily finds food;
as the surface water, coming in, is full of little crea-
tures (infusoria, crustacea, &c.), which the Otion catches
by aid of its arms, Another very interesting exter-
' naj parasite of the dolphin is the Xenodalqnuus glo-
bicifitis Steenstr., which Sysselmand Miiller has dis-
covered in large numbers on the fins of the whale. An
allied species, also described by Steenstrup, is found on
the fins of Uranodon rostratus, a whale met with in small
flocks of four and five, especially near the southern island,
where one of them was killed during the stay of the expe-
dition. In ‘Torshavn I also sought to get the intestines of
the grindehval ; but these, of course, had already been
thrown into the sea, with the exception of the stomach,
in which I have found the rests of Cephalopods, the usual
food of this whale, and the common Ascaris.

At the time when we arrived in Faroe the celebrated
“ Fuglebjergs” (bird-rocks) were unfortunately already
deserted by their inhabitants, so that I have seen nothing
of their extraordinary life. Of one of them Sysselmand
Miiller has taken up excellent photographic views (Troll-
hovedet, near Sand6), which give a very good idea of
them, and deserved to be published in an ornithological
work, We see in it clearly the different stages which the
birds occupy in the rocks, the highest of them being the
sea-parrot (Wormon fratercula), then a Larus, and under-
most Uria, Only the little Zhalassidroma pelagica was
said to be still breeding (September), and I therefore
resolved to see the nests, In the rocks of the north-
eastern side of Naalsé these little birds breed in a depth
of one or two feet, their nest being simply a hole in the
earth. One of the natives lifted the stones for me, then
bent his ears to the holes, and, when he heard the birds
piping, broke them up. In this manner we took an egg
containing an embryo, with the old bird, which did not
even endeavour to run or fly away, and three younger
ones in different stages of growth. The Thalassidrome
have only one egg, but they seem to breed twice or thrice
ayear. In the neighbourhood of this place, they told me,
the nests of Pvrocellaria glacialis were also to be
found. Besides these, the birds usually met with were
Authus campestris, Saxicola e@nanthe, Motacilla alba,
Troglodytes parvulus, Tringa variabilis and islandica,
Numenius pheopus, and Hematopus ostralegus, Carbo,
Sterna, Larus, &c. Wealso got some living specimens
of Sz/a alba, only occurring in the island of Myggenaes,
and of Lestyis cataractes, now not very common in Faroe,
tor the Zoological Garden in Copenhagen. Occasionally
they have also taken the Pastor roseus and once Syr-
vhaptes paradoxus, The former bird is known to appear
sometimes in Norway and Heligoland (nearly every
summer)—a very remarkable fact, as these birds, which
are known to breed in Southern Russia and Asia Minor,
have so very seldom been met with in Denmark or in the
interior of Germany.

Fishes are caught abundantly on the shores of Faroe ;
so that, for example, the klippfish trade is very con-
siderable. The Gadus are opened, spread out and dried
on the rocks (klipps), and are exported to Spain and
France, their swim-bladders being used for the fabrication
of gelatine, and their ovaries being prepared for the use of
the anchovy fishers in the Mediterranean. Of remarkable
fishes only the Lamfris guttatus Briinu was taken during

NATURE

ot i) Bi = 2 wees ‘ ms ,. iy r a) me 4 oy ee 2

my stay in Faroe, inhabiting the great depths of the
Atlantic, and coming only by accident to the shores of
these islands. This was the third specimen taken there,
an enormous creature, weighing 76 Danish pounds, having ~
a length of 99 centimetres, and a breadth of 52. The
colour was a magnificent silver blue with red spots; it
had been taken by the fishers in the King’s Harbour
(Kongshavn), and was admired, when brought to Tors-
hayn, by large crowds of people who had never seen it.
Before dissecting it, Sysselmand Miiller took a photograph,

Lampris guttatus

which has been reproduced in the accompanying woodcut.
We then separated ‘the principal muscles from the bones
(the flesh looked like salmon’s, but its taste was not
quite so good), in order to get the skeleton, and I dissected
the intestines. Inthe stomach I found the same remains
of Cephalopods, which also Kréyer mentions (in “ Dan-
marks Fiske”) in the specimens he examined. Of the
internal parasites I may here only mention an agamic
Ascaris in the outer walls of the stomach, and a cestoid in
the zutestinum tenue. External parasites were eagerly
sought for, but not found. :

Very interesting to me were the lakes in the interior of
the islands, as I hoped to get there something like those —
animals (“relicts”) found in the lakes of Sweden and
North America. I accordingly dredged in one of them, —
but did not find anything of importance. I also examined ~
the three species of Salmonidz of these lakes, one of them
being the Sa/mo salvelinus, known to to be found in the
lakes of Upper Bavaria and of Scotland. More about these
inhabitants of the Faroe lakes may shortly be seen from
a paper which I am to publish in v. Siebold and KGlliker’s
Zeitschrift ; and the same periodical will also contain the
results of my investigations on the Annelids from the
shores of Faroe, which formed the principal object of my
researches, - I may here only remark that, on the whole
the invertebrate fauna of the shores of Faroe, as well as
of Iceland, is very poor compared with that of Greenland,
Norway, or Denmark; so that the place is not to be
recommended to those who wish to get in an easy manner
favourable objects for anatomical or embryological obser-
vations. When I was there the currents were sometimes
so strong that, even with the heavy oyster-dredges of
Jutland, we did not reach farther down than 15 or 20
fathoms. And as to the surface-fauna, it was, with the
exception of some few days, quite impossible to do any-
thing, as the sea was too much agitated. In midsummer, of
course, all those obstacles will vanish. Nevertheless, I
could every day get fresh materials, as when the sea was
rough I was sitting on the rocks of the shore, and select-
ing the animals from the sand and sea-weeds brought up
in the harbour of Torshavn by my fisher, Zacharias
Hansen, a very brave man, whdm I recommend to every
naturalist coming to Faroe in the future. With respect to
comfort, my stay in the island was very agreeable, thanks
to the care which Mr. and Mrs. Hansen were always
good enough to take of me.

RUD. V. WILLEMOES-SUHM

ir,

Dec. 12, 1872]

NATURE

107

THE SHERMAN ASTRONOMICAL EX-
PEDITION

BY the courtesy of Prof. Peirce, Superintendent of the
U.S. Coast Survey, I am permitted to lay before
the readers of NATURE, at the request of its editor, a
brief account of the operations and results of the party

The expedition was organised under the auspices of the
Coast Survey; the observations, other than those for
determining the mere geographical and topographical
constants of the station, being provided for from a special
appropriation of 200,000dols. granted by Congress, at
the request of the Superintendent, and placed at his dis-
posal for the purpose of securing a series of astronomical

which was stationed during the months of June, July, and | and meteorological observations at som elevated point
August last at Sherman, the summit of the Union Pacific | on or near the Pacific Railway.

Railway.

The party was under the charge of General R. D.

Fic. 1.

Cutts, one of the most experienced officers of the Survey,

and consisted of himself, Assistant Mosman, and Aid | grapher, a mechanician, and a couple of servants.

Colonna, with myself, my colleague Prof. C. F. Emerson,

a young friend, Mr. C. K. Wead; we had also a photo-
A de-
tail of about a dozen of the most intelligent soldiers from

who was kind enough to act as my personal assistant,and | Fort D. A. Russell at Cheyenne served as an escort, and

Fic. 2.—Spectrum of a Solar Spot,

were fnvaluable in keeping up the hourly series of meteo- |

The station was established in June, but it was not until

rological observations, and in many other ways, as well | July that I was able to join the party with Prof. Emerson

as in protecting us from any undesirable attentions of our
red brethren ; not that the protection was ever actually
needed, for we hardly saw half a dozen Indians during

and Mr. Wead. Our instrument had been forwarded by
express, and was already on the ground. It was the
Dartmouth Colleze equatorial, having an aperture of

the whole summer, except as passengers upon the rail- | 9,4;in., with a focal length of 12ft., provided with clock-

Way trains,

| work and all the usual accessories, and fitted with an

SS

automatic spectroscope having the dispersive power of
13 prisms. The instrument was loaned for the occasion
by the trustees of the College, who, for the good of
science, have never hesitated to send their most valuable
apparatus to any portion of the earth; and thus far, I
am happy to say, have met with no. loss in so doing.

Our observatories, one for the transit instrument, one
for the meteorological apparatus, and one for the equato-
rial, were “shanties” of rough boards, placed upon the
summit of a slight elevation, some 150 yards S.E. of the
railway station, and some 40 or 5oft. above the track.
The altitude of the observatory was about (3:30 ft. above
the sea; the approximate eae was 44° 7’; the longi-

tude about rh, 53°20 14m,
west of Greenwic! s, the
accurate reducti not yet,

completed. ah

To the east the chatizon was eet eh i hills of no
great apparent elevation, nor was there anything in the
general aspect of the nearer ‘landscape to remind the care-
less observer of his altitude, To the north, at a distance
of about three miles, but seeming not more than half a
mile away, rose some picturesque piles of granite several
hundreds of feet in height ; t to the north-west lay the so-
called Laramie hills; and from the north-west to the
south, across the. broad green Laramie plains, toward the
mountains, many of them capped with perpetual snow.
In the south were Long’s and Gray’s
away ; nearly west lay somewhat nearer ‘the great mass
of Medicine Bow; and between them, over the lower
ridges, rose some of the high mountains of the Colorado
parks. None of these snow-capped peaks have an eleva-
tion of less than 13,000: ft., and several exceed 14,000.

Our principal object was to ascertain what advantage
would accrue to astronomical, and especially to spectro-
scropic, work, by placing the instrument. at a great eleva-—
tion. Theory declares that the gain ought to be great,
since it is certain that our atmosphere, by its continual
currents, its impurities, and its reflectivé power, is a most
serious hindrance to telescopic work, and at the height of
8,000 f;,—more than a fourth of the whole is left below.
The experiment of Prof. Piazzi Smyth, in 1856, on the
Peak of Teneriffe, had already given a practical demon-
stration of the fact, so far as relates to ordinary telescopic
work ; but that was before the day of spectroscopy.

Although, on account of unfavourable weather, the
amount of work accomplished was to some extent dimi-
nished, the results obtained were of considerable interest
and value.

In the first place, the geographical co-ordinates of the
station were completely determined ; so that henceforth
it will be a reference point and base for all the numerous
surveys, geological and others, which are going on in
that part of the country.

Then a complete hourly meteorological record was
obtained for nearly the whole of the months of June, July,
and August, a record which, from the exceptional charac-
ter of the station, on the very back-bone of the continent,
must possess the highest value, unless the fact that the
season was also an exceptional one should prevent us from
applying confidently to other years the conclusions it would
indicate.

If we may credit the residents of the country, especially
an old trapper who had lived among the mountains for
nearly twenty years, the amount of cloudy and rainy
weather during the summer was most unusual. Deduct-
ing a single week, during which every night and the
greater part of every day was fine, clear nights were very
rare, and clear days only a little less so. “Indeed during
our whole stay there were but two afternoons during which
work upon the sun could be kept up uninterruptedly from
noon to sunset, though during the same time there were
more than twenty mornings.

Undoubtedly the explanation of this state of things is

NATURE

| to stellar observation, I

aks, some 60 miles

[ Dec. 12, 187:

to be found in the enormous quantity of snow which fe
last winter, and was:still, in the middle of July, lying 8 fi
deep on the platean at the base of the Medicine Boy
mount,
Whenever the sky was unclouded the air was usually of -
most exquisite transparency. At night multitudes of stars,
invisible at lower elevations, were easily seen ; so that it —
was estimated that nearly all the stars of the seventh
magnitude were fairly within reach of the naked eye. For |
instance, in the quadrilateral which forms the bowl of he
“ Dipper” I could see distinctly nine stars, with glimpse
of one or two more, while at home I can only percei e
the three brightest of them.
The power of the telescope. was correspondingly | in-
creased. Without being able to rot é a great deal of time
é hat, with my 9 #5
rything could be fairly seen
in ‘the reach of a 12-inch

inches of aperture, nea’
which, at the sea-level, is w
object-glass.

‘Some most exquisite views of Satiien will always be
remembered, in which, notwithstanding the planet’s near-
ness to the horizon, the i inne e ‘and the details
and markings of the rin ally a dark stripe upon
the outer ring, about a thea its th from the outer
edge, were clearly sho wn under powers ra
to 1,200, ©

But in the e of the spectroscope “the: advantage was:
even greater. At Hanover I had been abl ble to make out a
list of 103, brigh lines 3 in the spectrum. f the chroma
sphere; at SI an the number was extended to 2733
and at moments of unusual solar disturbance there were
glimpses of at least as many more. 1

Sulphur, strontium, and cerium are pretty conclusively

shown to be constituents of the solar atmosphere. Zinc,
erbium, did ium, and iridium are also! indicated, but
not so certa =e

At the very base of the chromosphere, and to a dis-
tance of perhaps 1" or 15" from the edge of the photo-
sphere, it was found that those dark lines which are not
actually reversed lose their intensity, and vanish more or
less completely: This is substantially a confirmation
an old and somewhat disputed observation of Secchi’s,
who reports at the edge of the sun a layer giving a con-
tinuous spectrum.

This is not strictly correct, however, since when the
transparency of the air is so much increased as to cause
the most persistent of the dark lines to vanish, a multi-
tude of the others appear reversed. There can be little
doubt that were the effect of our own atmosphere entirely
removed, this lowest portion of the solar atmosphere would
give the same spectrum of bright lines which is seen at
the beginning and end of totality during an eclipse.

It is noteworthy that of the 170 new lines found in the
chromosphere spectrum, not a single one lies below C,
and that for no want of careful examination. The only
new lines of much importance are the two Hs at the ex ,
treme violet end of the spectrum. These were found
almost constantly reversed, probably quite so, but the
observation was so difficult that we could not be perfectly "
sure of it on every occasion.

What is still more remarkable, it was found that these
two lines (not the hydrogen lines, as has been erroneously
reported) are also usually, and Iam pretty confident always,
reversed in the spectrum of sun-spots, not so clearly, more-
over, in the nucleus as in the penumbra, and over a some
what extensive region surrounding it. This reversal of
the H lines does not involve at all the disappearance of
the dark shade, but a bright streak rather than a line
makes its appearance in the centre of the shade, whi ‘
itself is, if anything, a little intensified. he

The spectra of several different spots were carefully 4

studied, and a catalogue was drawn up of 155 lines wh
are more or less affected, usually by being greatly widened,
but in some cases by a ’ weakening or reversal, Several
ee

5a

+

rd ‘ c be

ay . aig *
raed ee er ee

ight lines were also found in the spot spectrum, and be-
en C and D some very peculiar shadings terminated
arply at the less refrangible limit by a hard dark line,
but fading out gradually in the other direction at a dis-
tance of three or four of Kirchhoff’s scale divisions. The
interpretation of such markings is not quite clear, but
would rather seem to point to such a reduction of tem-
erature over the spot-nucleus as permits the formation of
iseous compounds by elements elsewhere dissociated,
ince these shaded spectra are quite probably charac-
teristic of non-elementary substances, a view fortified by
Schuster’s recent beautiful investigations upon the
‘spectrum of nitrogen.

_ Many more or less remarkable solar eruptions were ob-
served, though none on quite so magnificent a scale as
‘some before recorded. On several occasions velocities of
from 150 to 200 miles per second in the ejected matter
were observed by means of the displacement and distor-
tion of the hydrogen lines, and on one occasion a velocity
of nearly 250 miles was attained. One of the finest erup-
tions was visible on the surface of the sun itself in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of a large spot.

A careful comparison of some of these observations
with the corresponding magnetic records at Greenwich
and Stonyhurst, for copies of which records I am in-
_ debted to the courtesy of Sir G. B. Airy and Rev. S. J.
Perry, goes far to show that, although probably the
greatest magnetic disturbances are due to terrestrial causes,
or at least are only indirectly results of solar or cosmical
influences, yet, on the other hand, every solar paroxysm
does have a distinct, direct, and immediate effect upon
‘the magnetic elements. Thus on August 3 such solar
‘paroxysms were noted at 8.45, 10.30, and 11.55, also on
August 5 from 6.20 to 7.30 A.M. (Sherman time), and the
last was the only outburst during the day.

Now the annexed figure (Fig. 1), from a photographic
copy of the vertical force curve for these days at Green-
wich, shows marked and characteristic disturbances at
points indicated, which, allowing for the longitude,
yrrespond to the very instants when the solar dis-
turbances were noted. Further comparisons of such
phenomena will be necessary to establish the conclusion
ith absolute certainty ; but in the meantime it seems
altogether probable that every solar disturbance receives
an immediate response from the earth, and that the
‘magnetic impulse travels with, sensibly, the velocity of light.
I must not close without alluding to certain obser-
vations that enable us to distinguish, to some extent,
between the substances ejected from the sun, and those
constituting the atmosphere into which the irruption
takes place, Certain lines during these outbursts were dis-
torted and displaced, while others near them, equally
conspicuous, were wholly unaffected.

Thus on August 3 and 5, the former class included the
lines of hydrogen, D,, the lines of sodium, magnesium,
and many of those of iron; in the latter were K534,
1474, 1505, 1515, 1528, 1867, 2007 (1870 and 200 were in-
tensely disturbed), 2581, and probably the two Hs; I
Say probably, because the observation of these lines was
too difficult to permit absolute certainty, still I feel very
confident that they were unaffected. The barium lines
‘also seldom seemed to participate in any disturbance.

The obvious moral of our summer’s work seems to me
this, that no time ought to be lost in occupying points of

uch advantage with the most powerful instruments : the
great telescopes now building should be put in a position
to profit by such atmospheric conditions ‘as will secure

heir utmost efficiency, for while it is of little consequence
to science whether ordinary glasses are placed where
their power will be increased by 25 per cent., it may make
a difference of years and decades in her advance if the
new artillery opens its attack upon the heavens from the
mountain-tops instead of from the plains,
- Dartmouth College, Noy. 25 GC. A. Youna

“NATURE

siti Be ee Mae Poe eon Jatin, Sete “We err, op ee ee ee pre o> OY. R
fe * > . * ; “ t. B - Pa o

109

THE TRANSIT OF VENUS

AS the meeting of the Astronomical Society on

November 8, a sketch was given of Lord Lindsay’s
preparations for the forthcoming transit of Venus. Lord
Lindsay has selected the island of Mauritius as his station,
on account of its highly favourable meteorological condi-
tions. He intends, if possible, to combine the following
methods of observation :—1. Observations of the internal
contacts to be worked out on the plans of Halley and
Delisle. 2. Observations of the first external contact at
the chromosphere, to be made with the spectroscope. 3.
Photographic pictures. 4. Heliometric measures. For
the longitude it is at present intended to use the transits
of the moon with an altazimuth made by Simms. As it
is expected that the Germans will also have a station on
the Mauritius, Lord Lindsay will connect his station with
theirs by triangulation. The transit instrument is by
Cooke, and has four inches aperture, The chronograph,
which can be kept in motion for four hours, has four
barrels, each of which can be worked separately, thus
avoiding all confusion. The photographic method to be
used is that of Prof. Winlock, who suggests a telescope of
40 feet focal length, placed horizontally, and a heliostat
to reflect the sun’s image along it. The lens is to be an
achromatic one. It is intended to have two planes to the
heliostat, one mounted on a polar axis, and another to send
the rays down the tube. Lord Lindsay has ordered a
Foucault siderostat with 16-inch mirrors, and has obtained
a 13-inch unsilvered mirror to fit the telescope to be taken
out. He intends to use a heliometer, though it is not much
in favour in this country, Messrs. Respald, of Hamburgh,
having undertaken to make one for him with all the im-
provements used in the Oxford instrument, as well as in
some others. The Germans intend to send one to Ker-
guelen Land, and the Russians will use it at Lake Baikal
and the mouth of the Amoor. Lord Lindsay’s will include
the motion of the halves of the object-glass in curved
slides, so that the images will remain in focus; unlimited
rotation of the tube in the cradle ; the measurement of the
position angle at the eye end, and measures of the micro-
meter read there also. Some new points are ;—the gradua-
tion of the slides of the object-glass side by side, so as to
be read by the same microscope ; an arrangement to shut
off light from half the object-glass, so as to equalise the
light of the images ; and the introduction of a thermometer
at the end of the tube. Lord Lindsay proposes to eliminate
errors of division as affected by temperature, by placing
the instrument on one of the collimating piles of his transit
circle at home, and heating the room by gas to different
temperatures. It is hoped that, by taking a large number
of measures, and by taking the most careful precautions,
the original error of observation may be reduced to less
than o”°5, and thus make the result one of extreme accu-
racy.

Lord Lindsay will be glad to receive the advice and
assistance of astronomers accustomed to use the helio-
meter. Mr. D. Gill will accompany Lord Lindsay, the two
Gividing the work of observing between them.

THE “ CHALLENGER”

Oe Friday last, Dec. 6, several members of the council

and “the Circumnavigating Committee” of the
Royal Society, by invitation of the Lords of the Admiralty,
inspected at Sheerness H.M. ship Cha/lenger, which
sailed on Saturday on her three or four years’ scientific
circumnavigating expedition. The Government have all
along consulted the Royal Society as to the fitting out of
this expedition, and have liberally carried out every
suggestion made by the Circumnavigation Committee.
The visitors to Sheerness on Friday included many dis-
tinguished men of science, among them being Sir William

eS ne Wi ag

IIo

Thomson, Sir Charles Wheatstone, Prof. Huxley, Dr.
Carpenter, Sir Henry Holland, Prof. Stokes, Prof. All-
man, Dr. Hooker, Mr. Siemens, and others. Under the
guidance of Captain Nares, the commander of the Cha/-
lenger, Prof. Wyville Thomson, the scientific leader of
the expedition, and other members of the staff, the
visitors inspected with keen interest all the fittings and
appliances with which the handsome ship has been fur-
nished for carrying out the purposes of the expedition.
Everything appeared complete, and the perfection
and abundance of the preparations excited the universal
admiration of the visitors. Government, in this in-
stance, have acted with the most praiseworthy libe-
rality. The ship itself has a greater tonnage than the
three ships together which formed the expedition of Cook
in 1772. After the visitors had completed their inspection,
they were entertained to an ample luncheon in the ward-
room, under the presidency of Captain Nares. A few
toasts were drunk anda few very brief speeches made, in
which some well-deserved compliments were paid to those
most intimately connected with the expedition. Dr.
Carpenter felt sure that under Prof. Thomson’s super-
intendence “no fact would be let go, and that every fact
would find its place and its value when results came to be
worked out ;” while Prof. Thomson said that if the vessel
were not thoroughly equipped, it was the fault of the
scientific staff ; they had met with every encouragement
from Government to ask for what is necessary,

We are sorry to hear that the Chad/enger has already
met with a little rough treatment from some of the
elements she is bound to explore. In the fierce gales
which prevailed on Sunday, she lost her cutter, and was
compelled to put into Deal. We believe no serious delay
will result from this accident, which, we hope, may be the
only one of the kind the party may meet with. According
to present arrangements she leaves Portsmouth on Monday
next, :

We cannot, however, but express our regret that the
party were allowed to set off on an absence from England
which may be prolonged for four years, animated, in-their
voluntary exile, by no motive but a desire to promote
the interests of science, without some more official and
more extended acknowledgment from their scientific
brethren throughout the country thana few after-lunch
speeches on board the corvette. Our contemporary
Punch has, however, given his accolade to the expedition
in some spirited lines :—

“Broadside guns have made room to ship batteries magnetic,

Apparatus turns out ammunition,
From main-deck to ground-tier I’m a peripatetic
Polytechnic marine exhibition,”

PROCEEDINGS OF ZOOLOGICAL
COLLECTORS

R. T. K, SALMON has lately transmitted to his
agent, Mr. E. Gerrard, jun., of Camden Town,
a fine collection of birds from the province of Antioquia,
United States of Columbia. Amongst them are speci-
mens of a new Humming Bird, which Mr. Gould has de-
scribed as Adelomyia cervina. Myr. Salmon has now
pushed forward into the upper valley of the Cauca, where
he will enter upon untrodden ground.

Mr. Henry M. Whitely has also been very active lately
in the district he is now exploring, in the Andes of Cara-
vaya, east of Cuzco, Peru. His last collection contains
some very fine species of Tanagers, previously only known
from d’Orbigny’s specimens in the Paris Museum. There
are also several remarkable humming birds in * Mr.
Whitely’s collection, one of which, being new to science,
Mr, Gould has named Jo/ema Whitelyana, after its dis-
coverer.

Letters have been received from Mr. Charles R.

NATURE —

Thatcher, who is ev voute for the Philippines, announcing
his arrival at Yokohama, v/@ San Francisco, and imme-
diate departure for his destination. Mr. Thatcher w te
attend principally to the land-shells and birds of the
Philippine Archipelago. BP. bo Sam

ir

NOTES 4
THE Italian Government has ordered a massive gold medal,

with a suitable inscription, to be prepared for presentation to
Dr. Livingstone. The medal was to be ready by the 3rd inst
and was to be consigned—with an official letter addressed in

king’s name to the great traveller—to Sir Bartle Frere, in ‘the
hope that he may either present it in person, or forward it to
him by some safe hand. The Commendatore Negri Cristofer
President of the Italian Geographical Society, has been th
prime mover in bringing about the gratifying recognition of
Livingstone’s labours in behalf of Science and humanity
the Italians generally appear to be delighted with the id
being the first to tender him this national; proof of the |
estimation in which they hold him. On one side the m
bears the bust of the king, with the legend “ Vittorio Emmanu
If. Ré d'Italia,” and on the obverse ‘‘A Davide Livingston;
Vittorio Emmanuele II. 1872.” 2 wi

AT a meeting of the Geographical Society on Monday ni
Mr. Francis Galton, who occupied the chair, stated th
believed Sir Bartle Frere would probably be in Alexandria}
night, and that Lieut. Grandy, leader of the ‘Li ingst
Congo Expedition,” would land in Sierra Leone about the 15th
of this month. Mr. Galton also announced that a long list « £
astronomical observations had been received from Livingst
by Sir Thomas Maclear, at the Cape, who says they will tak
three or four months to reduce, ne

WE greatly regret to have to record the death, on Mon
last, of John Keast Lord, the manager of the Brighton Aquari
We learn from the Brighton Daily News that Mr. Lord was la
up with a severe attack of paralysis some months since, b
though it was known that he was not in the enjoyment of robu
health, it was far from being generally thought that his indisp
tion would so soon be brought to a fatal termination. Originally
a captain in the Royal Artillery, in which capacity he served it
the Crimean war, and took part in the battle of Balaclava, M
Lord seems to have always entertained an intense love for tl
study of natural history; and at the close of the {Russian
paign he quitted the army for a field in every way more cong:
to his tastes. He now devoted himself to the study of nature in
good earnest, and spent some time in Vancouver Island, which
he appears to have thoroughly investigated. The results of his
labours were afterwards given to the world in “ The Naturalist
in Vancouver Island.” Mr, Lord afterwards served on
North American Boundary Commission, and later on v
engaged by the Viceroy of Egypt to report upon certain ch ara
teristics of that country. It was from Egypt, we believe,
he was called by the directors of the Aquarium to take the ap-
pointment for which he was so peculiarly fitted. F

THE University of Cambridge has passed a resolution by
which in future successful candidates in Moral Science can
sent themselves for the next Natural Science Tripos, and
versa. gh tai,

AN examination for minor scholarships for students intenc
to commence residence at Cambridge next October will be he
at Clare College on Wednesday, March 26, 1873. One of th
of the value of 50/. tenable for 3} years, will be awarded
Natural Sciences. The subjects are Chemistry, Chem
Physics (including Light, Heat, and Electricity), Comparati
Anatomy and Physiology, and Geology. § Excellence in any two

¥

of Sess es will be preferred to a less Beers omen
h a greater number. |

he eves
THe Janssen: Lockyer medal was presented by the French
07 ernment to the Academy at its sitting on Monday last week.
y we hope that some time our Government may have attained
to that degree of civilisation at which it will be possible for it to
take official cognizance of additions to our scientific know-
Pigs? -

- On Saturday last, Prof. Huxley and the Marquis of Huntly
were formally nominated for the Lord Rectorship of Aberdeen
University. The election takes place on Saturday next.

AT a meeting of the faculty of the College of William and
Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, held on the 4th November last,
was unanimously resolved that the degree of Doctor of Laws
conferred upon Robert Potts, M.A. of Trinity College, Cam-
dge, England, in recognition of his successful labours as an
cator and his valuable contributions to geometrical science.

Tur Ricardo Scholarship in Political Economy has been
awarded by Professors Cairnes and Courtney to Mr. Sereill.
They also report that Miss Eliza Orme obtained a sufficient
‘number of marks to qualify her for the scholarship had she not
had so powerful a competitor.

Dr. C. Meymorr Tipy, Professor of Chemistry at the
London Hospital, has been eiected Medical Officer of Health
- for Islington,

WE have received the Prospectus of the Royal Institution, and
> glad to see that, in its new form, it places first among the
ef objects for which it is established the promotion of scientific
literary research, and the teaching of the principles of in-
“Aig and experimental science. It informs the public of some
great results which have followed from the experiments
inal investigations which have been made in its labora-
such men as Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and Frankland.
emical and physical laboratories have been this year re-
and the liberal and permanent endowment of the professor-
is now the chief thing wanting to ensure the promotion of
ientific research. We hope this want may be short-lived.

‘Tue Christmas lectures at the Royal Institution, intended
pecially for a juvenile auditory, will be by Prof. Odling, on
irand Gas. They will be six in number, and will be delivered
i Dec 28 and 31, and Jan. 2, 4, 7, and 9, 1873.

Ar the meeting of the National Academy of Science held at
noridge, Mass., Nov. 22, Prof. Agassiz gave a very interest-
account of his researches in the /Ziss/er expedition, and espe-
ally of his discovery of the great South American glacier. He
nded his rejection of the Darwinian theory of evolution on
é ground that “his opponents are presenting views on scientific
inciples which are not even based on real observation ; that
hey have not shown evolution, or the power of eialiions in
he present day, and hence are not entitled to assume it in the
ast.” He further characterised the theory as ‘*a mire of mere
ssertion.”

interesting event in the history of American science took
on Oct. 30, in Philadelphia, on the occasion of laying the
ner-stone of the new building of the Philadelphia Aca-

y of Natural Sciences. This institution was founded in
$12, and has for many years occupied the foremost rank among
na tural history establishments in America. The Academy since
it establishment has been the recipient of many benefactions.
A mong those who have been most conspicuous in this connec-
1 may be mentioned William M‘Clure and Thomas B.
ilson. To the latter gentleman is due very much of the
esent extent of its library and museum. The expense of the
w building, it is pexected, will amount to $500,000, and it is

hoped that sufficient funds will be contributed by the liberal-
minded citizens of Philadelphia to complete the entire structure

in a comparatively short space of time. The present building
has long been inadequate to the accommodation of the collections
of the Academy. According to statements made on the occasion
referred to, the Academy now possesses more than 6,000 mine-
rals, 700 rocks, 65,000 fossils, 70,000 species of plants, 1,000
species of zoophytes, 2,000 species of crustaceans, 5c species
of myriapods and arachnidians, 25,000 species of insects,
20,000 species of shell-bearing molluscs, 2,000 species of fishes,
800 species of reptiles, 21,000 birds, with the nests of 200 and
the eggs of 1,500 species, 1,000 mammals, and nearly 900
skeletons and pieces of osteology. Most of the species are are
presented by four or five specimens, so that, including the
archeological and ethnological cabinets, space is required now
for the arrangement of not less than 400,000 objects, as well as
for the accommodation of a library of more than 22,500 volumes,

WE are glad to see that the French Government, in its present
trying circumstances, is not neglecting the interests of Science,
By a decree of Nov. 25 last an Astronomical Commission has
been charged with the preparation of a scheme for the organisa-
tion of the French observatories. The members of the commis-
sion are MM. Belgrand, Faye, Fizeau, Guillot, Janssen,
Lespiaut, Le Verrier, Lowy, Puiseux, Rayet, Roche, Charles
Sainte-Claire Deville, Stéphan, Wolf, Yvon-Villarceau.

Mr. G. DEVYLDER writes from Ghent to the Photographic
News in reference to the appointment by the Prussian Govern-
ment of Dr. Vogel as Professor of Photography at Berlin, which
we noticed last week, that Dr. Vogel’s appointment is not the
first in this department. Mr. Devylder has been Professor
“official” of Photography at ‘‘ L’Ecole Industrielle” of Ghent
for more than ten years.

THE session of the Royal Society of Edinburgh was opened
on December 2, by an address from the President, Sir Robert
Christison, consisting mainly of the sketches of the lives of
members of the Society who have- died during the year. The
Brisbane prize has been awarded by the council to Prof.
Allman.

WE learn from the British Medical Fournal that the chair of
Practice of Medicine, in the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland,
vacant by the resignation of Dr. Benson, has just been filled
by the election of Dr. James Little, the editor of the Dudlin
Fournal of Medical Science. The election for the Professorship
of Surgery, in the room of Dr. William Hargrave, will
take place on the 24th of this month; Mr. Croly and Mr.
Stokes are the only candidates at present in the field. It is no
yet known who will be likely to be Mr. Hargrave’s successor as
representative of the College of Surgeons on the General
Medical Council.

THE Paris correspondent of the same journal writes that the
medical courses there are now open, and that three or four ladies
are attending the c/inigwes :—“ they are modest, well-informed,
and intelligent ladies, and are much respected and kindly re-
ceived? by the professors ; and our students, turbulent as they
are, know how to respect those who come among them as
strangers appealing to their gentlemanly souls, and show a
better example than your riotous students of Edinburgh.”

A Meptcat Society for the West Riding of Yorkshire has
been organised at Leeds, with Dr. Chadwick as president.
Its’ object is to promote the study of Medicine and Surgery
among Practitioners by the communication of clinical and
therapeutical facts, and by the application of pathological
specimens, and discussions thereon.

NUMEROUSLY attended meetings have been held at Totnes,
Newton, Dartmouth, and Yeovil, for the purpose of establishing
cience and art classes for the instruction of young men.

THE Gardener's Chronicle states that the Jardin d’Acclimata-
tion has sprung into new life since the war, and has become thie
most fashionable resort in Paris. An additional feature of attrac-
tion is now being added to the rest—a large collection of rare
shrubs recently brought from Algeria by M. Geoffroy, being in
the course of arrangement in the great conservatory. In addition
to this, it may be mentioned that two reading rooms are being
arranged for the use of the members of the society and the public.
One of these rooms is to be supplied with newspapers and literary
and scientific publications, while the other is to be devoted to
study, and to contain a complete scientific library.

Mr. H. C. Watson has printed, for private distribution, a
Supplement to the Compendium of ‘* Cybele Britannica,” com-
prising an extremely useful epitome, accompanied by a map, of
the distribution of all British species and sub-species of plants
through the thirty-eight sub-provinces into which Great Britain
is divided. We doubt the wisdom or the advantage to science of
the introduction into a book, even if only printed for private dis-
tribution, of the personal matters which disfigure the Appendix
to the volume.

We have received the Sth, 9th, and roth parts of the nev edi-
tion of Griffith and Henfrey’s Micrographic Dictionary, bringing
down the issue of this useful publication as far as Equisetacez.

Dr. WILLIAM ULRIcH publishes an International Dictionary
of Plants in Latin, German, English, and French. Notwith-
stinding a few defects or inaccuracies in the English department,
not to be wondered at in a work published in Germany, it ap-
pears to be, on the whole, extremely well done, and to be a very
useful compilation, What we do not so often find in German
books, there is an admirable and copious index.

Mr, JAMEs F. Rosrnson, of Frodsham, Cheshire, is about to
publish ‘‘A Flora of the Isle of Man,” in memory of Prof. E.
Forbes, who was a native of the island. It will be illustrated
with engravings of the p:incipal island scenery (waterfalls, &c.).
and accompanied with a specimen of the Manx fern (Adiantum
capillus veneris) mounted as a vignette.

Mr. BULLER, to meet the wishes of many of the most influ-
ential subscribers to his ‘Birds of New Zealand,” intends to
publish a series of supplementary plates, so as to include figures
of all the species of birds inhabiting that interesting country.
This will be a great gain to students of ornithology, who would
otherwise have been left to search for representations of many of
the most remarkable forms in works which are especially diffi-
cult of access—for instance the “Atlas” to the voyage of the
Astrolabe, the bird-volume of the ‘‘ Voyage of the Erebus and
Terror,’ or Mr. Gould’s magnificent but somewhat expensive
“ Birds of Australia.”

A GERMAN correspondent inquires the name and price of the
best and most complete work in English on the histology of
hair and wool.

Ocean Highways, a journal excellently conducted, has an
article in the December number on the Congo, by Lieut.
Grandy, the leader of the ‘‘ Livingstone Congo Expedition.”
He traces the history of discovery from 400 A.D., and says that
no serious attempt has been made to explore the river since Capt.
Tuckey’s expedition of 1816,

On Friday, December 6, there was held, in the Corporation
Galleries of Glasgow, under the auspices of the energetic Geo-
logical Society of that city, the finest geological exhibition that
has ever been held in Scotland; indeed, according to the Scots
man’s report, it has probably never been equalled elsewhere in
Britain.

NATURE

unusually rich and varied collections exhibited all belonged
private individuals, but would have done credit to any high-class
public museum. Glasgow, the commercial capital of Scotland,
if it hold out as it has been doing recently, may ere long vie with
‘the grey metropolis of the north” as a centre of the highest
culture. a

has an article on the intimate connection between the recent
meteoric shower and Biela’s comet.

tale to tell of the meteoric display of the night of Nov. 27-28

of Italy observers speak of ‘the rain of falling stars” which was
kept up for several hours, and afl agree that the radiant point
was in the constellation Perseus, near to Cassiopeia. Father
Secchi says that at Rome, between 7.30 P.M. and 1.30 A.
13,892 were counted ; while Z’/mstitut says that the average
most places was two meteors per second, while in some places
the number registered amounts to upwards of 40,000. M. 1
Raillard, writing to Zes Aondes, says that so long ago iS
January 1839, he communicated in a note to the Academy the
idea that shooting stars, the aurora borealis, and comets, had a
common origin. “a

which we lately printed an account, the following note has bee
communicated to us from Mr. C. J. Webb, of Knockvarre, B
dalstown :—‘‘ I have received no further definite informati
respecting the course taken by the whirlwind except that
tained in my letter. I think it probable, however, that it cros
to Scotland, forming itself into a waterspout while passing over
the sea, as, a few days afterwards, I saw an account in the d ily
paper of a most destructive waterspout, which broke some ti em

In connection with the exhibition, there was also held
a very successful conversazione. This Society, which is one of the
most efficient in the country, was formed in May 1858, The

_ : ne
In the Arnkemsche Courant of December 4, H. van de Studt
4 4

Tue Continental scientific journals have the same brilliant

last 2s we had. From all parts of France and from various parts

we

IN reference to the extraordinary whirlwind in Ireland, of

on the night of the same Sunday that the whirlwind visited
above the coach road near Lough Katrine, rendering it imp
sable for several days, owing to the trees, débris, &c., which
were swept down by the flood.”

ANOTHER phenomenon of a similar kind is recorded as |
lows by a correspondent of the Birmingham Morning News
The people living near King’s Sutton, Banbury, say that ab
one o’clock on Saturday they saw something like a haycock
volving through the air, accompanied by fire and dense smo
It made a noise resembling that of a railway train, but v
much louder, and travelled with greater rapidity. It was som:
times high in the air, and sometimes near the ground. It pas
over the estate of Colonel North, M.P., Sir W. R. Bro
Bart, and Mr, Leslie Melville-Cartwright, whose park wall i
threw down to the foundation in several places, and at one plac
for upwards of sixty yards. A man named Adams was b
ing stones, and a minute before he was standing under a
that was torn up by the roots and the branches scattered in e
direction. Two or three trees near him were torn up, and
of them, the largest beech on Sir William Brown’s estate, which
tore up with it twelve or fifteen tons of earth. Fora distance 0
nearly two miles, hedges, rails, trees, hovels, and ricks hav
been knocked down or injured. A whirlwind followed the fire
meteor, and carried everything before it. Stones from the wall
knocked down were carried forty yards away, and the water ii
a pond disappeared on the passage of the phenomenon.
travelling about two miles the meteor seemed to expend its
and disappeared all at once. There was a heavy fall of rai
the time, aud a vivid flash of lightning just before. The di
tion taken by the meteor was from south to north, and it tr
velled almost in a straight line. ae “a

Dec. 12, 1872]

: MIMICRY IN THE COLOURS OF INSECTS*

-HAvinG observed that in treating of the interesting pheno-
“mena of mimicry, writers have used indiscriminately very diffe-
rent factors, I shall try to give some preliminary ideas which I do
not find published, and which I believe will be useful in explain-
ing this interesting subject.
_ It will be best to consider the colour and pattern separately.
here are three different kinds of colours: viz., colours pro-
duced by interference of light, colours of the epidermis, and
colours of the hypodermis. All three may either be wanting, or
all three or two of them may occur together in the same place.
Colours produced by interference are produced in two different
ways: first by thin superposed lamellz, as in the wings of
Diptera, Neuroptera, &c., without any other colour, as in
hyaline wings, or connected with other colours as in the
scales of Entimus and others.
There must be at least two superposed lamellze to bring out
colours by interference, and there cannot be more than four, as
both wings and scales consist only of four layers, two internal
belonging to the hypodermis, two external belonging to the
epidermis. In fact, if scales taken from dry specimens of Enti-
mus are observed under the microscope, many partly injured can
be found, which give different colours according to the layers of
the lamellze which remain. é

Secondly, colours by interference are produced by many very
fine lines or strize in very near juxtaposition, as in Apatura and
other colour-changing insects. Colours by interference may per-
haps be sometimes also produced in the same way as in the
feathers of the dove’s neck by very small impressions situated
near together.

_ The colours produced by the interference of light are only
optical phenomena, differing in this respect from the other
_ colours of the body, the epidermal and hypodermal colours.

The epidermal colours belong to the pigment deposited in the

cells of the chitinised external skin, the epidermis. These
_ colours are mostly metallic blue, green, bronze, golden, silver,
black, brown, and perhaps more rarely red. The epidermal
_ colours are very easily recognised, because they are persistent,
never becoming obliterated or changed after death,
__ The hypodermal colours are situated in the non-chitinised and
soft layer, called hypodermis by Weismann. They are mostly
‘brighter and lighter, light blue or green, yellow, milk white,
orange, and all the shades between. The hypodermal colours
in the body of the insect fade or change, or are obliterated after
the death of the insect. A fresh or living insect when opened
may easily be deprived of the hypodermal colours simply by the
action of alittle brush. I said hypodermal colours in the body,
because there are hypodermal colours which are better protected,
_ being encased nearly air-tight, and therefore are more easily pre-
_ served even after the death of the insect. I refer to the colours
in the elytra and wings, and in their appendages, the scales,
The elytra and the wings are, as is well known, at first open sacs
in communication with the body, of which they are only the ex-
tension ; of course they are formed of the epidermis and hypo-
‘dermis, which become so strongly glued together after the
transformation into the imago ‘state that a maceration of years
tried by me showed no effect at all on such wings. This fact is
very interesting, as it explains how wings, and even coloured
wings, can be found in paleontological layers in good preser-
-yation. The destruction of insects, which is so peculiar to the
secondary strata in England, proves, as I believe, that the bodies
of the insects must have floated a very long time before they
were deposited. It is quite a rarity to find well-preserved
‘insects there, although many well-preserved wings, even of lace-
winged flies, have been described.

There is an interval after the transformation, before the mem-
branes of the wings become inseparably glued together ; it is at
this time that the finishing of the colours takes place. For in-
stance in an Asschna, a Lidellula depressa or trimaculata, if the
wing is cut off at the base, the two layers can be easily sepa-
_rated by manipulation under water, and the wing can be inflated
‘with a little tube by separating the borders with a knife. I can
show specimens so prepared. But this is only possible as long
as the wings possess the appearance of having been dipped into
mucilage, an appearance which is well known in young
Odonata.

__ The scales have just the same development as the wings. At
‘first they are little open sacs, communicating with the hollow of

~ * Reprinted from the American Naturalist for July 1872.

NATURE

113

the wing and the whole body, and at a later period are glued
together like the wings themselves.

In the wings and in the scales the hypodermal colours are
formed and finished before the wings stick together, and by this
means they are well preserved and safely encased. They have
no more communication in the glued parts with the interior of
the animal, and are preserved in the same way, as if hermetically
inclosed in a glass tube There are even here in the wings and
scales many epidermal colours, chiefly ithe metallic ones ; but all
the brighter colours (for instance the somewhat transparent spots
in the elytra of the Lampyridee, Cicindelidz, &c., and in the
greater number of Lepidoptera) are, as I believe, hypodermal
colours.

Finally there sometimes occurs outside of the animal, that is,
on the epidermis, a kind of colour which I consider as hypoder-
mal colour, such as the pale blue on the abdomen of many
Odonata, the white on the outside of many Hemiptera, the pale
grey on elytra and thorax of the Goliathus beetle, the powder
on Lixus and others. Some of these colours are very easily re-
solved in ether, and are apparently a kind of wax. I believe
that these colours are produced by the hypodermis, and are
exuded through the little channels of the pores.

The hypodermal colours are very often different in males and
females of the same species, the epidermal colours rarely differ
so far as I know; but there are genera with prominent epider-
mal colours which are nearly always different in different sexes,
viz., Calopteryx, Lestes, some Hymenoptera, &c.

It would be interesting to know the different colours of the
epidermis in such cases. So far as I know, the change seems to
be between related, and not between complementary colours.
But my observations are far from having any conclusive im-
portance. The same investigation would be necessary for the
hypodermal colours,

The hypodermal colours may change or be altered in some
male or female during its lifetime, by sexual or other influences,
The epidermal colours never change. By sexual influences
yellow is changed into orange, brown into red, and even some-
times more changed. By other influences, for instance by cold
in hibernation, pale yellow is changed into red (Chrysopa).
The hypodermal colours may be changed even by a voluntary
act of the animal, and the new colours disappear again
(Cassida), The hypodermal colours are the only ones on which
the animal has any influence, either involuntarily by the action
of the nutritive fluid, or voluntarily. The epidermal cells are
placed entirely outside of any influences of the animal, when
once established. It will perhaps be possible to prove that the
so-called mimetic colours are all hypodermal colours,

The hypodermal colours seem to be produced by a photo-
graphic process (I know no better expression), the epidermal
colours by a chemical process of combustion or oxidation.
Would it be possible to prove that by a photographic process
even the colours of the surrounding world could be transmitted,
a great step towards an understanding of the phenomena would
be gained. The fact, of course, is very probable, at least, in
some instances.

In observing the mimicry, the pattern of an insect must be
clearly separated from the colour. In fact, the pattern is not
the product of an accidental circumstance, but apparently the
product of a certain law, or rather the consequence of certain
actions or events in the interior of the animal and in its develop-
ment. The proof is very easily afforded by the regularity of the
pattern in a genus or a family of insects. If studied carefully
and comparatively, the pattern in a genus is the same, or is only
more or less elaborated. The number of such families is so
exceeding great that some example will readily occur to every
one.

Moreover a certain and constant pattern can be found for the
head, a different pattern for the segments of the thorax, and a
different pattern for the segments of the abdomen, This
pattern is in the different segments of the abdomen (Hymenop-
tera, Diptera, Neuroptera, Orthoptera) always the same, only
more or less elabora:ed, and less finished in the first and last
segments, In some way the same is true for the thoracic
segments,

In some few instances I was able to observe how the pattern
is produced. Inthe Odonata (Dragon-flies) at the moment of
transformation the thorax is transparent, and shows no colours
at all. At this time the muscles are without importance, and
in process of formation. The thoracic muscles, as is well known,
are, in the Odonata, very powerful, and also very extraordinary

II4

‘NATURE

as regards the shape of their tendons. Just along outside the
muscles are dark lines more or less well finished, and resulting
from the action of the muscles. - Ubi trritatio ibi affiuxus, I
believe that it would not be unphilosophical to conclude that a
powerful action in the development of the muscles is, in such a
case, the cause of a greater combustion or oxidation in the
neighbouring parts. In fact, on the head of a Cicada and on the
abdomen of an /Eschna we find similar patterns, in some way
mostly representing the underlying muscles. In the Gomphina
the fact is striking, and far more as the stronger species mostly
possess a large dark pattern. There are some very small species
which are almost entirely yellow; there are no small species
entirely black.

Should the fact, with the explanation, be admitted, a step
farther in the explanation of the different patterns would be
made. I know very well that in the Odonata there are patterns
which do not agree with my explanations, even some contrary
to it; but if some certain facts be explained, there are perhaps
more factors still unknown or unobserved. The explanation for
certain facts would still be admissible, or at least not entirely
objectionable. *

The patterns on the wings and elytra could not be the product
of the action of muscles, but I believe it to be probable that the
sudden rush of blood, or even air, by the accelerated circulation
and respiration in the act of transformation may have the same
effect. In this way some patterns, otherwise not explicable,
could be understood. The eyespots in the caterpillars of some
Papilionidze have been ascertained by Leydig to be epidermal
colours, and I believe that the various kinds of eyespots in the
wings of the imago are also epidermal colours. If a stream of:
blood meets a small obstacle just in the centre, a funnel is
formed ; if this obstacle is a ring, and behind it.another obstacle,
we have two or more funnels, one in the other, and the section
of them will be circular or elliptical according to the angle at
which they reach the surfaces. Such patterns in the elytra and
wings are formed or preformed at the time when the wing is a
sac; sometimes before the transformation, and here is another
circumstance which explains some patterns. The walls of the
sac are suddenly augmented and strongly dilated in the trans-
formation. Small patterns performed in the sac will also be
altered and enlarged by the same process, and I know that many
patterns of Lepidopterous wings are in such a way very easily
explained. All the waved lines of the wings and other marks
belong here, and as the ribs or nervures seem to grow faster in
transformation, the waved appearance would be explained In
fact the greater part of the patterns seem to be produced by ex-
pansions or distraction of the pattern performed in the wing at
some period before the transformation. H. HAGEN

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Monthly Microscopical Fournal for October 1872, con-
tains a continuation of Dr. Robert Braithwaite’s papers on bog
mosses, the present communication being confined to Sphagnum
neglectum Angstr. Dr. J. J. Woodward contributes a reply to
further remarks on Tolles’ 4th and Powell and Lealand’s ;'yth.
This is succeeded by a communication ‘‘ On the History, Histo-
logical Structure, and Affinities of Vematophycus Logani Curr.
(Prototaxites Logani Dawson), an Alga of Devonian Age,” by
Wm. Carruthers, F.R.S., in which the author combats the

* So faras I kn ow the literature relating to the phenomena of mimicry,
all these related differences are often confused, and I believe that in sepa-
rating them and following the views above given, many facts would be better
understood, and this interesting subject more easily advanced.

sides all the difficulties which oppose a clear and correct view, there is
one more which I do not find mentioned, z.e. the so-called colour-blindness,
and the different degrees of it. Prof. B. A. Gould in his excellent work,
“Investigations on Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers,”’ has
given attention to it in a very remarkable chapter. Persons who cannot
distinguish ripe cherries upon the tree, or strawberries on the vine by their
colour, are far more numerous than would be suspected. Serious misunder-
standings, and even calamities, have been reported in the army, resulting from
mistakes in the colour of green and red light by officers of the signal corps,
He gives the statement that usually one in twenty, and in the soldiers
examined one in fifty, was subjected to colour-blindness.. But these numbers
show only the extremes; and it is easy to believe that a much greater
number are more or Jess affected with it. In fact, we have no means of
measuring this physiological difference ; if two persons call something green,
and even compare the colour with certain known objects, there is no proof
at all that they see just thesame colour. Ithink that it would be prudent in
describing cases of mimicry, especially when they are extraordinary, not to
forget that even the best observer may be unaware of this infirmity, anc in
fact the best authorities on colour -blindness always state that the greater
number of persons haye no idea of their infirmity.

‘Aromatic Azodiamines.”

theory advanced by Dr. Dawson, that the fossil in question i
coniferous, and contends that it is cryptogamous, belonging to a.
gigantic alga, of the class C/lorospermee. , Two plates a
pany this very interesting and important communication. —
the active part of the Nerve Fibre, and on the probable natu
of the Nerve Current,” by Lionel S. Beale, F.R.S., is a fw
contribution to the researches for which Dr. Lionel Beale
earned a reputation.—‘t On the Régeneration Hypothesis,” by
Dr. Louis Elsberg, of New York. The fundamental proposi
of this hypothesis is thus stated by its author; ‘* The germ
every derivative living being contains plastitudes of, its whi
ancestry.” —Dr. J. J. Woodward contributes some observati
on the use of monochromatic sunlight, as an aid to high-po'
definition.—A short paper by Prof. Albert H. Tuttle, on
our common monads is from a communication made to
microscopical section of the Boston Society of Natural History.

Bulletin de l’ Académie Royale de Belgique, No. 8.
number contains a mathematical paper of some length,
M. P. Mansion, on singular solutions of differential equat
the first order; also a note by M. Dubois describing.
researches on the camphors. He studied the action of pe
phuret of phosphorus at a high temperature on monobro
camphor, and found that it gave cymol, accompanied with s
quantities of hydrocarbons of the same homologous series,
an organic sulphhydrate soluble in alkalies. M. Alphoi
Waters gives a sketch of some efforts that were made in Bel;
in the middle of the 17th century towards the establishment
free trade.—A note by M. Schuermanns treats of the disco
of objects of amber in Belgium, the writer advising a sp
study of the circumstances which may have connected Bel
with the commercial route from Etruria to the country of amb
on the Baltic.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNDON

Royal Society, Dec. 5.—‘‘ Colouring-matters derived
II, Safranine. By Drs. A.
Hofmann, . F,R.S., and A. Geyger. ;

Whilst we were engaged with the study of the blue colou
matters produced by the action of aromatic monamines
diphenyldiamine, our attention became directed to a bea'
red tar-pigment, which has been known for some time by
commercial name of Safranine, being extensively used a
substitute for safflower in dyeing silk and cotton. Safran
has not as yet been minutely examined ; but, as far as
judged from the scanty information we possess regarding
production, it is scarcely doubtful whether this important dye
be looked upon as being the derivative of an azodiamine.
analyses of safranine thus promised to throw considerable light
upon the nature of the compounds under examination. ae ‘

y

Saframine occurs in commerce either as a solid b
en pate. n the solid state it forms a yellowish-red powd
which, together with considerable quantities of chalk
common salt, the chlorhydrate of a tinctorial base has
recognised. The pure dye may be easily separated ‘rom
crude safranine. It is only necessary to exhaust the comm:
product with boiling water ; on cooling, the filtrate deposits
slightly crystalline substance, which, after several recrystall
tions from boiling water, leaves no residue onignition. Du
thes2 operations, however, the salt undergoes perceptible al
tion; with. every recrystallisation it becomes more soluble
less crystalline, These alterations depend upon the sepa
of chlorhydric acid from the salt. In fact the percentage
chlorine is found to diminish in the product of succesive erystal-
lisations ; thus the product of the third contained 8-48 4 cent,
that of the fourth crystallisation only 7°46 per cent. Addi
of chlorhydric acid to the mother-liquors at once reprodu
crystalline precipitate. This instability of the chlorhydrate, a
in’ fact, as may even now be stated, of the salts of safranine
general, bas very considerably impeded the study of this
and often materially affected the accuracy of the analyti
results, In_order to obtain the normal salt, the boiling liq
during the last crystallisation had always to be acidified with
chlorhydric acid. y a

‘« Synthesis of Aromatic Monamines by Intramolecular Atomic
Interchange.” By Dr. A. W. Hofmann, F.R.S. a

In 2 paper submitted to the German. Chemical, Society about
a year ago, we proved (Dr. Martius and myself) that the action

sdeke

: alcohol on aniline chlorhydrate at a high temperature
ssure, far from yielding exclusively methyl- and
ine, as has been formerly believed, is capable of
iyiston of the phenyl group, and thus producing
d | of higher homologues of dimethylaniline. ;
we endeavour to gain an insight into the mechanism of
action, we are led to assume that in the first instance the
hlorhydric acid of the aniline salt gives rise to the formation of
ethylic chloride, which in its turn induces substitution, first in
theammonia fragment, and ultimately in the phenyl group itself.
ff, on the other hand, we remember that a tertiary monamine,
“such as must be formed by the final methylation of the ammonia
fragment in aniline, when submitted to the action of an alcohol

chloride, is invariably converted into an ammonium compound,
_ it must appear rather strange that in the process above alluded
to only tertiary, and never any quaternary bases are observed.

_ Under these circumstances the idea very naturally suggested
itself of submitting the behaviour of quaternary compounds at a
gh temperature under pressure to an experimental investi-
ation. : uly ga ; yuh
The simplest compound that could be detected for such an
Aquiry appeared to be trimethylphenylammonium iodide.

C,H, Cu, CH, .CH NL

| _ Reserving for a future communication the experimental details
of this inquiry, I will limit myself for the present to a brief state-
| mént of the principal result obtained. '
_ Leaving secondary reactions out of consideration, the transfor-
mation of the trimethylated phenylammonium iodide is repre-
_ sented by the following equations :—
_____ Transformation of quaternary into tertiary compound.
¢ Hs.CH,.CH,;.CH, .NI=(CsH,. CH,) CHy. CH, N. HI.
__ Transformation of tertiary into secondary compound.
F (C;H,.CH,).CH;.CH,.N.HI =[C,H,(CH,(CH,),]CH. HN.HI
. Transformation of secondary into primary compound.

[C, Hg (CHg).] CH;. HN =[C, H, (CH,),] HHN. HI.

Accordingly trimethylated phenylammonium iodide, when
submitted to the action of heat, is transformed in the first place
into iodhydrate of dimethylated methylophenylamine or dimethyl
toluidine ; this, in a second phase of the reaction, becomes
dyhdrate of monomethylated dimethylophenylamine, or
dine, which in its turn is ultimately converted into
ydrate of trimethylophenylamine, 7.2. of cumidine. The
tial character of the reaction is thus seen to be an
molecular change in the positionof the methyl groups.
ccording to the duration of the process, there are. incorporated
the benzol nucleus, first the methyl group of the alcohol iodide,
and then successively the two methylic groups which are stationed
in the ammonia fragments. The action of heat on the quaternary
“ammonium compo:ind thus places at our disposal a simple means
of rising from the benzol series itself to the toluol-, xylol-, and
‘cumol series, or, generally (for the reaction may probably be
utilised in many other cases), of passing;from a less carbonated to
‘a more carbonated series of compounds.

** New Method for producing Amidesand Nitriles.” By E. A.
Letts, Berlin University Laboratory.

_ Investigation of the Attraction of a Galvanic Coil on a small
Magnetic Mass.” By James Stuart.

“Geological Society, Nov. 20.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan,
R.S. vice-president, in the chair.—‘ On the Geology of the
hunder Bay and Shabendowan Mining Districts on the North
re of Lake Superior.” By H. Alleyne Nicholson, M.D.
author described the general characters of Thunder Bay,
ich is almost landlocked on the south-east by the bold pro-
ontory of Thunder Cape and a series of islands which form a
mtinuation of this. The rocks immediately surrounding
hunder Bay belong to the ‘‘ Lower and Upper Copper-bearing
series” of Canadian geologists. The author described the general
characters of Lake Shabendowan, and stated that from the foot
of the lake for about 15 miles westward there is a succession of
trappéan rocks, beyond which, to the head of the lake, distant
miles, the country is occupied by Huronian slates like those
veen the lake and Thunder Bay. These slates extend for an
inknown distance north-west of the head of the lake, and con-
in numerous yeins, having an. E.N.E. and W.S.W, direction,
conformable with the strike of the beds, and some of them are
Mriferous. The vein-stuff is- quartz containing copper pyrites ;
he gold is contained in the copper pyrites, or disseminatéd in

NATURE

115

very minute grains through the quartz. Several of these veins
are being worked, and their peculiarities were noticed by the
author.—‘ Note on the Relations of the supposed Carboniferous
Plantants of Bear Island with the Palzeozoic Flora of North
America,” by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. The author
referred to Dr; Heer’s paper on the carboniferous flora
of Bear {sland (see Q. J. G. S. vol. xxviii, p- 161), and stated
that the plants cited by Dr. Heer as characteristic of his “ Ursa
Stage,” are in part representatives of the American flora belong-
ing to what the author has called the ‘‘ Lower Carboniferous
Coal-measures ” (subcarboniferous of Dana). He considered
that the presence of Devonian forms was due either to the mix-
ture of fossils from two distinct but contiguous beds, or to the
fact that in these high northern latitudes there was an actual in-
termixture of thetwo floras. He dissented altogether from Dr.
Heer’s identification of these plants with those of the Chemung
group, or with those of the Middle Devonian of New Bruns-
wick. Mr. Carruthers stated that the list of the eleven Lower
carboniferous plants published in Principal Dawson’s ** Acadian
Geology ” did not contain a single species found in Bear Island ;
but, on the other hand, some species and several well-marked
forms were common to the Bear Island deposits and the Devo-
nians of North America, and he had no doubt that Prof. Heer
had in his paper rightly correlated these floras, As to the age
of these plant-bearing beds, found alike in Bear Island, Treland,
the Vosges Mountains, Canada, and Australia, Mr. Carruthers
said that it was difficult to draw any lines which would separate
the Palzozoic plants into clearly-marked and distinct floras ; but
if the Devonian is to be retained as a system, all these plant-
bearing beds belonged rather to that system than to the carbon-
iferous.—‘‘ Further Notes on Eocene Crustacea from Ports-
mouth.” By Henry Woodward. In this paper, after referring
to his former communication on Crustacea from the Lower
Eocene deposits at Portsmouth (Q.J.G.S., vol. xxviii. Pp. 90),
the author gave a full description of Rhachiosoma bispinosa, one
of the new species described in it, the materials being furnished
by several fresh specimens, which show the whole structure of
the animal. The new points include the description of the
limbs, the anterior border of the carapace, the lower surface of
the body in both sexes, and the maxillipeds. The author also
characterised, under the name of Zivoricola, a new genus of
shore-crabs allied to Grapsus, from the same deposits. Of this
genus he described two new species, Z. e/abra and‘Z. dentata—
**On a new Trilobite from the Cape of Good Hope.” By
Henry Woodward. The Trilobite described in this paper is
from the Cock’s Comb Mountains at the Cape of Good Hope,
and was preserved in a nodule, the impression retained in which,
when broken, furnished the most instructive details as to its
structure. Each of the eleven thoracic segments was furnished
with along median dorsal spine, giving to the profile of the
animal a crested appearance ; on each side of this the axis of
the segment bears two or three tubercles, and the ridge of the
pleura four or five tubercles. The tail is terminated by a spine
more than half an inch in length, and all the spines are annu-
lated. For this Trilobite the author proposed the name of
Encrinurus crista-galli, although with some doubt as to the
genus, the head being only imperfectly preserved.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Dec. 2,—M. Faye, president, in
the chair.—The first paper was by M. de Saint-Venant on the
division of the force due to a vibratory movement into those due
to simple and isochronous oscillations, &c., and of the work due
to the same composite movements, at any two moments, between
the constituent movements. —M. Claude Bernard read a note in
answer to M. Bouillaud’s paper on animal heat. He states that
the latter author, in asserting that the arterial blood in the heart
is warmer than the venous, has disregarded numberless experi-
ments which prove the direct contrary to be the case, To this
M. Bouillaud replied, defending the theory of the heat of the
body actually being formed in the lungs by the combustion in
them of carbon compounds in the blood, this being Lavoisier’s
original theory, which he defends.—A letter from Father Secchi
on the metcors of Nov. 27 was then read; from 7.30 P.M. to
I A.M, 13,892 meteors were observed.—MM. Is. Pierre and Ed.
Puchot read a paper on certain observations on the laws deduced
from the boiling points of the members of homologous series.
The authors find that the rise in boiling point for each addition
of C Hy is not so regular as is supposed.—M. A. Caligny read a
paper on the “Theory of the Sluice of L’Aubois,” a paper

116

relating to canal works, and M. Them Lestiboudois one on the
structure of heterogenic vegetables. The section of the paper
read related to heterogeneous monopetale. After this M.
Dupuy de Lome read a note on the preservation of the material
of a ‘screw balloon.”—A report on M. Felix Lucas’s memoir on
the general theorems of the equilibrium and movements of
material systems was then read, and followed by a note by M.
Mares on the utility of a permanent scientific institution in’
Algeria. M. H. Resal read a note on the relation between the
pressure and the volume of steam which expands in producing
work without the addition or subtraction of heat.—MM. E.
Mathieu and D. Urbain read a paper on the part played by gases
in the coagulation of milk and in producing muscular rigidity.
The authors believe these effects to be due to oxidation.—Ana-
tomical researches on limules, a note by M. Alph. Milne-
Edwards, was next read, and followed by a description of a new
method of treating intermittent fevers, by M. Déclat. A feature
in this treatment is the administration of small doses of carbolic
acid.—Communications on the Piylloxera from M. A. Laliman
and M. A. Vidal were sent to the commission on Phylloxera; a
note on the tertiary formations of Lormandieres, by M. Delage,
was referred toa special committee; and notes on aerostation from
MM. Billet, Braconnier, Deppe, and Chamard were sent to that
commission.—A copy of the Janssen-Lockyer Medal was sent by
the Minister of Public Instruction.—M. A. Laussedat then read
a note on the prolongation of the French meridian into Spain
and Algeria——M. Mannheim described a model of a vernier to
a vernier, and M. Gramme read a note on the application of
his magneto-electric machines to electrotype and the production
of light. He asserts that his machine produces greater effects
than Wilde’s well-known instrument, though driven at one-
eighth of the speed.—M. Becquerel presented a note by
M. E. Jannettaz, continuing his observations on the connection
between cleavage planes, cohesion axes, and axes of thermic con-
duction in crystals.—M. Th. du Moncel presented the continua-
tion of his paper on the currents produced in a telegraphic wire,
one end of which rests insulated in the air.—M. A. Treve read
a note on Magnetism, in which he describes some experiments on
magnetic induction.—M. Balard presented a note ona new bro-
minated ether, by M. P. Schiitzenberger. The formula of the
new body is stated to be (Cy Hy) O Br.3) 2. It is crystalline,
very deliquescent, and heated to 70° to 80° disengages hydro-
bromic acid in large quantities and decomposes. M. Malhe
described the manufacture of a neutral soap by exposing ordinary
soap to carbonic anhydride.—MM. Rabuteau and Papillon read
a note on the Therapeutic effects of Sodic Silicate. They believe
that it is likely to be of great use in certain skin diseases. M.
Picot’s second note on the ‘‘ Antifermentescible” properties of
the same salt followed ; he has used it with great success in cases
of blenorrhagia,—M. A. Bechamp then read a note on certain of
M. Pasteur’s recent communications on ferments, a long contri-
bution to the controversy, which has now nearly worn itself out,
and followed it up with a joint communication of his own and
M. Estor on M. Pasteur’s paper of the 7th of October. M. P.
Champion read a note on a substance extracted from a Chinese
Champignon. The fungus is that known to the Chinese as
Fouh-ling (Pachyma pinctorum). The author proposes to call
the extract pachymose, It somewhat resembles starch, and its
formula is Cy) Hy, Oyg.—M. Claude Bernard presented a paper
on the number of the Blood Corpuscles in Mammalia, Birds, and
Fish, by M. Malassez. The author calculates that in the mam-
malia the number varies from 3,500,000 per cubic millimeter to
18,000,000 ; in man it is about 4,000,000. In birds the number
is much less, from 1,600,000 to 4,000,000. In fish the osseous
fishes have 700,000 to 2,000,000 ; the cartillaginous, 140,000 to
230,000. M. Larrey presented M. G. Le Bon’s paper on some
experimental researches on the Treatment of Asphyxia ; which
was followed by a note by M. L. Vaillant on the value of certain
characters used in the Classification of Fish; and by a note on
the larval form of the dragon-flies, by M. A. Villot.—A note by
M. F, Pisani on a new vanadiferous-silicoaluminate of manga-
nese from Salm Chateau, Belgium, was then read. The mineral
contains 1°8 per cent. of vanadic acid, and in composition re-
sembles masonite. —M. Daubree presented a paper on the superior
Jurassic formations of the department of L’Herault, by M.
Bleicher.—M. Stan. Meunier read a paper on the lithological
analysis of the meteorite of the Sierra de Chaco, Chili; and on
the mode of formation of logronite.—M. Le Verrier communi-
cated along list of observations of the meteoric shower of the
27th November from various observers.—A note on the same
subject was received from M. Malinowski.—M. Champouillon

NATURE

and Sons).—The Ocean, Section I. and II.: E. Reclus (Chapman and H
Elements of Chemistry, Part I., 5th edition: W. A. Miller (Longmans).~
Zoological Mythology, vols. I, and II. : A. de Gubernatis (Triibner).

Rovav Society, at 8.30.

SoctzTy of ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Ona Celtic

Lonpon MATHEMATICAL Society, at 8.—On Geodesic Lines, especi:

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 8.

Sunpay Lecture Socisty, at 4.—On the Ear, and how we hear: Jo

Society or Arts, at 8.—On Russia, her Industries, Commerce, and }

GezoLocicat Society at 8.—Further Notes on the Punfield

Roya Society or LITERATURE, at 8.30.

Rovat SoclErTy, at 8.30. 4
LInNEAN Society, at 8.—On the General Principles of Plant-const

CHEMICAL SocigTy, at 5.

Screntiric ReszARCH AND University ENDOWMENTS. By Sir

THE METEOROLOGY OF THE FUTURE. ‘By if Norman Lockvgr,

Ouz Book SHELF. - - «+ + ++ 6

Tue SHERMAN ASTRONOMICAL EXPEDITION.

Tue TRANSIT OF VENUS. «© + + © © © «© © ©

¥

[Dec. 12, 1872 |

communicated some experiments on the effects of borax and s
silicate on malt ; his results confirm those of M. Dumas. M. Sace
communicated a note on the colouring matter of the red ca
the colouring
alcohol, more so in ether.
not more than one part in 1,000,—M.
method for reversing drawings for the engraver.—-M. Prunié:
sent a note relative to the reséarches in lake Saint-An
(Lozére) ; he believes that the rest of the structures ascribed
man there found are those of beavers.—Mdlle. Chenu sent
notes on the ‘‘ Functions of the Great Sympathetic ” and on
method for the observation of the ganglionic nervous system,
after the reception of which the session was adjourned.

substance is insoluble in water, slightly so -
In the carrot it exists to the extent of
Roenler described a

BOOKS RECEIVED.
EncuisH.—A Manual of Palzontology: H. A. Nicholson (B

DIARY

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 12.

—A Contribution to the Knowledge of Hz

bin: &. Ray Lankester—On the Structural Elements of Urinary Cal
Dr. H. V. Carter.—Researches in Spectrum Analysis in connection
the Spectrum of the Sun. No. 1: J. N. Lockyer, F.R-S. -
Tumulus in Kent: C

4
]

Knight Watson, M.A.

rE

those of a Quadric Surface ; and on the Mechanical Description of

Quartic Curves by a modified Oval Chuck: Prof. Cayley.—Note on
breaking up of the Inharmonic-ratio Sextic : J.J. Walker.-—On a D
tion from Standt’s Property of Bernoulli's Numbers: J. L. Glaish

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 13.

SUNDAY, DECEMBER I5-

S. Bristowe, M.D.
TUESDAY, DECEMBER 1

Lonpon InsTITUTION, at4.—On Elementary Pbpsntoey : Prof. Ruth
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE,

at 8.—Origin of Serpent Worship
Staniland Wake.—The Garo Hill Tribes: Major Godwin-Austen —
Kojahs of Southern India: Major Godwin-Austen.—Primosdial Inh
tants of Brazil: Capt. Burton and M. H. Gerber.

WEDNESDAY, December 18.
of Communication; Prof. Leone Levi.
C. J. A. Meyer.—On the Origin of Clay-Ironstone : - Lucas.—On
Coprolites of the Upper Greensand Formation, andon lints ; W. Jo
Sollas, St. John’s Coll. Camb.

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 19,

Dr. M. T. Masters, F.R.S.

CONTENTS ,

B. C. Bropie, Bart , F.R.S.

RERIS i shee ie fies ete eee
Hartinc’s HANDBOOK OF BriTIisH Birps . . + + + «
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :—

The National Herbarium.—W. CarruTuErs, F.R.S.; Dr. J. D.
Hooker, C.B., F/R:Se-s i. 0)» -8) => oh ps pei
The Meteoric Shower.—Prof. A. S. HerscHet, F.R.AS. . + -
The De Novo Production of tg fae os Ray LANKESTER
The Birth of Chemistry.—G. F. Ropwair, F.C.S. . . - +. + 10
The Greenwich Date.—Col. G. Greenwoop; J. K. LAuGuTo:

E. ROBERTS 0) «-le «© ysue)% = #- > (« \ouleeanEEe
Comet’s Tails . 9. 6 +s eye mh 8s)
REMARKS ON THE ZooLocy oF THE Faroe Istanps. By Rup Vv.

Wittemors-Suum. (With [ilustration.) « «+ «4 4 6
By Prof. C. A. YounG. |

(With Diagrams.) + + 2 2 + + + © © © 5 6 eo

o hae fe

Tr ‘CHALLENGER. <\fs he fle, lave. = o> ia) sn ena ee
PROCEEDINGS OF ZOOLOGICAL CoLLEcTors. By Dr. P. L. SCLATER,
Noms, ve ee ee ae
Mrimicry 1n THE CoLours oF Insects, By Dr. H. Hacen.

.
.
a 5 eee
.
.

ScreNTIFIC SERIALS. + 2 © © © © © © © © 8

SoclETIES AND ACADEMIES . + «+ «© + © + «+ + # # ©
Books REekrveD'. “<2 ge as ee 86 Ss va <) ee ae
DIARY’ 2.5... ie os Sas LPP ae o Brien iy <5

' ‘THURSDAY, DECEMBER 109, 1872

ARCTIC EXPLORATION

_ | T is now upwards of twenty-five years since the British
+ Government sent out any expedition to those little
__ known northern regions, the exploration of which has won
a so much glory to the British navy, formed such a splendid
and peaceful sphere for the training of our sailors, and
_ been so fruitful in the highest results to Science. Since
that time, and especially during the last few years, every
important civilised power in the world, except Britain,
as beea doing what it could to advance the interests of
cience, which are coincident with the highest interests of
humanity, by sending out expedition after expedition to
force from the Arctic Regions the wonderful secrets which
they have so long held in their icy grip. What has been
done by other nations has been sufficiently detailed from
time to time in these pages, and the knowledge thus
“gained cannot but be of the greatest service to any deli-
_ berately organised expedition which this country may send

About seven years ago the Geographical Society tried
to move the Government to take action in the matter,
andto fit outan Arctic expedition ; but Government excused
‘itself then on account of the want of agreement among
ographers as to the most favourable route to be followed.
Since then there has been much discussion on this point,
and the results of recent expeditions have led to almost
entire unanimity among those best able to judge as to the
Toute which is most likely to be in every way attended
with succesful results. Therefore the distinguished de-
putatioa which on Monday waited upon the Chancellor of
‘Exchequer and Mr. Goschen was not one got up in
hot haste as the result of some temporary excitement, but
was the culmination of long discussion and deliberation
founde 1 oa many years’ accumulation of pertinent and
aluable facts. The deputation was the bearer not merely
the desires and convictions of the distinguished scientific
Societie- whom it represented. Arctic exploration has inthis
country ever been popular with all classes, and to judge
from the earnest and enthusiastic tone in which most of

putation, the public mind is as strongly set as ever on
seeing that work completed which for so long has
ngaged theenergies of some of the greatest names on the
roll of the British navy.

_ That the Government will forthwith respond favour-
ably to the universal desire, when this has been so
clearly, fully, ably, and unanimously brought before it by
‘Our most distinguished learned societies, we think there
cannot be any doubt. What Government will do when
tal: men of science come before it with a well-
fined and important object has been shown in the ex-
peditioa, so liberally fitted out, which has just left our
Shores 01 board H.M.S. Chadlenger. Indeed, we believe
that Government would long ago have done something
towards Arctic exploration had the matter been brought

before it as powerfully and definitely as it was on Mon-

Diy

As was well urged by the deputation, without such
an Arctic expedition as is wanted, the work which it
is sought to accomplish by the Challenger must remain
incomplete ; the work set before that ship is of magnitude
sufficient to engage it during all the timeit will be abroad ;
and if Government is really in earnest in advancing the
interests of science by marine exploration, it cannot choose
but fit out an Arctic expedition as the indispensable
complement to that which is about to explore the middle
and southern latitudes of the globe. Theanswer that was
given by the Chancellor was all that was asked, and all
that we could expect ; and it seems to us that if he and
his colleagues do what he has promised—“ carefully con-
sider the matter, ard read over the papers” laid before
them—they can only form one opinion. We only hope
that all sections of the Press—as the mouthpiece of all
the various classes of the people—will say very unmis-
takeably what is the conclusion that all intelligent subjects
of Her Majesty desire their purse-keeper, Mr. Lowe, and
his colleagues to come to. If this and all other legitimate
influences are used, and if Government treats the subject
justly, and without prejudice, we have no doubt that by
next May the resumption of Arctic exploration by this
country will be a thing accomplished.

The deputation, headed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, re-
presented the Royal Society, the Royal Geographical
Society, the Geological Society, the Linnean Society, the
Anthropological Institute, the Scottish Meteorological
Society, and the Meteorological Office in London. Each
of these bodies, in response to a letter from the Geo-
graphical Society, sent in papers showing the important
objects to be gained from its own point of view, by a
well-organised Arctic expedition. These papers, with
the statements of the Geographical Society, maps, &e.,
were laid before the Government by Sir H. Rawlinson,
and itis after the consideration of these that Mr. Lowe
has promised to give his opinion. It is only needful
here to state very briefly the points brought before Mr.
Lowe and Mr. Goschen by the deputation. E

Arctic authorities are now almost unanimous that the
best route for an expedition to follow is up the west
coast of Greenland to Baffin’s Bay and Smith’s Sound,
one reason being that in this direction facilities are offered,
in case of disaster, for retreat to the Danish settlements ;
besides, in this direction the most varied and most valu-
able scientific results may be obtained, and all seem
agreed that this is the route along which the extreme
north is most likely to be reached. The deputation
thought that nothing better could be got in which to
convey the expedition, than two strongly-built and tho-
roughly-strengthened Dundee screw-whalers of from 200
to 300 tons each, and each having a Government crew of
60 men and officers. These should start next May, and
should be equipped and provisioned to carry on their
work for three summers and two winters. One of these
vessels it is proposed to station at some distance within
the entrance of Smith’s Sound, while the other would
advance as far as possible to the northward, preserving
communication with the dépdt vessel. From the point
reached by the other, sledge parties would start in the
early spring and explore the unknown region in various
directions. By this means a wide extent of coast-line

H

118

would be discovered, and a safe return would be ensured ;
for the advanced parties would be able to fall back upon
their consort, whence, in case of accident, the whole
expedition could retreat to the Danish settlements in
Greenland.

The direct advantages offered by this route are, the
discovery of the northern side of Greenland, and the
prospects of securing the most valuable results in the
various branches of scientific research,—in geography,
hydrography, botany, zoology, ethnology, geology, geo-
desy, and meteorology : but all the advantages to science
cannot possibly be foreseen. Among the possible results
enumerated by the Geographical Society are these :—
Completing the circle of Greenland, ascertaining the extent
and nature of its northern point, and discovering the
conditions of land and sea in that area; supplementing
the investigations of the Challenger expedition as to the
bottom of the ocean ; the probability of forest vegetation,
proved to have flourished on what is now the Greenland
coast, having extended over the Pole itself, thus confound-
ing all previous geological reasoning as to the climate and
conditions of the globe during the Tertiary period ; a more
complete knowledge of the teeming life of the Arctic
Ocean ; a knowledge of the customs and mode of life of
the supposed dwellers in the unknown area, of whose
former existence there is proof, who have no communi-
cation with the most northern known people, and who
have probably been isolated for centuries ; a knowledge
of the kinds of microscopic vegetation inhabiting the
northern Greenland seas, which would throw great light
on investigation into the age of the rocks of our own
island, and on the later changes of the climate of the
northern hemisphere, besides the geological results, in
rocks and fossils, and the observations on glacial action,
which would be yielded by the examination of a long
coast line ; observations of the pendulum and of the dip
and intensity of the needle ; and observations as to tem-
perature, pressure, winds, a currents. These manifold
advantages, of the highest importance—in spite of the
vague Philistine tirade of the Z7%es—are confirmed
and supplemented by the documents of the other
societies.

As to the element of danger, it is clearly shown in the
Linnean Society’s paper that, as compared with explo-
rations in Africa, Australia, and elsewhere, Polar voyages,
North and South, show a comparative immunity from loss
and hardship; and during the last few years experience
has been so fruitful in her teachings, that the element of
discomfort and danger may now be reducedto aminimum.
The Geographical Society concludes its documents by
adding to the other advantages that another generation of
naval officers will be trained in ice navigation,—-and they
will be needed in 1882,—that opportunities will be offered
for distinction, and that a great benefit will be conferred
on the Navy, and through the Navy on the country. The
belief is expressed that all classes of the people will unite
with men of science in the desire that the tradition of
Arctic discovery should be preserved and handed down to
posterity, and that Englishmen should not abandon that
career of noble adventure which has done so much to
form the national character, and to give our country the
rank she still maintains.

All this is irresistible.

NATURE

[Dec. 19, 1872

FORESTRY IN ITS ECONOMICAL BEARINGS

O what extent the climate of any portion of the sur-
face of the earth can be changed by human labour

is still an open question. Certain districts of the globe we
are accustomed to look upon as condemned by Nature to
perpetual sterility. The arid deserts of Africa and Central
Asia, the frozen realms of Siberia, appear as if predestined
to a gloomy lifeless solitude. To reclaim them to human
control and human habitation may be one of the problems
of the future. That climates have changed materially
within recent times, we know as a historic fact. Macau-
lay has made us familiar with the damp fogs and per-
petual rain-clonds with which our island was invested
during the period preceding the arrival of the Danes and
the Saxons. Much of the amelioration of climate which
has since taken place is doubtless due to the increased
cultivation of the land, and the extent to which the fen-
districts have been drained ; but the main agent has pro-
bably been the destruction of the forests which then
clothed a large portion of the island.
The mode in which forests act in increasing the amount
of moisture in the atmosphere is much misunderstood.
Even in an article which recently appeared in the pages
of so well-informed a journal as the Pa// Mall Gazette,
it is affirmed that this effect is due to the attraction exer-
cised by the trees on the rain-clouds. The principle by —
which trees act in effecting this is, however, at least
mainly, by acting as pumps in drawing up the superfluous
moisture from the soil. The most trustworthy experi-
ments show that, under normal circumstances, plants « —
have no power of absorbing through their leaves water,
either in the fluid or gaseous state; their supplies are
obtained entirely through their roots ; and the superfluous _
moisture is evaporated from the leaves. The amount of
aqueous vapour thus delivered into the atmosphere by
vegetation is enormous, and has been the subject of care-
ful investigations by French and German botanists. Von
Pettenkofer recently detailed* some experiments on the —
amount of evaporation from an oak tree, made during the -
whole period of its summer growth. He found the amount
gradually to increase from May to July, and then decrease
till October. The number of leaves on the tree he esti-
mates at 751,592, and the total amount of evaporation —
in the year at 539'16 centimetres of water. The average —
depth of rainfall for the same period on the area
covered by the oak tree would be only 65 centimetres ;
the amount of evaporation is thus 8} times more than that
of the rainfall. The excess must be drawn up by the ©
roots from a great depth; and thus trees prevent the —
gradual drying of a climate, by restoring to the air the
moisture which would otherwise be carried to the sea by |
streams and rivers. ;
The immediate result, therefore, of the diminution of
forests in a thickly-woodel country will be to increase
the proportion of the annual rainfall that is carried to the ©
sea by the natural drainage of the country, and propor-
tionately to decrease the amount returned insensibly to
the atmosphere, which then condenses into rain and ;
cloud. Within certain limits it is obvious that this”
must be an unmixed good ; but as the country becomes |
more and more thickly populated, and the land more

+ Sitzungsberichte der k. bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zt
Miinchen, 1870, Band 1, Heft x.

ans

valuable for habitation or culture, the danger rather lies
in the other extreme, that the country will become so de-
nuded of forests as to render the climate too dry for
the profitable pursuit of agriculture. This has, in fact,

_ mand the most serious attention. In many parts of the
- continent of Europe great efforts are now being made to
restore a portion of the forests which have been ruthlessly
destroyed. At one Government establishment in Dal-
matia five million young trees are now in cultivation for
this purpose. In our Indian possessions the evil result-
_ ing from the destruction of the forests reached some years
_ ago so gigantic a dimension as to demand the instant in-
_ terference of the Government. The Indian forests are in
themselves a source of great revenue, producing the most
_ valuable teak, and multitudes of the more ornamental
woods used in cabinet-work. But, independently of this,
_ the most injurious consequences had resulted to the climate
‘from their wanton destruction; the droughts, becom-
‘ing constantly more frequent and of longer duration,
brought terrible famine in their rear; and the swollen
‘water-courses, when the rain did come, caused fearful
devastations. The Government at length took the subject
up, and in all our Indian Provinces the Conservancy of
Forests is now an important branch of the Administration,
though much yet remains to be done in consolidating and
‘perfecting the system. In Mauritius similar results
have followed similar causes. The fertility of the island
has been diminished by the destruction of the forests ;
and the fever which a few years since decimated Port
_ Louis is attributed to the malaria occasioned by the floods
bi ought down by the torrents swollen far beyond their
ordinary dimensions.
_ The literature of Forest Conservancy is, in fact, now
enormous. Thestandard work on the subject, as far as
India is concerned, is by Dr. Cleghorn,* the Conservator
for the Madras Presidency, which gives a history of what
our Government has been doing there. We are constantly
eceiving, however, from others of our colonial depend-
encies, official reports of the efforts being made in them
for the preservation of the native forests ; and it is im-
possible in this connection to avoid mentioning the name

he Botanic Gardens at Melbourne, whose exertions in
the introduction and acclimatisation of Australian forest
es in other climes have been unwearied and of inestim-
able value. : :
In Algeria the same tale is told as in India. Up to
out the year 1865 the wanton destruction of the forests
the Arabs by fire and other means, was enormous ; un-
at length the French Government took up the subject,
vbly aided by one or two English and French owners of
landin the Colony. The tree found there most efficacious
in repairing the waste, is not a native, but one of the
ily known in Australia as “ gum-trees,” the Eucalyptus
buldus of Tasmania. The great advantage of the planting
of this tree is, not only the value of its timber, but its prodi-
ously rapid growth, said to be fully twenty times greater
thanthat of the oak, It has been introduced also with

_ ~_ ***The Forests and Gardens of South India.” By Hugh Cleghorn, M.D.
F.L.S, (London; W. H. Allen and Co., 186r.)

country. The foliage is said to secrete a gum-resin, which
acts as a most valuable antidote to malaria fever.

In the French department of the Hautes Alpes, an in-
teresting experiment has been tried of a somewhat differ-
ent character. The same results had there ensued from
the same causes. Year by year the mountain villages had
been abandoned, and in twenty years a diminution of
population to the extent of 11,000 had taken place. An
attempt to replace the forests met with the most violent
opposition from the peasantry, and they were al-
lowed to substitute “ gazonnement” for “ reboisement ;”
that is, the people were compelled to returf the barren
and neglected districts. The effect is said to have been
most beneficial. The fresh covering of the naked soil
has prevented evaporation, and has allowed the rain to
sink in instead of running off in destructive torrents ;
and districts which a few years ago were abandoned to
desolation are now gradually acquiring a luxuriant vege-
tation, and giving food and shelter to the flocks and herds
which had long been strangers to them ; the streams are
becoming clearer and less violent, and the bridges are no
longer periodically carried away.

There is probably no department of Science to which
human energy and ingenuity could be more profitably
turned than the reclaiming of the waste places of the
earth.

DANA ON CORALS

Corals and Coral Islands. By James D. Dana, LL.D.
&c. (Sampson Low and Co., 1872.)

HE distinguished naturalist, geologist, and minera-
logist, who is the author of this semi-scientific work,
is probably, next to Charles Darwin, the man from whom
an expansive book on coral formations would be expected.
He has had immense opportunities for the careful investi-
gation of all the phenomena of coral reefs, and his peculiar
mental constitution has assisted him in all his endeavours
to teach and to arrange. No geologist has equalled Dana
in the arrangement of his work ; and his celebrated book
on that science is eagerly studied by teachers of all degrees.
As a student of details, he may point to his Mineralogy
with great pride ; yet, with these powers and gifts ready
at hand, Dana produces, late in life, this disappointing
beok. It is full of precious stones in ugly settings, and
the gems are intermixed with much that is worthless. To
the general public it will be almost a closed book for years
and it is hardly worthy of a place in a purely scientific
library. A great portion of the book is taken up by de-
scriptions and remarks upon animals which are not corals,
and which in no way affect or produce coral reefs or islands,
and the old errors respecting coral productions are per-
versely introduced. All the notices and descriptions of the
Actiniz and Hydroidea might have been omitted, as
they only confuse the subject, and surely such statements
as refer coral making to (1) Polyps, (2) Hydroids, (3)
Bryozoa, (4) Algee, might have been left buried in the
memories of those who have been teaching that the third
and fourth named organisms have nothing to do with
coral any more than oysters and sunflowers.
Writing about Actiniz, Dana gives the following without
reference :—“ As to senses, Actinize, or the best of them,

| are not so low as was once supposed ; for, besides the

120

general sense of feeling, some of them have a series of
eyes placed like a necklace around the body, just outsid2
of the tentacles. They have crystalline lenses, anda short
optic nerve. Yet Actiniz are not known to have a proper
n2rvous system; their optic nerves, where they exist, are
apparently isolated, and not connected with a nervous ring
such as exists in the higher radiate animals.” Now, the
“bourses marginales” have highly refractile cells and
elongated cells without nematocysts associa‘ed with them ;
then a mass of granular and opaque tissue separates them
from some irregularly-shaped cells which are not peculiar
to the spot, but which are found between the muscular
layers also. Corresponding refractile cells are to be found
on the tentacles. We ,have followed Schneider in these
researches, and do not as yet feel disposed to recognise
an optic organ.

The classification of the corals employed by Dana is, as

might have been expected, not that followed by those men
who have raised thos2 Radiata from the Slough of Despond
in which they were left by the predecessors of Lamarck.
The introduction of American novelties, to the exclusion
of well-recoznised European classifications, is neither right
nor scientifically correct. For instance, Dana mentions
the “ Oculina tribe, or Oculinacez,” and, after giving his
differentiation, proceeds : -“ The Orbicella is an example
of one of the massive Astraea-like forms constituting the
Orbicel!a family, or Ocbicellidee, in the Oculinatribe. The
Caryophyllia h2re figured (Caryophyliea Smithii, Stokes) is
one of the solitary species of the tribe found in European
seas and on the coast of Great Britain.” “ Thecorallum of
an allied species (Caryophyllia cyathus),’ Dana proceeds
to inform us, is found “ not only in the Mediterranean, but
also over the bottom of the Atlantic, even as far north as
the British Isles.” ‘“ Another example of this tribe, as de-
fined by Pro®. Verrill, is the species of Astrangia occurring
alive along the southern shores of New England, and on
the west of New Jersey.” The diagnosis of the Oculina
tribe was the growth of the experience of Schweigger, and
of Milne-Edwardes, and Jules Haime, and they separated
the incongruous genera which Lamarck had associated
with it. The admission of Orbicella, which is really the
old Astrea of Lamarck, and of Caryophyllia into this well-
differeatiated tribe, is simply absurd, for they possess
structural characters sufficiently diverse as to place them
in different families. The discovery of Caryophyllia
Smithii in the European seas was due to the investigations
of the results of the late deep-sea dredgings of H.M.S.
Porcupine, and those unrecognised workers have shown
that it is not Caryophyllia cyathus, but C. clovus, which
has the great horizontal range. Had Dana waited a little
longer he would have had the opportunity of quoting cor-
rectly. Again, Astrangia was well differentiated long
before Prof. Verrill was heard of. The American Conrad,
and our Lonsdale, and finally, the distinguished French
Zoophytologists, for whose labours our author appears to
have a supreme contempt, inasmuch as he rarely gives
them credit for their good work, consolidated the genus,
_which has nothing in common with the Oculinide.

Interesting and valuable chapters on the distribution of

corals according to temperature, and on their limitation to

certain areas, follow. Darwin is supported in his views of
the 20-fathom range of reef-building corals, and some

interesting data are given respecting the rapidity of growth

Att, CoE Seley ol Ge
ri 7% se pee rc! a.
‘Des i etroos

NATURE

of corals. A madrepore is stated to have grown 16 feet in
64 years; but the rapidity of growth depends upon the ~
habit of the species, the freedom from the destructive ©
effects of boring mollusca, nibbling fish, and wave-breaking, —
and is, under favourable conditions, very rapid. The —
chapters on the structures
little to the knowledge which Darwin and Jukes and
Hochstetter have given us; but Dana’s great powers of |
illustration enable him to reproduce the details with which —
we are so familiar, thanks to these authors, in very en- -
gaging forms. He tells us, however, that in the reef, f
“ The coral doris and shells fill up the intervals between —
the coral patches and the cavities among the living tufts, —
and in this manner produce the reef deposit, and the bed
is finally consoli lated while still beneath the water.” x!

wave in smashing and removing masses of coral, and the ~
effects of the passage upwards on to the beach of hard
blocks in destroying and comminuting smaller zoophytes, —
Dana very properly insists upon the formation of what —
are usually called coral islands, from the collection of —
beached coral boulders, and suggests that the extreme —
grinding and pounding of the most fragile coral stems 7
places the carbonate of lime, of which they are com- —
posed, in the best position for solution in highly aérated q
sea water.
about the reefs, and compares its origin to that of any —
other kind of sand. and mud.
shores exposed to the waves, coral or not coral, and in
every case the gentler the prevailing movement of the ‘
water the finer the material on the shore.
lagoons, where the water is only rippled by the winds or
roughened for short intervals, the trituration is of the

gentlest kind possible, and moreover the finely pulverised q
material remains as part of the shores.” He shows that 3
the particles of the very fine mud which is washed out —
from the beach sands accumulate only in the more quiet —
waters some distance outside of the reef, and within the
lagoons and channels where it settles.

pila So tae alt

| Dec. 19, 1872

.

of coral reefs and islands add —

Noticing, then, the great power of the force of sea

He notices the formation of mud in and

“Tt takes place on all —

In the smaller

‘After remarking upon the abundance of fish around
coral islands, especially in the instance of Taputenea,
with an area of six square miles, whose population of
7,000 is supported by fishing, Dana notices the drifting -
of logs of wood on to remote islands. “An occasional
log drifts to the shores, at some of the more isolate
atolls, where the natives are ignorant of any land but |
the spot they inhabit, they are deemed direct gifts from a
propitiated deity. These drift logs were noticed by —
Kotzebue at the Marshall Islands, and he remarked also _
that they often brought stones in their roots. Simila
facts have been observed at the Gilbert Group and also
Enderby’s Island and many other coral islands of the |
Pacific. The stones at the Gilbert Islands, so far as”
could be learned, are generally basaltic or volcanic, and j
they are highly valued among the natives for whetstones,
pestles, and hatchets. The logs are claimed by he
chiefs for canoes.” These waifs and strays, and others,
like the large masses of “ compact cellular larvee” lying i
200 yards inside of the line of breakers on Rose Island,
and the fragments of pummice and resin which, trans-
ported by the waves, are collected by the natives on their
shores, are very interesting and suggestive to the
botanist, mineralogist, and archaologist—more so, per

a

Gis

19, 1872]

s, than to the natives, who are not admired by Dana,

r they evidently lead too carnal an existence, and care
“little for poesy and the imagination.
eS After explaining the origia of gypsum in som: of the
"smaller completed atolls by evaporation of sea-water in
the gradually drying lagoon, Dana describes some of the
- guano deposits which collect on the coral limestone and
_ saline mud, and mentions how these accidental additions
with the stones and drift wood, explain many difficult

geological and mineralogical problems, “ Some interest-
ing pseudomorphs occur buried in the guano of Baker’s

Island. Coral fragments of various species were found

that had long been covered up under the deposit, and in
some of which the carbonic acid had been almost entirely
replaced by phosphoric acid. Onsuch I have found 70
per cent. of phosphate of lime.” This is an interesting
_ fact, especially when it is remembered that birds’ dung
~ may have collected in all climates during many geologi-
_ calages. The descrip.ion of the geographical distribu-
_-tion of coral reefs is followed by a most interesting
_ chapter on changes of level in the Pacific Ocean. The
irregularity of the elevations and subsidences, even on
confined areas, is admirably demonstrated. The forma-
tion of compact white limestones, and of impure or argil-
laceous limestones, and of beach or sand-drift rocks and

oolitic limestones, is explained, but without reference to
_ the admirable researches of Nelson, whose labours in the
_ Bermudas are classical amongst European geologists.
_ Then*there is a sweeping assertion that deep-sea lime-
stones are seldom if ever made from coral island or reef
_ débris, and that lands separated by a range of deep
ocean cannot supply one another with material for rocks.

The words “‘ deep sea” are now differently understood
_ to what they were in the days when theoretical views of
the depth took the place of the results of real measure-
_ ments, so that it is necessary to assert that abyssal seas
_ may prove such barriers. But research into the lithology
of the Atlantic near the Azores distinguishes mineral
matters which, in all probability, are of American origin ;
and both in the Miocene deposits of the West Indies,
and in those of the same age in Europe, there are proofs
- of the enormous aggregation of coral dééris in deep lime-
stones. Dana considers that the views, so ably put for-

_ ward by Lyeli and many American geologists concerning
_ the derivation of the sedimentary rocks of the Appala-
_ chian strata from land tothe east—that is to say, to the
area of the present Atlantic—are unsound, because the
_ wreck of the hypothetical continent could not have passed
along the floor of the deep intervening sea. He states
_ that the Atlantic would get back all its own dirt—an ob-
servation which would be trenchant enough, if geology
_ did not prove the extraordinary distances to which sedi-
_ ments were removed from their sources.

The author is too keen a geologist not to notice this
discrepancy in the size of the existing coral-limestone
_ formations and those of the past, and he illustrates the
_ possibility of considerable areas being now the seat of
- coral-limestone deposits by quoting the geography of the

Abrolhos banks. The coalescence of the coral banks in

shallow seas whose currents were not sufficient to cut

deep and wide channels would account for the wide-
spread and continental limestones.
_ An interesting notice of the occurrence of chalk ina

NATURE

I21I

raised reef in Oahu, near Honolulu, but which contained no
traces of Foraminifera, is succeeded by essays on oceanic
temperature and oceanic coral island subsidence. The
Gulfstream is stated to have had, from the Jurassic pe-
riod in geological history onward, the same kind of influ-
ence on the temperature of the North Atlantic Ocean
which it now has; and the British oolitic reefs are quoted
as substantiating this assertion. Certainly during the Mio-
cene the isthmus of Panama was under water, and vast
tracts of the north of South America, and of the south of
North America, and therefore the existence of a Gulf
stream at that time may be doubted. Then there were
stupendous reefs in the Italian and Austrian area, and
the influence of anything like a Gulf stream would have
had no effect upon them.

After noticing that coral islands are evidences of buried
lands, Dana insists that “we are far from establishing
that these lands were oceanic continents. For as the
author has elsewhere shown, the profoundest facts in the
earth’s history prove that the oceans have always been
oceans.” This dictum is constantly in the mouths of
some geologists, and its value may be appreciated by the
remembrance that the existing continents are mainly
composed of old sea, deep sea,and abyssal floors, and that
very probably there has always been a comparatively ex-
act relation between the amount of land and sea on the
earth’s surface. Moreover, there are very strong reasons
for believing in a former Atlantis, and in a continent or
a series of great islands between South America and New
Zealand.

The illustrations of the book are numerous, and some of
them are very correct representations of nature. The
group of Caryophillize in page 42 is excellent, but British
aquarium-keepers will hardly recognise the well-known
Carophyllia Smithii on page 67. Many of the white etch-
ings on the black ground are beautifully executed, and
copies of them will make excellent diagrams,

Pos, De

OUR BOOK SHELF

Lird-Life. By Dr. A. E. Brehm. Translated from the
German by H. M. Labouchere, F.Z.S., and W. Jesse,
C.M.Z.S. Parts iv. and v., 1872. (London: Van
Voorst.)

THIs is a translation of a work well known in Germany,
where it has attained great and in some respects merited
success. “Das Leben der Vogel” is the production of
one of a talented family, who have done much to popu-
larise several branches of natural history, We do not
say that it was not worth translation, but we do affirm
that the translation is not worth half-a-crown a number—
the price at which it is issued in this country—even when
the value of Mr. Keuleman’s nicely tinted lithographs is
taken into account The idea of Brehm’s book is to give
a popular account of the way birds pass their lives in
general and on particular occasions In the parts of the
translation now before us the chapters relate to the
“every-day-life,” “ courtship and marriage,” “ nest-build-
ing,” and “ migration” of birds. These are all described
nicely enough, the author being an excellent field natu-
ralist, and w.th sufficient accuracy, though in a very de-
sultory manner. Anecdotes are often given from other
authors, and stories from Dr. Brehm’s personal experience,
which has been extensive. But the work is a mere sketch
of a history which it would occupy many volumes to

r22

relate in a satisfactory manner. And, as we have already
said, it is certainly not worthy of the luxurious paper and
excellent print lavished upon it in the translation. In
short, Ze jeu ne vaut par la chandelle. Messrs. Labou-
chere and Jesse might have spent their time and money in
many other ways, to the greater advantage of natural his-
tory and of their own pockets.

Notes on River Basins, By Robert A, Williams, (London :
Longmans and Co., 1872.)

THE river basins to which this little book refers are those
of Great Britain and Ireland, and the notes are published,
the author says, in the hope that they may be found useful
to pupil-teachers. They are intended to form a supple-
ment to the usual text-books of school geography. The
rivers of England are given first, then those of Scotland
and Ireland, each system being preceded by a general
sketch of the course of the water-shed (or ‘“ water-
parting,” as Mr. Williams prefers to call it) of the
country to which it belongs, and followed by a section on
the canals. The author commences at one end of each
country, takes the rivers in their order round the coast,
names the drainage basin and source, describes the course
and mouth, takes up and describes each tributary and
affluent as it occurs, names and gives the measurements
of any lakes which may be in the way, mentions the most
remarkable features, and ends by giving the length of the
main river and the area of its basin. So far as we have
tested it the information seems in the main accurate,.and
the list of rivers and tributaries is remarkably full. Mr.
Williams mentions the fall of the Rumbling Bridge on the
Devon, a tributary of the Forth, but takes no notice of
the equally high and equally grand fall of the same name
on the Bran, a tributary of the Tay. It is surely very un-
usual to spell Dunkeld “Dunkield.”. The book will be
useful to all who wish to have the main details con-
cerning British rivers and canals carefully and clearly
arranged in a handy form.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

The late Meteoric Shower

WE have had here, and I presume you also have had in Eng-
land, quite a fine display of shooting stars from the fragments or
companions of Biela’s co met.

On Sunday evening, Nov. 24, they were coming about as fast
as in the thickest parts of the August sprinkles—that is, forty or
fifty to the hour, fora single observer. Three-fourths of them
radiated from yy Andro medz and vicinity.

On Monday morning there was no special abundance, but the
radiant was then quite low in the north-west.

Monday evening they were coming with about half the fre-
quency of the previous evening. Half of those seen came from
the Andromeda radiant.

Tuesday evening the sky was overcast, but Wednesday even-
ing there was so great a display as to attract the attention of
multitudes. Our party of from two to six persons counted 1,000
in a part of the first hour—that is, from 6h. 38m. to 7h. 34m.,
and in the next hour and a quarter we counted 750. The dis-
play was rapidly diminishing. Before midnight it was essen-
tially over, and, so far as I know, has not re-appeared.

The flights were slower than those of the Nov. 14 period, and
generally faint. The radiant was carefully observed on Wed-
nesday evening by Prof. Twining and myself, and we argued
that the centre was in the line from the Pleiades to - Andro-
medz produced, and was about 3° beyond that star. It
was much longer in right ascension than in declination, and was
not less than 8° long, The star y was within the radiant
area, for flights in the several directions from the radiant would,
if produced backward, pass sometimes on one side and some-
times the other of that star.

The character of this display, and the previously observed divi-

count, especially of those meteors appearing near the zenith; —

sion of the comet into two parts, will, I doubt not, incline astro- _
nomers to the opinion of Dr. Weiss and others, who think that the
shooting stars are products of the disintegration of comets
already moving in closed orbits, rather than to the opinion
of Prof. Schiaparelli that they are drawn from the stellar spaces
into long parabolic currents. The latter hypothesis presents
difficulties which I cannot explain. ,
Yale College, Dec. 2

H. A. NEWTON

Ir the following translation of a letter I have received from
Father Denza, Director of the Royal Observatory at Montcalieri,
in Piedmont, will be of interest, it is at your service. v

R. P. GREG

“Dear Sir,—A great shower of luminous meteors has just
been witnessed throughout this country, and has no doubt been
seen elsewhere. As soon as it became dusk falling stars were
observed to fall continuously until midnight, and had it not then
become cloudy no doubt they would have been seen until a still
later hour. About 33,400 meteors were here counted by four
observers. Even this number does not adequately represent the
probable actual numbers. About 8 P.M. (when in some parts of —
the sky there seemed a real rain of fire) it was difficult to keep

and at one time our four observers counted on the average 400
meteors every minute and a half, All the wonderful and beauti-
ful appearances reminded us of the November shower. The
meteors appeared of various colours ; some left brilliant streaks;
fireballs were frequent, some with an apparent diameter nearly
equal to the moon’s ; some here and there breaking up in a
thousand ways, as into a luminous cloud, or opening out into
bundles of rays of singular shapes. From time to time —
some of these nebulous trains or appearances pursued their —
courses ; or now vanishing or halting, only again to reappear.
One of these, which appeared at 6h. 35m. between Perseus and
Auriga, remained visible until 6.56, or 21m. after its first becom-
ing visible. In short the general aspect of the phenomenon was —
that of a cosmic cloud which, encountering our atmosphere,
appears and then melts away. The position of the radiant,
which was accurately determined, was almost close to y Andro-
medz, and the epoch of the appearance induces one to suppose
that the meteoric stream which we have just been traversing,
and which in fact has been more or less seen every year, though
with much less intensity might be the same which was seen
by Brande, December 7, 1798, and again noticed on the same
day in 1830 by the Abbé Raillard ; in 1838 by Herrick and ~
Flangergnes ; lateragain in 1847 by Prof. Heis, of Miinster;
and in 1867 was recognised by Signor Zerioli at Bergamo.
At the present time its point of contact with the earth’s orbit —
must have taken place on November 27-28. Nowit results from
sufficiently probable calculations, that this meteor stream marks
the orbit of the so much celebrated comet of Biela, the appear-
ance or passage of which we have been expecting in the month oi
October of the present year, and for which astronomers areon
the look-out. Most probably the large meteoric stream or cloud
which produced this remarkable shower of falling stars last —
evening belongs to a part of this comet ; so much the more likel
when we consider that only yesterday the earth passed coe
one of the two nodes of this comet’s orbit.
** A fine rose aurora was visible last evening from 6 to 8 P.M.,
adding to the beauty of the entire phenomenon. ;
“* Yours respectfully,
“ DE

‘=

i NZA
‘*Montcalieri Observatory, Nov. 28, 1872

“ P.S.—The shower was seen by many other Italian observers
and astronomers—by Gasparis at Naples, who noted two meteors
per second; Prof. Eugenio at Matera with three assistants
counted 38,153 meteors between 6 and 12 o’clock ; at Messina
the number was too great to count ; at Mandori Prof. Bruno and
three assistants counted 30,881 meteors between 6h. 18m. and
14h. 15m. ; at Ancona were counted 5,000 meteors per hour. |
The maximum appearance generally at all these stations sas
about 8 p.M., and the radiant was found to be not far from y
Andromede.”

ag
<4

WHILE going to the Naval Observatory on the evening of
November 27, I noticed many shooting-stars, and made the fol- —
lowing observations :—From 6h, 25m. to 6h. 43m., Washi ,

5 ashington
mean time, I counted one hundred meteors ; and from 7h, 40m, —

o 8h. om. I counted fifty meteors. The observer's face was
orth-west. The sky was clear to within ten or fifteen degrees
of the horizon. The meteors were generally very small, and I
_ noticed only fowr or five near the zenith that left trails behind
that endured a few seconds. Jn one respect the meteors were
_ remarkable : they all appeared to radiate from a point between
the great square in Pegasus and the chair in Cassiopeia, so that
_ during my two watches I saw but a single meteor that could pro-
perly be called sporadic. By laying down some of the tracks on
a globe, I found the following rough position of the radiant
‘point :—

: AR = 355°, Decl. = + 43°.

From this position of the radiant point I have computed the
following elements of the orbit of the meteoric stream, and by
_ the side of these have placed the corresponding number of
_ Biela’s comet :—

Meteoric Stream. Biela’s Comet

7 = 89°5° 7 = 109°0?
a = 246°1 a = 245°9

z = 15°4 z = 12°6
logg = —-9'976 logg. = 9°933

___ These elements are so much alike, that there can be but little

_ doubt that the meteors are the transformed particles of Biela's

comet. Asari HALL
Washington, Dec. 1

_ ON the evening of November 27, Prof. Tingley, of
_ Asbury University, Greencastle, Indiana, observed a remarkable
shower of falling stars. The number counted in 40 minutes,
_ from 7h. 15m. to 7h. 55m., was 110. This would give 165 per
_ hour for one observer. But according to Prof. Newton (Si//-
mars Fournal, for January 1868, p. 80), the whole number
visible at any station, when the sky is entirely clear, is five times
_ the number seen by a single observer. The enumeration by
_ Prof. Tingley accordingly indicates an actual fall of 825 per

hour.
____ It was remarked by the writer several years since* that the
last days of November were worthy of close attention as the
probable date of a meteoric shower. The same period had been
_ previously designated by Mr. R. P. Greg, as an aérolitic epoch.
_ The observed showers of falling stars which may be referred to

_ this stream are as follows : —

; A.D. 837, Nov. 12, cor. to Nov. 27 for 1850.

899, 18, Dec. 2 os
1850, 29
1872 2

7

2

__ The epoch corresponds with that at which the earth crosses
_ the orbit of Biela’s comet. This body is no longer visible in its
cometary form, having undergone the process of disintegration—
a process which doubtless commenced at a very remote period.
_ The fact, then, can scarcely be doubted that the meteors of this
epoch are the results of this comet’s gradual dissolution.

\ DANIEL Kirkwoop

- Bloomington, Ind., Nov. 28

THE aurora of Nov. 27—the evening of the meteoric display—
_ was seen by me near Liverpool. It appears to have been very
" partial in its manifestation, to judge by the published accounts.
_ There was merely a hazy or diffused cloudy light, devoid both of
_ colouring and symmetry of form. This variety of aurora I have
__ observed on several occasions, when it appears to have attracted
but few observers.

_ Imay draw attention now to the fact of another display of
_ aurora on Nov. 10 (noticed first at about 11.20 P.M.). This
_ was of the usual form, ruddy, and radiating from a horizontal
_ band of light in the north. It was followed by a week of much
colder weather than had preceded it.

_Liverpool, Dec. 13 SAMUEL BARBER

As the number of meteors which I counted on the evening of
Wednesday last, November 27, varied considerably from the
number in Mr. Lowe’s tables (Zimes, November 29), I beg to
offer you my observations, in case they should be of any value on
account of the more southern point from which they were taken.
T lay down on my back upon the flat roof of the house in which

* “Meteoric Astronomy,” p. 55.

Pe» ry

NATURE

oqaney #
ee ees)

T live, and looked up towards the zenith. The radiating point of
most of the meteors seemed to be in the area between Cassiopeia
and Perseus. I observed a bright one between the stars repre-
senting the feet of Andromeda. It disappeared without traversing
almost any visible track or angular distance, from which I drew
the inference that it was near theradiating point. The number I
counted was as follows :—

Time. No. in Average

h. m. 5 minutes. No, per minute.
6 34—39 150 30

6 39—44 140 28

6 45—50 150 30

6 50—55 180 36

7 I—6 160 32

7 7-12 160 32

7 17-22 170 34

fe Sees 180 36

7 49-45 180 36

8 48—53 150 30
lo 5—I0 rare) 16

10 24 29 70 I4

Between 8 and 8.30, a friend and I counted together about 50
per minute. J. F. ANDERSON
Pau, Dec. 2

The De Novo Production of Living Things

In reply to Mr. E. Ray Lankester’s inquiry in the last
number of NATURE, I beg to state that the specific gravity of
an infusion of turnip, prepared inthe manner I have directed, was
found to be 1012, whilst that of an infusion of hay was 1005.

H. CHARLTON BAs?IAN

University College, London, Dec. 16

The Ocean Rainfall

ON reading the article on ‘‘ The Meteorology of the Future,”
in NATURE, December 12, I pondered over this passage—‘‘ It
is impossible to determine the rainfall over the ocean ;” and it
occurred to me that it- is possible to do something in that line
approximately. Is the Challenger supplied with rain-
gauges ? Would it not be possible to determine in some measure
the hourly amount of rainfall over the ocean, in the zones of
greatest precipitation, or in those of periodical rains, without de-
taining the ship unduly ; and would not such data be useful in
solving some of the problems connected with the working out of
the law of cyclones ?

Another suggestion has occurred to me—that is, that rain-
gauges might be placed in “ floating lights,” and the rainfall at
sea thus obtained. I need not now inguire through what channel
this might be effected, or what/particular structure and fixing of
the gauges might be necessary. I should be glad to elicit the
opinion of some of the readers of NATURE as to the practica-
bility and utility of such a scheme. , S.H. MILier

Wisbech, Dec. 14

Ocean Meteorological Observations

AN examination of the discussion of the daily range of the
barometer for square No. 3, published under Fitzroy’s direction
in 1861, which Mr. Symons has referred to at page 68 of this
volume, shows that the results there arrived at can only be con-
sidered to be good as corrections for hourly observations of the
barometer on the mean of the year. As regards the months, the
results are, on account of the fewness of the observations on
which they are based, too imperfect as indications of the true
range to be available in correcting the averages on the large
January chart issued by the Meteorological Committee. Since,
moreover, the barometric range for January differs from that for
the year, the hourly corrections for range on the mean of the
year should not be applied to the January observations printed
on the large chart.

Again, the prevalence in January of the south-easterly trades
in the southern portion of the square, the prevalence of the
north-easterly trades in the northern portion, and variable winds
between, and the unequally clouded state of the sky which re-
sults therefrom, render it certain that range corrections must

124

differ considerably in different portions of the square. On these
grounds, it would be a mistake, scientifically, to correct the
averages of the actual observations on the large chart, in the
present state of our knowledge. These should be printed with
none except instrumental corrections ; and as we have already
said, the mean hour of the day and the mean day of the month
of each average should be given ; for if this be not done, the re-
sults of the discussion can be turned to no strict scientific use
whatever.

But it is quite otherwise in discussing te data entered on the
large chart, with the view of arriving at some knowledge of the
distribut’on of pressur2 over this important part of the ocean.
As we stated before, ‘‘such a discussion necessarily calls for a
‘preliminary preparation of the results by the application of such
approximate corrections for range as we are in possession of,”
and of these corrections Fitzroy’s, to which Mr. Symons refers,
are among the most valuable. To have attempted such a dis-
cussion, disregarding the correction for range, is a grave mis-
take ; and we can scarcely suppose the Meteorological Commit-
tee will sanction it when they ultimately decide on the method
of discussion to be adopted.

Fitzroy recognised the vital importance of range corrections in
such discussions ; and with this view the monograph above re-
ferred to was published under his direction upwards of eleven
yearsago. It would be well if a series of such monographs
were prepared under the direction of the Meteorological Co m-
mittee, as necessary preliminaries, which indeed they are, to the
discussion of the meteorology of each portion of the ocean they

underiake to discuss, Your REVIEWER

Rainfall at Barbados

I po not know whether the following notice is worthy of ad-
mission into NATURE, but it suggests many interesting conse-
quences as the effects of heavy rains over continents drained by
large rivers.

A very intelligent naturalist, writing to me from Tobago,
states :—

“ During August we had an influx of fresh water all alohg our
southern coast, and throughout the whole extent the sea eggs
crawled ashore, and died in great numbers. No one has seen
the like before. I have no doubt the fresh water was the cause
of the mortality, and that ocher shells also suffered.”

I have not the means of ascertaining the rainfall of the basins
drained by the Orinoco and Amazon, but we in Barbados, and
most of the islands in these seas, have been suffering for many
months from a protracted drought. Have there been excessive
rains on the Continent ?

Tobago is at least 150 miles from the mouth of the Orinoco,
and 900 miles from that of the Amazon. It is well known that
the outflows of both rivers sweep round, and form a swift ocean
current impinging on, and passing by, Tobago, whither they
carry drift wood, seeds, and other products of the shore. But
I never before heard of the quality of the water being affected to
so great a distance.

] fear that no person had the curiosity to test the density or
quality of the water. I shall inquire of my correspondent.

Barbados, Nov. 11 Rawson W. RAwsoN

Treatise on Probability

THERE has been no doubt as to the author or authors of the
* Treatise on Probability,” published under the superintendence
of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, since 1844.
In that year the ‘‘ Value of Annuities and Reversionary Pay-
ments,” by David Jones, was issued in two volumes by Robert
Baldwin, of 47, Paternoster Row, and the title-page states—
‘To which is appended a ‘ Treatise on Probability,’ by Sir John
William Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S., and J. E. Drinkwater Bethune,
Esq., A.M.” Sir John Lubbock’s name also appears on the
opposite page, with his first Christian name properly affixed, and
this is repeated at the end of the volume in a catalogue of the
works published by that society. The treatise consists of 64
octavo pages, and was one of the best on the subject at the time
it was first issued. The late Prof. De Morgan alludes to it in
the English Cyclopzedia, and Mr. Todhunter quotes ‘‘ Lubbock
and Drinkwater” no fewer than ten times in his “ History of
Probability,” published in 1865. T. T. WILKINSON

NATURE

' were numerous rivers of liquid light, that as they flowed

‘e

|Dee. 19, 1872
THE HAWAIIAN VOLCANO, MAUNA LOA d
qa following condensed account of the visit of a
party to the summit of the Hawaiian Volcano,
Mauna Loa, at present in a state of fearful activity, ap-
pears in the Zzses of November 23, from the pen of
Prof. F, L, Clarke.

“From Kaalualu, on the southern side of Hawaii,
where we left the steamer on the afternoon of the 4th, we |
procured horses and proceeded to Wiohinu, where we re-
mained for the night, and started next morning; and, ©
after travelling a distance of twenty-five miles over a very
rough road, although it is considered one of the best, we ©
reached Lyman’s ranch, where we were kindly received,
and passed the night. The following morning, at day- —
light, our friends having exerted themselves in procuring ©
the services of an experienced guide, we resumed our
journey, and after stopping at several ranches for rest
and refreshment, during the forenoon of the 6th, we
emerged from the woods, which opened upon an immense
field of pa-hoe-hoe. The lava fields in this region exceed _
in wildness and confusion the most extravagant imagina-
tion. For miles around, as far as the eye could reach,
great masses of once molten lava were tossed into a
thousand grotesque shapes. After travelling several hours
over the roughest kind of ground imaginable, we reached
a rude kind of gateway that was formed by gigantic
columns of lava rock, through which we passed, and
reached the edge of a rough pali, from whence we were
able to look out upon the summit. To our sight rose a
remarkable pillar, towering high up black against the sky,
and on every hand yawned deep crevices and spentlava _
waves which had dashed together in various stapes and
cooled. y

“After reaching a favourable spot, where we left our
animals secured tor the night, we proceeded about 500
yards over a narrow strip of rugged lava, when we sud-
denly found ourselves upon the edge of the crater of
Moku-weo-weo, on the very summit of Mauna Loa, situ-
ated about 1,400 feet above the sea level. Before us
yawned a fearful chasm, with perpendicular black walls
some 800 feet in depth, carrying the eye to where, in the
darkness of the lower basin, there sprang up in a glori-
ously brilliant light a mighty fountain of clear molten
lava, and looking across and below us, at a distance
probably of three-quarters of a mile, there arose from a
cone in the south-west corner of the lower basin a mag-
nificent column of liquid lava, about seventy-five feet in
diameter, that sent its volume of molten matter to a
height of nearly 200 feet in a compact and powerful jet.
The axis of this gigantic fountain inclined somewhat to-
ward us, so that the descending cascade fell clear and dis-
tinct from the upward shooting jet, forming a column of
continuous liquid metal surpassingly bright and beautiful
to gaze upon. Flowing down the sides of the symmetrical
cone, which the falling stream of lava was rapidly forming,

away, spreading and crossing, formed a lake of rivulets
constantly widening and interlacing, which presented a
beautiful and unique appearance.

“When we reached the summit of the mountain, the
subdued roar of the pent-up gases was fearfully distinct
as they rushed through the openings which their force had
rent in the solid bed of the basin, and when we were in
full view of the grand display our ears were filled with
the mighty sound as of a tremendous surf rolling in upon
a level shore, while now and again a mingled crash would
remind us of the heavy rush of ponderous waves against
the rocky cliffs of Hawaii.”

Since the return of the party to Honolulu later advices _
state that the crater is increasing in action, and reflecting —
at night a light of unusual brilliancy, which reaches many ©
miles off shore. The crater in Kilanea, since the present —
eruption of Moku-weo-weo, has been very irregular in its
action, which leads to the supposition that the two alter-
nate, that when one is active the other is passive.

:
F

—s ee aes

A)

.

gee

Aa ee are
* 9 vs a ant)
Ls ‘ — ~

NATURE

-
?

125

ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS *

| eke field of research which has been opened up by

the spectroscope is one with which we have so
recently become familiar, that it may almost be said
that twenty years ago, a course of lectures on the spectro-
scope would have been animpossibility. The instrument,
as we now know it, was only then inembryo, and even at
the present time, although immense strides are every day

Fic. 1.-—Geometricaliform of the prism.

being made, the science of spectroscopy must still be
considered in its infancy. And yet, so far as one can see
now—it is always very easy to prophesy after the event—
there seems very little reason why lectures on the spectro-
scope should not have been given two centuries ago ; for

Fic. 2.—Prism mounted on a stand.

nearly two centuries have elapsed since the immortal
Newton made his classical researches on the action of
aprism upon sunlight. You may, perhaps, be inclined to
ask, how it could take 200 years for the knowledge of the
prism, and of the wonders that can be worked by it, to
become part and parcel of our common stock of infor-
mation? If you ask me to explain this, I tell you
candidly that I cannot ; but there is this grain of comfort
connected with it which none of us should forget: we

* Revised rom the series of Cantor Lectures, delivered in 1869.

may almost say for certain that Newton and his suc-
cessors would have brought a great deal more out of the
prism than they did, if they had given a little more
attention to it, and had tortured it as they did other
things ; that those who follow us will point to us and say
the same ; they possibly will say that in the roth century,
men of science, in working and experimenting, saw a
great many things, and chronicled them, but did not care
to go any further with them. This is very true; and the
result is, that work is not done which might be done if
we were more receptive and original in our methods of
investigation ; that is to say, if we trusted Nature more
and ourselves less.

Fic. 3.—Refraction‘ot light.

I propose that the first part of this lecture should in
the main consist of an account of the prism and the
principles of the spectroscope, and then of a description
of the various kinds of spectroscopes which are now
employed. I hope afterwards to go somewhat in detail
into the applications of the spectroscope, not only with
regard to terrestrial matters, but also with regard to those
problems which we may possibly consider much grander,
problems dealing with those celestial bodies which are
sufficiently our neighbours to send us light.

Obviously, the first question we have to answer is this,
What is a spectroscope? This I answer by saying that

Fic. 4.—Explanation of the bent stick.

a spectroscope is an instrument in which the action of a
prism or a combination of prisms is best studied. The
next question, then, that arises, is, What is a prism?
The accompanying figures (Figs. 1 and 2) will give a
good idea of what is meant by a prism, and little time
need be spent in description. It is usually a piece of
glass—though it need not necessarily be so—bounded by
five surfaces, two of which are parallel to each other—
though they are not necessarily so—and three of which,
bounded by parallel edges, cut each other at different
angles ; it is in reality shaped like a wedge. The impor-
tance of these different angles you will see by-and-by.

126

NATURE

Dec. 19, 1872]

The discoveries of Newton, to which I have already
alluded, were connected with prisms, and were based on
well-known properties of light,

If a beam of light, as for instance sun-light or an
artificial white light, be allowed to enter a dark room
from a round hole in a shutter, it will simply travel in a
straight line from its source ; and to make it deviate from
this straight line one of two things must be done. The
beam must either be reflected or refracted. ;

The reflection of light is of very ordinary occurrence,
for when light strikes any polished metallic surface, or in
fact a surface of any kind, it is more or less reflected by
it. The phenomena of reflection are so well known, the
perhaps one of

use of the mirror or looking-glass being

Fic. 5.—Refraction of light. Apparent elevation of the bottoms of vessels.

the most tangible, that no detailed reference need be
made to them. The refraction or bending of light takes
place when the ray passes obliquely from one medium to
another of different density, as from air into water, or from
water into air. A simple experiment may be made by passing
the beam of light from above into a glass vessel containing
water. Ifthe ray strikes the surface perpendicularly, it will
be seen that no visible change takes place, the ray simply
proceeds directly into the water without altering its direc-
tion. If, however, the beam be allowed to fall on the
surface of the water, say at an angle of about 45°, two
things may be observed. In the first place a reflection
will take place at the surface of the water—that is to say,
the light will appear reflected at the surface, and it will
be noticed incidentally that the angle at which the re-
flected ray leaves the water is precisely equal to that at
which the incident ray strikes the surface, thus proving
the rule that “the angle of incidence and of reflection

Fic. 6.—Light passing through plate of glass.

are equal.” The second thing to be noticed is that on
entering the water the direction of the beam of light will
not be the same as it was inthe air. In Fig. 3, the ray
RI, striking the water at I, instead of proceeding to R,,
is deflected or refracted to S ; that is, the ray will be bent
downwards, or, what is the same thing, towards a line,
I P, perpendicular to the surface, to a definite extent, de-
pending on the angle of the incident ray. The experi-
ment may be varied by allowing the light to fall on the
surface at various angles, when it can be shown that the
angle formed by the ray refracted in the water varies in
proportion to the angle of the incident ray, and that the
angles formed are bound together by a regular law.
Another fact may be observed, that the smaller the angle

at which a ray of light strikes the surface of water, or, in
fact, any transparent surface, the greater will be the pro-
portion of light reflected at its surface.

Refraction may be clearly studied by plunging a stick
into a vessel of water: the stick will appear bent at the
point where it enters the liquid, as in Fig. 4, thus giving
the appearance as if the stick were lifted or bent upwards.
Another very instructive experiment is to place a coin at
the bottom of a vessel, and then, standing so that the
coin is just hidden by its edge, to gradually fill the vessel
with water ; the coin will appear to rise with the bottom
of the vessel, and will become visible, as shown in Fig. 5.

The amount of refraction varies with the medium em-
ployed, and also with its temperature. The effect of
different media can be clearly seen by passing a ray of

Fic. 7.—Deviation of luminous rays by prisms.

light into a vessel containing a liquid such as bi-sulphide
of carbon, with a layer of water floating on the top. The
ray will be seen to be bent on entering the water, and
still more bent on passing from the water into the layer
of bisulphide of carbon.

We have now to see what takes place when a ray of
light enters a piece of glass. We will take first the case
of glass with parallel sides. The ray on entering the
glass at the upper surface is refracted downwards, as in
the case of water, and travels through the glass until it
reaches the under surface. Here we have precisely the
reverse condition holding—that is, the ray of light passes
from a dense medium to a rarer one. The ray is re-
fracted upwards or away from the perpendicular line,
and thus will exactly neutralise the previous refraction,
and the beam of light will come out in a direction parallel —
to its original path, though not quite in the same straight
line ; as shown in Fig. 6, the ray, instead of proceeding
in the direction of S’, proceeds in the direction of S,

=De. 19, 1872] NATURE 127
If, then, a ray of light passes through a piece of glass, | when the beam passes through that the refractive effect is

such, for instance, as a window glass, the surfaces of | imperceptible. The reason of this is, that when we get
the light falling on the glass from the air, then travelling

which are parallel, and inclined to the beam, you see

nn

Fic. 8,—Images of objects seen through prisms.

Unequalfrefrangibility{of the colours of the spectrum

Fig. 9.—Decomposition of light by the prism.

pretty much the same effect as at first. But now, if
instead of having the glass bounded by parallel surfaces,

through the glass‘and coming into the air again, under
exactly the same conditions, what is done at the first
we use a wedge-shaped piece, or a fresm, the sides of

surface is exactly undone at the second, so that we get

eet = ee ge 2 ee be ee Oe ew ee Se ae
RP het eh ee Ee eed oe ;

#

128

NATURE

“yee
Bene
*

- [Dec. 19, 1872 j

which are no longer parallel, you will see that there is a
distinct alteration in the effect produced ; the beam is di-
rected to another portion of the wall altogether. The ray
strikes the first side of the prism, and is bent towards the
thicker part, or towards a line perpendicular to this sur-
face, and on reaching the second side of the wedge, the ray
is again bent in the same direction towards the base of
the prism, for in this case the ray is bent away from the
perpendicular to the second surface, and the light emerges
from the second surface in a totally new direction. Fig.
7 shows the effect in three cases, the incident ray S I,
the path in prism I E, and the refracted ray ER; NI
and E N’ being the lines perpendicular to the surfaces.
An experiment may easily be tried, which will confirm
this. Let a triangular piece of glass be held, with one
edge pointing upwards, between the eye and a lighted
candle, as shown in Fig. 8; it will be found that the
candle cannot be seen; but if the prism be gradually
raised, the image of the candle will appear, the amount
the prism will have to be raised depending on its angle.
Now, we have here obtained a deviation or refraction of
light—that is to say, it has been bent out of its course ;
for we have to look upwards to see the candle. Another
effect has also been produced : the light which was white
on entering the prism is now made up of several colours,
which are separated more or less from each other; the
candle, as seen inthe last experiment, is not white, but
is fringed round with colours. If we again take our beam
of light in the dark room, as in Fig. 9, and allow it to
strike on one of our prisms, so placed that its edges are
horizontal, and also that the beam enters it obliquely by
one of its surfaces, and then receive the image on a
screen, we see a band of colours which reminds us
strongly of the rainbow : the lowest colour, if the base
of the prism be upwards, will be red, next above orange,
passing by imperceptible gradationsto yellow, and after-
wards green, which then passes through the shades of
greenish blue till it becomes a pure blue, then indigo,
and finally ends with a violet colour. The transition
from one colour to another is not abrupt, but is made in
an imperceptible manner, so that it can scarcely be said,
for instance, where the yellow ends or the green begins.
The cause of this band of colours, or spectrum as it is
called, was first discovered by Sir Isaac Newton, who
tortured this spectrum in several ways. He took one of
the colours thus produced, say red, as is shown in the
figure, and made it pass through a second prism, re-
ceiving the image on a second screen; the image is
found to be rather longer, but the colour remains un-
altered. This experiment proves that this colour of the
spectrum is simple, and the same has been found of all
the others. As Newton in his experiment operated with
sunlight, the band of colours was in this case called the
solar spectrum. The rainbow itself is also in reality
nothing more nor less than a solar spectrum, which is
caused by refraction in the rain-drops.

If, instead of getting one beam of white light, we take
two of differently coloured lights, red and blue, and pass
these two beams of different colour through the same prism,
you will see that the action of the prism on these two diffe-
rently coloured beams will be unequal ; in other words, you
will get the red beam deflected to a certain distance from
a straight line, and the blue deflected to a certain other
distance. You see by this experiment that there is a
distinct difference in the amount of refrangibility—that
the red light is not diverted so far out of its original direc-
tion by the prism as the blue. And this leads us to
Newton’s first proposition, which is this :—“ Lights which
differ in colour differ in refrangibility.” 1 think that re-
quires no explanation. You will be able to translate it
for yourselves thus: Lights which differ in colour are
differently acted upon by a prism, which, as you have
seen, gives us a considerable result of the action of refrac-
tion, J. N, LOCKYER

(Zo be continued.)

THE GEOLOGICAL EXHIBITION IN a
GLASGOW

PERE is probably no town or city in the United
Kingdom, out of London, in which the science of
Geology has been studied more extensively and enthu-
siastically, and to more purpose, than in Glasgow, during _
the last fifteen or twenty years. It is about fifteen years
since the Geological Society of Glasgow was formed, and _
during the whole of that period the progress of the study
and of the Society has never flagged, of which there was
ample evidence afforded by a great exhibition of geolo-
gical and mineralogical specimens which the Society held
in the Corporation Galleries on the evening of Friday,
December 6.
The Geological Society of Glasgow is one of the very
few provincial societies, the results of whose scientific
labours are permanently placed on record, and consulted
by geologists elsewhere. The “ Transactions” of the
Society are now in the fourth volume, and in them
there are embodied many valuable original memoirs
bearing particularly on special departments of the geology
of Lanarkshire and the West of Scotland. :
The exhibition of the Society of which we are now —
giving a brief account, was chiefly devoted to an —
illustration of the fauna and flora of the Carboniferous
system of the west of Scotland. Various members of —
the Society have worked most successfully in other de-
partments of geological inquiry, but the function of the —
Society as a whole seems to have been especially the in- —
vestigation of the Carboniferous system, and the elucida-
tion of the many important physical problems connected
therewith ; and when we consider the fact that the ex-
hibition in question was only a representation of the
geological collections from which the specimens were
obtained, we cannot help concluding that the Society’s
function has been performed with most surprising results

to science.

Mr. James Thomson, F.G.S., corresponding member of ©
the Royal Society of Liége, was certainly the chief ex-
hibitor in the department of carboniferous fossils ; but he
was well supported by Messrs. Young and Armstrong. —
The first-named gentleman has done immense service
during the last fifteen years, as a collector, particularly in
connection with the fossil corals. His services in this
respect have been extensively acknowledged at home—
by the British Association and otherwise—and by Con-
tinental and American geologists, museums, &c. It is —
probable that, within the time named, Mr. Thomson has ~
made sections of not fewer than ten thousand specimens
of his favourite fossil corals. Besides the corals, Mr.
Thomson’s collection is peculiarly rich in reptilian re-
mains, some of them quite unique and rare. Mr. Arm-
strong’s specimens were generally representative of all —
the groups of animals and plants contained in the coal, —
ironstone, shale, and limestone series of the west of
Scotland—Lanarkshire and the adjoining counties. Many _
of his cases excited great admiration. Besides being —
generally representative of the carboniferous system, Mr.
Young was very strong in the Entomostraca and Fora- —
minifera of that system, the species of which he has —
materially increased by his own discoveries.

In the department of Post-Tertiary shells, Mr. David —
Robertson, F.G.S., was without a competitor. Indeed,
he has been such a devoted student of the Post-Tertiary —
period, that his collection is probably unrivalled. For a
number of years the Rev. H. W. Crossley, F.G.S., now —
of Birmingham, was a zealous co-worker with Mr. Robert-
son. The Ostracoda and Foraminifera of the Carbonife-
rous system, and the recent Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, were
also largely represented in Mr. Robertson’s cases. :

Silurian fossils collected in the Girvan district, on the
coast of Ayrshire, were shown by Mrs. Robert Gray, an
enthusiastic naturalist ; and from the Silurian system

some interesting specimens were exhibited by Mr. Dairon,
whose collection was also specially rich in Graptolites
_ from the neighbourhood of Moffat. Mr. Dairon exhibited
Liassic fossils from the Whit»y district, and Mr, Bell
illustrated the Liassic system of the Isle of Skye.
_ -Mr. Wiinsch, one of the vice-presidents of the Society,
was as strong as any exhibitor of volcanic minerals col-
lected by himself on Vesuvius and Etna, and in the
volcanic district of the Auvergne Mountains. The same
gentleman showed specimens of the fossilised remains of
a primeval forest which he found in association with vol-
canic ash onthe shores of the island of Arran a few years
~ ago.
. o There is no public museum in Glasgow that is worthy
of the name in which these collections could find a home,
Overtures have been made, in at least one instance, to
secure many of the specimens for museums or for private
collections elsewhere. It will afford room for profound
regret ifthe ultimate possession of such collections should
be diverted from the west of Scotland, where they have
almost entirely been collected. Surely the wealthy coal-
masters, ironmasters, shipbuilders, manufacturers, mer-
chants, and others in Glasgow and the surrounding district,
are not so supremely devoted to money-getting that they
cannot amongst them raise a fund of a few thousand
pounds to found a museum, the geological position of
which shall have as a nucleus those priceless collections
already referred to. Possibly some definite shape may
be given to this idea when, in the course of the next
few years, the British Association holds its third meeting
in Glasgow, on which occasion the Glasgow geolo-
gists will not fail to gratifythe longings of their geologi-
cal friends elsewhere, many of whom have but a faint
idea of the intellectual feast which is in store for them.
JOHN MAYER

.

"

THE RISING OF AUSTRALIA

_* ahead that the gradual elevation of the land in
; the Australian portion of the southern hemisphere
_ is attracting the attention of European geologists, I am
induced to forward a few observations thereon, based
_ upon personal investigation.

In March last, in a letter to the editor of this journal,
under the title of “ Circumpolar Land,” Mr. Howorth cites
a passage from my paper on the geological structure of
this portion of the island, viz., Hobart Town. My
_ remarks upon these post-pliocene evidences of terrestrial
_ elevation were necessarily brief, owing to the various
formations treated of in that contribution. I now there-
_ fore beg to draw the attention of the readers of NATURE
_ to a few instances, in detail; for the reason that I am
satisfied the question is one that demands the strictest
_ inquiry in the present stage of geological science.
Upon reading a paper before the Royal Society of
_ Tasmania, in November 1864, on these shell deposits
as evidence of recent upheaval of the coast, I found
the majority of the observers there present regarded
_them as having originated at the hands of the aborigines ;
as being, in short, the refuse of their camps. But I then
_ pointed out the fact that there were genera and species of
_ testaceous remains far too small to have been taken by

the blacks for the purpose of food. One argument at
that time raised against my deductions was the fact
that in some instances fragments of charcoal were found
_ associated with the shells. Where thisis the case (though
_ the instances known to me are few) I think I shall be able
_ to show that it is to be traced to subsequent drift agency,
and has no connection whatever with the formation of
these shell beds.

One of the most interesting of these deposits is to be
seen at Sandy Bay, an indent of the estuary of the
river Derwent, distant from the city two miles. In

NATURE

shell-bed three feet in thickness.

mre et ve:

129

a bank formed by a road-cutting distant sixty yards
inland, and forty feet above high-water mark, exists a
The shells have a
matrix of dark argillo-arenaceous soil, and beyond being
more or less comminuted, especially the bivalves, exhibit
few traces of geologicalage. Above the shell-bed repo-es
a stratum of vegetable soil a few inches thick. The
shells rest upon a stratum of brown clay, having no traces
of organ’sms; and that, in turn, reposes on coarse-
grained yellow sandstone, traversed by veins of marl
near its surface, The shells are all of genera and species
now found living in the water only sixty yards in front
of and below the deposit. They principally consist of
Mytilus, Turbo, Trochus, Delphinulus, Venus, Pecten,
Ostrea, Patella, Cerethium, and Natica. In this bed
a spoon-bowl-shaped fossil bone was found by a labourer
employed in making the road, five years ago. A cast of
the bone I recently forwarded to one of the first osteo-
logists of the age for identification. I have little doubt,
however, that it is a bone of the hyoidal process of some
Cetacean. It is 2} inches in length, by 23 in breadth, and
presents no further signs of decay than the associated
shells. At the distance of a mile from this spot seaward,
there is another shell-deposit which has an average thick-
ness of two feet, reposing on a basaltic overflow, and
which again reposes on an arenaccous yellow clay, thickly
perforated by Pholas. These beds are exposed in a
vertical section of between thirty and forty feet in height.

Another locality where these evidences of recent eleva-
tion of the coast are plainly seen, is in the Queen’s
Domain, on the north eastern boundary of the city, and in
the immediate vicinity cf Government House. Here,
stells are exposed in the surface soil, 500 yards from the
water-line of the estuary, but they are ina finely com-
minuted condition. They are thickly interspersed through
the beds of the Royal Society's Gardens adjoining.

In the district of Lorre!, which is fourtcen miles
from the last-named locality in an easterly direction,
there is a long low sandy flat, whose mean elevation
above the sea-level I estimate at ten feet only. The
arenaceous soil of this plateau is thickly studded for about
two square miles with oyster shells, some of them being
much larger on the average than what are taken now.
This plateau is separated from a cliff of sandstone by
an arm of the sea about one mile wide and very shallow.
The cliff is about eighty feet high and is known as the
Bluff. On the top of this cliff is an extensive deposit of
oyster shells corresponding in character to those in the
flat below. Now, if a line were drawn from this bed of
shells to the deposits referred to around Hobart Town,
it would be found to occupy a mean altitude of these
beds. The conclusion, I believe, to be arrived at from
the fact of the same species of shells existing at such
different levels above the sea as those on the cliff and
those on the flat, is that the former are older than the
latter, though both without doubt belong to the post-
pliocene epoch, and that the land has been gradually
rising since the shells on the cliff contained their in-
habitants up to the present time. That a silting up
agency has been in operation with regard to the latter
deposit is evident. The oyster shells are those known
as the mud oyster here, its habitat being mudbarks,
Now they are found dispersed through an incoherent
sandy deposit, derived from the erosion of the sandstone
formations on the opposite shore. The counter-agency
of such silting up is, however, infinitesimally small when
compared to the scale on which the land is rising.

I might multiply these instances of recent elevation
of the land, did time and space permit, by mentioning
numerous other examples round the coast of this island.
Leaving Tasmania, and going to the Australian mainland,
we find their analogues there. While on a geolegical
visit to New South Wales and Victoria two )cais ago
I was struck by the exact representatives of thise sa

Se on SO a a Ce, A -
J a" Rwy phe 4, oe Pawar ra iro
nde! ws A ae ws!

marks. In examining the shore of Hobson’s Bay,
Victoria, between Brighton and Mordiallac, I found recent
shells in a ferruginous rock several feet above high-water
mark, and exposed for more than a mile along the shore.
This formation then gave place toa deposit of the same
species of shells in a black sandy soil of the same
character as those matrices mentioned as occurring here.
I am thus able to add my humble testimony to the truth
of the statements made by those geologists mentioned by
Mr. Howorth. Not only do Tasmanian post-pliocene
marine deposits find their analogues in New South
Wales, Victoria, and other parts of the Australian main-
land, but also the Miocene territory formations have their
representatives there. For instance; at the East coast of
this island seventy miles distant from Hobart Town, exist
some very fine Miocene shell beds reposing on Silurian
strata. These beds have their analogues in Victoria, at
Schnapper point, where they also repose on Silurian
strata. Again the somewhat celebrated Travertin deposit
on the eastern bank of the Derwent, mentioned by Mr.
Darwin, is completely represented at Geelong in that
colony. I mention these last somewhat irrelevant features
to shaw the analogy of physical conditions which existed
in distant parts of Australasia from the middle Tertiary
epoch down to the post-pliocene.

The oscillation of the land towards the Polar Regions
is a question that demands strict and patient inquiry.
That such a mutation is going on in this part of the
globe, every intelligent geological observer is conscious of,
and that at a computed rate of ten feet in the century.
This is a fact which involves a variety of considerations
with respect to past geological operations, and the popular
theories propounded to explain them.

Although the land in this part of the globe is rapidly
rising as wellas according to published observations, that,
in the Arctic regions, still I am in a position to show that
an opposite movement took place during the clese of the
Tertiary or the dawn of the Pleistocene epochs by a
sinking of certain tracts of land whereby Tasmania and
New Zealand were isolated from the Australian mainland,
I cannot do more at the present time than allude ev
passant to the important fact, and which must form the
subject of a future communication.

Since writing the above I have examined a raised
beach in the district of Sorrel, of many hundreds of
acres in extent, composed of shells, having a mean thick-
ness of five feet. The deposit is overgrown with trees
and scrub. The trees are chiefly the Casuarina, or
she-oak of the colonists, and it evidently flourishes on a
soil of little else than shells. Although years ago lime
burning was carried on for some years, so enormous is the
deposit that there is scarcely a perceptible diminution.

Hobart Town, Oct. 1 S. H. WINTLE

THE COLOURED STARS ABOUT KAPPA
CRUCIS

R. H. C. RUSSELL, of the Sydney Observatory,

sends us an account of some observations he has
recently made on the above small but beautiful cluster
of stars. He believes his researches probably point it out
as one of the stations from which astronomers will gain
fresh knowledge of the starry heavens. He gives a history
of the cluster from its first recorded observation by La-
caille in 1750. Dunlop, about 1828, puts two stars in
the place now occupied by @, which has con-
siderably altered its place since Herschel made his
map im 1835. The star No. 87, Dunlop does
not represent at all, and says nothing of colour,
though fond of recording coloured stars. In 1835
Herschel wrete a monograph on Kappa Crucis, and
placed all the stars (110) on his map, but saw no nebulous

NATURE

<

[Dec. 19, 1872 3

light. Abbott of Tasmania, in 1862, laid down 75 stars,
and noted colours, remarking that certain changes were
apparently taking place in the number, position, and
colour of the component stars of the cluster. Nothing
has been done since Abbott, till Mr. Russell determined
to test for himself the latter’s statement. He made a
catalogue of all the stars (130) seen with the Sydney equa-
torial, a coloured map showing all’ the stars, and notes.
His map takes in as much space as Herschel’s, but is four
times as large. A close inspection shows a great many
changes since Herschel observed, of which the most con-
spicuous of all is in the change between the present and
past position of three stars, Nos, 11, 21, and 28, which
have all moved from 4 to 6 seconds; and the star d has
also moved half a second in an opposite direction, and
come nearly, but not quite, in a straight line with 6 and e,
which line, if produced, passes, not through ¢, as in
Abbott’s observations, but half way between y and ¢.
Considerable change has also taken place in Nos. 100,
106, 120, 122, 126, and some others ; and it is remarkable
that the changes in the south preceding line are nearly all
in R. A., while in those near 8 and in the following side they
are in declination, as if the cluster were made up of three
sets of stars, two of which drift from the third in different
directions. Five of Herschel’s stars he could not see, but
found 25 Herschel did not see; stars which, though all
small, are yet in most cases brighter than some of those
which Herschel recognised, and if there when Herschel
examined, the cluster would not have been omitted ; they
are all well within the limits of his map, and several in
parts of it wnich must have been most carefully examined.
Two of them are near a, one near the string of stars
south following it, one between 8 and 6, and two in the
triangle 50s. after a, where Herschel shows 3 stars; of
the others 5 precede a from 18 to 25s.; 5 follow it from
15 to 25s. and on the south side; 8 are on the north
following side, and 1 on the south following. Their —
numbers in my list are 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 16, 19, 31, 60, 69, 73,
76, 79, 86, I10, 116, I17, 120, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129,
and 130. In Mr. Russell’s list there are 24 stars about
the roth magnitude, while in Herschel’s there are only 7 ;
and the mean magnitude of Herschel’s 130is 13, while the
mean of Russell’s 130 is 12. oh
These facts prove beyond all question, Mr. Russell
thinks, that from some cause there has, as in the nebula
of n Argus, been here a considerable increase in brilliancy.
Mr. Russell thinks that we must either give up analogy,
our safest guide, in such reasoning, or admit the gradual
extinction of light in its passage through space, with
its millions of meteor streams cutting the ecliptic at
all angles, its thousands of comets, its meteoric dust, its
zodiacal light, its solar corona, its material atmosphere, so
to speak, occupying not only all the interplanetary space,
but more or less to the limit of the sun’s attractive force.
“ And if we are to take our sun as a type of other suns,
and in the mind’s eye see all surrounded by such an at-
mosphere, and people all the interspaces with myriads of
myriads of comets—nay more, if we accept the view held
to be most probable by many astronomers, that it is by
the deposition of this material atmosphere on the sun and
planets that they are hourly growing and finding those
stores of light and heat by which all things live, it is be-
yond question that there must have been a time when this
material atmosphere was far more dense than it is at the
present moment, and that there must be in every direc-
tion other suns in all stages of the process from the great
nebulosity ‘ without form and void, to the Finished Sun,
whatever that may be ; or, in other words, amidst the in-
finitude of such systems with which we are surrounded, —
there are places where probably a sensible amount of —
clearing up has taken place within the last 35 years. 3
“ And I think in this view we find a rational explana- —
tion of the appearance of new stars in this cluster, more
| especially since it has been shown by others, as well as —

‘kable star 7 Argus, strange clearings up, so to speak,
or wanings of nebulous light have taken place, and many
‘stars have come to view, with telescopes far inferior to
_Herschel’s.

“And whether we admit this view or not, one thing is
_ absolutely certain. Under such a material atmosphere
__we live and make our observations, and we are not yet
_ prepared to’ say with certainty whether there may not be
_ such changes going on in it as will suffice for a full expla-
_ nation of the appearance of these small stars, if not of
_ the great changes about » Argus.”

NOTES

‘THE omission of a word in a note last week referring to the
_ medals recently granted by foreign Governments to Englishmen,
makes this journal appear to hold the opinion that itis to be
- desired that the British Government should thus signalise British
work. Such, however, is most emphatically of our opinion.
What we do hold is that if foreign Governments reward English
__ work, it would be a graceful act for our Government from time
to time to reciprocate such acts of international courtesy and
good-will by marking in a similar manner its appreciation of
JSoreign work.

In the Russian Official Gazette is an announcement that a
diploma of honour has been conferred upon Baron Liebig for
the application of his knowledge of theoretical chemistry to
‘practical purposes.

_ THEmorning of Saturday the 21st has been fixed for the
final despatch of H.M.S. Chaélenger on her long voyage. Her
_ scientific staff—officers and civilians—are all on board, and the
ship is busy from end to end, stowing and arranging her un-
-wonted gear. As might be supposed, every available space is
_ filled with books. Mr. Macmillan has received the thanks of the
_ captain and officers and the civilian scientific staff, through Dr.
_ Wyville Thomson, for a case of about fifty volumes of his
_ newest publications, which he sent down asa parting gift.

_ Pror, Huxtey has been elected Lord Rector of the Univer-
“sity of Aberdeen, by a considerable majority over the Marquis
of Huntly, a satisfactory evidence of the estimation in which
“eminence in science is held by the younger minds in Scotland.

_ WE regret to learn that M. Pouchet, of Rouen, celebrated as
-aleading champion of the doctrine of spontaneous generation,
died in Paris on December 6.

sf

Tue following are the probable arrangements for the Friday
evening meetings at the Royal Institution before Easter, 1873 :—
Jan. 17, On the Old and New Laboratories at the Royal Institu-
tion, by W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S. ; Jan. 24, On the Analogies
of Physical and Moral Science, by Rev. Prof. T. R. Birks ;
_ Jan 31, On the Music of the Future, by E. Dannreuther ; Feb.
4, On Old Continents, by Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ; Feb.
14, On Recent Progress in Weather Knowledge, by R. H. Scott,
_F.R.S. ; Feb. 21, On Action at a Distance, by Prof. J. Clerk
‘Maxwell, F.R.8. ; Feb. 28, On Livingstone’s Explorations in

" perature of the Sun and the Work of Sunlight, by J. Dewar;
March 14, On Steamers for Channel Communication, by E. J.

NATURAL Science at Rugby is producing its fruits. In the
recent examination for honours at Oxford, six men were placed

131

in the first class ; and of these, four were educated at Rugby—
Messrs, Baynes, Cleminshaw, Longstaff, and Lupton.

Dr. Harry Ratny, Emeritus Professor of Forensic Medicine
in the University of Glasgow, has given a donation of 1,500/. to
the University for the endowment of bursaries, to be competed
for by students of Medicine.

Dr. JOHN STENHOUSE is at present investigating the higher
iodo-derivatives of the orcines.

THE Riberi triennial prize of 20,000 lire (800/.) has been
awarded to Dr. Guiseppe Corradi, director of the surgical clinic
at Florence, for four works on the diseases of genito-urinary
organs.

AT the second meeting of the North British Branch of the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain Prof. Crum Brown gave
an address on the relation of the science of chemistry to the art
of pharmacy. He afterwards sketched the career of Scheele,
the Swedish chemist and druggist, who had contributed a large
list of facts to science.

PrRor. FREIRE-MARRECO of Newcastle, and Mr. G. A. Lebour
will lecture on January 8, and February 5, 1873, at the Roth-
bury Reading Room, on Artificial Lighting and on Caverns.

A VERY important paper has been printed by Government, re-
specting the Phy//oxera vastatrix, or new Vine Scourge. It com-
mences with a letter from Sir C. Murray, H.M. Ambassador at
Lisbon, calling attention to the ravages of the disease ; and stating
that the Portuguese Government has named a Commission ‘‘to
examine into the progress of this dangerous evil, and to gather
from all quarters, whether scientific or practical (sic) suggestions
for the best mode of extirpating it.” A report follows from Mr.
Crawford, H.M. Consul at Oporto, on the scientific aspects of
the disease, as well as several others from French authorities,
including a very important one addressed to the Minister of
Agriculture and Commerce by the Commission instituted for
the study of the new disease, M. Dumas, president. The various
papers having been referred to Dr. Hooker for him to report upon
them, he states that the only really effectual remedy at present dis-
covered, and this can obviously be only very partially applied, and
notin the best districts, is flooding the vineyards in winter. He
adds “there is reason to believe that on the first symptoms of attack
in isolated cases, the prompt destruction of the vine, its burning on
the spot, and the subsequent treatment of the soil with some
approved insecticide, such as carbolic acid, would be of great
importance.” Vines of American species appear at present to
have enjoyed immunity from its ravages in the Rhone district,
but the disease has undoubtedly appeared in this country on
vines cultivated under glass.

THE South London Entomological Society, which, though only
nine months old, has been extremely successful, held on Thurs-
day evening last, at Dunn’s Institute, Newington Causeway, a
very interesting exhibition of collections of insects, chiefly British
Lepidoptera. The collections were made by the members them-
selves, all amateurs, and do them the greatest credit. The
room was densely crowded, and the exhibition was a great
success.

A society has been formed under the title of the National
Health Society, which is to have for its object to help every
man and woman, rich and poor, to know for himself, and to
carry out practically around him, the best conditions of healthy
living. The steps at present proposed are the holding of monthly
meetings for the reading of papers; the establishing of classes
for instruction in various branches of sanitary science ; the de-
livery of free popular lectures ; and the formation of a reference
library and an information office,

-? ay

132

A VIGOROUS attempt is being made to establish a Museum,
principally ia connection with Geology, Mineralogy, and
Natural History, at the Giggleswick Grammar School, under the
management of Mr. Style. The Settle Cave Exploration Com-
mittee have sent for the Museum the collection of fossils and
ovher remains obtained from the Victoria Cave. The collection
is of great and increasing scientific value, for the exploration of
the cave is still going on under the auspices of the Local Com-
mittee and of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science.

IN inserting in last week’s Les Mondes along and deservedly
laudatory article from Ze Francais, on himself and his recently-
started ‘‘ Salledes Progrés,” I’Abbé Moigno expresses a fear that
he may be compelled to give up the project on which he has so
enthusiastically entered, from want of means. We sincerely
hope this may not be the sad end of the noble effort made by
the Abbé to benefit his fellow-citizens.

THE following is from the Ztmes:—‘*A despatch from De-
troit, Michigan, states that on the night of November 25, Prof.
Watson, of the Ann Arbor Observatory, discovered a new planet
in the constellation Taurus. Its R.A.is 65° 25’; D. 19° 34’
N. It shines like a star of the tenth magnitude. Its motion is
nearly parallel with tae equator.”

Pro, Perers has named the two planets lately discovered by
him (Nos, 122 and 123) Gerda and Brunhilda, and communi-
cates to the American Fournal of Science the elements of their
orbits. The orbit of Gerda is remarkable for having both the
inclination and eccentricity very small—a coincidence not found
in any other known asteroids except in the case of Clytia. The
planet No. 124 is now known as Aleste, and at the time of Prof,
Peters’s communication had the appearance of a star of a little
less than the eleventh magnitude,

THE Naples correspondent of the Zimes states that for some
time previous to her death Mrs. Somerville was engaged in
writing her own life.

WE learn from the School Board Chronicle that the Nether-
lands Association for the promotion of labour and industry has
awarded a gold medal to Madame Elise van Calcar, a well-
known Dutch authoress, for her solution of the following prize
question .—‘‘ How should girls be taught and educated so as to
enable unmarried women to earn an independent livelihood, and
the married to bring prosperity and happiness to their respective
families ?”

THE Garden says that the Royal Botanical Society of Belgium
and the Botanical Society of France have just decided to make
in common a scientific excursion next spring in the valleys of the
Meuse and Scheldt.

THE British Medical Fournal says a project is on foot to
resume the publication of an Hospital gizette in Dublin, con-
taining only original scientific matter. It would be published
twice amonth, would consist of sixteen pages only, and would
be issued at an annual subscription of half-a-guinea.

THE existence of such a Society as the New Zealand Insti-
tute reflects the highest credit on our antipodal fellow-subjects,
who, in their hard fight to make a home for themselves on the
other side of the world, do not neglect the means of furthering
their highest interests. The institution is a Government one,
and was established under the provisions of the New Zealand
Institute Act, 1867, of the General Assembly of that colony.
It is the a/ma mater of all the societies in the colony that are

NATURE

[Dec. 19, 1872 |

devoted to the promotion of ‘‘science, literature, or art.”
These societies are incorporated or affiliated with it, and include
the Otago Institute, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury,
the Auckland Institute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, —
and the Nelson Association for the Promotion of Science and
Industry, representing all the leading provinces of New Zealand.
The ordinary membership amounts to.600, and includes all the
leading colonists residing in different parts of the several pro-
vinees. The Institute possesses a museum, laboratory, and
library, which, with the work therein, are so organised and 4
utilised for the benefit of the general public that they constitute
in combination an important ‘‘ Technical College,” located at
Wellington—a formidable, but, we hope, friendly rival to the
recently established “ University of Otago,” which aims at
becoming, among other things, an eminent school of applied
science. The college is also the head-quarters of the Govern-
meat Geological Survey, the chief members of the staff of which
are professors to the Technical College, the lectures being of
two kinds, general and practical. Tae former include natural
history (zoology and botany, with their relations to physical geo-
graphy and geology) and the elements of experimental science — j
(physics, chemistry, and mineralogy). The practical is, in the
meantime, ‘confined to mineralogy and chemistry. Since the ‘
New Zealand Institute was established, in 1867, it has published
no less than four bulky annual volumes, containing papers
mostly of a scientific kind, many of which contain substantial
contributions to science. All this promises well for the future
welfare of the colony.

WE have received part 1 of vol. ii. of the ‘‘ Transactions of
the Edinburgh Geological Society,” embracing the period be-
tween November 1869 and April 1872. It contains a number
of very interesting and valuable papers on the geology of various _
districts of Scotland, including one by Sir Rode:ick I. Murchi-
son, on the structure of the North-West Highlands, said to be.

the last geological paper written by Sir Roderick,

“et
™

M. Cotas, of Paris, comments in Zes A/ondes of December
12, on M. A. Lallemande’s paper on the blue colour of the at- —
mosphere, in which it was attributed to a change of refrangibility _
due to a partial absorption of the chemical or ultra-violet rays.
In 1870 M. Collas, ia an article in Les Aondes, attributed the
blue colour of the Lake of Geneva and other waters to the
quantity of silex held in solution, which is brought down by
the tributary streams from the strata through which they pass,
Numerous observations since have induced him to believe that
the blue colour of all the water of the globe is due to the same
cause. The air everywhere always contains more or less of ©
moisture due to evaporation from the water of the earth, the
water thus evaporated always contains a greater or less quantity ©
of extremely fine insoluble particles. Silex, says M. Collas, is
one of the most common insoluble substances in nature, and
through evaporation, performs the same function in the blue sky
that he believes it does in the blue waters of the earth, Hebe- —
lieves his theory is confirmed by the intense blue of southern
skies, where evaporation is so much greater than in the colder —
north.

THE question has often been debated whether flies eat the
pollen of plants, or merely carry it away accidentally on their
legs and backs. The question would appear to be set at rest by
a paper read at the last meeting of the Scientific Committee of
the Royal Horticultural Society by Mr. A. W. Bennett, in which
it is stated, as the result both of his own observations and of
those of Erm. Miiller, that the microscopic examination of the
stomachs of Diptera belonging to the order Syrphids, sho
them to contain large quantities of pollen-grains, especially of
plants belonging to the order,Composite, Entomologists had

y .

expressed a doubt as to whether it were possible for insects pos-
sessed only of a suctorial proboscis to devour such solid bodies as
pollen-grains ; but Miiller believes that the transverse denticula-

tions found in the valves atthe end of the proboscis of many
- Diptera are especially adapted for chewing the pollen-grains,
_and for dividing the threads by which the grains are often bound
together.

Mr. FRANK BUCKLAND, writing to the Zimes, announces the
birth in London, of a young rhinoceros (2. swmatrensis). The
eyent took place at the Victoria Docks, on board the ship in which
the mother had just arrived from Singapore;she, along with a male,

having been captured by the natives of Malacca ; the latter, how-
; ever, died during the voyage. The young thing has been removed
to the house of Mr. Rice, one of the owners of it and its mother,
and we believe is getting along famously. We hope the “ cockney
rhinoceros,” as Mr. Buckland calls it, may thrive as well as the
young hippopotamus in Regent’s Park, and not be permitted to
_ cross the Atlantic, as, it seems, there is some danger of its doing,
unless the Zoological Society secure it and its mother for their
collection.

THE number of candidates for the ensuing matriculation ex-
amination of the University of Madras is 1,565, and the numba
of candidates for the first arts examination, 242.

JUDGING by the prospectuses which have fallen into our hands

__ we cannot help concluding that the ladies of Glasgow are being
well provided for in the way of lectures in the ensuing winter.
No fewer than four courses are announced for their behoof.
First, we have Dr. John Young, the Professor of Natural
History in the University of Glasgow, with a course of sixteen
lectures on his own special subject, and by means of which he
proposes to give his auditors a comprehensive account of the

_ animal kingdom, by selecting and dilating upon special and judi-
ciously chosen types of animal structure, and their position in
geological time. Next comes Mr. Edward Caird, the Professor
of Moral Philosophy, with the same length of course, on the
History of England, the range to be considered extending from
the first period of English History to the time of Edward I., when
the settlement of the principles of the Constitution was effected.
This course will be open to gentlemen as well as ladies, A third
University course of sixteen lectures is also announced, and will
be open to gentlemen only, the lecturer being Mr. John Ferguson,

_ M.A., Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry. These will be
evening lectures, and, of course, the subject will be Elementary
Chemistry. The Professors of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy
in Anderson’s University, apparently by way of supplementing
the courses of biological and historical lectures of Profs. Yonng
and Caird, have each commenced a course of twelve lectures for

_ ladies, to be delivered in the Corporation Galleries, Dr. Thorpe
taking Elementary Chemistry, and Prof. Forbes making Heat
his special subject. These four courses of lectures for ladies will
all be given at the same hour, but on different days, so that very
zealous lady students may attend them all, «

A CERTAIN Dr. A. Wolfert publishes an extraordinary article
in Petermann’s Mittheilungen, Das Nordlicht eine weder mag-
netische noch electrische Erscheimung.” The aurora, it appears,

is neither electrical nor magnetic, but is the result of the re-
_ flection and refraction through the earth’s atmosphere of the sun’s
_Yays remaining over from the summer !

AT the first ordinary meeting of the Pathological Society of
Dublin, for the present session, held on Noy. 30, the President,
Dr. George H. Kidd, announced that the subject chosen by the
Council for competition for the gold medal, to be awarded to the
best essayist in 1873, was ‘‘ The Diagnosis and Pathology of
_ Abdominal Tumours.”

a

NATURE

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Geological Magazine for November (No. 101) com-
mences with a note on the forms of valleys and lake-basins
in Norway by Mr. J. M. Wilson, in which the author draws at-
tention to a connection which he has observed between the con-
figuration of the surface of the country and the disposition of the
principal planes of division of the rocks, this disposition apps-
rently altering with the windings of the valleys. His notion
appears to be that masses of rock have been torn away by glacier
action until a divisional plane offering a minimum resistance to
the passage of the ice was exposed.—The second article is the
conclusion ef Mr, Alfred Tylor’s paper on the formation of
deltas and on the evidence and cause of great changes in the sea-
level during the glacial period, in which the author describes at
considerable length the structure of the Delta of the Po (which
is illustrated by sections of numerous artesian borings in Venice),
and refers also to those of the Mississippi, Ganges, and Volga,
in support of his views as to the peculiar curves formed by the
surface of these deposits, his hypothesis of the former occurrence
of a general ‘‘ Pluvial” period, and his belief that during the
glacial period there was an actual subsidence of the sea, due
partly to its contraction by cold and partly to the abstraction of
large quantities of water to form the enormous deposits of ice
and snow in the colder regions. He also indicates the curves
produced generally by denudation and deposition—Mr. John
Hopkinson describes some new species of Graptolites from the
South of Scotland, including representatives of the genera Den-
drograptus, Graptolithus, Diplograptus, and Dicranograptus
from the Llandeilo rocks of Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire ;
and a species of the anomalous genus Corynoides from the
latter district. This paper is illustrated with a plate—From
Prof. Hall, of Albany, we have a note on the relations of the
Middle and Upper Silurian (Clinton, Niagara, and Helderberg)
rocks of the United States, written in opposition to Mr. A. H.
Worthen, and in support of the generally received opinions upon
this subject. The paper, although toa certain extent controver-
sial, furnishes a useful summary of this department of American
geology.—Mr. H, B. Woodward publishes a note on the Midford
Sands, which he seems inclined to regard as truly transitional
between the Upper Lias and the Inferior Oolite, and from this
takes occasion to hint that the Keuper, Lias, and Oolites
may be Icoked upon as one conformable series, the divisions or
stages of which are to a certain extent arbitrary. The number
concludes with the completion of Prof. Nordenskidld’s account
of his expedition to Greenland in 1870.

Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemiz, No. 9,
1872, contains two mineralogical papers, one by Vom Rath,
on Anorthite, being a crystallographic study of the Naples
collection ; and the other by Dr. Lasaulx on Micromineralugy
(second of a series), and treating of the metamorphic phenomena
in protogine, granite, &c.—W. Stille discusses mat! matically
the theory of the boomerang’s moticn ; and a paper by F. Braun
treats of the influence of rigidity, fixture, and amplitude on the
vibrations of strings ; figures being given, showing the traces
made by a feather (attached to the string), on a smoke-blackened
cylinder, under varying conditions of the kind mentioned. F. B.
Hofmann describes the spectral phenomena of phosphuretted
hydrogen and of ammonia, and his paper is connected with one
by F. Hoppe-Seyler on the production of light by atomic
motions. Two of the Royal Society’s papers, and one or two
articles on chemical subjects make up the rest of this number.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonpdoN

Royal Society, Dec, 12.—‘“On the Structural Composition
of Urinary Calculi.” By H. Vandyke Carter, M.D.
“A Contribution to the Knowledge of Hemoglobin.” By E.
Ray Lankester. According to the author the distribution of
hzemoglobin may be summarised as follows ;—
1. In special corpuscles.
a, In the blood of all vertebrates, excepting Zeptocephalus
and Amphioxus (?).
6. In the perivisceral fluid of some species of Glycera, of
Capitella, and Phoronis.
c. In the blood of Solen legumen.
2. Diffused in a vascular or ambient liquid.
a. Inthe peculiar vascular system of. the Chzetopodous

ae ey

134

> PD ea eR” a ™ oI

NATURE

~

Annelids very generally, but with apparently arbitrary
exceptions,

é. In the vascular system of certain Leeches, but not of
all (Nephelis, Hirudo).

c. In the vascular system of certain Turbellarians as an
exception (/o/ia).

d, In a special vascular system7(distinct from the general
blood-system) ofa marine parasitic Crustacean (undescribed),
observed by Prof. Edouard Van Beneden.

e. In the general blood-system of the larva of the Dip-
terous insect, Chironomus.

Ff. In the general blood-system of the pulmonate mol-
lusc, Planorbis.

g. In the general blood-system { of ,the Crustaceans,
Daphnia and Cheirocephalus.

Diffused in the substance of muscular tissue.

a. In the voluntary muscles generally of Mammalia, and
probably of birds, and in some muscles of reptiles.

4. In the muscles of the dorsal fin of the fish /7ippocam-
us, being generally absent from the voluntary muscular
tissue of fish. .

c. In the muscular tissue of the heart’ of Vertebrata gene-
rally.

Bs In the unstriped muscular tissue of the rectum of man,
being absent from the unstriped muscular tissue of the ali-
mentary canal generally.

e. In the muscles of the pharynx and odontophor of Gas-
teropodous Molluscs (observed in Lymneus, Paludina, Lit-
torina, Patella, Chiton, Aplysia), and of the pharyngeal
gizzard of Af/ysia, being entirely absent from the rest of the
muscular and other tissues, and the blood of these Molluses,
with the single exception of Planorbis, cited above (2 /).

f. In the muscular tissue cf the great pharyngeal tube of
Aphrodite aculeata, being absent from the muscular tissue
and from the blood in this animal, and absent from the
muscular tissue generally in other animals.

4. Diffused in the substance of nervous tissue.
a. In the chain of nerve-ganglia of Aphrodite aculeata.

Zoological Society, Dec. 3.—Viscount Walden, F.R.5.,
president, in the chair. The secretary read a report on the ad-
ditions that had been made to the Society’s collection during the
months of October and November, amongst which were particu-
larly noticed a Nippon Ibis (/4is ippox), and other birds, pre-
sented by R. Swinhoe, H.B.M. Consul at Ningpo, China.—
Mr. P. L. Sclater exhibited a nest of the Tigereta (AZilvudus
zyrannus), containing one egg of that bird and nine of the para-
sitic Molothrus bonariensis, which had been sent to him by Mr.
W. H. Hudson, of Buenos Ayres.—Mr. H. E. Dresser exhi-
bited a series of skins of eagles of Europe and India. After a
careful investigation Mr. Dresser had come to the conclusion
that three good species had hitherto been included under the
name of the Imperial Eagle, four under that of the Spotted
Eagle, and two under the name of the Tawny Eagle. Mr.
Dresser pointed out the various plumages and localities of these
species.—Prof. Owen, F.R.S., read a paper on the osteology of
the Marsupialia, being the fourth of his series of papers on this
subject. The present communication contained a description of
the trunk and limbs of the Wombats (Phasco/omys).—A commu-
nication was read from Mr. R. B. Sharpe, entitled ‘* Contribu-
tions to the Ornithology of Madagascar.’’—A communication
was read from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., onthe Fossane of Mada-
gascar (Fvssa @’ Audentonii), of which animal the British Museum
had recently received specimens.—A second communication
from Dr. Gray contained notes of a Terrapin from British
Columbia, which had been presented to the British Museum
by J. K. Lord, as the Actinemys marmorata of Agassiz.—A
communication was read from Sir Victor Brooke, Bart., giving
the description of a new species of antelope from the river
Gambia, living in the Society’s menagerie, which he proposed to
call Nanotragus nigri-caudatus.—A communication was read
from Dr. A. Giinther, containing notes on a hitherto unpublished
drawing in the Buchanan-Hamilton collection, representing
Barbus beavani, Three short communications were read from
Mr. Andrew Garrett, of Tahiti, in which he gave descriptions of
two new species of Szparatista, two new species of Caecum from
the Viti Islands, and a new species of Scissurel/a from the
Panmotu Islands.

Geological Society, Dec. 4.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan,
F.R.S., V.P., in the chair.. ‘‘ On the Tremadoc Rocks in the
Neighbourhood of St, David’s, South Wales.” By Henry

~»

Hicks. The author stated that Tremadoc rocks occur in three

distinct places near St. David’s—namely, in Ramsey Island, at —

the north end of Whitesand Bay, and over a considerable tract
of country about five miles east of St. David’s. They rest con-
formably on the Lingula flags, and are about 1,000 feet thick in

Ramsey Island. The author noticed the fossils found in these —

deposits, nearly all of which are of new species, and stated that
the paleontological evidence proves sthese rocks to be nearly
allied to, if not identical with, the lower part of the Tremadoc
rocks of North Wales.
Wales seem to be represented at St. David’s by the so-called
Arenig rocks which overlie the deposits described in the present
paper.—*‘ On the Phosphatic Nodules of the Cretaceous Rock
of Cambridgeshire.” By the Rev. O. Fisher. The author

stated that this paper was founded upon one read by him before

the Society in May last, but subsequently withdrawn, in conse-
quence of his obtaining information which necessitated a ch:

of opinion upon certain points. The new portion related chiefly
to those nodules which had been regarded as belonging to
Porospongia or Scyphia, the fenestrated structure shown in sec-
tions of which the author now identified with the structure of
Ventriculites, as described by Mr. Toulmin Smith, the whole
arrangement, and especially the presence of an octahedral figure
at the nodes where the fibres of the framework intersect one
another, being in favour of this determination. _ The author de-
scribed the peculiarities of these octahedra, and dwelt particu-
larly upon the fact that these sections of phosphatic nodules
showed clearly that the fibres are really tubular, and not, as
Toulmin Smith supposed, solid.—‘‘ On the Ventriculitidz of
the Cambridge Upper Greensand.” By W. Johnson Sollas.
A collection of supposed sponges found in the Cambridge Upper
Greensand had been in part referred to the genera Scyphia and
Porospongia, and in part left unidentified, An examination of
sections of these forms by the microscope had revealed all the
details of Ventriculite structure ; and a careful comparison with
Mr. Toulmin Smith’s descriptions and specimens had resulted in
the identification of those examined with four of Mr. Smith’s
species; thus Scyphia fessellata was shown to be equiva-
lent to Ventriculites tessellatus (or, more correctly, V. texturatus),
Porospongia ocellata to V. cavatus, and other unnamed forms to
V. quincuncialis and V. mammillaris respectively, The occur-
rence of ventriculite-structure in coprolitic material presents a
favourable opportunity for a fresh inquiry into its nature; ac-
cordingly the author described the minute characters of the
hexradiate elements of which the skeleton is composed, and the
combinations of these hexradiates with one another. Abnor-
malities occur sometimes by the hexradiates becoming hepto-
radiate or pentaradiate, and sometimes by some of their rays
bending quite away from their normal course. The whole of
the skeleton fibre is distinctly tubular. Since the Ventriculite
fibres have now been found fossilised in chalk, flint, and calcic
phosphate, there can be little doubt that they were keratose,
and not siliceous in their nature. If this be so, we have a diffe-
rence between Nitrea and Ventriculitidee of ordinal value at
least, and we must look for allies to the Ventriculites among the
horny sponges. Verongia resembles Ventriculites in the single
hollow cavity of its fibre and the non-spiculate character of its
skeleton; Darwinella offers a resemblance in its hexradiate
horny spicules, and Sfongionelia in the regular arrangement of
its fibres. These three genera are indices of the directions in
which the Keratosa tended to vary. At a very early period
great variation occurred among the Keratosa, which already, at
the time of the Weisse Jura, had evolved such highly symmetri-
cal specialised forms as the Ventriculites ; these, with their con-
temporary variations, such as Verongioid forms, lived on in
great numbers throughout the Mesozoic period, with the close of
which the Ventriculites altogether disappeared; and their

nearest allies dwindled down to the dwarfed and rare genera

Verongia, Darwinella, and Spongionella.

Chemical Society, Dec. 5.—Dr. Frankland, F.R.S., &e.
president, in the chair, The orst two papers read were *‘ On
Hypophosphites” and ‘‘ Onthereducing power of Phosphorous and
Hypophosphorous Acid and their Salts” by Prof. C, Rammels-
berg.—A communication by Prof. A. H. Church, entitled ‘* New
Analyses of certain numeral Arseniates and Phosphates” followed,
giving his results of the examination of the minerals, Fluon-
apatite, Arseniosiderite, Childerite, Uhlite, Tyrolite, and
Wavellite.—‘‘ On the condition of hydrogen occluded by palla-
dium as indicated by specific heat of the charged metal” by
W. C. Roberts and C, R. A. Wright, D.Sc. This interesting

[ Dec. 19, 1 872

The Upper Tremadoc rocks of North

‘ } “* cee
i a ae a ee ee he Ne

j

mpound, which was discovered by the late Prof. Graham,
er of the Ruyal Mint, and supposed by him to be an alloy
of palladium and hydrogen, is obtained on making metallic
alladium, the negative pole in the electrolysis of water aciduated
with sulphuric acid. he authors find, however, that the
charged metal cannot be regarded as a true alloy of the two
elements.
_tAnthropological Institute, Dec. 3.--Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Col. A. Lane Fox exhibited
“seven celts presented to him by Col. Pearce, R.A., who procured
them from the grove and hill-top Temples of the Malayalis or
hill-tribes of the Shevavoy hills, Salem, Madras Presidency.
Col. Fox also read a report on Anthropology, at the meeting of
-the British Association at Brighton.—Professor T. Rupert
_ Jones, F.R.S., read a paper ‘‘ On Implements from the Caves of
Périgord, France, bearing marks referable to ownership, tallying,
g bling, &c.” Among the implements of bone, deer-horn, and
ivory found by MM. Christy and Lartet in the caves of the
- Dordogne district in France, are many bearing more or less
definitely designed marks, such as scorings and notches, parallel,
crossing, or otherwise arranged, and fittings in a roughly quin-
cuncial order. One specimen in particular exhibited several of
“these kinds of markings, whether made for a purpose, for or-
nament, or by trivial whittling. Prof. Jones described several
implements from the caves exhibiting one or more of these types
of marks, and indicated their applicability to ownership,
‘reckoning by tally, gambling, or mere fancy-work; he also
suggested that therein we might have some of the earliest
examples of magic signs and lucky charms, such as the old
_ Norsemen and some Archaic people are said to have used and
_ feared. Lieut. C. Cooper King, R.M.A., read a paper ‘‘On a
Flint Implement Station at Wishmoor Bottom, Bagshot Heath.”
_ The interest of the discovery of flint chips and implements
between Bagshot and Sandhurst lay chiefly in the peculiar nature
of the locality in which these ancient traces of early human life
_ were found. Apparently from the topography of the ground they
_ had occupied the bed ofa swampy valley which it was suggested
_had been, at the time of the deposition of the relics, a small lake
area, near one of the great Western routes. It was further
jointed out by the author that the flints themselves appeared not
_ to be of local origin. and that the work performed at the place of
discovery had probably been that of re-fashioning existing imple-
-ments, rather than the construction of new ones from local flints.
4 MANCHESTER
_ Literary and Philosophical Society, Oct. 29.—Edward
Schunck, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair, Dr. R. Angus
Smith, F.R.S., described a remarkable fog which he saw in
Iceland. It appeared to rise from a small lake and from the
sea at about the same time, when it rolled from both places and
‘the two streams met in the town of Reykjavik. It had the
appearance of dust, and was called dust by some persons there
at first sight. This arose from the great size of the particles of
which it was composed. ‘They were believed to be from ,jyth
to zi;th of aninch in diameter. They did not show any signs
ot being vesicular, but through a small magnifier looked like
_ transparent concrete globules of water. They were continually
_ tending downwards, and their place was supplied by others that
_ rolled over.
___ Nov.12.—J. P. Joule, F.R.S., president, in the chair. Addi-
tional Notes on the Drift Deposits near Manchester, by E. W.
‘Binney. F.R.S. An Account of some Experiments on the
‘Melting Point of Paraffin, by Balfour Stewart, F.R.S.

Nov. 26.—J. P. Joule, F.R.S., president, in the chair. Dr.
_ R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., saidthathe, likeothers, had observed that
the particles of stonemost liableto be in long contact with rain from

town atmospheres, in England at least, were most subject to decay.
Believing the acid to be the cause, he supposed that the endur-
ance of a siliceous stone might be somewhat measured by
measuring its resistance to acids. He proposed therefore to use
_ stronger solutions, and thus to approach to the action of long
P periods of time. He tried a few specimens in this way, and
_ with most promising results. Pieces of about an inch cube were
broken by the fall of a hammer, and the number of blows
counted. Similar pieces were steeped in weak acid; both
sulphuric and muriatic were tried, and the latter preferred. The
number of blows now necessary was counted. Some sandstones
gave way at once and crumbled into sand, some resisted long.
Some very dense siliceous stone was little affected ; it had stood
_ ona bridge unaltered for centuries, in a country place however.

ofr OSes TS peda

eat, OE Tees
erie

a4 \

NATURE 135

| These trials were mere beginnings; he arranged for a very
extensive set of experiments to be made soas to fix on a standard
of comparison, but has not found time.—‘ On some points in
the Chemistry of Acid Manufacture,” by H. A. Smith, F.C.S.

NEw ZEALAND

Wellington Philosophical Society, July to September.—
Weekly meetings have been held during the session, which
was commenced by an address of the President, Dr. Hector,
concerning certain matters that have been under discussion.
Relative to the extinction of the Moa, he considers that there
is evidence that they existedin Otago in considerable numbers
within 200 years, and that a few may have survived to within
seventy years. Keferring to the first period in which Moas first
appeared, he points out the absence of any evidence of there
having been a Glacial period in the New Zealand area, there
being no dispersed drifts. Nor is there any evidence of
submergence since the last great extension of the glaciers which
were coincident with a much greater elevation of the central
ranges of the South Island than at present. Important contri-
butions have also been made to the natural history of lizards,
birds, and fishes of the colony by Dr. Butler, Captain
Hutton, Mr. Travers, and others.—A series of papers is in
progress by W. T. L. Travers, describing the changes
effected in the Maories at the time they first acquired fire-arms
and European implements, and when there was a sudden stride
of a powerful race from the age of stone to that of iron.—An
important paper by Captain Hutton on the geographical relations
of the New Zealand fauna, in which he argues ;—(1) A continental
period in which South America, New Zealand, Australia, and
South Africa were joined, which he places about the close of the
Mesozoic. New Zealand was then separated, prior to the
spread of mammals, and has since then never been completely
submerged, (2) Subsidence followed, and a second continent
connected, New Zealand, Lord Howe's Islands, New Caledonia,
and Polynesia. (3) Subsidence then reduced New Zealand to a
group of Ifands, upon which the Moa lived, so that many
species arose (4);Re-elevation joined the small Islands and mixed
the different species of Moa which inhabited a large Island
disconnected from Polynesia. (5) This was followed by sub-
sidence, when New Zealand acquired its present form, and the
Moas continued till they were destroyed by the Maories.

Sept. 17.—Captain Hutton read an elaborate paper on the
date of the last great glacier period in New Zealand: and the
formation of the Wakatipu Lake. The author, in Opposition to
the views expressed by Dr. Hector and to those held also by Dr.
Haast, attributes the for mation of the terraces that are so common
in the valleys in the South Island to marine action, advancing
the view that New Zealand has been submerged beneath the
sea, since the valleys were eroded by glaciers the former exten-
sion of which he attributes solely to extreme elevation of the
land during a preceding period, considering the view expressed
by Dr. Hector that there has been a reduction of the area of
land above the snow line by the erosive action of the glaciers as
unnecessary and exaggerated. Speaking of the Canterbury
plains, the author stated that Dr. Haast’s sections show that they
are nearly level in a line parallel with the coast between the
Rangitata and the Waimakiriri, and that the gravel formation
wraps round the spurs of the hills at the same level that it has at
the river gorges, and considers that these facts and also the oc-
currence of vegetable deposits below the gravel of the plains, are
readily explained by supposing these to Le of marine formation,
and quite inexplicable on the river formation theory. Another
proof of recent elevation is the fact that the glaciers are now ad-
vancing and overriding their terminal moraines. The absence of
strize on the rock surfaces the author considers to be a strong
proof that the glacicrs were exteuded during the Pliocene, and
not a more recent period. ‘The origin of deep lakes, taking
Wakitipu as a type, and the sounds on the West Coast were next
described with the view uf proving that their formation is not
due to subsidence or unequal depression, but only to the scooping
out of the rock by glaciers. Dr. Hector could not agree with
the conclusions arrived at further than attributing the erosion of
the Alpine valleys and the rock-boun 1 lake basins to the SCOOp-
ing of ice. On the whole, he thought, no proof had been ad-
yanced of any Pleistocene submergence beneath the sea of the
Alpine district since the excavation of the great valleys by the
glaciers. After quoting Sir Charles Lyell, who points out that
the tine required for similar excavations is so extensive that it
covers a period during which we know that great oscillations
have taken place, Dr, Hector drew attention to the irregularity

136

in the movement of the land during the earthquakes of 1848 and
1855, which amounted to 9 ft. elevation at Palliser Bay and was
not perceptible at Porirua, while there is good reason to believe
that in Blind Bay there was a marked depression. The elevation
of the Billy Rock in this harbour, and the depression of the
Hapuku Rock at the Astrolabe since the publication of the
Admiralty Charts, was also advanced a; evidence that unequal
movements have takea place on a small scale, and of course such
may be cumulative throuzhout long periods.

Sept. 25.—Re‘erring to the skeletons of the huia which were
exhibited, Dr. Hector pointed out that the great difference in
the length of the beaks in the male and female huias is due only
to the prolongation of the horny mandible of the latter, the jaw
bones being the same size in both sexes. This is not like the
kiwi, in which the apparent excess in the length of the beak in
the female is really produced by the lengthened bones of the
face. Anatomically, the kiwi has the shortest beak of any known
bird of its size. The strong mucular crest on the skull of the
male huia at once distinguishes it, however, and supports the
view that the male beak is used as an adze, and the female as a
probe.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Dec. 9.—M. Faye, president, in
the chair.—MM. Littré and C. Robin presented their Medical
Dictionary to the Academy together with a short descriptive
note. —M. de Saint- Venant read the second portion of his paper
on the division of the force of a vibratory movement into those
due to simple oscillatory movements of various periods and
amplitudes.—M. Jamin read a note on the distribution of
Magnetism, This was a criticism on M, Treve’s paper on this
subject, read at the last meeting. The author disagrees with
his statement that the poles of a magnet are displaced when an
armature is applie1.—M. Pasteur promised on a future occasion
to reply to the observations of MM. Béchamp and Estor, made at
the last sitting.—M. Claude Bernard then answered M. Bouil-
laud’s criticism on his late paper on animal heat : he defends the
generally received theory that animal heat is produced in the
capillaries ; he denied that he sta‘ed it to be produced in the
liver ; and argued against Lavoisier’s o!d theory that it arose
solely in the lungs. M. Bouilland replied, and defended
Lavoisier’s theory, which he considers to be proved beyond
doubt. M. Milne-Edwards then spoke on the subject: he
alluded to the experiments of his brother, William M. Edwards,
which proved that carbonic anhydride continued to be evolved
from the lungs of an animal when it was deprived of oxygen,
thus showing that the former gas was brought by the blood into
the lungs, and not formed in them by the act of inspiration.
A letter from Father Secchi, dated Rome, November 22, was
then read. It related to the solar sp>ts and diameter: he has
observed the diameter on th? lines B and C, and finds that each
gives different results ; this he explains thus :—Z gives the solar
diameter without the chromosphere, C the diameter plus the
chromosphere.—M_ E. Belgrand read a paper on the floods of
the Seine and its affluents ; after which MM. Is. Pierre and Ed.
Puchot read some observations on several groups of isomeric
substances derived from the alcohols of fermentation. Tne
authors draw attention to the remarkable resemblances and
differences in certain isomeric bodies, ¢,g. many isomers differing
immensely in boiling-point, odour, and density at the boiling-
point, have the sime density exactly at o..—M. Burdin read
a paper entitled a‘‘ G'ance at the immense part played by ether
in Nature,” a paper relating to the luminiferous ether.—The
following gentlemen were then appointed judges of the Mon-
toyon Prize for Medicine and Surgery for 1873 :—MM. Cloquet,
Nelaton, Cl. Bernard, Bouillaud, Robin, Sédillot, Andral,
Larry, Mine-Edwards, The following were appointed to award
the Montoyon Statistical Prize: -MM. Ch. Dupin, Mathieu,
Boussingault, Morin.—A Report on M. Alph. Milne-Edwards’
researches on the anatomy of the semules was then read, and
it was decided that the memoir should be inserted among those
of foreign savazt/s.—Memoirs were received from M. Rosmann
onanalytical researches on rocksas regards their consti-uents which
are absorbable by vegetables ; it was sent to the section of Rural
Economy.—On the destruction of the Pj oxeva from M. Erb,
and M. Balissat : sent to the Phy//oxera Commission.—A note
from M. Berrelly giving an account of the discovery and obser-
vations of planetoid 128 at Marseilles was then read, and fol-
lowed by a paper on Geometry of N dimensions by M.
Jordan; and by a note from M. Quet on the force of a
vibrating system. —M. Sainte-Claire Deville presented a note

on the thermic effects of Magnetisation by M. J. Moutier,
which was followed by the conclusion of M. Th. du Moncel’s
paper on the accidental currents which are produced in a tele-
graphic wire, one end of which remains insulated in the air.—A
very short note on electro-magnetism was then received from M.
Tréves, and M. Wurtz presented a paper on dibenzyldicarbonic
acid by M. Franchimont,—M. H. Byasson’s paper on —
the splitting up of the molecule of chloral-hydrate under
the influence of heat and glycerine was then read. At
110° the chloral-hydrate begins to split up int» chloroform,
hydrochloric acid, and allylic formiate.—M. A. Commaille read
a paper on parathionic and thio-amylic acids. These acids,
the last of which isisomeric with sulphamylicacid, are foundinthe
mother liquors of coralline.—M. de Quatrefages presented a —
paper on a new species of chondrostome found in the waters of —
Rouergne by M. dela Blanchére. The systematic name of the ~
new species is Chondrostoma Persei.— A note on the eye of the
Germon, by M. Em. Morceau, was then read, and followed by

a note on the immediate cause of the variations of the magnetic
elements of the earth, by Father Sanna Solaro, who suggests
that the ordinary diuraal variations are due to the movement of
the sun acting on the statical electricity of the whole mass of the
earth and its atmosphere. This movement continually displaces —
the resultant of the electric actions, and the instruments follow —
this movement. The perturbations are produced in the same
manner.—A note on a Turonian colony in the Senonian stage
of Saint Martory (Petites Pyrénées), by M. Leymerie, was
then real.—A note on the origin of the planetary week and
on Plato’s spiral, by M. Sédillot, followed. i

BOOKS RECEIVED

EnGutsu.—The Eruption of Vesuvius, 1872; R. Mallet (Asher and Co.),
—The Natural History of Plants, vol. 2: H. Raillon (L. Reeve and Co).— —
Report of the Meteorological Observations inthe North-western Provinces
of India, 1871: M. Thomson.—Travels in Indu-China and the Chinese
Empire: L. de Carné (Chapman and Hall).

FortiGn.— Memorandum des Travaux de Botanique, 1772-1871; E,
Morren (F, Hayez).—Histoire des Sciences et des savants depuis deux
siécles: A. de Candolle (H. George).—Zeitschrift fur Biologie Band 8,
Heft. 3.—(Through Williams and Norgate).—Das Leben der Erde: Hum-
mel.—Grundrisz der Physik u. Meteorologie: Dr, J. Muller.—Untersu-
chungen uber das Wesen des Lichts und der Farben: D. Warmann.—
Physikalische u. chemische Untersuchungen Ul: u. Hummel.

DIARY :
THURSDAY, December 19.

Rovat Society, at 8.30.—Magnetical Observations in the Britannia and
Conway Tubular Iron Bridges: Sir G. B. Airy, Pres. R.S.—Un the
Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures, Part iy.: Prof. —
W. C Williamson, F.R.S.—Observations on the Temperature of the
Arctic Sea in the Neighbourhood of Spitzbergen: Capt. Wells, R.N-

Linnean Society, at 8 —On the General Principles of Plant-construction ¢
Dr. M. T. Masters, F.R.S.

Cuemicay Sociaty, at 8—On the Polymerides of Morphine and their —
Derivatives: E| Ludwig Major and Dr. C.R.A. Wright —Analysis of
Water of the River Maiaunddy: E. Nicholson.—Communications from
the Laboratory of the London Institution: Dr. H, E. Armstrong —On
the Formation of Crystallised Copper Sulphide, &c,: J. L. Davies.

SATURDAY, Decemser 28.
Roya Instirurioy, at 3.—On Air aad Water: Prof. Odling, F.R.S.

—~ Ol

CONTENTS Pacs
Arctic EXrLORATION «+ + 6 6 ee 6 6 te ew we
ForESTRY IN ITS EcONOMICAL BEARINGS . « . « 4 «6 » « « « EB
DANA ON CORALS. «6s ee oe te wt oe
Ouz Book Seutr. . ss 6 +s 0 i «sb 5) cw

Lerters To THE Epitor:—
The late Met-ocic Shower.—Prof. H. A. Newron; Father
Danza ; Prof. Asarw Hatt ; Prof. D. Kirk woop; S. BARBER ;

J. RANDERSON: ... 0) 5) Js. pu a Pale |e
The De Novo Production of Living Things.—Dr. H. CHARLTON

Bastian, FR S. 0. os ee 0 8 es + fee)
The Ocean Rainfall.—S. H. MicbeR «sw. sw 6 ee TBR
Ocean Meteorslogical Observations . . . . «+ sw » we 1230
Rainfall at Barbadoes —Hon. Rawson W Rawson . . . » « 124

Treatise on Probabitity—T. T. WitkinsoN

On THE SprecTRoscore AND ITs AppLicaTions. By J. NorMAan Be
Lockver, F.R.S_ (With Illustrations). . . 1. s 6 se 425
pyle nei hg ExuiBiT1on IN GLAscow. By Joun Mayer, ig
(Oe eae hn ae ae 8
Tue Risinc or Austratia. By S H. WinTLE . . . 3 42 eg
Tue CoLourep Stars asour Kappa Crucis . . .. . . . « 190
NOTES «oe eo te 8 5) eee ele) le © lnis loo (elle
Screntiric SERIALS . Pe ta, ae oe | 6s ie
SocigTIES AND ACADEMIES .. . ay hey be - oh
Booxs RECEIVED... ss Se wise, he ake) ae et 13¢
DIARY soo! 5 te) 9) Eat Weel Got ete Vato) gel 1attetanemmnna

NATURE

4.4 ed ae a pr Sa ed

137

. THURSDAY, DECEMBER 26, 1872

THE PROGRESS OF NATURAL SCIENCE
_ DURING THE LAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS

iG

N the occasion of the celebration at Breslau of the
twenty-fifth anniversary of Prof. Goeppert’s presi-
_ dency of the Silesian Society for National Culture, Prof.
_ Ferdinand Cohn delivered an address characterised by
eloquence of the highestk ind on the above subject. As the
wanderer, he said, who is climbing towards a high
mountain peak, feels from time to time the desire to stand
_ still a little, and look back on the way over which he has
_ passed, to enjoy the wider outlook which he gains from his
higher stand-point; so he thinks there are moments in
the uninterrupted progress of science, when we long in
some measure to strike a balance, and see how much
_ acquired property the present puts aside as useless, how
much it uses only for temporary purposes, and how
_ many enduring acquisitions have been made.

Dr. Cohn refers, no doubt with justice and some pardon-

able pride, to the foremost place held by Germany during
the last quarter of a century, in the march of science.
_ At the same time he awards due praise to other European
states, and above all to England, which, during that time
and more pirticularly at present, he thinks, abounds in
“men of the highest eminence, whose scientific achieve-
_™ents stand prominently out on account of their as-
tonishing energy, clearness, depth, and independence of
thought. Still, we cannot but admit that Dr. Cohn is
‘right in asserting that Germany is free from the dilettan-
_tism which abounds in this country, and that asa rule
Science in Germany is both far more widespread, and
far more thorough than it is among ourselves, and that
the Opportunities furnished there to all classes for scientific
study at the ordinary educational establishments have
until recently left us almost nowhere. But happily, signs
of the beginning of the end of this state of things among
us are becoming rife.
After briefly referring to the intellectual awakening of
Germany along with the rest of Europe at the time of
the Reformation, and showing how this start forward was,
especially in the case of Germany, in a great measure
ustrated by the Thirty Years’ War, Dr. Cohn pays a
high and justly-merited tribute to France, and especially
to Paris, on account of the supreme place she took during
the first thirty or forty years of the present century in
early allthe sciences. The glory of France in this direc-
ion has however, he thinks, departed, and Germany is
coming daily more and more the intellectual centre of
‘the world. Had Dr. Cohn written his lecture now, he
might have somewhat modified his language ; for within
the last few months, the signs have been many, that in
the direction of science the French are determined to try
to hold their own with the foremost in Europe. Their
professors are prosecuting an amount of research which
puts our own to shame, while they are at the same time
forming a school of investigators. We do not grudge to
Germany all the praise she well deserves, and the in-
fluence which the results of German research exercise
‘ Vo. vi.—No, 165,

Hy

on other nations, is likely to urge them to such vigorous
and determined efforts, that, sooner or later, science and
every other progressive influence shall be “ great gainers.”
Meantime, however, Germany is doubtless in the ascendant.
In the year 1845 appeared the first volume, and in
1846 the second of Humboldt’s Cosmos. As comprising
|a view ef the whole created universe depicted with the
most wonderful sympathy, the book is as it were a canon
forming a key to everything that was known of nature at
the time. No man was then more suited for such work
| than was in the highest degree A.von Humboldt. A Divina

‘Commedia of science, the Cosmos embraced the whole

universe in its two spheres, heaven and earth, Under th>
leadership of the great searcher of Nature, as Dante once
by the hand of Virgil, we climb from the depths of the
universe, with its furthest nebula and double stars, down
through the star depths to which belongs our solar system,
to the air and sea-enveloped earth, where form, tempera-
ture and magnetic condition are unveiled to us; then to
the wealth of organic life, which, stimulated by the light,
unfolds itself on its surface. It is an overwhelming pic-
ture of nature, of surpassing beauty of outline, abounding
in grand perspective, with the most careful execution of
the smallest detail.

But we cannot conceal from ourselves that the
Cosmos, published twenty-five years ago, is in many of
its parts now antiquated, not merely because it is wanting
in many facts which have since been discovered, but most
particularly because Humboldt was ignorant of some
highly important questions which have since taken their
place in the foreground of scientific discussion, while our
scheme of the universe during the last ten years has been
considerably modified by the introduction of new and
influential ideas. Any one who to-day would attempt to
recast the Cosmos, must proceed like the Italian archi-
tect who took the pillars and blocks of the broken temples
of antiquity, added new ones, and rebuilt the whole after
a new plan.

There are three discoveries which during the last
quarter of a century have entirely changed the position of
natural science :—the mechanical equivalent of heat, spec-
trum analysis, and the Darwinian theories.

Since, in the year1842, an unknown physician in a
Swabian country town, Dr. Mayer of Heilbronn, pointed
out that a hammer 424 kilograms in weight, which falls
from the height of a metre on an anvil, raises the heat of
the latter by one degree centigrade, and that by this pro-
cess of bringing a falling motion to a stand-still it is con-
verted into a fixed quantity of heat—since then has science
gained a new conception of the conditions of matter and
of the powers of nature. This new doctrine appears in
the mechanical theory of heat announced by Joule,
Kr6énig, Maxwell, and Clausius, in the doctrine of the con-
servation of energy of Helmholtz and Thomson, and by
means of the brilliant writings of Tyndall it has become
the common property of the educated world, Electricity
and magnetism, heat and light, muscular energy and
chemical attraction, motion and mechanical work—all
forces in the universe are only different forms of one and
the same power, which has dwelt from the first in matter
in invariable quantity, neither increased nor diminished.
not the least trifle of it can be annihilated or created
Only the phenomenal forms of power are changeable ;

I

ir a ea Saal Se ve

ow a . e n " “gel Pua y = i he © Se Ah yA, Ana en ee ” ves
Ae , > < 4 A — - f bf - 3 “ah a As —
138 NATURE ~ [Dec. 26, 1872

light can be converted into a chemical equivalent, this
again into heat, heat into motion, and indeed a fixed
quantity of one force always and only into an equivalent
quantity of another. In like manner also the quantity of
matter has remained unchanged from the beginning ; not
the least particle or molecule can be annihilated or created
out of nothing, and only in the transformation of perish-
able bodies are the molecules formed into ever new com-
binations. What we distinguish as natural forces are
only movements of molecules, for the least particles
of matter out of which bodies are composed are not inse-
parably united to each other, but are loosely held together
and in continuous whirling and undulatory motion ;
according to the swiftness and width of undulation of
the molecule will this motion of our nerves be regarded
now as sound, now as heat, then as light or as colour.
Moreover, the chemical union of the elements of matter,
the attractive power of gravitation in all the bodies of the
universe, are but varied forms of this universal motive
force. The unity and permanency of substance with its
two attributes, matter and force, and their innumerable
modifications, which go to form the bodies of the universe,
were in the first instance enunciated as a philosophical
maxim by the great thinker Spinoza. Now it is es-
tablished as a philosophic fact by means of exact measure
and weight.

Again, on the inner organisation of the system of the
universe has unexampled light been thrown by the won-
derful researches which were begun in 1859 by two men,
united by the closest bonds of a friendship which bore
rich fruit for science. After the light of the sun had, in
the third decade of this century, been brought into the
service of art by Nitpce and Daguerre, Bunsen and
Kirchhoff * compelled it also to render service to chemis-
try and astronomy. Like those magicians of the legend,
who, through the power of their knowledge, compelled
the spirits of the elements to disclose their most recon-
dite secrets, the genius of these men compelled the rays
of light imprisoned in the spectrum apparatus to make
revelation of things in the world of stars which the
curiosity of men had deemed for ever inaccessible.
Already had Kirchhoff ascertained what terrestrial ele-
ments were present in the sun’s atmosphere, and what
were not; quite recently has it been discovered that
there is even present in the suna substance (e/éwm) which
hitherto has been unknown on the earth. Moreover also,
the inner structure of the sun, the distribution of its in-
candescent, liquid, and gaseous parts, its luminous and
coloured envelope, the nature of its spots and protu-
berances—all this is no longer a playground for fantastic
imaginings, but the subject of exact research. Since the
great eclipse of 1868, Lockyer and Janssen, Zéllner, Hug-
gins, and Father Secchi have observed, day after day,
storms, whirlwinds, flame-sheaves, outbursts of burning
hydrogen to the height of 20,000 miles: thus has been
developed an entirely new science—the meteorology of
the sun. Moreover, on other obscure regions of the
heavens, on the physical and chemical conditions, even
on the laws of the movements of the fixed and double
» stars, on nebulz and milky ways, on planets and comets,

on zodiacal and northern lights, has spectrum analysis

* In connection with this discovery it would have been a graceful act on the
part of eur author to have referred to the names of Stokes and Stewart.—Ep.

thrown its enlightening rays. No less by rigorous
mathematical method, through which astronomy, even at
an earlier period, had been brought to a certain amount —
of perfection, has she in the most recent time enjoyed an
unexpected triumph, by solving, through the researches
of Schiaparelli, the riddle of the comets, in being able
to recognise the identity of their nature with that of the
swarms of shooting-stars whose remarkable brilliancy
long ago made them universally known.
(To be continued.)

EXPLORATION OF THE SOUTH POLAR
REGIONS
IIL.

At the conclusion of the last article the drifting sea-

weed was referred to as an important element in
enabling us to ascertain the state of the sea about the Ant- —
arctic regions. Let us now see whether the conditions of —
temperature, so far as they have yet been determined, are
in harmony with the ideas already developed. By re-
ducing the ascertained directions for all the months of aa
the year to a mean, there is obtained for the maximum
of the temperature a curve which coincides with the
intersections of the following meridians and parallels of
latitude :—
33° S. lat. and 33° E. long.

44° S. lat. and 65°E.long
4 67 ;

35 » 35 ” 6 ” ”
2 Les 40 yy 47 68s,
38 ” 43 ” 48 » SM
39 ” 47 » 49 » TE ois
40 ” 5° ” 50 ” 73 ”
41 ” 5 5 ” 5 I ” 73 ”
42 ” 60 ” 52 ” 74
43 63 53 75»

” ” |
A glance at a map shows that this curve leads into the a
midst of the ice-free field, and is only distorted somewhat
from its regular course by Kerguelen Island. This curve ©
can be followed even as far as Macdonald Island, which ~
is of high importance, inasmuch as it can be proved from
direct observation that a higher temperature of the water —
exists in these regions, as Dr. Neumayer himself has wit- —
nessed. When he, in December and January, 1856-57, —
was Sailing about 53° S. lat., he proved from hourly obser-
vations that there was an influx of a warm current between
62° and 72° E. long. a
With respect to the higher temperature in the Pacific —
Ocean, it suffices to mention the circumstance that there ex-
ists on the Falkland and Campbell Islands a richer vege-
table and animal life than is the case on other islands in the
same latitude of the hemisphere. The unusual mildness —
of the regions is to be ascribed to the neighbourhood of
the Australian continent, as well as to the prevailing
west and north-west winds. If, on the other hand, a
much poorer flora is found on Kerguelen Island than on :
the Auckland Islands, and if we should be at first inclined
to regard this as evidence against the milder influx of warm
currents, it should not be forgotten that Kerguelen does —
not enjoy the warming influence of a great continent,
since it lies in the midst of the Indian Ocean, almost
equidistant from the two nearest continents, and more than F
sag the distance of the Auckland Islands from Austra- —
ia.
south from Cape Horn, the cachelot (Physeter macroce-
phalus), which, it is known, seeks out the warmer waters, —
is found in abundance,

’ he 7
D.
- of e

Dr. Neumayer quotes Bellinghausen’s valuable journal
for March 12, 13, and 14, 1820, from which it appears
that at least as far south as 61° S. lat., under the meridian
of 73°5° E. long., the sea is free from ice. Besides, it
appears from his description that both in the sea and in
the sky exists an active animal life, and the coruscation
of the sea was observed for the first time by him in
high latitudes. The occurrence of this phenomenon
proves the existence of a very large quantity of or-
ganic remains which have been carried in this direction
—a fact which, in conjunction with the other phenomena,
Dr. Neumayer thinks has a positively demonstrative
force.

After the slight sketch of the general phenomena of ice
and currents, and the distribution of the warm districts
lying immediately to the north of the south polar regions,
it will be of interest to take a glance at the results of the
several expeditions, with especial reference to the various
meridians. If we understand by these results, in the first
place, the greatest latitudes reached, and then the greatest
stretches navigated inside the polar circle, we shall find,
in reference to the former, the following points :—

“. 26, 1872]

Cook came to 71°15’ S. lat. in 109° o' W. long. in Jan. 1774

ivakes 4, 7o° oO Fp 103-0 ,, »» March 1839
Bellinghausen 70 0 5 93 0}, ig Jani 1827
Bellinghausen 69 30 3 WeLO 55 ae fans 1825
Weddell ,, 74 15 ,, 34.17 5 4, Feb, 1823
Morrell(?),, 71 oO ty Sat Ory 9, March 1823
Ross ce ht STS, 53 tatsr’,, »» March 1843
Ross pez eA) Fey ee toyed. 3, Feb, 1841
Ross Som 7s UE Pe 16027 We >» Feb. 1842

The first group of most southerly points refers to the
regions west of Graham’s Land, which according to Dr.
Neumayer’s theory, is rendered milder so far as climate is
concerned, by one arm of the South American current ;
the second group contains the results of attempts to the
east of Graham’s Land, and the third, of the jour-
neys of Ross to Victoria Land. Thus then, where the
warm currents run towards the south, it is possible to
penetrate farthest, and where also, in the regions around
the polar circle the girdle of pack-ice is broken through,
an open sea is seen in the high south, such as has been
described by Ross and Weddell.

With regard to the regions where it is possible to
cruise through great stretches inside the polar circle,
we find that the most considerable stretch has been
navigated between the meridian 30° W. and 50° E.
long., where Bellinghausen, Biscoe, and to some extent
also Moore, have shown satisfactorily that the land could
nowhere extend much farther north than 70° Also
between 70° and 160° W. long. has a large part of the
region inside the polar circle been sailed through, and it
may with tolerable confidence be surmised that no land
of any extent exists there, and that what land there is
can extend northwards only a little beyond 70°. From
the researches of Ross we learn that from 160° W. and
160° E. long. to far beyond the 7oth parallel of latitude
no land of any extent exists, while the Americans inform
us of a great continent in the neighbourhood of the polar
circle between 155° and 95° E. long. Whether this refers
only to several island groups connected by ice, or to an
actual coast of great extent, cannot, in the present con-
dition of research, be decided.

NATURE

139

The following figures show the mean latitudes reached
on the several meridians :—

,

From 10° Ag long. to 50° E. long. 70° S. lat. has been reached,

» 60 » 99 90 ” 63 ”
” go 2 48 170 ” 66 ”
” 17o 99 99 160 W. 78 ”?
” 160 2 9, TIO ” 67 ”
1, TIO ah Mp ee ” 7° ”
” 50 2» 9 LO ” 74 95

According to these numbers, the place where the least
advance has been made towards the Pole, between 60° and
go” E. long., is the very part where the condition of the cur-
rent would prove favourable to a voyage southwards. The
question now forces itself upon us, what may be the reason
for this, and whether a determined attempt under the
meridian of Kerguelen would not lead to the penetration
of the polar circle? Leaving out of sight Morrell’s doubt-
ful voyages, we see from the following the farthest distance
reached at the place in question :—

Bellinghausen’s highest S, lat. 63° ° in March 1820

Biscoe’s 7 62°2 age OSE
Kemp’s ” 63°5 1 1833-3
Moore’s ” 64°3 o> 1845

With the exception of Kemp, all these made their way
into the region in question in the direction of the parallel
of latitude. Other voyagers until late in the season have
frequented that part of the Indian Ocean, some even to
the end of March. It is therefore evident, from the
natratives of these voyagers, that, according to Dr.
Neumayer’s notion, no attempt has yet been made in the
direction most highly favourable.

It should be especially noted here that, south of the
6oth parallel of latitude, in the Austral summer, easterly
and south-easterly winds prevail, which, towards the end
of the season, frequently blow severe storms. It is, there-
fore, advisable to search the region to be explored from
east to west, in order to find out the most direct possible
course towards the south, in order to cut through in the
shortest possible time the pack-ice, of the position of
which in these regions we have got no idea.

Interesting is the course (says Dr. Neumayer) of the
two isothermal lines of 0° (the freezing point of the air) for
January, February, and for July, August. The isothermal
line for the Austral summer assumes the figure of an
ellipse, whose smaller axis falls nearly in the direction of
the meridian, passing through Graham Land and Sabrina
Land from 60° W. to 130° E, long. ; the greater axis goes
through 20° E., 160° W. long., in the latter case through
Victoria Land, which stretches far towards the Pole, and,
in the former through}a stretch of the Antarctic Sea,
which is discovered as far as to 70°, and in which land
has been conjectured to exist, but has not been seen, and
according to Morrell, will not be found. Does not the
bending towards the equator show the completely oceanie
character of the greater axis? The limiting bend of this
isothermal] for the extreme seasons in the direction of the
greater axis, and also the greater bend near the small axis,
are unfavourable to the assumption of great stretches of
land between Enderby and Graham Lands. With this
consideration is connected the further question, whether
the fact that the bending towards the equator is consider-
ably less in the Pacific than in the Atlantic Ocean is not
to be explained by the existence of Victoria Land, to
which there is no equivalent on the opposite side. The

140

consequence of such a conclusion would be that Enderby
Land and Kemp’s Land, in whose neighbourhood it has
already been assumed that no considerable land would be
found, would be islands, and that between Kemp’s Land
and Termination Land chances of penetrating towards
the south would be greater than under the meridian of
New Zealand.

Dr. Neumayer appends the following sketch of the plan
upon which he thinks any South Polar expedition should
be conducted :—

1, A wooden sailinz-vessel with auxiliary screw ofat most
300 tons, thoroughly strengthene/ at the bow and properly
arranged on the upper deck, should be sent out on such
an expedition. 2. The ship should be equipped with all
the most approved appointments and the most recent and
best scientific apparatus suitable for the observation of
ghenomena of all kinds. 3. Men eminent in each of the
srincipal branches of science should be chosen to accom-
yany the ship, which should first make for the Cape of
Sood Hope, where all the necessary scientific arrange-
nents and testing of instruments could be made. The
Cape, indeed, might be considered as the real starting
yoint of the expedition. 4. For the purjose of regular
ybservations, soundings, and so forth, the expedition
should set out about the beginning of the year from the
Cape for the various groups of islands visited by Cook
and Ross, making for Christmas Haven in Kerguelen,
overhauling the observations which have been arranged
for now thirty years, and attempting to fix the geographi-
cal position of as many points as possible. 5. On the
Macdonald Islands, as they stretch farther to the south in
this quarter (53° 5°5’ S. lat. 73° 17'2' E. long.), a depét
should be established, the chief purpose of which should
be to maintain an ample stock of coals for the use of the
expedition, to convey which from the Cape a transport
vessel would be useful. Besides a strongly-built astro-
nomical magnetic observatory should be erected here,
which would serve as a basis of observation for the opera-
tions of the expedition in the south ; for these islands are
the outmost fore-posts of the Antarctic regions. 6. The
ship could carry on its soundings and researches into the
currents, the ocean-bed, &c., with diligence, and go as far
south as the season would permit without danger. In
December the attempt should be made to cross the polar
circle, to force through the girdle of pack-ice, and begin
research in the polar regions proper. 7. An attempt
should be made, with all energy and circumspection, to
winter inside the polar circle, when possibly a suitable
harbour might be found on Kemp or Enderby Land. By
this means the data for the winter climatology of the An-
tarctic regions would be ascertained, for which Science has
sighed so long. On this position of observation a small
contingent of eight or ten men and a whaling-boat should
be left, furnished with every means for the preser-
vation of their health and the furthering of scientific
knowledge. After establishing this station, the ship
itself should return to the Macdonald Islands, and
pass the winter, as far as the season will per-
mit, in pursuing scientific labours. 8. By the approach
of the favourable season in September and October
the work could be again transferred to the sea, and parti-
cularly a thorough survey of the Macdonald group should
be made.

NATURE

In December the ship would again make for |

<n, Te

| Dec.'26, 1842.

the south, take up the observers on Kemp’s Land, and
then proceed to further researches until the end of the
favourable season urges a return to the Macdonald
Islands. 9. At the conclusion of its work the expedition
could sail for Melbourne, where the necessary arrange-
ment of the observations could be made. 10. During
the sojourn of the expedition in andwaround the Mac-
donald group, it might be arranged that a series of
Australian-bound ships of all nations should from time
to time sail southward and visit the island, which, during
the Austral summer would be a matter of little difficulty,
In this way a regular connection with Europe would be
maintained, and intelligence could, now that we have
telegraphic communication between Melbourne and
England, reach Europe from the Macdonald Islands in
from fourteen to eighteen days. Should the latter group,
contrary to all expectation, prove unsuitable to a long
stay, then must Christmas Haven in Kerguelen (48°
41’ 1" S, lat. and 69° 3’ 35" E. long.) be chosen for the
purpose. Should an expedition be fitted out in connection
with that for the observation of the Transit of Venus, the
above plan would require to be materially modified.

Dr. Neumayer concludes with some sensible remarks on
the qualifications necessary to form an efficient leader of an
expedition such as he proposes ; the man selected for the
purpose must be both a seaman and aman of science, and
no mere dilettante discoverer. Should such an expe-
dition ever be organised, the importance of these con-
siderations cannot be overrated.

FAYRER’S THANATOPHIDIA OF INDIA.

The Thanatophidia of India. Being a description of the
Venomous Snakes of the Indian Peninsula, with an ac-
count of the Influence of their Poison on Life; anda
series of experiments, By J. Fayrer, M.D., &c. 1 vol.
folio, coloured plates. (London: Churchill, 1872.)

ti HIS is a handsome work, got up in good style, printed -

in large clear type, and illustrated with a number
of highly-coloured plates. It is intended to supply a want
which the author has often heard expressed—“ that of
reliable information on the venomous snakes of India.”

Dr. Fayrer divides his subject into several sections, the
first relating to the zoological and anatomical character
of the venomous serpents of India, the others treating of
the statistics of deaths caused by their bites, of the mode
of treatment of such cases, and of numerous experiments
undertaken by the author with a view of ascertaining the
influence of snake-poisons, and the value of certain re-
puted antidotes. On each of these subjects we will make
a few remarks,

As regards the more strictly scientific portion of the
volume, Dr. Fayrer informs us candidly that we are not
to expect anything original. “ The classification and de-
finitions are chiefly taken from, or based on, Giinther, or
other authors of repute, the anatomical descriptions from
Owen and Huxley ; and to those authorities I make my
acknowledgments for much valuable information, remark-
ing, at the same time, that I have carefully verified their
descriptions by comparison with, and by dissections of,
the snakes themselves.” In this passage we think that it —
is not made sufficiently clear that the whole of the first
section of Dr. Fayrer’s work is based upon Dr. Giinther’s

Rhea 's
1872]
“Reptiles of British India.”—in fact, the classification and
descriptions are mostly copied literally therefrom. It is
quite true that Dr. Giinther’s name is frequently intro-
duced, and that frequent passages borrowed from his
work are quoted in inverted commas; but, even under
these circumstances, we fail to see that Dr. Fayrer is quite
justified in appropriating so largely the results of another
author’s labours to his own use. It would have been easy
to state at once that so far as arrangement and classifi-
cation went, he simply intended to follow those given in
“The Reptiles of British India,” and to refer his readers
to that work for information on these subjects.

In the second section of his work, Dr. Fayrer gives de-
tails as tothe actual numberof deaths caused bysnake-bites
in India. These statistics were principally obtained from
replies to letters on the subject addressed by him to the
secretaries and political agents of the several governments.
The result arrived at is that the total number of deaths
recorded in 1869 in Bengal, the North West Provinces,
Oude, and certain, other parts of India, embracing alto-
gether a population of about 120,000,000, was 11,416.
This total, however, large as it is, Dr. Fayrer fears cannot
be regarded as the real mortality in these provinces, the
information upon which it is based having been partial
and imperfect. Were accurate statistics obtainable from
the whole of Hindostan, Dr. Fayrer believes that it would
be found that more than 20,000 people die annually in
that country from the bites of poisonous snakes. Such
being the case, there can be no question as to the import-
ance of the subject discussed in the work before us.

In his third section Dr. Fayrer speaks of the treatment
of snake-bite, concerning which, after a certain amount of
discussion, he does not appear to have arrived at any very
novel results, Ligatures, scarifications, liquor ammoniz,
and hot spirits and water, are the remedies in vogue on
such occasions, and to these Dr. Fayrer gives in his adhe-
sion. “ The antidotes in addition,” he remarks, “may be
used by those who have faith in them; but I fear that
there is reason to believe that they are of no use.” These
antidotes, we should have explained, comprehend snake-
stones, arsenic, bromine, ipecacuanha, senega, and,
“indeed nearly every drug in or out of the pharma-
copeeia.”

Numerous reports of cases of snake-bite by medical
officers of the Indian/Service constitute the fourth section
of Dr. Fayrer’s work. These have been selected in order
to give a fair idea of the symptoms and of the duration of
life after the reception of the bite, and of the pathological
appearances after the death of the sufferer.

In the concluding portion of the volume, Dr. Fayrer
gives an account of numerous experiments undertaken
with a viewto ascertain the influence of snake-poison on the
lower animals, and the value of certain modes of treatment.
These experiments were commenced in October 1867, and
continued during a period of three years, the object having
been to determine the effect of the bite. of venomous
serpents by actual observation, and to test the value of
supposed remedies both internal and external. The
snakes with which the experiments were performed were
the Cobra, the Ofhiophagus or Hamadryad, and the two
Indian species of the genus Bungarlus, belonging to the
Elapidz, some of the sea-snakes of family Hydrophiide,
the Daboia russellit, and the Echis carinata, belonging to

my <4

26,

NATURE

14!

the Viperidae, and one species of Trimeresurus, belong-
ing to the Crotalide, or Pit vipers. Of these Dr. Fayrer
concludes that as regards deadliness the Cobra, Ofhio-
phagus, and Daboia are very nearly on a par. “They
are quite capable of destroying a full-grown dog in half
an hour, sometimes in much less time ; and frequently,”
Dr, Fayrer believes, “man has succumbed within an
equally short period, though generally the time is much
longer.” The Bungarlus caruleus is believed to be just
as deadly as the above-named, but not to kill quite so
quickly. The Bungarlus fasciatus is less fatal. The
Echis is also very deadly, but from its small size less
likely to be fatal to man. Of the sea-snakes much less
is known, but it appears that human life would be in
great danger from their bite. The Elapine snakes of the
genus Ca//ophis and the Pit-vipers of Hindostan, although
capable of giving a painful and even a dangerous bite,
are not nearly so deadly.

The symptoms produced by the bite of these different
serpents vary slightly, but not so as to present any great
physiological or pathological divergences. All alike point
to “exhaustion and paralysis of the nerve-centres,” every
function falling rapidly, and life becoming quickly extinct,
“The post-mortem appearances frequently reveal nothing
except the marks of the fangs, or, if the creature has
survived some hours, infiltration and perhaps incipient
decomposition of the intestines.” Warm-blooded animals
are acted upon much more vigorously by snake-poison
than cold-blooded animals. As regards the latter, poi-
sonous snakes are not, according to Dr. Fayrer’s expe-
rience, affected by their own poisons, or by that of one of
their own species, although the less-poisonous seem to be
subject to the venom of their more poisonous relatives,
Lastly, although the blood of an animal killed by snake-
poisoning destroys life if injected into another animal,
there can be no doubt that the body of such an animal may
be eaten with impunity. The fowls and pigeons killed in
Dr. Fayrer’s experiments were always eaten by the natives
without any evil consequences following.

Such are some of the results arrived at from Dr.
Fayrer’s long and laborious series of experiments. We
cannot say that there is any great novelty amongst them.
As regards the treatment of snake-bite, indeed, it seems
quite conclusively proved that the antidotes, commonly
so called, are useless, and that it is hardly probable that
any direct specific will ever be discovered. Cure failing,
the large mortality now due to snake-bite can, therefore,
only be materially diminished by prevention ; and the
simplest mode of prevention —slow as it may be—is, we
think, that recommended by Dr. Fayrer in his circular of
January 1870%, zc. to offer small rewards for the destruc-
tion of the{serpents. The sum expended in this way
would, as Dr. Fayrer observes, no doubt be large, but the
saving of human life thereby effected would be great.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Forstzoologie. Von Dr. Bernard Altum. I. Saiigethiere.
(Berlin: Springer, 1872. London: Williams and
Norgate.)

Dr. BERNARD ALTUM, Professor of Zoology in the Royal
Academy of Forestry at Neustadt-Eberswald, gives us, in

* See page 31 of Dr, Fayrer’s work.

RS ee ie
ern mate

142

the present volume, the first of a series of essays which he
proposes to write for the instruction of his pupils and others
in “ Forest-zoology,” z.¢., in Zoology with especial reference
to the wants of those who are engaged in the care and pre-
servation of forests. The present volume is devoted to
the class of Mammals ; a second will relate to the Birds ;
and a third to the Insects ; these being the three princi-
pal divisions of the animal kingdom with which “ fores-
ters” are mostly brought into contact. Zoology in the
abstract, or “scientific zoology,” Dr. Altum observes, is
the foundation upon which all knowledge of the various
applications of zoology must be based, Dr, Altum there-
fore adopts a strictly scientific arrangement for his work,
commencing with a definition of the class of Mammals, and
taking the various groups of this class in systematic
order. The work being intended for those whose labours
are to be in the forests of Central Europe, only European
species are included. But the Quadrumana, Prosimia,
and other orders restricted to foreign countries, are intro-
duced in their proper places, and some general informa-
tion concerning them, together with a short account of
their leading divisions, is given. Special attention is paid
to those species of Mammals which the forester is most
likely to be brought into contact with, such as the squirrels,
field-mice, beaver, deer, and others ; and full particulars
are given of the modes in which forest trees are injured
or attacked by them.

_ Dr. Altum’s volume, thus composed, seems to be in
every way well adapted for the purpose for which it is in-
tended. Dr. Altum is fortunate in having, in Blasius’
well-known work on European Mammals, an excellent
guide to the scientific history of other animals, which he
wisely follows. An English writer on the same subject
would not be so well off, for the only modern work on
British Mammals is now long ago out of print, and there
seems to be no prospect of a second edition of it being
published. In this, as in nearly every other branch of
science, we have constantly to go to Germany for assist-
ance,

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

The Meteorology of the Future

I CANNOT quite agree with Mr. Lockyer that the most important
question in meteorology is the discovery of a cycle. Were it
even so well proved, it would still be but an empirical law. In
my opinion the chief desideratum of the science is a dynamical
theory of barometric waves; and the data for this are to be
found not merely in records of barometric fluctuations in one
place, nor by comparing the records in several places at or near
the sea level, but by comparing the records at places separated
by the greatest possible vertical distance, though horizontally
near each other. Such records do not yet exist, and they can be
had only at specially chosen stations ; the summit and the base
of Teneriffe, for instance, or of Etna. The latter would probably
be the best, as it is in the variables. It is not at all certain that
the fluctuations of the barometer at the summit and at the base
of a high mountain would be nearly alike. It is stated by Kaenitz
that while the barometer in the hottest part of the day falls
at the sea level, it rises at a height of a few thousand feet. The
reason why it rises at the higher station is that the entire column
of air is lifted up by the expansion due to heat, and thus a larger
proportion of the column comes to be above the station, This
cause does not act at the sea-level, and the barometer there falls
in consequence of the outflow of air from the top of the column,
It is much to be desired that the attention of scientific men and

scientific committees should be directed to this subject, as without
such sets of comparative observations we shall never have all the
data for a complete theory of barometric waves.

Old Forge, Dunmurry JoserH JOHN MuRPHY

Pe ey eee ean el

NATURE

[Dec. 26, 1872
Popular Science in 1872

SCIENTIFIC information in a popular form is one of the demands
of the age, and we find it supplied even in publications by no
means exclusively devoted to Science. It would be a great loss,
however, to the professed students of science, if they should
remain unacquainted with the following remarkable contribu-
tions to our knowledge of electricity, merely because they occur
in the December number of Se/gravia,*in an article entitled
“Ts Electricity Life?” dp

adt

“‘The ocean, for instance, is compounded of water and salt ;
one is an electric, the other not. The friction of these causes
the phosphorescent appearance so often observed at sea.”

“*That all created living bodies are electric there can be no
question ; and as little that some persons, animals, and plants,
are more electric than others. Two forms of the latter are
familiar. Few schoolboys are guiltless of experiments on poor
puss, from whose much-enduring back electric sparks may be
drawn, especially in dry frosty weather ; and most young ladies
have admired the elegant sensitive plant, whose leaves seem to
move and feel,

“and with quick horror fly the neighbouring hand,”

that draws from it the electricity which it contains more than
other plants ; and its leaves at once fall flaccidly, until a new
supply of electric force renders them once more turgid.

“*But bodies have not only electricity within them, but an
electric atmosphere, of the form of the body which it surrounds,
and which is attracted by it. Without this we could not shake
hands with a friend, or kiss a lip, without the danger of the
excess of electricity flying off and destroying us, or the he or she
that we would greet or kiss. Perhaps it is the commingling of
these electric atmospheres that makes kissing so nice,

‘*Two conditions of the human body are also illustrative of
its varied electric action. A person who has the small-pox
cannot be electrified, while sparks of electricity may be drawn
from the body of a patient dying of choleta, In the first instance
it appears that the body is fully charged with its own electriclty,
since it is impossible to electrify a body beyond a certain degree ;
in the latter there seems to be a tendency to pirt with the
electric force which is essential to the support of life, and which
may account for the distressing and rapid weakness of cholera-
patients.” ;

Upon the Direction in which the North Magnetic Pole
has moved during the last two Centuries

In an article upon Terrestrial Magnetism in the current
number of the Zdinburgh Review, referring to the fact that the
compass-needle does not now in England point due north and
south, and that it changes its position slightly from year to year,
but that from our present ignorance of the source and laws of
this change we cannot say thatit will hereafter beas much in one
direction as it has been in another, the writer remarks (p, 424):
“Still the strictly Arogressive character of this change com-
pels us to regard it as the expression of some determinate
cause or causes. The question then arises, Where are
these to be found? Now, from whatever point on the
earth’s surface we contemplate the phenomenon, we find our-
selves in the presence of two distinct magnetic systems. This
was first clearly recognised by Halley as a necessary conse~
quence of even the scanty information at his command, and the
accumulated observations of two hundred years haye corroborated
in a very remarkable manner the conclusions at which he arrived
—that of these two systems one was fixed and the other zz
motion.”

Itis a matter of some interest to ascertain in what directions
the system in motion has gone in the interval mentioned. Sir
Edward Sabine gives us some information on this point. In his
paper upon Terrestrial Magnetism, in ‘‘Johnston’s Physical
Atlas,” p. 72, he says : “ The change of longitude of the stronger _
pole, since Halley placed it on or about the middle of California,
appears to have been small; but, on the other hand, the weaker
pole, which is now found in Siberia, was placed by Halley near
the meridian of the British Islands, and, adopting Halley’s mode
of reasoning, the present disposition of the lines of declination
corresponds to this change.”

Of the northern poles of the two magnetic systems in Halley’s
time, one appears to have been in the longitude of California, the

other in that of the British Islands, the former being stationary,
_ the latter in motion ; and as it is said now to be Siberia, its
- motion must have been from west to east. On the other hand,
we find this motion described as being in the opposite direction,
--viz., from east to west. Sir George Airy, in his treatise on
Magnetism, p. 93, remarks “that at Greenwich the dip and
total force are diminishing. Interpreting these by the remarks,
it would seem that the magnetic equator is approaching above
Greenwich, or the north magnetic pole is receding from Green-
wich ; and remarking also the westerly change in direction of
north magnetic meridian, from the sixteenth century to the year
1824, and its subsequent easterly motion, it would seem that the
north magnetic pole has rotated round the terrestrial pole in a
small circle from east to west, and, having passed the point where
its westerly azimuth, as viewed from Greenwich, is maximum, is
still continuing its course in that circle.- It seems probable that
in the fifteenth or sixteenth century it was situated between North
aig and Spitzbergen. It is now north-west of Hudson’s
ay. 7
The north magnetic pole, which Sir E. Sabine supposes to
have been in Halley’s time in the meridian of the British Islands,
would appear to be the same which Sir G. Airy says was
probably in the 13th and 16th century in a meridian between
North Cape and Spitzbergen ; yet the pole referred to is in one
case said to be now in Siberia; while in the other it is said to be
to the north-west of Hudson’s Bay; but it cannot at the same
time have gone to the eastward and also to the westward.
In the two accounts there is a discrepancy, but perhaps this is
apparent only, and some of your readers may be able to show
how the accounts can be reconciled. x

Height of Thunderclouds

A FEW days ago I had an opportunity of estimating the height
of a bank of thunderclouds, an account of which may interest
the readers of NATURE.

I was camped at Gurpur, a place some eight miles from and
within sight of the sea, with an elevation of about 480 feet. The
evening was fine, and the horizon to westward remarkably free
from haze, so much so that when the sun dipped it was still too
bright for the naked eye to bear. Some fifteen or eighteen
miles to eastward a heavy thunderstorm was raging, and the
Western Ghats were shrouded by immense masses of cumulus,
which, piled up to an enormous height, and rosy with the beams
of the setting sun, formed quite a study for an artist.

Having been in the jungles for three or four weeks, I noted,
in order to get correct time, the moment the sun disappeared
beneath the horizon. This was, by my watch, six minutes past
six o’clock. A few minutes subsequently I noticed the earth-
shadow creeping up the clouds to eastwards, its edge being singu-
larly well-defined by the contrast of the cold grey beneath and
the warm colouring above. Struck by the slow progress of the
shadow, I timed it, and found that at seventeen minutes past
six the last tinge of pink faded from the highest point of the
cumulus, and at nineteen and a quarter minutes the cirrhi float-
ing above the storm lost their hue, thus giving eleven minutes for
the former and thirteen and a quarter for the latter. These times
reduced and corrected for latitude (130° N.), give the respective
approximate heights of the clouds as 14,075 and 25,590 feet, or,
adding height of observer, about 2°75 and 4°93 miles.

To be on the safe side, but 10’ of arc have been allowed for
the eastward position of the clouds. The nature of the observa-
tions of course renders correction for refraction unnecessary, so
that the above figures are well within the mark.

I believe that in the tropics cumuli attain a considerably
greater elevation than is generally believed. In 18641 was on
board a vessel in lat. 2° 53’ N., long. 10° ‘47’ W., when there
were constant flashes of forked lightning visible among detached
clouds directly overhead, yet not the faintest growl of thunder
was heard by anyone on board, although a dead calm prevailed
at the time. This fact I can only attribute to the combined
effect of the immense altitude of the clouds and the consequent
rarity of the air. E. H. PRINGLE

Mangalore, South Canara, Nov. 2 —

PERIODICITY OF RAINFALL

HiAvine been working at the above subject for the
last ten years, it occurs to me that a brief record
of my failures and successes will form an appropriate sup-

NATURE

_ 143

plement to the important article by Mr. Lockyer in
NATURE for Dec. 12.

Meteorologists have been hunting for a Saros through-
out the present century. Among them, perhaps, the
most devoted to the subject were Lieut. George Mac-
kenzie, author of “ The System of the Weather,” and
Luke Howard, whose “Cycle of Eighteen Years in the
Seasons of Britain” is a well-known work.

What little I have done in the subject is briefly told.

-Almost immediately after commencing the collection of

British rainfall statistics, which has now reached a com-
pleteness excelling that of any other country, my atten-
tion was naturally drawn to the question of periodicity.’
Kaowing, however, something of the care requisite to
obtain long series of observations strictly comparable, I
waited five years before printing anything bearing upon
it; in 1865, however, I prepared and published * the fol-
lowing table for fifty years, based upon the mean of
continuous records in different parts of Great Britain :-—

Tasre I.—Mean Depru oF RAIN AT TEN STATIONS, 1815—1864

Year. | Depth.|| Year. | Depth.'| Year. | Depth. Year. | Depth. | Year. | Depth.
1815 | 27°12 || 1825 | 26°57 |] 1835 | 28°56 1845 | 27°87 || 1855 | 23°37
1816 | 29°26 || 1826 | 23°76 |} 1836 | 33°49 || 1846 | 29°57 || 1856 | 25°89
1817 | 29°73 |] 1827 | 29°53 || 1837 | 24°54 || 1847 | 25°80 1857 | 25°70
|
|

1818 | 30°34 || 1828 | 33°02 || 1838 | 27°1x 1848 | 35°98 || 1858 | 22°79
1819 | 30°46 || 1829 | 28°70 || 1839 | 32°27 || 1849 | 28'5z || 1859 | 28°53
1820 | 24°53 || 1830 | 30°83 || 1840 | 24°67 |] 1850 | 26°35 || 1860 | 33°34

x82 | 29’92 || 1831 | 32°28 || 184x | 33°52 1851 | 26°70 || 186x | 26798
1822 | 26°63 |] 1832 | 26°20 || 1842 | 25°53 || 1852 | 35°53 || 1862 | 30°37
182 31°09 || 1833 | 20°72 || 1843 | 30°40 |] 1853 | 27°38 || 1863 | 26°93
1824 | 30°9t |] 1834 | 24°52 || 1844 | 23°72 || 1854 | 22°38 || 1864 | 22°rr

Mean,| 28°999 | 28'512 28'280 | 28°607 26°60r

I also called attention to two features in this table,
which strongly tend towards the confirmation of Mr,
Meldrum’s views, viz. :—(1) that the wettest years are 1836,
1841, 1848, 1852, and 1860; (2) that of these, all but two |
form a 12-year period, viz., 1836, 1848, 1860, to which we
may now add 1872+; (3) that the dry years were 1826,
1834, 1844, 1854, 1855, 1858, and 1864; (4) that of these,
all but three form a Ic-year period, viz,, 1834, 1844, 1854,
and 1864.

All this looked very satisfactory ; but, to make assurance
doubly sure, I determined to make up a longer period.
This I accordingly did; and the approximate fluctuation
of annual rainfall during one hundred and forty years,
viz., 1726 to 1865, will be found in the British Association
Report for 1866, page 286, e¢ seg. These values were
converted into ratios, and, subsequently, those for the
years 1866 to 1869 were added, and the table was given
in the following condensed form in an article on the
“Secular Variation of Rainfall in England since 1725,”

Taste II,—Ratio or THE Fart or Rain tn Eacu YEAR SINCE 1725 TO THE
MEAN FALL oF Sixty YEARS, ENDING WITH 1869

———— Oe
Vear.|1720 1730/1740 1750 1760, 1770 1780 1790 1800| 1819) 1820 | 1830 | 2840 lr850) 1860
° 88] 65 | 6) 70) 108 | 75, 86 g0| 100} 92|11r| 8&9 gt! 122
ee} 71| 58 108} 87; 79 79 105 96 | 98 109 | 108 | 128 | 88 go
ay 83) S| 82) 7x 11x | 13%, 117| gr | 97) 100 | 98 | ox | 138) 107
3 71| 60 | 87) 1x8) 113 | 93 86) 77 | 92\ 117 | 106 | r10 | ror) 8g
4 114} 89 76, 101) 329 | 96 x04) 85 | 92) 117 | go] 85| 74) 73
5 to2| 80 | 83 82) 12 77 84 75) 99) 96) 9g 7 | 88 10g
6 109] tor) 70 | 100, 77) 107) 127 83) 96 | 107) 77 | x18 | 108 93) 115
7 102} TIO} 95 | 93| 91; 89 | 96 106 94 | 100) 102) 87] go} 97 103
8 | 109] 70) 84! 128) 102 65 88 90/| 102) 120) go| 130} 80) roo
9 | 97 80) 59 |} Sr 86} 83 | 116 106 88 99) 102 | 107 | 98 | to2 104
a |e ed a ag = Ss
Mean) ... | 89’9 70°) 85°5 or 103'5 93°5, 965, BS gfiG) 103'8) I0I"4 ret 95'2| rors
' i

in “British Rainfall, 1870.” I was so disappointed at
the total disappearance of both the ten- and twelve-year
periods, that I cannot say that I have closely scrutinised

* Brit. Assoc. Report, 1865, p. 202.
+ See Times, Nov. 12 and Dec. 3, 1872.

he values herein given; and as I doubt if better data
could be obtained, I do not think that your space would
be wasted by reproducing it, and affording your readers
the opportunity of detecting any periodicity which may
exist.
I now turn to the verification of Mr. Meldrum’s conjec-
tured connection between sun-spot and rainfall periodicity.
But before giving the results J have obtained, I think it 1s

x ae By a

NATURE

worthy of consideration whether the total precipitation
over the surface of the globe can be expected to be in- oe
creased by increased cyclonic energy. Increased rainfall
surely means increased extraction of moisture fromthe
air, and that involves one of two facts—(1) increased eva- _
poration to supply the increased demand, or (2) rapid and
great dessication of the atmosphere. Without expressing
a dogmatic or fixed opinion, it certainly seems to me _

4

EUROPE. ASIA. AFRICA.
Swirzer- | PaLe-
Britisu Isies FRANCE. CAND: ITALY Sra INDIA ALGERIA.
£ :
o_ ¢ gu 2 i|8 Zz 2
Be al, el 2. |B} By | os ls. Pl eres : : 3 | ea z
SP) (Se) 85 | ee 8) se| a) fee, ef Ble 1 8) a | 218) Sees
a a FE )|Am | 52 | & Aa eat 2 a6 & | = “hr g FI 8 3 SE] 3o/ e
S oO) ors % | Sweet! as 5 | 35] 8 gy 3 a) £ 8 g 3 1 S35) gS ick
s 2 fo | ee] ee] om ES om) } aa = "s <q ° . g | 3 6/22 Bey
o 6 a ag Ee as 2 o ny oO | 8 z Z0 oR ore
4 |
rt |e ibs 42 |% |4
=
ol
Year. in. | in. | in. | in. in, | in. in. in. in. in. in. Tee ian, | im) in.) ae eo. in. ins | in, | in.
1832 19°3 23°5| 21°4) 18'9] 21°4) 2077| 39°8| 228} 39°3 438
x953 23°0) 34°2| 33°2 22'9| 23's) 29°8) 73'1| 260 48'4| 37°9
1834 19'6) 24°6| 20°4! 18] 18'2] 244 38 13770 35°! 4o"r
Totals 61°9 $2°3 75°0, 59°9| 63°0| 74.9171) 61'S 122°8 121°8
1836 27°71 26°8| 236 32°4| 28:0) 27'0} 980) 30'S 38 1 roro! d
1837 210 23°0|- 25°6 220) 24°6/ 207) 53°9| 2571 347) 884) =
1838 238 22°3| 26" 310} 241) 35'S] 93.9) 3r°4) 34°01 113 r
Totals 71°9) 72°1 75°3) 86'0) 76:7] 83:2 7455 87°73 106°8 301°
1843 37°7| 24°6) 38'4) 20°} 389) 51°4) 30°90! 24'r| 36°5| 349, at's 64'3] 30°21) 10°9 ‘o| 64'S] b
1844 27°7| 24°] 32"t| 35°3| 34°8, 52°| 20°8| 270] 34'4 66'1| 306 73°90] 4'2| 20°8 an 884 J as
1845 33°3| 22°4| 40°9) 29.7 32°1 68°6) 26:5] 26's] 35°7| 60'2| 38°3 631] 4t'2) 24°4 42 al 70'5| 43°90
Totals | 98°7) 71°9)111°4| 94°0) be be 87°2| 77°6)106 6161'2 go-2 _|2or'3ir12"5| 5671 123°9 223°7/163°7_
. -
1847 29'2| 17'8| 40'8| 17'7| 19'0 27'3| 39'2) 196) 27°3) 42'0, 316] 67°6| 72°4) 51°4| 18"4 40'8
1848 48'0} 30°2/ 37°8] 25°7| 30°0! 39°6, 25°4! 24°9] 33°5) 624 254) 482) 587] 40°5 371) \
1849 364] 23°7| 40’5| 20%) 236 41 9) 22°90 20°3 339) 57'5| 206] Go'o! 6575) 22°0 fi
| Totals \113°0) 71°7|119°1| 72°5) 72°6107°9) 67°5| 70'S) 94°7,161°9, 77°6'175°8196°6|113'9
:
1855 30°4 211 35°1| 312! 256 49'5| 28'9] x5"7| 40°2| 461) 32°31 G6r’o} 7o'4) 21's
1856 34°4| 22°2) 2774] 44°6) 31°9 4488) 274] 2570] 410) 44°t) 28°31 o4'o| G42] 287
1857 31°9| 2174) 31°90] 31°90) 268 40°6 310) 215) 211] 229) 30°2} 104'2| Gg'o] 3574
Totals | 96°7| 64°7| 94°4,1076, 84°3 1389) 87°3| 62 2)102°3.113°1 90°S 259°2 203°6] 85°6
1859 43°4) 25°90] 44°4| 31°O| 23'9, 28'0) 30°] 232) 2679 RS 35°3
1860 48'0) 32'0/ 38'0/ 29°3) 258} 40'0} 37"0| 29'4) 413) 56°3) 26°5
1861 312) 20°3| 41'2} 31 ) 26’0; 23°9| 25'9| 18°8) 30'7| 31°7 214
Totals \t22°6| 78°2|123°6) 91°3) 75°7| 91°9| 92°9| 71°4| 98°9|124°7) 83°2
1866 444) 30°1| 41°6
1867 371} 28°5| 3074
_ 1868 348) 25°2| 43°4|
Totals \116°3, 83°8)124"4)

more likely that the effect of cyclones is simply to alter
the locality of deposition, than its aggregate amount.
Therefore | should by no means hold the connection dis-
proved by series in which exactly opposite results obtain,
and I am not myself sanguine as to direct proof being
forthcoming

Ido not quite agree with my distinguished friend Mr.
Meldrum as to the “disturbing influence of continents.”
Their outlines and mountain ranges change not, and I am

* Want of space compels us to omit a similar column referring to the rain-
© fall of Australasia,

aware of no evidence to show that the annual fluctuation
of rainfall is disturbed by continents. Moreover, in
the case of some of the smaller islands, we have —
illustrations in support of the views of Becquerel and the —
Hon. G. P. Marsh which would completely mask any in-
fluence indicated by Mr. Meldrum’s statistics. I haveno _
doubt that Mr. Meldrum knows the facts respecting the

rainfall in the Isle of Ascension better than I do, andI
think that perhaps upon reflection he will be inclined to
slightly lessen his claims for the superiority of insular —
stations. '

FY

. Dec. 26, 1872]

_ Jamaware of the rather “heavy” nature of the accom-
panying table, but the matter is one of muchimportance and
_ entirely dependent on observed facts, therefore I think you

will consider it worthy of the spaceit will occupy. I have
condensed it ‘as much as possible, and have, to the best
of my knowledge, selected the most trustworthy and
longest continued records at present in my hands.

Having thus placed the data before your readers, it
seems undesirable to occupy space with remarks as to
my own opinion on the evidence; but I cannot help
thinking that it is quite clear that the question must not
rest where it is. The evidence is no doubt conflicting ;
but I cannot think that it is chance alone that has given
us (from Table I.):—

Maximum sunspot years 1837 1848 1860 1871?
Heavy rainfall re 1836 1848 1860 1872
Amount of rainfall 33°49 35°98 33°34 734
Per cent. above average 19 28 FS" -? 20
Minimum sunspot years 1833 1844 1856 1867
Small rainfall 1834 1844 1858 1868
~ Amount of rainfall 24°52 23°72 22°79 ?28°8
Per cent. below average 13 16 19 +2
Almost identical results are given by Table II.
G, J. SYMONS

MAX MULLER ON DARWIN'S PHILOSOPHY
OF LANGUAGE *

1 a lecture recently delivered in connection with the
Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, Prof.
Max Miiller addressed himself to the phase of Mr.
Darwin’s theory, which deals with the possibility
of the higher animals acquiring the faculty of ar-
ticulate speech. He first cleared the ground by some
general remarks on the previous phases of this old, old
controversy touching the origin and destiny of man,

_ referring to the contention between the Materialists and

the Idealists, and to the durable impression left upon

this controversy by Kant’s wonderful “ Criticism on Pure

Reason,” lamenting that Mr. Darwin and his followers

should disregard the important conclusions resulting from

previous controversies on this subject, and proceed as if
their theory of evolution were new. Materialism, he said,
is everywhere in the ascendant, while Idealism is almost
become a term of reproach. In this riddle of mind and
matter, the world is the theatre of a struggle for the
primacy of mind over matter. But when the evolutionists
contend that the development of the mind of man out of
the mind of an animal is a mere question of time, the

Professor felt inclined to treat the idea with impatience.

Animals must be animals so long as they lack the faculty

of abstracting general ideas. Darwin says: “I believe

that animals have descended from at most four or five
progenitors, and plants from an equal or lesser number,

Analogy would lead us one step further, namely, to the

belief that all animals and plants have descended from

some one prototype. All organic beings have descended
from some primordial form into which life was breathed by
the Creator.” Prof. Max Miiller inferred that these four
progenitors may be intended for the Radiata, Mollusca,
Articulata, and Vertebrata; and said that Mr. Darwin
holds firmly that man has been developed from some
lower animal, that all animals have been so developed
from the lowest to the highest order of organism, and
that there is nothing peculiar in man which cannot be
explained from germinal seeds or potential faculties
existing in lower animals. This question of the descent
of man may be called the controversy of the nineteenth

‘

f * The following extracts have been forwarded to us by the lecturer, and
are taken from the Liverpool Gazette.

NATURE

145,

century, and requires the whole knowledge of the century

to answer it adequately. The lecturer, confining him-
self to the evolution theory as it affects language, essayed
to show that between the language of animals and the
language of man there is zo natural bridge, and that to
account for human language such as we possess would
require a faculty of which no trace has ever been dis-
covered in lower animals. If, as Mr. Darwin begs us to
assume, there were a series of developments graduating
insensibly from ape to man, it would of course be im-
possible to fix a definite point where the ape ended and
the man began; but he asks us to assume that which
does not exist, and without evidence to support this, of
which there is none, the theory remains only a theory.
Indeed, said the Professor, whenever the distance between
two points in the chain of development seems too great,
we are told again and again that we must only imagine a
large number of intermitted beings representing grada-
tions insensibly sloping up or sloping down, in order to
remove all difficulty. So it isin the case between the
monkey and the man. This point was illustrated most
appositely by reference to the Hindoo notion that man
is descended from the spirit of the Creator, through a
series of links now extinct, the first descendant being
g-toths God and 1-roth man, the second being 8-1oths God
and 2-10ths man, and so on till man became Io-r1oths
man and ceased to be of the essence of the Great Spirit.
Mr, Darwin’s fallacy, he said, lurks in the very word
“ development,” for the admission of this insensible gra-
dation through a series of organised beings would elimi-
nate not only the difference between ape and man, but
likewise the difference between peat and coal, between
black and white, between high and low—in fact it would
do away with the possibility of all definite knowledge.
Mr. Darwin admits that articulate language is peculiar
to man, but contends that animals have, in a lower
stage of development, the identical faculties necessary
to the invention of articulate expressions. To this he
replied that no development of mental faculties has ever
enabled any animal to connect one single definite idea
with one single definite word. He gave various illustra-
tions of the essential difference between the expression
of emotions and the expression of ideas or abstract con-
ceptions, and argued at length as to the impossibility
of mere emotional signs and sounds developing into
articulate speech ; and he ridiculed the notion that the
materials of language being given, all the rest was amere
question of time, a natural gradation from the neigh of
the horse to the poetry of Goethe. Man and animals
possess emotional language in common, because man is
an animal ; but animals do not possess rational language,
because they are not man. This distinction between
emotional and rational language, so far from being
fanciful and artificial, is radical, as proved by various
evidence, especially by the testimony of pathology in
reference to certain brain diseases. Rational language
is to be traced back to roots, and every root is the sign of
a general conception or abstract idea of which the animal
mind is incapable. Mr. Darwin has said there are savage
languages which contain no abstract terms; but the
names for common objects, such as father, mother,
brother, &c., are abstract terms, and unless Mr. Darwin
is prepared to produce a language containing no such
names, his statement, said the lecturer, falls to the
ground as the result of a misconception of the real nature
of a general idea as distinguished from an emotion.
This phase of the controversy lies within the Professor's
peculiar domain, and he was able to entertain his audience
with technical illustrations that in ordinary hands must
have proved tedious, but in the hands of the most accom-
plished linguist of the day proved a source of wonder and
amusement to his hearers. He concluded as he had
begun, by maintaining that language is the true barrier
between man and beast,

«

146

CURIOUS FIREBALL

SiR J. C. COWELL has kindly sent the accompanying
sketch of a firevall which he saw fall “ one mile east
of Slough at 2.8 P.M. on November 30 last,” during the

, NATURE

Po a a

Se te ee A ne re va nes ye Coe

[Dec. 26, 1872

t and sharp thunderstorm which passed over North
vege and East Berks. “The flash fell about 150 yards
south of the G. W. Railway, and terminated with the ex-
plosion of a fireball, which seemed (it was daylight) about
12 ft. in diameter, The explosion was similar to that of a

} Fire-ball seen near Slough, Novy. 30.

heavy gun when fired, and the ball appeared to burst on
the flash reaching the ground, exactly like a well-timed
shell,”

RECENT DISCOVERIES IN THE GREAT PYRA-
MID OF EGYPT—ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
WEIGHT

By addition to the casing-stone of the Great Pyramid,
mentioned in NATURE of Nov. 28 as having recently
arrived in England, Mr. Dixon has also sent the following
articles found by him in newly-opened passages of the
Great Pyramid :— . r

1. A small double hook of bronze, with rivetted pins
for attaching it to a handle.

2. A small rectanzular rod of cedar, broken at one end,
and some fragments. ; 7

3. A granite ball, supposed to be an ancient weight.

Not the least curious and interesting part of Mr. Dixon’s
discovery is that of the passages or channels in which these
articles were found. The publications of Prof. Piazzi Smyth
and othershave made usacquainted with the position of the
King’s Chamber in the central part of the Great Pyramid,
with its coffer, and ascending passages leading from it ; as
well as with that of the Queen’s Chamber, with its walls
formed of the finest and whitest limestones, highly worked,
this chamber having but one entrance by the horizontal
passage leading to it, and its purpose proving such an
enigma to our Astronomer Royal for Scotland. In ex-
amining the walls of the Queen’s Chamber, with the view
of ascertaining whether there existed any air channels
communicating with it, similar to those of the King’s
Chamber, discovered by Colonel Howard Vyse in 1837,
Mr. Dixon found, by inserting a wire between the joints

of the masonry of the south wall, that there was a hollow
space behind this part of the south wall.

On drilling a hole through the upper part of the’second
stone from the floor, about midway between the east and
west walls, at five inches depth a cavity was found, and
the hole was then enlarged sufficiently to admit a man’s
head and arm with a lighted candle. A passage or
channel was thus disclosed, nearly nine inches by eight
in rectangular section, which had been carefully cut
through the stone to within five inches of the face of the
wall in the Queen’s Chamber, the end surface being accu-
rately squared and finished off. ‘This channel extended
in a horizontal direction for the length of seven feet, and
then ascended at an angle of about 32°. The sides of
the channel were found to be blackened with smoke, like
the walls of the Queen’s Chamber, and it was thought
that a slight draught was perceptible. The bronze hook
was discovered lying amongst a small heap of débris at
the bottom of the ascending channel.

This channel on the south side of the Queen’s Chamber
having been discovered, which appeared to be precisely
similar to the air channel of the King’s Chamber, and to
ascend at the same angle, an attempt was naturally made
to find a corresponding channel behind the wall on the
north side of the Queen’s Chamber, though no indication
of any such channel presented itself on the surface of the
wall. After using measuring rods to mark a spot exactly
opposite to the drilled hole on the south wall, a hole was
bored in the north wall, and a similar cavity was at once
found. By enlarging the opening as before, a second
channel was discovered of the same dimensions, and
which, after proceeding horizontally for seven feet, also
ascended at an angle of about 32°.

The surface of the stone in the channel on the north
side appeared to be as clean as when originally cut, and
the cement of the joints was perfectly white. There was

a ey

ending portion of the channel, which had apparently
en during the construction, and amongst this déris
were found the granite ball and the piece of wooden rod
and fragments. There was no indication of any draught
in this north channel, and indeed the untarnished

-

Fic. 1 —Bronze hook.

Lh

No trace of any outlet or opening to either channel
could be discovered on the exterior of the Pyramid.
Experiments were made by firing a pistol in the venti-
lating channel of the King’s Chamber, at the same time
holding a lighted candle at the opening of the channel in
the Queen’s Chamber, and wice versd, with the view of
ascertaining if there was any communication between
| them ; but no such connection could be perceived.
| - Some borings were also made in the stones of the east
and west walls of the Queen’s Chamber, but without
finding any cavity behind them.: The discovery of these
channels, which may be called: “ Dixon’s Channels,” in
no way tends as yet to solve the enigma of the Queen’s
Chamber, but rather to increase the difficulties of the
solution. The mystery of the interior of the Great
Pyramid remains still to be fathomed.

1. The bronze hook (Fig. 1) is covered with green
oxide of copper, but a small notch recently made in it
with a file shows it to be of bronze or gun metal. The
two pins have a large rivetted head on both sides, Its
length is 1°8 inch, and the distance from the two ex-
tremities of the hooks is two inches. With a wooden
handle attached by the two pins, it may have been used
as a tool of some kind. It is probably the most ancient
specimen of bronze now existing.

State of its walls, when opened, afforded the strongest |
proof that it was securely closed up. Hence the certain
antiquity of the granite ball and wooden rod,

2. The fragment of the cedar rod (Fig. 2) is 5 inches
in length, with a rectangular section of o°5 inch by o4
inch. Its sides are not accurately planed, and they bear
parallel lines like file marks, It may possibly have formed

art of a measure of length ; or it may have been part of
e handle of the bronze hook, the remaining fragments
showing that it must have been at least 3 inches longer.
Ti ae gre no lines or marks upon it indicating a measure
of length.
3. The gray granite ball (Fig. 3) has a mean diameter of
2} inches. Its form is that of an orange squeezed somewhat
out of its natural shape. Its greatest diameter is 2°88
Inches, and its least 2°65 inches. Its surface is uneven,
shows no mark of any tool, and it presents the ap-
arance of having been roughly rounded by being shaken |
a vessel with other stones. On the surface when found
were several white spots of lime or plaster. In this con-
ition it has been accurately weighed in the Standards
Jepartment, and its weight was found to be 8,324'97
r After this weighing, the lime or plaster was care-
lly removed and preserved, when the weight of the
ite ball was found to be 8,322"4 grains, equivalent to
539°282 metric grammes. :
it next remained for consideration how far the weight
Of this granite ball, which must have remained undis-
turbed in the Great Pryamid for not much less than
000 years (the date more generally ascribed to the
struction of the Great Pyramid, being 2200 B.c.) agrees
With any of the ancient Egyptian weights.
_ According to Dr. Arbuthnot, as quoted by Dr. Young
| his article “ Weights” in the Enclycopzedia Britannica,
’ the ancient Egyptian Mina weighed 8,236 English grains,
_ Or 532°683 grammes, thus differing not very much from
at of the granite ball. But later authorities do not
gree with this weight of the Egyptian Mina. According
them the ancient weight nearest to that of the ball is
the Babylonian Mina=544'5 grammes.
~ Prof. Miller, inhis account of the New Standard Pound,

Fig. 2.— Fragment of cedar rod.

(p. 755) has shown that in frequent instances, the Imperial
modern pound, or unit of weight, differs very little from,
and is therefore derived from, the ancient Egyptian

Fic, 3.—Gray granite ball.

Mina. It may therefore be interesting to pursue the

inquiry more closely.

Perhaps the fullest account of ancient ,weights and

8 NATURE

[Dec. 26, 1872.

measures is to be found in Don. V. Quiepo’s Zssaz sur les
systémes Meétrigues des Anciens Peuples (Paris, 1849)
which contains much curious and instructive information
on the subject, as well as reference to the best existing
authorities. .

It would appear that very little is known of the system
of Egyptian weights previous to the time of the Ptolemies,
the first of whom, Ptolemy Lagus, one of the Generals of
Alexander the Great, became King of Egypt, 323 B.C.
It is also stated that there is no certainty of the existence
of any Egyptian weights which were constructed much
before that period. But there is evidence that the
ancient system was continued by Ptolemy Lagus, when
he reformed the Egyptian weights and measures, although
it can hardly be imagined that the Egyptian unit of
weight remained unaltered for nearly twenty centuries.
The earliest systems of weights and measures not only in
Egypt, but in Assyria and Phoenicia, were based on the
same principle, that of the length of the cubit and of the
foot, which were to each other in the proportion of 3 to 2.
The Cubit was the unit of length measure; the measure
of a cubic foot of water ((Zefretes) was the unit of capacity
both for liquids and dry goods ; the Talent or the weight
of a cubic foot of water, was the larger unit of weight,
whilst the Mina, either the Soth, 60th, or 1ooth part of
the talent, and the Sicle or Shekel, either the goth, 6oth,
or r1ooth part of the Mina, were the smaller units of
weight.

The great Alexandrian Talent of Ptolemy Lagus has
been shown to have weighed 42°480 kilogrammes. The
60th part was the Mina = 708 grammes, the 5oth part of
which was the Didrachma or Shekel = 14 grammes.
This was also the weight of the Jewish Shekel of the
Sanctuary, often mentioned in the Old Testament.

Another Talent was also in use which was half the weight
of the Great Talent, its Mina weighed 354 grammes, and
the Drachma 3'54 grammes. Don. V. Quiepo mentions
the fact of there being now in the Louvre two ancient
Egyptian standard weights of roughly rounded stone,
weighing 352'16, and 176'75 grammes respectively, evi-
dently Mina and half-mina weights, as well as a simi-
larly rounded stone weight, marked with six lines of
hieroglyphics, found to weigh 414 grammes ; this is
thought to be an Attic Mina, known to be used in Egypt
in the time of the Ptolemies, the weight of which was 425
grammes. There are also in the ‘Louvre three ancient
Egyptian bronze weights, weighing respectively 3°57,
3'56, and 3°62 grammes, evidently drachma weights.

Let us now endeavour to ascertain the length of the
Cubit at the period of the construction of the great
Pyramid, and thence deduce the weight of the ancient
Egyptian Mina. In this computation it will be desirable
to make use of metric weight and measure, from their
great convenience in expressing the measure of length,
capacity, and weight, by the same significant figures.
The weight of water in relation to its bulk will thus be
taken as determined for the metric system, that is to say,
of pure water at its maximum density.

The latest and most satisfactory information on the
length of the Cubit during the construction of the Great
Pyramid, is to be met with in the Notes of Sir Henry
James, published in 1866, with reference to the_measure-
ments made in the previous year by Ordnance Surveyors.

Herodotus, writing 450 B.C., says that “the Egyptian
Cubit is equal to that of Samos » that is to say, to the
Greek Cubit.

Now the length of the Greek Cubit has been satisfac-
torily ascertained from a recent measurement of the
Hecatompedon of the Parthenon of Athens, being the
platform on which the columns stand,and the exact length
of 100 feet. The Greek foot has thus been found to be
equal to 12'16032 English inches, and, adding half its
length (6'08016 inches), shows the length of the Greek
cubit to be 18°2405 inches, This, therefore, was the length

of is Greek cubit 2,320 years ago, and, according to.
Herodotus, also the length of the Egyptian cubit.

But it has been considered by the greatest authorities
that the length of the Egyptian cubit at the period of the —
construction of the Great Pyramid may be ascertained —
from the dimensions of the Pyramid itself. ‘

Sir Isaac Newton, in his celebrated “ Dissertation on.
Cubits,” says that it is very probable that at first the
Measure of the Great Pyramid was determined by some —
round number of Egyptian cubits.

According to the measurement of the four sides of the
base of the Great Pyramid, as it must have stood when
complete with its casing stones, the mean length of each
side, as measured by Mr, Inglis in 1865 (Prof. Piazzi
Smyth’s “The Great Pyramid,” vol. ii. p. 134), and by
the Ordnance Surveyors in 1 868, was 9,120 English ae
or 760 feet.

But 9,120 inches are precisely equivalent to 500
Egyptian or Greek cubits of 18'2415 inches. )

From the measurements by Col. Vyse and Mr. Perring ©
of the second and third Pyramids it would also appear that ~
the same unit of length was used, the base of the second
pyramid being a square of 700 Egyptian feet, and that of
the third 350 Egyptian feet. Assuming, therefore, 500
ancient Egyptian cubits, or 750 Egyptian feet, to have
been equal to 760 English feet, the Egyptian foot equals
1'013 English foot, or 30°86 centimetres,

The Talent derived from the weight of water contained
in this Egyptian foot would be equal to 29°3892 kilo-
grammes, and the Mina, its fiftieth part, would Bee
587°'76 grammes. These weights agree very nearly with
those of the ancient Phcenician weights, used as com-
mercial weights in Egypt in the time of the Pharaohs—
viz., the Kikkar (equal to 29°360 kilogrammes) and the
Mina of the market (equal to 587'213 grammes), as showr
by Don V. Quiepo.

This common or profane cubit (equal to 18'2415 English
inches, or 46°319 centimetres) is to be distinguished from
the sacred cubit or cudit of Memphis, as it has been
termed by Sir Isaac Newton, equal to 20°628 inches, o rr
52°379 centimetres, which was derived by him from the
zntertor dimensions of the Pyramid, and more particular:
from the length and breadth of the King’s Chamber, ta
to be twenty and ten cubits respectively. The cubits cut
on the Nilometer at Cairo now measure 20°699 English
inches, or 52°559 centimetres, leaving no doubt of their
being intended to be cubits of Memphis.

The double or Royal cubit af Memphis would shuad
according to Isaac Newton, be 41'256 English inches,
An ancient Royal cubit found at Cairath, is now in the
British Museum, the length of which has been found to
be 41°398 inches, or 105"118 centimetres, being exactl}
double the Nilometer cubit. It is divided into fo
palms (of 2°956 inches, or 75 millimetres), and the pa
into four digits (of 0739 inches, or 18'7 millimetre
The length of its cubit differs only 0'071 inches from th
length as deduced by Sir Isaac Newton.

The Chaldzeo-Hebraic, or sacred Jewish Cubit was
taken by Sir Isaac Newton to be } longer than the cubit
of Memphis, and thus to be equal to 24°84 English inches,
This was the first result of his investigations, and it
agrees with an actual measurement by Mersennus of
24°83 inches. This cubit was probably divided into sit x
palms of 4:14 inches, ten of which would be very nearly
equal to a Royal Cubit of Memphis, in terms of which ie
interior dimensions of the Great Pyramid appear to have
been set out, as well as those of the second and th
Pyramids. :

It is very probable that the ancient cubit of Memphi is,
several of which have been found in buildings, was used
in the measurement of buildings, whilst the cubit of
18'24 inches was employed for measuring land only.

The Egyptian foot corresponding with the cob
Memphis, of 20'628 inches, derived from the Great Pyr

would be equal to 13°752 English inches, or 1146
, and to 34’919 centimetres, The weight of water
oniained in such a culit foot would be 42°578 kilo-
mmes, thus closely approximating to the weight of the
Alexandrian Talent in the time of the Ptolemies.
hese investigations show that it is quite possible that
granite ball now found may have been an ancient
gyptian Minaweight. It has been suggested that it may
e been used as a hammer, as it is known that at early
periods stone balls were so used ; and indeed, a part of the
surface of the bail looks as if some of the granite had been
mnocked away. But even if so used, it by no means fol-
lows that it was not originally intended as a weight, for
evidence was given before the Standard Commission by
our Local Inspectors of Weights and Measures that brass
Standard weights not unfrequently show evident marks
having been used as hammers. If a portion of the
ght had thus been knocked off, the difference between
present weight of 539'282 grammes, and the weight of
ancient Egyptian commercial Mina of 587 grammes,
ht be readily accounted for. Assuming the granite
have been really an Egyptian weight, it must be the
t ancient weight now existing.

Some words may be added, in conclusion, upon the
ssibility of ascertaining the unit of ancient Egyptian
ht from the internal dimensions of the coffer in the
g’s Chamber of the Great Pyramid, this coffer of red
ute having been often considered to be a standard
sure of capacity. Its internal dimensions were accu-
measured by Prof. Piazzi Smyth, and were deter-
ined as follows :—

Mean length

» breadth ey i aes
* »» depth 3434 »

he capacity of the coffer is thus equal to 71°532 cubic
ches, or 41°396 cubit feet, equivalent to 1171°129 cubic
metres, showing its contents of water to weigh
129 kilogrammes, equivalent to 2581°89 avoirdupois
nds ; or, if the English weight of the cubic foot of
r at its ordinary temperature, viz. 62°321]bs., be
n, the contents of the water would weigh 2579'840 lbs.
S result is in no way commensurable with the unit of
ht derived from either of the before-mentioned ancient
s of linear length, nor do the measurements of the
“r agree with any round number of such units of
h. The coffer thus fails to afford an indication to
unit of ancient Egyptian weight, according to this
of computation. H. W. C.

77°93 inches

THE DIATHERMANCY OF FLAME

be seen by the following exposition that the criti-
contained in the article written by W. Mattieu
illiams, published in NATURE, vol, vi. pp.-506, 507, is
on wrong assumptions.

he apparatus illustrated in NaTURY, vol. vi. p. 458,
constructed for the purpose of determining certain
ions connected with the passage of solar rays through
. Incidentally it admits of being employed for
aining the retardation suffered by artificial radiant
in passing through a series of flames. The table be-
published contains the result of a recent preliminary
ent instituted to show that the transparency of
me is too imperfect to warrant the important inference
hich Pére Secchi has drawn from Pére Provenzali’s ex-
ment with a series of small flames.

he assumption that the experiment published in
JRE was intended to settle the abstract question of
hermancy is wholly gratuitous. Probably there is no
within the range of experimental philosophy more
t, or requiring more time, patience, and delicate
ments for its solution, than the diathermancy of

sn

NATURE

Regarding the supposed imperfections of the apparatus
under consideration, the following statement will suffice :
—t. Mr. Williams asserts that the main pipe to which the
burners are applied is too small to afford a full supply of
gas. The internal diameter of this pipe is 0°75 ins. =
0'4417 square ins. Now, it has been long established
in practice that an opening of 0'0037 sq. ins. is
capable of discharging six cubic feet of gas per hour,
under ordinary pressure. Mr. Williams’s seventeen
burners consumed, agreeably to his statement, /ive cubic
feet of gas per hour. The sectional area of the

supply pipe, imagined to be too small, is therefore ee

= 119 times greater than the area of an opening capable
of discharging more gas in a given time than the quantity
consumed by the seventeen burners employed by the
author of “The Fuel of the Sun.” 2. The assumption
that the prolongation of the axis of the conical chamber
passes through “ much of the blue portion of the flame ”
is groundless. The distance of the gas-pipe from the
conical vessel, during the experiment, was so adjusted
that the prolongation of the axis of the latter passed
through the flames at the point of greatest intensity. But,
had this adjustment been neglected, the radiant heat,
acting on the thermometer, would not have suffered any
diminution, since the intensity transmitted depends solely
on the extent of the ignited portion of the flame. The
criticism regarding the position of the axis of the instru-
ment has therefore no bearing on the question at issue.
3. Mr. Williams’s disquisition relating to the retarding
influence of the vapour contained in flames, so far from
establishing the perfect diathermancy assumed by Pére
Secchi, proves, if we admit the soundness of the reason-
ing, that radiant heat does not pass freely through flames
when arranged in the manner adopted by Pére Proven-
zali. It will be well to observe that the plan of igniting
one flame at a time in order to ascertain the radiant power
transmitted by each was resorted to with a view of decid-
ing the question by a similar method to that adopted by
the Italian physicists.

The apparatus contrived by Mr. Williams for deter-
mining the diathermancy of flame, as described by him-
self, is exceedingly faulty, the temperature it records being
that produced by heat received from several sources. The
radiant heat transmitted to the bulb of the thermometer
by the flames, acting conjointly with the unknown degree
of heat imparted by the surrounding medium, it will be
evident that Mr. Williams’s device is worthless as an in-
dicator of radiant intensity. His thermometer, agreeably
to the published table, indicated 19° C. when exposed to a
single flame, and 53° C. when all the flames were ignited ;
but no information is afforded regarding the temperature
of the enclosure (an imperfectly polished vessel) nor was
the temperature of the air surrounding the bulb of the
thermometer ascertained during the experiment. It is
scarcely necessary to explain that in the absence of any
indication of the temperature of the air surrounding the
bulb of the thermometer, and the temperature of the vessel
which radiates towards the bulb, the radiant intensity
transmitted by the several flames cannot be determined.
Again, Mr. Williams’s table, as before stated, shows that
the thermometer indicated 19° C. under the effect of the
radiation of ove flame, but this temperature being the joint
result of heat radiated towards the bulb by the enclosure,
and heat communicated by convection of the air surround-
ing it, together with the radiant heat transmitted by the
flame, the temperature due to the radiation of the latter,
viz., the true radiant intensity, cannot be established.
Experimenters possessing necessary experience are aware
that a thermometer of proper form exposed to radiant
heat of moderate intensity requires from twenty to twenty-
five minutes before the mercurial column becomes so
nearly stationary that the indication may be safvly re-
corded ; hence, owing tothe close proximity 0 the flames,

150

a considerable augmentation of the temperature of the air
surrounding the bulb of the thermometer takes place
unless the enclosure, by means of a circulating external
cold medium, is maintained at a constant temperature.

Mr. Williams’ assumption that the intensity of a gas
flame is proportional to the quantity of gas consumed,
requires some consideration. Persons practically acquain-
ted with the subject of combustion are well aware of
the fact that the intensity of a flame depends on its
form and the manner of applying the oxygen, the quantity
of combustibles consumed being a subordinate element
in the determination of intensity. The annexed table ex-
hibits the result of an experiment just concluded, insti-
tuted to determine accurately how far the radiant
intensity transmitted by a single gas flame depends on
the quantity of gas consumed :—

ay

Bs >
a} S35 4 ci)
a8 ¢ 3 5 p28 a3 Pi
3 gre EEE Hee
Ex 525 2a2 2eS
24 ags oUs Hh
2 bo ©. a Aas 5
° at) a

&

Cubic feet, Deg. Fah Deg. Fah. Deg. Fah,
r'o 60'0 60°63 0°63
15 60°0 60°90 0'90
20 60'0 61°12 I'i2
2°5 60'0 61°30 1°30
3'0 60°0 61°47 1'47
35 60'0 61°61 161
4'0 60'0 61°74 1°74
4°55 60°0 61°84 1°84
50 60'0 61'93 1°93
Bon 60°0 62°01 2'O1
60 60°0 62°08 2°08
6°5 60'0 62°14 2°14
70 60°0 62°19 2°19

It will be seen at a glance, on examining our table,
that the radiant intensity transmitted to the thermometer
(placed at a considerable distance from the flame, in order
to reduce the subtended angle) is not proportional to the
quantity of gas consumed. For instance, the differential
temperature called forth by the consumption of 70 cubic
feet of gas per hour is 219, while a consumption of 3°5
cubic feet produces 1°'61, in place of the theoretical tem-
3:5. X 219

rei
pancy of 1°61 —1‘09 = 052, Again, the consumption
of 1'o cubic feet per hour, instead of developing a tempe-
tae GOA te
7

perature 1°09; thus showing a discre-

rature of = 031, we find that fully twice that

degree of heat is imparted to the thermometer. The
reason is obvious ; but it is not intended on this occasion
to enter into a discussion of the cause of the stated dis-
crepancy, the object being simply to show the irrelevancy
of Mr. Williams’ criticism concerning the absence of a
record of the quantity of gas consumed,

J. ERIcsson

NOTES

WE are very glad to read the strong and earnest terms in
which Mr. Gladstone on Saturday, at the distribution of prizes
at the Liverpool College, spoke of the enormous waste of power
shown in the administration of our English University endowments,
the amount of which is probably equal to that of the whole of the
endowments of continental universities taken together, whereas,
perhaps, in no other country is there less absolute work to show.

NATURE

eee

[Dee. 26, 1872
England contrasts most unfavourably in this matter with almost _ - i
every other country in Europe, including her northern and cer-
tainly much poorer sister, Scotland. We hope the words of the —
Prime Minister are an earnest that he will do his best to put an
end to this humiliating state of things.

In the Washington daily Nationa Republican newspaper of
Dec. 4, a report of Prof. Tyndall’s first lecture there is fc
given. The contrast between the first and last paragraphs is —
very transatlantic.—‘ Every available inch of room in Lincoln
Hall was occupied last evening by an audience distinguished for
its appreciation of learning andits enthusiasm in the presence of
a great teacher. Conspicuous in the vast assemblage were the —
faces of citizens eminent for their own advancement in science— _
citizens who haye won imperishable laurels in scaling that =
mountain on whose jeweled and glittering apex the feet of Prof, —
Tyndall rest. They were there, the guests of a brother, at an
intellectual feast so rich and rarethat the profoundest learning,
combined with the highest form of genius, was required to —
prepare and serve it. Prof. Henry, in a short introductory —
speech, presented Prof. Tyndall to the audience, The lecture
throughout was of absorbing interest, and all the experiments
and teachings were made so clear and simple that a child could
understand them. However, if the old gentleman who was
hugging and talking with a young girl all the time, will keep
away from the next lecture, those who were annoyed by him will
feel thankful.” The Washington Morning Chronicleof Dec. 6thus *
refers to the second lecture—‘‘ Another brilliant audience crowded _
Lincoln Hall to repletion last evening to listen to the distinguished
English scientist. Conspicuous in it were President Grant and
Miss Nellie, who evinced their interest by undivided attention to
the lecturer and his brilliant experiments, Secretary Robeson, —
Postmaster-General Creswell, and many other of our chief
dignitaries. Of course it is useless to protest against the dictates
of fashion, but we would like to suggest to the ladies that if they -
must wear the two-story hats now in vogue, they leave out the ~
tall feather for the benefit of those who have to sit behind
them.” rs ;

Tue Council of the Zoological Society have conferred the
silver medal of the Socigty on Mr. A. D. Bartlett, superintendent
of the Society’s gardens, ‘‘in recognition of his valuable services
to the Society, and in commemoration of the birth and successful _
rearing of the young hippopotamus, born on Noy. 5;” and the
bronze medal on Michael Prescot and Arthur Thompson, the

two keepers who had had charge of the hippopotamus during the _
late eventful period. ;

THE Chancellor of the Exchequer has declined to accede to a
representation from British horticulturists to increase the grant
of 6,000/, in aid of the British contribution to the Vienna Exhi-
bition of next year. ,

A sum of 5o00/. having [been placed at the disposal of the —
Council of the Society of Arts, for promoting, by means of
prizes or otherwise, economy in the use of coal for domestic pur-
poses, the Council have decided to offer prizes, including the
Society's gold medal and 50/., for each of the following objects :
—1. For a new and improved system of grate, suitable to exist-
ing chimneys as generally constructed, which shall with the least
amount of coal answer best for warming and ventilating a room.

2. For a new and improved system of grate suitable to existing

chimneys as generally constructed, which shall with the least
amount of coal best answer for cooking food, combined with
warming and ventilating the room. 3. For the best new and
improved system of apparatus which shall, by means of gas, most _
efficiently and economically warm and ventilate a room. 4, —
For the best new and improved system of apparatus which shall
by means of gas, be best adapted for cooking, combined with | y
warming and ventilating the room. 5. For any new and im-- =I

.

<4

| Dec. 26, 1872}
.: roved system or arrangements, not included in the foregoing,
which shall efficiently and economically meet domestic require-
ents,

‘HE Council of the Society of Arts have resolved to offer the
Society’s gold medal to that manufacturer who shall produce and
. to the London International Exhibition of 1873 the best
mens of steel, suitable for affording increased security in
the construction of locomotive and marine engines and boilers,

and for other engineering purposes.

_ Mr. James McNaz, Curator of the Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh, was unanimously elected President of the Botanical
Society at their last meeting, in room of Prof. Wyville Thomson.
The Society was founded in 1836, and Mr. McNab is one of the
original twenty-one members, only eight of whom are now alive.

_ Ar the suggestion of Mr. Carruthers, the time ot competition
for Lord Cathcart’s prize for the best essay on the cause of and
mode of preventing the potato disease, has been extended to
November 1, to give candidates an opportunity for pract ical re-

search on the subject.

_ Mr. EMMANUEL DeEurTscu has obtained six months’ leave of
absence on account of his health. He intends to spend the
time in Egypt.

_ WE hear that the proprietors of the Daily Telegraph have
placed an unlimited sum at the disposal of the Society of Biblical
-Archzeology, toenable Mr. Smith, the author of the paper on
the Chaldee account’of the Deluge, to proceed to the East for the
purpose of further investigation among the Assyrian ruins.

WE understand that Mr. Cleminchaw and Mr. Jongstaff, who
were placed in the first class in Natural Science at Oxford, and
who are mentioned as having been educated at Rugby School,
were students in Natural Science at King’s College, London.

_ Tue Berlin Geographical Society has opened subscriptions for
the contemplated Congo Expedition. Dr. Giissfield, the glacier
explorer, who is to be the leader of the enterprise, has himself
contributed nearly 1,000/., and there is every prospect that the
full amount necessary will be forthcoming.

Mr. Epwarp D. Cops, of the Academy of [Sciences, Phila
delphia, has just returned to that city from a geological expedi-
tion in the territories of Wyoming and Nevada, during which
he has explored a large area of Eocene and Cretaceous strata,
and made some fine discoveries. Remains of over fifty new
_ Vertebrata have been obtained, amongst which is anew Divo-
saurian allied to Cetiosaurus. Amongst the mammals are some

_ new Prodoscideans, which appear to have been furnished with
horns, and to form a transition towards the Perissodactyle Un-
gulates.

_ Mk, J. P. Gasstor, F.R.S., has presented to the Royal Insti-
_ tution a marble bust of the late Mrs. Somerville by M‘Donald,
_ the sculptor, of Rome.

_ WE learn from the British Medical Fournal that Dr. Apjobn
of Dublin has been appointed to the Przlectorship of Chemistry
_in Caius College, Cambridge.

_ Tue Birmingham and Midland Counties branch of the British
Medical Association has decided to take steps to form a micro-

_ scopical section.
THE Clifton College Scientific Society has just issued the third
_ part of its “Transactions,” wherein the officers speak fayour-
- ably, and apparently not without warrant, of the present position
of the Society, The list of members is always full and the at
_ tendance at the meetings most satisfactory. The amount of
b practical work done by the members is still a weak point, but

'

b

NATURE

151

signs of improvement are not wanting. Among the papers pub-
lished in this volume the two which appear to show the largest
amount of original observation are both geological—‘‘ Aust
Cliff,” and ‘* The Oolite at Minchinhampton,” both by H. Wills,
and both illustrated by sections. The museum of the college has
acquired many valuable additions during the past year, Alto-
gether, we cannot doubt that the Society is doing a most useful
work in fostering a taste for natural science.

THE last part of the Proceedings of the Bath Natural History
and Antiquarian Field Club is more concerned with the latter
than the former portion of their programme, There are, how-
eyer, one or two short papers on subjects connected with
Natural Science, and an interesting sketch of the biography of
early geologists connected with the neighbourhood of Bath, by
Mr. W. S. Mitchell. A summary of the Proceedings of the
Club for the year 1871-72 is appended, together with the Address
of the President, the Rev. Leonard Blomefield (late Jenyns) after
the anniversary dinner. 7

WE have before us the eleventh Annual Report of the Lower
Mosely Street (Manchester) Schools Natural History Society.
The meetings of the society have been held weekly throughout
the year. The number of communications to the Society during
the year in the form of lectures and papers has been twenty-
three, on a great variety of subjects in the various branches of
natural science. All of them were well illustrated, some by
means of the microscope, others by diagrams and objects com-
bined. We cannot too highly commend the labours of a society
doing its work in this quiet and unobtrusive way in the midst of
one of our most crowded cities.

WE have received from the Hydrographer to the Admiralty
a series of Physical Charts of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian
Oceans,

Tue scheme for establishing a Technical College in Glasgow is
now assuming a somewhat tangible shape. A subscription list
has just been issued, in which we find that thirty subscribers have
among themselves contributed no less than 11,0507. Subscrip-
tions of 1,000/. each have been given by the firm of Robert N apier
and Sons, the eminent shipbuilders and engineers ; Mr. W. Mon-
gomerie Neilson, of the Hyde Park locomotive works, and son of
the inventor of the hot-blast ; and Mr, John Tennant, the head
of one of the oldest and largest chemical firms in the world. Of
the thirty subscribers, twenty-two are members of the general
Committee. It is proposed, when 20,000/. is subscribed, to begin
the actual organisation of the Technical College, establishing, in
the first instance, chairs for—(1) naval architecture and marine
mechanical engineering ; (2) the theory and practice of weaving ;
it ( 3) the theory and practice of dyeing and printing on textile
abrics.

WE learn from the San Francisco Morning Bulletin that there
is in course of construction at Woodward’s Gardens a salt-water
aquarium of modest dimensions, yet designed to be complete in
all its parts. A year ago the proprietor of the Gardens sent
Charles Schumann to Europe to examine the sea aquaria of
Paris and other cities. After much time spent in investigation,
Mr. Schumann determined to draw his plans on the model of the
Berlin aquaria, though on a smaller scale. The building now
in progress is the result. The aquarium will be mainly under
the surface of the ground, in order to secure an even temperature.
There are fifteen tanks in all, one of which is for freshwater
specimens. The tanks vary in size from 300 to 1,000 gal.
lons capacity, the largest containing eight thousand pounds
of water. Several of the tanks are fitted up with sea-worn rocks
obtained at the cliff-house, and some at Santa Cruz. There will
be room for marine plants, shells, corals, &c. It is the intention
to obtain deep-sea animals and other rare denizens of the deep,
with a live shark or two, a devil fish, &c,

152

s i
Dr. NATHANIEL Haycrorr has reprinted his} inaugural ad-

dress, delivered before the Leicester Literary and Philosophical
Society, on the Limits of Scientific Inqiiry; and we find also
the abstract of a paper read at the last meetiag of the Natural
Science Section of the Sheffield Philosophical Society by the
President, Dr. Hime, on Phenomena and Forces, both rather
extensive subjects for an hour’s discourse.

THE following is from the Fournal of the Society of Telegraph
Engineers :—“ Thanks to the noble exertions of the illustrious
president of the Italian Geographical Society, the idea of an
Arctic expedition under the Italian flag is gradually working
its way into their minds. Funds have been offered, and the
prospect is brightening that the old voyage of the Zev/, though
the’ first, will not be the last of the Italian Arctic expeditions.”
The same journal says that Signor Guido Cora announces his
intention of editing an Italian geographical periodical, to be
entitled A‘smos, the first number of which is to appear on
January 1, 1873.

Tue following is from the School Board Chronicle :—‘* New
York has 101,883 scholars to rather over a million of inhabi-
tants ; these children receive their instruction from 2,765 mas-
ters (i.c., on2 teacher to every thirty-six pupils) ; the educa tional
budget amounts to very nearly 700,000/., or 72. for*each child.
In England, in one year, 35,999 men and 49,522 women were
found uaable to sign the marriage register.”

Numerous seals, very rare in these waters, are making their
appearance at the mouth of Holy Loch andin Loch Long, in the
Frith of Clyde.

WE learn from the American Agriculturalis: that it has been
finally decided to locate the arboretum, for which a large bequest
was made to the Harvard University by Mr. Arnold, of New
Bedford, on a farm, about ten miles south of Boston, where the
School of Agriculture already exists. The details of the work
are to be under the immediate control of Prof. Sargent, who is
eminently well qualified for it. He proposes to lay out the

ground (137 acres of well-diversified land) as a natural park,
with drives and walks tastefully arranged, and leading from one
family to another, in scientific order, of all the trees and shrubs
hardy in that climate.

A ‘*CENTENNIAL Commission” has been appointed by the
American Congress to mature a scheme for the celebration of
the nation’s hundredth anniversary in 1876, by holding an
International Exposition in Philadelphia, which shall be ‘‘the
graadest the world has ever seen.” The sum required to con-
duct it properly is estimated at $10,000,000, and each State is
called upon to subscribe its share of the amount as definitely
fixed by the Commission. At a recent public meeting in Phila-
delphia $100,000 worth of stock was taken in fifteen minutes.

Tue American Palestine Exploration Society, of which we
have already made mention in our columas, is about sending off
an expedition for the purpose of carrying out the objects of that
body. Acc ding to the /wdependent, it is to be under the direc-
tion of Lieut. E. Steever, U.S.A., who will have special charge
of the topographical survey, and of the preparation of a reliable
map. He will be accompanied by Prof. John A. Payne, late of
Robert Coliege, Constantinople, who will superintend the
archeological department, and make what collections he can in
natural history aad geology; but, being himself especially a
botanist, he will devote his priacipal attention to that branch.
Mr. Van Dyke and other gentlemen will probably accompany
the party to the field, and among them will be an artist of con-
siderable reputation. This labour is one, of course, that will
require some time for its completion ; and, according to the
Independent, atleast six years will be necessary to accomplish
its object thoroughly, even allowing for the assistance of a British
society (organised for a similar purpose) in doing its share of the
work,

NATURE

THE DIOSMOTIC PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDS*

i
UTROCHET, in his researches on osmose, examined the
properties of certain organic non-crystallisable substances —
(later named colloids by Graham). mas
Comparing the colloids gelatin gum-arabic, and albimen
(from hens’ eggs) with cane sugar, he thus expressed numerically —
the endosmotic power of these substances :—Gelatin, 3 ; gum-
arabic, 5°17; sugar, 11; albumen, 12, Thus the endosmotic
force attributed to the colloids was cunsiderable, in the case of
albumen exceeding that of sugar. ;
These results must, however, be considered in great measuce
fallacious, as,|while the specific gravities of the solutions vee
(101) their degrees of concentration were very differeat. Th
solutions of gelatin and albumen contained 4'1 per cent. of these —
substances, while the sugar solution scarcely contained 2°5 per
cent. of sugar. On this ground the sugar must be ranked above —
the colloids. ‘
There is another circumstance to be considered. Dutrochet —
used the colloids in their natural state (common gum-arabic and _
albumen direct from the egg), and in this form they contain over
3 per cent. of mineral substances, chiefly salts of lime and potash.
Since Graham pointed out the great difference between crystal-
loids and colloids, as regards diffusion in water and passage —
through a membrane, it was to be expected that the presence of —
crystalloids in the colloidal substance would considerably mask the —
diosmotic properties ofthe latter. In the writer’s experiments he
employed colloids freed from mineral substances, comparing their —
diosmotic properties with those of the same substances in the
natural state. Contrary to the generally received opinion that —
these substances havea high endosmotic power, he found that this
is not the case, though certain variations are met with, which ’
will presently be explained. y
Solutions of pure colloids showed, when of moderate concen- —
tration, a very weak endosmose. The properti-s of the mem-
brane, however, distinctly affect the resulis. Animal bladder, —
parchment, and artificial cellulose, are very near one another in
this respect. With the first two the concentration of aa albumen
or arabin solution might be ra’sed to about 10 per cent. without
any perceptible increase of volume in the solution, at the expense
of the pure water. Tannin gave a slight endosmose; a 10 per
cent. solution in 24 hours received ro cc. water (the membrane ~
being parchment). The degree of concentration now given may —
be considered about the limit within which, for these substances, Em,
and with the membranes named, no addition of water Le
place. With the artificial cellulose, the limit seems to be some- —
what lower, for a 9 per cent. arabin solution gave (with it) a per- —
ceptible, though very weak endosmose (about 045 cc) in 24 _
hours, and a tannin solution 7 per cent. increased in yolum
o’S cc. in the same time. 4 ce
On comparing with colloids in the impure state, it was found —
that while a 10 per cent. arabin solution received hardly any
water through the parchment, (about 0°5 cc.), an equally concen- _
trated solution of common gum-arabic increased in volume, in
the same circumstances, about 2°55 cc. Kk
When a pyroxilin membrane was used with the pure colloids,
the endosmotic action was considerably greater than that which —
took place in the other membranes. Thus with pyroxilin a 10
per cent. solution of albumen increased 9 o cc. in volume, and an
equally concentrated arabin solution 14 0 cc. ; while, inthe same —
time, when the membrane was animal bladder or parchment, the
endosmose was hardly perceptible (0'5 cc.). This shows that the —
weak endosmotic action of colloids, when particular membranes
are used, is not to be attributed to their weak attraction for
water, but rather to the properties of the membrane. And in —
the above case it appears that the different behaviour of the
membranes corresponds to their different absorptivity for water. _
Especially does this appear from the fact that a very different
endosmose takes place with one and the same membrane, accord-
ing as it is employed as pyroxilin, or after its reduction as cellu-
lose (by a process described in a previous part of the paper),
Thus a 7 per cent. arabin solution received, through a pyroxilin
membrane, 5'3 cc. water; when the membrane was reduced, an
equally concentrated solution showed no endosmose, and a 9 per
cent. solution of the same substance only received about o45 cc.
water. of
For substances largely soluble in water, the attraction of their
particles to water may have wide limits of variation, according

ae On

* Abstract of

part of apaper in “Poggendorff’s Annalen,” by J.
Baranetzky, oan

d, which can only receive limited quantities of water, as ¢.7.
uulo-e, are, when brought into contact with water, soon saturated,
and have thereafter an unvarying attraction for water. When,
refere, an arabin or albumen solution of certain concentration
eives no water through the animal bladder or parchment, this
ily shows that with the concentration given, these colloids have
ss attraction for water than the membranes have. If, how-
eyer, the concentration is raised above a certain limit, the attrac-
' tion of the membrane for water is overcome, and endosmose
occurs. This limit, the same membrane being used for different
colloids, must evidently depend on the attraction of these for
water. My experiments show that in equally concentrated solu-
_ tions tannin gives the greatest endosmotic action; then follows
—arnbin, and next albumen, an order agreeing with the stability of
these substances in their aqueous solutions, which may in general
e taken as a measure of their affinity for water. From mem-
branes like pyroxilin, in which the water is held with little force,
_ it can be withdrawn by weak colloid solutions; hence a much
" greater endosmotic effect is seen in this case.
In further support of the explanation now given, we have the
fact that with membranous substances chemically the same the
oid solutions show greater endosmotic force the less dense
1e membrane is, 7.c. the wider its water-filled interstices are. In-
d the attraction of water to the substance of the membrane
must diminsh greatly with the distance.
__ The particles of water in the central parts of the interstices will
be less attracted the wider these interstices. This may be illus-
trated by using two pyroxilin membranes of different densities,
Thus, employing a 7 per cent. arabin solution, it was found that
in 24 hours 5*3.cc. water passed through the denser membrane,
thereas 9°5 cc. passed through the other. Similarly with
two pieces of parchment from different manufacturers, a 10 per
cent. arabin solution gave in one case 0°5 cc., and the other
*6 cc. endosmose, and after expanding in all directions, the more
compact of the two, an equally concentrated arabin solution,
save, with it, 3°5 cc. endosmose.
__ If we consider the case of the impure colloids, it is not easy to
‘see in what way the presence of so small a quantity of crystalloid
substance increases the endosmotic action so greatly; for the same
J quantity of crystalloid, taken by itself, does not give the weakest
perceptible endosmose. In the converse case, addition of a
‘small quantity of colloid toa crystalloid solution, the endosmose
of the latter is increased also.
_ Fick observed that endosmotic equivalents must be higher the
re mobile the particles of the salt solution employed. The
sence of colloids in the solutions makes the latter denser ;
en, however, a crystalline substance is dissolved in a dense
- fluid, its particles must be less mobile than in solution with pure
water; and this is the most probable explanation of the action of
colloids in exalting the endosmotic force of crystalloid sub-
_ stances.
It is, however, found that when a colloid solution is submitted
to diosmose of water containing even a small quantity of a crys-
talline salt, instead of to pure water, the endosmose of the colloid
is considerably diminished.
The action of the crystalloid in this case cannot be attributed to
in endosmotic current originated by it ; none of the salt solu-
ons that were employed showed, in direct experiment with
water, the slightest increase of volume at the cost of the water.
_ The phenomenon is one requiring further experiment in order to
| oe at its explanation. A. B. M.

e

i
ik
fa
K
\

cm

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. to,
1872.—This number commences with a paper by Dr. Herwig on
the expansion relations of superheated vapours. In his experi-
ments he used a U-tube, one limb of which contained the vapour
and the other dry air, these being separated by a little mercury,
and the instrument being heated in a bath. The general result
arrived at is that, at certain low pressures, with constant volume,
superheated vapour has a smaller coefficient of expansion than
that of perfect gases (viz. 0°003663). The numerical results for
sulphide of carbon, chloroform, and alcohol, are tabulated.—J.
Baranetzky communicates a long and interesting paper of re-
‘searches in diosmosis.* Sketching the history of the subject, he
points out several defects in previous investigations. Nearly all

* See ante, p. 152.

biel)

the experimenters from Vierodt’s time have sought to determine
the endosmotic equivalents of salts, and the results are very dis-
cordant. The diosmotic properties of colloids have been imper-
fectly studied and misconceived. The membranes employed
have mostly been animal, and the influence of the nature of the
membrane is a question which, M. Baranetsky thinks, has haidJy
been touched. Having directed his experiments to some of these
points, he shows the influence of various kinds of membrane
(parchment, bladder, artificial cellulose, pyroxilin), and various
thicknesses of membrane on the endosmose of various salts. As
to the colloids, he found that, when of moderate concentration
(say 10 p. c.) and freed from mineral substances, they showed
little or no endosmose ; and for the same degree of concentra-
tion, pyroxilin and cellulose gave more endosmose than animal
membranes. The writer further discusses the influence of adhe-
sion, and concludes by applying his observations to animal and
plant life—G. Vom Rath gives his concluding mineralogical
paper, treating chiefly of the chemical composition of some
Vesuvian products ; and this is followed by an account of some
studies in micro-mineralogy (last of a series also) by Dr. V.
Lasaulx.— In a note by EI. F. Weber, on the specific heat of
carbon. the discrepancy of various observations is attributed to
the fact that the specific heat (in this case) varies with the tem-
perature, being tripled, in the case of the diamond, between 0°
and 200°.

THE Zens for July 1872, contains—“ Algze Rhodiaces, a list of
Rhode Island Algze,” by Stephen T. Olney, including the Desmi-
diaceze and Diatomaceze.—‘‘ The Cell,” by J. N. Danforth, M.D.,
commences an examination of the theories of cell development. —
“ The Flora of Chicago and its vicinity,” hy H. H. Babcock, is
continued from the previous numbers.—‘‘ The Markings of
the Test Podura Scale,” by F. W. S. Arnold, M.D,,
accompanied by an Albert-type plate from negatives produced
by the author. It contributes very little to the controversy,
‘* A Conspectus of the Families and Genera of the Diatomacez,”
by Prof. H. L. Smith, is continued, with an ‘‘ Index to Synonym
Register.”—‘‘ Microscopical Memoranda for the use of Practi-
tioners of Medicine,” by Dr. J. J. Woodward, is also continued
from the previous number.—‘‘ Fungi in Cows’ Milk,” by Prof.
James Law. In this case the fungi are presumed to have
originated from impure water supplied to the herd.—‘‘ Hepa-
tica,” by H. H. Babcock, and ‘*Puccinea on Paper,” by
Thomas Taylor, are short papers ; as are also those by F. W. S.
Arnold, on ‘‘ Hematoxylin as a staining material for animal
tissues ;” and A, Prazmowski, on ‘‘ Draw-tubes v. deep eye-
Pieces.”

In No. 1 of the Proceedings of the Swedish Academy of Sciences
for the present year (Ofversigt af Kongl, Vetenskaps Akademiens
Forhandlingar, Arg. 29, No.1) M. A. E. Férnebohm givesa geog-
nosticsection of the central chain of Scandinavia between Ostersund
on the eastand Levanger on the west. The section includes primi-
tive Cambrian and Silurian rocks, and the author remarks that
the most striking point in it is, that fossiliferous Silurian rocks
are covered in the Areskuta by two great schistose non-fossilife-
rous formations resembling the typical rocks of what he calls the
primitive formation (gneiss, hornblende, schists, &c.). A short
summary in French is appended to this paper, which is illustrated
with woodcuts and a folding plate.—M. E. Edlund communicates
a continuation of his attempt to explain the phenomena of elec-
tricity by means of the luminiferous ether.—From M. O. J.
Fahrceus we have a long series of Latin descriptions of Caffrarian
Longicorn Coleoptera collected between the years 1838 and 1845
by J. A., Wahlberg. The species here described (58 in number)
belong to the divisions Prionzde and Cerambycide, and include the
types of several new genera.—M. H. Gyldén gives formule and
tables for the calculation of the distance at which lighthouses
may be visible.-—-M. Hjalmar Stolpe communicates the results of
natural history and archzeological investigations in Bjérko and
Malaren.—The tendency of the trichomata of plants to changes
of form is the subject of a paper by M. P. G. E. Theorin, in
which the author describes and figures certain forms of those
organs occurring in the common yellow water-lily.—M. Gustaf
Eisen notices some Arctic oligochzetous annelides, including
three species of Zumbricus and a Rhynchelmis from Newfound-
land, and a Lumbriculus from Greenland. Lumébricus puter
(Hoffm.) is briefly described, and Luchytraus Pagenstecheri
(Ratzel) from Greenland, in more detail, for comparison with a
new species, Z. Radze/i, from the northern parts of Norway.
Figures are given of the characteristic parts of the last two
species.

154

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDON

Mathematical Society, Dec. 12.—Dr. Hirst, F.R.S., pre-
sident , in the chair, Prof Cayley read a paper ‘‘On the
mechanical description of certain quartic curves by a modi-
fied oval chuck,’’ and exhibited the action of the instru-
ment. Mr. S. Roberts spoke on the subject of the paper.
—Prof. Cayley then gave an account of his communication
‘On geodesic lines, especially those of a hyperboloid.”—
Mr. J. J. Walker made a few remarks on the breaking up of
the anharmonic Ratio Sextic—Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher next gave
a description, and worked out part, of his paper ‘‘On a de-
duction from Von Stavdt’s property of Bernoulli’s numbers.” —
Prof. Clifford read a paper, ‘‘ Geometry on an Ellipsoid.”

Linnean Society, Dec. 5.—Mr. G, Bentham, president, in
the chair.—On the skeleton of the Apferyx, by Thos. Allis.—On
new and rare British Spiders, by the Rev. O. P. Cambridge.

Dec. 19.—Mr. W. G. Smith exhibited a fine specimen of
Batarrea phalloides (one of four specimens found in the grounds
of the Earl of Egmont, near Epsom), and read\a brief paper
thereon, in which he commented on the great rarity of the plant
and the peculiarity of its form. Mr, Smith gave some details of
its structure, especially as regards its possession of so-called
spiral vessels, and referred to its position among other
fungi, especially the genera Clathrus, Phallus, Cynophallus,
and Geaster, a complete set of drawings of these genera,
showing every stage of growth, being exhibited to the
meeting. —On the development of the flowers of Welwit-
schia mirabilis, by W. R. M‘Nab. These investigations
were made ona beautiful series of flowers of both sexes forwarded
by Dr. Hooker, whose previous paper was based on the examina-
tion only of immature specimens. Prof. M‘Nab’s conclusions
differed in some respects from those of Dr. Hooker, He believes
the male and female flowers to be constructed on a different plan.
In the female flower the ovule is truly naked, what has been
taken by some to be the carpel being in reality the integument
of the ovule. In the male flower, on the other hand, the (rudi-
mentary) ovule has a true carpellary coating. In the male
flowers, therefore, Melwitschia shows a close approximation to
Angiosperms. Several other points in the structure and develop-
ment of this remarkable plant were exhaustively gone into.—On
the General Principles of Plant Construction, by Dr. M, T.
Masters, F.R.S. The chief objects of this suggestive paper were
to attempt to introduce greater exactness into botanical termino-
logy, the definition of parts and organs according to their mor-
phological rather than their external significance, and to framea
classification of the facts of morphology in accordance with our
present knowledge of the laws of development.

Geologists’ Association, Dec, 6.—The Rev. T. Wiltshire,
M.A., president, in the chair.—‘‘ On coal seams in the Permian at
Ifton, Shrpshire, with remarks on the supposed glacial climate
of the Permian period,” by D, C. Davies, F.G.S. The author
showed the existence of three well-defined and workable seams
of coal above the red sandstones and marls which are generally
held to form the base of the Permian strata. He then proceeded
to show the identity of these red beds with similar beds overlying
the coal throughout several of the Midland Counties, and
with the red sandstones of the North of England, and
also that the overlying sandstones, shales, and coals were
the equivalent of the magnesian limestones and calcareous
conglomerates which occupy the same horizon in widely
distant ‘places. After referring to the former probable exten-
sion of these beds over a large area, the author pointed out
that in the neighbourhood described the gap or break which
is usually supposed to occur between the Coal Measures and the
Permian was partly, if not quite, bridged over. He also noticed
how the different geological formations were dovetailed into each
other, the old passing upward into the new, and not divided by
sharp, well-defined lines. From the identity of the age of these
coal seams with the Permian conglomerate of Alberbury only
fifteen miles distant, he questioned the probability of} that con-
glomerate being of glacial origin, since two climates so dissimilar
as a glacial one andthatin which a carboniferous flora flourished
could not exist together within so limited an area, In conclusion,
Mr. Davies pointed out the necessity for alterations of the
boundaries of the Permian and the coal measures in any future
geological maps of the district.—Note “On a well section at
Finchley,” by Caleb Evans, F.G.S.

NATURE

‘president, in the chair.—A paper was read on landscape photo- —

pihekias

oS [Dec. 26, 1 ry

Entomological Society, Dec. 2.—Prof. Westwood, F.LS.,
president, in the chair.—Prof. Westwood exhibited a drawing of
a variety of Pyramets cardui captured many years since cn ate
gate sands.—Mr. Bond exhibited several curious varieties of
British Lepidoptera, including a female Zycaa egon, the wings
of which on one side were coloured as in the male, Acronycla
megacephala, &c. He also exhibited Anomalon fasciatum, a
species of Zchneumonide new to Britain, bred by Mr. Mitford —
from the larvze of a supposed variety of Lasiocampa trifolit.—
Mr. F. Smith, in answer to a question put to him by Major
Mann, as to whether queen-bees sting, stated that he had never
been stung by one, and Prof. Westwood said that was also his
experience.—Mr.{Champion exhibited 7iyamis distinguenda Rye,
and Lithocaris picea Kraatz, two species of beetles recently |
tected in Britain. Mr. Miiller read notes on the manner in w!
the ravages of a species of Mematus or Salix cinerea are checked
by Picromerus bidens L.—Mr. Dunning read supplementary
notes on the genus Acentyopus.—Mr. Baly sent the first portion
ofacatalogue of the phytophagous Coleoptera of Japan, partly
drawn up from materials collected by Mr. George Lewis.—Mr,
F. Bates communicated descriptions of new species of Zeme-
brionidz.—Mr.R, Trimen sent descriptions of new South African
butterflies.

Photographic Society, Dec. 10.—James Glaisher, F.R.S.

graphy by F. C. Earl, in which that gentleman detailed his —
method of photographing large landscapes. Lenses of different
focal length, but covering the same extent of field, were em-
ployed in the camera, so that foreground, middle distance, or
horizon might be rendered more or less prominent at will.—Mr.
J. R. Johnson read a paper on a new actinometer recently in-
vented by Mr. Burton, the translucent films of which were
formed by bichromate films, coloured with pure Indian-ink ; the
scales were arranged in true geometrical progression.—Mr. George
Croughton read a paper on mezzotint effects.

Royal Microscopical Society, Dec. 4.—W. Kitchen Parker,
F.R.S., president, in the chair. A new form of micro-spectto-
scope was described by Edward Gayer, Surgeon of H.M.
Indian Army. Mr. Gayer claims for his invention the following
advantages, more light, more dispersive powers, and the possi-
bility of using it even with high powers.—Dr. Royston Figot
drew attention to a new method of using the micrometer,—The
President read a paper ‘‘ On the Histology and Growth of the
Skull of the Tit and Sparrow Hawk.” as

EDINBURGH viet
Royal Physical Society, Nov. 27.~ Mr. Charles Williams
Peach, one of the presidents of the society, delivered an open-
ing address, his subject being ‘‘ The Fossil Flora of the Old Red
Sandstone of the North of Scotland.” The history of the Old
Red sandstone, he said, whether of its rocks, plants, or fishes,
was still to be written. Slowly light was breaking in upon the
organisms found in the formation ; but much inquiry and ch
required yet to be made before a full catalogue of these could be
drawn up. Not long ago it was believed that the only organisms
to be found in the Old Red sandstone were of a marine cha-
racter, such as fucoids, but he ventured to say that the flora of —
the formation was not so poor as was supposed. He had inyes-
tigated the Old Red, particularly in the north of Scotland, an
found many land plants. They were rarely to be found in beds _
of limestone, seldom or never in the pavement beds of com-
merce, but were far from rare in the coarse beds that underlie th
last-named. He believed that if these coarse beds were exposed —
a perfect forest of plants would be discovered. The state of
knowledge of the fosilliferous character of the Old Red sand-
stone stood thus :—In 1844 land plants were z7/, fucoids abun-
dant ; 1849, of land plants, one genus and one species; fucoids
as many as you please; 1855, five genera of land plants and five
species ; fucoids abundant; 1872, thirteen genera and twenty-
three species of land plants ; sea-weeds wii, ;

Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club, Nov. 29.—Mr, R.
Scott-Skirving, president, in the chair.—The secretary, Mr, J.
D. Brown, read the annual report, which stated that
during the year the club had had twenty-three excursions,
The secretary of the Largo} Field Society offered a prize—
of fifty mounted specimens of Afusci Fifenses, to be com-_
peted for by ladies present at the club’s excursions to _
Kilconquhar and Elie. This prize was gained by Miss
Masson. ‘Two additional prizes were offered by two members _
of the club, to be competed for by the ladies—one at North —

a

‘Berwick and the other at Linlithgow. The total membership of
the club was seventy-eight, showing an increase of eight over
last year.

a CAMBRIDGE

Philosophical Society, Nov. 25—On the appearance of an
extra digit on the hind limbs and then on both fore and hind
limbs in two successive generations, and its bearing on the
theory of Pangenesis, by Mr. N. Goodman. A cow had three well-
_ developed toes on each hind limb, besides the two ordinary rudi-
ments. Her calf (by a normal bull) had the same peculiarity.
_ This has two calves (by normal bulls). The first, a cow, had the
_ toes as in the other cases, but rather less developed ; the second,
a bull, had three toes onall four feet. The writer pointed out that
___ this peculiarity might be explained by (1) atavism, (2) certain modi-
fications of the proliferous function by external causes (3) corre-
lation of growth, supplementing the former. He thought it could
not be explained by atavism, nor by the second cause, but by the
third, and discussed its bearing on his theory of Pangenesis.—A
communication was received from Mr, W. H. Stanley on a
Pneumatical design for saving life at sea. The process was by
the expansion of condensed air stored in reservoirs.

LEEDS

Naturalists’ Field Club and Scientific Association,
Noy. 26.—Mr. J. W. Taylor on behalf of Mr. W. Nelson, of
Birmingham, read a paper on “The Lymnaidz of the Bir-
mingham district,” giving a catalogue of nineteen species found
within five miles of Birmingham, against the twenty-three at
present included in the British fauna. He also recorded twenty-
four varieties for that district. The absence of the remaining
four species was readily accounted for, on the ground either of
their extreme rarity, or of their recent introduction into these
islands. Planorbis dilatatus has recently been imported along
with cotton ; Lymncea involuta has never been found away from
its original locality, Killamey; while Planorbis lacustris and
Lymnea glutinosa are excessively rare. The following is a list
of the nineteen species found within five miles of Birmingham.
Planorbis nitidus, P.nautileus, P. albus, P. glaber, P. spirorbis,
| P. vortex, P. carinatus, P. complanatus, P. corneus, Physa

_ hypnorum, P. fontinalis, Lymnaea peregra, L. auricularia, L.
_ stagnalis, L. palustris, L, truncatula, L: glabra, Ancylus
fluviatilis, A. lacustris.

: RIGA

Society of Naturalists, Jan. 24 (Feb. 5, N.s.)—M. C. Berg
noticed the damage done to some peas by the larva of Zndrosis
lacteella.—M. Gogginger called attention to a yellow lucerne,
identified by him with Medicago media, which he found near
Hapsal, and recommended for cultivation, especially on account
of its deep roots. Dr. Buhse doubted the identification of the
plant, and stated that A/edicago media is a hybrid of AZ. sativa
and falcata, and that when cultivated it reverts to the type of the
former species in a few years.—The aurora of February 4 was
referred to by M. Schroeder and Prof. Schell. The former
found no traces of polarisation, but in the spectroscope a broad
greenish yellow line made its appearance. Prof. Schell’s paper
included notices of the phenomenon from various sources.

February 7 (19 N.S.)—Dr. Nauck exhibited and described a
maximum and minimum thermometer constructed on a new
principle. It is a U-shaped tube, having one upright limb
terminating in a bulb, and the other bent inwards and then

_ downwards into a large cylindrical portion. The lower part of
the U-tube is filled with mercury, and the rest with alcohol,
except the bulb of the upright tube, the greater part of which is
empty. The floats are of glass, enclosing an iron wire, and are
fixed in the tubes by means of bent human hairs.—Dr. Buhse
gave a detailed description of the parasitic fungi of infectious
diseases, in which he referred to those affecting plants, animals,
and man, and especially noticed the relation of Bacteri¢ to
disease,

February 21 (March 4, N.s.)—M. Schroeder announced that
: two days previously (March 2, n.s.) he observed a distinct
: zodiacal-light about 8 o’clock p.M.—M. Frederking read a
second part of his memoir on the History of Chemistry, in which
he referred first to.the discovery of oxygen by Priestley and
Scheele, and then passed to the consideration of Lavoisier’s

- labours.

February 28 (March 11, N.s.)—M. H. Westermann reported
upon a work by Fechner entitled ‘‘Experimental A®sthetics,”
in which the author endeavours to investigate experimentally the

NATURE

155

general principles of symmetry, This report presents some
curious and interesting points ; the questions raised by it were
discussed by several of the members present.

GOTTINGEN

Royal Society of Sciences, Aug. 3.—M. G, Meissner com«
municated a paper by Dr. Hartwig on the passage of substances
from the blood of the mother into the foetus, in which he showed,
in opposition to Gusserow, that iodine administered in solution
to the parent speedily passes into the foetus,—M. Felix Kleim
presented a contribution towards the interpretation of complex
elements in geometry.—M. H. Hiibner presented a paper by
M. G. Spezia on the determination of iodine in the presence of
chlorine, by means of protonitrate of thallium. This process is
founded on the fact that whilst chloride of thallium is soluble in
a large quantity of water, iodide of thallium is insoluble—M.
Wilhelm Weber communicated a paper by M. E. Riecke on the
law of electro-organic reciprocal actions proposed by Helmholtz.
—M. Clebsch exhibited and described two models prepared by
M., Weiler, and relating to a particular class of surfaces of the
third order,

Sept. 18.—M. A. Clebsch read a paper on a new fundamen«
tal form of the analytical geometry of planes,

Sept. 25.—M. F. Kohlrausch presented a paper on the elec-
tromotive power of very thin strata of gas upon metal plates.

Oct. 9.—M. A. Clebsch communicated a paper by M. A.
Mayer on Lie’s method of integration of the partial differential
equations of the first order.

Oct. 30.—M. A, Clebsch communicated a long contribution
by M, Sophus Lie to the theory of partial differential equations
of the first order, and on their classification.

Noy. 13.—M. A. Clebsch presented a note by M. H. Grass-
mann on the theory of curves of the third order.—M. Weber
communicated a paper by M. E, Reicke on the magnetisation-
function of a sphere of soft iron—Prof. Henle presented a
note by M. Oscar Grimm on the olfactory organ of the sturgeon,
in which the author describes certain peculiar cells which occur
on the surface of the olfactory grooves.—M. Oscar Grimm also
forwarded a note on Syxura uvella and Uroglena volvox, belong«
ing to Hickel’s Protistan group of the Catallacta, indicating a
probable genetic connection of the Catallacta with the sponges.

VIENNA

Imperial Academy of Sciences, Oct. 10,—The completed
MS. of a catalogue of observed Polar lights was forwarded by
Dr. Herrmann Fritz of Ziirich. Prof. Hlasiwetz communicated
a memoir by Dr. F. Hinterberger on excretine. The substance
was prepared by the author from fresh human excrement, and
found to be free from sulphur and with the formula C*? H** O,
With bromine it forms bibromexcretine, with the formula C*? H*#
Br? O.—Dr. Kretschmar presented a memoir on the influence of
morphine, and carbonate and sulphate of sodain diabetes mellitus,
The first-mentioned substance acted beneficially, and reduced the
secretionof sugar to zero.—Prof, L. Boltzmann communicated two
memoirs, one containing further investigations on the heat-equi-
librium among gaseous molecules, the other an experimental
investigation on the behaviour of non-conducting bodies under
the influence of electrical forces.

October 17.—M. Otto Hermann presented a memoir entitled
**The Noble Siebenburgian Horse,’’ intended to correct state-
ments in Dr. L, J. Fitzinger’s essay on the origin of the do-
mestic horse and its races.—Prof. E, Mach, of Prague, com~
municated a memoir on the stroboscopic determination of musical
notes. His stroboscopic scale is a uniformly rotating white
cylinder covered with black longitudinal streaks, the closeness
ana number of which rapidly-increases from one end of the
cylinder to the other. This is observed through radiating fissures
in a paper disc attached to the axis of the siréne, and the streaks
are always seen simple at the spot where they pass before the
eye in the vibration-number of the sirene.—The same author
forwarded two papers prepared by him in conjunction with Dr.
J. Kessel. In the first of these, on the function of the tympanic
cavity and ofthe eustachian tube, the authors show by experiment,
not only that the tuba is usually closed, but that this closure is
necessary for the production of effective vibrations of the tym-
panic membrane. In the second they treat of the accommoda«
tion of the ear, and show that, although alterations of the tension
of the /ensor tympani may cause a limited accommodation, such
alterations do not occur in the living ear during hearing and
listening,

156

October 24.—Prof. L. Gegenbaur, of Krems, communicated a

emoir entitled ‘* Integral Expressions for the Functions Y™. ‘
Dr. Peyritsch presented a memoir on Peloric formations, in
which he described the types of pelorism in the Labiate, Ver-
benaceze, Scrophulariaceze, and Ranunculaceze, and endeavoured
to show the probability that in the Labiatee we have to do with a
quaternary and not with a quinary type.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, May 28.—Frofessor
Cope exhibited some vertebrae of a Plesiosauroid reptile and
also those of a smaller species, probably a CZidaszes which
were found in close proximity near Sheridan, Kansas, by Mr.
Joseph Savage, of Leavenworth. According to this gentleuan,
the vertebral column of the C/idastes was found immediately
below that of the Plesiosauroid and in a reversed position, as
though it had been swallowed by the latter or larger reptile.
The largest vertebrae of the C/idastes were about th-ee-quarters
the length and one-fourth the diameter of those of the Plesiosau-
roid, and the animal must have furnished a large, or at least a
long, mouthful for itscaptor. The bones of the C/idastes were
not in good condition, but resembled those of C. cineriarum
Cope, though smaller. The Plesiosauroid was new to science,
being the third species discovered in the Cretaceous of the Nio-
brara group. Specifically it was nearest to the Llasmosaurus
platyurus Cope, but was readily distinguished by the relatively
shorter cervical vertebrze, and the regular acute ridges on the ex-
terior surfaces near the margin of the articular faces, as well as
the less contracted form ot all the vertebral centra. Asso-
ciated with these remains were those of a turtle of the size of
some of the large C/c/ondide of recent seas. The only portions
were the scapulo-procoracoid, the coracoid, and the mandible
nearly complete. The general characters of this form were
thought to agree with Cynecercus Cope, though the individual
was larger than that on which the C, zzcisws was established.

June 4.—Mr. Thomas Meehan presented some specimens of
the common asparagus, and remarked that in consequence of
observing last year so many plants that had evidently flowered
producing no seeds, he had this year examined them in a flower-
ing condition and found them perfectly dicecious. Imperfect
stamens existed in the female flowers, but they were never
polleniferous. An occasional gyncecium in the male flower
would make a weak attempt to produce a pistil, but no polleni-
ferous flower ever produces a frnit, There was a great difference
in the form of the male and female flowers. The former were
double the length of the latter, and nearly cylindrical, while the
female flower was rather campanulate. Other observers had
nearly made the discovery of division in this plant. The old
‘*English Botany” of Smith gave it the character of being
occasionally imperfect, and the authors of ‘* Deutchland’s Flora ”
considered it as occasionally polygamous. But Mr. Meehan was
satisfied from a half day’s investigation among many plants that
in this region at least the asparagus is never perfect, but truly
dicecious. Je had observed another matter, small, but which
might be of importance to systematic botanists, as well as to
those engaged in evolutionary studies. One flower had a
quadrifid stigma, and a four-celled ovary. The trinate type, or
its multiple, is so closely associated with the endogenous struc-
ture, that he considered this circumstance particularly worthy of
note. ‘The male flowers seem very attractive to insects, various
kinds of which seem to feed on the pollen, The honey bee was
a frequent visitor. None seemed to be attracted to the female
flowers. In the division into separate sexes the plant had gained
nothing in the way of aid by insect fertilisation. Fertilisation
seemed wholly accomplished by the wind, The male flowers are
produced in much greater abundance than the female ones. Mr.
Meehan added that this discovery had a more than usual practi-
cal importance. Many attempts had been made to improve the
asparagus, as garden vegetables and the farm cereals had been
improved ; but it had often been questioned whether these im-
proved forms would reproduce themselves from seed as other
garden varieties dil. The tendency of thought the few past
years had been in the direction of the belief that permanent
varieties could be raised, and several improved kinds had been
sent out by seedsmen, and were popular to a considerable
extent. He said he had himself inclined to this opinion ; but
this discovery of complete dicecism in asparagus, whereby two
distinct individual forms were required to produce seed, rendered
a true reproduction of one original parent impossible, as the
progeny must necessarily partake of both forms.

NATURE

[ Dec. 26,1872 —

“On the Fishes of the Ambyiacu River,” by Elward D.
Cope. The collection on which the present examination is —
based was made by our correspondent at Pebas, John Haux-
well, It embraces fishes of the small streams tributary to |
the Ambyiacu, as well as those of the river itself. The Am-
byiacu is an inconsiderable river, which empties into the Amazon
near to Pebas, in Eastern Equador, séme distance east of the
Napo. The results of the examination will be mentioned at the
close of the list. As was to have been supposed, it consists.
almost exclusively of representatives of the three great families —
which abound in the neotropical region ; the Chromidide, re-
presenting Physoclystous fishes, and the Characinide and Silu-
ride, representing the Physostomi. The number of newspecies,
45 in a total of 74, constitutes a considerable addition to ichthy- _
ology, especially as the number of new generic forms is also
rather large. The author adds a list of the species obtained by
Robert Perkins, of Wilmington, Delaware, on a trip between
the mouth of the Rio Negro and the Peruvian Amazon or
Ucayale River. There are several interesting novelties in this
collection, but their special localities are, unfortunately, not pre-
served, The specimens generally were large, and in fine condition.

BOOKS RECEIVED

Enoutsu.—A Budget of Paradoxes: A. De Morgan (Longmans).—
Physics and Politics: W. Bagehot (H. S. King and Co).—Grotesque Ani-
mals: E. W. Cooke (Longmans) —Owens College Junior Course ot Prac-
tical Chemistry: Roscoe and Jones (Macmillan).—The Hygiene of Air and
Water: W. Procter (Hardwicke).

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Encutsu.—The General Glaciation of Jar-Connaught and its Neighbour-
hood: Kinahan and Close.—Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, »g
Vol. ii., No. 7.—Razi: W. Soleman.—Ninth Report of the Belfast Naturalists’
Field Club.—The Curability of Cancer, 2nd edition —Introductory Lecture
on Geology: E Wilson—The Examination Questions in Geology, with
answers.—Transactions of the Institute of Engineers.—Annual Report of
Vigilance Association.—A Catalogue of a Collection of Models of Ruled
Surfaces, constructed by M. ¥. de Lagrange.—Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology, No. 2.—Weather Report of the Meteorological Office, January-
March, 1872 —Transactions of the Clifton College Scientific Society, Part 3
—Journal of the Society of Telegraphic Engineers, No. 1.—Report of the
Lower Mosely Street School Natural History Society.—Ocean Highways,
Parts 1, 2,—A Table of the relative value of different Articles of Food: C.
Ekin —The Advantages of Gas for cooking and heating: M. Ohren.—
Twelve Months’ Experience with the A.B.C. Process of Purifying Sewage :
W. Crookes.—Provident Knowledge Papers, Nos. 1-12. :

AMERICAN AND Cotonrat.—Canadian Naturalist, vol. iv., Nos. 9-10.—
New Remedies: H. J. Wood, vol. ii. No. 2.—The Birds of Florida: C. J.
Maynard, No. 1.—Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Jan-
uary-June, 1871.—Deductive and Inductive Training: B. Silliman.—The
Australian Mechanic, Nos. 8 and 9.—Indiana Journal of Medicine fe
September.—Lippincott’s Magazine for November.—Proceedings of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal for August. :

Zeitschrift fiir Meteorologie, Nos. 20-23.—Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie,. No.
21.—Le Fhysiometre: P. Harting.—Ofversigt af kong!. Vetenskaps Akad.
Forhandlinger.—Bulletin de Académie Royale de Belgique, Nos. 9 and 10. _
Sitzungsb. der k. k. Akad der Wiss. zu Wien, Nos. 24, 25.—Bulletin de la
Société de Geographie de Paris, September.

ForeIGN.—Sitzungsb. der geologischen Reichsanstalt zu Wien, No.
ka

CONTENTS . PaGE

Tue ProGress or NaTuRAL Science Durtnc THE Last Twenty-
FIVE YEARS, I. . .

ee a Onan Slee aS
EXPLORATION OF THE SouTH PoLar Recions,III.. . .... . 4
Fayrer’s THANATOPHIDIA OF INDIA. . . 4 6 « oa a) Voor eae
Our: Book SHELF... lis \« oie eee! se) oT te ie
Lerrers To THR Eprror:—
The Meteorology of the Future.—J. J. Murphy, F.G.S.. . . . 142
Popular Science in 2872'. 2% Oise ete el ee) Se + 142
Upon the Direction in which the North Magnetic Pole has moved
during the last two Centuries . 2 ig sy mela) val naene
Height of Thunderclouds—E.H. PRINGLE . ......, 143
Periopicity oF RaINFALLe By G.J.SyMoNS . ......, 143
Max Mutter on Darwin’s PuttosopHy oF LANGUAGE . . . . 145
Curtous Fir@RaLy (With Illustration.). . ... 1... . 9. . 146
Recent Discoveries In THE GREAT Pyramip or EcyPT.—ANCIENT
Eyprian WEIGHT (With Illustrations...» .....¢ 146
pe DIATHERMANCY OF FLamE. By Capt. J. Ericsson... . 149
OTES , 4 eis 88 be tee yg) Miter ks relly alee | en
Tue Diosmoric Properties OF COLLOIDS . . . ss se ee . ee
SCIENTIFIC. SERTALS*. =..'/c a Seeman fee re Se te 5 ee
SOcIETIES AND “ACADEMIES, Hane eT nes Mo Gta, ee eee 154
Books anp Pamputets RECEIVED . -.......,.., + 156

Errata.—No. 159, p. 28, col. 1, line 8 from bottom, for “* microscope” read
— ¢, 5Pectroscope ;”” col. 2, lines 16-19 from bottom, for ‘an absolute” read
=. one, absolute,” and for “impossible” read “ improbable,”

Ee ila

yy os eA
“2

'

‘157

THURSDAY, JANUARY 2, 1873

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE ARCTIC
EXPEDITION
4 Bige Arctic Expedition is undoubtedly the question of
the day ; or, seeing that the wheels of the gods have
brought us to the commencement of another annual
round, it may be really called the question of the year—
that is, of the coming one. We may as well confess at
once that we consider it quite worth all the attention it
is likely to receive; either at the hands of Her Majesty’s
Ministers or from the public at large.

It is understood that the Government are at the present
moment considering their decision, and it is because this
is so that we venture to return to the subject, as there is
an idea that the matter has not been put before the
Government in the strong manner that it might have
been ; and the idea is true to a certain extent. But the
blame, if. any blame there be, attaches more to our
scientific system, or rather our want of all system, than
to any individuals. No doubt the Royal Society should
have had a little more, and the Geographical Society a
little less to say at the deputation that waited upon the
Government, because we believe that the time has come
when both Ministers and people will demand the widest
possible basis of research for such an expedition ; and
that the widest possible basis was not put forward has
‘since been clearly shown by Prof. Balfour Stewart, who
has written to the Zzes on the subject. His letter is so
important that we give it almost 2 extenso. He writes :—

“We have pursued terrestrial meteorology and mag-
netism now for some time, but until lately we have
been rewarded with little apparent success. We are at
last, however, beginning to understand the great impor-
tance of these studies, and to see the true path in which
they ought to be pursued,

“Proofs of an intimate and mysterious connection
between the sun and the earth are rapidly accumulating
from various quarters, and the latest instance is one
which is surely well worth the attention ofall practical men.
“ “T allude to the discovery by Mr. Charles Meldrum, of
Mauritius, that the years when most spots are observed
on the sun’s surface are also those of most cyclones in
the Indian Ocean. Furthermore, a similar connection
between the state of the sun’s surface and the magnetism
of the earth was noticed twenty years ago by Sir Edward
Sabine, the late president of the Royal Society.

“Now, surely we ought to inquire into the nature of
this mysterious connection, and, if necessary, we ought
to spend both means and trouble in the pursuit of such an
inquiry? ;

“What, then, ought to be done? The line of action is
surely that recently suggested by Mr. Norman Lockyer.
We ought, in the first instance, to scrutinise the sun’s
surface with all the appliances we can command, with
the view of recording the meteorological changes which
are there occurring; and in the next instance we ought
f to do the same with regard to our own earth. To do
a the first it will be necessary to establish a proper physical
; observatory ; and to do the second z¢ zs essential that we
should become better acquainted with the less frequented
regions of our globe, which are in many respects the most
important. We must especially greatly extend our
knowledge of the northern regions, and not of those alone
but of the less frequented oceanic regions also,
| “ Now, these are objects which can only be accomplished
by means at the disposal of Government ; for it will be in
vain to expect whalers to supply us with the knowledge
we desire of these northern regions, and it will be equally

VoL, VI.—No, 166

in vain to expect merchantmen to cruise about in the less
frequented oceanic latitudes in order to increase our
acquaintance with their meteorology.

“We have before us the splendid possibility of
predicting the nature of seasons ; but surely we cannot
expect that Nature, who is usually so reticent, will dis-
close her secrets to a nation or a race who will not take
reasonable trouble to complete their knowledge of the
physics of the earth?”

Now there is no man of science who will gainsay these
remarks coming from so distinguished an authority ; and it
is quite obvious that if the promoters of the expedition had
taken alittle more trouble and given a little more publicity
to their action, the deputation might have been able to
enforce its main arguments by this and other additional
“reasons” given by other eminent men of science.
Before it is too late, then, and another year is lost, it is
to be hoped that the views so ably expressed by Dr.
Stewart and held by all who have studied the subject in
which he is such an acknowledged master, will be placed
before the Government in the most forcible manner pos-
sible. The sun cycle to which he refers and which we
now know governs cyclones and rainfall in certain parts
of the earth, may it not also have something to say to the
very passage to the Pole itself? May not the rainy mild
seasons, which in the northern temperate zone, have more
than once, to say the least, followed the sun-spot maxi-
mum, influence the dense masses of polar ice and make
navigation more easy? If no one can answer this ques-
tion, we have in this point alone a sufficient “ reason” for
undertaking the expedition ; while the study of the whole
phenomena including the spectrum of the aurora would
furnish another, if the mere number of questions were to
have weight ; and it is curious to notice, that while we re-
main so ignorant of the nature of whole ranges of polarphe-
nomena in the case of our own planet, the solar polar phe-
nomena have recently been investigated by Prof. Respighi,
with marvellous success, by means of the new method.

Sooner or later the polar phenomena of the earth must
be studied, and their variations laid down in curves.
Modern science demands this, and every year now lost it
may take ten to recover. The question is, is England to
have a hand in thismatter? Itis nota question between
A’s or B’s pet theory of getting to the Pole. Will the
Government refuse the expedition, now that Admiral
Richards, the distinguished Hydrographer of the Ad-
miralty, an officer in whose hands we may with safety
leave the claims of cosmical science, has volunteered
to command it? In the centuries to come, it will be
told how England, in 1870 and 1871, sent out expeditions
to observe eclipses of the sun, how in 1872 she sent out
the Challenger, how in 1874 she sent out expeditions to ob-
serve the Transit of Venus. Why, then, should 1873 not be
thus distinguished ? We firmly believe that the Government
have obtained a firmer hold upon the best side of English-
men by their aid to these scientific expeditions than by
all their merely political measures ; and surely a universal
approval, separated as far as possible from a party feel-
ing, is the best thing Government can strive to obtain.

We believe a statement that the Government has re-
fused the expedition will be received with universal
disappointment by every class of Englishmen, to whom
the memories which dwell round the name of Captain
Cook and a whole navy of Arctic explorers in the past are
very dear and a source of pardonable pride.

K

ETN eR TP

158

THE PROGRESS OF NATURAL SCIENCE

DURING THE LAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS
il
Ns the last quarter of a century, the his-
tory of the formation of our earth has assumed
anewaspect. When the Cosvos appeared, the opinion pre-
vailed that our earth, once a globe of liquid fire, became
covered with a crust of congealed scoriz, on which, by-
and-by, the first animal and plant life made its appear-
ance ; after an almost infinite length of time, during which
the Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian strata
were deposited, a terrible catastrophe, affecting simulta-
neously the whole earth, so completely destroyed the first
paleozoic life, that not a single species survived the
universal devastation. Upon the lifeless expanse, it was
supposed, appeared then, forming the Secondary Fauna
and Flora, entirely unconnected with and different from
the extinguished one, until after frequent repetitions of
the same process at longer or shorter intervals, man
made his appearance, and along with him all existing
plants and animals: with him begins the Historical
Period, whose duration has not exceeded 6,000 years.
The causes of these world-wide revolutions Geology
sought in the violent reaction of the molten interior
against the once extremely slender crust.

In opposition to these views, the opinion peculiarly
associated with the name of Lyell has made way, that no
violent revolutions, returning at intervals, destroyed the
external structure of the earth and all the life it sustained,
but that all changes even in the earliest times affected
only the earth’s surface, and that these could only be the
results of the same powers of nature which are actively
at work on the earth at the present time ; and that more-
over, the gradual, but ever active powers of water, of air,
and of chemical change, have perhaps had a greater
share in accomplishing these transformations, than the
fierce | eat of subterranean masses of lava. The ex-
plorers of the buried remains of plants and animals show
it to be impossible that all life in those geological forma-
tions could have been destroyed simultaneously, for many
species are common at several stages; in particular
many existing animals and plants reach far back into
the primitive world. Man himself could be shown to
have been contemporary with many extinct species of
plants and animals, and therefore his age on the earth
must be extended back to an indefinite period. Man was
witness to that inundation which buried the plains of the
old and the new world under the waves of the sea of ice,
Even in the immediately preceding period, when the sub-
tropical elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus disported
themselves in the lignite woods of Middle Europe, have
traces of mankind been found. Only in the most recent
times has a foundation been laid for the pre-historic
records of mankind, by means of which we may be
able to obtain a knowledge of the state of civilisation,
weapons, implements, and dwellings of that primitive
race.

No book of recent times, Dr. Cohn thinks, has influenced
to such an extent the aspects of modern natural science, as
Charles Darwin’s work “On the Origin of Species,” the first
edition of which appeared in 1859. For even to so late a
period, was the immutability of species believed in ; so long
was it accepted as indubitable that all the characteristics

NATURE

which belong toany speciesof plants andanimalsweretrans-
mitted unaltered through all generations, and were under
no circumstances changeable; so long did the appear-
ance of new fauna and flora remain one of the impene-
trable mysteries of science. He who would not believe
that new species of animals and plants, from the yeast-
fungus to the mammalia, had been crystallised parentless-
out of transformed materials was shut up to the belief that

‘in primeval time an omnipotent act of creation, or, as it

may be otherwise expressed, a power of nature at present
utterly unknown, interfered with the regular progress of
the world’s developments yea, according to the researches
of D’Orbigny and Elie de Beaumont, twenty-seven diffe-
rent acts of creation must have followed each other pre-
vious to the appearance of man—but after that, no more.
It was Darwin who lifted natural science out of this
dilemma, by advancing the doctrine that the animals and
plants of the late geological eras no more appeared all at
once upon the scene, than those of the preceding epochs
simultaneously and suddenly disappeared ; on the con-
trary, these are the direct descendants of former species,
which gradually in the course of an exceedingly long
period, through adaptation to altered conditions of life,
through the struggle for existence, through natural and
sexual selection have been changed into the new species.
Professor Cohn does not doubt but that Darwin and
his school may have over-estimated the reach of the
explanations given by him to account for the trans-
mutation of species, and especially the importance of
natural and sexual selection, but the fundamental fact has
been established, and will remain so for all future time.
This fact is that the collective life of the earth, from the
beginning even until now, and from the fungus-cell up to
man, represent a single series which has never once been

broken, whose members through direct propagation have ~

proceeded out of each other, and in the course of a vast
period have been developed into manifold and, on the
whole, perfect forms.

The sciences which are concerned with life have during
late years been cultivated on all sides; even in earlier
years Cuvier and Jussieu had done as much for zoology
and botany as the state of discovery in their time per-
mitted, but since 1858 the boundaries of both kingdoms
have been widely extended by the labours of i i,
Huxley, and Pourtalés.

After referring to the researches of Goethe in the last
century, and those of Bauer and of Johannes Miiller in
the present, in reference to the physiology of plants and
animals, Prof. Cohn says it was only in our own time,
and first in 1843 in Schleiden’s “ Grundziigen der Wissen-
schaftlichen Botanik,” that the new principle was followed
out; the principle, namely, that all vegetable phenomena
and all the various forms of plants proceed from the life and
the development of their cells. After Schwann discovered
that animal bodies also were built up from an analogous
cell, mainly by Virchow was then developed from this
principle the modern. cellular physiology and pathology
which traces the condition both of healthy and diseased
men and animals back to the life-function of their cells,
But, as the lecturer says, to attempt to follow out the
advances made by science in these directions during the
last twenty-five years would require a large volume, and
cannot be done in the space of a lecture or an article,

NATURE

159

Even the cell itselfhas been changed. Until Schleiden’s

time it was a little bleb filled with fluid ; we now regard it
as a soft glutinous body constructed out of the albuminous
protoplasm first distinguished by Mohl in 1845, and which
is covered with a cellular integument, as the oyster is
with its cell. After waxing eloquent over the cell as an
entity, an “ego” by itself, and its relations to the outer
world, Prof. Cohn says that science now teaches us that
there is only one life and one cell, the cell of plants and
of animals being essentially the same. The most highly-
developed animal differs from the simplest plant only in
the number and greater development of the matter com-
posing the cells, but above all, to the more complete
elaboration (Ardettsthetlung), and the stricter subordina-
tion of the separate cells to the collective life of the or-
ganism. Between the two extremes of the living world,
the yeast-fungus and man, there is the same difference
as there is between a group of individual men who do
not know how to organise their strength, and a strictly
-disciplined, well-ordered army suitably formed and well
armed, and which, by the strict subordination of the
many wills to the central authority, is always equal to
the highest achievements.

It is true that these scientific researches into biology
have left as yet the most important questions unsolved.
It is not yet possible to regard all life-processes as simple
modifications of the other forces of nature and to ascer-
tain their mechanical equivalents ; we cannot yet convert
absolute heat or light into life; and although chemistry
is daily doing more and more to bridge over the gaping
chasm which once separated the organic and inorganic
systems, it has not yet succeeded in finding out the pre-
cise matter which exclusively supports the life-process, on
which alone the cells subsist. Thus, then, the beginning
of life is still wrapped in obscurity.

After referring in this connection to the transmission
of epidemics amongst plants, animals, and man, and to
the microscopical labours of Leeuwenhoek, Ehrenberg,
Gagniard-Latour, Schwann, and Kiitzing, Prof. Cohn
_ * goes on to say that the investigators of the present time,
to whom Pasteur has given a powerful impulse, have
been the first to establish beyond doubt that without
Bacteria no putrefaction, and without yeast-fungi no fer-
mentation takes place ; that this decomposition is accom-
plished only through the sustenance and living activity of
those microscopic cells.

Many a mystery of life will doubtless be unfolded to us
if our epticians during the next twenty-five years should
manage to raise the power of the microscope in the same
proportion as in the previous quarter of a century, in which
it has been at least quadrupled. The best microscope of
Schiek and Plossl in 1846 did not magnify more than 500
diameters ; the “immersion-lensxv.” of Hartnack over 2,000
diameters. Still Dr. Cohn does not venture to hope that
during the next twenty-five years all the questions of science
which are at present being agitated will be solved. As
one veil after another is lifted, we find ourselves behind a
still thicker one, which conceals from our longing eyes
the mysterious goddess of whom we are in search.

Dr. Cohn, in concluding his eloquent address, attempts
to point out the characteristics which distinguish the pre-
sent from the past generation. In the former epoch
students confined their researches to single and carefully

marked off divisions of nature, without any regard to the
neighbouring and closely allied regions, which must neces-
sarily lead to the one-sided view that these divisions be-
long to Nature herself. In the present generation, on the
other hand, the several physical sciences have entered into
the closest organic union. Physics and chemistry along
with mathematical astronomy and geology, have been
blended into a new science—the history of the develop-
ment of worlds ; paleontology, systematic botany, and
zoology have been joined into a united science of or-
ganisms ; the physiology of plants and of animals have be-
come coalesced in universal biology; the boundary
between the organic and inorganic aspects of nature is
being ever more and more obliterated, and out of the
several natural sciences a single uniform, universal natural
science is being constructed.

But the deeper natural science penetrates from outward
phenomena to universal laws, the more she lays aside her
former fear to test the latest fundamental questions of
being and becoming (Sez und Werden), of space and time
of matter and force, of life and spirit, by the scale of the
inductive method, and the more confidently she lifts her
views concerning the universe out of the cloudy atmo-
sphere of hypothesis into the clear ether of theory
grounded on fact, so much the more will the gap be
narrowed which since Kant has separated science from
philosophy. Schiller’s advice to philosophers and men of
science—

‘*Feindschaft sei zwischen euch; noch ist das Biindniss zu friihe ;

Nur wenn in Kampf ihr euch treant, dann wird die Wahr-

heit enthiilt,””

has been followed for more than half a century, to the
gain of the natural sciences, but often to the injury of
philosophy, which would knock away the firm ground from
under our feet. But since Herbart and Schopenhauer, and
especially through Hartmann’s labours, have the two
chief drifts of the work of the human mind been approach-
ing; andif natural science has a mission to mould the
future of our race, she must court the purifying influence
of philosophical criticism: and this mission, in Dr.
Cohn’s estimation, “the science of the future cannot
reject. Its importance rests not merely in the much in-
teresting and useful information which can be made
available to trade and industry, for daily economy and
universal civilisation ; she must build a sure foundation
for our collective view of the universe, for our knowledge
of ultimate and highest things. It must be no longer the
case that even our most educated classes, in consequence
of insufficient education, have neither interest nor in-
telligence for the pursuit and acquisition of scientific
knowledge. Moreover, science will be no more able to
shun battle with other systems of the universe which have
been hallowed by the traditions of a thousand years,
than were Socrates and Aristotle, Copernicus and Gali-
leo. Victory will lie on the side of truth. ;

But if anxious souls should fear that with the advance
of a scientific knowledge of the universe among the people,
would come a breaking up of political and social order,
let them be assured by the teaching of history, When
we perceive the flash of an electric spark we certainly
do not take at for a bolt darted by the revengeful
Jupiter ; and as the vault of Heaven is resolved into air
and light, so also must the Olympus be shattered which
was built thereon. * But the ideas of the true, the beauti-

NATURE

- ful, and the good remain unshaken ; they have been all

the more firmly established, for they have been deduced
from the order of the universe and from the mind of man
himself. And that the pursuit of natural science does
not lead to materialism, and in no way injures the ideal
mind, is vouched for by the case of Alexander von Hum-
boldt himself, who, even in extreme old age, kept up his
love for research and power of work as well as his lively
susceptibility for and energetic share in all the nobie
pursuits of mankind.

Dr. Cohn concludes his lecture, so brimful of true
eloquence founded on sober fact, with a high com-
pliment to the many worthy qualities of the Pre-
sident of the Silesian Society, Dr. Goeppert. Such a
man as he is said to be, the lecturer truly says,
may hope, like Goethe, Humboldt, and other previous
philosophers, to miintain to the utmost limit of existence,
life, heart, and spirit full of the freshness of youth, and,
moreover, in later generations be honoured as a true

guardian of the highest good of grateful mankind,

VALENTIN’S CHEMISTRY

Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry. By W.G. Valentin,
F.C.S. (London: J. and A. Churchill.)

E must congratulate the author on the appearance
of this volume. It is in reality a second and
much improved edition of the first part of “ Valentin’s
Introduction to Qualitative Analysis,” and it is very
encouraging that a second edition is so soon wanted.
This book is one of a class which for the sake of English
science we could wish were more numerous. It teaches
chemistry entirely by practical work, and at the same time
gives the student a clear knowledge of the general prin-
ciples of the science. The very first words, indeed, afford
a good idea of the system pursued throughout the work.
Experiment 1.—“Fill a glass cylinder or a test-tube with
water, and invert it over a basin containing water, &c.”
This experiment is the collection of hydrogen evolved
from the action of sodium on water. This quota-
tion may be taken as almost typical of the book.
The methods of preparation and the properties of
the various elements and simple compounds are
studied by means of very carefully described and
well-chosen experiments, and from his experiments the
student is taught to draw deductions and generalisations.
In this way the fundamental laws of chemistry are
deduced from experimental facts, and a sound foundation
of chemical knowledge is obtained. This method scarcely
requires any recommendation ; the fact that the author
has adopted it after a long experience of practical teach-
ing in one of our largest laboratories is one proof amongst
many that the practical system of teaching is the only
one which yields good and satisfactory results. This
method of experimental teaching is now coming more
and more into general use, and perhaps to a greate
extent in chemistry than in any other science.

In the work before us there are 169 experiments care-
fully described, most of which are suitable for the student
himself to perform ; there are a few, however, the suc-
cessful performance of which is almost beyond the capa-
bilities of young beginners. The selection of experiments
is left to individual teachers, and must depend to

some extent also on the resources of the laboratory. It
is a question ‘whether some few of them are not
more suitable for the lecture table, or to be performed
under the immediate superintendence of the teacher.
It would, perhaps, have been an improvement if the
author had distinguished those experiments which he
thinks are necessary for the student to perform. This
would certainly assist a student working privately, and

would to some extent be a sort of moral obligation on —

some teachers who might be inclined to run through the
book superficially. Most of the experiments may be
successfully performed if the directions in the book are
adhered to, which are for the most part fully and clearly
expressed. At the end of each chapter there is a short
résumé, printed in italics, of the principal facts which
have been demonstrated, and these form a very valuable
part of the book. At the end of many chapters there is
also placed a number of questions and exercises on the
substance matter of the book, dealing, however, more

| particularly with those points which are found to be

stumbling-blocks to students. It is recommended that
the answers to these should be written out and examined
by the teacher, which, though it would involve a con-
siderable amount of labour, would render the laboratory
teaching much more thorough and efficient.
the questions are by no means easy, and a student who
can conscientiously answer them will have acquired a
very fair knowledge of elementary inorganic chemistry.
The notation used is the same as that employed by
Dr. Frankland in his “Lecture Notes.” This, per-
haps, may be a drawback to the use of the book by
some teachers, although it appears that of late years
this system has gained much ground. It consists
essentially in the use of a series of compound radicals
formed on the type of hydroxyl or peroxide of hydrogen,
and in the employment of thicker type to represent
certain elements which act as the grouping elements of
each compound. Thus sulphuric acid is represented as
consisting of the radical SO, combined with two semi-—
molecules of hydroxyl, thus SO, (HO),, or, written
according to the abbreviated formula, SO, Ho,, when
Ho represents a semi-molecule of hydroxyl ; a sulphate,
as, for instance, sodic sulphate, would be represented as
SO, (NaO),, or SO, Nao,, in which the monad radical
Nao (sodoxyl) has replaced hydroxyl, basic sulphate
would be SO, (BaO,)", or SO, Bao”, in which Bao” is a
compound dyad radical, consisting of one atom of barium
and two of oxygen, and replaces the two semi-molecules
of hydroxyl, The author uses the second of these formulae
throughout the work, although, perhaps it would appear
slightly less complicated if the first of these two kinds
of formula had been used. This system of formulating
bodies with the use of this class of radicals has been
employed for many years in the field of organic chemis-
try, so much so, that it is impossible to study this branch
without being familiar with the system. We cannot see
any reason why inorganic chemistry should not be treated
in a similar manner, and we believe that this system will -
gradually and surely spread, Graphic illustration is also
employed, and is very useful in explaining the constitu-
tional symbolic formule employed in the book. There
seems no doubt that the fear that students would ma-
terialise, as it might be called, these graphic representations

—%
Many of —

res

NATURE

161

was u.founded. The great argument advanced against the
use of graphic illustration has been that students would
imagine that it was intended to convey the positions of
tie ato as ia space, anl treir linking or binding to each
other ; but in practice this has not been found to be the
case. As s)01, however, as the pupils have become
thoroughly familiar and conversaat with the use of
symbolic constitutional formula, there is less necessity
for the use of graphic formula, except, perhaps, in the
case of complex isomeric organic bodies.

The theory of the atomicity of chenical elements is
also used throughout the book, and the author states that
he his found it to b: remarkably coadacive to the quick
and thorough understanding of chemical chaages. This
theory is without doubt of great use in assisting the mind
to generalise and grasp the numerous reactions of the
elementary bodies, and by thus introducing this theory
we are enabled to systematise to some extent the study of
chemistry, and therefore to materially aid the memory.

The illustrations are numerous and well executed, and in
almost all instances give a very good idea of the kind of
apparatus, which should be employed in the various
experiments. In conclusion we think that if a student
were to work conscientiously through this book he will
secure a fair knowledge of elementary inorganic chemistry,
which will serve as a suitable groundwork for him on
which to found an extensive knowledge of this subject.
We therefore cordially recommend this work to the notice
of all teachers of practical chemistry.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Periodicity of Rainfall

THE remark of Mr. G. J. Symons in Nature, December
26, that it seems to him ‘‘ more likely that the effect of cyclone
is simply to alter the locality of deposition” of rain, suggests a
doubt.whether the relation between rain and wind is sufficiently
considered. The amount of evaporation must always be the
chief element in the question of rainfall, and the total evapora-
tion of any period must be much affected by the amount of
wind. Evaporation may go on rapidly in still air, but it is
almost necessarily increased if the air is moving. Storms over
the sea not only bring moving air over a wet surface, but they
also very largely increase the area of that surface by creating
waves and foam. The evaporation during a cyclone may be
presumed to be enormous. Wind in fact is almost always
drying, even when rain is falling.

May we not on this account see a theoretical probability in
favour of Mr. Lockyer’s belief that the cycle of sun-spots coin-
cides with that of rainfall ?

If the solar spots indicate inequalities of temperature, the
sun’s heat when they are numerous will be radiated in bundles
of rays of unequal power. These we may suppose, being
directly incident on different portions of the earth, will cause
special barometric differences here. The result will be special
winds, and therefore special evaporation ; followed by unusual
rainfall. The locality of this extra rainfall will of course depend
on other causes, partly on the direction of the special winds, and
if it should be thrown on polar regions or any other part of the
earth where it escapes observation, there will be an apparent
failure in the cycle. This also seems not inconsistent with ex-
perience as far as it goes ALBERT J. Morr

Athenzum, Liverpool, Dec, 31, 1872

Eleven-Year Rainfall Period

THE Royal Exchange storm of Nov., 1838, happened twenty-
two years before Prof, C. P. Smyth’s Hyperborean one of Oct.,
1860—twelve years ago. I have heard of a great one at Dantzic

in 1816-17 (also twenty-two years before 1838). In a small
book—‘‘ Chronological Tablets,” published 1801, article on
“Storms,” great ones, in 1794. Oct. 6; 1784, Dec. 5; 1773,
March; 1751, Dec. ; 1740, Nov. 1; 1703, Nov. 26 (the
Great Storm, wide ‘‘City Remembrancer,” also Mautical
Magazine, Jan., 1843, my extracts), this is not in the eleven-
year series ; 1658, Sept. (death day of Oliver Cromwell, fifty-
five years before great 1703 storm), &c.

Now as the sun and moon are probably prime agents in these
periodic hurricanes, we get 11 x 365} = 4017°5 days, being
156 periods of 25d. 18h. ; 147 periods of 27d. 7h. 7m. ; and
136 periods of 29d. 12h. 43m., nearly.

HIN 2280S bata! very nearly.

Hyp. log. = 1°1447300 = =
15 I

Offord Road, N., Dec. 16

S. M, Dracu

Pollen-eaters

FRoManote in Nature, Dec. 19, it appears that it has hitherto
been a mooted question among entomologists whether any species
of Diptera are pollen-eaters. I have often watched certain
slender-bodied flies, belonging to orallied to the family of Noverers
(Syrphide), in the act of feeding on the pollen of various flowers,
which they effected by a quick jerking and grinding movement
of the mandibulz. I once witnessed the exhibition ofa muchmore
surprising taste by one of these insects, which, together with a
small yellow ant, I watched for a considerable time feasting on
a gout of resinous matter that had exuded from a wound in the
bark of a spruce fir-tree.

Mention of ants reminds me of Mr. Meldola’s statement
(Navurg, vol. vi. p. 279) that Dr. Bree has pronounced their
aphis-milking instinct a myth. While an undergraduate at
Cambridge, I have more than once been a pleased spectator of
this mythical performance ; but Dr. Bree’s incredulity may be
explained by the fact that all ants have not this instinct. At
least, though for many years constantly on the look-out for it,
only one instance of it has come under my notice on this side of
the Channel. On one occasion when I introduced an ant among
a number of aphides, her first act was to scize one of them in
her jaws ; but after carrying it for a short distance over the
backs of its fellows, she released it, and made what haste she
could out of the company of creatures whose polite attentions
she seemed by no means to appreciate.

Kilderry, Co. Donegal W. E. Hart

Fresh Water on the Coast of Tobago

WITH reference to my letter of the 11th ult. (NATURE, vol.
vii. p. 124.) I forward the following further information with
regard to the appearance of fresh water on the coast of Tobago,
promised from the same correspondent.

‘“The appearance of foreign water on our southern coast in
the months of August, September, and October, is by no means
a rare thing. This water is always of a dark colour, emitting
after a time a most offensive odour, and leaving on the beach a
line of a frothy substance of a peculiar odour and yellowish
green colour.

**The influx to which I called your attention surpassed any-
thing of the kind ever seen here. Iam not aware that anyone
has tested this water, or preserved any portion of it. Mr.
had some brought to his bath for salt water, and thinking
that his servant had played him false, he repaired to the bay,
(Scarborough) and found the water there fresh instead of salt,

“*There is much difference of opinion here as to the source of
this water. Capt. supports the views of those who hold
that it comes from the Oronoko. To do this, that great river
must force its food 180 miles against the equatorial stream and
trade wind, while the rivers to windward, e.g. the Demerara,
Essequibo, &c., discharge their water into that stream, which
impinges on our southern and eastern shores, leaving unmistake-
able evidence of its power.

‘- May not the Amazon have something to do with this phe-
nomenon? It is said to send its waters ‘pure and unmixed’
into the ocean 300 miles. I have had no information as to
excessive rains on the continent.” Rawson W. Rawson

Government House, Barbados, Dec. 2, 1872

International Book Conveyance

THE benefits conferred upon science by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution are known to all your readers. The object of this note is

NATURE

s Ae pie

ae te Peed i ee tae

* V4 ee ght ayo ok a tae
‘

162

sk if it is impossible to find in the old world wealth and
cl enough Brcane one small branch of Prof. Henry’s excel-
lent work. I refer to the Smithsonian system of book exchanges,
and I wish to know how much longer it is to continue easier and
infinitely cheaper to exchange publications with one’s corre-
spondents in the other hemisphere than it is between London
and Paris. Let me give an actual case. I recently sent two
identical parcels of books, one to Utrecht and one to Washing-
ton. The former cost 5s. 6d., the latter cost nothing. In order
that no one may run away with the idea that it would cost any
very large sum to carry out this suggestion, I may remark that
the Smithsonian system which is on a large scale, with agencies
at Leipsic, Stockholm, Christiania, Copenhagen, Amsterdam,
Paris, Milan, London, and Melbourne, besides its American
ones, only costs 1,000/, per annum. We have only to copy on a
diminished scale and to utilise existing agencies.
G. J. Symons
[See our note this week referring to an institution established
at Haarlem, —ED. ]

Dr. Cohn’s Address

THERE isa passage in Dr. Cohn’s address as reported in the
Christmas number of NATURE (p. 137), which greatly needs
correction ;— “Ts ‘

‘Since, in the year 1842, an unknown physician in a Swabian
country town, Dr. Mayer, of Heilbronn, pointed out that a ham-
mer 424 kilogrammes in weight, which falls from the height of
a metre on an anvil, raises the heat of the latter by one degree
centigrade EIA ale: ; ~

Leaving historical accuracy out of the question, this is a gross
misstatement of the physical fact. The correct statement is that
the whole heat generated by the blow (which will be partly
taken up by the hammer and partly by the anvil) will be as
much as would heat a Ac/ogvam of water one degree centigrade.

Malone Road, Belfast, Dec, 28 J. D. EVERETT

[Dr. Cohn’s words are :—‘‘ Seit im Jahre’ 1842, ein unbekann-
ter Arzt in einer schwabischen Landschaft, Dr. Mayer von Heil-
bronn, nachgewiesen hatte, dass ein 424 Kilogramm schwerer
Hammer, welcher einen Meter tief auf einen Ambos fallt, den
letzteren um einen Centigrad erwarmt,” &c, Ep. ]

Salmonide of Great Britain

Some months ago I inquired through the columns of the Fie?
newspaper if any sportsman, fisherman, or naturalist would oblige
me by replying to the following queries respecting the rarer Sa/-
monide of Great Britain. Firstly, whether Sa/mo ferox (the great
lake trout) had ever been takenin any lake in Wales, and, secondly,
whether any of the Gwiniad tribe (Corvegonz), such as the
Gwiniad of Bala, the Vendace of Loch Maben, and the Powan
of Ireland ; or any of the Chars (.Sa/mo salvelinius) have ever been
taken in any lake which is not a g/acial /ake—that is to say, a
lake which either lies in the tracks of an ancient glacier, or that
is dammed up, or otherwise surrounded by moraine matter?
The only reply with respect to the first query was from Sir
Philip Egerton, to the purpose that he took a specimen of Salmo
Jerox in Bala Lake in 1871, thus establishing the fact that this
fish still lingers in North Wales. To the second question I have
received no reply. Is it possible that I may be more fortunate
among the many naturalists and geologists who take NATURE?

Pendock, Tewkesbury W. S. SyMonps

Geographical Distribution of Dipterocarpez

Mr. BENTHAM, in his address to the Linnean Society, de-
livered May 4, 1872, remarks in a note, *‘ Dr. Hooker has, for
instance, remarked that no Diflerocarfee have been found east
of Borneo ;” but that in the present state of our knowledge it is
premature to endeavour to establish well-marked limits between
the flora of the western and eastern portions of the Indian
Archipelago.

Padre Blanco (no great authority, however), describes several
species of Difterocarpus found in the Philippine Islands, and I
myself sent to Mr. Robert Brown seeds of two species, one of which
in shape and size resembled the figure giyen by Lindley in his

** Vegetable Kingdom,” in his illustration of the genus. The seeds
of Dipterocarpus are so peculiar, that a mistake is not easily made
in determining most of the species. From some of those found |

(Kan. 2, 1873,

in these islands, valuable resins are collected. The wood of the
trees, which are very large, is also of some economic value. *
Manila, Oct. 8 W. W. Woop

Honest Cyclopedias

A FEW weeks ago Mr. A. R. Wallace asked in your columns
if there existed such a thing as a cyclopzedia which did not mis-
lead or blind the inquirer by harassing and often useless cross
references. As no one has yet answered Mr, Wallace’s question,
will you permit me to direct his attention to that admirable
work, almost equivalent in its fullness to a cyclopzdia and far
superior-to any cyclopzedia I know in its recent and careful com-
pilation, namely ‘‘ Brande’s Dictionary of Science,” edited by
the Rey. G. W. Cox. Rodwell’s Dictionary is excellent, but is
not so comprehensive as the last edition of Brande. ar eed

‘*The Boring in Sussex”

ON the oth inst. I was fortunate enough to find what I believe
to be the first fossil from the Sub- Wealden boring at Netherfield,
three or four shells of the genus Cyc/as, in dark blue shale from
a depth of rooft. There was also a small piece of what Dr.
Bowerbank thinks is a Paludina.

As there are Wealden fossils, it is supposed that the borer has
not yet got through the lower Wealden beds.

St. Leonard’s, Dec. 17 J. E. H. Peyron

Reflected Sunshine

THE recollection of a letter from Prof. Tyndall’s pen, which
appeared in NATURE some months ago, induces me to contribute
an account of a curious sun effect recently seen from the summit
of the Kudure Mukh, a hill nearly 6,200 ft. high. .

The Ghauts here rise in bold scarps from the plains, large
tracts of the latter being at this season under water, in prepara-
tion for the last rice crop.

Whilst resting one evening on the edge of the cliffs, I noticed
as the sun declined that his reflection was approaching a series of
sheets of water some six or eight miles off. Each of these pools
cast upwards through the blue haze that overhung the plains a
brilliant beam of light, the oblique rays from the water crossing
those from the sun, and forming with them a chessboard pattern
of light and shadow that was singularly beautiful.

As the sun dipped lower and his reflection fell full on the still
expanse of water, the scene became almost magical. There shone
a second sun at one’s feet, its wealth of beams, undiminished in
splendour, springing from the very bosom of the earth. ;

It required, indeed, but little stretch of imagination to fancy
that a real sun was glaring up through some ghastly chasm in
our globe. This phenomenon must be of frequent occurrence in
many parts of the world, and wherever the distance between the
observer and the reflecting surface is sufficient to greatly reduce
the size of known objects, with which the eye naturally compares
the apparent diameter of the reflected sun, the spectacle must
always be a startling one.

Since my return from the district a friend who was camped at
the Mukh prior to my visit there has told me that he also
noticed the effect described above, and used to climb the hill
every evening of his stay for the purpose of seeing it.

Mangalore, Nov. 21 E. W. PRINGLE

Electricity and Earthquakes

Ir has been suggested that earthquakes may be caused by
electrical discharges in the interior of the earth, and this may
account for some remarkable effects of the great shocks which
were so destructive to Manila in 1863.

It was observed that the effects of this earthquake were dis-
tributed in a peculiar manner over the comparatively small space
occupied by the city and suburbs. On the banks of the river and
canals, and through the northern quarter, great damage was done,
while to the southward the mischief was comparatively slight.
In parts of the town where large churches and other solidly-
constructed edifices were ruined, other and slighter buildings
placed near them escaped almost withoutinjury. This was par-
ticularly noticed in the parish of Quiapo, where the church was

* The wood of one very large species, according to Padre Blanco, was
formerly used in building the famous Acalpulco and Manila galleons, from

| the circumstance that, when pierced by cannon shot, it does not splinter in

the way most other timber is found to do.

‘
é

destroyed, while two very tall and isolated houses at a short
distance escaped. One of these houses has a side-wall nearly
60 ft. high, and another one supported by other houses. The
same partial effect was observed in other places, the terrestrial
disturbance having been, as it were, distributed in veins or cur-
rents, in the line of which everything went down ; but outside of
these limits the damage done was comparatively slight. The
exaggerated accounts published of the loss of life and injury to
the city have probably never been exceeded.

- We hear from the province of Albay (the southern extremity of
the island of Luzow) that the grand volcano, the Mayon, was
again in eruption, though at the last advices no damage had
been done. This is perhaps the most beautifully symmetrical
voleano in the world. From almost every point of view the
outline is equally elegant. A few years ago I was fortunate
in witnessing a fine eruption of the Mayon, which lasted for
many days. By means of a powerful telescope I was able to
watch its progress from a station at the base of the moun-
tain. The ejected matter appeared to be red-hot stones only,*
nothing like laya streams being visible. Indeed most of the
yolcanos of the Philippines throw out only scoria, ashes,
and, it is said, in some cases hot water; but all informa-
tion on these subjects is so liable here to gross exaggeration,
that little dependence can be placed on anything but personal
observation,

Another volcano, about 20 or 25 miles from the Mayon, called
the Bulusan, which has been dormant for many years, began to
throw out columns of smoke soon after the eruption of the Mayon,
which I witnessed.

I regret I have not been able to ascertain whether these vol-
canic disturbances have had any effect upon the thermal spring-
of Tivi at the base of the Mayon in causing an intermission in the
flow, &c. The waters of these springs, which are very limpid,
deposit large quantities of silicious scuter, which encloses anything
thrown into them. I have a piece of ordinary mat, which, in
vulgar phrase, is completely petrified. The temperature is nearly
boiling ; but it is dangerous to approach the openings too nearly,
and thermometrical experiments are difficult. Some of the con-
eretions from certain parts of these springs are very massive, and
when broken appear to be a nearly transparent silex.

Manila, Oct. 7 W. W. Woop

P.S.—The post brings further accounts of the new eruption of
the Mayon, which has assumed a formidable character, and is
said to be the most violent which has occurred for many years.
Some lives have been lost among the natives, who have their

' Manila hemp plantation on the flanks of the volcano, and great

apprehension prevailed in all the villages around the base of the
mountain. The new volcano on the island of Camiguin remains
in a semi-active state—smoking, but without any regular eruption.
Those who haye visited it lately report that it is steadily increas-
ing in volume, the irregular mass becoming larger daily, and
working towards the sea. The inhabitants have generally re-
turned to the island, but the villages in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the volcano are still deserted. Camiguin is important
from its plantations of Manila hemp (AZwsa textile), and a good
deal of capital is invested in them. :
Oct. 10

Atmospheric Refraction

Tr Mr, Wallace is still in search of facts on unusual atmospheric
refraction, I would refer him in the first place to ‘‘ Scoresby’s
Arctic Regions,” and Scoresby’s “ Greenland,” in both of which
works very full and accurate information is given as to facts
observed by the author; in the second place to the Phil. Trans.
for 1798, 1799, and 1800, containing papers by Latham, Vince,
and Wollaston; thirdly, to “Annales de Chimie,” first series,
vols. 29 and 39; the former containing a paper by Monge at
p- 207, and the latter a paper by Gorsse at p. 211.

More recent observations are described in NATURE for July 28
and August 25, 1870, and August 25, 1872.

» Tfany of your readers can inform me of any important contri-
butions to the literature of Mirage besides these above mentioned
T shall be greatly obliged.

J. D. Everett

* These appeared as if slowly pushed up from the interior of the crater,
and, rolling out over its edges, went thundering down the cone, throwing out
showers of fire as they struck the rocks or each other. This eruption was well
seen by me from two opposite stations, and was said to have been equally fine
when viewed from all sides of the mountain,

NATURE

BIELA’S COMET*

66 IELA’S Comet is my subject this time. A startling

telegram from Prof. Klinkerfues on the night of
Nov. 30 ran thus :— Biela touched Earth on 27th: search
near Theta Centauri.’

“T was on the look-out from comet-rise (16") to sunrise
the next two mornings, but clouds and rain disappointed
me. On the third attempt, however, I had better luck.
Just about 173" mean time, a brief blue space enabled me
to find Bze/a, and though I could only get four comparisons
with an anonymous star, it had moved forward 2°°5 in four
minutes, and that se¢¢/ed its being the right object. I re-
corded it as—‘ Circular ; bright, with a decided nucleus,
but no tail, and about'45” in diameter.’ This was in strong
twilight. Next morning, Dec. 3, I got a much better
observation of it ; seven comparisons with another anony-
mous star; two with one of our current Madras Catalogue
Stars, and two with 7734 Taylor. This time my notes
were— Circular ; diameter 75”; bright nucleus ; a faint
but distinct tail, 8’ in length and spreading, a position
angle from nucleus about 280°’ I had no time to spare
to look for the other comet, and the next morning the
clouds and rain had returned.

“Tf I get another view before posting this I may be
able to add a hasty postscript. The positions, the first
rough, the second pretty fair from the two known stars,
are—

Madras M.T R.A. (Apparent) P.D.
m s Ear os \-) to
Dec. 2 17 33 21 472 124 46
3) APE 25 17, 14 22 2°9 125 4 28

HINTS ON COLLECTING ARACHNIDA

I T having been suggested to me by Mr. Sclater that a few
hints on the collecting of Arachnida might be of
use for natural history collectors and travellers in foreign
parts, I have had great pleasure in drawing up the fol-
lowing notes on the subject, and shall be glad to receive
collections of these animals from any part of the world,
1.—What are Arachnida ?

These are Spiders, Scorpions, Harvestmen, and Mites
with several other allied groups (which have no English
names), such as the 7helyfhonide, semi-scorpion-like
creatures with a slender palpiform tail, and of consider-
able size; the Phrynidea, short-bodied creatures of a
somewhat spiderish appearance, but often of large size,
with a horny skin, and fore-legs of immense length and
great slenderness ; and the So/pagide, creatures which,
if they can be said to resemble any others, are perhaps
more like abnormal-looking spiders with a heavy head
and great double jaws than anything else.

2,—What places do Arachnida live in?

Little need be said on this, for there is no place so
barren, or so fertile, or so wet, or so dry, or so stony, but
that some, and generally most, of the Avachnida may be
found in it. Collectors abroad are often prevented from
collecting birds or insects by weather, but Arachnida
may be got in any weather, even if the collector be con-
fined to the house. Numerous species may be found in
corners and crevices ; beneath old bark, or detached rocks
and stones, myriads of spiders haunt. They are also to be
found among moss and deédris in damp places, in holes,
in banks and river-sides ; among the lower stems of grass
and rank herbage, and the borders of swamps and ponds ;
on tree trunks, among lichens, on bushes, in blooms of
flowers—in fact, to repeat it, everywhere ; often moving
in the hottest sunshine, and often concealed during the
day, coming abroad at dusk and in the night.

3.—How to collect Arachnida.

The mere modes of capturing them need not be much
detailed ; there is an advantage in respect to Arachnida
over all the /zsecfa in their being unable to fly. The

* Extract of a letter from Mr. N. R. Pogson, Madras Observatory, to
the Astronomer Royal, dated Dec. 5, 1872.

Ria Deke Veni a Soa Re tn a

164

|
greater number may be seized with the fingers with a

little practice, and immediately plunged into a bottle of
spirits of wine, or any other strong spirit ; but many large
ones may be boxed with large pill-boxes (of course, only
one in each box), and at the end of the day may
be suffocated with brimstone or chloroform, and then
put into the spirit. Where a collector is collecting
insects, he may catch many swift-running or strongly-
jumping spiders by placing his open net in front and
driving them into it with the other hand. A large um-
brella is a first-rate implement for beating boughs or long
herbage into.

4.—What to do with Avachnida after having caught
and bottled them.

All that need be done is to put as many into a bottle
as can be fairly got into it. There is no need to put
large specimens into one bottle and small into another ;
for it is found practically that a judicious mixture of
large and small is of no disadvantage, but rather the
contrary.

One special point to be always observed is to fill up
the bottle, where the specimens do not quite do so, with
small bits of soft paper crushed up and gently inserted,
until the contents fail to move about with the motion
and shaking of the bottle.

The best bottles are } oz. phials, 1 oz, 2 oz., and 4 oz.
wide-mouthed ditto, all of which are kept in stock by
chemists or bottle-makers in England. The smallest of
these will hold a large number of small specimens, and
the largest are large enough for all exc2pt a very few of
the gigantic JZyga/ide and scorpions; for the latter it must
be a barren region which will not furnish an empty
pickle-bottle capable of holding some scores of the
largest species. Tight corking is, of course, necessary,
and in hot regions tying down of the corks.

Of course any notes on the sexes of species or their habits,
&c. as well as on their colours, as these sometimes fade in
spirits, are valuable ; and where notes can be made, there
should be a supply of test tubes of various siz2s into
which the example noted should be placed with a written
card or letter, witha parchment number corresponding
with the numbered note, The tube should then be filled
with spirit and stopped firmly with a piece of cotton-wool,
and placed wool downwards, in one of the wide-mouthed
phials. A number of tubes may thus be packed into a
phial, but spirits should also be always put into the phial
as wellas into the tube.

Where there is a fear of handling spiders of large size,
or scorpions, a simple pair of forceps may be made
of a piece of bent hoop-iron, rivetted at the bend through
a piece of inserted tough wood, this gives sufficient spring
to keep the digital joints always extended a little way.
With these forceps Arachnida of a large size may be safely
caught, or extracted from holes and crevices.

Mr. Bates’ plan for killing the Mygales on the Amazons,
was to get them into a tin pot or box, put the cover on,
and place it for a few minutes upon the glowing embers
of a charcoal fire. Thesejmeans of killing may be used
where neither brimstone nor chloroform are available.

From the above hints it will be seen that, compared to
the trouble of collecting birds, mammals, or insects which
require careful setting and drying, the trouble of collecting
and preserving Arachnida is nil, and in all tropical regions
an intelligent native would collect hundreds of specimens
in a day if he were only furnished with two or three large
bottles full of strong spirit.

Thus all that is necessary for the complete equipment
of acollector of Arachnida is a large umbrella, a pair of
forceps (such as are above described) about twelve inches
long, two or three dozen of the bottles above-mentioned,
a hundred or so of test-tubes of different sizes, a little
cotton-wool, soft paper, and some strong spirit, which
may be got on the spot nearly everywhere.

O. P. CAMBRIDGE

NATURE ! Bian. 2

wut
et

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE OF THE MURCHI- |
SON CHAIR OF GEOLOGY AT EDINBURGH,
SESSTON.1872-3 * :

EFORE entering on the special subjects to be treated

of in the following course of lectuygs, it is most desir-—
able that we should definitely shape to ourselves the objects —
we have in view. By doing so we can the better take
stock from time to time of our gains, and judge at the end
how far we have succeeded in achieving any solid ad-
vantages. will

Now, if I put the question frankly to you, What do you
propose to accomplish by voluntarily placing yourselves
under such a course of instruction as that which begins
here to-day? you will, perhaps, reply that your desire is
to know something more of a science which offers to your
minds so many points of interest.

The task you have undertaken promises to be a pleasant
one, and possibly all the more so since there may be a
very general impression among my audience that your
duties here will be rather an exercise of the memory than
of the reasoning powers, and hence a not unwelcome relief
from severer studies,

I should be sorry to dispel so pleasing a belief; on the
contrary, it would give me some assurance that if our
conjoint efforts fail the fault will lie with me, and not
with you. Nevertheless, I have a deep conviction that, in
seeking here merely an addition to your knowledge, you
would neither do justice to the subject we are to study nor
to yourselves. ,

I know only too well that the imparting of knowledge is
popularly supposed to be the only aim and purpose of
natural science teaching, and that this notion pervades
our system of education. I believe it to be but a partial
view of the truth ; and even at the risk of being thought
dull I would lay before you another view, that you may see
what additional objects you may, in my opinion, accom-
plish here, besides storing your minds with facts. :

No one who thoughtfully considers the state of public
feeling in this country at the present time can doubt that
we are on the eve of educational changes more momentous
than any which have come to pass for centuries. It is not
merely that education has become a political cry ; that it
forms a staple element in the declamations which fill the
air from the halls of St. Stephen’s to the village green ;
and that all this oratory finds further exposition and
enforcement in the public prints. It is not merely that we
believe it will be hard, a generation hence, to find a man
or woman throughout the land who cannot at least read
and write. These results, profoundly important as they
are, do not fill up the whole measure of change which is
impending, nor are they those which most nearly con-
cern you and me at present.

It is impossible that such radical reforms should be
worked in the primary education of the country without
an influence, and perhaps an extremely potent one, upon
the higher forms of culture. On every side, indeed, we
can already descry indications of the coming changes—
changes, however, which are not wholly, nor even, perhaps,
chiefly, due to the disturbances of our primary educational
system, but which would assuredly have been brought
about, even had no sweeping Parliamentary legislation
taken place.

Nowhere can these indications be more significantly
scen than among those conservative educational centres,
where it might have been supposed that the call for reform
would have been longest in making itself heard and
obeyed. Even there the old and time-honoured traditions
are losing their hold. The young blood of a newer time
has begun to quicken some of the most dormant of our
institutions.

Uncompromising opposition is apt so to embitter a
struggle, that what is at first only a desire for reform par-
takes in the end somewhat of the blind fury of a revolution.

* Given on Noy. 11 by Prof. Geikie, F.R.S,

| Fan. 2, 1873] ,

NATURE

Le 7 Pi ee ad ty 3 cy 8 Rae Ce
i Oe as xt Roe SS Fa Rah ahs ty
as: Seat we Cf . a ‘ :

165

It is, however, a happy omen for the future of higher edu-
cation among us that some of the most strenuous champions
of change are to be found among those whose vested in-
terests and traditions might have been deemed likely to
ensure their conservatism, These men are not in much
danger of going too far, and yet their earnestness is a
guarantee that they certainly have no intention of standing
still. The foundations on which the culture of centuries
has been built are not to be ruthlessly pulled up; but the
time has assuredly come when they need to be broadened
and widened,

Let no one imagine that such words as these imply any
want of reverence for the time-honoured means of mental
discipline. Literature and philosophy have ever taken,
and must ever take, the foremost place in intellectual cul-
ture. They bring mind in contact with mind, and with all
that is highest and noblest in the history of humanity,
There was a time, indeed, when they comprised the whole
sum of human thought. That time has long passed, and
yet, in our traditional system of education, we still per-
petuate its memory. But man has since then discovered
that, although he be indeed a marvellous microcosm, there
lies outside of him a great world full of infinite diversity
wherein he can, nevertheless, discover such a unity of plan
as links even his own being with every part of nature.

It is not now enough that man shall know what his
forefathers have thought, or written or done, nor that he
shall «content himself with studying the nature and
workings of his own mind, or busy himself with abstract
principles of magnitude and number. Now why is this
so? Because during the last two hundred years his
relations to the external world have been so thoroughly
altered. He is no longer a mere higher kind of animal,
ignorant almost as other animals of the phenomena in
progress around him, and well-nigh as helpless as they in
the inevitable struggle with the elements. For thousands
of years he had aspired to rule over but one, and that the
least, of the domains of which he was made lord at the
beginning :—he was content with undisputed dominion
over the beast of the field, and the fish of the sea, and
the fowl of the air. He has now claimed the right which
was his by the same charter to have dominion over the
earth and to subdue it. So that now his mastery is
hardly less decisive over air, and land, and sea. He can
bend the energy of nature to do his humblest offices.

What is it, then, which has made this difference
between man’s power in this present time and that which
he possessed only afew generations ago? Can you trace
it to the teaching of the schools? Is it the fruit of that
traditional system handed down to us from older centuries?
Assuredly not, it has sprung from a sphere of education
outside of the schools. It is to be traced, without doubt
or cavil, to the strides which modern physical science has
taken, Man has gone to school elsewhere than in the
class-rooms. He has proved himself too, to be an apt
pupil, for in the comparatively short space of time in
which he has given himself to these pursuits, he has
gained such a mass of knowledge as has enabled him
to work greater changes on the face of the globe and on
his own relations to it than had been effected during all
the previous centuries put together.

By this wide-spread dominion over nature we stand
separated by a kind of gulf from our forefathers. And
yet strange as it may seem, we have made no corre-
sponding change in the range of subjects which are still
prescribed for the higher education of the country. We
send our young men and young women to be trained
very much in the same modes which were in use a couple
of centuries ago ormore, Welive in the days of railways
and telegraphs, and we educate our youth as if they
lived before the introduction of mail-coaches.

It is true that both in the higher schools and colleges,
certain supplementary subjects, of which natural science
is one, may be taken at the option of the learner. But

these subjects are not made essential parts of our higher
education, nor does any provision exist for making them
more than mere sources of information. They are not in
any way made use of as implements of intellectual
training. And even the use to which they are put is so
slight that a man may attain the highest academic
honours and yet remain as ignorant as a school-boy of
the commonest facts and phenomena around him, and of
the causes which make his own age to differ so prodi-
giously from the ages which have gone before it.

I remember being much impressed with this fact,
when as a boy, I met among the hills of Skye,a man
who had not Jong taken his Master’s degree at Cambridge
and who had retired to that remote region for the pur-
poses of further study. We happened to get into conver-
sation regarding the origin of the mild climate of the
north-west of Scotland. On being questioned, I referred
to the influence of the Gulf-stream, My friend, however,
had never heard of a Gulf-stream, refused to believe it
to be more than one of what he called my “geological
speculations,” and would hardly even credit the school-
master, who, when appealed to, gravely assured him that
he had heard of the Gulf-stream before I was born.

This may be an extreme case, but it is an actual one.
It serves to show that though a man can hardly fail to
pick up some acquaintance with science in the course
of ordinary conversation or in reading the current literature
of the day, no provision exists for making instruction in
the meaning of the ordinary every-day facts of nature
a necessary part of education, and that a man may gain
his academic honours even without such instruction.

I am well aware that in one way or other a smattering
of at least one science, sometimes a confused jumble of
several, is very commonly carried away from school.
The science-classes there, though they may be wholly
optional, are often also popular with the scholars. Inte-
resting experiments, pretty specimens and amusing dia-
grams are exhibited, and some amount of information
is communicated, even if no special interest should be
awakened in the subject, and no clear mental gain should
be the result. But this is far from the sort of position
which, as it seems to me, science ought to hold in higher
education,

If culture is to be really liberal, that is, free and
generous, surely it ought above all things to reflect fully
and fairly the spirit and character of the time. If it
shuts out this influence and continues to maintain the
standard fixed for a wholly different time, does it not
cease to be truly liberal? Full of reverence for the past,
and striving after the fullest use of the heritage of wisdom
which the past has bequeathed, a liberal culture, to
be worthy of the name, must recognise that no standard
however serviceable for the time in which it was erected,
can be permanent ; and that the limits which it sets for
its own age cannot bind the ages to come. — For the laws
of continuity and evolution embrace the workings of
the human mind as well as the operations of outer nature.
And in the end it will be as impossible to keep the flow
of youthful thought confined in one narrow and old-
fashioned channel as it would be to restrain the river
which is every moment rising to overflow its banks. _

No great foresight is needed, therefore, to perceive
that before many years are past the stereotyped curricu-
lum for what is called a liberal education, whether in
higher schools or in the universities, must be modified.
It is not enough that a young man or a young woman
should be permitted a choice as to the acquiring of some
knowledge of science beyond that needed for the old
standard. This knowledge, but still more the intellectual
training by which it was originally obtained, should bean
essential part of any system of education truly deserving
now-a-days the name of liberal. And the want of this
training should be regarded as quite as serious a defect
in education as an ignorance of Latin or mathematics.

(To be continued.)

Se nnn
QN THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
Il.
WE now arproach Newton’s great discovery, which is
this :-—“ Zhe light of the sun consists of rays aiffe-
rently refrangible ;” that is to say, if we take a beam of
sunlight, and make it pass through a prism, we shall get
colours of different refrangibility. We see then that
if, instead of two coloured beams, we pass one of per-
fectly white light through the prism, the action of the
prism is at once to turn that beam into a beautifully
coloured band, which will remind you of a rainbow. It
was this which Newton didin a dark room, which led him
to his important discovery. White light is compounded
of light of different degrees of refrangibility. But how
is it possible to show the truth of Newton’s assertion that
white light is compounded of these different colours ? We
can do so by simply placing in the path of the coloured
beam which you see passing through the room, another
prism placed in a contrary direction, as shown in Fig. 10;
you see in a moment that we get back white light ; for the
second prism exactly neutralises the effect caused by the
first, and the ray proceeds as if nothing had happened.
Possibly you may ask, is it true that white light is built
up of all colours? That question can be answered to a
certain extent by an experiment of a different order, If

Fic. ro.—Recomposition of white light by means of a second prism.

a disc, divided into sections and coloured with the
principal colours of the spectrum as shown in Fig. 11 be
taken, and if it be true that the idea of white light is
simply an idea built up by the eye, because we have all
these multitudes of light waves perpetually pouring into
it with a velocity that is very much greater than anything
which can be translated into words, surely we should get
something like this effect also if we were able, by rapidly
rotating this screen, to obtain a more or less perfect
substitute for white light. The coloured disc being made
to rotate rapidly, you see we obtain something like an
approximation to white light, though the white colour
does not come out so clearly as it might do. Now I

NATURE

am very anxious that you should see that this is really |

an effect due to the flowing in of light from different
parts of that wheel into the eye, and so forming this
compound impression, which is conveyed to the brain ;
and so if instead of illuminating the disc continuously
by the electric lamp, or by sunlight, it is illuminated
intermittently, by an electric spark, you would see

that although the disc is rotating rapidly all the time, | subject which we owe to Newton are, first, the explination

each separate colour is now discernible, and the disc
appears to stand still. The reason of this difference is,
that in one case the rotation of the wheel builds upa
compound image in the eye, and in the other case it
cannot do so, because the flash of the light is much more
rapid and instantaneous than the rotation of the wheel.
There is one more experiment which can be easily
made, to show that all the beautiful colour which we get
in nature is really reflected after all, and that if our sun-

light, instead of being polychromatic—that is to say, com-
pounded of all these beautiful colours—were monochro-
matic, or of one colour only, the whole expanse of creation
would put on a very different appearance from what it
does. If, instead of illuminating “ diagram, the letters
of which are of different bright colours, by the white light
of the electric Jamp, we illuminate it by a light that only
contains one colour—by the yellow light of sodium, for
instance, and then look at the diagram, you will see that
seme of the letters upon it are almost invisible, whilst
others are very clear, the yellow light only allowing a dif-
ference to be seen of more or less depth of shade, there
being no difference in colour. But when we allow the poly-
chromatic light from the lamp, or as we get it from the sun,
to shine upon the diagram, you at once see that all these
letters are of different colours, and burst out, as it were,
into beauty, This experiment feebly indicates the advan-
tage we possess in living in a universe lit by white or
polychromatic light, instead of light which is merely blue,
or yellow, or any other single colour.

Hitherto we have spoken only of refraction. I now in-
troduce the word dispersion, which represents simply a
measure of different refractions, or the difference between
the bending of the red and the violet rays of light. In an
ordinary spectrum the difference between the red and the

Fic. r1.—Recomposition of white light by means of a rapidly revolving
[disc coloured in sections.

violet is the difference of the refraction of those two
colours by the prism, and the angle which the red, or
yellow, or other colour forms with the original path of the
compound-beam is called the angle of deviation.

There is one other consideration which we owe to
Newton. In his very first experiments, that great philoso-
pher discovered that the quality of the spectrum depended
very much on the following consideration :—If I wish to
get the best possible effect out of a prism and the purest
possible spectrum, I have so to arrange it that the particular
ray which I wish to observe, whether the yellow, the blue,
the green, or any other, leaves that prism at exactly the
same angle as the incident compound ray falls on it.
This angle is termed the azgle of minimum deviation,

The two things, therefore, of greatest importance in this

of the dispersive power of the prism; and next, the
pointing out the extreme importance of arranging the
prism, so that if we want to observe any particular part
of the spectrum, the rays constituting that part of the
spectrum should leave the prism at the same angle as
the white light falls on it.

It is very curious, however, that Newton, although he
made many experiments on prisms, really omitted one of
the most important points, which you will see carefully

J
r

arranged for in every one of the spectroscopes used |

at the present day. And here again we get an

NATURE

found out that it was not at all as Newton had represented
it. Newton told us in fact that the sunlight was con-

idea of the enormous patience which is necessary tinuous, that is to say, that the spectrum was one in

in these matters, for we had to wait a century and a
quarter before the next essential point was hit upon
in the construction of a spectroscope. Newton made
a round hole in a shutter for his experiments, but we now

_know that he ought not to have done that ; he ought to

have made a slit. But this did not come out until 1802,

when Dr. Wollaston, by merely using a slit instead of a.

round hole, made a tremendous step in advance. You
will see the importance of this in a moment. If we take
a cylindrical beam of sunlight and put a prism ia the path
of the beam, we observe that the spectrum is not a
pure one ; but if we change the round hole for a slit, we |

which there was no break in the light which flowed out

to every part of the spectrum, from the extreme red to

the violet. When Dr. Wollaston tried the slit he found,

however, that the spectrum, instead of being that rainbow
_ band of light which you have seen, was really broken by a
_ succession of fine—beautifully fine—black lines.

These lines were observed by Dr. Wollaston, but it
was not till 1814 that we find them mapped out with the
greatest care, to the number of 576, bya German optician
named Fraunhofer ; hence they are termed “ Fraunhofer
| lines,” the principal ones being lettered A, B, C, &c.

If we say, then, that spectroscopic inquiry dawned with

obtain a spectrum of the greatest purity ; the red, blue, | Newton, certainly the sun began to rise with Fraunhofer,

i
co ca.C

green, and violet, instead of overlapping and destroying
the beauty of the spectrum, show distinctly as simple
colours, each one speaking for itself on the screen. By
using this narrow slit instead of the round hole which
Newton made in the shutter, we got the first idea of the
tremendous importance of spectrum analysis; for no
sooner had Dr. Wollaston examined the sunlight
with the new arrangement, as Newton had done a cen-
tury and a quarter before with the old one, than he

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for he, no longer content with getting a sunbeam through
this slit, and finding out and measuring with most ad-
mirable accuracy these 576 lines in that band of colour,
turned his telescope to the moon and the planets, and the
different stars ; and he discovered that, in the case of the
stars, the positions of the lines varied considerably from
those they occupied in the spectrum of the sun ; and this
is one of the most important discoveries which has been
|made during the present century in these matters. In-

Sh. Pb

Fic. 12.—Upper diagram, Spectrum near D : Lower diagram, Spectrum near E.

deed, it is the foundation of very much of the later more | know, and it is not too early to place this before you, that
detailed work. these black lines indicate regions in the spectrum where

The solar spectrum then, as we have said, far from being | there is no light. Ifthe light is perfectly continuous, so
continuous, is crossed by an almost innumerable number | that every ray of light is enabled to register itself at the
of dark lines, some being fine and others thicker and | end of the telescope, by painting an image of the slit, you
blacker. Fig. 12 shows a small portion of the spectrum in | will get a continuous spectrum ; but supposing, for in-
the yellow and green. Other observers, such as Kirch- | stance, that the whole of the yellow light were absent, it
hoff, Thalén, and Angstrém, have worked at these dark | is clear that the spectroscope, if it does its duty well, will
lines, and have drawn most beautiful and elaborate maps, | give you blackness where the yellow light is absent. We
showing at least 2,000 lines of various thicknesses. | do not find that the whole of any particular colour is

We have now to pass on from 1812 to the year 1830, | absent, but here and there, scattered over all the colours,
when Mr. Simms, an optician of world-wide reputation, | there are these places where the rays of light do not come
made another very important improvement in the spectro- | to tell their story. This is the explanation of the Fraun-
scope. Instead of merely using a prism and observing | hofer lines in the solar spectrum. In the light which we
the slit with the naked eye, he placed a lens in front of | get from the sun, certain of the rays which we may sup-
the prism, so arranged that the slit was in the focus of pose ought to come to us, do not come, and we get no
the lens. The light which is allowed to pass through the news from them. We do get news of some of the other
slit is thus turned into a cylindrical beam, and thus rays, which show us the various shades of blue, of green,
travels through the prism; then, instead of having | and soun; but hereand there a ray, which possibly might
merely the eye to observe the spectrum, there is another | have come if it were not better employed, does not come,
lens which grasps the circular beam and compels it to | and therefore the image of the slit cannot be painted.

throw an image of the slit, which may be magnified at
pleasure. The very great importance of this construction
is at once obvious, if you think for one moment of the
figure showing the linesin the solar spectrum, We now

I am glad to say that we know a little more about
these lines than we did some years ago. You may
imagine the enormous mystery—the wonderful reverence
almost—with which this question of the Fraunhofer lines

168

NATURE

was approached, until they were thoroughly understood ;
and recollect that we owe the discovery of them—by
which we are enabled now to determine the pressures
acting in the atmospheres of the most distant stars—
simply to the fact that Dr. Wollaston, instead of drilling
a round hole, used a slit ; and to the other additional fact,
that Mr. Simms, instead of using that slit with a mere
prism, used a lens and made the beam parallel, and then
allowed that parallel beam, after it had passed through
the prism, to pass into another telescope,and form an
image of the slit. You see how closely connected are the
grandest discoveries with the skill and suggestiveness of
those who supply different instruments for our use.

Now I must ask you to come back again to the prism.
I have already told you that dispersion is the measure of
the difference of the refrangibilities. Ifwe take a prism
which appears like an ordinary one, but really is com-
posed of several layers of different kinds of glass, and
pass an ordinary beam of light through it, it will be dif-
ferently acted upon by the various layers, and we shall get
a difference in the spectra. We have here, in fact, three
distinct spectra, showing that there is something in the
different layers of which this prism is composed which
turns the light out of its path, and which disperses it
more in some cases than it does in others. The cause of
this is the density of the glass composing each layer:
some kinds of glass are nearly twice as heavy as others,
and fortunately we are not limited to glass, for if we were
we should not be able to go so far in these inquiries as
we do. The prism in reality consists of three separate
pieces of glass of different density, and it may be seen
that the three spectra obtained are differently refracted.
It is a very natural conclusion that the heavier and
denser glass should have a stronger action on the light
than the lighter glass has. So that, in these inquiries, if
we want to get great dispersion, not only must we use
heavy glass, but we leave glass behind altogether, as
amongst the liquids we find some which give even a
greater dispersion than the densest glass. If a beam
is passed through a hollow prism of glass filled with
bisulphide of carbon, the spectrum obtained is much
longer than that produced by the densest flint glass we
can get. But there is another consideration to be borne
in mind, The dispersive power and refractive power
not only depend upon the density of the glass, but on the
angles of the prism. Ifa beam of light is sent through
two prisms of unequal angles the effect is extremely dis-
tinct. Thus, if we take one prism with an angle of 20°,
and another with an angle of 60°, the larger angle gives
us a much greater deviation and dispersion ; therefore,
we not only have density to help us, but we have also the
angle of the prism.

And now let us go on to a third important point in the
matter. We are not limited to one prism if we wish to
get a great amount of dispersion ; if you will think the
matter over, you will see that there is no good reason
why we should not employ two, and then you will find
that the dispersion will be considerable. So you see,
first, we have a single prism of a dense substance; by
increasing the angle we get increased dispersion, and
then we get it still further increased by adding another
prism, and so we might go on, adding prism after prism,
until we get to any number of prisms arranged in the best
possible manner for the light to be successively dispersed
by each of them. First of all, you have the dispersive
power of glass, then you have the angle of the prism, and
then you have a number of prisms, all of them capable of
being so arranged that we can make them all useful in
these inquiries, until at last we get a dispersion of such
an enormous amount that the spectrum of the sun, as
mapped by Kirchhoff and Biinsen, is several yards in
length, although it is nothing but a succession of images
of one of the finest slits which our best opticians are able
to make,

You see, therefore, that our spectroscope depends first

of all on Newton’s work with the prism in 1675, and on
the fact which Newton found out incidentally, that it is

important that the prism should be used at the angle of —

minimum deviation. We then get the slit added by
Wollaston in 1812; then the collimating lens, added by
Simms, in 1830.
spectroscope improved and modified as an instrument,
until at last we get spectroscopes so arranged that the
glass is of the finest possible material, the angle being
the largest possible, the glass the densest possible, and
the number of prisms as great as possible,

There are some other considerations connected with
the manufacture of spectroscopes which it is hardly
necessary I should bring before you, as they are rather
more in the nature of detail than of general principles ;
but I must point out that where liquids are employed, it
is absolutely essential that the temperature should be
as equable as we can get it. A current of warm air ina
room is quite sufficient to render any spectrum obtained
by these liquid prisms perfectly useless ; hence, although
their great dispersive power is of great value in some
cases, where we want dispersion more than anything
else, still, as a rule, we are limited for nearly all our
researches to these dense glass prisms of great angle,
to which I have already alluded. But there is another
consideration of great importance which comes in here.
If the angle of a prism be large, a ray of light travelling
from one prism to another, enters the second at an
extremely small angle, under which circumstances a large
amount of light is reflected, but still it is not better to use
a greater number of prisms of a smaller angle than a
smaller number of a larger one. Again in spectroscopes
of many prisms it is essential that there should be some
arrangement by which each part of the spectrum should
be observed with each prism at the angle of minimum
deviation for that ray. This may be done in many ways,
and the beam may be made to pass back again through
the prisms, thus doubling the amount of dispersion, On
these points I shall have more to say presently,

Another important consideration, besides the purity of
the material, is the perfect figure of the slit, You might
imagine that the slit of a spectroscope was perfectly easy
to make ; but, judging by the results of the manufacture,
it is extremely difficult, for a perfect slit is still very rare,
the best being made by Steinheil of Munich, Mr.
Browning has suggested making the slit of a compound
of gold, which will not rust, or be acted upon much by
temperature, and which also will take a good figure with-
out any very great difficulty.

NORMAN LOCKYER,
(To be continued.)

NOTES

TuE Académie Royale de Belgique has elected Dr. Hooker
‘‘Membre associé.” This has been done as their contribution
to the Kew controversies. Prof. Monen, writing from Liege, is
glad that Dr. Hooker has received ‘‘le plus haute distinction
scientifique que notre pays peutconferer . . . dans une moment
on vous (Dr. H.) soutenez une lutte vive et penible pour
Vhonneur de Ja botanique.”

IN their desire to uphold the standard .of medical teaching,
the authorities of Charing Cross Hospital have committed an
act which presents the appearance of an injustice. Not only
have they not elected anyone to the vacant post of Demonstra-
tor of Anatomy at their school, but they have sent the following
announcement to each of the candidates :—‘‘ Resolved: That in
the opinion of this Committee, the gentlemen who have offered
themselves as candidates for the Demonstratorship of Anatomy
have not had sufficient practical experience in teaching anatomy
to justify the Committee in selecting any one of them.? The
Committee would, of course, have been perfectly warranted in

[fon 2, 3893 4

In this way we have arrived at the

= %
7,

.

setting aside all the applications ; but it was surely, to say the
_ least, unwise thus to challenge criticism on the soundness of
judgment of the Committee, since it is generally known that
_ among the candidates was at least one who has had quite excep-
tional opportunities, not only for practical work, but also in
_teaching—Dr. Jas. Murie, who has been Demonstrator in

_ Anatomy and Pathology to several medical schools both in Scot-

land and in London, has filled for some years the post of Pro-
sector to the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens, and whose
original papers and monographs (upwards of seventy in number)
are universally recognised as evidence of quite unusual powers
of research and demonstration. Our original workers are so
few, and their opportunities of emolument so slender, that it is
doubly hard that they should receive discouragement of this
nature at the hands of a body specially bound to encourage the

practice of original research.

AT a meeting of the Bombay Geographical Society on
October 16, it was resolved to make arrangements to amalga-
mate that Society with the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society.

Tue following are the names on the Cambridge Natural
Science Tripos :—First Class—Whitmell (Trinity), Saunders
(Down.), Teall and Yule (John’s), the last distinguished in
Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, and the last three equal.
Second Class—Gaskell (Trin. H.), and Ranking (Cuth.),
equal, Hebert, (Caius). Third Class—(all equal), Barron

(Caius), Dew-Smith (Trin.), Knubley (Mag.), Marshall, W. C.

(Trin.), Smith, J. (John’s).

THE elements of the new planet (No. 128), discovered on the
night of Dec. 4-5, by M. A. Barrelly, are given in the last
number of Astronomische Nachrichten. Vt is of the tenth mag-
nitude.

THE stations which the expeditions organised by the American
government intend to occupy for the purpose of observing the
transit of Venus will be mostly on the islands and coasts of the
Pacific Ocean, from New Zealand on the south to the Aleutian
Islands on the north, and from the Sandwich Islands on the east
to China on the west. Telescopes and photographic apparatus
for eight ‘stations have been ordered from the firm of Alvan
Clark & Sons, Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, and it is probable
that nearly all the apparatus will be of American manufacture.

WE regret to announce thedeath of W. J. Macquorn Rankine, on
Dec. 24, 1872, Professor of Engineering in Glasgow University.
We hope next week to give an account of his life and labours.

WE regret to have to announce the death of Mr. Archibald
Smith, LL.D., F.R.S., of Jordan Hall, Lanarkshire. Mr.
Smith was born in’ 1814, studied at Glasgow and Cambridge
Universities, being in 1836 Senior Wrangler and first Smith’s
Prizeman in the latter ; the second wrangler was Bishop Colenso.
He afterwards went to the Chancery bar, devoting his leisure to
mathematical studies, his contributions to science being of high
practical value. He was employed by Government to make a
magnetic survey of the Antarctic regions, in connection with
which he, in 1862, published his ‘‘ Admiralty Manual for the
Deviation of the Compass,” which was republished and trans-
lated into various languages. Mr. Smith received from the
Royal Society one of its Royal Medals, from the Empéror of
Russia a compass set with diamonds, and recently from Her
Majesty’s Government a gift of 2,000/. as a mark of their appre-
ciation of the value of his researches.

We learn that the Brighton Aquarium) Company propose ~

eventually to embrace in their building sections representing
Zoology and Ornithology. There are now in course of construc-
tion a large tank for Reféi/ia, and a seal pond. On Monday
last a fine young seal was brought from the London Zoological

NATURE

Gardens, and is now the centre of attraction to visitors. There
are also some very fine specimens of Axolotl (A-xoloteles guttatus)
lately received from Mexico. Considering the short time the
aquarium has been in working order, and the loss of the late
manager, Mr. Lord, the present efficient state of the building
reflects great credit on all concerned.

AN examination will be held in Exeter College on Tuesday,
January 28, 1873, and the following days, for the purpose of
filling up four Scholarships and three Exhibitions. Two of the
Scholarships are of the annual value of So/. each, and two cf
them of 60/. each. To the latter, candidates born or educated
for the three years last past in the diocese of Exeter have a prior
claim, but only if they are duly qualified by their attainments to
be scholars of the college. Otherwise these Scholarships
also will be open. Of the Exhibitions one is worth 632. per
annum, the second is worth 50/. per annum, the third is worth
45/. per annum, and the holder of it, as also of the first, must
apply himself to the study of Divinity. Candidates for the
Scholarships must not have exceeded the twentieth year of their
age on the day of election, There is no limit of age for the
Exhibitions. One of the Scholarships and one of the Exhibitions
will be given for proficiency in Natural Science, if sufficiently
good candidates present themselves. Papers will be set in
Chemistry, Physics, and Biology, but special weight will be
given to excellence in Biology. Candidates in Natural Science
must satisfy the College that they possess sufficient Classical
knowledge to be able to pass responsions.

Tue exhibition for National Science at St. John’s College,
Cambridge (51/. for three years), has been awarded to Mr. W. B. ~
Lowe, who was educated at Rugby, and Mr. Taylor equal.
McAllister, who highly distinguished himself in the examination
for this exhibition and in mathematics, was elected to one of 4o/,
for four years.

Mr. DitrMar, of Edinburgh University, has been appointed
Assistant-Professor and Junior Demonstrator of Chemistry at
Owens College, Manchester.

Mr. J. J. Taytor, of Giggleswick Grammar School, was
elected on Wednesday, December 25, to a Natural Science Ex-
hibition, at St. John’s College, Cambridge, for proficiency in
chemistry and physics.

Mr. ALEXANDER PEDLER, F.C.S., has been appointed Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Calcutta.

WE are favoured by Prof. Griffis with a copy of the Japan
Daily Herald, which contains some notes of the ascent of the
volcanic mountain Fuji Yama, on September 8 and 9, 1872, by
an officer stationed at Subashiri. From his own very careful
observations, compared with that of others, and corrected by
instruments at the Lighthouse Department at Benten, the officer
estimates the total height at 13,080°32ft. The only vegetation
found on the summit was small lichens, while icicles hung from
the rocks all round. There are a few stone huts on the summit,
in which people live during the summer. The sides are lined
with woods, principally firs, larch, birch, and mountain ash.
The approximate diameter of the crater is given as 1,770 ft., and
its depth 440 ft. The bottom of the crater appeared to consist
of a small patch of sand, thoughit might have been dirty snow.
The sides are all loose clinker, affording no foothold, unless with
the assistance of a rope.

THE Bulletin de la Société de Geographie contains a paper by
M. H. Duveyrier, on Livingstone’s explorations, from 1866 to
1872, accompanied by a very pretty provisional map, which will
no doubt require some alteration in the future, A paper on the
Gulf Stream by M. E. Masqueroy, seeks to combat the theories
advanced by Dr. Petermann in Nos, 6 and 7 of the Afittheilungen
for 1870.

Rs
‘ a

ee I ea, oa yt ee ee
Reith oe) AG al She eg ee <*. 2) et Se

140

THE advanced sheet of the AZitheilungen, which Dr. Peter-
mann has been good enough to send us, is occupied with an
exceedingly interesting and carefully compiled abstract of the
history of discovery in the most northerly region of Asia, be-
tween the Lena and Yenisei, from the year 1734 to 1866. This
forms No. 73 of the papers on the geography and exploration
of the Polar Regions, and is accompanied by one of those ad-
mirably constructed maps which form so enjoyable and valuable
a feature of Dr. Petermann’s invaluable periodical. The sheet
also contains part of a second paper on Dr, Livingstone’s ex-
ploration of the Upper Congo.

Tue last number of Ze Zour du Monde contains a ‘* Revue
Geographique” of 1872, devoted chiefly to African discovery.

AT a meeting of the managers of the Edinburgh Royal In-
firmary, held on December 23, the following resolution was
passed :—‘‘ That the managers of the Royal Infirmary resolve
to admit females already enroled in the students’ register for
Scotland to receive clinical instruction, at a separate hour from
that at which male students are admitted into the hospital, and
in a stated number of wards, containing eighty beds, to which
the female students must confine their visits ; and remit to a sub-
committee to make the requisite arrangements and alterations.”

AT a meeting of the new Medical Microscopical Society held
on December 6, Mr. Jabez Hogg was elected President, and a
code of rules was adopted. The meetings will take place on
the third Friday of each month, from October to July inclusive,

A MICROSCOPICAL soirée was given on the evening of Dec. 19,
to the students of St, Thomas’s Hospital, by the President and
Secretary of the physical staff of that hospital (Mr, Wagstaffe
and Dr, Evans).

WE learn from the A/Aeneum that the Earl of Derby would
have formed one of the Arctic deputation, had he not been
unavoidably detained in the country, and that he has expressed
his cordial wishes for the success of the representation that has
been made to Government.

THE Revista del Sur, of Chile, states that showers of sand
occurred on July 3, in Araucaria, of sufficient extent to cover up
all the planted fields of the Indians, and oblige them to take
refuge on the north side of the mountain. This rain, supposed
to have come from an eruption of Mount Llaima, distressed the
Indians so much as to drive them into the neighbourhood of the
white settlements.

Tue Court of the Haberdashers’ Company recently granted
five exhibitions of 50/. each, for three years, to assist the holders
(at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities) in their fur-
ther educational or professional pursuits, Besides these exhi-
bitions, 1507, was voted with a view to assist the education of
children and grandchildren of liverymen, The same company
has under its management five schools, new schemes for which
are progressing with the Endowed Schools Commissioners.

Tue November number of Siliiman’s Yournal contains the
first part of a very able paper by Prof. Joseph LeConte, in
which he proposes his “Theory of the Formation of the great
Features of the Earth’s Surface.” It is an admirable example of
clearscientific reasoning and deserves the attention of all geologists,
especially of those who believe the earth to be an extremely thin
crust enveloping a molten and gaseous mass, He believes that
Humboldt’s formula, that all the effects of igneous agency are
the result of ‘‘the reaction of the interior on the crust of the
earth,” must form the point of departure of every true theory ;
but in departing from this vague formula, only the most confused
and contradictory notions seem to prevail among geologists.
Mr. LeConte has for many years thought much on the subject,
and his paper is an attempt to emerge from the chaos which now
exists into something like clearness of perception on this

NATURE

— [¥an. 2, 1873.

eee hs
supremely interesting point. He is convinced that the whole

theory of igneous agencies—which is little less than he whole —
Joundation of theoretic geology—miust be reconstructed on the basis
of a solid earth, Another very valuable article in this number —
is Mr. C. A. Young’s ‘‘ Catalogue of Bright Lines in the Spec-
trum of the’ Solar Atmosphere,” which has already appeared in
NATURE.

THE number of Za Revue Scientifique for December 2t, —
contains Prof. Hackel’s introductory lecture on his taking
possession of the chair of Zoology, recently founded in the
University of Jena; the subject is ‘the Progress and Object of -
Zoology.’ The same number contains a notice of the institution
recently founded at Haarlem, named ‘‘ Bureau Scientifique
central Néerlandaise,” which proposes to do for Europe what
the Smithsonian Institution does for America, effect with
certainty, regularity, and a minimum expense, exchange of
publications between the now very numerous European scientific
societies. Any Society wishing to benefit by this mode of
exchange, sends a sufficient quantity of its publications to
the Bureau, which in return sends back to it copies of the
publications of all the societies connected with it, At the
end of the year the necessary expenses are divided among ‘the
various participating societies. The scheme looks plausible, and
if well conducted might turn out to be very useful.

As usual at this season of the year the Royal Institution is
doing its best to purvey for eager holiday-making youth a
judicious mixture of the ¢i/e and the dulce, and as usual it has
been eminently successful, if we may judge from the delight with
which the hundreds of boys and girls who filled the well-known
theatre last week listened to Prof. Odling’s fascinating story of
Airand Gas. It will be seen from our diary that the second and
third on the same subject will be given on Tuesday and Thursday
next.

THE Scientific American contains some interesting statistics
concerning the extremes of heat to which various parts of the
world are subject. Probably the hottest country is Thibet,
though its most southern part is 30° from the equator, its ex-
treme summer temperature reaching to the height of 150°. The
fact that the night temperature, even in summer, sometimes sinks _
to the freezing point, only serves to aggravate the discomfort of —
this extreme heat. Next comes Senegal and Guadaloupe, with
a maximum temperature of 130°, that of Persia being 125°,
while the maximum of Calcutta and the delta of the Ganges is
5° less. In Cape Colony and the African diamond diggings the
midsummer heat is 105", that of Greece being only one degree
less, while that of the comparatively far north city of Montreal
is only one degree less than Greece, and one more than New
York. In Great Britain, Siam, and Peru, the extreme does
not exceed 85°, while that of Siberia is as high as 77°, two
degrees higher than in Scotland, and four above that of Italy. —
In Patagonia and the Falkland Islands the highest is 55°, ten
degrees abovethat of Southern Iceland. In Nova Zembla the
maximum temperature is only 34°, two degrees above the
freezing point of water.

WeE learn from the Zimes of Jndia that while Mr. T. T.
Cooper is about to make another attempt to penetrate into
China from Momein, the well-known French traveller, M. Gar-
nier, who was the leader of the French expedition through
Yunan into China, is about to start on another exredition from
China through Thibet to India. M. Garnier has already left
Hongkong for Shanghai to commence preparations for his
journey.

WE have received the prospectus of a new monthly half-crown
magazine, to be commenced in January, and which we are told,
has already received a large number of subscribers. It is entitled
the Practical Magazine, and will be supported by original contri-

»

+

res

i.

butions from the pen of distinguished writers on commercial
subjects and applied sciences. It will also be an illustrated
cyclopzedia of industrial news, inventions, and improvements,
collected from Foreign and British sources, for thé use of those
‘concerned in raw materials, machinery, manufactures, building,
and decoration. It will carry out what is greatly needed—a
careful and systematic survey of the industrial activities of
America, Germany, and France ; in order to present such in-
formation, as it is useful for British practical men to obtain, at
the earliest possible moment. Judging from the prospectus it
seems calculated to serve a very excellent purpose, and we
heartily wish it abundant success. We have also received the
first number of a new sixpenny monthly entitled the Workman's
Magazine, published by Messrs. Kent and Co,, and edited by
the Rey, Henry Solly, and chiefly devoted to articles connected
with the social condition of the class whom it addresses. The
editor, we think, might find a corner for science, the influences
of which are now felt among all classes.

Mr. WILLIAM STOKES, JUN., surgeon to the Richmond Hos-
pital, has been elected to succeed Mr. Hargrave as Professor of
Surgery to the Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.

THE British Medical Fournal understands that the University
of Dublin, the King and Queen’s College of Physicians, and the
Royal College of Surgeons, have agreed upon a scheme for a
joint examining board. The Queen’s University, however, and
the Apothecaries’ Hall still stand aloof.

THE Yournal of Horticulture says that a French farmer has
discovered that the use of tan is an efficient preventive against
potato disease. For three years he has introduced a small quan-
tity of the residue of the bark used in tanning into each hole on
planting his potato crop, and each time he has been completely
successful in preserving his fields free from the annoying diszase.

WE have received the catalogue of the mathematical and
scientific works of the library of the late Mr. Babbage, which
_are in the hands of Messrs. Sotheby, Wilkinson, and Hodge.
If not sold by private contract before February 1, 1873, they
will then be sold by auction. The collection is one of rare
value, and its dispersion would be an event much to be regretted.
The catalogue fills 190 pages, and does great credit to the
compiler.

THE euilleton of the number for December 28, of the Gazette
Médicale de Paris, contains the concluding part of M. Dumas’
admirable “oge on the late Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.

WE learn from the Zxgineer that Mr, Eden, indoor engineer
in the Edinburgh Telegraph office, has invented a system by
which, with the existing instruments, it has been found prac-
ticable to send messages from both ends of a single wire simul-
taneously The invention has been tested between Edinburgh
and Glasgow, and it has been found that one wire is capable of
doing double work.

WE learn from Ocean Highways that considerable anxiety
prevails in Sweden respecting the safety of the vessels attached
to the expedition which were to have returned at the close of
the navigable season. The brig G/adan, and steamer Onkel
Adam, took out stores for the Po/kem, and were to have re-
turned before the winter set in. They are totally unprepared
for wintering in the ice; and should they not be able to return,
it will be necessary for the crews to abandon the vessels and take
refuge in the Po/kem, which in that case will be overcrowded,
and crippled in her resources. The Norwegian Government
has despatched to their relief the seal steamer 4/dert, which will
make an energetic attempt to reach Spitzbergen. She takes
out two wooden houses, to erect inshore at the most likely places
for stragglers to find them, and abundant supplies.

NWATURE -

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM *
L

[X bringing before you this evening, gentlemen, the subject of

terrestrial magnetism, it is not my intention to attempt to
present you with an exhaustive paper on so wide a subject. It
would be idle to pretend to give in a few short pages an adequate
idea of all that has been ascertained on this subject, or even to
present a satisfactory historical sketch of the progress made
from earliest ages to the present time. Nor will I trouble you
with a bare enumeration of the many facts, and methods, and
theories that have gradually led scientific men to their present
knowledge in this matter. But I will try rather to state, as
clearly as I am able, what is the actual condition of our know-
ledge respecting the magnetism of theglobe, and what the nature
of its complex variations, without, however, entering much into
details which, though they might perhaps be most convincing
when reviewed at leisure, ne be entirely out of place here,
since they would only serve to encumber a paper intended for
public perusal.

But, before treating of the special subject of terrestrial mag-
netism, allow me briefly to recall a few of the well-known pro-
perties of magnets.

That certain bodies possess the power of attracting iron was
not unknown to the most ancient people; and men who had
noticed this could not long have failed to observe the disturbing
power that iron, in its turn, exerts upon the magnet when brought
into its immediate neighbourhood.

But the duality of the magnetic force was doubtless a dis-
covery of much more recent times, though now equally familiar
as the former. That this twofold force ever seeks the opposite
extremes, or poles, of a magnetic body, and that these poles,
whilst possessing alike the power of attracting iron, are diametri-
cally opposed in their action upon the poles of any other magnet,
is expressed in the trite law that, ‘‘likes repel, and unlikes
attract.” Again, the law of magnetic intensity was unknown
until the middle of last century, when it was found by Michell
to be identical with that of universal gravitation, namely, to
diminish inyersely as the square of the distance of the body
attracted, That this was not discovered at an earlier date is
partly due to the complexity of the phenomena arising from the
duality of the force, combined with the inseparable nature of the
two energies. For, unlike electricity, to which in most other
points it is so near akin, neither the positive nor the negative
element of magnetism can ever exist alone in any body.

Now, since we know that magnets and iron act mutually upon
each other, and that one magnet attracts or repels any other
according to certain fixed laws, if we remove all disturbing bodies
from the vicinity of a magnet, and leave it perfectly free to move
by floating it on a liquid, or suspending it by a thread, we might
expect to see the magnet remain at rest in whatever position we
place it. But we perceive at once that this is not the case, and
the magnet we thought to be free is found to be subject toa
directive power, which forces it to take a fixed direction, with-
out in the least interfering with the position of its centre of
gravity. Disturb the magnet, and when it comes to rest it will
again lie in the same direction as before. The earth, therefore,
exerts ajcertain influence on the magnet, not producing any trans-
lation from one position to another, but only forcing the poles
of the magnet to assume a definite direction. That this power
possessed by the earth is precisely similar to that of an ordinary
magnet, is easily shown by counteracting the earth’s action by
means of a magnet, placed at a suitable distance from the free mag-
netic needle, and with its marked end in the same direction as
that of the needle, the latter will then rest in any position in
which it is placed.

This polarity, or directive power of the earth, is said to have
been known to the Chinese 1,000 years at least before the
Christian era, ané to have aided them in their long journeys
across the trackless wastes of their vast empire. The use that
has since been made of this simple fact, the growth of com-
merce, the spread of civilisation, and the thousand other bless-
ings that it has brought to our very doors, need no long comment
here. We may well marvel that such a source of wealth and
prosperity was allowed by mankind to remain almost fruitless
during such a long succession of ages.

The horizontal direction taken by the freely suspended needle

*-By the Rev. S. J. Perry, F.R.A.S., F.M.S , Director of the Stonyhurst

Observatory. Extracted from the ¥ournal of the Liverpool Polytechnic
Society, by the permission of the Council, Communicated by the author.

172

is nearly north; but it generally deviates somewhat from the
astronomical meridian. This deviation is termed the declination
or variation of the compass. The existence of the declination
was not unknown in remotest times, although its discovery is
sometimes erroneously attributed to Christopher Columbus. To
this great man we are, however, indebted for our knowledge of
‘the variation of the variation,” since he was the first who
noticed its change as he altered his geographic position in his
great yoyage of discovery across the Atlantic. _ :

The first and most important fact in terrestrial magnetism,
viz., the declination or horizontal lie of the freely suspended
magnet, being established, we may take an unmagnetised piece of
iron, similar in weight and form to our magnet, and balancing it
on an axis passed through its centre of gravity, allow it to rest
on the extremities of this axis. We shall find that the unmag-
netised needle will remain at rest in whatever position we choose
to place it, since we have taken care to suspend it by its centre
of gravity. But if we now substitute the magnetised instead of
the unmagnetised needle, and place it in the plane of the hori-
zontal magnet, we shall perceive at once that at whatever angle
we place it on its supports it will invariably take up a definite
position with respect to the horizon, the marked end, which
points W. of N., dipping down until it stands in this country at
anangle of about 70° to the horizon. The earth, therefore, not
only tends to bring the magnetic needle into a certain azimuthal
plane, but it also forces it to take a fixed position in that plane.
The direction of the magnet is thus wholly determined by the
earth’s magnetic force.

Our next care will, therefore, naturally be to discover, if
possible, what is the intensity of this terréstrial force which acts
upon the needle. This might be determined by finding the re-
sistance it is capable of overcoming, or the weight it will balance,
the weight being attached to a thread wrapped round the axis
of the needle. But the intensity of the earth’s pull is more accu-
rately found by a method similar to that which has been used
with such success in observing the force of gravity at different
pvin's of the surface of the globe, in view of ascertaining the
amount of itscompression. A magnetic needle is suspended by
a thread, from which all torsion has been removed, and then an
oscillatory movement at right angles to the plane of minimum
dip is imparted to the needle in such a manner as to leave the
point of suspension at rest. The square of the time of a single
oscillation is a sure measure of the intensity of the force pro-
ducing the vibration, which in this case is the product of the
magnetism of the needle by the horizontal component of the
earth’s magnetism. The factor due to the magnetic strength of
the needle can be eliminated at once if the power of our needle
is known, and the horizontal component of the terrestrial mag-
netism divided §by the cosine of the dip of the needle will then
give the required totalintensity. But if the power of the magnet
is unknown, and on account of slight but continual changes, it
is always safest to consider it as doubtful within certain limits,
the quotient of the earth’s horizontal force by the magnet’s
power can easily be found by measuring the deflection of a free
magnet produced by the attraction of the vibration needle at
given distances The result of these experiments is to place in
evidence that the intensity of the earth’s magnetism follows laws
as constant as those of its directive force.

Having thus made ourselves acquainted with the three essential
elements of the magnetism of our globe, viz , the dip and decli-
nation, which determine the direction, and the third, which ex-
presses the intensity of the a‘tracting force, our next step in the
study of the earth’s magnetism, as a whole, is to secure the most
trustworthy observations of these three elements at as many
different stations as possible. The instruments used must be of
the most delicate description, as the differences to be measured
are often excessively minute. For this purpose the needles are
suspended by the slenderest thread of unspun silk, or the
smoothest axis rests on knife edges of polished agate. The care
with which the observations have to be taken may be judged of
from the fact that, to obtain the time of a single vibration of the
needle, twelve sets of 100 or 200 vibrations are taken, and each
estimated to the twentieth of a second ; or, again, for a single
observation of the dip, the needle, which is balanced by the
maker with scrupulous care, is so far suspected that readings are
taken of each end, the needle is turned on its Ys, the whole in-
strument is reversed, and finally the poles are altered, and each
of these readings repeated at least twice before the observer has
satisfied himself that all necessary caution has been taken to
secure a perfect observation. An apparatus of greater delicacy

NATURE

than those in general use has lately been invented by Dr. Joule, —

:

of Manchester, which we may hope will furnish results of still
greater accuracy than those already obtained,

’Twas not until towards the middle of the sixteenth century
that accurate determination of any of the magnetic elements were —
attempted ; but since that time the declination has continued to
be observed with some regularity, and before the end of the
seventeenth century Halley had already made two long voyages
to observe this element at different parts of the globe.

The dip, whose discovery is due to Norman, was first observed
in 1576, but it does not seem to have attracted much attention
until two centuries later.

The determination of the intensity, by means of the vibrations
of a magnet, was first suggested in the last century by Graham,
and the first maps of the isodynamics, or curves of equal inten-
sity, are the fruits of the labour of General Sir Edward Sabine,
who is now devoting the declining years of his life to the pub-
lication of the results of his life-long study of terrestrial
magnetism.

From the above observations of the three magnetic elements,
taken at different positions on the surface of the globe, the first
general conclusion we are able to draw is one of no little im-
portance. For, starting from any point of the earth, and follow-
ing the direction of the horizontal needle, we are invariably led

to one or other of two points, situated respectively in the

Northern and Southern hemispheres. The entire globe is, there-
fore, traversed from N. to S. by a system of magnetic lines, all
meeting in the same two points, resembling in this respect our
geographical meridians and poles, and therefore termed the
magnetic meridians and the magnetic poles of the earth. Our
second conclusion is of scarcely inferior importance to the first.
For if, instead of following the direction of the horizontal needle,
we carefully observe the dip, and travel along the line, where
we find the inclination invariable, we shall always be led, not
up to a magnetic pole, but in a more or less circular path around
the pole. These curves of equal dip, generally called isoclinals,
bear a close resemblance to our geographic parallels of latitude ;
and as the geographic latitude varies from zero at the equator to
go” at the poles, so in like manner the dipping needle, which is
horizontal at the magnetic equator, gradually increases its incli-
nation until it becomes vertical at the magnetic poles,

From these angles of position of the dipping needle we can
conclude at once that the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetism must be zero at the poles, and probably maximum
at the magnetic equator, where the terrestrial force is wholly
horizontal.

We may, therefore, describe the magnetic poles in the words
of the Astronomer Royal, ‘‘as the common points for the con-
vergence of magnetic meridians, for the verticality of the dip,
and for the evanescence of the horizontal force.”

But there are other points on the earth’s surface which merit
our most special attention. I will not call them poles, as they
have little in common with the two poles of which we have just
been speaking, but I will describe them as points of maximum
intensity. The isodynamics, or lines of equal intensity, are not
found to follow such simple laws of distribution as the meridians
and the lines of equal dip and horizontal force, though these
latter are far from being arranged with the same regularity as
the meridians and parallels of latitude of a geographic globe.
None of the magnetic curves are perfect circles, the poles are not
coincident with the geographic poles, nor are they opposite to
each other, one being situated north of Baffin’s Bay, and the

other in South Victoria, but still there isa general approach to

regularity in the magnetic lines, if we except the isodynamics,
and the law of variation of the dip was found to be fairly repre-
sented by the formula, tan. 3 = 2. tan. Z (the magnetic latitude),
a law discovered by Krafft in 1809. The greatest departure from
the general regularity of the curves we have been mostly con-
sidering, is the indication of a second pole in the Southern
Hemisphere from the peculiar distribution of the lines of equal
horizontal force. But in the case of the isodynamics we find
three well-marked points of maximum intensity, one N.W. of
fudson’s Bay, another in Siberia, and the third not far from
the South magnetic pole in Victoria. Besides these there are
also two maxima of small intensity, one situated slightly north,
and the other at about 15° S. latitude. We are sul, however,
able to trace a rough approximation to a law in the change of the
intensity, the value at the principal maximum being about
double what is found to be on the curve of minimum intensity.
The distinction between points of maximum intensity and the

>

D Sy. an. 2, 187 3] ;

_true magnetic poles has not always been attended to with suffi-
cient care, and this is partly to be accounted for by the con-
siderable and often preponderating influence of these maximum
points on the several magnetic elements. A consequent doubt
was for a long time entertained respecting the number of the
magnetic poles. Halley, from a careful study of an extensive
series of declination observations, made partly by himself in
1698-9, was led to the conclusion that the earth has four magnetic
poles. The same opinion has’been most ably advocated within
our own days by Prof. Hansteen of Christiana, who had pre-
viously collected together a vast mass of observations of the
declination, dip, and horizontal force. But the interesting series
of results which Hansteen has brought forward in support of his
view, are most readily explained by the evident changes that
have taken place in the magnetic state of the region of maximum
intensity situated in Siberia, where Hansteen himself specially
observed. The Northern regions, where the magnetic force is
greatest, abound in ferruginous strata, and there too the intensity
of the cold far exceeds anything that is experienced in other lands
on the same parallel of latitude. These regions may therefore
not only be charged with a most abundant supply of permanent
magnetism, but they may also be affected to a very considerable
degree by atmospheric changes, and by those electric currents
that are continually passing to and fro in the upper crust of the
earth, and are doubtless producing very important changes in the
subpermanent magnetism of certain layers of softer ferruginous
matter. Whatever may be the nature of terrestrial magnetism,
we cannot ignore the great influence exercised on its distribution
by what may be termed local magnetism, the magnetism of
volcanic formations, of mountain chains, of ferruginous beds ;
some harder than others and therefore less subject to magnetic
influence, but retaining its effects the longer ; some more affected
by, the extremes of heat and cold, and hence exposed to more
rapid and radical changes in their magnetic condition.

But the question of the number of magnetic poles is leading
us to another point of scarcely less importance, viz., the investi-
gation of the changes that take place in the magnetism of the
globe. The first point of inquiry is whether terrestrial
magnetism as a whole is subject to continual change, and if so,
are these changes periodical? Do they move in cycies? Do
they follow any fixed laws that may lead to a knowledge of their
causes ?

The difficulty in answering these questions arises mainly from
the irregular distribution of the points of maximum intensity ;
but, granting that we meet with numerous exceptional cases,
which no doubt will finally be discovered to depend on local in-
fluences, we can trace a very regular and periodic change in all
the magnetic elements.

The first accurate observations that have come down to us are
those of the declination, or variation of the compass, taken in
Paris in 1541, when the needle pointed 8° to the east of the
astronomical meridian. From that period the easternly devia-
tions gradually increased, until it attained a maximum value of
11° 30’ in 1580, when it returned slowly on its path and vanished
in the year 1660, Paris being then on the curve of ‘‘no varia-
tion.” Pursuing its westernly course, the needle pointed more
and more west of north each year, and only reached its greatest
western elongation of about 23° in 1814. The needle is at
present returning towards the east, at the yearly rate of about
9/5, and actuaily points rather less than 17° west of north.

The variations of the declination at London have followed much

the same order as those at Paris, nor has there been any great

difference in the extent.

The dip observations have unfortunately not been carried on
so continuous!y during such a long series of years, and in conse-
quence the secular variation of this element is less well deter-
mined than that of the declination. With the exception of a
single observation by Norman in 1576, who found the inclina-
tion of the needle at London to be 71° 50’, we have scarcely any
reliable data previous to 1720, when the dip had increased in
London to 74° 42’. Since the latter epoch this element has
always continued to decrease, being 70° 35’ in 1800, and now
less than 68°, with an annval diminution of about 2''5.

Of the secular variation of the intensity we know even less
than of that of the dip, since the first observations date only as
far back as the end of the last century ; and we have no less an
authority than that of Sir Edward Sabine for the statement, that

_ at commencement of the present century the bare fact of there
being any difference whatsoever in the intensity of the magnetic
force in different parts of the earth was unattested by a single

173

published observation.” The resuits, however, of modern re-
search supply us with the important fact that the horizontal com-
ponent of the intensity is at present rapidly increasing, its yearly
rate of change being one 600th of its total value.

Now each and all of these gradual variations in the several
elements of the earth’s magnetism force upon us the conclusion
that the magnetic pole must be endued with a motion of rotation
in a more or less circular path around the pole of the earth’s
axis. The results of such a rotation apparent to an observer
situated for example in England will be easily understood if we
consider for a moment the similar movement of any of the in-
ferior planets in its orbit round the sun as viewed from the earth.
Take Venus, for instance, which is the most conspicuous of the
planets. At one time it may be seen moving away from the
sun towards the east, when it is called the evening star, since i
sets later than the sun. This outward movement continues for
atime, until the planet reaches the point of its maximum elonga-
tion; it then returns towards the sun, and after a time becomes lost
to sight in the brilliancy of the solar rays, or on very rare occasions
is visible in transit over the solar disc, as it will be for the first
time this century in 1874, and again in 1882. Having passed
the sun, Venus becomes the morning star, rising earlier and
earlier until it has attained its greatest western elongation, when
it again returns towards the sun. An analogous movement of
the magnetic pole around the geographic pole has been clearly
indicated by the secular variations of the declination, dip, and
horizontal force. At the middle of the 16th century the bearings
of the needle which would lead us to the magnetic pole were
some 10° east of north. As time went on this deviation dimi-
nished, whilst the dip increased, showing that the magnetic pole
was approaching us, as it got nearer and nearer to the meridian,
About the middle of the 17th century, or rather somewhat later,
the magnetic pole crossed our meridian, which thus for the
moment partly coincided with the “line of no variation.” From
that time the needle has always pointed west, the western de-
clination increasing more and more until the pole reached its
maximum elongation in 1815. During this period thee was a
gradual decrease in the dip, manifesting a recession of the pole,
and this has continued steadily, though with diminished accele-
ration, ever since the needle commenced its backward journey
towards the geographic meridian. The present secular increase
of the horizontal force also shows that the pole is receding, and
that it will cross our meridian next on the further side of the geo-
graphic pole. This will take place, according to the calculation
of M. Quetelet, director of the Brussels Observatory, about the
year 1940, and thus a complete revolution of the magnetic pole
will occupy a period of some 560 years. Other physicists make
this period longer. Local magnetism must of course interfere
greatly with the position of the pole, and with its velocity of
revolution, but this disturbing cause will affect still more the
movements or form of the ‘‘ curve of no variation.”

This rotation of the magnetic pole round the extremity of the
earth’s axis bears so striking a resemblance to the motion of the
pole of the heavens round the ecliptic, that we are led at once to
inquire if anything can be detected in the magnetic rotation that
corresponds with the inequalities in the precession of the earth’s
axis, with the nutation caused by the action of the sun and moon.
Are there, in other words, any annual, semi-annual, or monthly
inequalities? The observations of the declination, taken during
a series of years, and grouped together according to months, led
to avariety of conclusions respecting the influence of the sun on
the deflection of the needle. Arago agreed with Cassini in
placing the sun jin the vernal equinox at the maximum western
variation, and in the summer solstice at the minimum ; whilst
Bowditch, in America, and Beaufoy, in England, both found
that a maximum occurred in August and a minimum in Decem.
ber, though a second maximum and minimum were placed by
each in different seasons. The fact of some yearly range of the
needle about its mean position appeared to be established ; but
local influence seemed to have a Jarge share in determining the
nature of the annual curve.

(Ta be continued, )

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Geological Magazine for December (No. 102) opens with
a description by Mr. James Cartro of a new genus and species
of fossil crustacea from the Upper Greensand of Lyme Regis,
which the author proposes to name Orithopsis Bonneyi. The

174
fossil which appears to be nearly allied to Necrocarcinus, is
figured on a plate accompanying the paper. Mr. C. Lapworth
communicates a note on the Graptolitic black shales of the
south of Scotland, in which he reiterates his opinion that there
si but a single group of these shales, divisible, however, into
three divisions—the Lower, Middle, and Upper Moffat shales.
The first he regards as of Lower Llandeilo age, the second as
equivalent to the Upper Llandeilo of Builth, and the third as
Caradoc. —From Mr. S. Allport we have a valuable paper on
the microscopic structure of the pitchstones and felsites of the
island of Arran, in continuation of a former note published in
the Geological Magazine. The number also contains a reprint of
an interesting paper by Dr. Carpenter on the temperature and
other physical con ditions of inland seas, in their relation to
geological inquiry.—Among the reports, &c., we find Mr.
Woodward’s sixth report on fossil crustacea, presented to the
last meeting of the British Association. This contains a genea-
logical tree of the Crustacea.

Annalen der Chimie und Pharmacie, Nos. 11 and 12, 1872.
—This double number contains a paper by Dr. Abeljanz on
bichlorether, in which some of Lieben’s results are called in ques-
tion. The writer discusses chiefly the preparation of bichlor-
ether, the action of pentachloride of phosphorus upon it, and its
decomposition by water and by alkali.—In an essay on diphtaly],
Dr. Ador describes the preparation of this substance, through
the action of finely-divided silver on dyphtalyl chloride. It has the
formula Cs Hy Oy. It is insoluble in water, and soluble largely
only in heated phenol and cold concentrated sulphuric acid. It
fuses at 300°. The actionof alkalies on dyphtalyl, dyphtalyl acid,
its salts, and capability of oxidation, action of pentachloride of
phosphorus and bromine on diphtalyl, and some of the by-
products of preparation are among the points taken up.—J.
Wislicenus communicates some observations on the so-called
anhydrides of lactic acids. He finds that before all the water is
evaporated from a solution of lactic acid, some anhydride is al-
ways present (with the acid), the quantity of which increases
with the decrease of the water, and that, therefore, pure lactic
acid of the formula C, H, O, does not exist. Further, that when
lactic acid is kept in a dry atmosphere at ordinary temperature,
there is formed not only the so-called anhydride, but alsoa lactide.
—Th. Zincke and A. Franchimont describe nonylic acid, a colour-
less oily fluid, having the formula Cy Hy, O.,, boiling about 253 ;
specific gravity at 17'5° =0'9065. It is little soluble in water,
but distils slowly over with the vapour of boiling water. Ata
low temperature it solidifies to a crystalline mass, and it melts at
+ 10°.—Among the remaining papers in this number are lengthy
monographs on some of the cyanogen derivatives of aceton,
by Dr. F. Urech, and on the reduction products of silicic
acid ether and some of its derivatives, by A. Ladenburg ; also
notes on the action of sodium on dibrombenzol, by Dr. Riese,
and the constitution of sodium ethylate, by A. Laubenheimer.

Nos. 3 and 4 of the Proceedings of the Swedish Academy
of Sciences for the present year, contains the proceedings of
the Academy for March and April. The first paper is an
account of an experimental investigation upon the electromotive
and thermo-electric forces of certain metallic alloys in contact
with copper, by M. A. F. Sundell. The alloys employed in
these experiments consisted of bismuth and tin, and bismuth and
antimony in various proportions, and of a white metal (Vysi/ven)
the composition of which is not given. The action of bismuth is
lessened in proportion to the amount of tin, and also by gs of
antimony, but increased by x of the latter metal. Iron is very
low in the scale, which is similar for the electromotive and
thermo-electric powers of the different metals and alloys. —Dr.
C. Stal communicates a synopsis of the European genera of
Pentatornidee in Latin, from which, curiously enough, the
Cydnina are omitted,—Dr. H. D. J. Wallengrew furnishes a
further contribution to the Lepidopterous fauna of South Africa,
founded upon a small collection sent home by M. Akerberg,
Swedish Consul at the Cape. His list, which includes species
belonging to the groups from the butterflies to the Crambidz,
numbers seventy-one species, several of which are described as
new, whilst descriptions and notes on synonymy are appended
to many of the others. A new genus of Lyccenide butterflies,
Arrugia, is proposed for Zerythts basuta Wall, protumnus Lin.
‘The new species are all Geomitrina,—they are Conchylia pacto-
Jaria, Camptogramma quaggaria, C. sylvicultrix, Macaria grimmia,
M. getula, Tephrina nemorivaga, Panagra platyrhyncata, L.
vtomaculata and Mesotype textilis.—A new species of mica called
Manganophyll, from the iron and manganese mines of Paysberg

NATURE

[ Fan. 2, 1873, 4

in Wermland, is described by M. L. J. Igelstrém,—It contains
21°40 per cent. of protoxide of manganese, and varies from bronze
to bright copper colour.—Prof. Angstrom enumerates
describes some mosses and Hepaticz collected by Prof. N. J.
Anderson, during the voyage of the frigate Zugenie, in 1851-53+
The specimens are from Port Famineyfrom near Wollongong m
Australia and from Honolulu. A great many of them are des
scribed as new species, and these belong to the genera Gymmno-
stornum, Orthotricum, Dicranum, Tortula, Bartramia, Gottschea,
and jungermanina (from Port Famine), Zhamnium and Le-
jeunia (from Wollongong) Hypnum, Plagiothecium, Omatia,
Campylopus, Macromitrium, Fissideus, Fungennanina, Shag-
nacetis, Lejeunia and Frullania, (from Honolulu). M.C, A. F.
Sadbour notices the nocturnal migratory habits of JZyodes
schisticolor Lilljeb. The number concludes with a report by —
the secretary on the activity of the Academy during the year
1871-72.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Royal Society, Dec. 13, 1872,—‘‘ Researches in Spectrum
Analysis in connection with the Spectrum of the Sun.”—No. I,
By J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.

The author, after referring to the researches in which he has
been engaged since January 1869 in conjunction with Dr,
Frankland, refers to the evidence obtained by them as to the ~
thickening and thinning of spectral lines by variations of pres-
sure, and to the disappearance of certain lines when the method
employed by them since 1869 is used. This method consists of
throwing an image of the light-source to be examined on to the
slit of the spectroscope.

It is pointed out that the phenomena observed are of the
same nature as those already described by Stokes, W. A. Miller,
Robinson, and Thalen, but that the application of this method
enables them to be better studied, the metallic spectra being
clearly separated from that of the gaseous medium through
which the spark passes. Photographs of the spark, taken in
air between zinc and cadmium and zine and tin, accompany the
paper, showing that when spectra of the vapours given off by
electrodes are studied in this manner, the vapours close to the
electrode give lines which disappear from the spectrum of the
vapour at a greater distance from the electrode, so that there
appear to be long and short lines in the spectrum,

Maps of the following elements have been mapped on this
method :—Na, Li, Mg, Al, Mn, Co, Ni, Zn, Sr, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ba,
and Pb, the lines being laid down from Thalen’s maps, and the
various characters and lengths of the lines shown.

In some cases the spectra of the metals, enclosed in tubes and
subjected to a continually decreasing pressure, have been ob-
served. In all these experiments the lines gradually disappear
as the pressure is reduced, the shortest lines disappearing first,
and the longest lines remaining longest visible.

Since it appeared that the purest and densest vapour alone
gave the greatest number of lines, it became of interest to ex-
amine the spectra of compounds consisting of a metal combined __
with a non-metallic element. Experiments with chlorides are
recorded. It was found in all cases that the difference between
the spectrum of the chloride and the spectrum of the metal was,
that under the same spark-conditions all the short lines were
obliterated. _ Changing the spark-conditions, the final result
was, that only the very longest lines in the spectrum of the ~
metallic vapour remained. It was observed that in the case of
elements with low atomic weights, combined with one equiva-
lent of chlorine, the numbers of lines which remain in the
chloride is large, 60 per cent. ¢.g., in the case of Li, and 40 per
cent. in the case of Na; while in the case of elements wth
greater atomic weights, combined with two equivalents of -
chlorine, a much smaller number of lines remain—8 per cent, in
the case of barium, and 3 per cent. in the case of Pb.

The application of these observations to the solar spectrum, to
elucidate which they were undertaken, is then given,

It is well known that all the known lines of the metallic
elements on the solar atmosphere are not reversed, The author
states what Kirchhoff and Angstrom have written on this sub-
ject, and what substances, according to each, exist in the solar
atmosphere. He next announces the discovery that, with no
exception whatever, the lines which are reversed are the longest
dins, With this additional key he does not hesitate to add, on

ig

the strength of a small number of lines reversed, zinc and |

aluminium (and possibly strontium) to the Jast list of solar ele-
‘ments given by Thalen, who rejected zinc from Kirchhoff’s list,
d agreed with him in rejecting aluminium. It need scarcely
be added that these lines are in each case the longest lines in
the spectrum of the metal.
_ The help which these determinations afford to the study of
the various cyclical changes in the various solar spectra is then
referred to.

_ _ Geological Society, Dec. 18.—Mr. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair—The following communi-
cations were read :—‘‘ Further Notes on the Punfield Section,”
by C. J. A. Meyer. This paper was supplementary to one read
before the society by the author in March of the present year

* (see “ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.” xxviii. p. 245), and contained
the results of a fresh examination of the section at Punfield, and

__ of the Wealden and Neocomian strata of the Isle of Wight. He
_ described the section exposed at his visit to Punfield as present-
ing :—1, True Wealden beds ; 2, a grit-bed with limestone and
paper-shales, containing fish-bones and Cyprides ; 3, apparently

_ argillaceous beds ; 4, a thin band of hard ferruginous sandstone
with Atherfield fossils ; 5, a clay bed, the upper part regarded
as representing the ‘‘ Lobster Clay” of Atherfield, the lower
sandy portion containing an abundance of marine fossils belong-
ing to common Atherfield species; 6, the so-called ‘‘marine
- band ;” and 7, laminated clays and sands with lignite. The
_ author indicated the accordance of this arrangement with what
is observed elsewhere, and maintained that the grit-bed (No. 2),
with its limestone and paper-shales, containing Cygris and
Cyrena, was really to be regarded as the passage-bed between
the Wealden and the Neocomian.—‘‘On the Coprolites of the
Upper Greensand Formation, and on Flints,” by W. Johnson
Sollas. The first part of this paper was principally occupied
in an endeavour to explain the perfect fossilisation of sponges
and other soft-bodied animals. It was shown that the hypothesis
which considered that sponges had become silicified by an at-
traction of their spicules for silica was altogether untenable.
Mr. H. Johnson’s supposititious reaction, according to which the
carbon of animal matter is directly replaced by silicon, was
shown to be inconsistent with the known facts of chemistry. The
author's explanation was not intended to be final. The first fact
pointed out was the very remarkable way in which the silica or
calcic phosphate of the fossils under consideration followed the
former extension of organic matter. This was explained for
silica by the fact that, when silicic acid is added to such animal
matters as albumen or gelatin, it forms with them a definite
_ chemical compound ; and it was assumed that in process of time
this highly complex organic substance would decompose, its
organic constituents would be evolved, and its silica would re-
_main behind. In such a way flints might be produced, and
dialysis would lend its aid. The same explanation was applied
to account for the connection between calcic phosphate and
animal matter in the case of the “ Coprolites.” The Blackdown
silicified shells were next explained, and it was reasoned that the
state of their silica offered arguments tending to prove a passage
of silica from the colloidal to the crystalline state. The second
“part of the paper discussed the Coprolites specially; their
exterior appearance is extremely sponge-like, almost exactly
resembling some species of modern sponges. They are marked
by oscules of peculiar characters. The so-called ‘‘pores” of
paleontologists are well marked. Spicules, triradiate, hex-
Tadiate, sinuous, defensive and connecting, have been observed.
They are siliceous in composition. On dissolving the coprolites
in acid, the spicules are set free, associated with Polycystina
“(Haltomma hexacantha, &c.) and Xanthidia (N. furcatum).
‘The genera and species of coprolites described were as follows :
—Khabdospongia communis, Bonneyia bacilliformis, B. cylindri-
cus, B. Fessoni, B. scrobiculatus, B. verrongiformis, Acantho-
_ phora Hartogii, Polycantha Etheridgii, Retia simplex, R. costata,
" Ulospongia patera, U. calyx, U. Brunii. The external appear-
ance of these forms, which constitute a vast number of the copro-

a

ites, their curious oscules and siliceous spicules, were said to
leave no doubt as to ther spongious origin.

Chemical Society, Dec. 19.—Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair.—Analyses of water of the river
Mahanuddy, by Mr. G. Nicholson. The author finds that the
water of this river contains less dissolved matter than that of any
other river in India——Researches on the polymerides of morphine
and their derivatives, by Mr. E. Ludwig Mayer and Dr. €. R. A.
‘Wright ; an account of the various derivatives obtained from

_ NATURE

morphine by acting on it with zinc chloride, hydrochloric acid,
and sulphuric acid respectively, and also of the physiological
properties of the compounds produced.—Three communications
by Dr. H. E. Armstrong, from the laboratory of the London
Institution, were then read. Derivatives of 8-dinitrophenol ;
note on the action of bromine in presence of iodine on trinitro-
phenol (picric acid) ; preliminary notice on iodonitrophenols.
The last paper, by Mr. C. E. Groves, was on the formation of
napthaquinone by the direct oxidation of napthaline, which the
author effects by means of chromic anhydride.

Anthropological Institute, Dec. 17.—Dr. Charnock, vice-
president, in the chair. A paper was read by Mr. C.
Staniland Wake on the origin of serpent-worship. After
referring to various facts showing the existence of serpent-
worship in many different parts of the world, the paper
proceeded to consider the several ideas associated with
the serpent among ancient and modern peoples. One of
its chief characteristics was its power over the wind and
rain. Another was its connection with health and good fortune,
in which character it was the dgathodemon, The serpent was
also the symbol of life or immortality, as well as of wisdom. It
was then shown that that animal was viewed by many uncultured
peoples as the re-embodiment of a deceased ancestor, and that
descent was actually traced by the Mexicans and various other
peoples from a serpent. The serpent superstition thus became a
phase of ancestor worship, the superior wisdom and power as-
cribed to the denizens of the invisible world being assigned also
to their animal representatives. When the simple idea of a
spirit ancestor was transformed into that of the Great Spirit, the
father of the race, the attributes of the serpent would be en-
larged, and it would be thought to have power over the rain and
the hurricane, which provide the moisture requisite for life.
Being thus transferred to the atmosphere, the serpent would come
to be associated with nature, or solar worship. Hence we find that
the sun was not onlya serpent-god, but also the divine ancestor or
benefactor of mankind. Seth, the traditional ancestor of the Se-
mites, was the serpent-sun-god, the Aga/hodemon, and facts were
cited to establish that the legendary ancestors of the peoples
classed together as Adamites was thought to possess the same
character. It would appear to follow from this and other facts
mentioned in the paper that serpent worship, as a developed
religious system, originated in Central Asia, the home of the
great Scythic stock from which the civilised races of the historical
period sprung, and that the descendants of the legendary founder
of that stock, the Adamites, were in a special sense serpent-wor-
shippers. —Major W. H. Godwin-Austincontributed a paper ‘On
the Garo Hill Tribes.” The Garos occupy the extreme west point
of the range of hills south of the Brahmaputra, and which
terminate with the great bend of that river on long. go° east.
The paper entered into a comparison of the Garos with the
kindred tribes of Duars, Kackari, and Kopili; and gave
detailed descriptions of the physicai characteristics, religious
rites, manners, and customs, and peculiar dwellings of that
people.

VIENNA

I, R. Geological Institute, Nov. 19.—The first meeting of
the winter season was opened by the director, Fr. y. Hauer,
with the report on the progress of the geological survey made
during last summer. It was carried on in three different regions
in the north-western part of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, including
also the dominion of Prince Liechtenstein, on the Carlstadt
military frontier, and in the south part of Bukowina. The
exact investigation of the limestone chain in the first region, by
Dr. v. Majsisovics, gave very unexpected results ; not only did
he discover Silurian (Grauwacke) strata and dyassic strata
(Schwatz-limestone and Gréden-sandstone) unknown hitherto in
the Rhiaticum, but he stated also that the large limestone range
of the Drusenflah, Salzflah, and Weisplatten belongs to the
cretaceous formation—a very important fact, which changes es-
sentially our ideas as to the geological structure of the curious
region which separates the eastern and western Alps. Not less
important are the observations of Dr. Stache on the crystalline
rocks of the Oetzthal massive. He denies the existence of any
more recent and eruptive ‘‘ Central Gneiss ” in this region, and
asserts that strata of the so-called rock alternate regularly with
mica-schist, amphibolic schists, &c. in the middle part of the
massive as well as towards its outer margins. In the southern
part of Bukowina, a region very little known till now, Mr. Paul
stated that the crystalline schists, forming the basis of a series

of sedimentary formations, are divisible into two members ; the
lower, consisting chiefly of quartz-slates and quartzi‘es, contains
ores of copper and iron; the upper, formed by mica-slates, red
gneiss, calcareous and amphibolic slates, includes the so-called
black iron ores and manganese ores of Takobeni and Dorna.
The sedimentary rocks are red sandstone, triassic limestone,
lower and upper Neocomian, Cenomanian, Nummulitic rocks,
and higher up the large masses of Carpathian sandstone.
Besides the regular survey, almost all the members of the Insti-
tute made particular inquiries in different parts of the empire,
partly for exclusively scientific purposes, but chiefly for the solu-
tion of questions of practical interest. An important discovery
was thus made by Dr. Stache; he found in the slates south of
the Gaiethal in Carinthia numerous Graptolites, the first certain
proof of the existence of Silurian rocks in the southern Alps.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Dec. 16.—M. Faye, president, in
the chair. The president of the Institute informed the Academy
that its first general meeting for 1873 would be held on January
8, and wished the Academy to appoint a member to represent
it as reader on that occasion.—General de Cisscy, Minister of
War, announced that his department had decided on the re-
determination of the French meridian which has at present many
errors, as it is advisable that the French section of the great line
extending from Shetland to the Sahara should equal in accuracy
the English, Spanish, and Algerian portions. Captain Perrier
is to have charge of the work, and the Academy is asked to
appoint a committee of revision—The president then read an
addition to his physical theory of the sun explaining the nature
of the spots He defends his theory against some recent criti-
cisms of Messrs. Spencer and Kirchhoff. le regards the spots
as produced by cyclones which form a funnel-shaped cavity in the
photosphere. Round the edge of this hole the photosphere and
chromosphere are heaped together, and into it masses of cooler
atmosphere are drawn by the vortex, and they then exert their
absorptive power.—M. Jamin read a note on the distribution
of magnetism.—M. Belgrand then read a second note on the
floods of the Seine —M. Daubrée read a note ona meteorite
which fell near Bandong, Java; the governor of the Dutch
Indies had sent a portion to the museum, An analysis has been
published in the Archives Néerlandaises of Haarlem,. vol. ° vi.
1871, by Mr. Von. Baumhauer. The meteorite contains iron,
nickel, cobalt, chromium, manganzse, magnesium, aluminium,
sodium, potassium, calcium, oxygen, sulphur, and silicon.—M.
Fréd. Kuhlmann then read an account of a search for
iodine and bromine in some phosphatic minerals, iodine was
distinctly recognised, but bromine if present was only there in
inappreciable quantities—M. F. Perrier read a note on a new
determination of the French meridian.—The Phyl/oxera Com-
mission presented extracts from two papers by MM, Max
Cornu and ,E. Duclaux: they also asked permission to present
their report at an early date. Notes on the same subject
were received from MM. R. Shore and Alderly.—M. de
Wissocq presented a paper entitled ‘‘ A Study of the Works re-
quired to prevent the Floods of the Loire-—M. Sacc sent a
letter on the preservation of food, which was referred to the
commission on that subject.—M. F. Perrier read an answer to a
note of M, Laussedat on the prolongation of the Spanish
meridian into Algeria. The answer related partly to questions
of priority as concerns the proposed prolongation.—M. I. Lucas
presented some observations on a note on mathematical physics,
by M. Quet.—M. Gernez sent a note on the supposed action
of thin films of liquids on supersaturated solutions, The
author asserts that Tomlinson and Van der Mensbrugghe
are deceived in their idea that films cause crystallisation. M.
Gernez states that this is not caused by a film fer se, but by
crystalline particles contained in it.—M. A. Treve read a note
on magnetism, which was followed by a note by MM. Troost and
Hautefeuille on some derivatives of the oxychlorides of silicon.
—M. A. Boillot read a note on a new method of preparing ozone
by means of carbon. The carbon is employed as the conducting
film on the suiface of the ozoniser. M. Gérardin presented a
note on the amount cf oxygen dissolved in rain water and in that
of the Seine. Fine and persistent rain contains less oxygen than
that of heavy and short showers.—Next came a note from M.
Lortet on penetration of /ewcocytes into the interior of organic
membranes,

NATURE

. * . r Tal
Geo.ocists’ As ;octaTIon, at 8.—On the Cambrian and Silurian Rocks of ©

Ramsey Island, St. David's: Henry Hicks.—On the Diprionide of the
Moffat Shale ; Charles Lapworth. Wik

. S

SUNDAY, January 5. ee,
Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—The next Transit of Venus, and the — “et
‘s

FRIDAY, January 3. rs a

measurement of the distances of the Planets from the Sun; W. J. Lewis.

MONDAY, “January 6.

Lonvon InstituTIon, at 4 —On Air, Earth, Fire, and Water: Prof, Arm-
strong (Holiday Course,1I .)

ENYroMOLOGICAL Socigty, at 7. ue
Society or British ARCHITECTS, at 8. eae,
Mepicat Society, at 8. a
Vicroria INsTITUTE, at 8. Py
ms
TUESDAY, January 7. oY: Ay
PATHOLOGICAL Society, at 8 —Anniversary. a
ANTHROPOLOGICAL InsTITUTE, at 8.—The Atlantean Race of Western
Europe: The late J. W. Jackson.—The Kojahs of Southern India : Dr.
John Shortt —Primordial Inhabitants of Brazil: M. H. Gerber and
Capt. Burton.
Socizry or BisricaL ARCHAOLOGY, at 8 30. 0 } -
Zootocicat Society, at 8.30.—Contributions to a general History of the __
Spongiade (Yart 1V): Dr. Bowerbank —Report on a Collection of

Sponges found at Ceylon, by E. W H. Holdsworth: Dr. Sone ee

On the Value in Classification of a peculiarity in the anterior margin ‘

the Nasal Bones of some Birds: A. H. Garrod. : AE ei

ee INSTITUTION, at 3.—Juvenile Lectures—On Air and Gas: Prof. ps
idling. ~ ss

Geotocicat SocieTy at 8.—On the Secondary Rocks of Scotland.— ‘=
Part I. The Strata of the Eastern Coast: J. W. Judd.—Obseryations on —

a
WEDNESDAY, January 8. ;
the more remarkable Boulders of the North West of England and the & 7

Welsh Borders: D. Mackintosh. I
Graruic Socixty, at 8. . .
Roya Society or LiTeRATuURE, at 8, “
ARCHAOLOGICAL A SOCIATION, at 8, .

=
THURSDAY, Janvary 9. 4
Royvat Sociery, at 8.30.
Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. ’
Koyar Socrery Crus, at 6. :
MaruEMATICAL Sociery, at 8,—On Parallel Surfaces: S. Roberts. —Sum-
mation of certain Series: Prof. Wolstenholme. c Mf
Royat Institution, at 3.—Juvenile Lectures—On Air and Gas: Prof. — 9
Odting. a
shail
; —_-— — a if
ie ug
4 a
BOOKS RECEIVED ee

EnGuisu.—Faith and Free Thought: S. Wilberforce (Hodder and
Stoughton),—A Series of Botanical Labels for Herbaria: ff E. Robson”
(Hardwicke) —The Coal-Fields of Great Britain. 3rd edit.: E. Hull —
(Stanford).—Reprint of Papers on Electrstatics and Magnetism: Sir os
William Thomson (Macmillan & Co.). >

CONTENTS

Tue GovERNMENT AND THE Arctic ExPEDITION. .. .« okt
‘Tne ProGress oF Narurat Science During rue Last TwenTy-
RIVE YEARS, II. 9...) 2) site) set aei ane ce te kn) eet enea a
VALENTIN’S CHEMISTRY: « .-« 0! ©) © \s- (5 e0ietey Sennen
LEYTERS TO THE EpiroR:—
Periodicity of Rainfall—Ateert J. Morr. . . . . +. s
Eleven-Year Rainfall Period. —S. M. DracH. . « « » s « «
Pollen-eaters.—W. E, HART... ss ueucs «, > ae
Fresh Water on the Coast of Tobago.—Hon, Rawson W Rawson
International Book Conveyance.—G. J. SYMONS . . . « «
Dr. Cohn’s Address,—J.D. EVERETT . .. . 5 se
Salmonidz of Great Britain.—W. S. Symonps_.
Geographical Distribution of Dipterocarpeax.—W. W.
Honest Cyclopwedias a Mama te) Saye ate) ae
‘The Boring in Sussex —J. E,H. Peyron . .
Reflected Sunshine.—E. W. Prince . . . .
Electricity and Earthquakes —W. W. Woop. .

Atmospheric Refraction.—J. D. Evererr. .
Bieta’s Comer. By N.R.Pocson .. . .
Hints ON COLLECTING ARACHNIDA . . . . °
InTRopuctoxy Lecture or THE MurcHison CHAIR OF

av Epinsurcu, By Prof, Gerk1Ee iy NE
ON THE SpEcTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS, II.

Lockyer, F.R.S. (With Illustrations.) . :
Noes: 23)" '5 °°. ae ee sees
Terrestrial Macnetism. By Rev. S. J. Perry
Screntiric SERIALS. . . tf iach

Gaotocy

at
SocteT1gs AND ACADEMIES .. .. . 6
Books REcEivep . . WY sti

Bier oe apis terse

ein,” st Be p<

il \me See

Hee, p.¥ cap feed

THURSDAY, JANUARY 9g, 1873

DEEP SPRINGS

S our contribution to a controversy which has now

been going on for some weeks in the 77mes, and

to which much public attention has been given, we have

received Prof. Geikie’s permission to print a Lesson

from his forthcoming Primer of Physical Geography
dealing with the subject of Deep Springs.

The facts which Prof. Geikie here summarises in so
admirable a manner, taken in connection with what has
already appeared in NATURE as to what one may almost
call the cosmical connections of the recent rainfall, and
the actual conditions of the case placed before the
readers of the Zzmes by Mr. Bailey Denton, should, we
think, be enough to convince all that there is a science in
these matters, and that the way in which Nature is in the
habit of working should be at least understood, if even in
only a feeble way, before a protest be entered against
her.

Do we wish to continue to avail ourselves of surface
springs? If so it must be remembered, first, that these
are impossible without the deep springs of which Prof.
Geikie speaks ; secondly, that it may be roughly said,
that they are normally replenished once a year, and that
in some parts of England there has not been rain enough
this year yet to replenish them. In the words of Mr.
Denton :—

“During the summer months, from May to October,
the rain which falls seldom reaches the depth of a yard.
This has been clearly shown by Dickinson’s records.
During that period evaporation, exceeding the rainfall
very considerably, draws upon the subterranean supply of
water stored in the soil, and in continued drought the
draught is immense. In the winter months, from October
to May, when the rainfall exceeds the evaporation, the
excess penetrates the earth, and having saturated the
subsoil as it passes through it, the surplus descends to
the springs or subterranean level to replenish the one and
raise the other. To produce this super-saturation requires
time, and hence it is that ‘mid-winter’—ze. the shortest
day—is reached before the deep springs and deep water-

beds are augmented.”

The present controversy will do lasting good if it
induces, and we think it may, accurate observations of
the amount of water in the deep springs in different
areas in different years, and at different times of the
year. Itis more than possible that the late heavy rainfall
is even, from the deep spring point of view, a manifesta-
tion of a higher law—or ofa miracle as Mr. Babbage would
have called it—that nature may not only replenish our
underground cisterns every year, but vary the yearly
supply, over a period of eleven years or so.

Professor Geikie’s “ Lesson” runs as follows :—

“Tn this lesson we are to follow the course of that part
of the rain which sinks below ground. A little attention
to the soils and rocks which form the surface of a
country is enough to show that they differ greatly from
each other in hardness, and in texture or grain. Some
are quite loose and porous, others are tough and close-
grained. They consequently differ much in the quantity

No. 167—VOL, VII

NATURE

Lai

of water they allow to pass throughthem. A bed of sand,
for example, is pervious, that is, will let water sink
through it readily, because the little grains of sand lie
loosely together, touching each other only at some points,
so as to leave empty spaces between. The water readily
finds its way among these empty spaces. In fact, the
sand-bed may become a kind of sponge, quite saturated
with the water which has filtered down from the surface.
A bed of clay, on the other hand, is impervious; it is
made up of very small particles fitting closely to each
other, and therefore offering resistance to the passage of
water. Wherever such a bed occurs, it hinders the free
passage of the water, which, unable to sink through it
from above on the way down, or from below on the way
up to the surface again, is kept in by the clay, and forced
to find another line of escape.

“ Sandy or gravelly soils are dry because the rain at
once sinks through them ; clay soils are wet because they
retain the water, and prevent it from freely descending
into the earth..

“When water from rain or melted snow sinks below
the surface into the soil, or into rock, it does not remain
at rest there. If you were to dig a deep hole in the
ground you would soon find that the water which lies
between the particles would begin to trickle out of the
sides of your excavation, and gather into a pool in the
bottom. If you baled the water out it would still keep
oozing from the sides, and the pool would ere long be
filled again. This would show you that the underground
Mice will readily flow into any open channel which it can
reach.

“Now the rocks beneath us, besides being in many
cases porous in their texture, such as sandstone, are
all more or less traversed with cracks—sometimes
mere lines, like those of a cracked window-pane, but
sometimes wide and open clefts and tunnels. These
numerous channels serve as passages for the under-
ground water. Hence, although a rock may be so
hard and close-grained that water does not soak through
it at all, yet if that rock is plentifully supplied with these
cracks, it may allow a large quantity of water to pass
through. Limestone, for example, is a very hard rock,
through the grains of which water can make but little
way ; yet itis so full of cracks or ‘joints,’ as they are
called, and these joints are often so wide, that they give
passage to a great deal of water.

“Tn hilly districts, where the surface of the ground
has not been brought under the plough, you will
notice that many places are marshy and wet, even
when the weather has long been dry. The soil every-
where around has perhaps been baked quite hard by
the sun; but these places remain still wet in spite of
the heat. Whence do they get their water? Plainly not
directly from the air; for in that case the rest of the
ground would also be damp. They get it not from above,
but from below. It is oozing out of the ground ; and it
is this constant outcome of water from below which keeps
the ground wet and marshy. In other places you will
observe that the water does not merely soak through the
ground, but gives rise to a little runnel of clear water.
If you follow such a runnel up to its source, you will see
that it comes gushing out of the ground as a Spring.

“Springs are the natural outlets for the underground
water. But you ask why should this water have any
outlets, and what makes it rise to the surface ?

“The subjoined figure (Fig. 1) represents the way in
which many rocks lie with regard to each other, and
in which you would meet with them if you were to
cut a long deep trench or section beneath the surface.
They are arranged, as you see, in flat layers or beds.
Let us suppose that @ is a flat layer of some imper-
vious rock, like clay, and 4 another layer of a porous
material, like sand. The rain which falls on the sur-
face of the ground, and sinks through the upper bed,

L

178

will be arrested by the lower one, and made either to
gather there, or find its escape along the surface of that
lower bed. If a hollow orvalley should have its bottom
below the level of the line along which the water flows,
springs will gush out along the sides of the valley, as
shown at ssin the woodcut. The line of escape may be
either, as in this case, the junction between two different
kinds of rock, or some of the numerous joints already
referred to. Whatever it be, the water cannot help flow-

Fic. 1.—Origin of Surface Springs.

ing onward and downward, as long as there is any passage
by which it can find its way ; and the rocks underneath are
so full of cracks that it has no difficulty in doing so,
“But it must happen that aj great deal of the under-
ground water descends far below the level of the valleys,
and even below the level of the sea. And yet, though it
should descend for several miles, it conigs at last to the
surface again. To realise clearly how this takes place,
let us follow a particular drop of water from the time when
it sinks into the earth as rain to the time when, after a
long journeying up and down in the bowels of the earth,
it once more reaches the surface. It soaks through the
soil together with other drops, and joins some feeble

Fic. 2.—Section of part of a district to show the origin “of deep-seated
Springs. The Numerous joints in the rocks lead the water down into a
main channel, by which it re-ascends to the surface as a spring at s.

trickle, or some more ample flow of water, which works
its way through crevices and tunnels of the rocks, It
sinks in this way to perhaps a depth of several thousand
feet until it reaches some rock through which it cannot
readily make further way. All this while it has been fol-
lowed by other drops, coursing after it through its wind-
ing passage down to the same barrier at the bottom. The
union of all these drops forms an accumulation of water,
which is continually pressed by what is descending from
the surface. Unable to work its way downward, the pent-
up water must try to find escape in some other direction.
By the pressure from above it is driven through other
cracks and passages, winding up and down until at last it
comes to the surface again. It breaks out there as a
gushing spring (see Physics Primer, Art. 23).

“Thus each of the numerous springs which issue out of
the ground is a proof that there is a circulation of water
underneath, as well as upon the surface of the land, But
besides these natural outlets, other proofs are afforded by
the artificial openings made in the earth. Holes, called

asyee Pad. . ce eee ae ee fi
CORES Ri ny 5) ae ae ae

NATURE ss) ‘[Fan. 9, 1873

Wells, are actually dug to catch this water. Mines, pits,
quarries, and deep excavations of any kind, are usually
troubled with it, and need to be kept dry by having it
pumped out.”

It is a satisfaction to think that,as Science gets more

infused into our general education, such a question as —

the one to which attention is now directed will not be
mooted until its scientific bearings’ are understood ; for
after all the question of deep springs is only one of the

scientific points involved in the controversy.

SHELLEY'S BIRDS OF EGYPT

A Handbook to the Birds of Egypt. By G. E. Shelley,
F.G.S., F.Z.S., &c. 1 vol. 8vo, with 14 coloured plates.
(London: Van Voorst, 1872.)

LY, Nie travellers who go “up the Nile” during the
4 winter months, devote the leisure, which would
otherwise hang somewhat heavily on their hands, to
making a collection of birds. The boating trip usual on
these occasions is, as Captain Shelley observes, admirably
adapted for this purpose, “as there is much time left on
hand while the vessel is delayed by adverse winds ; and
even at other times progress is frequently not so rapid as
to prevent the traveller from keeping pace with the boat,
if he chooses to land for the sake of sport, which may
generally be obtained on the banks of the river,”

To such persons Captain Shelley’s volume w:i! | e most
acceptable, as there was previously no single work that
contained sufficient information to enable them to deter-
mine the names of the birds met with on the Nile. Riip-
pell’s “ Systematische Uebersicht” gives a complete list of
all the species known to occur in Egypt at the time of its
publication. But besides being now rather out of
date, Riippell’s volume does not include descriptions
of most of the common birds, and requires to be sup-
plemented by several other works hardly adapted for
a traveller’s library. Captain Shelley’s handy volume
contains a sufficiently full account of all the Egyptian
birds hitherto recorded, and is therefore far more conye-
nient for use during a tour up the Nile, though other
works will be required on the return home, to enable some

of the more closely allied species to be certainly dis- —

criminated,

As limits of the “ Egyptian district,” of which he treats,
Captain Shelley takes the Mediterranean on the north,
and the second Nile cataract on the south, with the Ara-
bian and Libyan deserts to the east and west. Within
this area about 350 species of birds are met with, of each
of which a short description is given, together with remarks
upon the time of its occurrence, habits, and other pecu-
liarities. The greater number of the birds of Egypt are
well-known European forms, but there is a considerable
admixture of Oriental and African speciés. In the latter
category we may notice the beautiful little sun-bird, Vec-
tarinia metallica, of which the portrait forms the
frontispiece to the volume. Captain Shelley met with it
near Kalabshee in Nubia, where it is tolerably plentiful in
April, but has “no doubt that it occasionally descends
below the first cataract,” as he noticed several specimens
within twenty miles of Philee, Other tropical forms which

_ intrude into the Nile district are the yellow-vented Bulbul
(Pycnonotus arsinoe), the Egyptian Bush-babbler (Crave-
‘ropus acacig), the Bifasicated Lark (Certhilanda desert-
orum), and two other species of Bee-eater, besides the
Merops apiaster which visits Europe. The most abun-
dant groups among the Passerine birds of Egypt are,
perhaps the Larks and the Stonechats, of both of which
numerous forms occur along the Nile banks. Nearly all
the European Sy/viide@ are likewise found in Egypt, either
all the year round, or in winter during their southern
migration. The list of birds of prey is also numerous,
and many of the eagles and hawks are said to be individu-
ally very abundant. In fact, Egypt must be pronounced
to be quite a paradise for an ornithologist who wishes to
* take it easy,” and to collect a number of rare and in-
teresting species without going far from home, or en-
dangering his health in the forests of the tropics.

Whilst allowing Captain Shelley great credit for the
general way in which he has performed his task, we must
be permitted to point out several “ heresies ” in his scien-
tific arrangement, which, however, are manifestly owing
rather to carelessness tian to ignorance. The Andalu-
sian Hempode (7yrnix sy/vatica) certainly cannot be
correctly referred to the Tetraonide—though Captain
Shelley might find precedents for such a course—nor the
Ibises, Storks, and Cranes to the Charadriidz, for which,
on the other hand, no sort of precedent will be found. It
is also new to us to see the Rails and Crakes arranged in
the order “ Anseres” in the same family (!) as the Ducks
and Geese, and the Gulls and Terns united to the Peli-

‘cans. Here, we suspect, our author must have got into
some muddle in “making up his sheets.” On the other
hand, great praise must be awarded to the illustrations,
which are obyiously from the facile pencil of Mr, Keule-
mans, and represent some of the most novel and attrac-
tive species. We could only have wished that a map
had been‘added, with all the localities spoken of by the
author marked on it. In these days no work referring to
geographical zoology can be deemed complete without a
map to it.

| i a
wey 9

OUR BOOK SHELF

A Manual of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical. By
George Fownes, F.R.S. Eleventh edition, revised and
corrected by Henry Watts, B.A,,F.R.S. (London:
J. and A. Churchill, 1873.)

WE have received the eleventh edition of Fowne’s Manual
of Chemistry, The great popularity of this famous
Chemical text-book has already necessitated the pub-
lication of this edition, although the last was only
issued in 1868. Since that time great progress has been
made in the science, and we must thank Mr. Watts for
having made this edition fully equal to the present
' educational requirements of chemistry. In order to
_____ prevent the increase of the present volume beyond the
slightly unwieldy size attained by the last, the editor
has somewhat shortened the sections of the work relating
to physics. This is by no means to be regretted, as
admirable manuals on this subject are now within the
reach of all.

Another improvement has been effected by the intro-
, duction of a chapter giving the most important points of
‘a the received theories of chemical combination and the
atomic hypothesis. By thus giving the student some idea
of the theoretical portions of the science at an early

179

the case had the original plan of the author been adhered
to. A chromolithograph of various spectra forms the
frontispiece, but we regret to find that the chapter
on spectrum analysis is somewhat more meagre than
might have been expected. We notice that the size of
the page and of the type has been increased, and the
whole appearance of the book improved, -but the old
woodcuts still do duty; this is a great pity, the French
and German manuals very far surpass any of ours in this
respect. Why should thisbeso? There can beno doubt
that well executed sketches of apparatus are of great use
to students in showing them how to do their work with
neatness, and to none is this more important than to the
large class of students now rising, who have to study the
science without ever having the chance of seeing a well
appointed laboratory or a good manipulator. R. J. F,

Elements of Zoology. By A. Wilson. (Edinburgh :

Adam and Charles Black.)

Very high authorities have lately come to the conclusion
—and the character of this book and of others like it
lately published in Edinburgh confirm that conclusion—
that it is not desirable to teach the e/ements of zoology at
all. You cannot in a volume of 600 pages, illustrated
with 150 woodcuts, ‘really give an adequate account of
the animal kingdom. Nothing less extensive than
* Cuvier’s Regne Animal,” or “ Bronn’s Thierreich” can
deal with the subject. The very essence of Zoology lies
in a wide survey of forms which cannot possibly be
illustrated ina cheap book, A museum, dissecting rooms,
microscopes, special monographs, are necessary for the
study of Zoology, and itis useless to give a hurried
account of the larger groups into which animals are
divisible as an introduction to it. Wedo not want such
elements of Zoology taught in schools and junior classes
—elements of which the teacher himself has probably
no real knowledge from the study of nature—elements
which it is clear that Mr, Wilson has put together from
his notes of Prof. Allman’s course, and from Prof, Huxley’s
publications—but which he knows but little of from his
own observation of nature. What can be taught in
place of such elements of Zoology is the ground-work
of Biology ; and this teaching designed to give a correct
appreciation of the phenomena of life—not an exhaustive
survey of all theforms and peculiarities of animal life—
isa much more practicable thing for educational purposes
and extra-university classes. Special types of both animal
and vegetable life}are taken, which the teacher has him-
self studied, and which he can place in quantity in the
hands of his pupils for like study. Real scientific training
is thus promoted, and books which shall help this form of
teaching are needed. On the other hand, books like Mr.
Wilson’s do a great deal of harm. They put zoology alto-
gether out of the category of natural sciences, making it a
subject of hearsay, and when written by men who are not
themselves actively working zoologists, are simply me-
chanical epitomes or analyses of other men’s work. More-
over, Mr. Wilson does not appear to possess qualifica-
tions for writing such an epitome, for he is not acquainted
with French and German work,

Not to enter into the specific inaccuracies of this book,
we may simply mention that it is not up to the times. It
is ten or fifteen years behind its day throughout, the
reason of which is obvious when we find that it is an
abridgment of works published about fifteen years since,
Fifteen years means a great dealin Zoology, the most
actively advancing of any science at the present time,
since Darwin’s theory has stimulated research in it in all
directions. There is no recognition in this book of Dar-
winism, no proper account of the Protozoa ; development
throughout is inadequately sketched, or in most cases al-
together ignored. Geographical distribution might never
have been studied during these twenty years.

180

We cannot view without great dissatisfaction the pro-
duction of educational books like the present one on a
branch of science in which the author has not worked
himself, and in the progress of which he is not sufficiently
interested to lead him to keep up with some of its most
important advances. It is an injury to the study itself,
and an injustice to those seriously engaged in that
study.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Etitor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Dr. Bastian’s Experiments on the Beginnings of Life

In every experimental science it is of great importance that
the methods by which leading facts can be best demonstrated,
should be as clearly defined and as widely known as possible.
This is particularly true as regards physiology, a science of
which the experimental basis is as yet imperfect. All experi-
ments by which a certainty can be shown to exist where there
was before a doubt, serve as foundation stones. It is well
worth while taking some pains to lay them properly.

Your readers are aware that Dr. Bastian, in his work on the
Beginnings of Life, has asserted that in certain infusions the
** lower organisms ” come into existence under conditions which
have been generally admitted to exclude the possibility of
the pre-existence of living germs. It is also well known that
these experimental results are disputed.

Not long ago I witnessed the opening of a number of experi-
mental flasks chargel many months ago by a friend of mine
with infusions supposed to be similar to those recommended by
Dr. Bastian. The flasks had been boiled and closed hermeti-
cally according to Dr, Bastian’s method. Finding on careful
microscopical examination that the contents of the flasks con-
tained no living organisms, I charged calcined tubes with the
liquids, sealed them hermetically, and forwarded them to Dr.
Bastian. When I next saw him he pointed out that two of the
three liquids used were not those which he had recommended,
that if the infusions had been properly prepared, there would not
have been any necessity for keeping them many months before
examination, that his results with organic infusions were ob-
tained after a few days, and that they were generally of a most
unmistakeable nature. To satisfy my doubts on the subject
he most kindly offered to repeat his experiments relating to the
production of living organisms in infusions of hay and turnip
in my presence. To this proposal (although I have hitherto
taken no part in the controversy relating to spontaneous genera-
tion, and do not intend to take any) I gladly acceded, at the
same time engaging to publish the results without delay.

Fifteen experiments were made, They were in three series,
the dates of which were respectively, Dec. 14, Dec. 20, and
Dec. 27.

First SEr1es—(Dec. 14th.)

Two infusions were employed, an infusion of turnip, in
making which both the rind and the central part were used, and
.an infusion of hay. Both had been prepared the same day a
short time before they were used:

The turnip infusion, of which the specific gravity was 1012,
and the reaction distinctly acid, was divided into two parts, of
which one was neutralised with liquor potassz. Four retorts,
each capable of holding, when half full, a little over an ounce
of liquid, having been prepared, two were charged with neutral
infusion, the other two with unneutralised infusion, A small
quantity of pounded cheese was then added to one of each pair.
A fifth retort was charged with unneutralised infusion diluted
with its bulk of water. As soon as each retort was charged, the

NATURE

open end of its beak was heated in the blowpipe flame and
drawn out, The drawn-out part was then severed, and the re-
tort boiled over a Bunsen’s burner, after which it was kept in a
state of active ebullition for five minutes. During the boiling,
some of the liquid was frequently ejected’ from the almost capil-
lary orifice of the retort. At the end oftthe period named it was
closed by the blowpipe flame, care being taken to continue the
ebullition to the last. The success of the operation was ascer-
tained ineach instance by observing that, by wetting the upper
part of the retort, the ebullition was renewed.

Three similar retorts were charged with the hay infusion, the
specific gravity of which was 1005, and the reaction neutral. Of
these, one contained the infusion diluted with its bulk of distilled
water, the others being charged with infusion to which no addition
had been made. These three retorts wereclosed, after boiling, in ex-
actly the same way as those containing turnip infusion. The
eight retorts were placed, immediately after their preparation,
in a water-bath, which was kept at a temperature of about
30° C.

We met to examine the flasks on December 17, just three
days after their preparation, Dr. Bastian having previously ex-
pressed his anticipation that the infusions of turnip with cheese,
whether neutralised or not, would be found by that time to con-
tain multitudes of Bacteria, and that the other two undiluted
turnip infusions would exhibit obvious changes. In the hay
infusions, he expected that the process would not advance so
rapidly ; the diluted infusions, he thought, would remain perma-
nently unaltered. The results in each case were as follows :—

(a.) Neutral turnip infusion with cheese.—On the 16th I ob-
served that the liquid had become turbid ; on the 17th the tur-
bidity was very obvious. Before opening the retort it was ascer-
tained that when the blow-pipe flame was directed against the
tube the heated part was drawn inwards, and further, that when
the retort was inclined with its bulb upwards, so as to allow the
liquid to rush against the closed end, a characteristic water
hammer sound was produced, On breaking the point, air
rushed in with a tolerably loud sound ; the liquid was crowded
with moderately sized Bacteria, which exhibited active progres-
sive movements. ‘There were also Leptothrix filaments.

(6.) Unneutralised turnip infusion with cheese—On the 17th,
the retort having been tested in the same way as before with
similar results, was opened. It contained no living forms.

(c.) Neutral turnip infusion without cheese.—On the 17th this
liquid exhibited no marked change. It was finally examined on
the 31st, and found to be still unaltered.

(d.) Unneutralised turnip infusion without cheese—Up to
December 31 no change had taken place in this infusion.

(e.) Undiluted hay infusion.—The infusion was slightly turbid
on the 17th; onthe 2oth the turbidity was more marked, and
before the flask was opened, the water-hammer sound and other
evidence showed that it was entire. The liquid was found to be
full of minute but very active Bacteria, and contained numerous
colonies of spheroids undergoing transformation into Bacteria.
There were also Leptothrix filaments.

(7-) Zhe same,—This infusion was examined on the same day.
It had become turbid at about the same time as the last infusion,
though to a less extent. It was distinctly acid. A drop of this
fluid contained few Bacteria as compared with e,

(g.) Diluted hay infusion,—On the 20th it was discovered that
the retort was accidentally cracked. The liquid was swarming
with Bacteria, and possessed an offensive smell. On account of
the crack, Dr. Bastian regarded the experiment as futile.

(1.) Diluted turnip infusion.—This liquid remained un-
changed,

Seconp SERIES—(Dec. 20th.)

The purpose of this series was to ascertain whether the

| irregularities of the results with the turnip infusions in the first

series, as compared with Dr. Bastian’s already recorded results,
were due to the fact that the material used consisted partly of rind.
Dr. Bastian thought that this might be the case, and accord-
inzly another infusion was prepared in which no rind was em-
ployed. As before, the fresh acid infusion of turnip was
divided into two parts, one of which was neutralised by
liquor potassee. Of four retorts, three were charged with un-
neutralised liquid, the fourth with neutral. Of the three,
two were treated with cheese; to the third no addition was
made. They were prepared in every respect as before. In
each case the drawing-in of the glass in the blowpipe flame was
again noticed before the neck of the retort was broken.

(a.) Unneutralised infusion with cheese.—This infusion showed
oilescence, even after twenty-four hours. Oathe 23rd it had
become decideily turbid, and was opeaed. The liquid was
feetid, and its reaction acid. It swarmed with Bacteria.

(6.) Zhe same.—The retort was opened on the 31st, its con-
tents having shown a slight turbidity for several days previously.
The liquid was slightly fcetid, ani it contained characteristic
Bacteria, which, however, were few in number.

(c.) Neutral infusion without cheese. —The retort was opened
on Dec. 31, the fluid having been slightly turbid for several
days. The liquid was acid, and slightly feetid, but still retained

the odour of turnip. A drop contained a few Bacteria, about

0'003 mm. in length, which exhibited oscillatory movements.

(d.) Unneutralised infusion without cheese. —The liquid contained
a white mass which lay at the bottom, and was so tenacious that
it could be drawn out into strings with needles. This consisted
entirely of Bacteria and Leptothrix, embedded in a hyaline ma-
trix. There were also Bacteria in the liquid.

THIRD SERIES—(Dec 27th.)

It appeared to me desirable to ascertain whether the condition
of the internal surface of the glass vessels exercised any influence
on the result. I therefore heated two retorts to 250° C.,
keeping them at that temperature for half an hour, and
closed them while hot in the blow-pipe flame. These Dr.
Bastian charged by breaking off their points under the surface of
a neutral infusion of turnip with cheese, freshly prepared for the
purpose, without employing any of the rind. The retorts were
boiled and sealed in the same way as before, excepting that
whereas one was boiled only five minutes the other was boiled
ten minutes. The specific gravity of the infusion used was 1013.
A third uncalcined retort was charged with some of the same
infusion containing no cheese. This was also boiled for ten
minutes.

I was out of town from the 28th to the 30th, and therefore did
not examine the retorts until the 31st. Dr. Bastian informed me
that on the 28’h, twenty-one hours after preparation, the liquids
in both the calcined retorts were distinctly turbid, the tempera-
ture of the water bath being 32° C.: and that sixty-six hours
after preparation, whilst the turbidity was much more marked,
each flask also contained what appeared to be a ‘‘ pellicle,” which
had formed and sunk. At this period the fluid in the third flask
had also become very decidedly turbid.

(a.) Neutral turnip infusion with cheese inicalcined retort, boiled
ten minutes.—The retort having been tested in the way previously
described, was opened on the 31st. The liquid was very fcetid,
had an acid reaction, and contained much scum. It was found
to be full of Bacteria, whilst Leptothrix existed*in abundance
in portions of the scum, together with granules of various sizes

_which refracted light strongly.

(6.) The same boiled five minutes.—The state of the liquid was
the same as that just described.

(c.) Neutral infusion without cheese, boiled ten minutes—retort
not calcined.—In this liquid the rods and filaments were much
less numerous. In other respects its characters were the same.
In each case before opening the retort it was again observed

NATURE

181

that a portion of its neck became drawn in when exposed to the
blow-pipe flame.

As rezards the results of the foregoing experimeats, it is un-
necessary for me to say anything as to their bearing on the ques-
tion of heterogenesis. The subject has already been frequently
discussed in your columns.

The accuracy of Dr. Bastian’s statements of fact, with re-
ference to the particular experiments now under consideration,
has been publicly questioned. I myself doubted it, and ex-
pressed my doubts, ifnot publicly, at least in conversation. I_
am content to have established—at all events to my own satis-
faction—that, by following Dr. Bastian’s directions, infusions can
be prepared which are not deprived, by an ebullition of from
five to ten minutes, of the faculty of undergoing those chemical
changes which are characterised by the presence of swarms of
Bacteria, and that the development of these organisms can pro-
ceed with the greatest activity in hermetically-sealed glass ves-
sels, from which almost the whole of the air has been expelled
by boiling. J. BuRDON SANDERSON

University College, Jan. 1

The Recent Star-shower at Sea

IN case no oth-r account should reach you of a meteoric
shower witnessed by the officers and military passengers of H. M.
troopship Zaar on the night of Wednesday , November 27,
1872, 1 send notes collected from several accounts.

‘The vessel was at the time about 7° south and 4° west of the ~
Bermudas, in longitude 68° 50’ W., latitude 25° 30'N. Between 8
and 10 P.M. by one witness, between ro and 12 P.M. by another,
that is, between 12h. and 16h. Greenwich mean time, there was
a nearly uninterrupted succession of shooting stars—from all parts
of the sky, says one, from about E.N.E. to W.S.W., says
another. The gentleman who gives the earlier hour estimates
their number as from 25 to 50 per minute ; the gentleman who
gives the later at about 3 in 2 minutes. They were not counted
or accurately observed by any one, but this discrepancy perhaps
justifies the belief that the thickest part of the stream wa; passed
through by the earth at the earlier hour. Sunset would have been
soon after 5 ; thus it was dark with no moon before the earliest
hour named,

I cannot learn that they were seen in Bermuda; but the
weather was cloudy. debts Be b

Bermuda, Dec. 17, 1872

Curious Auroral Phenomenon

On the nights of the 4th and 5th of this month a curious
phenomenon, presenting much resemblance to an aurora borealis,
was noticed here.

It had the character of a faint, steady light, rather red than
yellow, extending over the horizon, which here in that direction
is bounded by the sea-line, from N. W. to N.N.E.; while under-
neath it, that is between it and the horizon, was a rim of dark,
smoke-like appearance, such as I have more than once seen in
undoubted auroras. The smoky line occupied to a height of
about three degrees above the horizon ; the light to ten or twelve
at most. On both nights it became visible about 9 p.M:, and
disappeared shortly after rr P.M.

My house being situated rather more than 309 ft. above the
sea and commanding a perfectly open view over it, I had a
good opportunity of noticing this appearance: which was also
observed and commented on by several other inhabitants of the
town. On the night of the 6th I thought I could distinguish
something of the kind, but the increasing light of the moon and
a sea-fog coming on, rendered the fact uncertain.

The barometer was high, 30° 20”, the wind slight and from
the east, the weather cool.

It may be worth adding that the water of the Black Sea being
but slightly salt, its phosphorescent phenomena are proportion-
ally insignificant. Hence I do not think that the light in
question could have been any way reflected from the sea-surface.

No electrometer or instrument of the kind exists at Trebizond,
but the uncomfortable sensations of which many people com-
plained, and, I may add, the abundant sparks from my Tom’s
back—I ruffled it by way of trial on purpose—seemed to imply

-
°

182

considerable electric tension in theatmosphere at the time, The
weather was also remarkably dry.
Trebizond, Dec. 15, 1872

W. GIFFORD PALGRAVE

The Spectrum of the Aurora and of the Zodiacal Light

Upon a perusal of the chapter in Dr. Schellen’s ‘*Spectrum
Analysis,” specially bearing on the above subjects, I have been
Jed to think—firstly, that our present knowledge of these spectra
is far from complete ; and secondly, that so far as such know-
ledge extends, it hardly warrants some of the conclusions arrived
at in Dr. Schellen’s work. To test the question of the aurora,
T have collected, chiefly from the pages of NATURE, a set of
observations (excluding a few which gave only rough results),
and have arranged them under the heads of the several lines, so
that these and their characteristics may be seen at a glance, and
the observations compared ; and from these observations I de-
duce the following remarks :— d ;

1. That the full spectrum of the aurora consists of seven brig ht
lines or bands and a faint diffused spectrum.

2. That two (perhaps three) of these lines are sharp and well
defined, while the others are more or less nebulous. (As Lord
Lindsay notes one of the lines to be sharp on one side and nebu-
lous on the other, itis probable that this, and perhaps others of
the nebulous lines, would resolve into groups of lines under
higher instrumental power. ) .

3. That the red line (which seems to have been actually posi-
tioned by two observers only) is not found to coincide with the
spectrum of any known substance or gas. (But see next note.)

4. That the yellow-green aurora line, and perhaps two other
lines, according to one observer, coincide with lines of oxygen ;
while two lines, according to other observers, either fall very near
to, or actually coincide with, F and G hydrogen, and that to this
extent theaxiom of Zdéllner, that the spectrum of the aurora does
not agree with any of the known spectra of the gases of our
atmosphere, is challenged, : é

6. That Zollner’s theory of the lines or bands in the blue being
remains of a continueus spectrum broken up by dark absorption
bands, is hardly supported by the other observers.

4. That the aurora spectrum is probably a mixed one, and
that the red and yellow-green lines are independent spectra ; as
also may possibly be the corona line and the continuous spectrum
crossed with the fainter lines.

8. That the discrepancies in the observations recorded are con-
siderable, and that all the lines (except, perhaps, Angstrom’s),
and specially the red one, require further examination to confirm
their position.

And this last proposition I venture to commend to the atten-
tion of your spectroscopic correspondents during this winter.

The zodiacal light will also undeniably bear further investiga-
tion, The evidence at present seems to strongly incline to the
presence of a faint continuous spectrum only. Webb, Back-
house, and Pringle are positive in their observations as to this ;
and, on the other hand, the bright green line referred to by Dr.
Schellen, as seen by Angstrém and Zollner zz all parts of the
sky can, as Pringle has well noticed, hardly be assumed to
belong conclusively to the zodiacal light, but rather to some
faint accompanying aurora. I ain not aware whether the zodi-
acal light and the aurora have been examined with a polariscope.
The light, though faint, might, I imagine, be tested with a
Nicol’s prism and Sayart bands. An observation of the zodiacal
light in the spring showed me its faint rose-red tint very distinctly,
although I was not at that time aware that this tint was cha-
racteristic, ; é

AURORA SPECTRUM

No, 1.—:4 Line in the Red between C and D

OBSERVER. REMARKS.

T, F. (Torquay). Strong, intermediate in colour and posi-
tion to lithium and calcium.

J. RB Cc. Like lithium line, but duskier ; well seen
in Browning’s miniature spectroscope ;
sharp and well defined.

BARKER. Almost equidistant between C and D;

wave-length, 623" (C and D being re-

* A line of nitrogen in the air spectrum seems to lie very close to this
position, and if other lines lie so near to, or coincide with, those of oxygen
and hydrogen, it would appear not unreasonable, until further evidence is
obtained, to conjecture that the Aurora Spectrum may be wholly or in part
an air spectrum modified by temperature pressure.—J. R. C,

“Db Oe gee ee ee
,

NATURE

[Fan. 9, 1873

spectively 656 and 589); sharp and
well defined ; brightness 3 (counting
from 1 as brightest).

At 24; Ha being 18, and Na 32. Does
not coincide with any other line ob-
server has see

Between sodium and lithium, but nearer

PROCTOR,

PIAzzI SMYTH.

the latter. Estimated at W.L. 6350.

| BACKHOUSE, Seen in eight auroras, out of thirty-four
; observed.

ZOLLNER. More refrangible than Ha ; possibly lies

(Schellen. ) near the dark telluric lines A ; wave-

length, 6,279 (Angstrom),

No, 2,—A Line in the Yellow Green between Dand E (principal
auroral line)

Strong; pale yellow near D,
Sharp and well defined ; like principal -
line in nebulze, but brighter ; a peculiar
flickering noticed in the line during the

displays of Oct. 1870 and Feb, 1872.
ALVAN{CLARK, JUN. ‘ Wave-length, 569. (Probably an error —
for 559.—J. R. C.)

T. F. (Torquay).
[aniss 0c.

BARKER. Wave-length, 562; sharp and well de-
fined ; brightness, r.
PRocror. At 41 (Na being 32); nebulous ; abso-

lutely coincident with a line in a lu-—
miére tube attributed to oxygen. :

Sharp and well defined ; visible with very
narrow slit.

Within a few units of Kirchhoft’s 1255;
a peculiar flickering, and frequent
changes of brightness.

Over citron acetylene, at W.L. 5579.

Lorp LINDsAy.

HERSCHEL.

Prazzi SMYTH.

ScHMID?. Varied much in intensity.
(Schellen. )

ZOLLNER. Brilliant in all parts of the aurora.
(Schellen.) >

No. 3.—A Linein the Green near E (corona line ?)

ALVAN CLARK, JUN. At 532; assumedjto be 531°6 (corona
ine).

Notes three lines in the aurora as coinci-
dent with corona lines.

Near E. ; woolly at the edges, but rather -
sharp in centre ; at or near 1474 of the
corona.

Once only, at 532.

WINLOCK.
(Schellen.)
Lorp LInpDsay.

BACKHOUSE,

No. 4.—A Line in the Green at or near b

ELGER, Very faint ; half way between principal
auroral line and F. i

BARKER. At 517. (Assumed to be 520.—Win-
lock.) Nebulous ; brightness, 5.

Lorp LINDSAY, A faint band coincident with 4, and ex-
tending equally on both sides of it.

A faint band at 57, Na being 32 and Hg
75, coincident with a line (of oxygen ?)

in lumiére tube.

PrRocTor.

No. 5.—A Line in the Green betweenb and ~

BARKER. At 502; brightness, 2; conjectured to
coincide with a line in the chromo-
sphere.

BACKHOUSE, Mentions a faint band seen in five auroras

out of thirty-eight at 500 or 510 (Sor?
—J. R. C.)

No. 6.—A Line in the Green-Blue at or near F

ELGER. Faint and nebulous.

ALVAN CLARK, JUN. At 485; assumed to be 486 F hydrogen.

BARKER, At 482; assumed to be 485 of Alvan
Clark, jun.

At 81; more refrangible than Hf (75).4

Very slightly more refrangible than F ;
side towards D sharp and well defined ; —
other side nebulous,

PROCTOR.
Lorp LINvsAy.

by

x,

NATURE

183

’ No. 7.—Line in the Indigo at or near G
ALVAN CLARK, JUN, At 435; assumed to be 434 G Peep:
PROCTOR. At 121; more refrangible than Hy
(114) ; coincident with a line (of oxy-
gen?) in lumiére tube. Probably there
is some error here ; this line as posi
tioned by Lord Lindsay and Alvan
Clark, jun., being slightly} Jess refran-
gible than G.—J. R. C. fe
Slightly less refrangible than G; a broad,
ieee band, seen only with a wide
slit.
The continuous Spectrum
Faint from about D to beyond F.

Lorp Linpsay.

T. F. (Torquay).

FLG6GEL. Faint green reaching from aurora line to
(Schellen), 16

SCHMIDT. From aurora line to F; frequently resolved
(Schellen. ) into three bright lines.

ZOLLNER. Considers the bright lines or bands Nos.
(Schellen.) 4, 6, and 7 to be a continuous spectrum

broken up by dark absorption bands,

Guildford, Nov. 9 J. RanD CAPRON

Ocean Rainfall

WirH reference to Mr. Miller’s note (NATURE, vol. vii.
p- 123), I think it may be desirable to point out that a good
many steps have been taken in the direction he suggests. As I
believe Mr. Miller is a reader of ‘ British Rainfall,” he will pro-
bably hardly need to be reminded of the article on ‘‘Ocean Rain-
fall,” by Mr. F. Gaster in the volume for 1866, wherein tables
of the prevalence of rain in the North and South Atlantic and
North Pacific Oceans are given in considerable detail. The de-
termination of the amount is a far more difficult matter for a
number of reasons, which would require much space fully to ex-
plain, and Tam not at all surprised at the feat being considered
“impossible ;” but the use of that word is becoming restricted.
At the British Association meeting at Brighton, Mr. W. T. Black
was kind enough to show me a rain gauge which he had had con-
structed somewhat on the plan described by him in the Journal
of the Scottish Meteorological Society for January 1870, and which
he intended should make a few voyages on purpose to test.

With respect to gauges on lightships, I may state that at my
suggestion the Elder Brethren of the Trinity House allowed a
gauge to be placed upon the ore lightship in the autumn of 1865.
It was carefully observed by the officers on board for about two

ears, and the returns were compared with simultaneous records

ept at Sheerness on the Kentish, and Shoeburyness on the
Essex coast. I cannot say that I was satisfied with the results,
which were principally vitiated by spray and wind. The gauge
was bolted rigidly to a post on the deck of the vessel, as I then
thought this preferable to the incessant oscillations which would
result from the employment of gimbals

Considering the sources of inaccuracy attaching to the measure-
ment of rainfall at sea, and the fact that, so far as I am aware,
lightships are seldom more than ten or twenty miles from land, I
think that there are few cases in which they could render valuable
aid. .
As to the Chadlenger I know nothing ; but I do know that it
was the joint resolution of Mr. Black and myself each and both
to do what we could towards obtaining quantitative records of
the rainfall of the North Atlantic, and when last I heard from
him there were prospects of partiai succéss. Only partial be-
cause we do not hope or expect to ascertain the true fall, but
merely the relative fall in different zones, or portions of the ocean.

Camden Square, London G, J. Symons

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE OF THE MURCHI-
SON CHAIR OF GEOLOGY AT EDINBURGH,
SESSION 1872-3 *

1815
M USE has recently been said (so much, indeed, that
the subject begins to get somewhat wearisome) re-
garding the necessity for wide-spread scientific instruction
to enable our artisans to compete with the advancing in-
dustry of foreign countries. Technical education has

* Continued from p. 165.

become a kind of political cry, like the county franchise
or women’s electoral disabilities. We hear, continually,
too, of the need for a more special training in science for
such professional pursuits as those of the engineer and
the military officer, or of the men who devote themselves
to the task of geographical discovery. Far be it from me
to say one word that would seem to imply an under-
valuing of such practical applications of science. Most
heartily do I wish that a technical school were established
in every great town in the country, and that every man
whose pursuits in life might call for the aid of science,
should have the means of obtaining sound practical in-
struction in those branches likely to be of service to him.

But I cannot believe that such utilitarian views, im-
portant though they undoubtedly are, set before us the
true place which science ought to hold, and which I am
convinced it will one day hold in the general system of
education in this country. Scientific culture is something
more than a weapon to help us in the keen warfare of
trade and commerce. It is, in truth, itself a noble form
of education, filling a place which can be filled by none
other, and without which no modern culture of the higher
type can now rightly claim to be regarded as liberal.

It is this aspect of the subject which I seek to impress
upon your minds to-day. Ido so the more readily since
it seems to me that your presence as members of this
voluntary class is a token that you recognise with me the
desirability of adding to the traditional methods of edu-
cation. The matters which will come to be dealt with
here lie outside of the ordinary curriculum of study. Yet
they form part of that wider fieid which must ere long be
conjoined with the older territories as the domain now to
be required for higher culture.

Apart altogether from any practical application to be
made of a scientific training for the active business of
life, such a training seems to me to deserve and require
a place in our ordinary system of education on several
grounds, of which I shall at present notice only two—
firstly, because it trains the observing faculty; and,
secondly, because it stimulates the imaginative faculty.

I, Taking the lowest view of the case, it will not be
denied that a habit of quick and accurate observation
is one of the most advantageous powers with which a man
or woman can be equipped. Such a habit often makes
all the difference between a successful and an unsuc-
cessful career. In point of actual hard-thinking power a
man may be greatly superior to his fellows, but this power
is not enough of itself alone to ensure success in the battle
of life. Much must ever depend on the rapidity and
shrewdness with which passing events are noted and pro-
vided for ; or, in other words, the care with which the
observing faculty is cultivated as well as the judgment.

But beyond and above such considerations we cannot
doubt that the observing spirit carries about with it a
multiplied power of enjoyment—so multiplied, indeed,
that, placed beside the unobserving spirit, it seems
almost to have been gifted with another sense. A well-
trained power of observation never suffers its possessor
to feel wholly alone. Even out of the most solitary ~
scenes it can gather pleasant companionship, and amid
the ordinary monotonous routine of life it finds recrea-
tion where, in its absence, men are apt to encounter only
dulness, The story of our childhood—‘ Eyes and no
Eyes ”—has in this respect a significance for people of all
ages as well as for schoolboys.

If you think of it you will probably find that what we
ordinarily term common sense springs in no small measure
out of this habit of observation. A man who is wont to
keep his eyes open and take note of the changes con-
tinually going on around him, both among men and
things, is more likely to acquire just views of the business
of life than a man who takes notice only of what forces
itself upon his attention.

From the moment of our birth we are surrounded by

184

phenomena which demand our attention, and many of
which will brook no neglect. We learn what heat is, not
by the instruction of mother or nurse, but by the memor-
able experience of scalded tongue or burnt finger. The
idea of distance grows upon us as our infant hands
struggle in vain to grasp the picture on the farther wall,
or to reach the moon. The notion of weight dawns upon
our minds as the toy falls from our loosened grasp to the
floor. In these and other ways Nature herself is our
teacher ; and we learn rapidly enough when not to do so
involves us in continual physical suffering.

In our journey through life thousands of objects impress
themselves on our mere outward eyes, yet are never really
observed by us. Nay, they may actually in some degree
reach the inner eye, and yet from want of traininz, or
ignorance, or carelessness, we may never see these things
as they essentially are, or as they would be seen by one
whose observing faculty had been duly cultivated.

Some years ago I had an amusing illustration of this
familiar fact in the case of a cottager in Ayrshire who
stopped me on the high-road near his own door, late one
autumn evening, to show me a will-o’-the-wisp. Never
having had the good fortune to encounter one of these
legendary sprites, I was naturally curious to see and hear
about this example. I was told that it appeared in damp
breezy weather in autumn and spring, usually in the
evening, and never anywhere else than over the rubbish
heaps of a deserted coal-mine. The light seemed, indeed,
to my rather sceptical eyes strangely like the flicker of
cottage windows seen behind some waving trees ; but my
informant assured me that he had watched the thing for
fully thirty years, and could not be mistaken. Leaving
him at his cottage, I made straight across a succession of
fields and fences, and soon reached, in the fading twilight,
the mound at the old coal-mine. There, however, I sought
in vain for will-o’-the-wisp ; but about a quarter of a mile
farther on, on the other side of a strip of wood, now visible,
now concealed, as the leaves happened to be stirred by
the wind, were the flickering lights of a row of cottages.
My friend had noted the lights, had even correctly enough
connected their flickering with breezy weather; but his
observations had gone no further, and so for thirty years he
was content with an hallucination which he could at any
time have dispelled in five minutes.

Many men never get very much further in their ques-
tioning and experiment of the external world than that
degree of child-like experience which enables them to keep
themselves from bodily harm or to obtain the means of
bodily enjoyment. If this habit of observation be not already
born and active in them the usual discipline of modern
education does little to engender or quicken it. They are
left to learn the use of their eyes as they best may, or to
pass through life without ever learning to use them at all.
There is still no special training in the cultivation of the
observing faculty—a training not to be taken or left at the
expense of parent or scholar,-but which shall be an
essential and imperative part of education.

Nevertheless, though this great faculty is left to such
scanty collateral iafluences as it may receive from the
already-authorised lines of instruction, it is as certainly
capable of cultivation and improvement as any other part
of our mental organism—nay, upon its proper cultivation
much of our welfare and of our highest pleasure depends.
Surely it is not too much to demand that a faculty to
which the present epoch of human history owes in especial
measure its characteristics, shall be recognised as one of
the parts of our nature to be sedulously cared for in the
instruction of youth ?

Among the reforms of the future one will assuredly be
the supplying of this defect in our present system of edu-
cation. And in no way can this be so advantageously
done as by the practical teaching of some branch of
natural science, We may not increase the army of
scientific discoverers, and there is no need that we should ;

NATURE

[Yan. 9, 1873

but we shall at all events equip each man and woman —
with better armour for the battle of life, adding vastly at
the samme time to their capacity for some of the purest
pleasures which are obtainable in this world.

2. Whatever tends to stimulate the imaginative faculty,
taking us out of the routine of daily life, and enabling us
to realise times and conditions different from those in
which we live, helps to raise us in the dignity of thinking
beings. This faculty is well cultivated by some parts of
the traditional system of education. Literature, notably
history and poetry, afford endless materials for this pur-
pose. These materials deal largely with questions having
amore or less distinctly human interest. Nevertheless,
though man is himself the proper study of mankind, his
conceptions cannot fail to be enlarged when he is brought
face to face with a whole world of phenomena lying out-
side of himself and his experience. Such enlargement it
is one of the tasks of science to ensure.

You will find it sometimes gravely asserted to be “a
deviation from the correct use of language and a con-
founding of things essentially distinct to say that a man of
science stands in need of imagination as well as powers of
reason.” I hope that before long you will perceive the
fallacy of such an assertion and recognise the necessity of
imagination not in the man of science only, but in every
one who would adequately master the aims and results of
scientific thought. Imagination, that is, the power of
shaping in our minds a distinct picture of what from many
observations of facts we determine to be the plan of
nature, either now or in the past, lies at the very bottom of
all thorough scientific research. Without imagination to
gather them all up into a luminous conception, the scat-
tered observations of countless independent workers would
lose half their meaning, and indeed would often never
be made at all, for in many cases they are themselves the
suggestion of imagination. To deny to Science the use of
this faculty would be to clip her wings, to forbid her to
soar into the highest heavens, and to condemn her to a
mere ant-like industry upon this nether earth.

In adding to the present curriculum of a liberal educa-
tion some training in scientific habits of mind and work,
we should in no wise deaden or hamper the free use of
the imaginative faculty. On the contrary, we should
furnish it with the complement of that anthropomorphic
or subjective method of viewing things which mere literary
training is apt to produce We should enable it to take a
freer, wider grasp of creation and of man’s place therein.

[The speaker here illustrated his argument by an
example drawn from the geology of the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, }

Now this is but an ordinary and simple example of the
kind of mental processes through which geology requires
us to pass. There seems little worthy of note on a group
of moss-grown lichened stones on a bare hill-side; yet
the observing faculty, once put on the alert, readily detects
the singularity of these boulders, sets about its task of
gathering all the information to be gleaned regarding
them and of preparing a body of evidence to be weighed
and decided upon by the judgment. And then arises the
imaginative faculty with its power of reproducing the past.
Under its sway woodland and cornfield seem to melt
away before us, the hills are once more sealed in ice,
and fleets of boulder-laden bergs come drifting over
what are now the fertile plains of the Lothians.

While, therefore, in the work which lies before you here
it will be your endeavour to add to your knowledge, do
not lose an opportunity of cultivating at the same time
these two faculties. So long as your knowledge is merely
from books, so long as you are content with a kind of
mere cramming, such an opportunity will be little likely
to occur. It is when you turn your knowledge to account
and seek for illustration or expansion of it by direct per-
sonal appeal to Nature that your powers of observation
and imagination will have free play.

ee.
Fan. 9, 1873]

appeals of this kind. Every crag and dell around seems
to beckon us to its side that it may set problems before us
for solution. Part of the work of the winter will lie in
availing ourselves of these opportunities. We shall make
visits to the hills and quarries of the neighbourhood, and
test the lessons of the lecture-room by actual seeing and
handling of the rocks,

Thus, while we gain larger conceptions of the structure
and history of the planet on which we dwell, we shall at
the same time perform no unimportant part in that long
education which, though it stands out more prominently
a our earlier years, is not less surely the business of our
ives,

E THE RECENT STAR SHOWER

CONSIDERABLE number of exact determinations
- ofthe place of the radiant-point of the shooting
stars recorded during the recent meteoric shower have
during the last few days continued to reach me, of which
the accompanying general list and a rough outline map
(Fig. 2) will, perhaps, best convey the general result at
present arrived at regarding this important point in con-
nection with the astronomical character of its appearance.
That the stream of meteors, originating in the materials
of Biela’s comet, pursue, in a current of great length and
thickness, nearly the same orbit as that of the comet
round the sun, may be clearly concluded from the many
observations of the meteor shower which have now been
brought together. Among the most interesting of the
descriptions relating to this subject is a report by Dr.
Heis, of Miinster, in Westphalia, of the observations
‘made at that observatory between 8h. and 9h. P.M., and
of others which he received from distant places, of the
Es oid of the meteors at that and at later periods of
he night. The number seen by two observers at
Munster, in fifty-three minutes, between 8h. and gh. P.M.,
was 2,200 meteors, 400 of which appeared in the last
interval but one of six minutes before 9 o’clock, or about
forty-two per minute during the whole time. At the Got-
tingen Observatory 7,710 meteors were counted in three
hours, giving nearly the same average of frequency
during the greater portion of the shower. At Svan-
holmsminde, in the north of Jutland, Mr. S. Tromholdt
recorded, with the assistance of two observers, 600 shoot-
ing stars in the first quarter of an hour after 9 o’clock, or
about forty per minute, as observed at Munster. Allow-
ing at the latter place thirty minutes, and in Jutland forty
minutes, as their longitudes in time, east from Green-
wich, the great abundance of the meteors here noted
nearly coincides with the second principal maximum of
the shower seen by Mr. Lowe and Ly Prof. Grant, at
Glasgow, to have occurred at about, or shortly after,
8 o’clock, From the same time until 1th. 30m. P.M.
(toh. 50m. Greenwich time), Mr. Tromholdt counted
1,660 meteors in two hours and a half, ‘indicating a
greatly decreased intensity of the shower; and, although
clouds then prevented further observations, a perfectly!
clear sky enabled him to resume them at alf-past |
4 o'clock A.M. (3h. 5om. Greenwich time) on the morning
_of the 28th, when he found the display to have entirely
ceased, only four shooting stars making their appearance
; during the hour between half-past 4 and _ half-past
¢ 5 o'clock, or about 4 o’clock, Greenwich time.

In NATURE, vol. vii. p. 86, the observations of Mr. W.
Swan, at St. Andrews, show that the termination of the
shower had actually arrived at an earlier hour on the
morning of the 28th, since, the sky being quite clear at
half-past 1 9’clock A.M., no shooting stars could then be
seen. A writer on the appearance of the shower at
Dublin informs me that his observations fully corrobo-
rated this result, for, on looking out at about 1 o'clock,

NATURE

- = . . . = 2 !
_ Fortunately we meet in a district rich in incentives to

185

(Irish, or nearly half-past 1 o’clock Greenwich time),
the number of meteors was found to have diminished to
about one in two or three minutes, and during a quarter
of an hour after about half-past 2 o’clock, Greenwich
time, not a single shooting star appeared in sight,
although there was then always sufficient clear sky to
enable one observer to have an uninterrupted field of
view of the constellations. Both the extent of the densest
portion and the limits of the extreme boundary of the
stream are excellently marked by these valuable observa-
tions. There appears without doubt to have been a
period of nearly uniform maximum intensity, lasting
from shortly after 6 to shortly before 8. o’clock P.M., in
which one observer might, under the most favourable
circumstances, count from fifty to a hundred meteors
per minute, or on’ an average about one meteor per
second, The duration of this period seems to have been
about an hour and a half, its centre occurring at about,
or very shortly after, 7 o’clock. For about two hours
after it, the shower lessened so gradually as not to fall
much below a quarter of its maximum intensity until
nearly 10 o’clock, but from that time it continued to
decline so rapidly that soon after midnight one observer
scarcely counted so many as one meteor per minute, and
by 2 o’clock A.M. it had entirely disappeared. Taking
its gradual rise before 7 o’clock to have been similar to
its rate of diminution afterwards, and the whole time of
its visibility to have been divisible into periods of two
hours each, of which the central one, of greatest intensity,
occurred between 6 and 8 o’clock P.M., and three others,
on either side of this, might be distinguished as copious,
conspicuous, and hardly more than ordinary meteoric
displays, it is easy to estimate, from the known inclina-
tion at which the earth’s path crosses the axis of the
stream, the thickness of the meteoric stratum which it
traversed in each of these successive periods. Theactual
width or transverse thickness of each of these meteoric
strata must have been about 50,000 miles, and that of
their whole sum, consisting of seven such pericds, was
about 350,000 miles, The diameter of the visible nebu-
losity of Biela’s comet, as it was observed in telescopes,
was estimated at 40,000 miles, and the nearest approach
of its orbit to that of the earth, in 1832, was computed to
be about 17,000 miles, so that the thickness of the
meteor stream which the earth passed through on Nov.
27 last, exceeds these calculated dimensions by very many
times. That it was, however, not the tail, or envelope, of
the comet through which the earth passed, but a stream
of particles left behind the nucleus of the comet on its
track, was pointed out by a Dutch observer, and writer
on the astronomical features of the shower (Herr Van de
Stadt), in the Arnwhemsche Courant, referred toin NATURE,
vol. vii. p. 86. He founds this on the consideration that if, as
the most probable calculations by Mr. Hind of the comet’s
path at this return inform us, it passed its perihelion on
or about Oct. 6 last, and therefore, through its node, and
its nearest point of approach to the earth’s orbit about
Sept. 14 last, it must, at the time of the occurrence of
the meteor shower, have advanced some 250,000,000 ~
miles, or about a seventh part of the whole circumference
of its orbit along its path, having already passed its
perihelion, and proceeded nearly as far as the orbit of
the planet Mars in its subsequent departure from the
sun, and its distant approach towards the opposite part
of its orbit from the earth. ,

Projecting all the meteor-tracks which were recorded
from my point of view, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, upon a
plane perspective chart of the constellations, a very
evident centre of divergence of the shower from a space
round a spot in R.A. 20°, N. Decl. 40°, is very clearly
shown by the backward prolongations of the tracks,
about 60 per cent. of which pass within 4° or 5° of this
place. Many of the tracks recorded were somewhat
widely erratic, coming chiefly from a more northerly

186

NATURE

[ Fan. 9, 1873

area, between this place and Perseus or Cassiopeia. An
extension of the radiant region in that direction or
possibly its definite position there would perhaps have
been recognised by more numerous observations con-
tinued to a later period of the shower ; but clouds com-
pletely covering the sky after 7 o'clock, made the determi- |

| ae

RALin S. Decnee”

Fic. 1.—Tracks of 94 shooting stars observed at York, Birmingham, and
Newcastle-on-Tyne, Nov. 27, 1872.

nation of its place by the 54 meteor-paths recorded during
the preceding hour only apply to its position between
6 and 7 o'clock. The tracks of 23 meteors mapped at
York by Messrs. E. Grubb, S. P. Thomson, and T. H.

1872
872

Fic. 2.—Map of the radiant points of the Meteor-shower, Nov. 27,

Waller, between 6h. and 1oh. 15m. P.M. were communi-
cated to me by Mr. Waller, and those of 17 meteors
noted during the same time at Birmingham, by Mr.
W. H. Wood. The positions assigned to the radiant
point by these observers are respectively at R.A. 25°,
N. decl. 40°; and R.A, 20°, N, decl. 45°; and a circular

space having a line joining these two points for its
diameter, includes between 60 and 70 per cent. of the
backward prolongations of the 40 meteor-paths thus

50

40

ey!
1sT S538 )/ x.
(< amy J

30° 20° R.A

Fic. 3.—Map of radiant points, Nov. 27, 1872, and lines of direction to the

points (S*) opposite to the sun’s place, (E’) opposite to the earth’s way,
and (T) transverse to the last direction.

traced upon the maps. I have also received from Mr.
Backhouse a list of 50 meteor-tracks observed at Sunder-

Fic. 4. —Large} Meteor, at 5h 50™ (the first observed), and paths of the
next four meteors seen during the great meteor-shower of Novy. 27, 1872,
5h so™ 55°.—W. FI. Denning (Bristol).

land before 7h. and after 9 o'clock; and a sufficient
number of recorded paths from the Rev. S. J. Perry, at

Fic 5.—Flight of three collateral and contemporaneous meteors, with long
parallel courses of 20° or 30°; and streak of a fourth meteor, showing its
long endurance near the centre of the track. Seen during the great
meteor-shower of Nov. 27, 1872.—S. H. Miller (Wisbeach).

Stonyhurst, to determine the radiant point exactly, onfthe

night of the 27th as well as on that of December 4, when
he observed some remarkable bright meteors proceeding

; San. 9, 1873]

i.

NATURE — 187

; }
from the same direction. It was remarked by Mr. | by side, or pursuing each other upon the same path, was
Backhouse, and it must have been apparent to most | frequently observed, and occasionally, as noticed by Mr.
attentive observers of the shower, that the meteors far | S. H. Miller at Wisbeach, who, as well as Mr. Denning
from the radiant point did not always appear to move | at Bristol, supplied the accompanying sketch of such
in parallel paths when in the same part of the sky; thus | meteors through closely adjacent courses of 20° or 30°,
at once giving the idea that the radiant area was | yet it was perhaps in the often occurring exceptions to
really of considerable extent. Although the contrary | this rule, and in the absence of the long-enduring light
phenomenon of two or three bright meteors apparently | streaks, left parallel to each other on such occasions by
running a race with each other in parallel courses side the Leonids, that the recent meteor shower differed most

i

APPARENT PLACES OF THE RADIANT-POINT OF THE STAR-SHOWER OF NOVEMBER 27, 1872

No. ‘ Gieaiee Plazevée OMe | aoe Naat Position of the Radiant Point by the Stars aud Constellations,
} From; To R. A. |N.Decl
h. m.| h. m.
1 | Ph. Breton. | Grenoble (France). iy, 0°) 8. 0 | (Os. | 40) or be be Cassiopeia and the square of
egasus.
2 | J. W. Durrad. Leicester. (o | 50) South-west of Cassiopeia.
3 | W. FL. Wood. | Birmingham. |6 0} 1015} § | 50 | Near & Cassiopeice (outlying radiant).
4| E. V. Pigott. Malpas. | | 9 | 50 | About & Cassiopeic.
5 | Communicated by
Mr. Denning. France. | (10 48) | South of Cassiopeia.
6 | Warkins Old. Hereford. (10 50) | A little south of Cassiopeia,
7 | Go HH: Birkenhead, | 5 30} 100] 2 50 | South of u Cassiopeize
8 | J. J. Plummer. Durham. ae Oo 15 46°5, Close to Andromede,
9g | H. Weightman. Oundle, Be 30|07 3514 13 51 Beymece 6 Cassiopeize and 51 Andromedze
(v Persei). ;
to | A. S. Herschel. Newcastle-on-Tyne, }6 0/7 o| 20 40 | Near v Andromede
11 | W. H. Wood. Birmingham. |6 0/1015) 20 45 | Near w by
12 | J. Birmingham. Tuam (Ireland). 21°7| 45°5| Near x s
13 | Dr. J. G. Galle. Breslau (Germany). 6 20:7 50) 22 42 | Nearv ag
14 | F. B. Knobel. Burton-on-Trent. 5 35/6 so} 2275] 44 | Nearx fy
15 | M. de Gasparis, Naples (Italy), FiO. | kOer On|» 23 43 | Nearv Ae
16 | A, Marth. Gateshead. 5 45)6 30) 24°5| 43 | Nearx an
17 | T. H. Waller. York, 6 0} Io 15} 25 40 | Near y -
18 | T. W. Backhouse. Sunderland. 5 30) 11rs5 | 25 44 | Nearx A
1g | R. Grant and G,
Forbes. Glasgow. 5. 35| 10 30) 25 45 | Near x fe
20 | W.FSwan. — St. Andrews (Scotland). | 8 20) 11 30) 25 48 | Near p 5
21 | T. P. Barkas, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 15 45|6 45) 26:2) 43 | Near x fe
22 | E. J. Lowe. Beeston (Notts). | 5 50| 10 30| 26:2) 46:2| Near + ae
2} |nor Jesberry. Stonyhurst. Q 29) 26°6| 43°38) Near y a
24 | Mr, Fearnley. Christiania (Norway). 25] Ol. acta a7, 43 | Neary FY,
25 | Dr. E. Heis.- Miins'er (Westphalia). S40 19) oO | 27 50 | Near » Persei (54 Andromede).
26 | J. J. Plummer. Durham. {9 45) 27 56 | Near x Persei
27 | W. B, Shorto. Suez (Egypt). (28 41) | General centre between Aries, Perseus, and
} | Cassiopeia.
28 | G. Lespiault. Bordeaux (France). 0} 9 30} 28 44 | Near y Andromede.
29 | F. Denza, Moncalieri (Piedmont). | Gy 0 | (n2°0"|'s 28 41°7, y Andromede.
30 | A. D. P. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 16 0/6 30] 28 41°7| Close to, if not coincident with, Mirach
| (y Andromedz).
31 | H. W. Hollis. Newcastle (Staffordshire). 7 40) 8 17) (28 55) | Between Perseus and Cassiopeia.
32 | M. Glotin, | Bordeaux (France). 5 O}9 30|- 29 43 | Near y Andromede.
33 | W. F. Denning. Bristol. +5 5016 30) 29 46 | Neary ¥
34 | M. Lernosy. | Macon (France). le 0) 13-0 |pe 30 50 | Neary, > Persei (51, 54 Andromedz),
35 | A. Secchi. | Rome (Italy). 8 o (31 29) | Between Aries, Triangulum, and Musca.
36 ” ” 9 0 | 31 34 | Near B, y Trianguli.
37 99 9 120 | (35 38) | Between Triangulum and head of Medusa.
38 | W. Garnet. Clitheroe. 7 5018 35) 40 35 | A point on the verge between Triangulum
and Perseus.

* The position at R.A. 2h. 45m., N. Decl. 46}°, given in Mr. Lowe's description of the shower, in the Ties of November 29. is apparently a

' misprint for rh. 45m. (26}°), which is here adopted as the R.A. of the Radiant-point near y Andromedz. close to which star Mr. Lowe describes

the appearance of astationary meteor at 8h. 52m., as bright as that star, among the many meteors which he observed, apparently without motion
about the radiant-point.

remarkably from its great precursors of the 13-14th| radiant point of the 13th of November meteors, from
November, 1866-7.. In his suggestions to observers and . Leo, about a point of very accurate divergence of their
conjectures on the probable early identification of this | tracks. From the situation of the comet’s paths, and
meteor-shower, published in the Transactions of the| from its small velocity relatively to the earth, small
Vienna Academy of Sciences in 1868, it was remarked | deviations from parallelism in the original courses of the
by Prof. Weiss, from the near approximation of the | meteors would appear as considerably exaggerated incli-
meteors in the direction of their motionto that of the | nations of the visible meteor-paths to each other, and as
earth in its passage through their stream, that the radiant | somewhat more exaggerated ones (the original velocities
region of this star-shower, even when witnessed at its | of all the meteors being supposed the same)—in the pro-
greatest intensity, would probably prove to have a con- | portion of about 10 to 7—when the deviation is transverse
siderable area rather than to. be concentrated, like the | to, than when it is in the same plane as the direction of

188

the earth’s motion through the stream. In the former
direction (which is 30° or 32° nearer to a meridian than
the direction of the sun’s apparent place) the exaggeration
of the apparent meteor observations is about 2% times, and
in the latter direction only about 1} times the original
observations of the meteor-paths from perfect parallelism
in their cometary orbits. Differences of velocity of the
individual meteors from the average velocity of the
stream, amounting to a tenth part of their mean speed,
would on the other hand produce observations of 5°in the
latter, without producing any sensible enlargement of the
space included by the radiant region in the former direc-
tion. Owing to the powerful action of disturbing forces in
changing both the direction and the velocities of motion of
themeteors of this stream, aconsiderableextension of the ra-
diant region in each direction from the mean radiant centre,
might be certainly anticipated for this meteor shower.
The combined causes affecting the form of the radiant
area, its principal concentration along a straight or
crooked line, or elongated space, and its motion with the
time, are accordingly so considerable and various, that the
problem of arriving at a true theory of their action must
evidently be regarded as still continuing to invite further
attention and research. Among the determinations of
the position of the radiant point with which I have,
however, become acquainted since the compilation of the
present list, Prof. Newton's observations on the radiant
region, which appeared in NATURE, vol. vii. p. 122, will
perhaps appear, from the following considerations, to point
to a somewhat more definite conclusion.

In the accompanying projection (Fig. 1) the apparent
paths of the 94 meteors mapped at Newcastle-on-Tyne,
York, and Birmingham are drawn on a plane-perspective
chart of the heavens in their observed lengths and posi-
tions. Both their general divergence from a common
centre and the irregularities of their divergence in many
cases in distant parts of the sky are plainly seen, while
the shortness of the paths near the radiant point clearly
' jllustrates the effect of perspective in foreshortening the
apparent courses of those meteors whose visible paths
were represented, as they appeared to the observers, to
be approaching them “end on,” Some few of the fore-
shortened meteors appeared quite stationary, and two of
these are represented in the drawing by a small star.
Nearly round the places of these two stationary meteors
are drawn small circles representing the positions of the
radiant point observed at York and Birmingham ; a third
small circle shows the place of that observed at New-
castle-on-Tyne. They are numbered respectively 17, Ir,
and 1o in the list, and in the map of radiant points (Fig.
2). A small circle below the equator and another near
the east point of the plain sphere upon the ecliptic (Fig.
1) represent respectively the anti-apex (or point /rom
which the earth was moving), and the anti-solar point, or
point opposite to the sun’s place at the time of the star-
shower. The latter point, it will be seen, is more nearly
in the direction of a parallel of declination through the
radiant-point than in the direction of a meridian, and it
is in the direction of right ascension, or nearly in that of
the sun’s apparent place at the time of the shower, that a
considerable elongation of the radiant region is described
as having been most plainly perceived by Prof. Newton.

In the map of the radiant-places (Fig. 2), lines drawn
from the star y Andromedz (which is replaced in the
figure by the positions of several radiant-points described
close to it), through 8 and e Andromedz, downwards, and
through the small star p Persei towards the left, point to-
wards the anti-apex, and to the anti-solar point ; while a
third line drawn from the same star nearly through v
Persei and a Cassiopeiz is in a direction transverse to
that from the anti-apex, Those radiant-points of which
the star places or co-ordinates are exactly given are re-
presented in the map by a cross; where only described
by their neighbourhood to certain stars the cross is sur-

NATURE

| Fan. 9; 1873

rounded by a circle, and ‘when simply described by the
constellations their positions are represented by a circle
only. ;

me large number of radiant-points is contained in the
space included between the stars y, 7, v, , and 51 Andro-
medze (v Persei) clustering closely about a small star (not
shown in the map) x Andromedz, near the centre of the
space, of which the position is very nearly that deduced
from calculation, as the probable radiant-point of the
cometary shower. The direction of the outlying radiant-
places is chiefly towards Cassiopeia, and shows with some
distinctness a general confirmation of the conclusion ob-
tained from direct observations of the shower by Prof.
Newton, that the area of the radiant region was per-
ceptibly elongated in right ascension, or approximately in
the direction of the sun’s apparent place, That the effect
of the sun’s attraction on a cometary cloud would be to
produce an elongation of the radiant area in that direc-
tion appears on‘astronomical grounds to be capable of
demonstration ; and in their sensible agreement with this
condition the results of the present observations lend
satisfactory support to the astronomical theory of the
meteor stream. Amore complete arfalysis of the features
presented by the radiant area would probably require a
careful investigation of the disturbances which the meteor
cloud may have undergone during many previous revolu-
tions of the comet; but from the present comparison of
the observations with the astronomical theory of comets
and of meteor showers, there appears at least to be
abundant evidence in their generally accordant results to

show that beyond the regular action of universal grayita-

tion, no powerful force of repulsion from the sun, like that
supposed to be concerned in the enormous development
of the tails of comets, affects the meteor orbits or changes
their courses more than the regularly recurring revolu-
tions of the planets. In the projection (Fig. 3) the
radiant-points only and the directions of the three lines
drawn from y Andromedz towards the antisolar point S’,
the anti-apex of the earth’s way E’, and towards a
point T, at right angles to the latter direction, are re-
presented for greater clearness without the fixed stars
or constellations. 4

In my last letter in NATURE, vol. vii. p. 103, on the time

7

of the maximum and the duration of the star-shower, and —

on meteors connected with it seen on adjacent nights,
the remarkably bright meteors from the same radiant-
point observed by Mr. Jackson on the evening of Novem-
ber 24, were noted by him near Hyde Park, and not near
Regent’s Park, as stated in my letter. A considerable
shower of shooting stars from a radiant-point near y An-
dromedz was, it appears, distinctly observed on the same
night in the United States, as described by Prof. Newton
in NATURE, vol. vii. p. 122. The notes of the numbers of
meteors seen after 10 o’clock, described in the last para-
graph of my former letter were made by my assistants
and myself at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and not at Rothbury,
as would appear from their connection with the descrip-
tion immediately preceding them, by my correspondent
on the very brilliant appearance of the shower near the
latter place. A, S. HERSCHEL

NOTES

WE believe that a reply has been received from the Goyern-
ment on the subject of the Arctic Expedition, which goes far to
justify all that was said in our leader last week on the subject ;
for although the Government does not refuse absolutely to com-
ply with the wishes of the deputation, all action will, unless
strenuous efforts are made, be postponed fora year. We repeat
that the deputation did not represent Science so broadly as it
ought to have been represented; and we add, that if the
Government thought so, it was, in our opinion, perfectly justified

in refusing the demands made upon the national purse. Toa

certain extent, what happened in the case of the Eclipse Ex-

pedition of 1870 has been now repeated. Our readers will
recollect that on that occasion the mere personal application of
the Astronomer Royal was at once very properly refused, w hile
a proper representation by the leading Societies was at once as

_ promptly acceded to.

WE beg to draw our readers’ attention to a new medical jour-
nal which commenced its career yesterday, the Medical Record,

and which, judging from the prospectus and the contents of the

first number, is likely to be of the very highest service to the
important department with which it is connected, and to the
sciences on which that department depends. The JZedical Record
is a weekly review of the progress of medicine, surgery, obste-
trics, and the allied sciences, but does not seek to trench on the
_ ground already occupied by other medical journals, The object
of this weekly periodical will be to supply medical readers with
a condensed, readable, and reliable analysis of the immense mass
of information relating to the medical sciences now scattered
over the surface of British and Foreign periodical medical lite-
rature, The number, the bulk, the cost, and the diffusion of the
‘transactions and periodicals at home and abroad, in which this
information is contained, are now so great as to place it beyond
the reach of the most industrious. The annual transactions of

_ the great societies of Europe and America alone occupy some

scores of volumes, therefore the idea is a happy one of gathering
the cream of these transactions and presenting it in an accessible

and manageable form, before the transactions are out of date, to

- those who otherwise might never get a glimpse of them. More-
over, as the prospectus says with truth, the age of year-books
has passed away, and to make the labours of scientific inquirers
in the medical as well as in other departments intelligible and of
practical use, they must be studied and appropriated when first
announced. To enable this to be done for medicine is the object of
the Medical Record, and we have every reason to believe it will be
eminently successful in attaining its end. The new journal will
be edited by Mr. Ernest Hart. The abstracts will be signed in
all cases. The staff includes upwards of forty ofthe best known
scientific members of the profession, most of them hospital
teachers in London, Edinburgh, and Dublin.

Sir WILLIAM JENNER has been elected President of the
Pathological Society, London.

Tue Lectureship on Botany of the St. Thomas’s Hospital
Medical School is vacant through the resignation of the Rev.
J. W. Hicks. Applications should be sent to the Medical Secre-
tary on or before January 10.

A NEW society has been organised in Sacramento, California,
under the name of ‘‘The Agassiz Institute.” It has been
formed on the model of the Essex Institute, Salem, Massachusetts,
and owes its birth in great part to the recent visit of Prof.
Agassiz in California.

A NEW work on the Cetaceans and other Marine Animals of
California, is announced by Captain Scammon. It will be
published by subscription through the Naturalist’s Agency,
Salem,*Massachusetts, U.S.A.

THE planet (128) which we noted flast week as having been
discovered by M. A. Barrelly on the night of December 4—5, is
the same as that discovered by Prof. Watson, Ann Arbor
Observatory, on the night of Nov. 25, noted in NATURE of
December 19 last.

THE association proposed for the promotion ot explorations
in Africa by the Berlin Geographical Society has constituted
itself under the title of the African Society, its principal mem-
bers being Drs. Schweinfurth, Rohlfs, Bastian, Peschel, Bruhns,
and Petermann.

THE Challenger left Lisbon yesterday.

THE United States Coast Survey party, in charge of W. H.
Dall, arrived in San Francisco on the zoth of September, on
the Humdéoldt, after an absence of thirteen months. This time
had been chiefly spent in the region between Kadiah and Oona-
laska, among the Aleutian Islands) Among the more im-
portant results of the work are the determination of ten islands
and rocks, fourteen harbours and anchorages (and many minor
details) not on any chart ; the determination of a great oceanic
current, a reflected branch of the great North Pacific easterly
stream, which sweeps to the south and west, south of the penin-
sula of Alaska and the islands, having a breadth of about 350
miles ; and the discovery of new fishing banks off the southern
end of Kadiah. Geological and zoological researches were
carried on by the members of the party during that portion of
their time when hydrographic work was impracticable; and
though these investigations were entirely subsidiary to the
regular work, they were crowned with unexpected success, es-
pecially in the departments of botany and geology, and the
various groups of marine vertebrates. These collections, although
still but superficially examined, indicate a curious resemblance in
some particulars between the fauna of the region visited and that
of the Straits of Magellan, a number of forms found being com-
mon to both, and not yet discovered in the intervening regions.

THE American papers talk with just pride of the great en-
gineering feat which is now nearly completed at the expense of
the Massachusetts Treasury, and which will shorten the railway
distance between Boston and Troy and Albany, by 40 miles.
A tunnel 4°66 miles through the Hoosac mountains has been in
progress since 1855, but was not seriously entered on till 1863.
The cutting was made from both ends, and so nice were the
calculations of the engineers, that when on December 12th last,
the two boring parties met, the two cuttings were found to vary
not more than a foot either in grade or in line.

Sir BARTLE FRERE and his suite left Aden on board the
Enchantress for Zanzibar last Saturday,

In reference to the Cambridge Natural Science Tripos a
correspondent informs us that the new scheme of examination
has been carried out for the first time in this Tripos. It is
as follows :—The examination occupies eight days, six in one
week and two in the next, the first three of which are de-
voted to six papers, intended to test a general elementary know-
ledge of all the subjects. Two days are then occupied by
practical examinations in chemistry, anatomy, and physiology ;
and in the last three, six papers are set, each containing several
questions relating to the higher branches of each subject ; and a
candidate may not be placed in the first class unless he show a
competent knowledge of botany, chemistry, geology, mineralogy,
or physics, or of any two of the following,—Anatomy, Physio-
logy, or Zoology ; the intention being that a student should con-
fine his high reading to one, or at most two subjects.

THE third series of meetings of the Cambridge Naturai Science
Club, established in March 1872, by some of the junior members
of the University, was held during the last October Term; a
paper was read at each meeting by the member in whose rooms
the Club met, and the attendance of members and of visitors
was usually good, though as the examination for the Natural
Sciences Tripos approached, it fell off slightly. The following
is a list of the papers, which were illustrated as far as possible
with drawings, specimens, or experiments :—The Theory of Pan-
genesis, by Mr. F. M. Balfour (Trinity) ; Geological Faults, by
Mr. R. D. Roberts, B.Sc. (Clare) ; Some Bone-caves in Here-
fordshire, by Mr. J. J. H. Teall (St. John’s) ; The Rock-fragment
of the Cambridge Upper Greensand, by Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne
(St. John’s); The recent Deep-sea Dredging Expeditioas, by
Mr, P. H. Carpenter (Trinity); The derived Fossils of the

190

NATURE

NNN

Cambridge Upper Greensand, by Mr. A. F, Buxton (Trinity) ;
The Mechanism of Consciousness and Volition, by Mr. H. N.
Martin, D.Sc. (Christ’s). .

' Mr. G. F, RopweELt lectures at the London Institution on
Wednesday, 15th inst., on “‘ Ancient Science.”

Tue Sunday Lecture Society has issued a very satisfactory
programme for the next three months. On Jan, 26, Mr. A. Ei.
Green gives a lecture ‘‘On the Glacial Period; a Chapter of
English Geology.” On Feb. 23, Mr. A. Balmanno Squire
lectures on ‘‘ The Skin ; its Structure and Uses.” Last Sunday
Mr, W. J. Lewis lectured on “The Next Transit of Venus,
and the Measurement of the Distances of the Planets from the
Sun.” ;

THE Mercers’ Company have given notice that during the
ensuing Hilary Term the lectures founded by Sir Thomas
Gresham will be read to the public gratuitously in the theatre of
Gresham College, Basinghall Street. Among them are lectures
on Astronomy by the Rev. Joseph Pullen, on the r1th, 13th,
and 14th inst. ; Physic, by Dr. Symes Thompson, on the 17th
and 18th; Geometry, by the Dean of Manchester, on the 25th
and 27th, g

A FUND is being raised for founding, at University College
London, an Exhibition in commemoration of the services of the
late W. A. Case, M.A. The Exhibition is to be held by
students on leaving the college school, with which Mr. Case
was connected for twenty years. The amount already promised
is upwards of 300/.

THE Professor of Mineralogy (Mr. Miller) at Cambridge, will
lecture on Mineralogy on Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays
Fridays, and Saturdays, from 1 to 2, in the lecture-room at
the north end of the west wing of the new museum, com-
mencing January 31.

Two very interesting birds have just been received by the
London Zoological Society, an American Stilt or Stilt-plover
(Aimantopus nigricollis), and a Darter (Plotus anhinga), both of
them remarkable in form and appearance, and new to the
Society’s collection, They are to be seen in the Fish-house.

THE first number of the new monthly journal of popular an-
tiquities, Zong Aygo, is a capital one, the contents being very
varied and of wide range. If it keeps up as it has begun, it
will be of real and lasting value.

A NEW series of the AZechanics’ Magazine is to be commenced
this month, under the new and admirably brief title of Zon,

WE would draw the attention of our readers to a series of
letters on the marriage of the Emperor of China which have
been appearing in the Daily ews, especially to the one in Tues-
day’s issue describing the structure of “the Temple of Heaven ”
and other temples, in which certain astronomical notions seem
to be involved, suggesting comparison with certain theories
about the pyramids of Egypt.

WE are glad to see, from some scraps sent us from the New
York papers, under the title of ‘‘News Splinters,” that Prof,
Tyndall is making excellent use of Mr. W. Spottiswoode’s polari-
scope apparatus. So impressive and popular apparently are his
lectures on polarisation, that one of the “splinters” remarks
that ‘‘if anybody don’t go who can get a ticket to go to hear
this very remarkable course of lectures, he or she deserves recti-
linear propagation into outer darkness.” We believe that Prof,
Tyndall is expected back on the 25th or 26th inst.

WE are glad to see, in the Mercantile Marine Magazine, an
article on ‘‘ Meteorology: Past, Present, and Future, General
and Particular.” It would, however, have been better had the
writer had the courtesy to acknowledge that his article was

suggested by, and is largely based upon, an article in NATURE
for December 12 last, on the ‘‘ Meteorology of the Future.”

WE learn from the British Medical Fournai, that there is some
prospect that a long-talked of scheme—the removal of the
Medical School of St. Andxew’s University to Dundee—may be
carried out. A large field for medical instruction is to be ob-
tained in connection with the Dundee Royal Infirmary ; anda
similar step, that of the University of Durham, which established
a Medical School in Newcastle, has not been without success.

THE following is from the A/edical Record :—‘* The recent
meeting at Bordeaux of the French Association for the Promo-
tion of Science, in its first annual session, appears to have sown

seed which is likely to ripen in good fruit in that city. At a

preliminary meeting held on Dec, 20, a committee was named,
consisting of well-known physiologists, chemists, and men
of science and others, to carry out a proposed scheme of general
regulations for a laboratory of physiological and chemical re-
search. Important sums were offered for the purpose, and the
muncipality of Bordeaux, appreciating the importance of en-

couraging scientific labours, will, it is stated, contribute hand- _

somely to the installation and maintenance of the proposed
laboratory.” ” ;

THE feuilleton of the Gazette Medicale for January 4 contains
a number of details concerning English medical education,
medical fees and etiquette.

THE number of Z’/ustitut for January next commences a
new series. This Journal has been in existence for forty years.

STANLEY’s ‘‘ How I found Livingstone,” is being translated in
Le Tour du Monde.

THERE is a very good article in the ied for January 4, ex-
posing some popular delusions with regard to the dangers
incurred by living in or travelling through countries where snakes
are abundant. The writer thinks it would be difficult to pro-
duce a well-authenticated instance of a European having been
killed by a snake in any tropical country. Many of these delu-
sions the writer ascribes to the sensation stories found in some
popular novels, eg. ‘‘Tom Cringle’s Log,” and some of
Marryatt’s works, as also in the narratives of credulous travellers,
and even in the works of such an eminent ornithologist as
Audubon. “The actual risk incurred,” the writer says, “ by
those who visit and explore the haunts of snakes is practically
so inconsiderable as very soon to become habitually as much
disregarded as is the existence of the common adder in this
country.” He also animadverts with justice on the extreme
vagueness of the multitude of popular names applied to snakes,
and speaks of the necessity of always recognising the established
system of technical nomenclature, without which all is vague
and delusory.

WE have received a lecture delivered before the Torquay
Natural History Society by its Vice-president, the Rey. T. R. R.
Stebbing, M.A., on ‘Museums and Owv Museum,” in which he
gives some very excellent hints as to what a model museum, both
general and local, ought to be. This society has been in ex-
istence for twenty-eight years, and during that time has done
much useful scientific work, and accumulated a valuable collec-
tion of specimens illustrating the natural history of the country,
which ‘already exceeds the accommodation at the society’s dis-
posal, Its reference library is also rapidly increasing in bulk,

and the’society has therefore appealed to the Torquay public to

assist in raising such a building as will satisfy the requirements
of the lectures, library, and museum. Not only for the sake of
the society, but for the sake of their own highest good, we hope

the public of Torquay will respond liberally to the society’s
appeal,

“2

a ee tS

’'*

Fan. 9, 1873]

‘THE SCIENTIFIC ORDERS OF THE
“ CHALLENGER”
ie

WE have received from the Admiralty permission to

publish the following Report of the Circumnaviga-
tion Committee of the Royal Society, on the work which
lies before the Challenger Expedition. We are sure its
perusal will gratify all our readers.

The principal object of the proposed expedition is understood
to be to investigate the physical and biological conditions of the
great ocean-basins ; and it is recommended for that purpose to
pass down the coast of Portugal and Spain, to cross the Atlantic
from Madeira to the West Indian Islands, to go to Bermuda,
thence to the Azores, the Cape de Verde Islands, the coast of
South America, and across the South Atlantic to the Cape of
Good Hope. Thence by the Marion Islands, the Crozets, and
Kerguelen Land, to Australia and New Zealand, going south-

wards ev route, opposite the centre of the Indian Ocean, as near
as may be with convenience and safety to the southern ice-
barrier. From New Zealand through the Coral Sea and Torres
Straits, westward between Lombok and Bali, and thence through
the Celebes and Sulu Seas to Manilla, then eastward into the
Pacific, visiting New Guinea, New Britain, the Solomon Islands ;
and afterwards to Japan, where some considerable time might be
profitably spent. From Japan the course should be directed
across the Pacific to Vancouver Island, then southerly through
the eastern trough of the Pacific, and homewards round Cape
Horn. This route will give an opportunity of examining many
of the principal ocean phenomena, including the Gulf-stream and
equatorial currents ; some of the biological conditions of the sea
of the Antilles; the fauna of the deep water of the South At-
lantic, which is as yet unknown, and the specially interesting
fauna of the borders of the Antarctic Sea. Special attention
should be paid to the botany and zoology of the Marion Islands,
the Crozets, Kerguelen Land, and any new groups of islands
which may possibly be met with in the region to the south-east
of the Cape of Good Hope. Probably investigations in these
latitudes may be difficult ; it must be remembered, however, that
the marine fauna of these regions is nearly unknown, that it must
bear a most interesting relation to the fauna of high northern
latitudes, that the region is inaccessible except under such cir-
cumstances as the present, and that every addition to our know-
ledge of it will be of value. or the same reasons the expedition
should, if possible, touch at the Auckland, Campbell, and
especially the Macquarie Islands. Particular attention should
be paid to the zoology of the sea between New Zealand, Syd-
ney, New Caledonia, and the Fiji and Friendly Islands, as it is

_ probable that the Antarctic fauna may be found there at acces-
sible depths. New Britain and New Ireland are almost un-
known, and from their geographical position a special interest
attaches to their zoology, botany, and ethnology. The route
through this part of the Pacific will give an opportunity of check-
ing and repeating previous observations on the structure of coral
reefs and the growth of coral, and of collecting series of volcanic

_ rocks. The Japan current will also be studied, and the current
along the coast of California. The course from Japan to Van-
couver Island and thence to Valparaiso will afford an opportunity
of determining the physical geography and the distribution of
life in these regions, of which at present nothing is known.

1.—Physical Observations

In crossing the great ocean basins observations should be
made at stations the positions of which are carefully determined,
chosen so far as possible at equal distances, the length of the
intervals being of course dependent on circumstances. At each
station should be noted the time of the different observations,
the state of the weather, the temperature of the surface of the
sea, the depth, the bottom temperature determined by the mean
of two Miller-Casella thermometers, the specific gravity of the
surface- and bottom-waters. The nature of the bottom should
be determined by the use of a sounding-instrument constructed
to bring up samples of the bottom, and also, if possible, by a
haul of the dredge. When practicable, the amount and nature
of the gases contained in the water, and the amount and nature
of the salts and organic matter should be ascertained. As fre-
quently as possible, especially in the path of currents, serial tem-
perature-soundings ought to be taken cither with the instrument

NATURE

19!

of Mr. Siemens, or with the Miller-Casella thermometer, and in
the latter case at intervals of 10, 50, or 100 fathoms, to deter-
mine the depth and volume of masses of moving water derived
from different sources.

The simple determination of the depth of the ocean at tole-
rably regular distances throughout the entire voyage is an object
of such primary importance that it should be carried out when-
ever possible, even when circumstances may not admit of dredg-
ing, or of anything beyond sounding. The investigation of
various problems relating to the past history of the globe, its
geography at different geological epochs, and the existing dis'ri-
bution of animals and plants, as well as the nature and causes of
oceanic circulation, will be greatly aided by a more accurate
knowledge of the contour of the ocean-bed.

Surface- Temperature.—The surface-temperature of the sea, as
also the temperature of the air as determined by the dry- and
wet-bulb thermometers, should be regularly recorded every two
hours during the day and night throughout the voyage.

These records should be reduced to curves for the purpose of
ready comparison ; and the following points should be carefully
attended to :—

1. In case of a general correspondence between the tempera-
ture of the sea and that of the air, it should be noted whether in
the diurnal variation of both, the sea appears to /o//ow the air,
or the air the sea.

2. In case of a marked discordance, the condition or con-
ditions of that discordance should be sought in (a) the direction
and force of the wind, (2) the direction and rate of movement of
the ocean surface-water, (c) the hygrometric state of the atmo-
sphere. When the air is very dry, there is reason to believe
that the temperature of the surface of the sea is reduced by
excessive evaporation, and that it may be below that of the sub-
surface stratum a few fathoms deep. It will be desirable, there-
fore, that every opportunity should be taken of comparing the
temperature at the surface with the temperature of the subsurface
stratum—say at every 5 fathoms down to 20 fathoms.

Temperature-Soundings.—The determination of the tempera-
ture, not merely of the bottom of the ocean over a wide geogra-
phical range, but of its various intermediate strata, is one of the
most important objects of the expedition ; and should, therefore,
be systematically prosecuted on a method which should secure
comparable results. The following suggestions, based on the
experience already obtained in the North Atlantic, are made for
the sake of indicating the manner in which time and labour may
be economised in making serial soundings, in case of the employ-
ment of the Miller-Casella thermometer. They will be specially
applicable to the area in which the work of the expedition will
commence; but the thermal conditions of other areas may
prove so different, that the method may need considerable modi-
fication.

The following strata appear to be definitely distinguishable in
the North Atlantic :—(a), a “superficial stratum,” of which the
temperature varies with- that of the atmosphere, and with the
amount of Insolation it receives. The thickness of this stratum
does not seem to be generally much above 100 fathoms, and the
greatest amount of heating shows itself in the uppermost5o0 fathoms,
(4) Beneath this is an “ upper stratum,” the temperature of which
slowly diminishes as the depth increases down to several hundred
fathoms ; the temperature of this stratum, in high latitudes, is
considerably adéove the normal of the latitude ; but in the inter-
tropical region it seems to be considerably de/ow the normal.
(c) Below this is a stratum in which the rate of diminution of
temperature with increasing depth is rapid, often amounting to
10° or more in 200 fathoms. (@) The whole of the deeper part
of the North Atlantic, below 1,000 fathoms, is believed to be
occupied by water not many degrees above 32°. With regard to
this ‘glacial stratum,” it is exceedingly important that its depth
and temperature should be carefully determined.

It will probably be found sufficient in the first instance to take,
with each deep Joffom sounding, seria’ soundings at every 250
fathoms, down to 1,250 fathoms ; and then to fill up the inter-
vals in as much detail as may seem desirable. Thus where the
fall is very small between one 250 and the next, or between any
one and the bottom, no intermediate observation will be needed ;
but where an abrupt difference of several degrees shows itself, it
should be ascertained by intermediate observations whether this
difference is sudden or gradual.

The instrument devised by Mr. Siemens for the determination
of submarine temperatures is peculiarly adapted for serial
measurements, as it does not require to be hauled up for each

192

NATURE.

ie a a ae

al

’

[Fan. 9, 1873

reading. It should, however, be used in conjunction with the
Miller-Casella thermometer, so as to ascertain how far the two
instruments are comparable ; and this point having been settled,
Mr. Siemens’s instrument should be used in all serial soundings ;
and fceq1eat readings should be taken with it, both in descend-
ing and ascending. :

A question raised by the observations of the U.S. Coast Sur-
veyors in the Florida Channel, and by those of our own surveyors
in the China Sea, is the extent to which the colder and therefore
heavier water may run wf /il/ on the sides of declivities. The
position of the Azores will probably be found very suitable for
observations of this kind. Temperature-soundings should be
taken at various depths, especially on their north and south
slopes, and in the channels between the Islands ; and the tem-
peratures at various depths should be compared with those of
corresponding depths in the open ocean.

It is in the southern oceans that the study of ocean-tempera-
tures at different depths is expected to afford the most important
results ; and it should there be systematically prosecuted. The
great ice-barrier should be approached as nearly as may be
deemed suitable, in a meridian nearly corresponding to the centre
of one of the three great southern oceans ;—say to the south of
Kerguelen’s Land ; and a line of soundings should be carried
north and south as nearly as may be.

In connection with the limitation of the area and depth of the
reef-building corals, it will be very important to ascertain the
rate of reduction of temperature from the surface downwards in
the region of their greatest activity; as it has been suggested
that the limitation of living reef-builders to 20 fathoms may be a
thermal one.

Wherever any anomaly of temperature presents itself, the con-
dition of such anomaly should, if possible, be ascertained. Thus
there is reason to believe that the cause of the temperature of the
surface-water being below that of the sub-surface stratum, in the
neighbourhood of melting ice, is that the water cooled by the ice,
by admixture with the water derived from its liquefaction, is also
rendered less salt, and therefore floats upon the warmer and
salter water beneath. Here the determination of Specific Gra-
vities will afford the clue. In other instances a warm current

may be found beneath a colder stratum; and the use of the
* current-drag” might show its direction and rate, In other
cases, again, it may happen that a warm submarine spring is
discharging itself, —as is known to occur near the island of As-
cension. Jn such a case, it would be desirable to trace it as
nearly as may be to its source, and to ascertain its composition.

Movements of the Ocean.—The determination of Swrface-
Currents will, of course, be a part of the regular routine, but it
is particularly desi-able that accurate observations should be
made along the line of sounding in the Southern Ocean, as to
the existence of what has been described as a general “ Southerly
set” of Oceanic water, the rate of which is probably very slow.
It is also very important that endeavours should be made to test
by the ‘‘ current-drag,” whether any wxderflow can be shown to
exist from either Polar basin towards the Equatorial region. A
suitable locality for such experiments in the North Atlantic would
probably be the neighbourhood of the Azores, which are in the
line of the glacial flow from the North Polar Channel. The
guide to the depth at which the current-drag should be sus-
pended, will be furnished by the thermometer, especially where
there is any abrupt transition between one stratum and another.
It would be desirable that not only the rate and direction of
surface-drift, but those of the subsurface-stratum at (say) 200
fathoms’ depth, should be determined at the same time with
those of the deep stratum.

Tidal Observations.—No opportunity of making tidal obser-
vations should be lost. Careful observations made by aid of a
properly placed tide-pole in any part of the world will be valu-
able. Accurate measurements of the sea-level once every hour
(best every Zwzar hour, z.e. at intervals of 14 2™ of solar time)
for a lunar fortnight (the time of course being kept) would be
very valuable information.

Bench-marks.—In reference to the interesting question of the
eJevation or subsidence of land, it will be very desirable, when
sufficient tidal observations can be ob’ained to settle the mean
level of the sea, that permanent bench-marks should be esta-
blished, recording the date and height above such mean level.
Even recording the height to which the tide rose ona certain
day and time, would render a comparison possible in future
years.

A good determination of the mean sea-level by the simple

operation of taking means may be made, in less than two days,
with even a moderate number of observations properly distributed
so as to subdivide both sclar and lunar days into not less than three
equal parts.
both solar and lunar. Take a lunar day at 24 48™ solar time,
which is near enough, and is convenient for division ; and choos-
ing any convenient hour for commencement, let the height of the
water be observed at the following times, reckoned from the com-
mencement :—

ih an. h m h m
oo 8 o 16 0
8 16 16 16 24 16
16 32 24 32 32 32

The observations may be regarded as forming three groups of
three each, the members of each group being seprated by 8
hours solar or lunar, while one group is separated from the next
by 8 hours lunar or solar. In the mean of the nine results the
lunar and solar semi-diurnal and diurnal inequalities are all four
eliminated.

Nine is the smallest number of observations which can form a
complete series. If the solar day be divided into m and the lunar
into 2 equal parts, where and 2 must both be greater than 2,
there will be 72 observations in the series; and if eithe- # or
mn be a multiple of 3, or of alarger number, the whole series may
be divided into two or more series having no observation in
common, and each complete in itself. The accuracy of the
method can thus be tested, by comparing the means obtained
from the separate sub-series of which the whole is made up.

Should the ship’s stay not permit of the employment of the
above method, a very fair determination may be made in less
than a day, by taking the mean of 7 observations taken at inter-
vals of the 7th part of a lunar day, being greater than 2. Thus
if 7=3, these observations require a total interval of time
amounting to only 16 32™. The theoretical error of this method
is very small, and the result thus obtained is decidedly to be pre-
ferred to the mere mean of the heights at high and low water.

The mean level thus determined is subject to meteorological
influences, and it would be desirable, should there be an oppor-

tunity, to redetermine it at the same place at a different time of, .

year. Should a regular series of observations for a fortnight be
instituted, it would be superfluous to make an independent deter-
mination of the mean sea-level by either of the above methods at
the same time.

Besides taking observations on the ordinary waves of the sea
when at all remarkable, the scientific staff should carefully note
circumstances of any waves attributable to earthquakes.

Specific Gravity.—The Specific Gravity of the surface and
botiom-water should be carefully compared, whenever soundings
are taken ; and whenever Serial Soundings are taken, the Specific
Gravity at intermediate depths should be ascertained. Every
determination of specific gravity should be made with careful
attention to temperature ; and the requisite correction should be
applied from the best Table for its reduction to the uniform
standard of 60°. It would be well to check the most important
results by the balance ; samples being preserved for examination
in harbour. Wherever the temperature of the surface is high—
especially, of course, in the intertropical region-- samples should
be collected at every 10 fathoms for the purpose of ascertaining
whether any effect is produced upon the specific gravity of the
upper stratum by evaporation, and how far down this effect
extends.

Transparency of the Water.—Observations for transparency
should be taken at various depths and under different conditions
by means of Mr. Siemens’s photographic apparatus. As, how-
ever, the action of this depends upon the more refrangible rays,
and the absorption of these and of the more luminous rays might
be different, and that in a manner varying with circumstances,
such as the presence or absence of suspended matter, &c., the
transparency of the sea should also be tested by lowering a white
plate or large white tile to various measured depths, and noting
the change of intensity and colour as it descends, and the depth
at which it ceases to be visible. The state of the sky at the time
should be mentioned, and the altitude of the sun, if shining,
roughly measured, or if not shining, deduced from the time
of day.

Relation of Barometric Pressure to Latitude—In Poggendorff’s.
*“Annalen,” vol. xxvi. 1832, p. 395, is a remarkable paper
by Prof. G. F. Schouw on the relation between the height of the
barometer at the level of sea, and the latitude of the place of

“ots

Suppose, for example, we choose 8-hour intervals, .

.
wins
.

OO OO ee ed

— Fan. 9, 1873]

NATURE

193

observation. At page 434 is a rough statement of the results of
his researches, the heights being given in Paris lines.
Lat. Barometer
° mercury at O° C.
° 5 ‘ ; 337'0
‘ular = 7 . 337°5
20 7 2 : A 338'5,;
30 F Py! be - 339°0
40 c : . 338'0
ees : ' 337°0
60 2 “ “ 3 335'5
65 : : ~ 333'0
+; 7Ome\ ¢ é E < 3340
i 75 ° . : 335°5
3 The expedition might contribute to the examination of this

law, not only by giving special attention to the barometer obser-
vations at about the critical latitudes 0°, 30°, 65°, 70°, but also
by comparing any barometers with which long series of observa-
tions have been made at any port they may touch at, with the
ship’s standard barometer. , J

It appears probable from Schouw’s paper, that certain meri-
dians are meridians of high pressure and others of low pressure.

For comparison of barometer and measures of heights, it
appears that the aneroid barometer constructed by Goldschmid
of Zurich, would be very useful.

It is very desirable that the state of the barometer and ther-
mometer should be read at least every two hours,

(To be continued, )

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM*
II;
‘THE problem was attacked later on by General Sabine ina

success. The earth, as we are all well aware, moves round the sun
in an elliptic orbit, the nearest approach of the two bodies occur-
ring at about the time of the winter solstice ; if, therefore, there
be an annual inequality, it will probably attain its maximum
when the earth is in perihelion, and its minimum at aphelion,
since the magnetic force is known to vary inversely as the square
of the distance. The year was, therefore, divided by Sabine into
two equal parts, and the mean of all the observations taken
during the six winter months compared with the mean for the
six summer months. The records of the three British observa-
tories of Hobarton, Toronto, and Kew all agree in showing
that the magnetic intensity of the earth is greater in winter than
in summer. This was very satisfactory ; but the same calcula-
tions have since been made for other magnetic stations, where
monthly determinations of the three elements are carried on with-
out interruption, and some of the results are far from confirming
the above conclusion ; for we find that observatories as near as
Kew and Greenwich are in direct opposition on this point. A
more extensive series of comparisons will finally show how far
this disagreement depends on the accidental nature of the ob-
serving stations ; but at present the preponderance of the eyi-
dence is decidedly in favour of a semi-annual inequality, _

A simular investigation of the effect of the moon’s action on
terrestrial magnetism requires a series of observations made at
much less distant intervals than the monthly ones, which suffice
4 for the study of the annual variation. This new question pre-
sents itself to our view under a twofold aspect. The effect of the
moon may be studied either in its independent action, or as it

acts conjointly with the sun; in the former case we must group

the observations with respect merely to the position of the moon
| in its orbit, and, as this is an ellipse with the earth in the focus,
the force, varying inversely as the square of the distance, will
have its maximum disturbing influence at perigee and its mini-
mum at apogee. The range also of the inequality will depend
on the eccentricity of the orbit, and the period of variation will
coincide with the siderial, or more strictly the anomalistic, month
of a little over twenty-seven days.

Butif we consider the moon as acted upon by the sun, receiv-
ing its magnetic power, as it does its light and heat, from the
central body of our system, or merely having its own inherent
magnetism modified by solar action, then we must choose as our

* Continued from p. 173.

a

much more definite manner, and with much greater chance of

unit the lunation, or synodic month of 29°5 days, observing the
changes that take place as the noon approsches to or recedes
from thesun. A careful sifting of the Greenwich ob-ervations
led Mr. Airy to a belief in the existence of a menstrual inequality
of the declination, attaining its maximum on the fifth day of the
moon’s age, and of a semi-menstrual inequality of the horizontal
force whose maximum occurs on the second day. The solar
effect on the moon's magnetic power would, therefore, appear to
be cumulative, and not to be fully developed till several days sub-
sequent to the conjunction of the two bodies.

No examination seems to have been as yet made to test the
existence of a monthly variation due to the independent action of
the moon, asthe sole disturbing force.

The sun’s rotation on his axis presents another not improbable
cause of periodic magnetic disturbance. For if the sun acts as
a large magnet directly upon the earth, and the poles of the sun’s
axis of rotation are not coincident with its magnetic poles, the
rotation will present the solar magnetic poles alternately to the
earth, and these acting singly, the result must bea synodic in-
equality, dependent on the period of the sun’s rotation. The
absence of any such irregularity is adduced, by a recent author
on terrestrial magnetism, as a proof that the variations of the
earth’s magnetic force are due solely to the indirect action of the
sun ; but Prof. Hornstein has just succeeded in detecting in the
magnetic records of Prague and Vienna an inequality in very
close accord with the synodic period of the rotation of the solar
spots. The magnetic period of 26 days 8 hours would give, as
the true time of the sun’s rotation, 24d. 13h. 12m., whereas
Sporer, from the most accurate observations of spots near the
sun’s equator, found the time to be 24d. 12h. 59m. It becomes,
therefore, probable that the sun has a direct magnetic action upon
the earth, but this need not in the least interfere with the proba-
bility of its simultaneous indirect action by means of its thermal
energy.

Having been able to detect, in the manner just described, the
inequalities arising from the orbital motions of the earth and
moon, we are immediately tempted to suppose that the diurnal
rotation of the earth must also exert a not inconsiderable effect

~on the magnetism of any particular station on the earth’s surface,

and possibly even affect terrestrial magnetism as a whole. It is
well known that change of temperature has a very powerful in-
fluence on magnetism, and therefore we should be astonished to
find that the daily range of temperature induced no correspond-
ing range in the earth’s magnetic elements. The freely-suspended
magnet is the most delicate of thermometers, and consequently,
unless we wish the diurnal variation of the earth’s magnetism to
be completely veiled by the more extensive changes due to the
varying heat of the magnet itself, we must take the greatest care
to keep the suspended needle in a locality not directly affected
by the daily altcrnations of temperature. Attending to this pre-
caution, by building our magnetic chamber at a considerable
depth below the surface of the ground, we still find that there
exists a most decided daily range in the motion of the magne’,
to which the most delicate thermometer is wholly insensible.
This daily range was detected by Graham as early as 1724, anda
momentary inspection of nearly any two days’ march of the sus-
pended needle will suffice to make this point evident. The maxi-
mum west declination, about 2 P.M., is constant throughout the
year, whilst the principal minimum varies with the seasons, as
do also the secondary maximumand minimum. Canton has ac-
counted for the leading feature in this diurnal change by the fact
that the solar heat lessens the magnetic power of that portion of
the earth on which it directly falls, and thereby gives a prep n-
derating influence to the opposite portion, whose strength re-
mains undiminished ; the needle, therefore, moves towards the
West in the morning, and only returns towards the East as the
Western sun restores the balance of attracting forces.

But there are other variations of the daily range besides those
just mentioned, for not only do most of the inflections of the diur-
nal curves alter their time with the progress of the sun in his
orbit, but the amplitude of the range passes through a constant
order of phases as each year advances. Dr. Lloyd discovered
that the maximum range of declination in summer is greater than
in winter, and Quetelet not only confirms this, but also finds that
the range is greater at the equinoxes than at the solstices. It was
whilst engaged upon this investigation that the Director of the
Brussels Observatory made the curious discovery, that the
magnetic energy varies in the same manner as the vegetable
force, both attaining their maximum in April, and diminishing
gradually until they reach their minimum of intensity in the

194

winter months. Other observers, such as Lamont of Munich,
Col. Beaufoy, &c., may be cited in confirmation of the existence
of this apparent connection between the vegetative force and that
of magnetism, a connection which may perhaps serve to throw
some light on the nature of magnetic action. The horizontal
force follows a law similar to that of the declination, varying in
its daily range with the seasons, and attaining its maximum value
in summer.

Another peculiar semi-annual inequality in the diurnal varia-
tion has been detected by Mr. Chambers, the times of opposition
being the equinoxes. This inequality is found to exist in the
observations taken at seven stations—five in the northern, and
two in the southern hemisphere. It only lasts from 6 A.M. to
6 P.M., reaching its maximum at 9 A.M. from January to June,
and at 3 P.M. from July to December, always passing through
the mean value at noon,

If now we turn from the consideration of the effect of the
earth’s rotation on the direct solar magnetism to examine its in-
fluence on that of our satellite, we are again led to expect a
positive result, but on very different grounds from those we have
just been reviewing. ‘The heat sent to us by the moon, even
when full, is so insignificant, that it is requisite to collect the
rays in some enormous mirror, such as that of the Earl of Rosse,
or to bring them to a focus on a very sensitive thermometer, in
order to make it sensible. It would be absurd then to look for
any effect that the rotation might produce in the variation of the
temperature ; but it is very reasonable to expect that the’ altera-
tion of distance due to the rotation will not be equally insensible.
We are not separated from our satellite by more than 240,000
miles, and as the diameter of the earth is nearly 8,000, the rota-
tion may alter the distance of the moon from a station on the
earth’s surface by about one-thirtieth of the whole distance, and
the resulting change of the attracting force must be very con-
siderable. An examination of the Greenwich magnetic observa-
tions, arranged according to lunar hours, has led Mr. Airy to the
conclusion that no doubt can be entertained as to the existence of
a luno semi-diurnal inequality, though he has failed to detect any
luno diurnal inequality. He also found so close an agreement
between the values of the luno semi-diurnal variation in the
years of greater and also of smaller solar curves, that he suggests
the two following ‘‘conjectural reasons for this remarkable
association in the time-law of changes of solar and lunar effect.
One is that the moon’s magnetic action is reaily produced by the
sun’s magnetic action ; and a failure in the sun’s magnetic power
will make itself sensible, both in its direct effect on our magnets,
and in its indirect effect through the intermediation of the moon’s
excited magnetism. The other is, that, assuming both actions,
solar and lunar, to act on our magnets indirectly by exciting
magnetic powers in the earth, which alone or principally are felt
by the magnets, the earth itself may have gone through different
stages of magnetic excitability, increasing or diminishing its
competency to receive both the solar and lunar action.” The
ratio of the moon’s disturbing action on the horizontal force
is to that of the sun as I to 20.

We have just been considering the irregularities in the magnetic
action of the sun and moon, which arise from the orbital motions
of the earth and its satellite, and from the rotation of our globe,
but there are still other variations depending on much more com-
plex causes that remain yet to be examined. A very important
inequality has been detected in the daily range by several ob-
servers, and of late years by Mr. Chambers of the Colaba Obser-
vatory. It is a change that takes place in the amplitude of the
range, not from season to season, but from year to year, and
which completes its cycle in ten or eleven years. Other periodical
inequalities of the daily range have been more than suspected,
as that of twenty-two years, noticed by Hansteen ; and some
of these may possibly be found to have a connection with such
phenomena as the revolution of the moon’s nodes. _ It will suffice
to have mentioned these ; but we must not so lightly pass over
the decennial period, which is identical with the cycle of those
great but irregular disturbances of which we must now say a few
words.

The accurate study of magnetic storms was nearly impossible
before photography was calied to the aid of the observer ; but
now that every movement of the needle is faithfully recorded by
the ever watchful light of the gas jet, a continuous curve shows
at a glance the nature, extent, and duration of even the slightest
disturbance. The arrangement of these self-recording magnets
is extremely simple and equally effective. To each magnet,
whose movements we desire to study, is attached a small mirror,

NA TURE :

8 ye
oS

Ps
oe

, ie ae

Fan. 9, 1873 —
and the rays from a gas jet falling on the mirror are sent by it to
a cylinder covered with sensitised paper. A lens brings the rays —
toa focus on the cylinder, and this focus traces on the paper
every movement of the magnet. A second mirror fixed im-
mediately underneath the first, but having no connection with
the magnet, sends the rays of the gas jet always in thesame ~
direction, and thus traces a base line frofm which the variations of _
the magnetic curve can be measured with the greatest exactness.

A clock turns the cylinder through a complete revolution in
twenty-four hours, and the light being cut off for a few minutes
every two hours, breaks are thus made in the curye, which serve
as an excellent time scale. The magnetic curves, traced in this
manner, are in general and lightly irregular lines, which reach their __
highest point towards 2 P.M., and are more or less curved at all
hours of the day. Scarcelya day passes without some apparently
accidental departure from the ordinary bend of the line, but these
disturbances are often only of short duration. There are, how-
ever, occasions on which the magnets seem to be subject to the
action of a disturbing force far exceeding in intensity any of those
we haye been hitherto considering, and subject itself to no appay
rent laws, but causing the needle not unfrequently to oscillate
through several degrees of arc on either side of its mean position.
It will be interesting to know what account can be given of this
disturbing power, which assumes such Protean shapes, at one
time raising a storm that dies away as gradually as it commenced,
and at another bursting forth in an instant in all its fury ; now
continuing its disturbing action for days together, and then im-
parting but a single momentary impulse ; affecting sometimes
one element, and then another, and sometimes all together ; and
finally appearing not unfrequently at the same hour on several
successive days. ‘

The coincidence of these disturbances with the passing of
earth currents, so perfectly recorded on the Greenwich curves ;
their never-failing appearance at all auroral displays; their
simultaneous occurrence at places the most remote from each
other ; and lastly the agreement of their period of variation of
intensity, as well as their maxima and minima with the decennial
period, and the maxima and minima of sun-spot development; all _
these facts will be most powerful aids towards the solution of our
difficulty, Neither is it unreasonable to expect that some light
may be thrown upon the question, if we examine with careful
attention the not impossible connection of magnetic storms with
solar outbursts, or. with volcanic eruptions and violent earth<
quakes, with the variations of the wind, or even with the showers
of falling meteors. Much of interest has already been ascer-
tained in connection with these several points, but I will not tax
too severely your indulgent patience by entering at present into
these details.

I must, however, before concluding, allude for one moment to
those researches of De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy on solar
physics, in which they have made a first step towards establishing
a connection between the period of solar spots and the relative
position of the planets. If this can be maintained ; if the solar
disturbances are in any way due to the combined action and re-
action of the planets, and these again are found to be coincident
with the great perturbations of terrestrial magnetism, shall we
not be inclined to attribute a wider range to the magnetic force
than is in general assigned to it? May not that, which has lon
been allowed to rank among the most extensively diffused o
nature’s agents, find a home in each individual member of the —
solar system, causing them to act and react upon each other as ‘
well by their magnetic energy as by their force of gravity? The
perfect solution of such a problem would well repay many a
year of persevering observation and of assiduous study, and well
will those be rewarded by whose labours the general cause of
terrestrial magnetism ceases to be one of the unsolved mysteries
of cosmical physics. ‘ ;

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

No. 3 of the Bulletin de 1’ Academie Impériale des Sciences de
St. Petersburg, t. xvii., contains seven anatomical papers by Dr,
Wenzel Griiber—six on various abnormal muscular forms, and
the seventh being an account of the formation of supernumerary
wrist-bones.—An appreciative paper on Sir Roderick Murchison _
is communicated by G. Helmensen. He refers to Murchison’s
visits to Russia between 1840 and 1845 to study the paleozoic
formations, In a résumé of results, he mentions, among others,
the discovery, n post-pliocene strata in the lower course ot the

ee. eyes |.

Fan. 9, 1873)

twenty-five years.

the other known relations of the parts.

= owes |
or.” Sid

Dwina, of the shells of species still extant in northern seas ; of

a Jurassic formation in large zones and fields between the Volga
_and the Timan Hills, at the western base of the Urals, and in
_ the north-east part of the Caspian lowland ; and of two quite dis-

tinct coal beds in Central Russia. The writer considers that the
work of our countcyman has been imperfectly followed up these
He speaks in warm terms of Sir Roderick’s
friendship for the Russians.—In a note by M. Jacobi, it is sug-
gested to apply galvanoplastic art to the production of standards

of length, on the principle that electrodes having the same

dimensions and position, baths the same composition and tem-
perature, currents the same intensity, the deposits produced in
such circumstances ought to be very nearly equal. Details of
such a method are fully given.—A lengthy article by Dr. Hilde-
brand gives an outline of some 600 historical documents among

_ the archives of the town of Revel, which throw considerable light
on the commercial relations of Russia and Livonia in the fifteenth

and sixteenth centuries,—The number contains, in addition, two
short notes on Faye’s comet and the Fossil Cetacea of Europe.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNDON

Entomological Society, Jan. 6.—Prof. Westwood, presi-
dent, in the chair.—Mr. McLachlan exhibited a collection of
coloured figures of the transformations of twenty-one species of
Japanese Sphingide, beautifully executed by a native artist em-
ployed hy Mr. George Lewis, long resident in Japan. Prof.
Westwood exhibited the net-work cocoon of a small moth from
New Granada, attached to a leaf on which was also placed the
body of a butterfly (one of the /esperide), strongly affected by
fungoid growths. Mr. E. Saunders exhibited two species of
Buprestide from the Pelew and Caroline Islands respectively,
apparently belonging to anew genus, yet resembling, in external
eaeaclen: two species of Chryoudema from the E. India
Islands.—Mr. Champion exhibited two species of Coleoptera
new to Britain—Mr. Miller called attention to a recently
printed Government report respecting the ravages of the
vine-scourge (P/ylloxera vastatrix). An interesting discus-
sion took place, in the course of which Prof. Westwood
stated that, to the best of his belief, the first notice of
its occurrence in Europe was made by himself in a paper read
before the Ashmolean Society of Oxford regarding its ravages
in this country.—Dr. Sharp communicated a paper on the water-
beetles of Japan, in which he mentioned that, although there
were many European species occurring in the Japanese Islands,
yet there was also a cons derable admixture of Asiatic forms,—
Mr. Wollaston followed by a paper on the Cossonide of the
same islands. He stated that the ordinary European types of
that family do not prevail in Japan, but are replaced by kindred
or representative forms. Mr. Pascoe thought that the fauna
of Japan, like that of Madagascar or New Zealand, might be
termed a satellite fauna, which, while having many endemic
forms, had yet a great deal in common with the neighbouring
continent. Mr. Bates asked that judgment upon the question be
suspended ; although many Western European species were also
found in Japan, the collective faunas of the two regions were
totally different, and if they found only one fauna in common,
the majority of the genera ought to be the same, which was
apparently not the case.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, June 11, 1872,—Pro-
fessor Cope offered some remarks on the discoveries recently
made by Professor Marsh as to the structure and characters
of the Pythonomortha, based especially on material recently
obtained by him in Kansas. As the writer had recently passed
in review much similar material, he was much interested in Prof,
Marsh’s conclusions. These, he said, were of importance. In
the first place, he had ascertained that what was formerly sup-
posed to be the inner side of the quadrate bone was the onter
side, a conclusion Prof, Cope thought entirely consistent with
Secondly, he had dis-
covered the stapes, and had entirely confirmed the opinion of the
speaker, which Prof. Marsh had apparently overlooked. This
was stated as follows :* the quadrate ‘‘is characterised by the
presence of an oval pit. . Its use is uncertain, but there
is some probability that it received the extremity of an osseousor

* Trans, Amer, Philos, Soc, 1869, p. 180.

ee
ROE ey
oly

a ee: Ree

NATURE

| these points are now happily supplied by Prof.

195

cartilaginous styloid stapes. A grooye on the under side of the
suspensorium would accommodate such a rod, and in a position
nearly similar to that which it occupies in many of the Ophidia,”
It is in precisely this position that Prof. Marsh is so fortunate ag
to have discovered it, Thirdly, Prof. Marsh believes that he
has found the columella. I have supposed it to be wanting, from
the absence of its usual points of attachment on the parietal and
pterygoid bones, It remains to compare the bone found by
Prof. Marsh with ali-and orbito-sphenoid and ethmoid ossifica-
tions found in many saurians, Fourthly, Prof, Marsh has
observed the parieto-quadrate arch described by the speaker, and
makes the interesting observation that it is formed of three
elements, the median connecting the parietal with the opisthotic,
This piece, he says, is ‘‘apparently the squamosal;” as the
latter bone completes the zygomatic arch, it cannot occupy a
position in the parieto-squamosal, unless it sends a branch in that
direction. Fifthly, he discovers the malar arch, proving it to be
incomplete and supported by the postfrontal bone. Prof. Marsh
also observes an ossification in the glenoid cavity of the opisthotic,
which he regards as the pterotic (of ‘‘ Huxley,” which should be
Parker), an identification which cannot probably be maintained,
The connections of the pterotic, where present, are very diffe-
rent. The bone in question is present in Edestosaurus tortor
Cope. _Sixthly, Prof, Marsh completes almost entirely our
knowledge of the anterior limbs, The previous descriptions of
these members in Clidastes propython Cope, Holcodus ictericts
Cope, and other species, had left the number of phalanges and
their relative positions, as well as those of the carpals, uncertain ;
arsh’s impor
tant researches. Seventhly, he has done much for the pelyic
arch and hind limbs. He was the first to announce the existence
of both, and actually described the pelvis of Zdestosaurus dispar ;
the speaker, however, first described the hind limb in Lzodow
crassartus and L, dyspelor Cope. Prof, Marsh is in error when
he says the ** absence of these extremities in the Pythonomorpha
was considered satisfactorily established.” I had never stated
that they were certainly absent, and the last time I wrote ob-
served that this order ‘‘ possessed an anterior pair only, or with
the posterior pair so reduced as to haye been insignificant.””*
They appear, according to Marsh, to have been relatively small
in some of the genera. In Ziodon dyspelor Cope, the anterior
are the smaller, Prof, Marsh lays students under especial obli-
gation for his determinations of the pelvic elements and the
excellent figures of all the parts connected with the support of
the hind limb, His figure of the fore limb is also highly impor-
tant, as it will be difficult soon to duplicate his beautifully com-
plete specimen. In subsequent pages there are six additional
species described, bringing up the number from the Kansas
Cretaceous to twenty-three, Two new genera are proposed,
viz., Lestosaurus for those previously referred by myself to /o/-

codus Gibbes, and Rhinosaurus for species allied or belonging
to Liodon. As to the former, it is no doubt a well-marked

genus, and I am willing to believe Prof. Marsh's opinion, that
it will not include Gibbes’ Hol/codus acutidens, will turn out to be
well-founded ; but there is, on the other hand, insufficient evi-
dence to show that it is not Platecarpus Cope. If Liodon curvi-
rostris be referred to it, it will very probably prove to be Pla‘e-
carpus, as that species presents palatine teeth, much as in ?,
tympaniticus, and the pleurodont character is not wanting 19
some of the other species. /znosaurus includes such specic¢s as
Liodon proriger Cope. As the name has been used two or three
times before. it may be altered to Rhamphosaurus, but I have
always had doubts that the conic projecting snout would dis-
tinguish the species generically from the true Ziodon, with which
it agrees in dentition. The type of Ziodon, L. anceps ord, is,

however, very little known,

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Dec. 23, 1872.—M. Faye, president,
in the chair. M. Mathieu presented the Comntatssance des —
for 1874 from the Bureau des Longitudes ; Lieutenant Fleuriais’ de-
terminetions of the meridians of Shang-hai and Pondicherry are
adopted in this number. The president then read a papsr on
he true position of the Bureau des Longitudes. It has been
proposed in the National Assembly to suppress the Bureau in
order to save its cost to the nation, the president’s paper was an
eloquent defence of and appeal for the threatened institution, —
M. Becquerel read a paper on the use of electro-chemical and
electro-capillary force for the formation of amalgams and crys-

* Hayden, Geol. Survey of Wyoming, etc., 1870 p. 385.

196

NATURE

talline bodies of definite composition—M. Phillips read a paper
on the flow of liquids from reservoirs, maintained at a constant
level, through a large orifice in a thin side.—A report on M.
Arn. Thenard’s researches on the effect of electric discharges on
gases and vapours was next read. The author worked with a
modification of Houzeau’s ozonising tube; he found that a
gentle discharge acting on a slow stream of carbonic anhydride
decomposed 26'5 per cent. into carbonic oxide and oxygen. De
Saussure, working with sparks, never.succeeded in decomposing
more than 7°5 per cent. A long-continued discharge acts on the
glass tube and covers it with powder, and when in this state the
decomposition resembles that produced by sparks, the removal
of the deposit restores the original power.—M. Janssen
read the first part of a report on the eclipse of December
12, 1871.—An essay on the interdependence of meteorological
phenomena by Father Solaro was sent to the Physical section.
—A letter from M. Denis on certain deductions tending to
simplify the principles of natural philosophy was referred
to a special commission.—M.Rouget’s note on a_ theorem
which extends to imaginary roots the method given by Sturm
for real roots, was referred to M. O. Bonnet.—M. Yvon
Villarceau presented an account of the discovery and observa-
tions of Planetoid 128 at Ann Arbor by Mr. James Watson,
and also some observations of 128 made at Marseilles} by M.
Borrelly.—M. F. Perrier read a note on the Astronomica station
of Dar-Baida near Oran——M. Laussedat read some observations
on the prolongation of the French Meridian into Spain and
Algeria.—Colonel H. Levret followed with some observations on
M. Laussedat’s paper, and a letter to Colonel Levret on the
same subject from General Blondel followed.—Next came a note
on celestial mechanics by M. Newcombe.—M. de Pambour read
a note on the caiculus of effects by the method of coefficients
applied to water wheels.—M. Wurtz presented a note by M.
Gariel on the distribution of magnetism in magnets, which was
followed by a new note on the action of conductors placed sym-
metrically about an electroscope by M. Ch. V. Zenger.—M.
Balard presented a note on a new application of silver salts for the
production of designs, by M. Renault. The author describes a
new method of printing from engravings, &c.—A note from
M. Schutzenberger on the action of Iodine on certain of the
Aromatic Hydrocarbons was then read. <A certain quantity of
hydriodic acid is formed and acts as a hydrogenating agent.—
M. Cahours presented a note by M. Jungfleisch on the Reciprocal
‘Transformation of Inactive Tartaric and Racemic Acids and on
the preparation of the former. Inactive tartaric acid is prepared
by heating dextrotartaric acid and water to 160° for two days,
removing the racemic acid (only a small quantity is formed)
by crystallisation, saturating half the liquid with potassic
hydrate, adding the other half and separating the very soluble
potassium salt by repeated crystallisations——A note by M.
Defresne on the Biliary and Pancreatic Secretions of Omni-
vorous Animals followed. Next came a paper on Normal
Torsion of the Humerus in the Vertebrata, by M. J. Durand.—
M. Milne Edwards presented a note on the Structure of the
Beak of the Platalea, by M. Jobert ; and also a note on certain
passages from an Arab author of the tenth century, relative to
the gigantic birds of South-East Africa, by M. Devic.—A note on
the Meteors of November 27, observed at Palermo, by Father
Tacchini, was read.

DIARY

THURSDAY, January 9.

Rovat Society, at _8.30,—Further Researches on the Sense of Sight in
Birds: Dr. R. J. Lee.—Confirmation of the Existence of an Intra-Mer-
curial Planet by means of the Behaviour of Sun-spots: W. De La Rue,
B. Stewart, and B. Loewy.—On the Union of Ammonia-Nitrate with
Ammonia: Dr. E, Divers ——On a New Method of Viewing the Chromo-
sphere: J. N. Lockyer and G. M. Seabroke

Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Further Particulars Respecting the
Early Discovery of Australia: R, H. Major.

Royat Socrery Civs, at 6.

Marntemaricat Socrery, at 8.—On Parallel Surfaces: S. Roberts. —Sum-
mation of certain Series: Prof. Wolstenholme.

cae INSTITUTION, at 3.—Juvenile Lectures—On Air and Gas: Prof.
dling.

FRIDAY, January 10,
QuEKeETT Cus, at 8.
ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 8.

SATURDAY, Janvary 11.
Royat Botanic Society, at 3 45.

SUNDAY, January 12. ;

Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—The Musalmans of India and Central
Asia: Dr. F. J. Mouat.

MONDAY, January 13.

Roya GEOGRAPHICAL Society, at 8.30.

Mepicat Society, at 8. _ i tes

Lonpon InstiTuTION, at 4 —(Holiday Course, 11.).—On Air, Earth, Fire, —
and Water: Prof. Armstrong. ,

TUESDAY, January 14.

Rovat MepicaL AND CHIRURGICAL Socigty, at 8.30.

PuoroGRarHic Society, at 8.—On the Photographic Operations of the
Royal Observatory at Greenwich with Astronomical and Meteorological
Records : J. Glaisher.—The Fading of Albumenised Pictures: E. J. Gayer.

Society or Crvit ENGINEERS, at 8. 7 i

Roya InsTiruTION, at 8.—On the Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.
Rutherford.

——e

WEDNESDAY, JANvARY 15,

Lonpon INsTiTUTION, at 7.—Ancient Science: G. F. Rodwell.

METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.—On Solar Radiation: Rev F. W. Stow.
—On Temperature in Sun and Shade; an Account of Experiments made
at Harpenden, Herts: Rev. F, W.Stow.—Remarks on the Pocky Cloud,
observed July 27, 1872: J. S. Harding.—Account of Hurricane in Western
Australia: R J. Sholl. p

Society or Arts, at 8.—On the Sulphur Deposits of Krisuvik, [Iceland ;
Charles W. Vincent.

THURSDAY, January 16.

Royat InsriruTion at 8.—On Oxidation : Dr. Debus.

ZOOLOGICAL Society, at 4. '

Royat Society, at 8.30. 5

Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. kd,

Linnean Society, at 8.—On the Recent Synonyms of Brazilian Ferns:
J. G. Baker

Cuemicar Society, at 8.—On Ethylamyl: Mr. Grimshaw.—On the Hep-
tanes from Petroleum: C. Schorlemmer —On the Vanadates of Thallium :
T. Carnelley.—On the Formation of Sulphide of Sodium by the Action of
Sulphuretted Hydrogen upon Sodium Chloride ; C. T. Kingzeth,

Numismatic Society, at 7.

Royat Society Cuus, at 6.

BOOKS RECEIVED

EnGtisH.—The Gospel of the World’s Divine Order: D. Campbell
(Triibner).

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

ENGLtsu.— Natural History Transactions of Northumberland and
Durham, Part 2, Vol. iv. (Wilhams & Norgate)—Workman’s Magazine,
No. 1: (Kent).—Transactions of the Institute of Engineers and Ship-
builders in Scotland.—Popular Science Monthly, No. 9,—Little Hodge:
Author of ‘‘Ginx’s Baby” (King) —Astronomical Register, No. 121.—
Journal of Botany, No. 121.—Society of Telegraph Engineers ; Annual
Report.—Evidence for the Ice Sheet in North Lancashire and adjacent
parts of Yorkshire and Westmoreland: R. H. Tiddeman.—Note on an
Experiment to predict the Annual Rainfall: W. Pengelly.—Rainfall on the
St. Mary Church Road, Torquay, during the Eight Years ending Dec. 31,
1871: W. Pengelly.—Literature of the Oreston Caverns near Plymouth :
W. Pengelly.—Is ita Fact? W. Pengelly.—Signs of Hotels, Taverns, Inns,
&c., in Devonshire: W. Pengelly—On the Kombé Arrow Poison (Sfvo-
phanthus Hispidus, D.C.) of Africa: Thos R. Fraser, M.D.—Messenger
of Mathematics, No. 20,

AmeRIcAN.—American Naturalist, vol. vi. No. 12,—American Journal of
Insanity, vol. xxix. No. 2.—Penn Monthly, Nos. 29—33.

ForEIGN.—Journal de Physique, No. 12.—Nuovo Giornale Botanico,
vol. iv. No. 4.—Bulletin de l’Academie Royale des Sciences de Belgiquer
No. 11.—Bulletins de Ja Societé d’Anthropologie de Paris, Nos. 1-4.—V. der
K. K. Geologischer Reichsanstalt, No. 16.—Poggendorff’s Annalen der
Physik und Chimie, Nos, 12 and 13.

CONTENTS Pace
Deep Sprincs (With Illustrations.) . . . 6 6 + +s . «© wo WT
SHELLEY'S Birps oF EGyPT 4 ©. 2 >) Gs ole «6 pa aunmage
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Lerrers To THE EpiTor:—
Dr. Bastian’s Experiments on the Beginnings of Life.—Dr. Burvon-

SanvErson, F.R.S.. , oe ke se lease) a. fe. «5 aan et cee
The Recent Star Shower at'Sea $=). se ssp te
Curious Auroral Phenomenon.—W. GiFFoRD PALGRAVE. . . . 181

The Spectrum of the Aurora and of the Zodiacal Light—J. Ranp
Capron o 2 a. sie. aeidins Bly aketn lees ) lott are ore
Ocean Rainfall—G. J. Symons. . . . . + + + « « « « « 983

InrRopucrory Lecture oF THE MurcHISON Cuair or GazoLocy
aT EpinsurGu, II. By Prof Geikiz, F.R.S.. . .... . . 183

Tue Recent Star SHower. By Prof A. S. Herscuer, F.R.A.S.
(With Iilustrations.). . 1.» «+ ee ee ee og oy OE
Norss . os + '*. oie MeMMBMIb tn Toads ans 8.05) te.” «5 pan
THE SCIENTIFIC ORDERS OF THE “CHALLENGER” . . . . . 19r
TERRESTRIAL MaGnetism, II. By Rev. S. J. Perry. . . .-. « 103
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS 5) sss reise Ae eke Tails Wiel igen 194
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES Silueiue) tine, (solv jc\'e's © Sau 195
Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED . +. «+ ss + «1 eee 196
PDA e's ew a toe fu SOREN mC eatin mre e+ + © © 196

_-ments and fromthe most accurate comparisons.

a eS

NATURE

. 197

THURSDAY, JANUARY 16, 1873

THE INTERNATIONAL METRIC COMMIS-
SION

HE methodical statement of the resolutions passed
by the International Metric Commission at their
meeting in Paris last October, has already been given in
NATURE, vol. vi. p. 544. From this statement, a general
idea may be formed of the extent and importance of the
operations to be carried out under the superintendence
and direction of so many eminent men of science, for the
construction and verification of new international stan-
dards of metric weight and measure. We may thus hope
eventually to see a real and practical uniformity esta-
blished in the weights and measures regulating all trans-
actions of trade and commerce between the several]
countries of the world, as well as in those used for all con-
structive works and technical instruments of various de-
scriptions, and in scientific investigations and researches.
Such a result of the labours of the Commission will be
one of the greatest triumphs of modern civilisation. We
may better estimate its value and importance, if we con-
sider that it will create a universal language, so far as
regards expressing any required quantity of material
things capable of being measured or weighed, and this
in terms at once intelligible to every one; and it must
afford the means of immensely extending and diffusing
useful knowledge, and facilitating its acquirement.

The statement before referred to contains the text of
the formal decisions of the Commission upon the several
points involved in the immediate duties which have been
entrusted to them; thatistosay, theconstruction of the new
international metric standards, and the establishment of
their identity or their equation by the most perfect instru-
In the
accomplishment of these objects, all the best appliances
of modern science will be employed. It will be seen,
also, that the Commission further propose to adopt the
most effectual means for maintaining inviolate the uni-
formity of the new standards of weights and measures,
through the agency of an International Metric Institu-
tion to be permanently established at Paris. This insti-
tution is to be placed under the direction of a permanent
committee, which has been already chosen by the Com-
mission from among their own body. Among the
members so elected are the chief officers of weights and
measures in the principal countries of Europe, and in the
United States of North America. To this International
Metric Institution it is proposed to entrust the custody of
the new prototypes of metric weight and measure, and to
furnish to its officers the means, and impose upon them
the duty, of making all such further comparisons of the
several international standards with the prototypes and
with each other as may be required. Regulations are
also to be laid down by the Commission for guarantee-
ing continued uniformity and invariability of these inter-
national standards.

But probably many persons in this country will say—
Of what use to us will be the making of all these new
metric standards, and the creation of this new Interna-
tional Metric Institution? We have our own Imperial

No, 168—VoL. VII.

system of weights and measures, as well as national
standards, and are quite satisfied with them ; why should
we want any metric weights and measures? Now, in the
first place, without discussing the disputed question of
the introduction of the metric system, with its uniform
decimal scale, into this country, it may be pointed out that
any notion of forcing the extensive adoption of the metric
system upon the English people in opposition to public
opinion, has been altogether disclaimed by the authori-
ties. In the late annual address to the Royal Society by
its president, the Astronomer Royal, printed in the So-
ciety’s Proceedings on Nov. 30, 1872, he said, with
reference to the International Commission for the esta-
blishment of new and uniform S/andards of the Metric
System :—“I think it imperative on me to state that the
British Government gave their assent only on the express
understanding that they could take no part in the Com-
mission if it displayed any propagandist intention. Speak-
ing as the representative of the body who had best con-
sidered this subject, namely, the Standards Commission
now dormant, I can say as their unanimous opinion that
they deprecate the slightest interference with national
usages ; but they recognise the great importance of an
accurate international system which, like the Latin of the
Middle Ages, enables men of science to speak the same
language; and for this international character they think
the metric system singularly well adapted.” But, in
point of fact, whether we adopt the metric system toa
greater or less extent, and sooner or later, in this coun-
try, or not, it is quite evident that as it has been adopted
by almost every country on the Continent of Europe,
and that all the necessary steps have been taken for its
adoption in the United States of North America, in
Canada, and in British India, thus establishing its inter-
national character, it must be of the greatest advantage
to us in all commercial transactions with countries
abroad, including the computation of Customs duties, to
be able to deal with their commodities when weighed or
measured, everywhere by one uniform standard. This
advantage must, at any rate, be allowed, even if we con-
tinue to stick to our imperial weights and measures. In
dealing also with technical and scientific instruments,
and with computations of quantities in technical and
scientific investigations, it must be of great importance
to us here in England to find quantities of measure or
weight everywhere else expressed in the same terms.
These considerations tend to show, even to the upholders
of our imperial system of weights and measures, the
great benefits that must result to this country from
the adoption everywhere abroad of uniform weights and
measures ; based on standards the identity of which, and
its maintenance, will be guaranteed by the International
Metric Commission and their permanent institution. They
also show how impossible it must be for this great com-
mercial country to remain in a position of isolation with
regard to this large international question, and the neces-
sity of our adopting this uniform system of weights and
measures, at least for all purposes of an international
character,

There are other important advantages proposed to be
obtained by establishing the new International Metric
Institution, the benefits of which will extend to this
country as well as to other countries. Many scientific

M

198

NATURE

questions connected with the accurate comparisons of
Standard weights and measures now require an authori-
tative decision, with a view to their general adoption.
These constitute the data upon which the requisite cor-
rections of the actual results of the several comparisons
must be computed, before an accurate determination can
be arrived at, with reference to the circumstances under
which the comparisons are made. Amongst these ques-
tions may be instanced: The determination of the true
weight of a given unit of measure of dry atmospheric air ;
the true weight of a given unit of measure of pure water ;
the condition of pure water employed in Standard opera-
tions, as to its being more or less deprived of or saturated
with air ; the rate of expansion of air ; the rate of expan-
sion of water and of its maximum density ; the amount
of aqueous moisture in atmospheric air and its influence
on the weighing and measuring of Standards ; the relative
rates of expansion generally of solid, liquid, and aériform
bodies, and the limits of temperature within which this
rate is to be determined ; more particularly, of the relative
expansion of the quicksilver and glass of thermometers,
and the constancy of the determined rates of expansion ;
the constancy of the determined length of Standard
measuring bars, and of their coefficients of dilatation ;
the adoption of a uniform average rate of expansion,
within determinate limits of temperature, of metallic and
other bodies used in Standard operations ; and of average
conditions of temperature of these bodies and of the
medium in which they are placed ; the employment of an
air thermometer, &c. &c. At the present time, different
solutions of these questions are adopted in the several
countries, the results being that not only is any uniform
agreement in the results of comparisons rendered abso-
lutely impossible, but doubts exist as to the accuracy of
the determinations of these questions which have hitherto
been made. It is evident that in order to obtain any
satisfactory solution, long and varied observations and
comparisons will have to be made, and such labours are
proposed to form an important part of the future work of
the International Metric Institution. It is only by such
an authoritative determination made by the combined
efforts of men of science in the different countries, under
whose direction the Institution is to be placed, that
the urgent need of uniform and accurate data for ob-
taining trustworthy results in all comparisons of Standards
can be expected to be supplied.

It ought, however, to be distinctly understood that not
only the more immediate operations of the International
Metric Commission, but also the proposed future opera-
tions of the International Metric Bureau, under the direc-
tions of their permanent committee, are wholly and ex-
clusively of a scientific character. The objects of the
Commission are to furnish and to afford the means of
maintaining uniform standards for all countries which have
already adopted, or which may hereafter adopt, the metric
system, as either a national or international system of
weights and measures. The true sphere of the Commis-
sion is thus limited to the investigation and accomplish-
ment of all the best means, either in a scientific or a
technical point of view, by which these objects may be
attained, Whether the adoption of the metric system of
weights and measures by this or any other country be ad-
vantageous to it or not is a question to be determined by

each country upon its own merits, but it is one with which
the International Metric Commission is no way called
upon or entitled to interfere.

An incident which occurred at the late meeting of the
Commission may be noticed as showing how strictly their
objects were considered by them to be confined to pur-
poses of science. The question of the mode of voting
having been raised, it was referred to a committee to
report upon. The Committee recommended, and the
proposition was unanimously agreed to by the Com-
mission, that on ordinary occasions each member present
should vote personally ; but upon the demand of five
members, the votes should be taken by countries repre-
sented, each country having one, two, or three votes,
according to the population. Amongst others, one vote
was assigned to the Papal See, represented by Padre
Secchi, who had originally been appointed delegate of the
Papal States. Unfortunately a report of these proceed-
ings appeared in the Y¥owrnal Officiel, though not in the
official portion, and attracted the notice of the Italian
Parliament then’sitting, when the Italian Government was
instructed to insist on the cancelling of the vote fora
nation given to the representative of the Papal See, the
Pope being no longer a territorial Sovereign. A diplo-
matic communication was accordingly made to the French
Government, who declined to interfere in a matter within
the power of the International Commission, and which
had reference merely to the proceedings of a scientific
body. The Italian Government then directed their repre-
sentatives to take no further part in the Commission, so
long as Padre Secchi continued to be the delegate of the
Papal See, and Marquis Ricci and Prof. Govi were
reluctantly compelled formally to announce this to the
Commission. But the Commission felt that they could
only deal with this communication as an accomplished
fact, and they expressed their great regret at this seces-
sion, in consequence of imperative orders, of two of their
most eminent colleagues, which they trusted would be
only temporary. They at the same time expressed their
astonishment at so unlooked-for an interference with
their proceedings which were of so entirely a scientific
character.

The extent of the preliminary work hitherto atcom-
plished by the Commission may be estimated from the
fact of their Minutes of Proceedings during the last four
years filling 580 closely printed 12mo. pages. On the
occasion of their recent meeting, when the Commission
was found to comprehend 50 members, representing 29 of
the principal countries of the civilised world, the subjects
of the formal resolutions passed by them had been pre-
viously arranged for their discussion and deliberation, and
were referred by them to eleven different Committees. The
Reports of these Committees, which are printed at length
in the Procds-Verbaux of the Commission, contain the
form of the Resolutions under each subject which was
proposed for adoption ; and, generally speaking, they were
unanimously passed by the Commission, with but slight
amendments. The grounds of the conclusions arrived at
by the several Committees are stated at length in their
Reports, and in a future article some of the more im-

portant of them of tke highest scientific interest will be
specified.

H.W. C

a ae YR ee ey Oe
ok : "

working of his own inventions.

Fan. 16, 1873]

MINERAL PHOSPHATES

Mineral Phosphates and Pure Fertilisers. By Campbell
Morfit, M.D., F.C.S. (London: Triibner and Co.)

eo date of the patent taken out by Mr. Lawes,

in 1842, for treating mineral phosphates with sul-
phuric acid, has proved the date of the commence-
ment of a new industry which has now attained to
vast proportions. At present the manufacture of super-
phosphates in Great Britain can hardly be short of
400,000 tons per annum, and the market value of the
same cannot be under 2,400,000/. Competition natu-
rally tends to develop improvements, and of late years
several novel processes have been suggested for the better
treatment of mineral phosphates. Dr. Morfit’s book is
mainly devoted to a description of these new methods,
and more especially to a detailed account of the practical
The object of all these
processes is the preparation of “ Pure Fertilisers.” The
mineral phosphates at the disposal of the manufacturer
contain 50-80 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate, the poorer
minerals preponderating. In making ordinary super-
phosphate the whole mineral is treated with sulphuric
acid, and the resulting superphosphate is of course rich
or poor according to the quality of the mineral taken.
But in making a “ Pure Fertiliser” the aim is to separate
the calcium phosphate from the original mineral and
offer it for sale in a nearly pure state. The production
of a pure phosphate is of course a more costly operation
than the simple treatment of the powdered mineral with
sulphuric acid, and we believe that these pure fertilisers
will consequently not be able to compete with ordinary
superphosphate, except in cases where, as in America,
the manure has to be transported over great distances,
and small bulk is therefore a desideratum. Their advan-
tage over the comparatively poor superphosphate is much
lessened by the fact, that the non-phosphatic matter in
superphosphate is principally gypsum, which is itself a
valuable manure. There is one class of mineral phos-
phates, however, which is wholly unsuited for the manu-
facture of superphosphate—we allude to the native phos-
phates of aluminium ; the processes patented by Mr. P.
Spence and Mr. J. Townsend for the extraction of the
phosphoric acid are in this case most valuable.

Dr. Morfit’s plan is to roast the powdered crude cal-
cium phosphate, then dissolve it in strong hydrochloric
acid, and precipitate the solution by ammonia gas, by
lime, by whiting, or by the addition of a previously pre-
cipitated mixture of the oxides and phosphates of iron
and aluminium. When the solution is left acid by an
insufficient use of lime, or when the last two precipitants
are employed, the precipitate obtained consists chiefly of
dicalcic phosphate, The resulting calcium phosphate is
either sold as such, or else converted into a superphosphate.
The acid mother liquors are precipitated with lime, which
throws down the iron, aluminium, and remaining phos-
phoric acid ; the purified calcium chloride is then boiled
down and brought into a solid state for sale. There is
thus a constant production of two bye-products. The
author regards them as valuable materials ; the calcium
chloride is to be used for making Ransome’s artificial
stone, and the ferruginous phosphates for the clarification
of sewage. This scheme looks promising on paper, but

NATURE

199

must require special local circumstances for its fulfil-
ment.

The reader will find in this book a full account of the
patents of Way, Spence, Townsend and others, who have
worked on the subject, together with much practical in-
formation as to the construction of apparatus and the
performance of manufacturing operations ; the subject
is, in short, fully treated. The book contains, however,
some very unpractical schemes, as when the author
proposes the universal adoption of earth closets, with the
recovery of the nitrogen by combustion with soda-lime,
and the production of phosphoric acid by lixiviation of
the residue. Nowas fully saturated closet earth contains,
according to Voelcker, but ‘33 per cent. of nitrogen, and
*55 per cent. of phosphoric acid more than the loam
originally taken, the notion seems to us somewhat im-
practicable. The book also contains, we are sorry to
say, examples of doubtful chemistry.

We refer in conclusion to some statements which we
consider to be errors in the volume.

Dr. Morfit gives proportions for the preparation of
manures for allthe ordinary crops ; these proportions are
professedly based on the composition of the crops them-
selves. All these mixtures contain large amounts of
potash, and the manures for wheat, clover, and turnips
all contain the same amount ef nitrogen. Having said
this, we have made it plain to every scientific agriculturist
that the author’s notions are quite unpractical ; he has, in
fact, fallen into the common mistake of chemists who know
little of agriculture. If manures are to be constructed
onthe basis of returning to the land what has been taken
from it, we have'then to look at the composition of the
materials sold off the farm, and not at the composition of
the crops grown, as these are in great part consumed on
the farm itself. But even this is not the practical aspect
of the case. Each crop has, in fact, a characteristic
capacity for self-supply ; it obtains with ease some por-
tions of its food, and others with difficulty ; the aim of
economic manuring should therefore be to supplement
the plant’s weakness. Thus, wheat supplies itself with
difficulty with nitrogen, while clover has a wonderful
power of self-supply in this particular. The scientific
farmer therefore manures wheat liberally with nitrogen,
and gives little or none to clover. The mere chemist
would do just the reverse, as clover contains much more
nitrogen than wheat. Manuring, on the principles of the
author, is simply impossible ; the manures would often
cost more than the increase of crop obtained.

Dr. Morfit again finds fault with the ordirtary commer-
cial analyses of phosphatic materials, and devotes a whole
chapter to directions for the analysis of mineral and other
phosphates. We strongly recommend the reader not to
follow Dr. Morfit’s guidance, It is quite impossible to
enter here into details of the doubtful chemistry that
occurs throughout the chapter, but we may refer to one
point which governs many of the author’s conclusions.
He professes to ascertain the “ individual combinations of
the phosphoric acid present,” a task which other chemists
would probably express their inability to do, Heaccom-
plishes this by assuming that the phosphoric acid which
is precipitated as ferric phosphate in his analysis, existed
in the same state in the original mineral. By this means,
and by assuming in the same way that other precipitates

200

_ truly represent the original compounds, the task becomes
quite easy. It follows naturally from these assumptions
that the acids determined in the mineral are found insuffi-
cient for the lime present ; the existence of organic acids

is therefore next assumed, and “organate of lime” ap- |

pears in the author’s analyses as an ingredient of mineral
phosphates ! R. W.

LIGHT SCIENCE

Anecdotal and Descriptive Natural History. By A.
Romer.—Z7he Jvy. A Monograph, By Shirley
Hibberd.—Buds and Blossoms. Stories for Children.
—Fairy Mary’s Dream. By A. F. L. (Groombridge
and Sons.)

T is very gratifying to see works of the above class
brought out,—books which it is supposed, are calcu-
lated to amuse as well as instruct. Ten years ago they
would have been a dead loss to the publisher, and their
publication now is one of the surest proofs that science
is permeating all classes and is appreciated by persons of
all ages.

Mr. Romer’s beautiful book explains in the introduc-
tory chapter in a clear and simple manner the classes
and’ orders of the Animal Kingdom, and then goes on to
describe the haunts and habits of the best known fre-
quenters of the jungle and prairies, such as the lion,
cheetah, and rhinoceros, giving particular attention to the
monkey tribe and bears. The book is enlivened by
numerous anecdotes and contains coloured plates and
wood engravings.

“The Ivy” is a monograph comprising the history,
uses, characteristics, and affinities of the plant, and a
descriptive list of the garden ivies in cultivation. The
book is most luxurious and tasteful, both in binding and
letterpress. The plates, coloured with great delicacy,
represent the various kinds of ivy, and so natural are the
leaves, that one is almost tempted to take one up. A
coloured sketch of the Entrance Gate of Conway Castle,
surrounded by specimens of ivy, forms the title-page ;
the letterpress is thickly interspersed with sketches of
“ivied castles, and churches, and quotations from Virgil,
Euripides, Harleian Manuscripts, Shakespeare, Words-
worth, and the modern poets.” An interesting part of the
work is the author’s historical and literary memoranda
from the times when the ivy was called “the plant of
Osiris” by the Egyptians down to the time when its
praises were sung in that famous song, by Charles
Dickens, “ The Ivy Green.”

“ Buds and Blossoms,” a book containing ten stories,
will be a welcome addition to a child’s library ; the last,
called the “Fir-tree’s Story,” being particularly pretty.
This little volume contains several coloured plates and
woodcuts, and the title-page is gracefully illuminated.

“Fairy Mary’s Dream,” another charming book for
children, is in the form of a poem, The illustrations are
_well done. The colouring of the peacock’s feathers on the
title-page and in the plate “ Till on a green fern’s nodding
crest” is exquisite; and besides the plates there are
many engravings descriptive of the butterfly’s journey.

Ww. L,

NATURE

| Fan. 16, 1873

OUR BOOK SHELF

Patholog isthe Histologie der Luftwege und der Lunge.
Von Dr. Albert Thierfelder. Atlas of six plates (Leip-
zig, 1872).

ALTHOUGH death and disease are“as much a part of

Nature as life and health, yet it is found convenient to

separate the study of living structures under morbid

conditions from the rest of biology, so that a work like
the present must in these pages be more briefly noticed
than its importance would de-erve.

It is more than fifteen years since the publication of
the late Prof. Férster’s Atlas of Morbid Histology; and
when we consider all that has been done in that time, re-
presented in such volumes as those of Virchow, of Forster
himself, of Rindfleisch, of Cornil and Ranvier, we see ~
ample reason for the issue of a new series of plates illus-
trating the subject. The present He/f is the first instal-
ment of the complete work, which is to consist of ten
such, each complete in itself. The drawings are ad-
mirably executed both by Dr, Thierfelder and by the
engraver. The text is strictly limited to explaining them,
and is therefore much shorter than in Eiker’s physio-
logical atlas, for instance; but in the present state of
pathology we regard this as a merit. The selection of
subjects for illustration is always difficult: it might be
objected that some of these drawings (e.g. fig. 2 of Pl. I.)
represent little but normal tissues; but, on the whole,
practical pathologists will not have room to complain on
this score. Some patriotic anatomists will be glad to see
“die von den Englandern supposirte Basementmem-
brane” taking its place without question here. The price
of these beautiful plates is very moderate, and we heartily
wish Dr. Thierfelder success in completing his work,

Coalfields, Western Port. Report of the Board to the
Colonial Government, Victoria.

THE Government of Victoria are determined to find a
workable coal-field in that colony, and, apparently not
satisfied with the examination of the mesozoic rocks
made by the extinct Geological Survey, have had the
same strata re-examined by a mining engineer acting
under the direction of a Board. The results of these
further investigations are embodied in this final Report,
but they add little or nothing to our previous knowledge,
Indeed the Report seems to be for the most part a work
of supererogation. The geological age of the coal-bear-
ing strata had already been definitely ascertained by Mr,
Selwyn and his staff, yet the Report goes into this ques-
tion at considerable length as if it was quite a novelty.
Then, as regards the extent of the actually proved coal-
seams, Mr, Selwyn, as is well known, expressed an un-
favourable opinion. Upon his geological map of Cape
Patterson the coal-seams exposed upon the coast are pro-
tracted inland so as to show the approximate area over
which they extend, and this is only some 106 acres. So
experienced a geologist as Mr. Selwyn was not likely to
misread the evidence which is so clearly and abundantly
developed along the coast. But the Board believe that
“any calculations based on the bearings of the strike of
seams in this locality are unreliable.” There does not
appear, however, to be anything specially mysterious and
abnormal about the coal-vearing strata of Cape Patterson,
nor is there any reason why they should not “ behave”
like similar deposits elsewhere. The Geological Survey’s
map shows a very small area of workable coal, and per-
haps this is why the strike and dip on the well-exposed
coast at Cape Patterson are considered unreliable—the
wish in this case being father to the thought. Mr, Selwyn ©
and Professor M‘Coy both believed it possible that at
some considerable depth below the coal-seams of Cape
Patterson a better coal-field might be got. The Board,
however, does not think this likely. Here, again, we

| should be inclined to pay more deference to the opinion

a

_— =

Cl

NATURE

201

!
of highly trained and experienced geologists than to that
of geatlemen, who, whatever their attainments muy be,
certainly do not in this Report evince much acquaintance
with geology. J..G,

Reports of the Mining Surveyors and Registrars for
Quarter ending March 31, 1872. Victoria.

THERE is nothing in these Reports calling for special
notice. The total quantity of gold got respectively from
alluvia (or, as the Reports have it, a//uviums) and quartz
reefs during the quarter were as follows :—Alluvial,
171,851 oz. 10 dwt.; quartz, 164,670 oz. 8 dwt.; total,
336,521 oz. 18 dwt. The quantity of gold, the produce
of the colony, exported during the same period was
398,131 oz. 10 dwt.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Aurora Spectrum

In connection with my letter in last number of Nature, I
have in a diagram approximately placed the aurora lines side
by side with the spectrum of hydrogen and of some of the
principal air lines (as given in Dr. Watt’s index) and with the
following results :— 24

Line No. 1. Close upon, if not identical with, an air-line
marked by Huggins N O, and Pliicher O. ’ é

No. 2.—Not apparently coincident with any prominent air-
line. The coincidence with a line of oxygen noted by so
careful an observer as Mr. Proctor is puzzling ; and if the in-
strumental power used was sufficient to ensure absolute identity,
seems to indicate a second or unusual spectrum of that gas.

No. 3 is not near any principal air-line.

No. 4 is nearly coincident with a faint line of oxygen (confir-
matory of Mr. Proctor’s observations). ;

No. 5 corresponds to a rather strong N line.

No. 6 does not coincide with any principal air-line, very faint
‘lines of O and N being the nearest.

No. 7. Upon close examination the positions of this line as
respectively fixed by Mr. Proctor and Lord Lindsay are not
inconsistent, and the line closely corresponds with a strong line
of oxygen situate on the less refrangible side of solar G.

Nos. 1, 4, 6, and 7 fairly correspond in intensity with their
representative air-lines. None of the lines are identified with
Ha, H8, or Hy, and it would appear that the aurora, if a
spectra of atmospheric gases, mainly selects oxygen and
ignores Ha and the stronger N lines. The modification of
compound spectra by conditions of temperature and pressure,
is however only a partially explored subject, and we have more-
over no certain data of conditions in the case of the aurora,
which will assist us in bringing it to bear.

I accidentally omitted from the names of some observers of
the zodiacal light that of Prof. Piazzi Smyth, whose observations
in the south may be said to have conclusively demolished the
supposed identity of the light, and the aurora (at least so far
as bright lines are concerned) made it extremely improbable that
anything beyond a continuous spectrum will ever be seen in the
pure zodiacal light, though a further search should be by no
means neglected. J. Ranp CAPRON

Guildford, Jan. 10, 1873

Polarisation of the Zodiacal Light and of the Aurora

In the interesting article by Mr. Rand Capron in the last
number of NATURE—after collating the various results of the
Specir: scopic exam nitions of the aurora and zodiacal light
which have ap eared at different times in your pages, together
with those wiich have been collected by Dr. Schellen—he
terminates his anuysis of the general results by remarking that
he is ‘‘ not aware whether the zodiacal light and the aurora have
been examined with the polariscope,” and suggests that the
“light, though faint, mighc be tested with a Nicol’s prism and
Savart’s bands.”

I would refer him to a paper in the March number of the
“Montaly Notices of the Astronomical Society” for 1871, in |

which an observation by Mr. Burton (late assistant to the Earl
of Rosse) on the polarisation of the zod acal light is described.

_ Mr. Burton was one of the eclipse party stationed at Agosta,
in Sicily. He made use of a Savart’s polarisco xe, set so as to
give a black centre where the binds were parallel to the plane
of polarisation. On looking to the brightest parts of the zodiacal
light Mr. Burton believed that he could detect faint traces of
polarisation, sufficiently strong to enable him just to recognise
that the bands were black centred when their direction coin-
cided with the axis of the cone of light, that is, when the direc-
tion passed through the position of the sua.

To make sure that he was not examininz the remains of air
polarisation given by the slight remaining twilight, he examined
the light of other parts of the heavens, but was unable anywhere
else to detect any trace of bands. In contradistinction, however,
to this must be set an observation of my own, yielding a nega-
tive result, though made on the same evening and with a similar
instrument, as well as with the same Savart used by Mr. Burton.
I was, however, unable to detect any trace of bands either upon
the cones of zodiacal brightness or upon the adjacent parts of
the sky ; but it is very possible that Mr. Burton’s eye may be
more sensitive to faint lights than my owa,

In February last I also met with a negative result in examin-
ing a faint trace of the zodiacal light visinle in England. I then
used a double-image prism as well as a Savart, thinking that its
two oppositely polarised fields in juxtaposition might afford a
more delicate test for so faint an object.

Capt. Tupman while cruising in the Mediterranean has aiso,
I believe, repeatedly obtained negative results when making use
of a Savart on the zodiacal light.

And I understand that Mr. Lockyer, together with the other
observers of the Indian Eclipse of December 1871, totally failed
to detect any traces of polarisation in the briiliant displays of
ae zodiacal light which they observed while crossing the Indian

cean,

I am therefore disposed to conclude that any traces of polar-
isation must be very slight, if indeed any polarisation at all is to
be attributed to the zodiacal light itself and not to the veil of
atmospheric impurities lying between us and objects near to the
horizon. Certainly we may conclude that there is no such
polarisation as is found in the light of the solar corona or--as we
might expect—if the zodiacal light were caused by a great cloud
of cosmical dust made up of particles smaller in diameter than
the wave-length.

Indeed there cannot be as great a percentage of polarisation,
or, to speak more exactly, as great a difference between the
component radial to the sun’s place and the component at right
angles, as in the case of a sunbeam dispersed by the dust in our
own atmosphere. For if any one will examine the track of a
sunbeam passing through a room with a Savart, he will not fail
to be struck with the distinctness of the bands. We seem there-
fore justified in concluding, that if the zodiacal light is composed
of cosmicai dust, such dust particles must be considerably
coarser than those which float in our own atmosphere.

As to the polarisation of the light of the aurora, I examined,
both with a double-image prism and Savart, a faint auroral dis-
play on November 10, 1871; as also the light of the great
aurora of Sunday, Feb. 4, 1872, but in neither instance was
able to detect any traces of polarisation.

A, CowPER RANYARD

The Diathermacy of Flame

THERE are some statements in Capt. Ericsson’s reply to my
letter (NATURE, vol. vii. p. 149) which demand discussion.
In the first place he calculates the supply of gas in 47s pipe and
appliesit to vy burners. As his pipe did not supply my flames,
but his own, which were at least fifteen times larger than mine,
the app.icability of his figures is rather obscure.

Capt. Ericsson says, ‘‘The apparatus contrived by Mr,
Williams for determining the diathermancy of flame, as de-
scribed by himself, is exceedingly faulty, the temperature it records
being that produced by heat derived fram severalesources. The
radiant heat transmitted to the bulb of the thermometer by the
flames, acting conjointly with the unknown degree of heat imparted
by the surrounding medium, it will be evident that Mr. Williams’
device is worthless as an indicator of radiant intensity.” Does
Capt. Ericsson really mean that the maximum temperature indi-
cated by a thermometer exposed to several varying sources of
heat is not determined by the maximum radiators or convections

202

a !
of the body capable of communicating the highest temperature,

but by this, plus the minor radiators or convections of the cooler
bodies? The words I have put in italics distinctly imply such
an assumption. AG

(© He seems to forget that I did, in the first place, observe and
record the temperature of the surrounding medium, It was the
19°C. which served as my starting-point. As no additional
radiations were introduced beyond those of the flames to be
experimented upon, and the blackened bulb of my thermometer
was surrounded by polished reflecting metal surfaces on all sides,
except that exposed to the flames, all the subsequent increments
of heat were unquestionably due to the radiators from those
flames, whether they came directly from the flames themselves
or were received and reflected from the back and sides of the
polished chamber, Fully admitting the desirability of a con-
tinuous record of the heat thus communicated to the surroundings
of the thermometer during the experiments, I nevertheless firmly
maintain that, rude as it was, my apparatus (I refer, not to the
thermometer, but to its adjuncts) was far superior to Capt.
Ericsson’s. Mine was liable to a small source of error from a
possible accidental irregularity of radiation by the thermometer
bulb, but his was specially devised to ensure a large amount of
such irregularity, continually increasing with the progress of the
experiments, It is not a little surprising that so careful and
luxurious an experimentalist as Capt. Ericsson should have
overlooked the fact, that the very precautions which he so
elaborately introduced to secure equal radiation from his bulb
are precisely adapted to produce the contrary result. -

The arrangements by which his thermometer is ‘‘ enclosed in
an exterior vessel charged with water kept at a constant tempera-
ture” of 60° by communication with a capacious cistern, directly
violate the conditions demanded by the Newtonian law of radia-
tion, of which Capt. Ericsson is so able a champion ; for as the
experiment proceeds with an increasing number of flames, and
consequent rising of the thermometer, this constant temperature
of the water jacket goes on steadily augmenting the difference
between the temperature of the bulb and that of its surroundings,
and consequently secures just what it is intended to prevent, viz.
a variable radiation. What is required to secure a constant
degree of radiation from the bulb is not the constant tempera-
ture of the surroundings, but a temperature steadily increasing
at the same rate as that of the bulb, in order that the differential
and not the adso/ute temperature of the surrounding medium,
&c., should remain constant. ‘This was rudely obtained in my
simple apparatus, as both the thermometer and its surroundings
were simultaneously influenced by the same radiations.

Capt. Ericsson takes great pains to controvert my ‘‘assump-
tion that the intensity of a gas flame is proportional to the
gas consumed.” This is unnecessary, inasmuch as I never
made any such assumption, but have, on the contrary, endea-
yvoured to prove that such cannot possibly be the case, by show-
ing what becomes of the radiations from the interior of a large
solid flame. If he will read chaps. 7 and 8 of ‘*‘ The Fuel of the
Sun,” he will see how and why this has been done, and learn
the true bearings of the experiments under discussion upon this
subject. W, Martrieu WILLIAMS

P.S.—The present is a suitable opportunity for asking a
question which doubtless the philological readers of NATURE
can easily answer. Many writers use the words ‘‘diather-
mavcy,” ‘‘diathermavous,” ‘‘athermavous,” &c., rather than
‘* diathermacy,” diathermous,” &c. Why is this? We do not
say ‘‘thermaval” or “thermazometer,” &c. Why, then,
should we depart from the analogy of ancient usage in con-
structing the more modern compounds of the same root?

Pollen~eaters

Mr. Hart’s note in NATURE, vol. vii.p. 161, is interesting to
those who have paid attention to the subject of fertilisation by
insect agency, and would be still more so if he could furnish the
names of the species of both plants and Syrf/ide that have come
under his observation.

May I take this opportunity of calling the attention of the
readers of NATURE to a suggestion which I made some months
since in the Journal of Botany, and which has at present met
with no response? I believe no greater service could be ren-
dered to this department of physiological botany than a series of
observations on the species of insects which frequent and assist in
the fertilisation of our wild flowers. I know of no such list even

NATURE

with respect to our commonest flowers. Here is a wide field for
observation during the next season.
London, Jan. 7 ‘ALFRED W. BENNETT

P.S.—At the time of writing the above, I had not seen Dr,
Buchanan White’s article in the January number of the ‘Journal
of Botany,” on ‘‘The Influence of Insect-ageney in the Distribution
of Plants,” an admirable introduction t@the series of papers I
had in my mind.

Welwitschia

Ir you will kindly permit me, 1 wish to make an addition to
your notice of my paper on ‘‘ Welwitschia,” read at the Linnean
Society on the 19th ult. That paper was completed and put in
Dr. Hooker’s hands about three months ago; and the reading
of it was delayed until I had seen Strasburger’s recently pub-
lished memoir on Coniferee and Gnetacex. After perusing that
valuable work, I added a small appendix to my paper, and it is
to the omission of the remarks contained therein that I wish to
direct attention.

In the description of the male flower, Strasburger and I al-
most completely agree. It possesses two outer parts of the
perianth, two inner parts, six stamens, which I believe to arise
by branching from two primordial stamens, although Strasburger
does not agree with me in this, and two ecarpels. The formula
of the flower may be expressed thus :—

Ca, Co, An,? Gn,

In the female flower I had very great difficulty in coming to a
conclusion as tothe value of the two outer parts, but she inner I con-
cluded was a covering of the nucleus, an ovular integument, and
not carpellary. There were only two ways of deciding what was
the morphological significance of the two outer parts, either by
comparison with the male’flower, or by comparing them with
the parts in the flowers of Zphedra and Guetum. 1 applied to
Dr. Hooker for specimens of these genera, and he has kindly
promised to procure them for me. As Strasburger’s material for
the examination of Ephedra and Gnetum was imperfect, it is
still of importance to examine both in detail. Being, therefore,
obliged to fall back on comparison with the male flower (the study
of the development alone not being sufficient for the purpose), I
described the two outer parts as forming a perianth, although I
could not feel certain that I was correct in so doing, and could
not explain the occurrence of the short stalk under them, no
such stalk existing in the male. On looking at Strasburger’s
figures of Ephedra, I at once saw that I had been in error in
describing the outer parts as forming a perianth, and in the
appendix stated that they were carfellary.

The formula would therefore be :—

Ca, Coy Any Gn, :

The carpels, therefore, exist in both flowers ; but whereas in
the male they are anterior and posterior, in the female they are
lateral. Kindly make this correction, because I do not think
that after Strasburger’s magnificent work, the Gymnospermous
theory is for a moment tenable.

Should any correspondent be able to obtain specimens of
Ephedra and Gnetum for me, I would be greatly obliged, as I
am desirous of completing my paper on ‘‘ Welwitschia” by a
description of its embryogeny, as well as that of the other two
genera. Specimens which have been put in absolute alcohol are
by far the best for examination, but that, I fear, could only be
obtained abroad with great difficulty. W,. R. McNas

Dublin, Dec. 27, 1872

Gauges for Ocean Rainfall

In reply to Mr. Miller’s letter on ocean rainfall, in NATURE,
vol. vii. p. 123, I beg to acquaint your correspondent that
I have endeavoured to meet the difficulties he mentions, by de-
signing two forms of rain-gauge for use on board ship. One
is of a cylindrical form, and composed of a collector and re-
ceiver, detachable from each other, and is suspended on gimbals
in a frame or vexa. The rainfall may be estimated either by a
glass scale at the sides, or by emptying the contents into a gradu-
ated glass measure.

A description of this instrument as above designed appeared

in the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society for January

1870, and was illustrated by diagrams.
The other form consists of the cylinder asabove, divided into col-

| ¥an, 16, I 873

3 eo
nm. 16, 1873]

lestor and receiver, detachable from each other, but it is poised on

a pivot projecting from the floor below, into a conical cavity in
the bottom of the receiver. It is also enclosed in a square box,
from which, in each case, the cylinder is removeable entire for
emptying the contents, and the rainfall admits of being estimated
in the same way by scales or glass vessels.

A full-sized model of this instrument has been made, and was
exhibited at the annual meeting of the Scottish Meteorological
Society in July last, and a notice of it appeared in the account
of the proceedings of the meeting in the Edinburgh.papers of
July 4, 1872. It has likewise been exhibited at the Meteoro-
logical Office, Victoria Street, London, and its construction has
been approved of by several naval officers, and others specially
interested in rainfall. me

T may add that some gauges are being constructed, with the
view of beingused on board such steamers as would permit of

1eir being placed under the superintendence of interested and
scientific officers.

I hope by-and-by to be enabled to present to the readers of
NATURE some results of the observations made by these gauges,
which may lead to an introduction of such instruments as part
of a ship’s equipment, and so to put them in possession of some
trustworthy observations of the rainfall at sea.

' W. J. Brack

Fe

£Star Shower in 1838%

" I am not sure that the following extract from my note-book
may not have been printed by the British Association ; but even
in that case it may be thought suitable for reproduction at the
present juncture.

*€1838. Dec. 7.—A great number of falling stars were ob-
served between 62 and 7h, In about half-an-hour 40 were
counted, sometimes by one, sometimes two, sometimes three
observers—two at a medium. They were of all magnitudes up
to the first : the larger dissolved into a train of light, but left no
train behind them: the S. and W. quarters were chiefly observed,
but their prevalence seemed to be universal : they all fell in
nearly a vertical direction, but those in the N.W. and S.I.
quarters inclined towards the S.W. The colour of the more
conspicuous ones seemed to verge towards orange. Their
courses were of no great length. There was at the same time a
pale auroral light along the N. horizon from N.W. to N.E.,
apparently equally extended on each side of the true meridian.
The Meteors were not watched after 74, but about 11 upon
looking out again I saw one, the only one in several minutes, ,in
the S.W. ; but it had no longer a vertical direction, its course
pointing now to the N. W.

‘*For account of this phenomenon as observed by Mr. Maverly
at Gosport, see ‘Proceedings ot the Meteorological Society
during the session 1838-1839,’ p. 9.”

T. W. Wess

Salmonide of Great Britain

IN reply tothe Rev, W.S. Symonds’s questions (NATURE, Vol,
vil. p. 162) regarding the occurrence of certain salmonoids in Welsh
and non-glacial lakes, I beg to draw his attention to the sixth
volume of the “Catalogue of Fishes,” published by the trustees
of the British Museum, which, I believe, contains the informa-
tion for which he asks. I would with pleasure extract this in-
formation for him if I were not ignorant as regards the glacial
or non glacial character of some of the lakes. The geographical

_ distribution of the various kinds of Charr is given in detail on
pp- 125-154, and that of the Coregoni on pp. 172-199. The
group of Charr and that of Covegoni are by no means limited to
lakes, many true charr, like Sa/mo, fluviatilis, fontinalis, &c.,

eing more or less exclusively river-fish; and Coregonus

oxyrhynchus being common in salt water on the coasts of
Holland at certain seasons of the year. In addition to Sir
Philip Egerton’s observation that he has taken Sa/mo ferox in
Lake Bala, I may mention that the British Museum possesses an
example [from the Lake of Llanberis, presented by S. P. W.
Ellis, Esq. (Catal. Fish, p. 93.) ALBERT GUNTHER

British Museum, Jan. 6

M. Figuier and the Origin of American Indians

ON page 484 of Figuier’s work, ‘‘The Human Race,” the
author speaks of the Mohawk Indians of the Rio Colorado, and

ahead St

NATURE

203

on the opposite page reproduces M,. Mollhausen’s drawing of two
Mojave Indians, as described in vol. iji. of Pacific R. R.
Reports, by Messrs. Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner. As the
Mohawk Indians of New, York and the North-west are so totally
distinct from the Colorado Mojaves, I thought it desirable to
call attention to the error.

M. Figuier, I notice, in other portions of his work, finds the
origin of the original peoples of America a difficult problem to
solve, and I think contradicts himself, He states, on page 16,
that, ‘‘unless we regard men as a solitary exception among all
living beings, unless we withdraw them from the operation of the
universal laws of nature, we must come to the conclusion that
they do but form a certain number of races of one and the same
species, and all descend from one primitive unique species.”
I do grant that it must have been a very unique species,
whose descendants could have varied to the extent that man has.
But it is not the question of variation of species that I wish to
allude to, but the geography of the question. In speaking of
what M. Figuier calls ‘‘ the red race,”’ pp. 404-406, he states—
‘*The Indians cannot be accurately brought into connection with
either the white, yellow, or brown race ;” and again, “ Probably
the population which existed in the new world before the arrival of
the Europeans was made up of several types different from those
that are extant at present in the other regions of the globes, types
having a great tendency to modify themselves, and which were ob-
literated whenever they came in contact with the races of Europe,
But to re-ascend back to this primordial population would
now be impossible.” There is here a plain acknowledg-
ment of a strictly autochthonic American people, modi-
fied since by contact with European races. This latter
contact we believe, of course, to be purely imaginative ;
but if there was an autochthonous people in America, as
the ‘‘primordial population” of Figuier is supposed to
be, how then can ‘‘all (men) descend from one primitive
unique species?’’ M. Figuier does not believe in the evolution
of man from some pithecoid creature; he claims to have ‘‘shown
. ... that man is not derived . . . . from any animal.” How
this stand can be taken, and still the unity of the race asserted
to be true, we cannot understand ; for surely it cannot be denied
now, that man was once lower than the lowest savage, although
different from modern savages ; and, as in America, there have
been found traces of man’s presence, as old geologically as
those found in Europe ; as fossil men have been found in Cali-
fornia ; and drift implements in the river gravels of the Delaware
Valley, on the opposite side of the Continent ; and as these
implements, in part, show that their fashioners were little, if
any, in advance of the beings first worthy to be called men,
how could they have descended from a stock in common with
the European and Asiatic races? It must have been, indeed,
a unique species, whose nearest relations spread over the whole
continent of North America; or starting somewhere on the
Pacific coast, finally reached the Atlantic, yet made no advance—
learned nothing in a slow overland journey of three thousand
miles. The ‘‘ primordial population,” of which M. Figuier
speaks, we doubt not originated in America; its pithecoid
ancestry may have been European or Asiatic, but if so, the ‘‘old
world” monkey was somewhat Americanised before it evolved
that peculiar red-race which we call the Indians, If there
ever was land communication between South America and the
‘*old world ” tropics, this pithecoid man may have reached the
shores of the Southern Continent, and lost the ape-like charac-
ters after his arrival. Either evolved thus, or created de novo,
as M. Figuier claims, the American savage is purely an
American institution, and upsets that unity which M. Figuier
claims for every race, tongue and condition, savage and civilised,
throughout the world. Cuares C, Absort, M.D.

Trenton, New Jersey, U.S.A., Dec, 23, 1872

THE ZODIACAL LIGHT

Po several nights lately the zodiacal light has been

exceedingly bright and well-defined, and more par-
ticularly on the nights of November 24 and 27 ; on the
evening of the 24th I found an explanation of what had
often perplexed. me before, viz, the existence of a faint,

204

isolated, band of light across the zenith, but as soon as it
was dark that evening, the zodiacal light was distinctly
seen to stretch across the whole sky, forming that faint
band of light previously observed ; I then began to note
its position, but the best observations were made on the
night of the 27th, when it was most distinct.

On that night it passed centrally over the planet Venus,
and then over the stars 6 Capricorni, y Aquarii, o Piscium,
and reached a point between the Pleiades and the
Hyades, so that the central portion of the light traced out
the course of the Ecliptic with wonderful precision ; it
was brightest in the central part of the band, and gradu-
ally faded off towards the edges; its illumination about
Venus was somewhat greater than that of the Milky Way,
but became fainter and fainter as the light proceeded
along the Ecliptic ; it was impossible to trace it beyond
the Hyades, where it seemed absolutely to terminate ; at
midnight, however, a feeble glow could be seen above the
eastern horizon in Leo and Cancer, but nothing was cer-
tain about this branch.

Returning to the western and brighter branch, at Venus
its breadth was about 40°, and as the longitude of the
planet was 280° while that of the sun was 246°, its breadth
was 40° at a distance of 34° from the sun; at 8 Capricorni
its breadth was 20°, at y Aquarii 16°, and at o Piscium
10°, so that we get the following results :—

Distance from sun Breadth
BAC ATS Be Seat wate eAOr
GORE Sak Ue eo
OZiaba Ye Cena

TAQ) Is at ns A MY Ae oTO

and its extreme distance from the sun was about 177°
where it was too faint to note anything but its existence.
The light seemed perfectly fixed in the heavens, and
there was no sign of any displacement such as might be
caused by parallax combined with the earth’s rotation ;
and when the brighter part had set and was far below the
horizon, the band across the zenith was quite as distinct
as before.

Now these few facts go a long way towards explaining
the nature of the zodiacal light, and a few more observa-
tions at different times of the year may be all that are
necessary to do so satisfactorily ; but as the light was so
vivid here, it must have been seen in other parts of the
world, and a comparison of the different accounts may
bring about the desired result; hence these notes, and
the following rough explanation.

The zodiacal light has generally been supposed to be
a luminous ring, surrounding the Sun, and situated
between the orbits of Venus and Mars ; the fact that the
light has often been seen in both the east and west at
the same place and time does not affect the probability
of this explanation, as we have only to suppose the
earth to be just within the ring; but there are many
difficulties to encounter, and the explanation never seemed
satisfactory. The instant, however, that I saw the pro-
longed ray, I felt sure that the zodiacal light was similar
in its nature to the rays issued from a comet towards the
sun, which, drifting over the nucleus, are then forced
backwards and form the tail; and that in the case of
the earth, the light is generated in those regions to which
the sun is vertical, and passing round the earth, the light
is swept back in a direct line from the sun, thus forming
a train which always tends towards a point in the heavens
180° from the sun, and which is therefore stationary with
regard to the earth’s axial rotation.

It is not easy, however, to test the truth of these ideas
by means of the notes above, but the following attempt
may not prove uninteresting.

_ Ifthe zodiacal light were a ring, and the earth within
it, we could compare the distances of the different parts
of the ring by means of their apparent angular breadths,
supposing the actual breadth of the ring to be uniform :

NATURE

en ee ee

in order to see whether that prolonged Tay was part of a!

| Fan. 36, 1873

ring or not, let E S be the line joining the earth and the
sun, the plane of the paper coinciding with the Ecliptic; —
and at an angle of 34°(6,) measure off any length EA
(7,), in which direction the breadth of the light was 40°
(,) ; now, the distance 7, of any point where the angular
breadth is ¢,, will be determined by the equation—

7, = 7, tan Be: cot Po
2 2

so that we can draw EB, EC, and E D, corresponding
to the}second, third,Jand {fourth observations ; but ‘the

curve drawn through these points is by no means an arc
of acircle, and very fairly represents what we have ex-
pressed in words above, so that the rays issuing from E
towards S are swept to the right hand and to the left,
and passing by the earth they form a train of light
stretching out into space,

But to what an astonishing distance must this train
proceed, in order to acquire an angular distance of 177°
from the sun! It is, however, quite possible that the two
branches close together near the point F, following the
dotted curves ; these curves are the positive and negative
branches of the spiral of Archimedes, and fairly repre-
sent our curves for an angular distance of 90° from the
sun. MAXWELL HALL

Jamaica

THE LATE PROFESSOR W. F MACQUORN
RANKINE

THE death of Prof. Macquorn Rankine, which we
announced a fortnight ago, will excite a pang in
the hearts of many persons who had enjoyed actual in-
tercourse with the genial spirit whose early loss we now
mourn, and of a still greater number who were only
acquainted with him through his. published works, He
died at his residence in Glasgow, on Christmas Eve,
in his fifty-third year, the date of his birth being July 5,
1820, For several months he had been labouring under a
serious derangement of his eyesight, coupled with heart
disease ; but it was confidently hoped for atime that hisvalu-
able life might be preserved for the benefit of science, pro-
vided that he rested himself from all his ordinary labours.
Latterly he did take that rest which seemed to be so im-
peratively demanded by his physical nature, the chief
portion of his ordinary work, namely, that of conducting
his class in the University of Glasgow, being handed
over to Mr. Bamber, C.E., who formerly distinguished
himself as a student under the deceased professor ; but
the bodily system had evidently little power of resisting
the ravages of the insidious disease under which it
laboured ; paralysis set in on Sunday, the 22nd ult., and
in forty-eight hours Macquorn Rankine was dead.
The amount of space at our disposal is quite insufficient
for the simple mention of the many important facts that

Pe Ee oe ah wh hs Cale 2 eek ee
: 50 Fae > ees

We ite an. 3 ha
Caracas as
J Be Stee wee wie / 4
—— Fan, 16, 1873]
are intimately bound up with the professional and scientific
career of Professor Rankine, and therefore our sketch, at
the best, can only be of the most cursory sort. In due
time, doubtless, a suitable tribute will be paid to his
memory and his scientific genius by the hand of one of
his literary executors.
- Professor Rankine was born in Edinburgh, and re-
ceived most of his ordinary school education in the
Burgh Academy of the town of Ayr, and in the High
School of Glasgow ; but he received the most valuable part
of his education, doubtless, from his father, who was a
retired lieutenant of the Rifle Brigade, during the resi-
dence of the family at Edinburgh. At a very early age
young Rankine entered himself as a student in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, where he enjoyed the invaluable
benefit of instruction in chemistry from. Dr, D. B. Reid;
in natural history (including zoology, geology, and mine-
ralogy) from Prof. Jameson, a man of European reputa-
tion as a naturalist ; in botany from Prof. Graham; and
in natural philosophy from Prof, James D. Forbes. The
extraordinary genius which he displayed in after life in
pure and applied mathematics seems to have owed little
or nothing to any external or adventitious aid in the
shape of professional instruction!: he was a born mathe-
matician.

‘The bent of his mind began very early to show itself,

for before he was out of his “teens” he had written two
essays on purely physical subjects—“ The ‘Undulatory
Theory of Light,” and “ Methods of Physical Investiga-
tion.” When he was about eighteen years of age he be-
took himself to the profession of civil engineering, and
served as a pupil under an eminent master, Sir John
-Macne for three or four years, a large portion of which
“was spent on engineering works in Ireland. He was
afterwards employed for several years on railway and
other engineering works in Scotland, and in 1850 or 1851
he settled down in Glasgow to pursue his profession in
partnership with Mr. John Thomson, C.E.

Meanwhile, Mr. Rankine had been prosecuting inquiry
in reference to several purely scientific subjects, as well
as those that more immediately pertained to his profession
as a civil engineer ; and he did not fail to put on record
the results of his investigations, almost all of which he
gave to the world through the medium of one of the
learned societies. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Scottish Society of Arts in 1842, an Associate of the In-
stitution of Civil Engineers in 1843,a Fellow of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh in 1849, a Member of the Philo-
sophical Society of Glasgow in 1853, and a Fellow of the
Royal Society of London in the same year. In the year
1850 he first cast in his lot with the British Association,
and at the meeting held in Edinburgh that year he was
the Secretary of the Physical and Mathematical Section.
He afterwards occupied still more prominent positions

_both in Section A and Section G, and many of his ad-
mirers looked forward with pleasure to an early meeting
of the Association being held in Glasgow, when they
hoped to see him filling the presidential chair.

In the year 1855 he was appointed by the Crown to the
Regius Professorship of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
in the University of Glasgow, in succession to Prof.
Lewis Gordon, and in that highly honourable position he
laboured with unexampled distinction for seventeen years.
The spirit in which he conducted his class may be judged
of by the following extract from the introductory lecture
which he delivered on the occasion of taking possession of
his chair ; the subject of the lecture was, “The Harmony
of Theory and Practice in Mechanics,” in the course of
which he said: “The objects of instruction in purely
scientific mechanics and physics are, first, to produce in
the student that improvement of the understanding
which results from the cultivation of natural know-
ledge, and that elevation of mind which flows from
the contemplation of the order of the universe ;

oe TER Oo LT hm Pe ete
deck, aed: ‘

NATURE

au5

and, secondly, if possible, to qualify him to become
a scientific discoverer. In this branch of study ex-
actness is an essential feature, and mathematical diffi-
culties must not be shrunk from when the nature of the
subject leads tothem. The ascertainment and illustra-
tion of truth are the objects ; and structures and machines
are looked upon merely as natural bodies are, namely, as
furnishing experimental data for the ascertaining of prin-
ciples and examples for their illustration.” Wat FOE

When the British Association meeting was held in
Dublin in 1857 Prof. Rankine had the honorary degree
of LL.D. conferred upon him as a mark of the eminence
which he had then attained as a physical investigator, al-
though only thirty-seven years of age; and in the same
year he was chosen as the first president of the Institution
of Engineers in Scotland, an organisation which he mate-
rially helped to bring into existence. In November 1861
he also became President of the Philosophical Society of
Glasgow, and during his term of office he con-
ducted the business of the society with great tact and
superlative ability; he delivered two addresses from
the presidential chair and contributed several other
papers, all of which were valuable contributions to
science. We would only mention his first presidential
address, the subject of which was “On the Use of
Mechanical Hypotheses in Science, especially in the
Theory of Heat.” In it he gave a short account of the
results which had been derived from that hypothesis
which ascribes the mechanical action of heat to the cen-
trifugal force of certain supposed molecular motions, a
hypothesis which, like the wave theory of light, the hypo-
thesis of atoms in chemistry, and all other physical hypo-
theses whatsoever, substitutes a supposed for a real
phenomenon, namely, invisible motion for tangible heat ;
the object being to deduce the laws of the real pheno-
menon from those of the supposed one. Another of the
most remarkable of his Philosophical Society papers was
one which he read in}January 1867, the subject being
On the Phrase ‘ Potential Energy, and on the Defini-
tions of Physical Quantities.” This was suggested by a
paper, entitled “ On the Origin of Force,” which Sir John
Herschel contributed to the Fortnightly Review, and in
which he expressed the opinion that the phrase in
question was unfortunate, inasmuch as it went to sub-
stitute a truism for the announcement of a great dyna-
mical fact. ¢

Prof. Rankine did not content himself with being a
“ star of the first magnitude” in respect of the science of
thermodynamics ; he also plunged into, and won distinction
in, the science of naval architecture, being impelled in
that direction, doubtless, through the intimate friendly
intercourse which he had with Mr. James R. Napier,
F.R.S., one of the most original-minded naval architects
and marine engineers that the Clyde has yet produced.

The degeased professor’s writings are exceedingly nume-
rous. He wrote and published, up to and including the
year 1863, no fewer than eighty papers which were found
to be worthy of mention in the Royal Society’s catalogue ;
and between that and his death he had probably written
as many more, in addition to the various treatises which
he wrote upon “Civil. Engineering,” “Applied Me-
chanics,” &c., all of which are of the very highest scien-
tific and practical value. Whatever he wrote he executed
with almost matchless perfection, whether we regard the
elegance of his diction, the scientific order of his exposi-
tion, or the lucid methods of illustration whic he
adopted. His mind was of the very first order, and his
death creates such a profound void in pure physics and
scientific engineering that we could easily have afforded
to give half-a-dozen of our most eminent practical engi-
neers, civil or mechanical, that he might have been
retained among us to pursue his original investigations
and mould the minds of the engineers of the future.

JouHN MAYER

206

NATURE

ae Ps Chor CL ee | be ae Cok ee ee

[Fan. 16, 1873

THE BIRTH OF CHEMISTRY

Vi.

Latin and English MSS. on Alchemy.—Sources from which the
earlier Alchemists acquired knowledge. — Arabic learning
during the Middle Ages.—Geber.

N the last article we discussed the Greek MSS. on Alchemy,

and endeavoured to show that, owing to the uncertainty of their
age and the obscurity of their authorship, they are less important
components of the early history of chemistry than some writers
have laboured to prove them.

There exist also many MSS. in Arabic and Persian on alchemy,
but in all probability few of them are earlier than the Sth century.
The Library of El Escorial is undoubtedly more rich in such MSS.
than any existing library ; but from the imperfect manner in
which its treasures are catalogued, we are unable even to give a
list of the more important of these treatises. The British Museum

ve
PA

contains several Arabic MSS. on alchemy, written about the 1ath
century, Such of these as we have seen are devoid of drawings,
and apparently also of symbols, mee:

Early MSS. on alchemy in Latin exist in all Jarge libraries.
They contain various recipes for making the philosophers’ stone,
“* secrets of art,” copies of the inscription of the Smaragdine table,
with the interpretation thereof, and an infinite amount of unintel-
ligible nonsense. They differ in no respect from the later printed
treatises on alchemy, which we shall presently discuss in detail.
The matter of most of the MSS. is to be found in printed works
compiled by alchemists of the 15th and 16th centuries.

One of the oldest alchemical MSS. in the British Museum is a
transcript of the Speculam Secretorum of Roger Bacon, who died in
1284. It is in the Sloane Collection, and was written towards the
end of the 13th century, say between 1290 and 1300. There is
no autograph MS. of Roger Bacon either in the British Museum
or in the Record Office ; the MS. in question was copied by an
unknown man. The following woodcut represents a few lines of
the commencement of the MS.

Jrepre fpeculii foto Alhrimme.
rome ol n oft abuaprad mytprerotn ake c bane aye pep
nolenrow quis Sefrac copia Ube

phick be (Psp COnz ‘Sqreteu % fectoss : “.

aductee, erycorqeamalle Gf: ssfrernVo cork perreci vhop ec ov e1
while ArTe- Mer Von: ecTmso opiy fen pili Gran fp ar ecBaleAro
Amara nore dial CY CH aufpectu fine Te dro Detectadm fore ob lei
The andur bor opifag Acusy fre Afrevibettce arte opAnds fine

- Fic. 8,—Alchemical MS, of the thirteenth century.British Museum.

The above reads as follows :—‘‘Incipit speculum secretorum
alkimiz. Innomine Domini Nosiri Jesu Christi ad instructionem
multorum circa hanc artem studere volentium, quibus deficit copia
librorum, hic libellus edatur, speculumque\secretorum indicatur,
idcirco quia in illo, quasi in speculo, totum secretum philosopho-
rum et operatio eorum in hac arte, nec non et ordo operis, sensi-
biliter inspiciatur. Et habeant amici nostri posteri ex ejus in-
spectu sine tedio delectationem, sine obscuritate viam hoc opus
aggrediendi, sine difficultate artem operandi.” The translation is
as follows :—‘‘In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, for the
information of the many who wish to devote themselves to the
study of this art, and who lack a supply of books, this small
manual is published, and is entitled the ‘ Mirror of Secrets,’
seeing that in it, as in a mirror, the whole secret of philosophers
and their working in this art—nay more, the process of their
work—may be visibly discerned. And may our friendly descen-
dants obtain from the perusal of it unwearied delight, a clear
pa for taking this work in hand, and a mode of operation un-

ampered by obstacles.”

Among the earlier English MSS. on Alchemy in the British
Museum is one which, the Preface informs us, was done ‘‘at the
iastance and prayer of a poure creature, and to the helping of
man, I, Malmedis, being at greete uneased in prisone, have thees
forseide bokes hidre to itake a hand, and so I shal fynnysshe hit,
to God be the laude and preisyng.”

_ The following woodcut (Fig. 9) represents a portion of this
MS, relating to mercury* :—

It will be noted that mercury, together with sulphur, and the
‘rede stoone,” is designated the producer of all metals ; we
also observe an allusion to the Aristotelian theory of the elements
(of which an account has been given in the second of these arti-
cles) in the assertion that mercury is ‘‘hotte and moyste.” This
MS. is in the Sloane collection, and is well preserved, and writ-
ten on vellum.

Let us now turn our attention to the dogmas of the alchemists
and early chemists, as set forth in the numberless printed books
on the subject.

We must bear in mind at the outset that chemistry and
alchemy--understanding by the former legitimate inquiry into
the nature of different kinds of matter, and by the latter the

* We must express our great indebtedness to Mr. Maunde Thompson, of
he British Muszum, for allowing us ready access tothe MSS. department,

futile attempts to make gold—existed side by side in the same
age, often in the same person. We cannotagree with M, Hoefer
when he says, ‘‘La chimie du moyen 4ge, c'est l’alchimie,”
because some of the early chemists were not alchemists, and the
crude processes of the one often led to the exact processes of the
other, Lord Bacon in the “De Augmentis Scientiarum,” has
some very pertinent remarks regarding alchemy :—‘‘ Credulity
in arts and opinions,” he remarks, ‘‘is likewise of two kinds,
viz., when men give too much belief to arts themselves, or to
certain authors in any art. The sciences that sway the imagina-
tion more than the reason are principally three, viz. Astrology,
Natural magic, and Alchemy. . . . Alchemy may be com-
pared to the man who told his sons that he had left them gold,
buried somewhere in his vineyard ; where they by digging found
no gold, but by turning up the mould about the roots of the
vines, procured a plentiful vintage. So the search and endea-
vours to make gold have brought many useful inventions and
instructive experiments to light.”

The heritage which the alchemists and early chemists received
from the ancients was by no means insignificant ; for they pos-

sessed all the experience accumulated by the ancients in the

various arts and processes which we have before described ; and
of theoretical matter they possessed, adopted, and prized,
the theory of the transmutation of the elements proposed by
Aristotle. Of works bearing upon the history of matter they
had the writings of Aristotle, Dioscorides, Lucretius, Archi-
medes, Hero, Vitruvius, and Pliny. Few books are quoted
more often in alchemic treatises than the ‘* Natural History ” of
Pliny ; and we sometimes find an almost verbatim transcript of
certain portions of this work. The alchemists can therefore
scarcely be said to have created a science, for the science of their
day is linked with that of the ancients.

When ancient learning had almost died out, and Europe was,
intellectually, in a state of complete darkness, the Arabians were
the most cultiyated people in the world. It is to Arabia that
we must look for the origin of several sciences which we are
wont to attribute to other nations. The Arabians instituted
universities, observatories, public libraries, and museums ; they
collected together all the remains of ancient learning, and through
their medium the greater number of Greek and Latin authors
which were read during the Middle Ages were known to Europe.

In the eighth century the Arabsj had full possession of Spain,

— ee

—-

NATURE 207

_ and at a somewhat later date this country possessed the most | many authors, including Aristotle, Dj i Pi

famous universities in Europe. The Arabs, a propagating their Pras gramacad into rahio pe ; paced pea Teidale
new religion, propagated also the remains of ancient culture, | diffused. ‘Ce fut,” remarks M. Figuier ”«¢ ainsi que de I’Inde
which had already been introduced into Persia and Syria by the | jusqu’d l’Espagne, des rivages du Tigre jusqw’a ceux du Guadal-
Nestorians, who had founded a school of great reputation at | quivir, les livres de science se propagerent parmi des peuples
Odessa. Again, when Justinian closed the schools of Athens | qui avait déja une littérature, une philosophie religieuse, et qui
and Alexandria, many of the professors fled to Persia and | n’étaient point dépourvus d’imagination,”
Arabia, and formed new centres of learning. The works of| In the eighth century the University of Bagdad was founded

. Whats16 meeary
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ay the feevect places of hl LoDd bs tig
1S Amamere Avhytte dete ‘A> temperate
hecte hit 1s wed 0 yddces efferastly fo2

16 moyfte/thetefore hrt 16 fii o by neethe
vy cavife of sn mot Wet fi ce ih ; Utfan
cere ifconné but throug tho paztiee rs beey
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Vryfeofttelyet lencth to avr e Int Afcen
Dil avs vemonetly/ (Mesadytepuodze of ate

metatts ret / Wtf exdde floone,
GUM Ali Re apt hed ae
my bates And moflem prynert of dlve an én and
that m gzecte guartrte/And minature he 168 too
te and in jan hers Wwette arid

of Atle me c/ane of yr al wary ié 0
freed An> myend2d /neYrt-16 Jerde brfoce,

Fic. 9.—English MS. on Alchemy.—Fifteenth century.

by the Caliph Al-Mansor, and in the following century it attained | and we cannot tell from what source Geber acquired any of his
@ pre-eminent position. A large medical school was connected | knowledge. He alludes to no one by name, but we know that
with it, also hospitals and laboratories. The Caliph Al-Mamoum
erected an observatory in Bagdad, and an attempt was made to
measure an arc of the meridian. It is said that at one time the
University of Bagdad possessed more than six thousand students.
In it the sciences found a home, and every scrap of ancient learn-
ing was eagerly collected and often extended. When the Arabic
empire was broken up by internal dissensions into a number of
small states, the University of Bagdad, losing the powerful
tronage of the Caliphs, fell into decay, and soon ceased to be
Soni. A somewhat celebrated school arose in Cairo in the
tenth century, but we possess but few particulars concerning it.
We soon hear of Spain as a focus of learning. In the tenth
century this was the most flourishing country in Europe, both in-
tellectuaily and otherwise. The University of Cordova possessed
great celebrity, and students flocked to it from all parts of the
world. It contained a library of between 200,000 and 300,000
volumes, an unusually large collection of books prior to the in-
vention of printing. The Arabians were great mathematicians
and astronomers. Lalande places Mohammed-ben-Giaber (better
known as Albategnius) among the twenty greatest astronomers
who have ever lived. Again, Alhazen wrote a treatise on optics
in the eleventh century, and there were many treatises on botany
and medicine. The Arabs made but little advance in anatomy
however, because they were forbidden by the Koran to mutilate
the human body.
After the above remarks it is almost needless to say that we
must look to Arabia for the earliest treatises on alchemy and
chemistry. Indeed the Arabians cultivated the latter science
with success, and the first work on the subject with whic: we
are acquainted was written by Yeber-Abou-Moussah- Djafer al-
Sofi, whom we call Geber, an Arab of the eighth century.
There had, no doubt, been writers on chemistry before his time,
but probably not long before. _We have endeavoured to provein
the preceding article that the Greek MSS. on the ‘sacred art” | the Arabians collected knowledge from every source—Egyptian,
are not trustworthy evidences of the early origin of the science ; | Indian, Persian, Greek, and Roman, It is thought by some

208

that Geber acquired some of his notions of chemistry from
t.

Biveral MSS., purparting to contain the writings of Geber,
exist in various librariesin Europe; these were translated into
Latin as early as the year 1529, and into English in 1678. We have
reason to believe that the Latin translation was faithfully done,
if the Arabic text be not corrupt. The work consists of four
treatises :—(a) Of the search for Perfection, (8) Of the Sum of
Perfection, (y) Of the Invention of Verity, and (6) Of Furnaces.

Geber was acquainted with the seven metals known to the
ancients, and he regarded gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and
lead, as compounds of mercury with sulphur in different pro-
portions. Gold and silver are the most perfect metals, and are
composed of the purest mercury and sulphur ; the other metals
consist of less pure mercury and sulphur, but may be conyerted
into gold and silver by purifying their constituents, and uniting
them in different proportions. He also describes various chemical
substances, among others the following. The carbonates of
potash and soda were known to Geber, and were procured from
the ashes of plants. Caustic soda was procured from the car-
bonate by heating its solution with quicklime, as in the present
day. Common salt was purified by ignition, solution, and
filtration, and the solution was afterwards evaporated, and the
salt crystallised out. Nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, and
chloride of ammonium, or sal ammoniac, were apparently
common in Geber’s time ; as also were alum, borax, and green
copperas, or protosulphate of iron. Geber procured nitric
. acid by distilling copperas, saltpetre,and alum, and he used the
acid for dissolving silver, and when mixed with sal ammoniac for
dissolving gold. He obtained nitrate of silver in the form of
crystals, and noticed their fusibility. Various compounds of
mercury are described, among others corrosive sublimate or
chloride of mercury, cinnabar or sulphide of mercury, and the red
oxide of mercury, in which, nearly ten centuries later, oxygen gas
was discovered by Dr. Priestley. Geber also obtained sulphuric
acid by distilling alum. He appears to haye been acquainted
with the various processes of distillation, sublimation, calcination,
filtration, and many others; indeed, with almost all the pro-
cesses practised by his successors during the succeeding eight
or nine centuries.

It is probable that some of the processes described by Geber
were worked out in the medical schools of Arabia, and were
known shortly before his time ; yet he was himself a patient
worker, and often intersperses his descriptions of substances and
processes with remarks on the method of experimenting, and
the mode of thought most suitable for the studies which he
describes. He has often been called the ‘‘ Founder of Chemistry ;”
at least his works are the earliest with which we are acquainted,
and he was venerated as Masier alike by the alchemists and
chemists of the Middle Ages.

Geber appears to have been acquainted with many chemical
appliances. In the earliest translations of his works we find
figures of various furnaces and forms of distillatory apparatus ;
one of them, not unlike a still now in use, is represented above.
The greater number of vessels described and figured by Baptiste
Porta in his treatise De Distillationibus, published in 1609, are
to be found in the first Latin translations of the works of Geber.

G. F, RODWELL

THE ARCTIC EXPEDITION

TRE following is the text of the reply of the Govern-
ment to the deputation which recently had an
interview with Mr. Lowe and Mr. Goschen :—

“11, Downing Street.

“ Dear Sir Henry Rawlinson,—Mr. Goschen and I have
carefully considered the documents which you have laid
before us with regard to the proposed Arctic Expedition.

“ We do not find in them anything which shows that
there is any pressing reason why the expedition should be
sent this year.

“ We give no opinion as to the expediency of such an
expedition at a future time, but we are clearly of opinion
that it would not be right to send out a second scientific
expedition precisely at the moment when the public re-
venue has to bear the main burden of the expenses of the
operations intrusted to the Challenger.

“T believe it has been erroneously stated that the

NATURE

[ Fan. 16, 1873

Challenger Expedition involves very little expense. That
is not so. The cost has already been considerable, and
nothing has been spared to insure success ; there will
further be an additional annual outlay for three years.

“Under these circumstances, we regret that we cannot
recommend the sending an exploring party to the Arctic
Ocean as a Government enterprisesthis year,

“ Believe me, yours very truly,
* (Signed) “ROBERT LOWE.
“ Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, K.C.B.”

It is clear, we take it from this, that it only remains for
the men of science to make out their case, and we believe
that the Arctic Committee are fully alive to this. The
Daily News in a leader has indicated what we had
already ventured to suggest as the weak point of the
appeal, namely that it was incomplete, and that many
men of science knew nothing of the proposed expedition,
But in doing this we had no intention to cast a slur upon the
Geographical Society ; on the contrary we think that that
Society’s action in this matter is one which the Royal
Society could now follow with the greatest advantage to
science, and which we hope it will follow.

In 1865 the Geographical Society begged the Royal
Society to take the lead in this matter, but the Royal
Society Council declined. In 1872 the Geographical
Society again entreated the Royal Society to take he
matter up, but again received a chilling reply to the effect
that the Royal Society Council would be prepared to give
advice when applied to by the Government. ?

The Geographical Society then did the next best
thing. It applied to other leading scientific societies, and
to some few scientific men for statements of results to be
derived from Arctic exploration. These it received and
laid before Government, without giving any undue pro-
minence to purely geographical results.

It is clear, therefore, that it is now the duty of the
Royal Society and the other societies at once to add
their influence to the movement; let a joint com-
mittee be formed to report, if need be, to the various
councils. In this way the knowledge posessed by all
specialists ought to be made available for the common
good, so that a complete statement may be forwarded to
the Government in the summer to enable the officers of
the expedition to be appointed in time to avail themselves
of special training,

NOTES

THE recent fusion of the Ethnological and Anthropological
Societies under the designation of ‘‘the Anthropological In-
stitute of Great Britain and Ireland,” not only did good
service to science but has financially proved thus far so
successful that the Report of the Council for 1872, to be pre-
sented to the members next Tuesday evening at the annual
meeting, announces a handsome surplus income applicable to
the reduction of liabilities incurred in former years. In this
promising condition of financial prosperity it is all the more
to be deplored that a serious dissension has arisen in the
Council in reference to the nomination of a successor to Sir John
Lubbock, who, to the universal regret of the members, vacates the
presidential chair, under the pressure of parliamentary and other
engagements. Touching this matter we have received a copy of a
printed statement signed by Mr. Harris andseven other members of
Council, which alleges that ata Council Meeting, held on the 17th
of last month, Dr. Charnock was placed on the House List for
1873, but that at a succeeding Council Meeting of January 7,
this nomination was rescinded and the House List recast with
the substitution of Professor Busk as President in the place of
Dr. Charnock. This recasting of the List is made a matter of
protest, and the members of the Institute, with whom the final
decision rests, are appealed to. We need hardly remark that

and raise the standard of middle-class education,
College students would, as unattached students, be members ot
the University, but would be generally younger than the

_ the secondary schools throughout the country,

_ forty weeks’ residence,

be continued on alternate days.
_ Anatomy and Physiology will be continued on Tuesday, January
28, at 1 P.M., and on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at

~

an, 16, 18

73]

this appeal is wholly ax Zar?z, We understand that the ex-
lanation given by the majority of the Council is that the vote of
January 7 was asurprise, and as such justified its re-consideration.

_ Now of all our public associations which have for their aim
the advancement of scientific truth, the Anthropological can
__ least afford to suffer by internal dissension, and it is earnestly
to be hoped that this difference of opinion on the subject of a
_ successor to Sir John Lubbock will be amicably arranged at
the forthcoming meeting. The more so as it bears so clearly on

the face of it that the interests of science are not in question.

A ScnHeMe is on foot for the establishment of a County
College at Cambridge, and it seems likely to be successful. An

_ address on the subject, with many influential signatures from
among the masters, professors, and tutors of the University, has

been presented to the Chancellor, the Duke of Devonshire.

The County College is intended to combine and assist the efforts

that are being made in the various counties of England to extend
The County

present undergraduates, aud more strictly looked after. One
qualification for admission would be a previous residence of two
years in one or more schools accepted by the University, and the
having passed the Junior Local Examination. The special
branch of the college function would be to prepare teachers for
The utmost
expense for each student is estimated at 80/. per annum, with
The cost of the buildings is estimated
at 20,000/., which it is proposed to raise by a joint-stock com-
pany. Besides other necessary accommodation, the building will
contain separate bedrooms for 300 students,

THE annual conversazione of the Midland Institute, which has
now become one ot considerable importance in Birmingham, was
held on Tuesday and yesterday, and will be continued this
evening, when all the exhibited objects will be thrown open to
the students of the Industrial Department. The success of these
meetings has considerably affected the prosperity of the Institute,
which now adds the Zrestige of fashion to the more solid attrac-
tions of its educational usefulness.

WE would draw attention to the further communications on
the recent star-shower which we print this week. At the
moment of going to press we have received another account of
the display as it was seen at Mauritius, which we hope to print
next week.

Pror. HUMPHRY commenced his Lectures on Practical
Anatomy, on Tuesday, January 14, at 9 A.M., and will continue
them daily at the same hour till the 27th, after which they will
The course of Lectures on

the same hour.

Tue study of Physiological Botany receives so little attention
in this country compared with what it does in France and

_ Germany, that we are very glad to see that the editorial staff of

the Quarterly Fournal of Microscopical Science has been
strengthened by the addition of the name of Prof. Thiselton
Dyer to those of Mr. J. F. Payne and Mr. E. R. Lankester ; an

earnest, we trust, that vegetable histology will assume the place

it deserves in the programme of the magazine for the future.
As a commencement, Prof. McNab of Dublin contributed to the
January number an article on ‘‘Haustein’s Researches on the
Development of the Embryo in Monocotyledons and Dicotyle-

_ dons,” which will, we hope, stimulate our young botanists to
_ further research in this little-worked field.

NATURE

a i a tr
SESS

209

THE Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge will
lecture on Electrostatics and Electrokinematics during the Lent
Term, in the Botanical Lecture-Room New Museum on

Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at 12 A.M., beginning
Feb. 1.

WE are indebted to the Scientific Editor of Harper's Weekly
forthe following :—Prof. Marsh and party returned on December 7
from the Rocky Mountains and Western Kansas, where they
had spent the preceding two months in geological researches.
They bring back a Jarge number of vertebrate fossils from the
cretaceous and tertiary formations of the West, including many
new and interesting mammals, birds, and reptiles, Among the
treasures secured during the present trip was a nearly entire
skeleton of Hesperornis regalis (the gigantic diving bird of the
cretaceous), numerous remains of pterodactyls, and a second
species of the peculiar genus of cretaceous birds with biconcave
vertebrae (/chthyornis). The remains indicate a bird rather
larger than /chihyornis dispar, Marsh, but of more slender pro-
portions. It may readily be distinguished from that species by
the sacrum, which is proportionally more elongated, and has the
cup of the posterior vertebral face more deeply concave. This
species Prof. Marsh called Zchthyornis celer, and the group of
birds now represented by the two species constitute the family
of /chthyornide.

THE work of Dr. Cowes, just published, upon the birds of
the United States, includes a synopsis of the fossil forms sup-
plied by Professor O. C, Marsh, who has made this branch of
palzeontology a special study. He enumerates no less than 29
species, to which number must be added several others dis-
covered by Professor Marsh in his late trip to the Rocky Moun-
tains. A single kind belongs to the woodpecker tribe, while
two are raptorial and three gallinaceous, namely, three kinds of
turkeys, Twelve are waders and eleven are swimmers,

WE are very glad to see from a report in Les Aflondes for
January 2, and from aletter sentus by the Abbé Moigno, that his
most praiseworthy scheme of popular scientific lectures, instead of
being likely to come to an end for want of funds, has taken a
new lease of life, and that the Sa//es are now in a fair way to
become a permanent Parisian institution. The Abbé and his
friends have most disinterestedly spent a large sum to establish
the institution, and they deserve the very highest credit and
every encouragement in their attempt to provide for the Parisians
the means of the best scientific and literary education; for not
only are there lectures and conversazioni on science, art, and
literature provided every night for grown-up people, but the
Abbé has inaugurated a series of classes on a comprehen-
sive plan for the higher education of the young. We sincerely
hope this wide scheme will be completely successful, and that
by-and-by its good effects will be markedly perceptible.

Dr. T. ARCHER Hirst, V.P.R.S., F.R.A.S., President of
the London Mathematical Society, and Assistant-Registrar in
the University of London, is to be appointed Director of Studies
in the Royal Naval College now being instituted at Greenwich.

Mr. W. SAVILLE KENT has been appointed Curator of the
Brighton Aquarium.

Tue Octopus in the Brighton Aquarium met with a sad fate
on Jan. 7. Finding himself uncomfortable in a tank where he
had been newly placed by the curator, he came out, in an un-
guarded moment, of the house of living oysters he had collected
asa shelter round him. In this tank were several large speci-
mens,of spotted dog-fish. One of these fish, with the true ’cute-
ness of a sea-dog, immediately pounced upon the unsuspecting
octopus, and swallowed him.—Another novelty has been intro-
duced into the Brighton Aquarium, viz., the apparatus for carry-
Ing on salmon and trout hatching. The trout from the Trent are
thriving splendidly.

210

lw

NATURE

<< aye

PD NPS gI LENS EPO oh

Apropos of the preceding, Mr, J. G. George, of Nassau,
Bahamas, describes in the American Naturalist for December
1872, a gigantic Octopus, measuring 10 ft. long, and each arm
5 ft., the weight being estimated at between 200 and 300 pounds.
The monster was found dead upon the beach and bore marks
of injury. Mr, George adds that this is the first specimen he
has seen during 27 years’ residence in Bahamas, although they
are traditionally of immense size.

M. E. REVERCHON, naturalist, of Briangon, Hautes Alpes,
France, offers to supply or to complete collections of the plants
of Dauphiny and the south of France.

THE first ordinary meeting of the new Medical Microscopical
Society will take place at the Westminster Ophthalmic Hospital
on the 17th inst., at 8 o’clock, when the President, Mr. Jabez
Hogg, will give an introductory address.

THERE has just died at Paris M. Olivier Charles Camille
Emmanuel, Vicomte de Rougé, Professor of Archzology in the
Collége de France, and keeper of the Egyptian Museum in the
Louvre, aged upwards of 61 years. He was the most eminent
of French Egyptologists.

Mr, F. J. WILLIAMSON has received a commission to execute
a statue of Dr. Priestley, to be erected in Birmingham. It will
be 8 ft. high, and in white marble.

A Company has been recently started in Glasgow for the
manufacture of asbestos into steam packing, for which purpose
it has been found to exceed in durability and general usefulness
every other material hitherto employed. The company, we
believe, intend to put this hitherto unworkable material to a
variety of other uses, it having been found, the Glasgow Herald
says, perfectly practicable to manufacture asbestos boats, tubs,
boxes, waggon bodies, and even railway carriages.

Mr. Epwarp Tuomas, F.R.S., late of the East India Com-
pany’s Bengal \Civil Service, has been elected corresponding
member of the French Academy, for his contributions to Oriental
numismatic archeology,

Dr. G, IscHERMAK, Director of the Imperial museum of
Mineralogy of Vienna, has published a catalogue of the
meteorites in the museum up to October 1, 1872. The collec-

tion is arranged according to the system of MM. G. Rose and
Rammelsberg.

WE learn from the Atheneum that Prof. A. C. Ramsay, of the
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, has been elected
Associate of the Royal Academy of Science, Belgium.

THE Institution of Civil Engineers has now been in existence
fifty-five years, having been established on January 2, 1818. It
was incorporated by Royal Charter on June 3, 1828, and the
numbers of the several classes constituting the corporation on
the Ist inst., were 16 Honorary Members, 759 Members, and
1,151 Associates, with a class of Students attached of 267,
together 2,193. Ten years ago there were on the books 20
Honorary Members, 413 Members, 574 Associates, and 10
Graduates, together 1,017 of all grades. The class of Graduates
was abolished in the year 1867, when the class of Students was
instituted,

THE Government have agreed jto the request of the Daily
Telegraph to grant Mr, George Smith leave of absence for the
purpose of proceeding to the East in order to make further dis-
coveries among the Assyrian ruins. The sum placed at Mr.
Smith’s disposal in the meantime by the proprietors of the
Telegraph is 1,000 guineas, and, they anticipate that within six

————
———— eee

months he will be able to accomplish much. . Whatever relics
may be the result of the excavations, will be presented to the
British Museum. 9

AN unusually large number of Journals connected more or less
intimately with science, have been started this new year. One of
them is the /rish Hospital Gazette, intended to fill up the place
left vacant by the Dudlin Hospital Gazette, and to be especially
a medium for the investigations of the physicians and surgeons
of Ireland. The first number is a good one, and we hope the
journal will meet with encouraging support. “a

ACCORDING to the correspondent of the ew York Herald,
an ingenious plan has been adopted by Prof. Agassiz’s expedi-

tion for determining how far the submarine regions are pervious _

to light. A plate prepared for photographic purposes is enclosed
in a case so contrived as to be covered by a revolving lid in the
space of forty minutes. The apparatus is sunk to the required
depth, and at the expiration of the period stated is drawn up and
developed in the ordinary way.
thus been obtained of the operation of the actinic rays at much
greater depths than hitherto supposed possible.

The number for January 4 of the Revue Scientifique contains the
translation of a long and remarkably clever paper by E. von
Hartmann, the purpose of which is to show that the differences
between the animal and vegetable kingdoms are very much
fewer than is dreamt of in the most generally accepted philo-
sophy, that these kingdoms ought not to be classed as subordi-
nates, but as co-ordinates, and that there is great likelihood
that plants are capable in some degree of sensation and per-
ception.

Dr, EvuGENE Robert, in Les Mondes for January 9, ascribes ;

the disappearance of the fallen leaves of autumn to multitudes of
earth-worms, which drag them into their underground galleries
by means of the crooked hairy appendages with which their
foremost rings are provided,

THE two principal articles in the Revue Scientifique for
January II, area translation of part of Prof. Tyndall’s recent

work on ‘Glaciers and the Transformations’ of Water,” and —

of Mr, J. Evans’ paper on ‘‘ The Alphabet and its Origin.”

THE two principal papers in the Moniteur Scientifique Quesne-
ville are ‘‘ On the Respiration and the Nutrition of Vegetables,”
by M. Ch. Blondeau, in continuation of three previous ones, and
the eighth and conclusive paper by M. Emile, ‘‘ On Anthracite
and its Derivatives.” M. Blondeau concludes from his inquiries
that vital force is essentially the same, and mabhifests itself in
similar effects, whether it animates vegetables or animals, and
regards as a popular delusion the belief that plants decompose
and restore purified to the atmosphere the carbonic acid which
results from animal respiration.

THE first annual report of the Society of Telegraph Engineers
shows that it is prosperous, and is doing good work.

WE have received a second edition of ‘‘A Catalogue of the
Birds of Kansas,” contributed to the Kansas Academy of Science,
by Mr, F. H. Snow, Professor of Natural History and |Meteor-
ology, in the University of Kansas, It contains 282 entries
and seems carefully compiled.

THE Memorie della Societd degli Spetiroscopisti Italiani for Sep-
tember contains Father Secchi’s paper on the Variations of the
Solar Diameter, illustrated by a carefully drawn diagram. A
translation of this paper is the first article in Der Maturforscher
for December, most of the other articles being translations from
the Comptes Rendus, Poggendorf’s Annatlen, the American Fournal
of Sctence,'and the publishedjproceedings of foreign societies.

Yan. 16,1873.

It is said that evidence has.

NATURE

2IT

FURTHER DETAILS OF THE RECENT
METEORIC SHOWER

WE haye received the following further communications having
reference to the recent meteoric shower. ‘The first is an
extract from a letter by Prof. Herschel :—

‘*Some light on the real extent and form of the radiant region
will, I feel sure, be thrown as time brings fresh additions to the
already great stock of information about its apparent place and
features from so many obseryers, and from such widely distant
quarters ; and the knowledge so gained would be of inestimable
value in clearing up the difficulties that surround the general
question of the wsettled radiation of many meteor showers ;
from knowing the origin of this stream we might learn how far
sporadic shooting stars may be derived from special showers of
well-determined radiant points and of regularly foreseen returns.
I have just received from Professors Newton and Heis in America
and Germany long printed reports on their observations, which
contain, I have no doubt, interesting details and speculations ;
but I have not yet perused them sufficiently to gather any par-
ticular idea of their contents. Capt. Tupman also wrote to me
to-day, pointing out what had struck me, that the comet found
by Mr. Pogson does not agree well with the contemporaneous
place of the meteor-cloud through which the earth is supposed
to have passed, unless its considerable distance from that place
is really a proof of the extraordinary deflection of its path by
the earth in its passage near it, which will make it most interest-
ing to inquire what will become of the zew comet in future.
Two observations, which seem to be all that Mr. Pogson could
obtain, are unfortunately not enough to determine its new orbit,
and its ‘periodic time’ will therefore give us no hint as to its
probable return. Capt. Tupman even suggests (to account for
its ‘ wnconformable motion’ between the first and second obser-
vation), that perhaps comet I. of the pair was seen by Mr, Pogson
in his first, and comet II. of the belated Biela’s couple in his
second night’s observations. The comet, if it is really Biela’s,
was, in that case at least, two months behind its time, or as
Capt. Tupman says, /welve weeks, and it must haye been ‘ loiters
ing’ somewhere on its path. Prof. Grant, who wrote to me
to-day, says that he will send me in a few days the list of tracks
of the meteors which he mapped during the shower at Glasgow,
and I have no doubt that this contribution will be a very valuable

. addition to my ‘working charts’ of these strange legions.

**T see that I have made a mistake in my list of ‘radiant-
points,’ (No. 30 reading thus— ‘A.D,P., Newcastle-on-
Tyne,’ &c. ‘close to if not coincident with Mirach (y An-
dromedz).’ This is a mistake, as Mirach is not y, but 8 An
dromede, and this radiant-point is therefore altogether mis-
placed in the list. I should like A.D.P.’s observations to be
left out altogether and the observation of Mr. Van de Stadt
substituted for it, thus—

No. Observer Place h. m.| R.A. N-D.| Position
30 H. van de Armhem 6.30 | 29—41" Andro-
Stadt (Holland) to meda
8.45
able

**The numbers in M. Denza’s observations (immediately pre-
ceding it) should be changed to R. A. 29°, Decl. 41°; the R. A.
and declination of the star y Andromedz, which I have only
just now ascertained exactly. ;

** Prof. Heis publishes (in the Miinster Wochenschrift fir
Astronomie, &c., of December 11, 18, and 25) twelve descrip-
tions of the shower by observers at Gottingen, Dantzig, Lichten-
berg, Cornorn (Hungary), Athens, &c. Those at Gottingen by
Mr. Heidornand Prof. Klinkerfues and at Athens by Dr. Schmidt
are the most interesting. Prof. Klinkerfues relates that after
determining the place of the radiant-point with the greatest pre-
cision at R.A. 26°, N. Decl. 37° from the projected courses of
80 meteors carefully mapped, and calculating from them the
parabolic elements of the meteor-stream (which he gives with
the radiant-point), in the usual way, he then only accidentally
recognised its resemblance to, and evident identity with Biela
while telegraphing a short note and transmitting a full account
of the Gottingen observations to Dr. Heis. No wonder that at
such an unexpected discovery he should have been immediately
prompted to send to some observer of the southern hemisphere

his famous telegram, ‘ Biela touched earth, &c., look for it near
@ Centauri !’

‘* Schmidt, at Athens, watched the shower for 9 hours uninter-
ruptedly, from sh. 30m, to 14h. 30m., and gives a complete
curve of frequency for the whole time (in numbers for the
‘four practised and two unpractised observers,’ who undertook
the counting) reduced to hourly numbers for a position of the
radiant-point in the zenith at intervals of successive hours. On
this figure I haye merely altered the scale so as to exhibit his

Curve of average frequency of Shooting Stars per minute seen by four
practised observers at Athens, Nov. 27, 1872. J. F. Scumipt
[Im Athens mean time, th. 35m, fast on G.M.T.]

result in numbers per minute, instead of numbers per hour
during the whole time. His more complete account of the
shower was sent to the Astronomische Nachrichten, and he fixed
the place of the radiant-point at R. A. 22°°5, N. Decl. 42°°5.”

The following has been forwarded to us by Prof. H. A.
Newton :—

“*Dr. Weiss, of Vienna, who first pointed out in 1868* the
probable connection between Biela’s comet and the meteors seen
December 6, 1798, by Brandes, and December 6, 1838, by Mr.
Herrick, gives the radiant for meteors following the path of that
comet as R.A. 23°4°, N. Decl. 43'0°. I assigned a point 3°
from y Andromedz as the centre of the radiant of the meteors,
or about R.A. 25°3°, N. Decl. 43°3°. The longitude of the node
of Biela’s comet was in 1852, according to Hubbard, 245° 51’,
and the comet would pass about a million of miles from the
earth’s orbit, between it and the sun. We passed that place of
the node early Wednesday evening, November 27. There can
hardly be a doubt, therefore, that these meteors were once frag-
ments, or companions, of that comet.

‘* Any theory that shall explain the formation of the present
grouping of meteoroids must account for the magnitude and shape
of the radiant areas. If the members of a group have nearly
the same orbit, the radiant should be a point. But the area of
the radiant, November 24-27, was at least 8°long. This implies
that the orbits differ considerably, either—(c) in their inclina-
tions to the ecliptic ; (4) in their major axes ; (c) inthe longi-
tude of perihelion; or, in two or three of these elements
combined.

‘The shower ended abruptly on Wednesday évening, and in
the clear evenings that followed nothing special was to be seen,
Similarly marked limits are not uncommon in other showers.
The orbits must then either be approximately in a plane or there
must be a common node in the ecliptic, where the earth meets
them. Such a node would point unequivocally to the earth as
the body that originally scattered the comet.

‘Tf, as seems more probable, the orbits, however, lie nearly in
one plane, either the major axes, or the longitudes of the peri-
helia, must differ widely. Neither of these conditions could be

* Sitzungsberichte, vol. lvii.

212

satisfied, so far as I can see, by a group formed from the disper-
sion of a comet by Jupiter, or other large planet. If the frag-
ments of the comet leave the neighbourhood of Jupiter, they
should after each revolution return nearly to the same point in
space. But a radiant area 8° or 10° long. on the night of
November 27, implies a distribution of the aphelia over 10° or
12° of longitude, or a similarly large difference of major axes.
Such orbits can hardly have a common point at a great distance
from the sun. Moreover, a scattering accomplished in a short
time upon a body moving in an orbit inclined several degrees to
the ecliptic should, it would seem, be incompatible with a
grouping at the earth’s node. ;

‘Again, suppose that a disrupted body or agglomeration has
been once changed into a stream by the differential action of
gravitation in the manner shown so beautifully by Schiaparelli.
If the perturbing forces exerted by any planet or planets, whether
temporary or long continued, should produce such differences
of major axes, or longitudes of perihelia, by differential action,
the total action would, undoubtedly, entirely scatter the group
at the earth’s nodes.

**Tn fact, instead of regarding the meteors as a stream, we
ought rather to look upon the group as coming together near
the perihelion—or near the node—and then scattering widely,
to reassemble, perhaps, after a complete revolution in the orbit.

‘© A resisting medium cannot account for the observed effect,
for this does not change the longitude of the perihelion of the
orbit.

‘<Tt seems to me, therefore, that the periodic meteors cannot
haye been brought into the solar system as a stream, but that
the forces which have scattered the comets are those acting near
the perihelia of their orbits. As a probable corollary, we may
infer that whatever force divided Biela’s comet into its two prin-
cipal parts was one acting near the perihelion.

“‘Tf we consider the orbits of the meteors of November 14,
the preceding discussion is simplified. That shower is sharply
limited, being in its greatest intensity only one or two hours
long. Its recurrence at regular intervals of one-third of a cen-
tury, for nearly a thousand years, precludes great differences of
the major axes of the individual orbits, and the secular proces-
sion of the node of the group, as @ group, equally forbids great
differences of inclinations of the orbits.

"The size of the radiant is therefore due almost exclusively to
tke difference of the longitude of the perihelia. This difference
for that group cannot be less than 15°.

**In conclusion I would say that we have no evidence, as yet,
that any radiant of meteors is so small as is apparently required
by the supposition of the distinguished Italian astronomer, that
the meteors were drawn as a stream into the solar system from
the stellar spaces. With Prof. Weiss and others, I am inclined
to consider them all to have been once connected with periodic
comets. The scattering took place apparently at or near the
perihelion,”

THE NATIONAL HERBARIA

THE following memorial has been transmitted to the First
Lord of the Treasury on the above subject :—

‘© To the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, First Lord of the
Treasury.

‘¢S1r,—The undersigned persons engaged in the pursuit of
botany, or in instruction therein, desire to call your serious
attention to a subject that deeply concerns the progress of
Natural Science, and that of those branches of agriculture, horti-
culture, forestry, and manufactures that largely depend on
botanical research.

«© The First Commissioner of Works, in a Memorandum pre-
sented to Parliament before the close of last session, clearly
raised the question whether it is desirable to transfer to the
branch of the British Museum about to be constructed at South
Kensington the Scientific Collections and Library now existing
at Kew, and further stated that, pending the decision on that
subject, he considers it his duty to take care that no new expense
shall be incurred at Kew which will embarrass the Ministers of
the Crown or the House of Commons in arriving at a decision.

‘©The Lords of the Treasury, in their Minute of the 24th
July, decline to refer to that portion of the above-mentioned
Memorandum, and no statement on that subject hes since been
made by any Minister of the Crown which shows whether it has
received the attention of the Government,

NATURE

; | Fan. 16, 1873

a

‘* Being strongly of opinion that the proposed measure would
be highly detrimental to the progress of science, and injurious
to all those interests that depend upon it, we beg to urge upon
you that the subject is not one merely of departmental interest,
and that it would not be unfitting your position, as First Minister
of the Crown, to give your consideration to the followin
reasons which we beg to urge in opposition to the propos
measure :— .

**y, That it appears to us that itis absolutely necessary that a
great Botanical Garden like that at Kew, which is confessedly
far the most important in the world, should be in close connec-
tion with as perfect an Herbarium and Botanical Library as
possible, and that these conditions are now fulfilled as far as cir-
cumstances and the present state of science will admit.

‘2, That such a combination of living and dead specimens is
requisite for the complete study of plants, as regards their techni-
cal, physiological, and economic characters; and that the re-
moval of the Herbarium would bea retrograde step in a scientific
point of view.

‘*3, That the records of the Colonial and India Offices will
show of what immense importance the establishment at Kew
has been to the welfare of the entire British Empire, and that
weighty questions are constantly submitted to the Director which
require immediate attention, and which could not, in many cases,
be satisfactorily answered without reference to the Library or
Herbarium. y

“4. That every facility for the investigation of the intimate
structure and general habits of plants, and the study of them in
every point of view which can reasonably be considered within
the scone of pure Botany, is afforded by the Herbarium and
Museum of Botany in connection with the Garden, and that it
would be easy to point out important labours in that direction
which have been instituted at Kew, while the systematic treat-
ment has always regarded the more mimute characters as well as.
those which are superficial.

«5. It has been remarked, indeed, that important works, such
as the ‘ Hortus Kewensis,’ have been prepared without the aid
of an Herbarium at Kew. We would, however, remark that
the statement is not correct, as there was an Herbarium, which
was dispersed before Sir W. Hooker became Director ; and the
conditions of Natural Science are at the present time so com-
pletely altered that it is impossible to institute any fair com-
parison, the number of known species being enormously increased
since the date of the publication in question.

**6. That the Museums of Structural and Economic Botany, »
which owe their existence and importance to the late Sir W.
Hooker, are often found of great value in the decision of critical
points in the study of species, and that the severance of them
from the Herbarium and Library would be a serious loss.

‘7, That in the principal Botanic Gardens on the Continent,
where effective work is done, there is in every case a large her-
barium connected with them.

‘*8, That, in the interest of Botanical Science, we think it
highly desirable that, besides the collections now existing at Kew,
an Herbarium, or collection of dried plants, as complete as
possible, should be maintained in connection with the Natural
History Museum which it is proposed to place at South Ken-
sington, and that the two Herbaria should be in intimate re-
lation with each other.

‘*g. That from the delicate and perishable nature of its con-
tents, and the necessity of referring to numerous specimens, an
Herbarium cannot be made use of by many persons at the same
time ; and while it is desirable that students should have ready
means of access at the National Museum in London to collections
which may enable them to identify the plants of any particular
country, it is still more essential that the authors of important
works in Botanical Science should be enabled, as at present, to
pursue their labours at Kew without interruption from casual
visitors.

**to. That an Herbarium is the least costly of all collections
of Natural History, and that which requires the least amount of
space for its proper maintenance, in proportion to the number of
objects which it contains,

‘tr. That the arrangements of the Herbarium at Kew are so
perfect, and the facilities for study so great, that it is resorted to
from all parts of the world; and it would therefore be unwise
to make a change which in the result is almost certain to be
detrimental, and-which, we are assured, would be especially
distasteful to the leading foreign botanists.

“‘M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S., Botanical Director to the Royal

- Horticultural Society ; Charles C. Babington, F.R.S., Professor
of Botany, Cambridge; M. A. Lawson, F.L.S., Professor of
_ Botany, Oxford; J. H.Balfour, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany,
Edinburgh ; Alexander Dixon, M.D., Professor of Botany,
Glasgow; G. Dickie, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
Aberdeen; E. Perceval Wright, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
Dublin; Robert Bentley, F.L.S., Professor of Botany, King’s
College and Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain; W. T.
Thiselton Dyer, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Royal
Horticultural Society, London; R. O. Cunningham, M.D.,
F.L.S., Professor of Botany and Zoology, Belfast; W. R.
McNab, M.D., Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science,
Dublin; George Henslow, F.L.S., Lecturer at St. Burtho-
lomew’s Hospital and Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;
John Ball, F.R.S.; Maxwell T. Masters, M.D., F.R.S.; James
Bateman, F.R.S.; R. Trevor Clarke, F.R.H.S.; W. Wilson
Saunders, F.R.S.; Geo. F. Wilson, F.R.S.; Robert Hogg,
LL.D., F.L.S., Pomological Director to the[Royal Horticultural
_ Society; W. Sowerby, F.L.S.; D. Moore, Pn.D., F.L.S. ;
_ Andrew Murray, F.L.S.; William Munro, Major-General,
C.B., F.L.S.; M. Pakenham Edgeworth, F.L.S.; John Miers,
® F-R.S., V.P.L.S.; Frederick Currey, F.R.S., Sec. L.S.;
_ Daniel Hanbury, F.R.S., F.L.S.; C.E. Broome, F.L.S. ;
Leonard Bomefield, F.L.S.; J. T. Boswell Syme, LL.D.,
F.L.S.; Hugh Cleghorn, M.D., F.L.S.; Clements Markham,
C.B., F.L.S.; R. C. A. Prior, M.D., F.L.S.; Edward J.
Waring, M.D., F.L.S.; George C. M. Birdwood, M.D. ;
Walter Elliot, K.C.S.I., F.L.S.; J. Forbes Watson, M.D.,
F.L.S. ; Richard Strachey, Major-General, C.S.I., F.R.S. ; E.
W. Cooke, R.A. F.R.S.; Robert Braithwaite, M.D. ; William
Mitten, A.L.S.; W. Allport Leighton, F.L.S.; William
Phillips; John Goucher, F.L.S.; J. Leicester Warren ;
Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S.; M. C. Cooke; James M.
Crombie, F.L.S. ; Alfred W. Bennett, F.L.S.; V.G. More,
F.L.S.; Thomas Moore, F.L.S., Floricultural Director to the
Royal Horticultural Society ; Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.,
late Superintendent Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta ; Charles
Darwin, F.R.S. ; George Bentham, F.R.S.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Journal of Botany for November, 1872, commences with
a paper by Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, on an intricate point of veget-
able histology, ‘‘Tyloses,” or the cellular filling-up of vessels,
_ witha plate. Critical botany is represented by two articles, on
Dasylirion and Beaucarnea, by Mr. J. G. Baker, and notes on
same Scandinavian piants, by Dr. Trimen; and geographical
botany also by two—‘‘ The Influence of Insect Agency on the
Distribution of Plants,” by Mr. A. W. Bennett, and notes
respecting some Birmingham plants, by Mr. Jas. Bagnall.
Among the extracts is a very interesting one on some southern
_ plants observed in the environs of Paris in 1871, being an account
of the species added to the flora of the neighbourhood of Paris
_ by the German invasion, amounting to 190. In the December
number Dr. Trimer records and draws a recent addition to the
British flora, Psamma baltica ; and the whole of the remaining
original articles relate to cryptogamic bo:any—the Rev. Jas.
Crombie discourses on lichens, the Rev. P. O’Mearaon Diatoms,
Mr. J G. Baker, on a new Asflenium from Cape Colony, and
H. Boswell, on the mosses of Oxfordshire. A large portion of the
_ number for January, 1873, is occupied by a lengthy and interesting
_ biography, accompanied by a portrait of the African traveller,
__F, Welwitsch. ‘he remaining original articles include a contri-
_ bution to the subject of the ‘‘Influence of Insect Agency on the
Distribution of Piants,” by Dr. Buchanan White, a valuable
and suggestive paper by Prof. M‘Nab, and a description by Mr,
_ J. G. Baker of some new ferns from Lord Howe’s Island.
Theshort ‘* Notes and Queries” are not the least interesting part

of these three numbeis, :

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonbDON
Royal Society, Jan. 9.—‘‘ Further Remarks on the Sense of
Sight in Bires,” by Robert James Lee, M.A.. M.D. Hethinks

_ it would be premature to enter upon general deductions until the
_ data we possess are more numerous, and the anatomical details

em ee ee te i ee

_ NATURE. ~

213

tion he has received much assistance and valuable information
from Mr. Hulke, who has directed considerable attention to the
structure of the ciliary muscle in birds. In order to show the
different degrees of development of the ciliary muscle, he drew
up a short table containing those specimens which have been
examined with most attention. For the present he considers
the ciliary muscle as a simple structure for the production of one
effect, whatever minute differences may exist in the internal
arrangement of its fibres. According to the table the axis of
vision in the Eagle Owl is 3'7 ; Vulture, 3°1 ; Buzzard, 4; Rhea
americana, 3; Flamingo. 9; Penguin, 6; Andean Goose, 4;
Vieillot’s Pheasant, 6 ; Wood Francolin, 4 6 ; Canada Goose, 5 ;
Hawk-headed Parrot, 4; Spotted Dove, 7; Grouse, 4; Par-
iridge, 4. A second table is a continuation of that commenced
in his last communication, and is intended to furnish certain
data which are necessary for the determination of the visual
powers in various species of birds.

**On the Union of Ammonia Nitrate with Ammonia.”
Edward Divers, M.D.

Ammonia nitrate deliquesces in ammonia gas at ordinary
temperatures and pressures, forming a solution of the salt in
liquefied ammonia. To prepare the product, it is only re-
quisite to pass dry ammonia gas into a flask containing
the dry nitrate ; but the condensation proceeds more rapidly
if the flask is surrounded with ice. The liquid obtained
varies in composition according to the temperature and pres-
sure. The liquid boils when heated, and, when nearly satu-
rated with nitrate, deposits crystals of it when cooled—just like
an aqueous solution. It can also, like an aqueous solution, be
heated above its boiling-point without boiling, and become super-
saturated with the salt without crystallising. When poured out
into an open vessel, it becomes almost instantly gelatinous in
appearance—may, indeed, become so as it falls in a stream from
the flask containing it. This effect is due to evaporation of am-
monia and solidification of nitrate at the surface of the liquid ;
on breaking the crust of nitrate, the compound flows out as
liquid as ever. It is not caustic to the dry skin. During
its decomposition cold is manifested, and during its forma-
tion heat is evolved, but not to a great extent, because the
heat given out by the liquefaction of the ammonia is
nearly all used up in the liquefaction of the nitrate,
Its specific gravity can be calculated from its composition, by
taking for the purpose 1524°5 as the specific gravity of the
nitrate, and 671 as that of the ammonia. In its rate of expan-
sion by heat, the liquid resembles others that exist as such at
ordinary temperatures, rather than those that, like ammonia
itself, are only retained as such by great pressure. Its expan-
sivity increases with the quantity of ammonia present. Iis
action upon a great number of substances, principally inor-
ganic, has been tried, and found to be for the most part like
that of ammonia (in the absence of water) and ammonia nitrate
conjoined. The nitrate appears to undergo double decomposi-
tion with most salts, and the ammonia to unite with nearly all
of them, including those of magnesium, aluminium, iron, and
manganese. It is a good electrolyte, ammonia and hydrogen
appearing at the negative electrode, and nitrogen and ammonia
nitrate at the positive electrode.

By

Anthropological Institute, Jan. 7—Sir John Lubbock,
Bart., F.R.S., in the chair, A paper by the late J. W. Jackson
was read on the Atlantean Race of Western Europe. The
chief aim of the author was to controvert the largely accepted
opinion that the dark Atlantean race was of Turanian origin.—
A paper by Dr. John Shortt on the Kojahs of Southern India.
The true Kojahs or Eunuchs are chiefly seen about the houses of
wealthy Mussulman nobles, by whom they are placed at the
head of their harems. Sometimes they hold important charges
with a considerable amount of control. The ladies of the
harem look upon them as their confidential advisers in all
matters relating to their personal concerns. The second class of
Eunuchs are called Higras or natural Eunuchs, who dress like
and ape the manners of women, and are for the most part
utterly worthless characters. The paper entered into minute
details respecting the physical characters and habits of that
strange class of men.—A joint paper by M. H. Gerber and
Capt Butler on the Primordial Inhabitants of Brazil, waz also
read. Ic contained valuable and full statistical information as to
the populations of the provinces; the occupations of the in-
habitants, their industry and productions ; the mineral wealth of

__are generally allowed to be correct. Since his last communica- | the country, agriculture, manufactures, and colonisation.

214

Geologists’ Association, Jan. 3, 1873.—The Rev. J.
Wiltshire, F.R.S., president, in the chair. ‘‘On the Cambrian
Rocks of Ramsey Island, St. David’s ;” Henry Hicks, In an
exposed coast section which occurs at the north end of Ramsey
Island, the three important groups of strata known under the
names Lingula Flags, Tremadoc, and Arenig groups are seen
resting on one another in the order of their succession, and are
probably better exhibited than at any other place in Wales.
The two first groups are those now usually recognised as forming
the upper part of the Cambrian, and the latter as the lowest
group of the Silurian system. This section is therefore at con-
siderable importance bearing on classification, as it shows clearly
the relation of the groups toeach other. The Lingula Flags occur
as hard siliceous sandstones with grey flaky slate, and dip under
the others at an angle of about 60°. They contain the usual
Lingulella Davisii, in great abundance ; also a trilobite of the
genus Nesuretus, Sophyton, a supposed land-plant, and numerous
worm tracks. The beds are frequently ripple-marked, and give
indications of having been shore or shallow water accumulations.
The Tremadoc group rests quite comfortably on the Lingula
Flags, and at first the beds are much like those of the latter
in their lithological characters, but afterwards they gradually
assume a darker and more flaggy appearance. Fossils are
very plentiful in these beds, and numerous new forms come
in. _ Amongst these may be mentioned the Lamellibranchs,
Starfishes, and Encrinites. The tribolites belong to the genera
Niob2 and Nesuretus. A gentle and gradual depression of the
sea-bottom was evidently taking place during the deposition of
this group. Resting upon the last-mentioned is the Arenig
group, a series of black, iron-stained slates and flags, and with
a fauna wholly distinct from that of the Tremadoc group. The
Graptolites come in here for the first time, as well as the genera
/Bglina, Trinucleus, and Ogygia. In many respects the fauna
resemble that of the Quebec group of Canada. Jor the depo-
sition of these beds a deep and decided depression of the sea-
bottom must have taken place, and if the succession here is
broken, this must have been sudden. It is probable, however,
that a fault has passed along the strike of the beds, and that this
has removed the series which should have intervened to connect
them more closely, lithologically and palzontologically. As far
ascan be made ont by the section, the boundary line between
Cambrian and Silurian should certainly be placed above the
Tremadoc group as exhibited at St. David’s (the upper part of
the Tremadoc group of North Wales will doubtless have to be
included in the Arenig group) and below the Arenig group.

LEEDS

Naturalists’ Field Club and Scientific Association,
Dec. 10.—A paper was read by Mr. W. D. Roebuck upon the
habitations constructed by hymenopterous insects, with a few
remarks upon so-called parasitism, as observable among the
British bees. This subject furnishes some noteworthy evidence
bearing upon the question of ‘‘ protective resemblance.” When
the bee infested by a parasite is social in its economy, and the
nest is consequently never entirely deserted, the parasite assumes
the colouring of its host, and is thus enabled to deceive and
elude the sentries. On the other hand, if the bee attacked is of
solitary habits, the female is consequently and necessarily absent
when collecting her pollen and honey. This temporary absence
is taken Advantage of by her parasite, which does not therefore
need any protection ; and we accordingly find that in every case
the solitary bee and her parasite are most strikingly dissimilar in
appearane>,

EDINBURGH

Botanical Society.—Nov. 14, 1872. The President, Prof.
Wyville Thomson, delivered an address, giving biographical
sketches of several of the deceased members. He then gave an
address on “‘ Fermentation and Putrefaction,” which appeared in
NATUuRE, vol. vii. p. 61. Mr. Adam Smith, Melbourne, sent
a notice regarding the native bread fungus of Australia, It
grows in large tubers, clusters of which are found connected
tagether by small fibrous roots. The largest in a cluster is fully
as big as a man’s head, the others of smaller sizes. When cut
they present the appearance of rice pudding, but although es-
teemed as a great delicacy by the Aborigines, they are too
tasteless and insipid to become valuable for fuod.—Mr. John
Sim noticed the occurrence of Buplenrum rotundifolium asa
weed in a cottage garden near. Perth.—Mr. Sadler exhibited
specimens of a species of Lupinus, resembling Z. /ufews, which
he found growing ina turnip-field near Blackshields, about 16

' NATURE

[ Fan. 16, 1895,

miles from Edinburgh, the seeds having probably been intro-
duced with guano. ie
December 12.—Alexander Buchan, M.A., Vice- President, in
the chair.—Mr. James M‘Nab, Curator of the Royal Botanie
Garden, took the chair as president, in room of Professor
Wyville Thomson. ‘‘ On the Organisation of Equisetums and
Calamites,” by William Ramsay M‘Nab, M.D., Professor of
Botany, Royal College of Science, Dublin. The general con:
clusions arrived at by the author were :—1. The stem of Equi-
setum differs but little in construction from that of Calamtites.
2. In both Equisetums and Calamites the fibro-vascular bundles
are but poorly developed. 3. The mass of tissue (woody wec
of Williamson) forming the most important part of tee
consists of the small fibro-vascular bundles with the addition of —
a large quantity of thickened parenchyma and prosenchyma (scler-
enchyma Mettenius). 4. The sclerenchyma (Mettenius) is part
of the cortical tissues, and not a particle of the fibro-vascular
bundles. 5. There is no evidence of any growth having taken
place in the fibro-yascular bundles comparable to that observed
in the dicotyledons. 6. If the stems of Calamites increased in
diameter, it was by large additions to the cortical tissues and fot
to those of the fibro-vascular bundles. The President, Mr.
James M‘Nab, read a communication on the Disfigurement of
Hedge-row Trees by telegraph wires. He thought the cropping
of trees for telezraph purposes should be entrusted to some éx-
perienced gardener or forester, and not left to the mercy of men to
cut and clear away as if paid by contract on the mile of clear-
ance done.—“ Notice of the occurrence in England of Psamma
baltica, R. et Sch.” By Philip Maclagan, M.D. The addition
of Psamma baltica to the British Flora is due to Mr. Williath
Richardson, of Alnwick. Returning one evening in Augtst
1871 from the Holy Island towards Belford, and finding thé
sand wet, he betook himself to the ‘‘ bents,” not to botanizé bit
to get firmer footing. He had not proceeded far when he met
with the stranger growing side by side with Psamma arenaria.
Afterwards he found it growing in patches at intervals along the
coast for upwards of three miles—Dr. John Kirk, Zanzibar,
presented to the University Herbarium a collection of dried
plants from the highest zone of vegetation in the Kilimanjaro,
below the line of perpetual snow that crowns the summit, The
Kilimanjaro is about 20,000 ft. high, in the country of; Jagga,
East Africa,

Boston, U.A.S.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Nov. 24,
1872.—Dr. Henry J. Bowditch alluded to a case of aortic
aneurism, in which he had with the assistance of Dr,

. C. Warren, and Dr. J. Putnam, used electricii
for the treatment of this usually fatal disease. The pale
an adult man, had a pulsation distinctly felt in the secor
right intercostal space, which last,]with the parts adjacent,
was slightly prominent, but not effaced. The respira’
murmur was free throughout both lungs, save in this party an
there it was bronchial to the extent of two or three inches; d
percussion in the same.

Two operations were made, viz. on November 12 and 17,
1872. Three needles coated with vulcanite were used at —
each operation. They were introduced about an inch from the
first, and from an inch anda quarter to an inch anda half at
the second operation, They evidently were introduced into a
freely moving current at the first—as seen by the widely moving
needle ends—but into a more solid mass at the second. e
positive pole of the battery a/one was applied to them, the
negative resting on the right breast on a level with the tumour.
The number of cells used (Stone’s battery) was gradually raisec
from two up to sixteen at the first, and to twenty-eight at the
second, The operations lasted 144 and 14 minutes. little
faintness and pulselessness were noticed at the termination of
each. They soon passed away. The result of the two opera-
tions has been a great solidity of tle tumour, with considerable
swelling of the parts adjacent, which swelling is now (November
26) subsiding. No superficial redness or sloughing of the skin
occurred. No air appeared in the tumour, as noticed often in
Europe where needles attached to both poles are usually intro-
duced (viz. Cinzselli Annali di Medicina, November, 1870,
Frazer’s Edin. Med. and Surg. Fournal, August 1867). The
patient has suffered not at all from the operations. It is im-
possible as yet to say what influence they will have towards his
radical cure, but he is now more comfortable than before the
first operation.

a

’

+

4

q

a

4a

_ ¢ross-hairs are placed in front ofits eye-piece.
_ turned until the image of these cross-hairs is brought to coincide

_ of the flames against the wind was noted, and explain

NATURE

4
~

215

December 10.—Professor’ E. C. Pickering exhibited a
new form of theodolite magnetometer, which may be con-
structed at small expense from a common surveyor’s transit.
A mirror and magnet like that of a Thomson’s galvanometer is
attached ‘o the cap of the telescope, and a right-angled prism and
The telescope is

with those already in the eye-piece, when the axis of collima-
tion will be exactly at right angles to the magnetic meridian.
The remainder of the evening was devoted to a discussion of
the great fire of November 9, by which sixty acres of the most
valuable part of the city of Boston were destroyed. Numerous
specimens of the effects of the fire were exhibited, among others
a fused mass originally leather, but converted by the heat into a
substance resembling resin, A strong wind with a velocity of
twenty to twenty-five miles per hour was induced by the ascent
of the heated air, although the velocity before the fire was but
seven miles. This wind converted a narrow street into a sort

4 of gigantic blow-pipe, and the flames were thus carried across

Franklin Street, where it is over 100 ft. in width. The es

y the
radiant heat, which was so great that some of the engines were
unable to get near enough to play on the fire. Buildings to
windward might thus be set on fire, while those to leeward
would be comparatively protected by the smoke. The carrying
power of the air was remarkably great. Flakes of granite were
carried across the water to South Boston, and fell in quantities
on the side-walks and roofs, and papers were borne in some
cases to a distance of over twenty miles. The light was so
strong that it was easy to read by it in the higher parts of
Belmont, over fifty miles distant ; and the fire was seen at sea to

_ adistance of ninety miles.

Rica.

Society of Naturalists, March 6 (18 N.s.)—M. Frederking
communicated a third section of his history of chemistry, in
which he referred to the development of the electro-chemical
hypothesis, and the discovery of isomorphism, and to that of the
vegetable alkaloids.

April 3 (15 N.s.)—M. L. Taube presented a report on a work
by M. Fischer, on the disease of bees, colled ‘foul brood,”
which is ascribed by the author to the dying and subsequent
putrescence of a portion of the larve. M. Fischer believes that
the fluid given by the worker-bees to the larve is secreted by
the salivary glands, and that the mortality amongst the larvz is

- caused by a deficiency of this secretion brought on by a scarcity

of food. He considers that this is proved by the fact that
** foul-broodedness” in a hive is caused by the removal of its
own workers and the substitution of healthy workers from
another hive. :

April 10 (22 N.s.)—M. Schroeder referred to the comet which
was expected by some people to come in contact with the earth
in August.—Colonel von Gotschel read a paper on diseases of
cage-birds, in which he especially recommended prophylactic
measures.

April 24 (May 6 N.s.)—M. C. Berg criticised Sir William
Thomson’s opinion as to the origin of the first organisms from
germs conyeyed by meteorites.—M. Teich communicated a
contribution to the Natural History of Cucullia precana.

May 1 (13 N.S.)--A discussion took place on the means to
be adopted for the protectioneof small birds, in which MM,
Gégginger, Nauck, Westermann, and Burchardt, took part.

May 15 (27 N.s.)—M. Schroeder presented a table of the
rainfall at various stations during the summer of 1871, and
called attention to the very small amount recorded at Riga.

May 22 (June 3 N.s.)—Dr. Nauck communicated some
observations on the torpidity of JZyoxus nitela.—M. Wester-
mann exhibited a pane of glass in which a circular hole of two
inches diameter had been made by a hailstone on May to.
(22 N.s.) Dr. Nauck exhibited plaster-casts of hailstones from
the same fall, and proposed a theory of the formation of hail
by the production of a whirlwind caused by warm, moist winds
meeting cold winds under angles of 90°, when the aqueous
vapour is condensed, causing an inflow of air from above and
below, and consequently an increase of precipitation, during
which the water, striving to retain its fluid form, may easily

fall several degrees below its freezing point; and its congelation

into masses of ice may be accounted for by the fall into it of
small grains.—M. J. H. Kawall gave an account of the publi-
tations of the Society of Naturalists of Charkow, including the

- titles of all the papers.

July 20 (August 1 N.s.)—The society assembled in the court
of the Polytechnicum to hear an address in honour of Dr,G,
Schweinfurth on his return from his African travels,

August 21 (September 2 N.s.)—Dr. Schweinfurth described
several types of the inhabitants of Central Africa, belonging to
the Ujam-Ujam, Bongo, Djur, Dinka, Mittu, and Akka
branches of the Negro, noticing especially their modes of
adorning themselves, and a few peculiar habits.—Baron F.
Hoejningen-Huene communicated a continuation of his Pheno-
logical observations, containing notes on weather and other
oe phenomena during the months of July and August,
1871.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, July 2.—‘‘On a new
Genus of Extinct Turtles.” Prof.Leidy stated that he had deter-
mined that the fossil-turtle he had named Bena undata be-
longed to a different genus. Besides other well-marked distinc-
tive characters, like the genus P/atemys, it possessed an additional
pair of plates to the usual number found in the sternum of the
emydoids. These plates are iritercalated between the hyo- and
hypo-sternals. In Platemys Bullockis they are quadrate. Inthe
new genus they are triangular, and the sutures defining them cross
the plastron like a prostrated letter X, from which character
it was proposed to name the genus Christernon.

July 9.—Prof. Leidy directed attention to a bottle containing
numerous specimens of a minute crustacean from Salt Lake,
Utah, caught on the 22nd of June by Mr. C. Carrington, a mem-
ber of Prof. Hayden’s exploring party now in the field. They
were received from Prof. Hayden with the remark ‘‘ that Salt
Lake has been supposed, like the Dead Sea, to be devoid of life,
but its saltest water contains the most of these little creatures.”
The crustacean is the Artemia salina, which has long been
known in Europe, and has been previously found in other locali-
ties of this country. The animal has always been viewed with
especial interest, in its order, from the fact that it lives and
thrives best in a concentrated solution of salt, which would destroy
most marine anitnals. It has not, I believe, been noticed in the
ocean, but is found in salt Jaf&es, and salt vats, in which, by eva-
poration, the brine has become more concentrated than sea water.
Artemia is furnished with eleven pairs of limbs, which serve
both for progression and respiration. The limbs are four-jointed,
and the joints have leaf-like expansions fringed with long feather-
like bristles. The narrow abdomen, or tail-like prolongation of
the body is six-jointed, and traversed by the intestine. The last
joint ends in a pair of processes, furnished each with a bunch of
bristles like those of the limbs. The head exhibits a median,
quadrate, black eye-spot, and in addition is provided with a pair
of pedunculate, globular compound eyes. A short narrow pair
of inarticulate antennz project in advance of the eyes. The
head of the male is furnished with a pair of singular organs
for seizing the female. These claspers are large double-jointed
hooks. In the female they are replaced by a pair of compara-
tively small horn-like processes. The first abdominal segment
bears the ovarian sac in the female, and two cylindroid appen- ~
dages in the male. The female of the Salt Lake Artemia ranges
from four to seven lines in length ; the male from three to four
lines in length. The colour is translucent-white and ochreous-
yellow, with three black eye-spots, anda longitudinal line varying in
hue with the contents of the intestine. The ovarian sac appears
orange-coloured from the eggs within. The antennz end in three
or four minute setee, and are considerably longer in the male
than the female. The first joint of the claspers is provided on
its inner side just below the middle with a spheroidal knob. The
last joint forms a rectangular hook, the angle having an elbow-
like prominence. When the clasper is thrown forward, the outer
border of the hook is convex ; the anterior border straight,
slightly or deeply concave, and the inner or posterior border is
sigmoid. The antennz are longer than in the female, and longer
than the first joint of the claspers ; and in the female are longer
than their homologues. The ovarian sac is inverted flask-shaped,
and has a pair oi lateral conical or mamillary, finely tuberculated
processes. The caudal setz are longer than in the male, and are
eight to each process. This description is taken from alcoholic
specimens. They exhibit considerable variation in size, and to
some extent in detail. Prof, Verrill has described what he views
as two species of Artemia distinct from the well-known 1. sa/inc.
One he names 4. gracilis, from near Newhaven, Conn. ; the
othe: A. Monico, from Lake Mono, Cal. That from Salt Lake
differs from either of them as much as they do from 4, salina,
and with the same propriety may be regarded as a distinct species.

BiG NATURE

I am disposed to view them all as varieties merely of A. salina.
Prof. Leidy stated that from time to time he had observed speci-
mens of teeth from various cretaceous formations which were
identical in character with those of Zamna elegans and L. cuspidata
of tertiary deposits, except that they were devoid of the lateral
denticles. He had now in his possession well-preserved speci-
mens of such teeth, unabraded, but exhibiting no trace of the
existence of lateral denticles. There were teeth of the Z. elegans
variety found with the skeleton of Hadrosaurus Foulkii in New
Jersey, and others from the cretaceous of Mississippi and Kansas.
There were also teeth of the Z. cuspidata variety from the creta-
ceous of Kansas, and one in a block of chalk from Sussex, Eng-
land. The absence of the lateral denticles in all the cretaceous
specimens he thought could hardly be accidental, and suspected
that these teeth represented the oxyrrhina ancestors, of the terti-
ary Lamna elegans and L. cuspidata, which lived during the cre-
taceous era,

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Dec. 30, 1872.—M. Faye, president,
in the chair. The president read the second portion of hi
paper on the solar spots. He argued in favour of their cyclonic
nature, and said that the pores were simply minute spots. He
pointed out that Wilson, in 1783, had suggested that the spots
were ‘‘eddies and whirlpools,” and that Sir J. Herschel had made
use of a similar phrase, but that the knowledge only recently ob-
tained was required before these suggestions could be accepted.—
M. Jamin read a note on concealed magnetism (magnétisme dis-
simulé). The author found that when a current used to magne-
tise a horse-shoe bar of iron attained a certain power, the bar
appeared to return to its natural state; but that, with either
stronger or weaker currents, magnetism was produced. This
neutral state he calls ‘* concealed magnetism,” and supposes it
to be due to a particular distribution of the magnetic force. —A
note from Mr. A. Cayley on the condition under which a family
of surfaces forms part of an orthogonal system, was next read.—
M. Janssen read the second part of his report on the eclipse of
December 31. It was referred to the astronomical section. —M.
F. P. Le Roux read a paper on peri-polar induction. The
author applies the above name to a new form of electro-mag-
netic phenomena, in which the different points of the body acted
on remain at the same distance from the active pole.—A paper
on the dimensions of the pores of membranes by M. Guerout
was presented by M. Becquerel.—M. Delafont sent a memoir on
the first elements of the theory of conjugate points and right
poles, which was submitted to the examination of M. Serret.—
MM. Le Clére and Du Plantys sent a note on Phyl/oxera which
were sent to thatcommission; anda second memoir on fermenta-
tion from M. Sacc was referred to a special commission. — Gene-
ral Doutrelaine sent a note relating to the questions of priority
concerning the prolongation of the French meridian ; M. Bail-
laud the elements and ephemerides of 127; and Mr. N. Lockyer
an abstract of his late paper on spectrum analysis, communicated
to the Royal Society.—MM. Troost and Hautefeuille sent a note
on certain reactions of the chlorides of boron and silicon. These
bodies decompose porcelain at a high temperature.—M., P.
Pichard read a note on the estimation of manganese in iron ores,
cast-iron, and steel, by a calorimetric process; and M. A.
Houzeau, one on the volumetric estimation of minute quantities
of antimony and arsenic.—M. Sorin read a note on the presence
of methylamine in methylic nitrate and in methylic alcohol.—M.
L. Colin’s note on the passage of the blood pigment through the
vascular sides in melanemia palustris was presented by M. Larrey,
which was followed by a note on the distribution of the tympanic
cord, by M. J. L. Prevost—M. A. Béchamp read a note on the
alcoholic and acetic fermentation of the liver, and on the physi-
ological alcohol of human urine. The author has obtained from
two litres of urine from a man of 50, enough alcohol to estimate.
—mM. A. Bernard presents a memoir on the ‘‘ degeneration” of
nerves after section, by M. L. Ranvier.—M. L. Posaoz sent a
note on the estimation of sugar by cupric solutions. He stated
that these liquids may be preserved from their usual faults by
the passage of a stream of carbonic anhydride, or by the
addition of alkaline bicarbonates.—M. J. Chautard sent a note
on the absorption spectrum of delorophyll; and M. Sicc a note
entitled, ‘‘ Studies on Marmots,” relating principally to the

composition of the urine of these animals.—M. Decharme sent a

paper on the ascending motion of liquids in very narrow vessels
(bands of porous paper) compared with their ascent in capillary
tubes.—M. Boileau sent a note on the preservation of potable
water. The author kept eighty bottles of water fresh and free

(Fan. 16, 1873

from bad odour “during the siege of Paris, by leaving them
simply covered with caps of paper.—M. Belgrand made some
observations on this note-—M. Dausse sent a note on the best
position for flood gauges in rivers, 4

DIARY

THURSDAY, January 16.

Rovat Society, at 8.30.—Note on an Erroneous Extension of Jacobi’s
Theorem: J. Todhunter.—On a New Formula for a Microscopic Object-
Glass: F. H. Wenham.—Additional Note to the Paper On a Su
Alteration in the Amount of Astronomical Aberration of Light ced.
by the Passage of the Light through a considerable Thickness of Refract-
ing Medium: Sir G. B. Airy. ol

Rovat InsTituTION, at 3.—On Oxidation: Dr. Debus.

ZOOLOGICAL SocIETY, at 4- ; *

SocieTy OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Election of Fellows.—Opening of Ex-
hibition of Bronze Implements and Weapons.

Lies Socigty, at 8.—On the Recent Synonyms of Brazilian Ferns:

er.

CHemIcAL Society, at 8.—On Ethylamyl: Mr. Grimshaw. —On the Hep-
tanes from Petroleum: C. Schorlemmer.—On the Vanadates of Thallium :
T. Carnelley.—On the Formation of Sulphide of Sodium by the Action of
Sulphuretted Hydrogen upon Sodium Chloride: C. T. Kinggeth,

Nomismatic Socigry, at 7.

Royat Society Cus, at 6.

FRIDAY, JANUARY 17.

Roya. InstituTIon, at 8.—On the Old and New Laboratories at the Royal
Instituuion: Dr. W. Spottiswoode.

GresHam Lectures, at 7.—On Contagion and Infection: Dr. E. S,
Thompson. F

MepicaL anp MicroscoricaL Society, at 8.—President’s Introductory
Address: Jabez Hogg.

SATURDAY, January 18.

Roya InsTITUTION, at 3—On Comparative Politics: Dr. E. A. Freeman.
GresHAM LECTURES, at 7-—On Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Dr. E. S.

Thompson. *
MONDAY, January 20.
Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 4 —On Air, Earth, Fire, and Water: Prof. Arm-
strong.
Society oF BriTIsH ARCHITECTS, at 8.
MEDICAL Society, at 8.
ASIATIC SOCIETY, at 8.
Vicroria INSTITUTE, at 8.

TUESDAY, January 21.

Socrery oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.

STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 7.45.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOciETY, at 8.—Annual General Meeting.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.

WEDNESDAY, Janvary 22,

Society or ArTs, at 8 ae

Geotocicat Society at 8.—On the Glaciation of Ireland: J. F. Campbell.—
Otservations on the more remarkable Boulders of the North-West of
England and the Welsh Borders: D. Mackintosh.--On the Origin of
Clay-ironstone: J. Lucas.

Royat Society oF LiveRaTURE, at 8.30.

ARCHAOLOGICAL A-SOCIATION, at 8.

Lonpon InsTiTUTION, at 7-—Conversazione. The Song of Roland: Victor

Pleiginer.
THURSDAY, January 23.
Royat Socrety, at 8.30.
Roya Society Crus, at 6.
Roya InstiruTion at 8.—On Oxidation; Dr. Debus.
Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Implements of the Bronze Period :
John Evans.

CONTENTS Pacs
Tue INTERNATIONAL METRIC Commission.—H. W. CHISHOLM . 197
MINERAL PHOSPHATES . 5 4 + + « ¢ «© 5 « 0) 0) ennen
Licnt SCIENCE. .°. 2 ss 0 © © © =) e © 6 9) (Reese
Our Book SHELF. . . - + © © 8s 0 © «© © © © «© @ 66s co

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :—
Aurora Spectrum.—J R. Capron. .

oe 0 0 8 Jee Sn eee
Polarisation of the Zodiacal Light and the Aurora.—A.C. RANYARD zor
he Diathermacy of Flame.—W. M. Wixtiams, F.C.S. . . . . 201
Pollen-eaters.—A. W. BENNETT, F.L.S. . . . « ¢ « «© «© « 202
Welwitschia.—Prof. W. R. McNaB_. . « + « «© + 6 « «© « 202
Gauges for Ocean Rainfall.—W. J. Brack. . ». » © + « « . 202
Star shower in 1838.—T. W. WEBB . - « «+ 6 « 2 » « + 203
Salmonidz of Great Britain.—A. GunTHER, F.R.S, . . . . . 203
M. Figuier and the American Indians.—C. C. Assort, M.D... . 203
Tue ZopiacaL LicuTt.—Maxwett Hai (With Diagram). . . . 203
Tue Lats Pror. MacQuoRN RANKINE.—JOHN MayeR . . . . . 204
Tue Birtu or Cuemistry, By G. F, Ropwe., F.C.S. (With
Lilustrations.) ae Ne OO ROE
Tue Arctic EXPEDITION .« 2 + + + 6 « + 2 8 6 1s) aeeoe
NODES '. Pe! @ ito Mb ats, ey Oe eM
FuRTHER DETAILS OF TiE RECENT METEORIC SHoweR.—Prof, A. S,
Herschel, F.R.Ad. 2. se Be 0 «ese. 0 et Sl ee
Tue NATIONAL HERBARIA «4 «+ + 6 8 + o 2 0s (0 » oR
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS 7 Jere isle a ss 6 0 6 js, 213
SocigTiES AND ACADEMIES » + «+ 2 + + ss ee ee es
DIARY. . <<: GHSwENRURE Sore 5 co

NATURE

217

THURSDAY, JANUARY 23, 1873

THE NAVY AND SCIENCE

T would be difficult to estimate the many excellent
effects that are likely to result from the establish-
ment of the Royal Naval College, which, as has been at
last authoritatively intimated, is to be opened on Febru-
ary I, in those noble halls at Greenwich that for so

long have been associated in another way with the

:

err

British Navy. Her Majesty’s Government deserve the
highest praise for the wisdom—provokingly tardy though
it has been—displayed in the thorough and handsome

_ provision they have made for the scientific education of

our naval officers. Much that is sarcastic, no doubt,
might be said on this tardiness of a Government which
seldom moves until it is driven ; but as we fear this would
do little good, we shall only express a hope that in future
when they are compelled to take action in any matter,
especially if it be scientific, they will do so as decidedly
and sweepingly as they have done in the present instance.

It is usually acknowledged that the very existence of
Britain as a first-rate Power depends upon the efficiency
of her navy, and yet it is a lamentable fact that hitherto
no nation in the world of any consequence has made less
systematic provision for the training of the members of
her nayy than has our own. Our naval officers and sea-
men have been left pretty much to haphazard to gain a
knowledge of their profession, and, indeed, until re-
cently it would have been generally thought derogatory to
what is vaguely known as “ British pluck,” had it been
hinted that it would b2 not less plucky were it well in-
formed ; that it would have a better chance to beat all
the forces in the universe, did it know the scientific prin-
ciples on which a few of these forces rested. Happily
this is no longer the case; the strong light of science,
“the irresistible logic of facts,” has shown this old
knowledge to be but ignorance ; and let us rejoice that
this great light has at lastdawned upon the magnates of
our navy, and dispersed the great darkness in which they
have forsolong sat. The college to be opened on Feb. 1,
if we may judge from the prospectus, will furnish as
thorough a scientific education in the branches to be
taught as can be obtained at any similar institution in
any country in the world.

The immense advantages that are likely to accrue to
the British Navy as such, from the excellent training
which its officers must undergo at the new Naval College,
are evident to all, and have been already pointed out in
the columns of the general press. For one thing it will
reduce the incompetents and idlerstoa minimum. We
are inclined to think that the gains to Science from the
establishment of such an institution will be of not less
importance than the increase in the efficiency of the navy
which must be its special result. Our naval officers form
a large, important, and influential body, having opportu-
nities for scientific research all over the world which
all students of nature must envy. Even under the
old 7éeime many of the most important additions to
scientific knowledge in various departments were made
by naval officers, some of whom have won for themselves
ess names as scientific explorers, What then

No, 169—VOL, VII.

must be the conquests of Science in the future when
every naval officer who is capable of profiting by the
instruction to be furnished at Greenwich will go forth
trained and equipped to wrest from Nature some of the
many secrets which she still holds in her grasp ? What an
immense advantage must it be to any scientific or exploring
expedition when the officers that command the ship are
as capable of unravelling the mysterizs of Nature as they
are of boxing the compass. But it would be impossible to
enumerate all the advantages that we may reasonably ex-
pect to accrue to Science from the step taken by the Lords
of the Admiralty. The scheme of education as it stands
on paper is admirable, and most comprehensive as to sub-
ject and as to the classes for whose advantage it has been
drawn out ; with Rear-Admiral Kay as President of the
College, and Dr. Hirst as Director of Studies, we have
every reason to hope that the Royal Naval College will
“become, not only an educational establishment affording
the means of the highest training in theoretical subjects
to naval officers of all classes, but also a nucleus of
mathematical and mechanical science specially devoted
to those branches of scientific investigation which have
most interest for the navy.”

We can only hope that the excellent example set by
the Lords of the Admiralty will in a very short time be
followed by the authorities of the War Office. Does not
the profession of a military officer at the present dayrequire
as thorough a training to be able to fill it efficiently, as does
that of a naval officer? Are not the very highest scien-
tific principles being brought to bear on the elaboration
of military weapons, and military tactics? and would not
military officers, like naval officers, perform the duties of
their profession more efficiently if they had a systematic
training in the sciences from which modern tactics
draw their life? But sad to say, the military authorities
have recently shown a tendency to take the very opposite
course to that which our more advanced naval authorities
have so commendably followed. We hope the example
of the latter will ere long shame the former into mending
their ways.

The following are some of the principal points in the
minute issued by the Lords of the Admiralty :—

“The College, subject to the subjoined Regulations,
will be open to officers of the following ranks :—1. Cap-
tains and Commanders. 2. Lieutenants. 3. Navigating
Officers. 4. Naval Instructors. 5. Acting Lieutenants
and Acting Sub-Lieutenants. 6. Officers, Royal Marine
Artillery ; ditto, Royal Marine Light Infantry. 7. Officers
of the Engineer Branch, viz.:—Chief Engineers, En-
gineers, Ist Class Assistant Engineers, Acting 2nd Class
Assistant Engineers. 8. A limited number of Dockyard
Apprentices will be annually selected, by competitive
examination, for admission to the College. A course of
instruction at the College will also be open to a limited
number of :—9. Private students of Naval Architecture
or Marine Engineering. 10. Officers of the Mercantile
Marine.

“Tt is not intended to provide at Greenwich for the
education of the Naval cadets. My Lords intend that the
Royal Naval College at Greenwich shall be so organised
as to provide for the education of naval officers of all
ranks above that of midshipman, in all branches of theo-
retical and scientific study bearing upon their profession ;
but my Lords will continue the instruction given in the
Lxcelient gunnery-ship as heretofore, and arrangements
for instruction in practical surveying will also be con-

N

218

i
tinued at Portsmouth. My Lords desire by the establish-

ment of the College, to give to the executive officers of
the navy generally every possible advantage in respect of
scientific education ; but no arrangements will be made at
all prejudicing the all-important practical training in the
active duties of their profession. The object of securing,
in the interest of the naval service, the highest possible
scientific instruction is, in the opinion of my Lords, mo:t
effectually to be attained by bringing together in one
establishment all the necessary means for the higher edu-
cation of naval officers and of others connected with the
navy... . Complete courses of study suitable for the
different classes of students admitted will be organised,
and will be carried out by professors, lecturers, and in-
structors. Officers and others admitted as students will
have the advantage of these courses of study, whether
they reside or not. But officers and others who may not
become students will, under certain regulations, have free
access to separate courses of lectures, the benefit of which
it is desired to extend as far as possible.”

The following are the proposed courses of study :—

“ 1, Pure Mathematics, including co-ordinate and higher
Pure Geometry, Differential Calculus, Finite Ditferences,
and the Calculus of Variations, 2. Applied Mathematics,
viz., Pneumatics, Mechanics, Optics, and the Theories of
Sound, Light, Heat, Electricity, and Magnetism. 3. Ap-
plied Mechanics, including the Theory of Structures, the
principles of Mechanism, and the Theory of Machines.
4. Nautical Astronomy, Surveying, Hydrography, with
Maritime Geography, Meteorology, and Chart Drawing.
5. Experimental Sciences :—a. Physics, viz., Sound, Heat,
Light, Electricity, and Magnetism ; 6. Chemistry ; c. Me-
tallurgy. 6. Marine Engineering, in all its branches.
7. Naval Architecture, in all its branches. §8. Forti-
fication, Military Drawing, and Naval Artillery. 9. In-
ternational and Maritime Law; Law of Evidence and
Naval Courts Martial. 10. Naval History and Tactics,
including Naval Signals and Steam Evolutions, 11. Mo-
dern Languages. 12. Drawing. 13. Hygiene—Naval
and Climatic. A certain latitude in selecting such courses
of study as they may prefer will be allowed to officers
voluntarily attending the College. Officers and others
required to attend by the Regulations will follow such
courses of study as may from time to time be prescribed.

“The general organisation of the College will be as
follows :—A flag officer will be president; he will be
assisted by a captain in the Royal Navy in matters
affecting discipline, and in the internal arrangements of
the College unconnected with study. A director of stu-
dies will, under the president, organise and superintend
the whole system of instruction, and the various courses of
study. There will further be—A professor of mathematics,
a professor of physical science, a professor of chemistry, a
professor of applied mechanics, a professor of fortification.
Such instructors in mathematics and the other branches
specified as may be necessary to assist the professors will
be added to the staff. Lecturers will be appointed to deliver
courses of lectures in naval architecture, metallurgy, civil
and hydraulic engineering, maritime law, naval history
and tactics, and hygiene. A naval officer will conduct in-
struction in nautical astronomy and surveying, and there
will be two instructors in steam. Such provision will be
made for instruction in French and German and in draw-
ing, as the number of students desirous of following
courses in these branches may render necessary. . . .

“Arrangements have been made for the admission of
naval engineer officers to the College, which will prevent
time spent at the College from entailing any pecuniary
loss upon them. The School of Naval Architecture at
South Kensington will be absorbed in the Royal Naval
Coliege, Greenwich. The regulations for the admission
of engineer students and of dockyard apprentices have
been so framed as to provide as nearly as possible the
same aggregate time for their instruction as that which is

NATURE

[Zan. 23, 1873

now afforded at South Kensington. Further regulations
will be issued by their lordships in regard to the admission
of private students to the course of study at the College
on similar conditions to those now existing at South
Kensington. My Lords have further determined to admit
a limited number of officers of the Mercantile Marine as
students of the College, enjoying the full advantages of
the whole course of instruction and tuition by the educa-
tional staff, while officers of the Mercantile Marine gene-
rally will, on application, be allowed to attend courses of
lectures.

“The paramount object which my Lords have pursued
in the organisation of the College has been to provide the
most efficient means for the higher education of naval
officers adequate to the constantly increasing require-
ments of the service ; but my Lords also anticipate great
advantages from the results likely to accrue from the con-
nection which will be established through the College
between men distinguished in the various departments of
mathematical, physical, and chemical science, and those
practical problems which so vitally interest the navigator,
the naval architect, and the naval engineer. My Lords
expect the College to become, not only an educational
establishment affording the means of the highest training
in theoretical subjects to naval officers of all classes, but
also a nucleus of mathematical and mechanical science
specially devoted to those branches of scientific investi-
gation which have most interest for the navy.”

ELECTROSTATICS AND MAGNETISM
Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism.
By Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
Fellow of St. Peter’s College, Cambridge, and Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.
(London : Macmillan and Co., 1872.)

pee obtain any adequate idea of the present state of

electro-magnetic science we must study these papers
of Sir W. Thomson’s. It is true that a great deal of
admirable work has been done, chiefly by the Germans,
both in analytical calculation and in experimental re-
searches, by methods which are independent of, or at
least different from, those developed in these papers, and
it is the glory of true science that all legitimate methods
must lead tothe same final results. But if we are to count.
the gain to science by the number and value of the ideas
developed in the course of the inquiry, which preserve
the results of former thought in a form capable of being
employed in future investigation, we must place Sir W.
Thomson’s contributions to electro-magnetic science on
the very highest level.

One of the most valuable of these truly scientific, or
Sscience-forming ideas, is that which forms the subject of
the first paper in this collection. Two scientific pro-
blems, each of the highest order of difficulty, had hitherto
been considered from quite different points of view.
Cavendish and Poisson had investigated the distribution
of electricity on conductors on the hypothesis that the
particles of electricity exert on each other forces which
vary inversely as the square of the distance between them.
On the other hand Fourier had investigated the laws of
the steady conduction of heat on the hypothesis that
the flow of heat from the hotter parts of a body
to contiguous parts which are colder is proportional to
the rate at which the temperature varies from point to
point of the body. The physical ideas involved in these
two problems are quite different. In the one we have an

Bt at ee 4

_ The methods of investigation were also different. In the

_ one the force on a given particle of electricity has to be
determined as the resultant of the attraction of all the

- other particles, In the other we have to solve a certain
partial differential equation which expresses a relation
between the rates of variation of temperature in passing
along lines drawn in three different directions through a
point. Thomson, in this paper, points out that these two
problems, so different, both in their elementary ideas and
their analytical methods, are mathematically identical,
and that, by a proper substitution of electrical for ther-
mal terms in the original statement, any of Fourier’s
‘wonderful methods of solution may be applied to elect-
rical problems. The electrician has only to substitute
an electrified surface for the surface through which heat is
supplied, and to translate temperature into electric poten-
tial, and he may at once take possession of all Fourier’s
solutions of the problem of the uniform flow of heat.

To render the results obtained in the prosecution of one

_ branch of inquiry available to the students of another is
an important service done to science, but it is still more
important to introduce into a science a new set of ideas,
belonging, as in this case, to what was, till then, con-
sidered an entirely unconnected science. This paper of
Thomson’s, published in February 1842, when he was a
very young freshman at Cambridge, first introduced into
mathematical science that idea of electrical action car-
ried om by means of a continuous medium which, though
it had been announced by Faraday, and used by him as
the guiding idea of his researches, had never been appre-
ciated by other men of science, and was supposed by
mathematicians to be inconsistent with the laws of elec-
trical action, as established by Coulomb, and built on by
Poisson. It was Thomson who pointed out that the ideas
employed by Faraday under the names of Induction,
Lines of Force, &c., and implying an action transmitted
from one part of a medium to another, were not only
consistent with the results obtained by the mathe-
maticians, but might be employed in a mathematical
form so as to lead to new results. One of these new re-
sults, which was, we have reason to believe, obtained by
this method, though demonstrated by Thomson by a very
elegant adaptation of Newton’s method in the theory of
attraction, is the “ Method of Electrical Images,” leading
to the “ Method of Electrical Inversion.”

_ Poisson had already, by means of Laplace’s powerful
method of spherical harmonies, determined, in the form
of an infinite series, the distribution of electricity on a
sphere acted on by an electrified system. No one, how-
ever, seems to have observed that when the external
electrified system is reduced to a point, the resultant
external action is equivalent to that of this point, together
with an imaginary electrified point within the sphere,
which Thomson calls the e/ectyic image of the external
point.

Now if in an infinite conducting solid heat is flowing out-
wards uniformly from a very small spherical source, and
part of this heat is absorbed at another small spherical
surface, which we may call a sik, while the rest flows

_ out in all directions through the infinite solid, it is easy,
by Fourier’s methods, to calculate the stationary tempe-
4

rature at any point in the solid, and to draw the iso-

thermal surfaces. One of these surfaces is a sphere, and
if, in the electrical problem, this sphere becomes a conduct-
ing surface in connection with the earth, and the external
source of heat is transformed into an electrified point,
the sink will become the zmage of that point, and the
temperature and flow of heat at any point outside the
sphere will become the electric potential and resultant
force. 5

Thus Thomson obtained the rigorous solution of elec-
trical problems relating to spheres by the introduction
of an imaginary electrified system within the sphere.
But this imaginary system itself next became the
subject of examination, as the result of the transfor-
mation of the external electrified system by reciprocal
vadwi vectores. By this method, called that of electrical
inversion, the solution of many new problems was ob-
tained by the transformation of problems already solved.
A beautiful example of this method is suggested by
Thomson in a letter to M. Liouville, dated October 8,
1845, and published in Liouville’s Fournal, for 1845, but
which does not seem to have been taken up by any mathe-
matician, till Thomson himself, in a hitherto unpublished
paper (No, xv.of the book before us), wrote out the
investigation complete. This, the most remarkable
problem of electrostatics hitherto solved, relates to the
distribution of electricity on a segment of spherical sur-
face, or a dow/, as Thomson calls it, under the influence
of any electrical forces. The solution includes a very
important case of a flat circular dish, and of an infinite
flat screen with{a circular hole cut out of it.

If, however, the mathematicians were slow in making
use of the physical method of electric inversion, they
were more ready to appropriate the geometrical idea of
inversion by reciprocal radii vectores, which is now well
known to all geometers, having been, we suppose, dis-
covered and re-discovered repeatedly, though, unless we
are mistaken, most of these discoveries are later than
1845, the date of Thomson’s paper.

But to return to physical science, we have in No. vii.
a paper of even earlier date (1843), in which Thomson
shows how the force acting on an electrified body can be
exactly accounted for by the diminution of the atmospheric
pressure on its-electrified surface, this diminution being
everywhere proportional to the square of the electrifi-
cation per unit of area. Now this diminution of pressure
is only another name for that ¢ezsion along the lines of
electric force, by means of which, in Faraday’s opinion,
the mutual action between electrified bodies takes place.
This short paper, therefore, may be regarded as the germ
of that. course of speculation by which Maxwell has
gradually developed the mathematical significance of
Faraday’s idea of the physical action of the lines of force.

We have dwelt, perhaps at too great length, on these
youthful contributions to science, in order to show how
early in his career, Thomson laid a solid foundation for
his future labours, both in the development of mathe-
matical theories and in the prosecution of experimental
research. Mathematicians however will do well to take
note of the theorem in No. xiii., the applications of which
to various branches of science will furnish them, if they
be diligent, both occupation and renown for some time
to come,

220

NATURE

We must now turn to the next part of this volume,
in which the mathematical electrician, now established as
a Professor at Glasgow, turns his attention to the
practical and experimental work of his science. In such
work the mathematician, if he succeeds at all, proves
himself no mere mathematician, but a thoroughly furnished
man of science. And first we have an account of that
research into atmospheric electricity which created a de-
mand for electrometers ; then a series of electrometers of
gradually improving species; and lastly, an admirable
report on electrometers and electrostatic measurements,
in which the results of many years’ experience are given
in a most instructive and scientific form. In this report
the different instruments are not merely described, but
classified, so that the student is furnished with the means
of devising a new instrument to suit his own wants. He
may also study, in the recorded history of electrometers,
the principles of natural selection, the conditions of the
permanence of species, the retention of rudimentary
organs in manufactured articles, and the tendency to
reversion to older types in the absence of scientific control.

A good deal of Sir W. Thomson’s practical electrical
work is not referred to in this volume. It isto be hoped
that he will yet find time to give some account of his many
admirable telegraphic contrivances in galvanometers,
suspended coils, and recording instruments, and to
complete this collection by his papers on electrolysis,
measurement of resistance, electric qualities of metals,
thermo-electricity, and electro-magnetism in general.

The second division of the book contains the a of
magnetism.

The first paper, communicated to the Royal Society in
1849 and 1850, is the best introduction to the theory of
magnetism that we know of. The discussion of particular
distributions of magnetisation is altogether original, and
prepares the way for the theory of electro-magnets which
follows. This paper on electro-magnets is interesting as
having been in manuscript for twenty-three years, during
which time a great deal has been done both at home and
abroad on the same subject, but without in any degree
trenching upon the ground occupied by Thomson in
1847. Though in these papers we find several formidable
equations bristling with old English capitals, the reader
will do well to observe that the most important results
are often obtained without the use of this mathematical
apparatus, and are always expressed in plain scientific
English.

As regards the most interesting of all subjects, the
history of the development of scientific ideas—we know
of few statements so full of meaning as the note at p. 419
relating to Ampéres’ theory of magnetism, as depending
on electric currents, flowing in circuits within the mole.
cules of the magnet ; he goes on to say :—.

“ From twenty to five-and-twenty years ago, when the
materials of the present compilation were worked out, I
had no belief in the reality of this theory ; but I did not
then know that motion is the very essence of what has
been hitherto called matter. At the 1847 meeting of the
British Association in Oxford, I learned from Joule the
dynamical theory of heat, and was forced to abandon at
once many, and gradually from year to year all other,
statical preconceptions regarding the ultimate causes of
apparently statical phenomena.”

rotation of the plane of polarised light discovered by
Faraday implies an actual rotatory motion of something,
and that this motion is part of the phenomenon of mag-
netism, he adds: —

“ The explanation of all phenomena of electro-magnetic

attraction or repulsion, and of ele¢tro-magnetic induction, —

is to be looked for simply in the inertia and pressure of
the matter of which the motions constitute heat. Whether
this matter is or is not electricity, whether it is a con-
tinuous fluid interpermeating the spaces between molecu-
lar nuclei, or is itself molecularly grouped ; or whether
all matter is continuous, and molecular heterogeneous-
ness consists in finite vortical or other relative motions of
contiguous parts of a body; it is impossible to decide,
and perhaps i in vain to speculate, in the present state of
science.”

The date of these remarks is 1856. In 1861 and 1862
appeared Maxwell’s “theory of molecular vortices applied
to magnetism, electricity, &c.” which may be considered
as a development of Thomson’s idea ina form which,
though rough and clumsy compared with the realities of
nature, may have served its turn as a provisional hypo-
thesis.

The concluding sections of the book before us are
devoted to illustrations of magnetic force derived from

the motion of a perfect fluid. They are not put forward

as explanations of magnetic force, for in fact the forces

are of the opposite kind to those of magnets, They —

belong more properly to that remarkable extension of the
science of hydrokinetics which was begun by Helm-
holtz and so ably followed up by Thomson himself.

The conception of a perfectly homogeneous, incom-
pressible frictionless fluid is as essential a part of pure
dynamics as that of a circle is of pure geometry. It is
true that the motions of ordinary fluids are very imperfect
illustrstions of those of the perfect fluid. But it is equally
true that most of the objects which we are pleased to call
circles are very imperfect representations of a true circle.

Neither a perfect fluid nor a perfect circle can be formed
from the materials which we deal with, for they are
assemblages of molecules, and therefore not homoge-
neous except when regarded roughly in large masses.
The perfect circle is truly continuous and the perfect
fluid is truly homogeneous.

It follows, however, from the investigations of Helm-
holtz and Thomson that if a motion of the kind called
rotational is once set up in the fluid, the portion of the
fluid to which this motion is communicated, retains for
ever, during all its wanderings through the fluid mass,
the character of the motion thus impressed on it.

This vortex then, as Helmholtz calls it, be it large or
small, possesses that character of permanence and indi-
viduality which we attribute to a material molecule, while
at the same time it is capable, while retaining its essential
characteristics unchanged both in nature and value, of
changing its form in an infinite variety of ways, and of
executing the vibrations which excite those rays of the
spectrum by which the species of the molecule may be
discovered. It would puzzle one of the old-fashioned
little round hard molecules to execute vibrations at all.
There was no music in those spheres.

But besides this application of hydrokinetics to this
new conception of the old atom, there is a vast field of

After a short, but sufficient, proof that the magnetic | high mathematical inquiry opened up by the papers of

| Xan. 23, 1873

NATURE

22!

Helmholtz and Thomson, It is to be hoped that the
latter will soon complete his papers on Vortex Motion
and give them to the world. But why does no one else
work in the same field? Has the multiplication of
“symbols put a stop to the development of ideas ?

OUR BOOK SHELF

Natural History Transactions of Northumberland and
Durham. Vol. 1V. Part II. (Williams and Norgate.)

Tuts volume of upwards of 250 pages confirms the repu-
tation already attained by the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field
Club, as being one of the most efficient provincial scientific
societies inthe kingdom. Nearly all the papers are of real
and permanent value, and it is to be hoped that ere long
some means will be found of bringing the work of this and
- similar societies before a larger public than is likely to be
_ reached by “ Transactions,” which are seldom seen by
any but the members or their friends. A large part of
_ the volume is devoted to the excellently compiled Me-
_teorological Reports for 1870 and 1871, by the Rev.
R. F. Wheeler, M.A. There is here much valuable ma-
terial, more interestingly and artistically put together
than such reports usually are. Mr. T. J. Bold con-
tributes a well-arranged catalogue of 151 species of He-
miptera-Heteroptera of Northumberland and Durham.
_ Mr. Bold contributes besides many valuable notes on

various other kinds of insects found in the district so well
worked hy the Tyneside society; Mr. Bold deserves the
highest credit for the quantity and quality of his work.
Messrs. A. Hancock and T. Atthey describe a con-
siderable portion of a Mandibular Ramus of Axnthra-
cosaurus Russelli (Huxley), found in the new ironstone
shale of Fenton ; they also add some notes on Loxomma
Almanni (Huxley), and on some additional remains of
Archichthys Suicidens (Hancock and Atthey), recently
found at Newsham. The same gentlemen contribute a
few remarks on Difterus and Ctenodus, and on their rela-
tionship to Ceratodus Forstert (Krefft). A well-arranged
list of the non-parasitic marine Cofefoda of the north-east
coast of England is Mr. G. S. Brady’s contribution to the
volume. The President’s address, consisting mainly of a
_ graphic account of the numerous club excursions during
_ 1871, is the last paper in the volume, one of the most valu-
able features of which is the numerous and carefully
executed lithographs which are appended. Nearly every
paper is illustrated. Altogether it is a thoroughly satis-
factory specimen of work.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

t The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Phosphorescence in Fishes

THE only reliable observations of active phosphorescence in

fishes during life, known to the writer, are the following, to

which, perhaps, may be added, the somewhat obscure observa-

tions on Hemiramphus lucens, communicated to G. Cuvier by
Reinwardt :—

x. The observations of the two Bennetts (“ Whaling Voyage”
and ‘Gatherings in Australia”) on a small luminous shark

(Squalus fulgens : Isistius brasiliensis, Q.G.). (Perhaps also ob-

served by Giglioli.) Aae'g

2. The observations of J. Bennett on the luminosity of Scofe-
dus stellatus (l.c.). ;

__ 3. The luminosity of the head of Astronesther niger observed

_ by Reinhardt (Videnskab. Meddel. f.d. naturhist. Forening :

of certain enigmatical organs in the skin of these fishes as their
“luminous phosphorescent organs.”

In Mr. Saville Kent’s very sensible remarks on the phospho-
rescence (erroneously ascribed to several other fishes), in vol.
vii. p. 47 of NarTurRE, I find a statement that startled me
alittle, viz., that ‘‘it has been proved beyond doubt that certain
fish, Cyclopterus lumpus, for instance, do possess highly luminous
properties” (during life, of course, or Mr. S. K. would not have
mentioned it at all in this connection). I think that the observa-
tions regarding Cyclopterus lumpus, upon which this statement
is based, are unknown to other zoologists than the writer, and
that they would be much obliged to Mr. S. K, for a reference
to his source of information.

Movements of the Earth’s Surface

Ir is, I believe, commonly supposed by geologists that the
movements of the surface of the earth are caused by the refri-
geration and contraction of the interior. But since the glacial
epoch the surface of the earth has become warmer ; conse-
quently since that time a heat wave must have been passing from
the surface towards the centre ; and consequently since that time
no refrigeration nor contraction of the interior can have taken
place. If, therefore, movements of the earth’s surface were due
to this cause only, no such movements should have taken place
since the glacial epoch. F, W. Hutron

Wellington, New Zealand, Nov. 10, 1872

Meteor Observed at Mauritius

ON Noy. 7 last, about 7 o'clock. p.m., I saw the most beau-
tiful meteor fall that I ever remember observing in my life,
My face was turned in the opposite direction, but an unusually
brilliant and sudden flash of light, above the brightness of the
moonshine, caused me to turn suddenly round in the direction
the effulgence came from, and I saw a very large meteor majes-
tically falling through the distance, seemingly of about eight or
ten yards. I am not much of an astronomer, but I think it
must have fallen, apparently, from some point in Aquarius,
What particularly struck me in its appearance was that it was
beautifully distinct, and round as the full moon, but seemingly
about the 4th of a diameter larger. I ought, perhaps, rather to
compare it to the moon at the end of her first quarter. [See
p. 231 of this Number.]

A quarter of its disc only was luminous and brilliant, while the
upper three-quarters emitted no luminosity, being ofa dull, dusky,
stone-brown colour. Here the circular outline was perfectly
distinct, while the brightness of the lower limb took away all
distinctness of outline there, making it appear slightly more
prominent, besides throwing beyond the outline of the meteor
itself a beautiful soft, steady, very bright radiance of a bluish
white tint, which illuminated momentarily the whole heavens,
Tt was observed by other people, and one person described to
me having seen a similar meteor fall about this time last year,
the disc appearing ‘“‘about the size of a saucer,” entirely
luminous, but then no moon was shining.

W. WRIGHT

Moon’s Surface

May not the white, telescopic appearance of the moon’s sure
face, resembling snow in many parts, be explained by the fact
that the extinct volcanoes of our satellite are covered with crystals
of salt ?

Any person who is accustomed to view the moon through a
telescope must, I think, have been struck with the dazzling snow-
white appearance of the mountains. May not an explanation of
this be deduced from the experiences gained by the last eruption
of Vesuvius ?

“ One of the most curious phenomena observed is the power of
burning lava to retain an enormous quantity of water and salt,
which it does not allow to escape till it beginstocool. . . ,
The formation of salt is shown generally over the whole stretch
of lava emitted in 1872. Soon after the surface cools it is covered
with a light crust of salt.”—See NATURE, vol. vii. p. 2.

Is it not, therefore, probable that the numerous lava beds of
the extinct volcanoes in our satellite may be coated with salt,
bleached to the-whiteness of snow ?

C, H. W. Mgruin

British Consulate, Athens, Nov, 23

222

NATURE

[Fan. 23, 1873

The Twinkling of the Stars

Every one who observes the stars at all must have noticed
that they twinkle much more on some nights than on others,
and this irrespective of any sensible difference in the clearness
of sky or air. On rare occasions the twinkling becomes a really
striking phenomenon, and at such times it is interesting to note
the series of changes which together make up a ‘‘ twinkle.”
For this purpose it is convenient to select two stars of suitable
size and distance apart, and to look steadfastly at one, while
the attention is directed to the other. The star which is not
looked at will become alternately visible and invisible, and the
manner in which these changes succeed each other will be found
rather remarkable.

On the evening of the rst of the present month, observing an
unusual degree of twinkling, I made the above experiment on
the stars e (Epsilon) and ¢ (Zeta) of Ursa Major. Looking
steadily at either one of these, I noticed that the other, which
was normally quite apparent, became every now and then totally
invisible, and that not for an instant, but for a period of some
duration, On one occasion I actually counted 30 in the interval
of disappearance, and this I found afterwards to correspond to
five seconds. More frequently, the star would be invisible for
one or two seconds, then suddenly flash into full brilliancy, and
after a variable interval vanish as suddenly again.

From this it would appear that a ‘‘ twinkle,” at least when
strongly marked, may be resolved into a sudden accession of
brightness following a more or less prolonged period of com-
parative obscuration.

Stars may easily be found which will show the phenomenon I
have described, even more strikingly than the two above named.
I once tried two of the bright stars in Orion, and in this case
the apparent sudden and absolute extinction, from time to time,
of a conspicuous object, produced an effect almost startling.

Clifton, Dec. 12 GrEoRGE F, BURDER

Logarithmic Tables

THE general procedure in determining numerical values in a
scientific investigation is as follows. From a few observations
we first compute the approximate values of certain constants,
using for this purpose a theory which is purely a mathematical
fiction ; and then, secondly, by comparison with extended series
of observations we form equations of conditions, and determine
the small corrections required by the approximate values of the
constants. In the first part of this work logarithms of seven or
more decimal places are necessary, but in the second part, which
is generally by far the most laborious, logarithms of four and five
decimals can be extensively used. Hence it is important that
we should have well-arranged and convenient tables of such
logarithms. An objection to nearly all the small tables that I
have seen is that they are encumbered with tables that are not
necessary to, or which do not properly accompany a table of
logarithms, such as anti-logarithms, tables of meridinal parts,
&c., and the result is that the logarithmic tables are made in-
convenient for use.

In the logarithmic tables recently edited by Prof. J. M. Peirce,
(Ginn Brothers, Boston, 1871), the arrangement of the logarithms
of numbers and of the Gaussian logarithms leaves nothing to be
desired, and the method of printing the agreement in larger type
is a good one. In his table of the trigonometric functions Prof.
Peirce has also introduced a good idea in giving the double ar-
gument, avz and ¢ime. This arrangement of the trigonometric
function is however different from the one generally given, and
hence for a computer accustomed to the common table is not
convenient. I think that a table of four figure logarithms, in
which the logarithms of numbers and the Gaussian logarithms
should be printed after the arrangement and with the excellent
type and paper adopted by Prof. Peirce, and with the trigono-
metric functions arranged in the common order with the double
argument a7c and ¢imz, and which should contain nothing else,
is a desideratum.

For tables of five decimal places I would follow the same order
of arrangement, but would print the argument to the trigono-
metric function in arc only, and would add a small table of
squares for use in least square work. AsaPH HALL

Washington, Noy. 9 :

** Will-o’-the-Wisps ”

Pror. GEIKIE, in his introductory lecture of the Murchison
Chair of Geology at Edinburgh, which appeared in NATURE, vol.

vii. p. 184, mentions that he never had the good fortune to en-
counter one of these legendary sprites. It may not be unin-
teresting to some of your readers to know that they are still
extant. On October 5 last I was walking to the ‘‘ Lizard” with
a friend, and near Ruan Major we saw a light travelling fast
over the country, which my friend took to be the light of a dog-
cart. As there was no road in the neighbourhood we watcha
and soon saw two others rising from the same place and bound-
ing over the country till they seemed to be about thirty feet from
the ground in a swampy field opposite us, when they disap-
peared. Another rose from the other side of the field, and after ~
reaching the middle of the field, it also disappeared. In about
ten minutes we saw five or six, but none afterwards.

I have asked several farmers of the district and many of my
friends if they had ever seen any, but have only met with one
farmer who said that when a boy he used to see them on Goon-
hilly Downs adjoining. The geological formation of this district
is serpentine. Howarp Fox

Falmouth, Jan 15

Spectroscopic Observations

IN corroboration of Capt. Herschel’s statements regarding the
mistaken idea of high dispersive power being essential to success
in observations of solar prominences, I beg to give a few results
obtained by a direct-vision spectroscope of dispersive power in-
sufficient to separate D.

An object glass of 2” diameter and 2’ 54” focal length (solar)
was attached to this spectroscope in Jan last ; and on the
first observation—using coloured glass that absorbed rays from
B to a point rather less refrangible than F—the latter line was”
found bright at four points on the sun’s periphery, the slit being-
placed radial as well as tangential to the limb.

Since then I have frequently observed prominences with and
without the coloured glass, and on one occasion obtained G@
bright. In this case the prominence, which occurred on the day
preceding the binocular eclipse of June last, was a small one, but
C, the line near D, and F, were all intensely vivid.

By the same spectroscope can be observed the brilliant lines
of y Argus, as also the principal lines of a large number of stars,
without using a cylindrical lens.

At the red end of the spectrum I have obtained a broad belt
of atmospheric absorption lines still less refrangible than the
solar line that lies beyond the double atmospheric band on the
red side of A. f ‘

I do not quite agree with Captain Herschel in attributing
nothing to an Indian atmosphere, for the air here is doubtless
more homogeneous than in the variable climes of Europe, but
his protest against the prevalent notion of instruments of small
dispersion being worthless for solar observations cannot be too
widely circulated.

Many valuable data have probably been lost to science by ob-
servers being unaware of the power of the instruments at their
disposal to work out the problems of nature.

Mangalore, Nov. 26 E. W. PRINGLE

GEORGE CATLIN

R. GEORGE CATLIN, whose death we referred

to last week, died in Jersey City on the 23rd of
December last, after a lingering and painful illness. Mr.
Catlin was born at Wilksbarre, Pennsylvania, on the 26th
of July, 1796.

Mr. Catlin began the series of Indian paintings which
has made his name so well known everywhere, when
accompanying Governor Clark, of St. Louis, in the years
1830 and 1831, while he was engaged in making treaties
with several Indian tribes. In 1832 he ascended the
Missouri to Fort Union, and afterward returned in a
canoe with two companions, a distance of 2,000 miles,
visiting and painting all the tribes, so numerous at that
time on the whole length of the river. Between this and
1847 he made several extended journeys among various
North American tribes, often sailing hundreds of miles in
a bark canoe, ‘

By this means he accumulated a large number of
paintings representing the portraits of the principal
men of the tribes, and pictures of savage life, which
were exhibited by him in various parts of the United

ails

se

San. 23, 1873]

States. He then opened his collections in London and
Paris. He was occupied in their display until 1852, when
he went to Venezuela, and visited the Oronoco, Amazon,
and Essequibo, taking a great number of pictures on his
route. He afterwards crossed the continent to Lima, and
_ going northward visited the mouth of the Columbia River,
Nootka Sound, Alaska, and Kamtschatka. From Van-
couver Island he went to the Dalles, and up the Columbia
_ River to Walla Walla, thence to the Salmon River Valley,
- and across the mountains into Snake River Valley at Fort
‘Hall, thence to the Great Falls of the Snake River, and
_ returning to Portland, proceeded to San Francisco and
_ San Diego. From San Diego he crossed the Colorado of

the West and the Rocky mountains, and descended the
’ Rio Grande del Norte in a canoe to Matamoras.

From Matamoras he set out for Sisal, in Yucatan, and
thence proceeded to Havre. Returning from that place
in the fall of the same year (1855), he went to Rio Janeiro
and Buenos Ayres. Ascending the Paraguay and the
Parana, he crossed the “ Entre Rios” mountains to the
head waters of the Uruguay, which he descended to the
mouthsof the Rio Negro, and returned again to Buenos
Ayres. From this place in 1856 he coasted the whole
length of Patagonia, and then north to Panama; thence
to Chagres, to Caraccas in Venezuela, to Santa Martha,
and Maracaibo. It is probable that this closed his
active explorations, as he soon went back to Europe,
where he stayed until a year or two ago,when he returned
to thiscountry. Continually accumulating paintings in all
his expeditions, their aggregate was very great, and on
opening an exhibition of the greater part of them in the
museum of the Smithsonian Institution in the winter of
1871 and 1872, they attracted great attention from visi-
tors. They are now boxed up in that institution,
awaiting disposal. Mr. Catlin’s object in bringing them
to Washington was to secure an appropriation from Con-
gress for their purchase, this to include the remainder
of his collection, which is now in Philadelphia.

The paintings of Mr. Catlin, although far from being un-
exceptionable as works of art, are of very great value as
ethnological representations ; and it is very much to be
hoped that some measures may be taken to get the entire
collection permanently preserved and studied. Espe-
cially in view of the fact that by far the greater number
of the North American tribes included in his represen-
tations have either become exterminated or have changed
their habits of life, the interest and value of Mr. Catlin’s
faithful portraitures may well be realised.

The first work published by Mr. Catlin was entitled,
“ Tllustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition
of the North American Indians, written during Eight
Years of Travel and Adventure among the wildest and
most remarkable Tribes nowexisting.” This was illustrated
With over three hundred steel-plate engravings from his
gallery, and has long been a work of reference on sub-
jects connected with the American aborigines, having
passed through a number of editions. Some of his other
works were, “ North American Portfolio of Hunting
Scenes,” “Notes of Eight Years’ Travel and Residence
in Europe,” “Life among the Indians,” “Okeepah,”
: a Subsided and Uplifted Rocks of North America,”
—&e.

OLD AND NEW LABORATORIES AT
THE ROYAL INSTITUTION*

4 TIME when, through temporary absence from one
: chair, and through a change of occupancy of the
other, we are deprived of the presence of our two Pro-
sssors, seems to offer an opportunity for reviewing the
t history, the scientific results, and the future prospects
of our laboratories. A time when, through circumstances

_* Alecture delivered on Friday evening last by William Spottiswoode,
LL.D. Treasurer R.S. and R.I.

ON THE

NATURE

223

which cause us much regret, we are deprived, at our even-
ing meetings at least, of the presence of our Secretary,
offers perhaps the only occasion when the task of such a
review could fall to other hands than his. The fact that
it has fallen to mine is attributable to the office in which
your votes have placed me, rather than to any individual
qualifications of my own. And it would have been im-
possible for me to undertake the task, had he not placed
at my disposal his wide-spread information upon many
branches of science, as well as his intimate knowledge of
the history of the Institution, to the well-being of which
his care and devotion have so largely contributed.

The first dawn of our history is to be sought among
those stormy years with which the last century drew
towards its close, and out of which many new thoughts
and aspirations of men took their birth.

Its character, in accordance with the views of its early
promoter, Count Rumford, was at first far more industrial
than it eventually became. Its two great objects were
“the general diffusion of the knowledge of all new and
useful improvements, and teaching the application of
scientific discoveries to the improvement of arts and
manufactures, and to the increase of domestic comfort
and convenience.” The Institution was to contain models,
or actual specimens of fire-places and kitchen utensils for
cottages, farm-houses, and large dwellings; a complete
laundry for a gentleman’s family; grates and chimney
pieces ; brewers’ boilers ; distillers’ coppers ; ventilators ;
limekilns ; steam-boilers ; spinning wheels; agricultural
implements ; bridges, &c.; and at one time some eighteen
or twenty young mechanics were actually boarded and
lodged in the house.- The records of our early proceedings
give an instance, illustrating the views of the founders.
In January, 1800, when the designs for the theatre,
model-room, and workshops were formed, the architect
proposed that the laboratory should occupy the position
which it ultimately held. But, with a view to giving
more room to the workshops, the proposal was set aside
in the very next month, and the space in the basement
under the theatre assigned to the purpose. Happily,
however, before the building had reached the first floor,
this position was found unsuitable ; and further consider-
ation devised the laboratory, which we have all known so
well as that of Davy, of Faraday, and of Tyndall. A
staircase leading to it from the front hall, although long
since closed, was removed only in 1866, to make room for
Prof. Tyndall’s smoke chamber.

From Count Romford’s final departure from England
in 1802 we may date the decline of the industrial element,
some echo of which still rings in our motto, “ Illustrans
commoda vitz ;” and early in the following year a definite
proposal to give up that part of the original plan was
made.

From a report to the managers in 1803, it appears that,
although chemistry had always been a primary olLject of
the Institution, yet from motives of economy nothing
more had been done in the way of either laboratory or
apparatus than was necessary for the immediate purpose
of the lectures. It was consequently proposed that the
workshop should be added to the laboratory and fitted
with seats for 120 persons, and the forge adapted to
chemical purposes. The report ends as follows :—“ This
laboratory will be equal, or indeed superior, to any in this
country, and probably to any on the Continent.”

The chemical laboratory was altered in accordance with
that report, and remained unchanged until 1863, when, on
the appointment of Dr. Frankland to the Professorship
of Chemistry, the lecture seats were removed so as to
adapt the room more properly to purposes of scientific
research,

It is interesting to contrast the verdict of 1873 with
that of 1803. “Originally built,” to quote Dr. Bence
Jones’s own words, “as a workshop for blacksmiths, fitted
with a forge, and furnished with bellows which only last

224

NATURE

summer left the Institution, our chemical laboratory was
probably the very worst in London.”

The physical laboratory remained unchanged; and
although Professor Tyndall for himself desired nothing
more than to continue his researches in a place which his
imagination filled with the recollections of his prede-
cessors, he still acquiesced in the proposal for rebuilding,
for the sake of his successors, and in the interest of the
sister science of his colleague.

Thus much about the material fabric of our laboratories.
Next as to the scientific work of which they have been
the birthplace.

Of the great names connected with this building fore-
most in order of time, and very high in scientific rank,
stands that of Dr. Thomas Young. His “ Theory of Light
and Colours” will always stamp him as one “ whose genius
has anticipated the progress of science,” and whose repu-
tation has risen as men have better understood his worth.
His first paper on the subject was presented to the Royal
Society in November, 1801 ; but the earliest printed
account of his views is to be found in his “Syllabus of
Lectures at the Royal Institution,” dated January 19, 1802.

With the criticisms of his theory published in the Zazx-
burgh Review, with the circumstances which led to his
withdrawal from the Institution, with his researches in
Egyptian hieroglyphics, we are not here concerned. But
it is not too much to say of him, that without the Wave
Theory of Light (of which he was one of the prime and
main founders) to serve as a guiding-thread through the
labyrinth of phenomena, the long series of discoveries
which have in this place culminated in those of Tyndall
in Radiation and Absorption, would have been impos-
sible.

It is often remarked that little rills, which have threaded
their way from distant mountains, ultimately discharge
themselves as mighty streams into the sea. Yet between
these two stages they flow quietly, but not therefore less
usefully, past smiling meadows and the haunts of men,
And here is a little scientific pastoral—if it may be so
called—flowing out of the highest conceptions of the
theory of undulations, and furnishing, to use his own
words—a simple instrument “ for measuring the diameters
of the fibres of different kinds of wool.’* [The lecturer
then described and exhibited on the screen the principle
of Dr. Young’s eriometer.]

Our next name is that of Davy, an account of whose
discoveries would require a volume, and a bare recital of
them would be long. I quote the following notes from the
pen of our Secretary, and wish that he had been here to
give life to the dry bones.

In 1806, when twenty-eight years of age, Davy did the
work which formed his first Bakerian Lecture, “ On the
Chemical Agencies of Electricity.” Six years previously
he had written, “ Galvanism I have found, by numerous
experiments, to be a process purely chemical.” In the
interim, water had been decomposed by electricity,
and Davy began his researches with an inquiry into
the changes produced in water by electricity. His
main conclusion was that “the kind of polarity of each
element determined the electrical and chemical actions
shown by it.’ The French Academy awarded him a
medal for this work ; and from these discoveries the fame
of our laboratories took its rise.

The next year Davy began a new series of experiments
on Polarity. He exposed different substances to the
action of platinum wires coming from a battery of 100
cells; and on October 6 he wrote in his note-book,
“Remarkable phenomena with potash.” On the igth
he made the following entry, “A capital experiment
proving the decomposition of potash.” He worked at
the decomposition of other alkalies until the 23rd No-

* The King at this time had his flock of merino sheep, and Sir Joseph
Banks had the care of them at Kew. On his recovery from his first mental
attack the King would only call the P.R.S. his woolstapler.

vember, when he was attacked by a fever which proved
nearly fatal to him.

The importance of these decompositions to the recent
science of spectral analysis, although not dreamt of at
the time, can hardly be overrated ; and I will therefore
venture to interrupt my narrative for a moment by an
experiment,—a very well-known one, which will serve to
illustrate the point. [The speaker then exhibited the dark
absorption line of sodium ; but so arranged as to show
the dark line zz the centre of, and not entirely obliterating,
the bright line ; proving that a certain density of vapour
is necessary for complete absorption. ]

In 1808 he began to work on the composition of muri-
atic acid; and with a new battery provided for him
by subscription, he attacked different substances with
increased energy. In 1810 he sent to the Royal Society
his researches on oxymuriatic acid and the elements of
muriatic acid, on what is in fact now known as chlorine.

In 1811 he made the acquaintance of Mrs. Appreece,
and in 1812 wrote to his brother, “ In a few weeks I shall
be able to return to my habits of study and research. I
am going to be married to-morrow, and have a fair
prospect of happiness with the most amiable and-eintel-
lectual woman I have ever known.” The issue of these
hopes has been written by his biographers ; but the dis-
appointment of the last seventeen years of his life is
illuminated by the invention, not less original in its con-
ception than benevolent in its object, of the Safety Lamp.

The great value of this contrivance, and of questions
arising out of it, will I trust, be sufficient apology for
diverging again from my story in order to mention some
very important experiments now in progress by Mr. Gal-
loway. Explosions, it is well known, occur even in cases
where the safety lamp is used. And it has been noticed
that in these cases they occur most frequently after the
firing of a blasting shot in the neighbourhood ; and as it
was almost certain that the penetration of the fire-damp
through the gauze of the lamp was not due to a sudden
flow of gas from one part of the mine to another,
experiments have been instituted to determine whether
the transmission of the sound wave, or wave of compres-
sion, may not have been the means of producing the
mischief. Through the kindness of Mr. Galloway we
have here a tube arranged for making such an experi-
ment. At one end there is the inflammable current
burning outside a safety lamp ; in the centre is an elastic
diaphragm, and at the other end a pistol will be fired, by
the explosion of which a sound wave will be propagated
along the tube. On the arrival of the sound wave at the
extremity of the tube, the combustion will penetrate the
safety lamp. But I here leave the matter in the hands of
Mr. Galloway, of whose experiments we hope to hear
more hereafter.

(To be continued.)

PROFESSOR TYNDALL IN AMERICA

\ \ 7HAT would the readers of any of our daily papers

think, if they found half-a-dozen of its columns for
six days on end, filled with verbatim reports of scientific
lectures? Would not they be inclined to think their
paper was in its dotage? But this has been done in
the case of the Mew York Tribune, in whose columns,
day after day, have appeared verbatim reports, with
illustrations, of the six lectures which Prof. Tyndall
delivered on Light in New York during the last days
of last year? Not only has this been done, but the
whole series of lectures has been issued on a sepa-
rate sheet of four pages, each page as large as t
of any of our daily papers, with twenty illustrations
somewhat rude no doubt, but quite intelligible. This
valuable sheet is sold at the astounding price of three
cents, and as it has nota single advertisement, it must

’

(Fan. 23, 1873 a

Fan, 23, 1873]
have an immense circulation to be remunerative. Is not
this one among many signs that the untrammelled Ameri-
cans are rapidly outstripping us in the love for and the
spread of scientific knowledge? It is certainly a note-
worthy phenomenon which we wish could be witnessed
nearer home. The editorial preface to the series con-
cludes thus :—“ If in the ulterior object of his (Professor
Tyndall’s) labours, the awakening of a spirit of scientific
inquiry among our young thinkers, and the fostering of
this tendency by liberal endowments from our wealthier
citizens, his success shall be ultimately apparent, our
whole country will have reason to thank the eminent
Englishman.” The following are a few passages from
his concluding lecture :—

“Ttis never to be forgotten that not one of those great
investigators, from Aristotle down to Stokes and Kirch-
hoff, had any practical end in view, according to the ordi-
nary definition of the word ‘practical.’ They did not
propose to themselves money as an end, and knowledge
as a means of obtainingit. For the most part, they nobly
reversed this process, made knowledge of their end, and
such money as they possessed the means of obtaining it.
We may see to-day the issues of their work in a thousand
practical forms, and this may be thought sufficient to
justify it, if not ennoble their efforts. But they did not
work for such issues ; their reward was of a totally diffe-
rent kind. In what way different? We love clothes, we
love food, we love fine equipages, we love money, and
any man who can point to these as the results of his
efforts in life justifies these efforts before all the world.
In America and England more especially he is a practi-
calman. But I would appeal confidently to this assem-
bly whether such things exhaust the demands of human
nature? Given clothes, given food, given carriages, given
money—is there no pleasure beyond what these can cover
which the possessor of them would still covet? The very
presence here for six inclement nights of this audience, em-
bodying, I am told, to a great extent, the mental force and
refinement of this city, is an answer to my question. [|
need not tell such an assembly that there are joys of the
intellect as well as joys of the body, or that these pleasures
of the spirit constituted the reward of our great investi-
gators. Led on by the whisperings of natural truth,
through pain and self-denial, they often pursued their
work. With the ruling passion strong in death, some of
them, when no longer able to hold a pen, dictated to their
friends the results of their labours, and then rested from
them for ever. . . . That scientific discovery may put not
only dollars into the pockets of individuals, but millions
into the exchequers of nations, the history of science
amply proves ; but the hope of its doing so is not the
motive power of the investigator. It never can be his
motive power.

“When analysed, what are industrial America and
industrial England? If you can tolerate freedom of
speech on my part, I will answer this question by an
illustration. Strip a strong arm, and regard the knotted
muscles when the hand is clinched and the arm bent. Is
this exhibition of energy the work of the muscle alone?
By no means. The muscle is the channel of an influence,
without which it would be as powerless as a lump of
plastic dough, It is the delicate unseen nerve that un-
locks the power of the muscle. And without those fila-
ments of genius which have been shot like nerves through
the body of society by the original discoverers, industrial
America and industrial England would, I fear, be very
much in the condition of that plastic dough. At the pre-
sent time there is a cry in England for technical educa-
tion, and it is the expression of a true national want ;
but there is no outcry for original investigation. Still
without this, as surely as the stream dwindles when the
spring dries, so surely will their technical education lose
all force of growth, all power of reproduction. Our great
investigators have given us sufficient work for a time ;

NATURE

225

but if their spirit die out, we shall find ourselves eventu-.
ally in the condition of those Chinese mentioned by De
Tocqueville, who, having forgotten the scientific origin of
what they did, were at length compelled to copy without
variation the inventions of an ancestry who, wiser than
themselves, had drawn their inspiration direct from
Nature.

“To keep society as regards science in healthy play,
three classes of workers are necessary: Firstly, the in-
vestigator of natural truth, whose vocation it is to pursue
that truth, and extend the field of discovery for the truth’s
own sake, and without any reference to practical ends.
Secondly, the teacher of natural truth, whose vocation it
is to give public diffusion to the knowledge already won by
the discoverer. Thirdly, the applier of natural truth, whose
vocation it is to make scientific knowledge available for the
needs, comforts, and luxuries of life. These three classes
ought to coexist, and interact upon each other. Now,
the popular notion of science, both in this country and in
England, often relates, not to science strictly so called,
but to the applications of science. Such applications,
especially on this continent, are so astounding—they
spread themselves so largely and umbrageously before
the public eye—as to shut out from view those workers who
are engaged in the profounder business of discovery.”

After quoting De Tocqueville on the supposed un-
favourable influence which republicanism has on the
advance of science, Prof. Tyndall says :—

“Tt rests with you to prove whether these things are
necessarily so, whether the highest scientific genius
cannot find in the midst of you a tranquil home. I
should be loth to gainsay so keen an observer and so
profound a critical writer, but, since my arrival in this
country, I have been unable to see anything in the con-
stitution of society to prevent any student with the root
of the matterin him from bestowing the most steadfast
devotion on pure science. If great scientific results are
not achieved in America, it is not to the small agitations
of society that I should be disposed to ascribe the defect,
but to the fact that men among you who possess the
genius for scientific inquiry are laden with duties of ad-
ministration or tuition so heavy as to be utterly incom-
patible with the continuous or tranquil meditation which
original investigation demands. I do not think this state
of things likely to last. I have seen in America willing-
ness on the part of individuals to devote their fortunes in
the matter of education to the service of the common-
wealth, for which I cannot find a parallel elsewhere.

“This willingness of private men to devote fortunes to
public purposes requires but wise direction to enable you
to render null and void the prediction of De Tocqueville,
Your most difficult problem will be not to build institu-
tions, but to make men; not to form the body, but to
find the spiritual embers which shall kindle within that
body a living soul. You have scientific genius among
you; not sown broadcast, believe me, but still scat-
tered here and there, Take all unnecessary impediments
out of its way. You have asked me to give these
lectures, and I cannot turn them to better account than
by asking you in turn to remember that the lecturer is
usually the distributor of intellectual wealth amassed by
better men. It is not as lecturérs, but as discoverers, that
you ought to employ your highest men. Keep your sym-
pathetic eye upon the originator of knowledge. Giye
him the freedom necessary for his researches, not over-
loading him either with the duties of tuition or of ad-
ministration, not demanding from him so-called practical
results—above all things, avoiding that question which
ignorance so often addresses to genius; ‘What is the
use of your work?’ Let him make truth his object, how-
ever impracticable for the time being, that truth may
appear. If you cast your bread thus upon the waters,
then be assured it will return to you, though it may be
after many days,”

226

NATURE

Pa i = et >. uti) had ts
JA =

<< : 2 : “

[Xan. 23, 1873

1

ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
III.

S° far, I have spoken of spectroscopes as spectroscopes

—as one of the instruments the improvement of
which should be cared for by every student in science.
Their applications will come after. As may be imagined,
spectroscopes are now constructed with one, two, three,
four, or more prisms, the number depending on the pur-

pose for which they are to be employed. An _ instru-
ment with one prism is usually called a chemical spec-
troscope, for an instrument of this kind is now almost as
important and essential in a chemical laboratory as a
balance. Spectroscopes are also constructed with two
prisms, as shown in Fig. 13; these are used in cases when
rather more dispersion is desired than can be obtained
with the one-prism instrument. When, however, any
accurate and elaborate work has to be done, such as in
carrying out original investigations, more prisms have to

Fic.%13.—Spectroscope with two prisms,

beemployed. The engraving given in Fig. 14 is of an | rate and accurate maps of the solar spectrum ; itis fur-

instrument which historically is extremely interesting, as
being the one with which Kirchhoff made his most elabo-

nished with a battery of four large prisms, which give an
enormous deviation and dispersion. There is no reason

Fic, 14.—Steinheil’s form of four-prism spectroscope ; arrangement of slit shown separately.

why spectroscopes of many more prisms should not be
employed, except that they require to be worked only
with strong lights, as light is here so much dispersed or
spread out that a feeble spectrum would be almost lost.
As the principle of construction is almost the same in all
kinds of spectroscopes, we had better commence by a
description of the simplest form, namely, that with one
prism, as shown in Fig. 15. It will be seen to consist of
a circular table, supported by a pillar and three legs,
carrying three lateral tubes ; the right-hand tube is called
the collimator, and holds at its outer extremity the fine

slit, the width of which can be regulated to a nicety by a
micrometer screw ; the other end of the collimator is fur-
nished with a lens, which serves to collect the rays of
light coming from the slit, and to render them parallel
before falling on the prism in the centre of the table,
The prism is so placed and fixed by a clamp that the
light entering the slit from the source of light, shown in
the figure as a gas lamp, strikes it and leaves it at what
is called the angle of minimum deviation, a term which
has already been: explained ; after passing through thé
prism, in which the light undergoes both deviation and dis-

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Fan. 23, 1873 |

persion, the spectrum is observed by the telescope on the
left, which is simply a small astronomical telescope of
low magnifying power. There are two methods of mea-
suring spectra. The telescope may be attached to a

NATURE

227

moveable arm, which can be directed to any part of the
spectrum that may be required ; and the outer edge of the
circle along which the telescope moves may be graduated
with an accurate scale of degrees, which can be divided

GLaecanre |

Fic._15.—Spectroscope with reflected scale.

with more or less minuteness, according to the’precision in
the exact position of the dark lines, &c., in various spectra
required. In this method the line to be measured is
brought into the centre of the field of view of the observ-

ing telescope, and the position of the telescope read off.
Of course if the line measured is situated in the red end
of the spectrum, the telescope will be in a different position
to that it will occupy if the line be in the blue end. The

Fic. 16.—Huggins’ star spectroscope,

second method of measurement may be gathered from
Fig. 15. It consists of a short tube carrying at its outer
extremity a small photographic scale, which is illumi-
nated by a candle flame; the light passing from the
photographic scale is rendered parallel and thrown on
the surface of the prism by means of a lens in the tube
carrying the scale, and is reflected by the last surface
of the prism up the observing telescope, so that it is seen

as a bright scale on the background, formed by the
| spectrum under observation.
| The spectroscope has also been adapted to the tele-
scope with very great success ; for it is essential not only
to determine the spectra of the light emitted by various
substances in our laboratories on this earth, but also the
different spectra and positions of the dark lines or bright
| ones, &c., obtained from the various orders of celestial

s

228

NATURE

[Fan. 23, 1873

nn nnn nme EEIEID II ann InPUnEnEInE IEEE REED EERE

objects, such as the sun and stars, comets, nebulze, planets,
and so on; we must for this purpose have something at-
tached to the telescope. Fig. 16 shows a star spectroscope,
which differs in arrangement only and not in principle from
other spectroscopes, except in one point to which I have to
draw attention with regard to this spectroscope. I have in-
sisted on the importance of the slit ; but you will see in
a moment that the image of a star, if it is a good image,
will be a mere point in the telescope, and therefore, while

Fic. 17.—Direct-vision prism with three prisms.

a’slit'is not absolutely necessary, it is essential to” have
some arrangement by which that’ point of light, the
spectrum of which would be merely a line, and therefore
not broad enough to enable us to see what the lines are
which we may expect in the spectra of stars, if they be
anything like the spectrum of the sun, shall be turned
intoa band. That has been accomplished by means of a

cylindrical lens, its function being to leave the light alone
in one direction, but to turn it into a band in another
direction, so that when the light of the star gets through
such a lens, it is no longer a point but a line, and this is
then grasped by the collimating lens, sent through the
prisms, and received by the observing telescope, so that
when you get the image of it in the observing telescope,
instead of having a line of light so fine that the lines in it
cannot be distinguished, it is a distinctly broad band in
which the lines can be observed. As this lens is simply
a contrivance for enabling the eye to see about where
there is a line, I submit now, as I submitted some years
ago, that a proper place for it is close to the eye,
between the eye and the image, I have been gratified to
find that, in many of the spectroscopes used on the
Continent, this arrangement is adopted.

We have now an idea of the action of the simple prism.
I will next bring to your notice another kind of prism,
which differs from the simple one very much as the
achromatic telescope differs from the non-achromatic one,
which was the first attempt made at an instrument for
astronomical observations, Many of you know that the
object-glass of a telescope, as now constructed, consists
of two lenses made of different kinds of glass. Of course,
we have dispersion and deviation at work in both these
kinds of glass, but the lenses are so arranged, and their
curves are so chosen, that, as a total result, the deviation
is kept while the dispersion is eliminated, so that, in the
telescope, we have a nearly white image of anything which

Fic. 18.—Direct-yision prism_with five prisms.

gives us ordinary light, although, as you know, it is by { this direct-vision arrangement is getting into common

the deviation alone that we are enabled to get the magni- |
So also in the spectroscope we |

fied image of that object.
have an opportunity of varying the deviation and the dis-
persion. By a converse arrangement we can keep the
dispersion while we lose the deviation ; in other words,
we have what is called a direct-vision spectroscope. If
we take one composed of two prisms of one kind of
glass which possesses a considerable refractive power,
and three prisms of another kind which does not re-
fract so strongly, arranged with their bases the opposite
way, the deviation caused by the two prisms in the
one direction will be neutralised by the deviation of
the three prisms in the opposite direction ; whilst the
dispersion by the three prisms, exceeds that which is
caused by the two prisms in the opposite direction, the
latter dispersion therefore will neutralise a portion only
of the dispersion due to the three prisms. The final
result is that there is an outstanding dispersion after the

deviation has been neutralised, so that when we want |

to examine the spectrum of an object we no longer have
to look at it at an angle. No doubt you recollect the
angle that was made by the light the moment it left the
prism, but we have an opportunity, by this arrangement,
of seeing the spectrum of an object by looking straight
at the source of light: in the application of spectrum
analysis, especially to the microscope and _ telescope,
this modification—due to M. Janssen, the well-known
astronomer, who was the first to bring it into general
notice—is one of great practical importance, so that in

any research which does not require excessive dispersion,

use. I have here another direct-vision arrangement
which is well worthy of being brought to your notice.
It does not depend at all upon the principles I have
just been trying to explain to you. It is called the
Herschel-Browning direct-vision spectroscope, in which
the ray is refracted and reflected internally, in the
prisms themselves. We have therefore, in addition to the
simple prism which I formerly brought to your attention,
two other aids to research of extreme value in certain
classes of observations. The direct-vision spectroscopes
which are now sold are made on one of the two prin-
ciples just described ; some of them are made so small
that they can be easily carried in the waistcoat-pocket,
and still are so powerful that all the principal, and many
of the less prominent, lines in the solar spectrum may be
seen with them.

Of the special application of the spectroscope to the
microscope I need say but little now. The spectro-
scope thus used is a direct-vision one, this form being
far more convenient for attaching to the microscope.
The light which illuminated the object in the micro-
scope was first of all passed through a prism; but in
later arrangements it passes through the prism in its
passage from the object. This is obviously a much
better plan, because, in the first instance, you could only
deal with transparent objects; but here, as you deal in
any case withthe light thatcomes from the object itself,
it is quite immaterial whether the object be opaque or
transparent, J. NoRMAN LOCKYER

(To be continued.)

_
.

. Fan. 23, 1873]

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NATURE

229

SCHOLARSHIPS AND EXAMINATIONS FOR
NATURAL SCIENCE AT CAMBRIDGE, 1873

“] HE following is a list of the Scholarships and Exhi-

bitions for proficiency in Natural Science to be
offered at the several Colleges in Cambridge during the
present year :—

TRINITY COLLEGE.—One or two of the value of about
80/7. per annum. The examination will be on April 5, and
will be open to all Undergraduates of Cambridge and
Oxford, and to persons under twenty who are not members
of the Universities. Further information may be obtained
from the Rev. E. Blore, Tutor of Trinity College.

St. JouNn’s COLLEGE.—One of the value of 50/. per
annum. The examination (in Chemistry, Physics,and Phy-
siology, with Geology, Anatomy, and Botany) will be in De-
cember, and will be open to all persons who have not entered
at the University, as well as to all who have entered and have
not completed one term of residence. Natural Science is
made one of the subjects of the annual college exami-
nation of its students at the end of the academical year,
in May; and exhibitions and foundation scholarships
will be awarded to students who show an amount of
knowledge equivalent to that which in classics or mathe-
matics usually gains an exhibition or scholarship in the
college. In short Natural Science is on the same footing
with Classics and Mathematics, both as regards teaching
and rewards.

CHRIST’s COLLEGE.—One or more, in value from 30/.
to 70/. according to the number and merits of the candi-
dates, tenable for three-and-a-half years, and for three
years longer by those who reside during that period at
the College. The examination will be on April 1, and
will be open to the undergraduates of the College; to
non-collegiate undergraduates of Cambridge; to all
undergraduates of Oxford ; and to any students who are
not members of either University. The candidates may
select their own subjects for examination, There are
other Exhibitions which are distributed annually among
the most deserving students of the College. Further in-
formation may be obtained from John Peile, Esq., Tutor
of the College.

Carus COLLEGE.—One of the value of 60/. per annum.
The examination will be on April 1, in Chemistry and
Experimental Physics, Zoology, with Comparative Ana-
tomy, Physiology, and Botany, with Vegetable Anatomy
and Physiology; it will be open to students who have
not commenced residence in the University. There is
no limitation as to age.—Scholarships of the value of
20/. each, or more if the candidates are unusually good,
are offered, for Anatomy and Physiology, to members of
the college.—Gentlemen elected to the Tancred Medical
Studentships are required to enter at this College ; these
Studentships are four in number, and the annual value of
each is 1137. Information respecting these may be ob-
tained from B. J. L. Frere, Esq., 28, Lincoln’s Inn Fields,
London.

CLARE COLLEGE.—One of the value of 5o/, per annum,
tenable for 34 years. The examination (in Chemistry,
Chemical Physics, Comparative Anatomy, and Physio-
logy, and Geology) will be on March 26, and will be open
to students intending to begin residence in October.

DOWNING COLLEGE.—One or more of the value of
4o/. per annum. The examination (in Chemistry, Com-
parative Anatomy, and Physiology) will be early in April,
and will be open to all students not members of the Uni-
versity, as well as all undergraduates in their first term.

SIDNEY COLLEGE.—Two of the value of 40/. per annum.
The examination (in Heat, Electricity, Chemistry, Geo-
logy, Zoology and Physiology, and Botany), will be on
April 1, and will be open to all students who intend to
commence residence in October.

EMMANUEL COLLEGE.—One or more of the value of
5o/, tenable for two years, The examination on April 1

will be open to students who have not commenced re-
sidence,

PEMBROKE COLLEGE.—One or more of the value of
20/, to 60/. according to merit. The examination (in June,
in Chemistry. Physics, and other subjects) will be open to
students under twenty years of age.

ST. PETER’s COLLEGE.—One from 5o0/. to 8o/. per
annum, according to merit. The examination, date not
yet fixed, in Chemistry, Comparative Anatomy and Physio-
logy, and Botany, will be open to students who will be
under twenty-one years of age on October 1, 1873, and
who have not commenced residence.

KING’s COLLEGE.—One of the value of about 8o0/. per

annum. The examination, on April 21, will be open to
all candidates under twenty, and to undergraduates of the
College in their first and second year. There will be an
examination in elementary classics and mathematics, in
addition to three or more papers in Natural Science,
including Physics, Chemistry, and Physiology.
_ Although several subjects for examination are in each
instance given, this is rather to afford the option of one
or more to the candidates than to induce them to present
a superficial knowledge of several. Indeed, itis expressly
stated by some of the colleges that good clear knowledge
of one or two subjects will be more esteemed than a
general knowledge of several.

Candidates, especially those who are not members of
the University, will, in most instances, be required to
show a fair knowledge of classics and mathematics, such,
for example, as would enable them to pass the previous
Examination.

There is no restriction cn the ground of religious
denomination in the case of these or of any of the
Scholarships or Exhibitions in the colleges or in the
University.

Further information may be obtained from the Tutors
of the respective Colleges.

It may be added that Trinity College will give a Fellow-
ship for Natural Science once, at least, in three years:
and that most of the Colleges are understood to be
willing to award Fellowships for merit in Natural Science
equivalent to that for which they are in the habit of
giving them for Classics and Mathematics.

NOTES ON ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY IN
LISBON

eseon possesses a remarkable natural history col-
lection which is at present in process of transference
to the new Polytechnic School buildings, which are only
just completed. This institution is of imposing dimen-
sions, built in the form of a square, with a quadrangular
garden in the centre, and contain spacious and well-
lighted laboratories, lecture rooms, and galleries for mu-
seum purposes. On the ground floor is a mineralogical
and palzontological collection, and over this is the natural
history series, which is contained in four fine rooms, one
of which is devoted entirely to the African fauna, in which
the museum is particularly rich. In all the rooms table
cases are placed down the central line containing the
collection of shells, which is very fine and well arranged, |
whilst upright cases are rangéd along the walls and are
filled with stuffed Mammalia, and birds, and variously
preserved reptiles and fish. Amongst the Mammalia are
two manatees, a fine specimen of the Aye-Aye, Chezro-
mys, and jalso one of the curious little otter-like animals
from Africa, Pofamogale velox, which has its tail flattened
out into a vertical rudder. These are mentioned as rarities.
The series is large and especially good in insectivora,
moles, shrews, &c.
The birds are quite remarkable for the excellence of
their preservation, and as the series is very extensive, it
forms the chief feature of the collection, There area large

-230

NATURE

[%an. 23, 1873

number of rarities, amongst which may be mentioned a
perfect specimen of the great auk, Adca zmpennis, in-ex-
cellent plumage and preservation, Didunculus strigi-
rostris, and a fine series of Birds of Paradise, including
Semiopleryx. ;

Amongst the reptiles are large specimens of Av/igator
nigra, and a large number of Che/onia, and amongst the
fish a fine series of Sedachians, There is also a collection
of the skeletons of vertebrata, and a large number of. In-
vertebrata, corals, sponges, starfish, &c. ; but this part of
the collection is not yet arranged in the new building.
The natural history department is under the direction of
Prof. Barboyo du Bocage, who, it will be remembered,
first described the siliceous sponge, Ayalonema, from
Setubal Bay and on the Portuguese coast.

About a mile and a half or two miles from the heart
of the city of Lisbon on high ground is the Botanical
garden. The garden consists of two terraces, one above
the other. The lower terrace contains nothing remark-
able except a group of date palms, Phenix dactylifera,
one of whichis about 45 ft. high, which are now in various
stages of flower and fruit. On the upper terrace are two
glass houses, but in bad repair and apparently not con-
taining anything remarkable. But growing in the open
air is a splendid specimen of the dragon tree, Dracewna
draco, with a perfectly circular head of foliage, which
must be 36 yards at least in circumference, whilst the
stem is about 16 feet in circumference. The tree was
covered with the dried remains of its fruit. Aloe arbo-
vescens is plentiful in the garden and indeed all over
Lisbon, and is now in flower. Also growing in the open
air are Musa paradisiaia, Ficus elastica, Euphorbia
veritfolia, There is a nice series of plants classified
according to their natural orders, the aloes and cac-
tuses being well represented; but the whole garden
has been allowed to fall into neglect, and presents a
dreary appearance, being overrun by weeds, and most
of the beds are nearly choked. It is intended to
abandon the garden as a botanical one, and remove as
many plants as possible to the garden attached to the
new Polytechnic school, but it is to be hoped that the
Dracena will not be neglected, The flora generally which
one meets with in Lisbon is most remarkable ; Australian
and Brazilian acacias abound in all the gardens, and
thrive and become large trees. ‘There is quite a rage for
Eucalypti, which are said to grow as much as 14 feet in
height here in a single year. They are to be seen every-
where, and some species are at present in blossom. At
Embia, in the neighbourhood, tree ferns grow in the
open air, and in the grounds of the King’s palace besides
Chamerops and Phenix dactylifera, which are common
in gardens about the town, Fubwa spectabilis and the
Seychelle double cocoa-nut palm, Lodozcea.

H. N. MOSELEY

NOTES

Mr. Cor, we regret very much to say, after fifty years
public service, has announced his intention of resigning
his post] in connection with the Science and Art Depart-
ment. It would be difficult indeed to estimate the extent
and value of the services performed by Mr. Cole in behalf
of science, services which have hitherto been most inadequately
recognised, though we are certain this will not now be
long the case. He has done more than any other man
in the kingdom to establish schools of science throughout the
country and to foster scientific instruction in every way, and that,
too, in the face of opposition from quarters from which it would
“have been little expected.

Pror, SYLVESTER, late of the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, has been elected a corresponding member of the Im-
perial Academy of Sciences of St, Petersburg,

WE have with great pleasure recorded from time to time the
encouragement given to the study of Natural Science in our
Univeisities and public schools, and are glad in reporting pro-
gress to notice that the governors of the Giggleswick Grammar
School are carrying out the spirit of recent legislation in pro-
viding for the wider education which the age has called for.
Giggleswick is an ancient village close to which, on the opposite
side of the river Ribble, the more modern town of Settle has
sprung up. Situated at the foot of the mountainous moorlands
of north-west Yorkshire, where the Ribble quits its rocky gorges
to wander over a wide rich valley, where peaty flats represent
ancient lakes, this has long been known as a most interesting
spot by the naturalist and antiquary, It was fortunate therefore
for the cause of Natural Science, that the existence of an old
well-endowed institution induced the Commissioners to fix upon
Giggleswick as the chief school of a large district in the north
of England, embracing some of the most important towns in
Yorkshire. It so happens that in the immediate neighbourhood
there are several very interesting caves, the exploration of which
is being carried on by a Committee, amongst whom are many of
our leading men of Science. The Committee have handed over
the whole of the valuable remains obtained from the caves to the
governors of the school, on the understanding that they will
provide for their safe keeping and exhibition to the public. The
Council of the Leeds Philosophical Society have followed up
this by promising a very large series of duplicates from their
museum, and the able curator of the Leeds Museum has under-
taken to assist in the arrangement and classification of the collec-
tion. It is the duty of all scientific men to watch and encourage
all ond fide efforts to give a prominent place to the teaching of
Natural Science in our schools, especially where, as in this case,
it is combined with a movement to form a scientific centre where
illustrative specimens may be examined ; and it is to be hoped
that by-and-by all the standard works on scientific subjects may be
consulted by a wide circle outside the school. The names of Sir
James Shuttleworth, one of the governors of the school, and of
Sir Charles Lyell among the supporters of the movement, offer
a sufficient guarantee as to its character.

THE following extracts from a letter of Mr. Alexander Agassiz
will be read with interest. It will be seen from them that the
great fire at Boston did not spare the labours of scientific work-
ers. The passage which refers to the health of his father, Prof,
L. Agassiz, will give especial satisfaction to every naturalist on
this side of the Atlantic:—‘‘I am just in the middle of my
Echini. I have had a very narrow escape with my book. The
great fire, which has destroyed half Boston, came near to putting
a stopper on my work. The plates of nearly one-third of the
whole edition have not been printed, as the stones were lost in
the fire. Fortunately I had about three hundred copies of the
plates of parts I. and II. at the Museum out of the way, so must
manage as best I can with that number, TI lost, in addition, the
stones of six plates of anatomy, with all the original drawings,
which had been sent to the lithographer for lettering the plates.
This is more serious, as it represents over a year’s hard work,
and the bulk of the notes being on the back of the drawings,
it will delay the publication of my book for a good while. Parts
I. and II. are at last out. My father has returned from his long
trip a much better man than when he left, and it looks as if he
would do a good amount of work yet. He has not beer in
such excellent health for many years.”

THE increasing use of scientific terms in popular literature
may be a good sign, but such terms have now and then to do
unwonted duty. Witness a passage from a new tale entitled
“Little Hodge,” by the author of ‘‘Ginx’s Baby.” It is out of
a pathetic description of a very small new-born child being
weighed in the workhouse. ‘‘ ‘Poor little creetur!’ said the

— Fan. 23, 1873]

nurse, taking up the morsel of humanity from its uncomfortable
position in the workhouse scales, which had been brought up
from the kitchen expressly to test its specific gravity.” We
hasten to add that we infer from this a slight confusion in the
author’s mind, not an accusation against our workhouse officials

of weighing new-born babies under water for experimental
purposes.

WE understand that {the Fellows of the Chemical Society
have started a Chemical Club, one of the objects of which is to
promote the contribution and discussion of original papers to
the society, and to encourage good fellowship amongst its mem-
bers. The number of members is limited to fifty, and we hear
that there are only a few vacancies remaining. The meetings of
the club take place once a month, when the members dine
together before adjourning to the evening meeting of the Chemi-
cal Society.

WE are glad to notice the formation of a society at New
Cross, entitled ‘‘The New Cross Microscopical and Natural
History Society,” which meets at the Commercial Rooms, Lewis-
ham High Road. The society has, we believe, made a good
start, and will be glad to receive additions to its membership,
and we hope that all who join it will remember that the best
way to ensure success ror such a society is by every member
striving to take a share in the work. By means of exhibitions,
the formation of natural history cabinets, microscopical work,
excursions, lectures and papers, the society seeks to carry out
its objects. The subscription is small, only ten shillings a year.
Further information may be obtained from the hon. sec., Mr.
Martin Burgess.

THE sixth annual Soiree of the Old Change Microscopical
Society will be held at the City Terminus Hotel, Cannon Street,
on Friday evening, February 28.

THE Challenger arrived at Gibraltar on Saturday, and is ex-
pected to leave to-day, for Madeira,

Mr. Prescott “HEWETT has been elected President of the
_ Clinical Society of London, in succession to Sir William Gull.

Srr Joun C. Burrows, F.R.C.S., Mayor of Brighton, who
» gave such a splendid reception to the British Association last
year, has just received the honour of knighthood.

Lorp NEAVES is to be formally installed as Lord-Rector of
the University of St. Andrews, on February 13. We under-
stand Lord Neaves is to offer four prizes annually during his term
of office, to be competed for by students attending the Uni-
versity.

WE announced last week that Mr. W. Saville Kent has been
appointed resident naturalist and curator of the Brighton
Aquarium, in room of the late Mr. J. K. Lord. We believe
Mr. Kent is to have the assistance, as consulting naturalists,
of Messrs. Henry Lee and Frank Buckland, while Mr. Reeves
Smith, late of the Spa at Scarborough, has been engaged as
general manager and secretary. Under Mr. Lee’s advice and
superintendence important changes and improvements are al-
ready being effected. Fishes of incongruous species, which have
lately had joint possession of some of the tanks, are being
separated and placed in those best suited to their habits ; where-
as only six tanks have hitherto been set apart forthe exhibition
of fresh water fishes, eight additional ones have now been
prepared for them, which can be reconyerted into receptacles
for marine specimens in a few hours in case of need. Tanks for
the storage of a reserve of specimens apart from public view are
in course of construction, and arrangements are being made for
careful observation of the marine invertebrata and other forms of
aquatic life. It has also been proposed that a series of micro-
scopes shall be provided, by means of which interesting living
and mounted objects, illustrative of the minute organisms deve-

| NATURE

231

loped in the tanks shall be exhibited to the public. This indi-
cates a serious intention to utilise the great resources of the
Brighton Aquarium, as they should be utilised for the purposes
of experimental and practical zoology, by affording opportunity
for careful researches and investigations which may prove of
scientific interest and economic value.

WE have received a copy of the Mobile Register for December
15 last, containing a letter from Mr. A, W. Dillard, in which
he endeavours to account for the generally acknowledged
increase in the severity of the winters in Alabama, In all Euro-
pean countries it is commonly believed the climate has become
warmer in proportion as the forests have been felled and the land
cultivated. In Alabama, however, similar operations have ap-
perently produced opposite results. The writer, however, be-
lieves that the general dryness of Africa, and especially of the ©
Great Desert, has no inconsiderable effect on the climate of
Europe, and accounts for the great difference of temperature be-
tween the same latitudes in Europe and America. He accounts
for the change of climate in Alabama and other southern
American states in the following way :— The felling of our
Southern forests gives a more unrestricted scope to the north-
western winds, chilled by the snow on the Rocky Mountains and
the ice of the northern Jakes and rivers. These bleak winds are
not counteracted by warm gales, blowing from a dry country,
such as Africa ; consequently they exert all their chilling influ-
ence on our climate. The gales which we have from the south
are impregnated with a good degree of moisture, and so add to
the cold consequent upon the blowing of the wind from the
north.”

A DEsPATCH from Dr Kirk, dated Zanzibar, Nov. 5, 1872,
has been received at the Foreign Office. It announces that the
men sent to help Dr. Livingstone had reached him, and that he
had started for the interior about August 18.

In Natur, vol. vii. p. 7, we intimated that among other
expeditions to the Arctic Regions was one under the command
of a rich and adventurous young Frenchman, M. Pavy, that had
set out from San Francisco to go by way of Wrangell Land, to
the north of the eastern part of Siberia. If wecan trust a report
in the Zimes for January 17 from the Courier des Etats Unis, his
hopes have been gloriously realised, for he has discovered an
Arctic Continent. The account professes to be a summary of
despatches, dated Wrangell Land, lat. 74°38, W. long. 17618,
August 23, 1872, committed to the care of the captain of a whaler,
for the French Geographical Society, which, it is said, will publish
the scientific results after having examined them. A similar
account appeared some time since in the Scotsman. The fol-
lowing are the chief points of the somewhat remarkable story :—
On July 17 Pavy and his party reached the mouth of the river
Petrolitz. From this point they met with immense fields of ice
moving towards the north-east. The observations indicated a
deviation of 18 miles, caused by the movements of the ice, a fact
tending to confirm the theory of M. Pavy respecting the concen-
tration and the augmentation in rapidity of the branch of the
great Japanese current, called Ku-Ro-Sirod, which passes
through Behring Strait, and flows toward the east away
from the coast of Siberia. The exploring party reached the
coast of Wrangell Land, at the mouth of a great river coming
from the north-west, which is not laid down on any map. This
discovery confirms M. Pavy’s theory that there exists a vast
polar continent which stretches far to the north, the temperature
of which is warm enough to melt snow in summer. The current
of this unnamed river turns to the east, and follows the coast
with a yelocity of six knots an hour. M. Pavy and his com-
panions followed the current of the river towards the north, a
distance of 230 miles, Its bed is uniformly horizontal, and it is
bordered by mountains of great height, with several perpendicular

232

NATURE

peaks. At 80 miles from the mouth the explorers found on the
plain some vestiges of mastodons, and on clearing away the snow
from a spot whence emerged the tusks of one of that extinct race,
they brought to light its enormous body, in a perfect state of preser=
vation. The skin was covered with black stiff hair very long
and thick upon the back. The tusks measured 11 ft. 8 in, in
length, and were bent back about the level of the eyes. From
its stomach were taken pieces of bark and grasses, the nature of
which could not be analysed on the spot. Over an area of
many miles the plain was covered with the remains of mastodons,
This region abounds with polar bears, which live on the remains
of the mastodons. At 120 miles from the coast and half a
league from the river, rises a vast block of ice 1,000 ft. high, the
base of which is surrounded by gravel and polished rounded
stones deeply sunk in the soil. The Arctic animals are very
numerous in this valley, and myriads of birds fly above the river
and over both of its banks. At the date of his despatches
M. Pavy was preparing to winter in the 75th degree of latitude
in the valley of the great river of the supposed polar continent. He
considered himself certain to arrive in the beginning of next season
at a polar sea of moderate temperature at the northern extremity
of the continent. The explorers calculate on afterwards reaching
the Atlantic through Melville Strait.

Tue two principal articles in the last number of the Budletin
de la Société de Glographie are, one by M. Jules Gerard, on the
present state of knowledge of New Guinea, in which he gives a his-
torical account of discovery in that island, and a description of its
geography, ethnography, natural history, meteorology, its colo-
nisation and commercial relations. This is accompanied by a
good map. The other is anaccount of the river Amazon, and
the region through which it flows, by the Abbé Durand, com-
piled from various geographical memoirs. The same number
contains a letter from the Abbé Desgodins, pointing out, appa-
rently from personal knowledge of the region concerned, a num-
ber of errors in Mr, T. T. Cooper’s ‘Travels of a Pioneer of
Commerce.”

WE have received the programme of ‘‘ The Leeds Naturalists’
Field Club and Scientific Association,” for the next three months.
It meets every Tuesday evening, alternate meetings being de-
voted to the reading of papers and to the exhibition of specimens,
with general discussion on scientific subjects. During the first
three months of 1873 the following papers will be read :—Rev.
John Hanson on ‘‘The Development or Transformation of
Insects.” Mr. James Abbott, vice-president, on ‘‘ The Anatomy
of the Slug.” Mr. Geo. Ward, F.C.S., ‘‘ Observations upon
the Element Carbon.” Mr. Edwin Birchall, on ‘* The Origin
and Distribution of the Insects of the British Islands.” Mr,
Wm. Todd, vice-president, on ‘‘ The Silurian Rocks and Fossils.”
The annual meeting will be held on March 25.

Tue last number of Aemorie della Societd degli Spettroscopist
Ttaliani, contains drawings of the chromosphere as observed at
Rome, Naples, and Padua during January, February, and
March 1872.

THE first number of Zron, the name of the new series of the
Mechanics Magazine, is printed on a very much larger size of
paper than its predecessor, and contains a number of useful
articles, mostly on the practical applications of scientific
principles. We wish Zron a long and successful career.

THE principal paper in the Revue Scientifique for January 18,
is a continuation of the article on ‘‘ The Observatories of Great
Britain,” in which details are given concerning the Observatories

* at Edinburgh, Dublin, the Cape of Good Hope, Madras, Mel-
bourne, Paramatta (New South Wales), Sydney, and Lucknow,

WE learn from the Medical Record that a new faculty of medi-
cine is about to be instituted at Geneva,

THE STAR SHOWER AS SEEN AT
MAURITIUS

GREAT shower of meteors was observed in this colony on

the night of November 27 last. I had not myself the

good fortune to see it, but it was seen by several other persons
who have obligingly communicated their observations.

At the Observatory it is customary to watch, as far as pos-
sible, for meteors during the whole of November, but, on the
night in question, the sky was nearly overcast. At 9,15 P.M.
we had a shower of rain, and at 9.30, when the last observation
of the instruments and of the weather was taken for the night,
nine-tenths of the sky were overcast, and the weather was
gloomy. Looking out about midnight from a window facing
the north I observed that the visible parts of the heavens was
still overcast, but remarked that the clouds were unusually
luminous, as if the moon in her first or last quarter were shining
behind them. This struck me particularly, and I waited some
minutes in expectation of seeing a break in the clouds.

On the following day, I received a telegram from the Hon,
Edward Newton, Colonial Secretary, announcing that he and
Mr. C. Bruce, Rector of the Royal College, had counted from
their residence, twelve miles off, and nearly 900 feet above the
sea-level, 2,678 meteors between 9.30 P.M. and 12.55 A.M. ;
and soon afterwards I ascertained that some other members ot
our Meteorological Society, as well as several other gentlemen,
had also observed the shower, all from the same part of the
Island.

In place of attempting to summarise the accounts which have
reached me, I think it preferable to give them in full, in the
order in which they were received.

(1.) Observations by the Hon. Mr. Newton and Mr. Bruce,—
‘* About 9.30 on the evening of November 27 we observed an
unusual frequency of shooting stars. At 9.35 we began to keep
regular count. We continued our observations till 12.55, at
which time the frequency had greatly diminished, as will be
seen from the following statement of the numbers seen in the
intervals of time noted—

From 9.35 to 10.35 786
99, 00.35 55 ER 5n te ie ies maa
yo ET.35\ yp Meal ee tren Se
99 12:30), each
Weer uy 8 Aes 85

Total 7. Sy eae

“The approximate time of greatest intensity of the shower was
from 11 to 11.30. About this time two meteors of extraordinary
brilliancy were particularly noted : the first at 11.22, and the
second at 11.44.

‘*The former of these started from the three stars in the tail of
Aries, and the luminous orb vanished somewhat south of the
Ecliptic. The train of this meteor was distinctly visible for 4
minutes. At the vanishing moment of the luminous point, it
slowly wheeled from horizontal to vertical, and was seen for
nearly two minutes vertical to the horizon,

‘The latter, starting from a point at right angles to the three
stars in the tail of Aries and the Pleiades, passed through the
Pleiades, Taurus, and Orion, and vanished near Sirius, Its
train was visible for more than a minute.

‘*Nearly all the meteors observed radiated from a point near
Aries, nearly at right angles with the Pleiades, and shot either
in the direction of the bright meteor of 11.44, or in a line through
Aries, cutting the ecliptic and vanishing to the S.

‘From eighty to ninety per cent. of the meteors were followed
by a soft, broad train of light, visible for a few seconds after the
vanishing of the luminous point, of diameter at least equal to the
luminous orb, and extending from 10° to 20°. Inthe case of the
two bright meteors above mentioned, the train of light extended
over at least 40°.

“‘During our observations, portions of the heavens were from
time to time obscured by dark fleeting clouds, which at times
obscured the starting and vanishing points.

‘Between 10 and 11 we observed occasionally a pulsating
coruscation, similar to the appearance of the Aurora Australis.
Mr. Meldrum, however, informs us that the instruments at the
observatory gave no indication of a magnetic disturbance,

‘**In colour the majority of the meteors seemed to be equal in
purity to that of the most colourless stars, ‘

(Fan. 23, 1873

‘minutes counted 118.

NATURE

me

2335

“ Taking a point as above described as visible radiating point,
the angle of the majority of the meteors was about equal to that
of the meteors figured in ‘Johnston’s Astronomical Atlas,’
seen in November 1866. .

“A few however, shot with extreme velocity towards the north ;
these had no trains of light ; other meteors shot parallel to the
general direction close to the horizon. Although we dis-
continued our observations at 12°55, the shower was not over,
and a few meteors were seen near the western horizon after this
time.

“Tt must be observed that the point from which our obser-
vations were taken was obscured by trees in the directions of the
western horizon. About the time of greatest intensity, nine
meteors were visible at the same moment.

“*During the greater part of our observations, up to midnight,
the radiation of these four or five meteors was nearly syn-
chronous.

“*Towards the time of the greatest intensity, one of the ob-
servers was absent for about fifteen minutes, and it is probable
that many meteors during this interval escaped observation.”

(2). Observations by Lieut.-Colonel O’Brien, Inspector-General
of Police, and Mr. A. Brown.—** At about 10 o'clock last night
(Noy. 27) our attention was drawn to the number of falling
stars. Going outside and standing back to back, Mr. A. Brown
and myself in a short time counted no less than 110, This con-
tinued till near I1 P.M., when we went out again, and in five
Some of these meteors were very
bright, having tails like comets. Their course was generally
longer than that of the others, and they seemed nearer to the
earth. The course of the shower was almost invariably from
north to south, and more meteors were visible towards the
southern hemisphere than in other quarters.”

(3). Observations by the Hon. Robert Stein and Mr. A. C.
Macpherson.—‘‘ On November 27, about 10°15 P.M., on
looking towards the N.E. we noticed several meteors falling ;
the Pleiades, Hyades, and Orion being at that time about 45° to
50° above the horizon.

** On observing carefully, we found the meteors in great num-
bers coming from due north very much on a level with the stars
above mentioned, and rather farther to the north of the Pleiades
than the distance between the Pleiades and Hyades.

“* They came not from a point, but as it were along a broad belt
crossing the sun’s path nearly at right angles, appearing at times
in the north, but often also at the zenith and towards the
southern horizon, passing as it were parallel, some from N.E. to
S.E., some from north to south, and some from N.W. to S. W.

“The number of meteors was so great, and they appeared so
irregularly, sometimes towards the north, sometimes overhead,
sometimes to right or left of the zenith, and sometimes towards
the southern horizon, that we could not keep count of them ;
but from 10.15 to 10.30 they appeared to be falling at about the
rate of one in every second, sometimes singly, and sometimes in
twos or threes ata time. The more distant ones showed only
bright luminous points, but the nearer ones every few minutes
showed trains and sparks like a rocket, varying from 2° or 3° to
5° or 6° in length, and seldom reaching a length of 10°,

-*Our view to the S.W. was partly closed, but on changing
position, so as to get a view of that quarter, I found the meteors
falling there too; but it appears to me during the short time
[ looked in that direction, towards eleven o’clock, as if fewer
were falling there than I had observed to the eastward of south.”

(4.) Observations by Mr. W. H. Marsh,3 Assistant Colonial
Secretary.—‘**1 observed the shooting stars at first at 9 o’clock.
The sky was cloudy, but in spaces that were occasionally left
clear, the meteors could be seen going from north to south.
About half an hour later the sky was quite clear. I counted
100 shooting stars in less than five minutes. With the excep-
tion of one in Andromeda, which went in an easterly direction,
they all went to the south. I continued observing till 10.30,
The meteors were almost entirely confined to the western half of
the heavens, and by far the greater number was observed in
Aquarius and in the neighbourhood of Fomalhaut. Most of
them were very dim and small, but occasionally a bright one
made its appearance. I observed a very bright one at about
10°15, which came from the direction of the zenith, and appeared
to pass right through the Star Achernar.”

Observations by Capt. Fry.—‘‘ On the evening of November
27 my attention was drawn towards the heavens by seeing
an immense number of stars of all magnitudes shooting

towards the south from Orion, which was at the time
about 30° above the eastern horizon, in a straight line through
the zenith to about 40° above the western horizon, below which
altitude clouds obscured the sky. The greater number seemed
to move from the southern side of the above described line.
They were all exceedingly bright, and varied in size from an
ordinary meteor to z/finitely small. The time was from 9 to
10.15 P.M., when clouds screened the view. I endeavoured to
keep count, but could not, owing to the immense number and
the quickness of their movements. I am an old miariner, and
have often had opportunities of watching the heavens at night,
but I never witnessed anything to compare to the sight on the
night of the above date. On the 28th I made preparations to
watch for a repetition of the spectacle ; but not having seen more
than is observed on an ordinary night, say four or five, I gave it
up, and retired at 11 P.M.”

Observations by Capt. Gaston, of the Ship ‘‘ Penélope,” from
Vohemar to Mauritius,—‘*Le Mercredi, 27 Novembre, étant
par une latitude de 19° 52’ Sud et 50° 25’ longitude Est, le temps
était magnifique, mais calme. Vers 7h. 3 dusoir une chose rare se
montra au firmament ; une quantité extraordinaire de météores
parurent successivement, se formant dans le Nord, allant dans
leur course vers le Sud-Est. Les uns donnaient une clarté trés
vive et d’autres ne laissaient qu’une légeére trainée de feu ressem-
blant a des fusées ; mais tous allaient avec une grande rapidité,
Ce manége de petits météores dura jusque vers 2 heures du
matin.

‘Un autre fait non monis curieux s’etait présenté dans la
journée, Tous les marins connaissent l’Alcyon (ou hirondelle de
mer) et tous savent que ces petits oiseaux se tiennent dans les
eaux du Navire, mais en petite quantité. Nous avons, pour
ainsi dire, été assaillis par ces oiseaux, les uns voltigeant autour
du navire et les autres posés sur l’eau assez prés les uns des
autres, ce qui ressemblait 4 une masse noire.”

The above observations, with the exception of Capt. Gaston’s,
were all taken within a circle of three miles in diameter, and at
altitudes of 700 to 1000 feet.

There are, as might be expected, some discrepancies in tlie
accounts given, but it appears to me that the meteors were seen
in two streams, the one passing through Aries, Pisces, and
Aquarius, nearly along the Ecliptic, and the other through
Orion towards Sirius, while others passed through the zenith
from north to south.

The radiant point would appear to have been close to the
stars o and ¢ in the foot of Perseus, near the spot indicated by
Mr. Newton and Mr. Bruce. Mr. Stein, however, probably
from his seeing only a part of the sky, thinks there was no
radiant point. I have not seen him since I received his descrip-
tion ; but from verbal explanation given by Mr. Bruce and Mr.
Marsh, and from Capt. Gaston’s account I think the meteors
shot from the above-mentioned point. Mr. Bruce informs me that
he observed a meteor pass from Northward close to and parallel
with e and a Tauri; and Mr. Marsh mentions that he saw one
pass from near the zenith right over Fomalhaut.

I think there must be some mistake in the statement that
many meteors shot from Orion through the zenith to the meteor
horizon,

With regard to the time of maximum intensity it must have
been at 11, or soon after.

The shower was evidently not equal in splendour to that of
November 14, 1866.

Watch was kept up during the night of the 28th to 29th,
but the few meteors seen did not radiate from any point.

The number of the meteors seen from the 12th to the 15th
was not greater than on ordinary nights.

On referring to Quetelet’s Catalogue, I find mention of only
three showers seen about November 27, one on November 25,
(16th Jul. Cal.) 1602, a second on November 25, 1822, anda
third on November 29, 1850.

While on the subject of meteors, I beg to send an account of
an extraordinary one seen here by the Rey. Mr. Wright on the
night of November 7 last. [See this week’s Correspondence. ]
Mr. Wright’s description, in several respects, applies to the
moon, which was at the end of her first quarter, and in the
part of the heavens indicated. Has any similar meteor been
seen in former times? It was totally different in form and
appearance from the great meteor of Nov. 27, 1862.

C. MELDRUM

Mauritius, Dec. 12, 1872 4

234

SCIENCE IN ITALY*

THE energetic revival of scientific activity in Italy, to which

attention has been before directed, is still progressing satis-
factorily. The mere fact that the Transactions of the Royal
Institution of Lombardy report the proceedings of the sittings of
the 24th June, of the 4th and 18th of July, of the ‘‘ordinary
sittings of the 1st August,” and ‘‘ the solemn sittings of the 7th
of the same month,” afford to any Englishman who has su-
mered on the Plains of Lombardy, very strong presumptive
evidence of scientific enthusiasm and industry. Even in our luke-
warm climate such meetings are suspended during the summer
months, in spite of the insatiable activity of Englishmen. It
does not appear that the worship of the ‘‘ dolce far niente” has
profaned the Milanese shrine of science.

In the course of these summer meetings thirty-nine original
papers, besides academical reports and addresses, were read.
During the year ending August 7, ninety such papers were read
in the Department of the Mathematical and Natural Sciences,
including subjects in pure and applied mathematics, hydraulic
engineering, physical geography, astronomy, experimental physics,
chemistry, natural history, animal and vegetable physiology,
geology, agriculture, anthropology, anatomy, pathology, surgery,
therapeutics, hygiene, medical’ statistics, and the history of
science. In addition to these a number of original papers were
read in the Department of Literature and Moral and Political
Science. This statement of the quantity of work done is a
sufficient exeuse for my not attempting anything like a complete
analysis of it. A few of the most interesting papers may how-
ever be mentioned.

June, 20.—‘ On the Anthropometry of 400 criminals in the
Penitentiary of Padua.” This is an analysis and a summary
of the results obtained by Dr. Pellizzari and Dr. Berretta,
the full record of which fills a large volume. Some curious
results come out of the tables of these measurements. The
tallest and heaviest men are those who have committed murder
and manslaughter ; the shortest and lightest those who have
committed rape. ‘The head measurements are very interesting
and suggestive, sufficiently so to warrant a continuation of such
investigations over an area sufficiently large to obtain more
reliable averages than the 400 measurements afford. There is
another paper of the same date by Dr. Giglioli, that I suspect
will prove very interesting to comparative anatomists, on
some remarkable teeth of whales (Cetodonti) that were
collected by Sig. Corelli, among other things, during a residence
of forty years at Rio de Janeiro,

July 4.—“ On the epoch of the upheaval of the sienitic rocks
of the chain of Adamello, in the Province of Brescia.”—‘* On
another analogy between electrical and magnetic polarity,” by
Prof. Cantoni. (Another paper in continuation on the same
subject was read on July 18.)—Note on the “‘ Heat of Combi-
nation of Bodies,” by Prof. Cantoni. This contains some sugges-
tive speculations on the philosophy of thermodynamics, in which
the author points out experimental difficulties, and goes a long
way in the direction of atom-splitting, in order to find an expla-
nation. He compares the combination of two chemical atoms
or molecules, to a collision between two stellar systems or
nebulz, where the development of heat would not be merely that
due to the velocity of each system considered as a whole, but
in addition to this, to the disturbance of rotatory and orbital
motion of the planets, satellites, &c., within each system. He
supposes the ordinary atom or molecule to be a system of minor
atoms, having orbital and rotatory movements, the disturbance of
which, when atomic collision occurs, contributes to produce the
heat of combination. It is not for me, a heretical disbeliever in
the existence of either atoms or molecules, to make any comment
on the merits of such a hypothesis.

‘*On the Drainage of the Lago Fucino” by Carlo Possenti,
refers to an important undertaking which is proceeding at the
cost and risk of Prince Torlonia. The author points out the
difficulties and possible sources of failure of the enterprise.

‘*On the Prediction of the Movement of Tempests and the
Phenomena which accompany them,” by M. Harold Tarry,

Vice-Secretary of the Meteorological Society of France ; com- |

municated by Prof. Schiaparelli. ‘This is an exceedingly interest-
ing paper, mainly based upon observations made by the author
on the great cyclones which have deposited in Italy some of the
sand uplifted from the desert of Sahara, &c. It is worthy of a
special and separate abstract.

* “*Rendiconti del Reale Istituto Lombardo,” for July, August, and
September, 1872.

NATURE

(Yan. 23, 1873

July 18.—‘‘ On the Velocity of Molecular Movements in
Aeriform Fluids,” by Prof. Brusotti. This is a contribution to
the mathematical theory of thermodynamics.

“On the Origin of Atmospheric Electricity,” a series of ex-
periments on the electrical disturbances due to the rarification
and condensation of air, both in its ordinary condition and when
subjected to artificial dessication with a view to answer the ques-
tion proposed. °

“*On the Burning of Dead Bodies,” by Dr. G. Polli. The
author points out many sanitary, economical, and sentimental
objections to the existing customs of burying the dead, and adyo-
cates a revival of the ancient system of rapid decomposition by
burning and preservation of the ashes, in order to satisfy sanitary
requirements of the public, and the affections of friends and rela-
tives.

Prof. Corradi contributed a long and interesting account of
the voluminous manuscripts of Lazzaro Spallanzani, obtained in
1801 by the communal library of Reggio from Dr. Nicolo Spal-
lanzani, the brother of Lazzaro. A perusal of this paper shows
that the industry and attainments of this great naturalist were
more extensive than we are accustomed to suppose in England.
His manuscripts in Italian, French, and Latin are collected in
193 volumes, and include travelling diaries, notes of experiments
and observations, letters, &c., some of which have been alread
published. :

Besides these I may refer to Prof. Stoppani’s observations on
the eruption of Vesuvius April 24, 1872, and also to Prof. G.
Cantoni’s researches on the Rust of Wheat ; but cannot attempt
any account of their contents without extending this notice much
beyond its proper limits.

The ‘‘solemn sitting” of the August 7 was chiefly devoted
to the annual addresses of the Secretaries of the Mathematical
and Physical, and of the Literature and Moral and Political De-
partments, Sig. Luigi Cremona, and Sig. Guilio Carcano, and to
other annual business.

I should add that a monthly meteorological report is regularly
published, with the Transactions of this society.

The papers in the Department of Literature and Moral and
Political Science are few in number. Passing over the mere
literature altogether, I may refer to one paper on a strictly scien-
tific subject which in Italy, as in England, is too commonly left
in the hands of mere talkers and writers, who discuss many
things and zvvestigate very few or none. I allude to political
economy, and to a paper by Prof. Marescotti on Rent and
Profit. This paper abounds in political argument, rather
than political science. The author describes the rent of land
as the remuneration of the landed proprietor for the capital
which he has invested in rendering the soil productive, and
although writing for the purpose of justifying the payment
of rent, appears quite unacquainted with Ricardo’s demonstra-
tion of the natural and independent origin of rent, as another
element totally distinct from the reimbursement of the pro-
prietors’ outlay on the land.

The summer and autumn numbers of the Gazetta Chemica
ftaliana, and the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences of the
Institute of Bologna must be reserved for another notice,

W. MATtTigu WILLIAMS

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Geological Magazine for the present month (No. 103)
opens with a note by the editor on fossil remains of insects which
have been described in previous volumes of the magazine, as an
introduction to a paper by Mr. A. G. Butler describing a most
interesting wing of a butterfly belonging to the Nymphalide
group, found in the Stonesfield slate. This butterfly Mr.
Butler proposes to name Faleontina oolitica, and, as he re-
marks, it is the most ancient member of its group yet dis-
covered.—Mr. R. H. Tiddeman describes the Victoria Cave at
Settle in Yorkshire, and notices the fossils contained in the
lowest deposit yet reached in the investigation of this cave.—Mr.
W. Molyneux notices the occurrence of copper and lead ores in
the Bunter conglomerate of Carnock Chase ; and Prof. King, of
Galway, communicates a paper on the microscopic characters of
a silo-carbacid rock from Ceylon, and notices their bearing on
the methylotic origin of the Laurentian limestones, methy-
lotic being a term introduced by the author to express the cha-
| racter of rocks which have undergone change by the elimination

eae an ha cae

. Fan. 23, 1873]

!
of or additions to the substances of which they were originally

ee ee eS ye eee Oa
a ? ' i ws ian

NATURE are

an |

435

composed. This paper, of course, bears indirectly on the vexed
question of the nature of Hoz00n,

Poggendorf’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 1. The
first paper in this number is by A. Wiillner, being a continua-
tion from vol. exliv. of his researches ‘*On the Spectra of the
Gases in Geissler’s Tubes.” The present paper gives an account
of some researches undertaken by the writer along with Dr.
Winkelmann to account for the origin of the different kinds of
spectra, the band spectrum, the line spectrum, and the conti-
nuous spectrum. The spectrum experimented on was that of
nitrogen, the media being air, hydtogen and oxygen respec-
tively. The next paper is an abstract of a memoir by Prof,
Lemstrém, of Helsingfors University, on the intensity of the
flow of a voltaic current, which is followed by one in the
department of acoustics, by J. J. Oppel, on two remarkable
circumstances in connection with what he in a former paper
called ‘‘ Reflexionstone ” or ‘‘ Gitterténe.” The next paper is
the first portion of the second part of Herr W. Sellmeier’s paper
on the subject of the vibration of molecules, which is followed
by the continuation of E. Ketteler’s elaborate memoir on the
influence of astronomical movements on optical phenomena.
The next paper is an attempt by L. Lorenz, of Copenhagen, to
discover the means of determining in absolute terms, degrees of
heat, and to show more clearly the relation in which heat and
electricity stand to each other, which is connected to jsome
extent with the paper which follows by S. Subic, on tempera-
ture constants. A few short papers conclude the number.

No. 12. The first article in this number is a long one by Dr.
R. Bornstein, on the theory of Riihmkorff’sinduction apparatus,
which is followed by the conclusion of the second part of
Sellmeier’s paper on the vibration of molecules. The next
article is a criticism, by F. C, Henrici, on a paper read by Tom-
linson to the Chemical Society, on the action of sulid bodies on
supersaturated solutions. E. Reusch contributes an article on
the doctrine of twin-crystals, and J. Hervert one on transverse
vibrating flames. V. Dvérak contributes an account of some
experiments to test Airy’s theory of the Talbot bands. Among
the shorter papers is one by F. Zollner on the reversion
spectroscope.

Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern aus
dem Fahre, 1871.—The first part of this goodly sized volume is
occupied with the proceedings of the Scientific Society of Bern
for 1871. The following are some of the longer papers which
make up the bulk of the volume. The first is the continuation
from a former volume of Dr, Cherbuliez’ Historical Résumé of
Researches on the rate at which sound is propagated through
the atmosphere ; the same gentleman contributes some historical
notices concerning the mechanical theory of heat. Considerable
space is given to the continuation and conclusion of Dr, H,
Wydler’s contributions to a knowledge of the indigenous plants
of Switzerland ; and L. Fischer contributes a long list of the
‘cryptogamic plants to be found in the neighbourhood of Bern.
One of the longest and most interesting articles is by E. Schaer,
being contributions to the chemistry of the blood and of ferments ;
the first part treating of the influence of cyano-hydrogen and
phenol on certain properties of the blood corpuscles and various
ferments ; and the second part on the action of cyano-hydrogen
and phenol on yeast and on mould-fungi. This is followed by a
paper by Dr. A. Forster on the colouring of smoky quartz or
topaz. The concluding paper in the volume, which is accom-
panied by a well-constructed map and graphic tables, is by A.
Benteli, who attempts to estimate the amount of moisture preci-
pitated by the atmosphere in the seven chief river-districts of
Switzerland. The volume is altogether highly creditable to the
Society whose transactions it records.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDON

Royal Society, Jan. 16.—A ‘‘ Note on an Erroneous Exten-
sion of Jacobi’s Theorem” was read by Isaac Todhunter, M.A.,
F.R.S,

Sir G. B. Airy read an additional note to his paper ‘‘Ona
supposed Alteration in the Amount of Astionomical Aberration
of Light produced by the Passage of the Light through a con-
siderable thickness of Refracting Medium.”

Some months since, he said, I communicated to the Royal
Society the result of observations on y Draconis made with the
water-telescope of the Royal Observatory (constructed expressly
for testing the quality of the coefficient of sidereal aberration,
whether the tube of a telescope be filled with air, as usual, or
with water) in the spring and autumn of 1871. Similar ob-
servations have been made in the spring and autumn of 1872,
and I now place before the society the collected results. It will
be remembered, from the explanation in the former paper, that
the uniformity of results for the latitude of station necessarily
proves correctness of the coefficient of aberration employed in
the Nautical Almanac,

Apparent Latitude of Station

1871. Spring ‘ : 4 5 5r 28 34°4

Autumn . r A 51 28 33°6
1872, Spring ' c 3 > 51 28 33°6
Autumn 51 28 33°8

I now propose, when the risk of frost shall have passed away,
to reverify the scale of the micrometer, and then to dismount
the instrument. ~

Mathematical Society, Jan. 9.—Dr. Hirst, F.R.S., presi-
dent in the chair.—Papers were read by Mr. S. Roberts,
V.P., on parallel surfaces ; Prof. H. J. S. Smith, on the greatest
common divisors of the minor determinants of a rectangular
matrix of which the constituents are integral numbers, and on
an arithmetical demonstration of a theorem in the integral cal-
culus (these two communications were founded upon a paper by
the author, published some few years since in the ‘* Philosophical
Transactions.” Prof. Wolstenholme, on the summation of cer-
tain series (read in the author’s absence by the secretary), This
was concerned with the obtaining of a series closely related to
Vandermonde’s well-known series, ; thus, Vandermonde’s series
being—

nm (w—1
(2 + 6), = 6, + "b,_-) a, + SO i a Fs 0 Gy
then the series discussed might be written—
n (n—1
(a + 4), = 6, + w(6-1),-1 4 + a (6-2), —9 (@ + Is
n(m —1)(z—2
ee 2) (6—3),—s(@+2)3+-.. +(@+n—-1),
Amongst the presents received were three War Department
weather maps, Signal Service, U.S. army, Washington, Friday,
November 22, 1872, constructed for 7.35 P.M., 4.35 P.M., and
II P.M.

Chemical Society, Dec. 16, 1872.—Prof. Frankland, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—‘‘ Notes on various Chemical Reac-
tions,”’ by Dr. Davies, contained observations on the formation of
the sulphides of copper and barium, also some notes on the
separation of nickel and cobalt—Mr. H. Grimshaw communi-
cated the results of his researches on ethyl-amyl and its deri-
vatives. After the president had made some remarks on the
thoroughness with which this research had been carried out, a
communication from Dr. Schorlemmer on ‘‘ The heptanes from
Petroleum,” was read. This paper contained, among other
matter, an interesting account of the separation of isomeric hep-
tylenes by means of hydrochloric acid—A paper by Mr. T.
Cornelley on the “‘ Vanadates of Thallium,” was then read. It
contained descriptions of several new and complex vanadates of
Thallium.—Mr. Kingzett communicated to the society the results
of his experiments on the conversion of sodium chloride into
sodium sulphide by the action of hydrosulphuric acid; and
finally, Mr. P. Braham exhibited some ingenious apparatus
which he had arranged for the prosecution of physical researches
under the microscope.

Photographic Society, Jan. 14.—James Glaisher, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—The President delivered a lecture on
the application of photography for registering magnetical and
meteorological phenomena, pointing out that no other method
of registration was sufficiently delicate for the purpose; the
lecturer explained that the magnetical records were obtained by
a mirror arrangement fitted to the moving magnet, and in this
way a pencil of light was reflected upon sensitive paper wound
round a cylinder, which revolved once in twenty-four hours,
thus securing a wave line representing the magnetical currents of
the earth during the day. Meteorological records required less
complicated apparatus. The photo-chemical process employed
was also explained. Dr. E. J. Gayer read a paper ‘On In-

236

NATURE

| [Kan. 23, 1873

aenous micro-photography,” and exhibited pictures of live | a bureau whose duty (like that of the ‘‘ Nautical Almanac 2

animalculz in water.—Dr. E, J. Gayer also read a paper ‘‘ Ona
cause of fading in albumenised pictures.”

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Jan. 6.—This was the annual
general meeting of the Academy, and M. Faye, after delivering
an address mainly devoted to the transit of Venus expeditions,
vacated the chair, where he was succeeded by M. de Quatre-
fages.—M. Le Baron C, Dupin read a note on the French popu-
lation, which, allowing for the ceded provinces, shows a de-
crease of 1,279,451. The decrease the Baron asserts to have been
directly and indirectly caused by the late war.—M. Boussingault
gave an account of his experiments on the formation of nitric
compounds by the soil. He finds that these bodies are not
formed from the nitrogen of the air, as he had been inclined to
think.—M. A. de Caligny read an interesting paper on the effects
of certain kinds of waves on sand-banks.—Further observations
of 128 by M. Borrelly were received, and also M. Bossert’s
Elements and Ephemerides of the same planetoid.—A paper
on orthogonal surfaces, by M. G. Darbonn, was then read, and
followed by an answer to M. Gernez’s criticisms by M. G. Van
der Mensbrugghe, who defends his and Mr. Tomlinson’s theory
of the action of films on saturated solutions.—A note on certain
phosphorous compounds, in which that body appears to exist in
the amorphous (red) form, by M. A. Gautier followed.—M. A.
Houzeau sent a paper on the estimation of ammonia in coal
gas.—MM. Estor and Saint-Pierre sent a short note on respira-
tory combustion. They have made experiments which prove
intra-arterial as against pulmonary combustion. —M. Sanson sent
a paper on the horse of the quaternary fauna, which was followed
by a note by M. Diamilla Miiller on the absolute magnetic
declination at Tiflis, at Sevrova, and at Paris.—M. de Rouville
sent a paper on the upper Jurassic formations of the department
of L’Herault.

January 13.--M. de Quatrefages, president, in the chair. M.
Jamin presented his fourth note on a magnetic condenser, a de-
scription of an apparatus he has contrived, by which the power
of magnets is much increased.—M. E. Mouchez read a note on
the rising of the Algerian Coast.—M. H. Resal sent a note on
Savart’s observation of the mu:ual influence of two pendulums.—
MM. Troost and Hautefeuille read some researches on the Allo-
tropic forms of phosphorus ; they point out the similarity of
the changes of vapour density in phosphorus when undergoing
allotropic modification to those of cyanic ; they also state that
the sudden development of heat in the case of phosphorus when
at the point of change has an exact analogy in the case of the
acid mentioned.—MM. F. Bagault and Roche sent a note on a
new process for the manufacture of steel. The process consists
of decarbonising cast iron by means of rich iron oxide ores.
—An interesting mathematical paper on orthogonal surfaces was
received from M. G. Darbown.—M. Gernez controverts some
assertions of Van der Mensbiugghe as to the effects of liquids of
high surface tension on liquids of low tension. Van der Mens-
brugghe asserts that when such liquids are in contact, if the first
contains a dissolved gas it is compelled to liberate it.—M.
Melsens sent a note on sulphurous and chlorosulphuric acid and
on the combination of chlorine and hydrogen in darkness. The
author saturated charcoal with chlorine, and then introduced it
iito an atmosphere of hydrogen. The two gases completely and
quietly combined in absolute darkness.—M. Prenier sent a
note on ‘‘ Polypropylenic Carbides.” ‘These bodies are formed
by acting on propylenic bromide by nascent hydrogen ; their
general formula is C*™H*".—M, J. Chaulard sent a nute
on the spectroscopic examination of the chlorophyll in
residues of digestion. This body does not seem to be
broken up in the stomach, as its absorption bands are
distinctly recognisable in the excrements of animals fed on
vegetables.—M. Stan. Meunier sent a note on ‘‘ The increase
of mechanical forces in the star (now destroyed), from whence
the meteorites are derived.—M. P. Fischer sent a note on the
Jurassic formations of Madagascar.—M. Pisani sent a paper
on the analysis of Lanarkite from Leadhills, Scotland ; he asserts
that the mineral is a basic lead sulphate. —M. Chapelas’s note on
the aurora of January 7, was then read, and followed by a note
from M. Puirée, on the levelling of the zero of the flood gauges
of the Scine.—A letter from M. P. Bert to the President con-
c rning M. Faye’s recent defence of the Bureau des Longitudes
was next read, M. Bert says that he did not propose the total
S pj ression of the Bureau, but that he said that as it had not
enswered the expectations of science, it ought to be replaced by

office in England), would be to publish the Connaissance des
Temps, and this office should receive not more than 40,000 francs
(per annum ?)

DIARY
.

THURSDAY, January 23.

Royvat Society, at 8.30.—Contributions to the History of the O:chins: Dr.
Stenhouse —On the Fossil Mammals of Australia: Prof. Owen.—Notes
on the Wide-slit Method of Viewiag Solar Prominences: W. Huggins.

Royat Socigety Cuvs, at 6.

Royat InstituTion, at 3-—On Oxidation: Dr. Debus. js

Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Implements of the Bronze Period : John

Evans.
. FRIDAY, January 24.%
RovatInstituTION, at 9.—Analogies of Physical ana Moral Science ;: Prof.
Birks.
PHILOLOGICAL SocigtTy, at 8.15.
QUEKETT Cus, at 8.
O_p CHANGE MicroscopicaL Society, at 8.30.—On the Senses of Insects:

T. Rymer Jones
SATURDAY, JANuARY 25.
Rovat InsTITUTION, at 3.—Comparative Politics; Dr. E. A. Freeman.
Roya Botanic SOCIETY, at 3 45-

SUNDAY, January 26. 3 :
Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4—The Glacial Period; a Chapter in
English Geology.—An Account of the Physical Changes which Great
Britain has undergone since Tertiary Times: A. H. Green.

MONDAY, JANUARY 27-

Roya GroGRaPHIcaL Society, at 8 30.—Sistan. With an Accourt of a
journey from Bander Abbas to Meshed, through that Province: Major
Gen. Sir Frederick Goldsmid —Note on the Comparative Geography and
Ethnology of Sistan ; by the President.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SociETY, at 7.—Anniversary.

MEDICAL Society, at 8.

Lonpon InsTiTUTION, at 4 —Physical Geography ; Prof. Duncan.

TUESDAY, January 28.
Royat MEbIcAL AND CHIRURGICAL SOcIgTY, at 8.30.
Civic ENGINEERS, at 8.

WEDNESDAY, January 29.
Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 7.—Musical Lecture.
Society oF Arts, at 8.

BOOKS RECEIVED

EnG.isH.—The Gospel of the World’s Divine Order: D. Campbell
(Triibner).—Lectures on the Philosophy of Law: J. H. Stirling (Longmans).
—The Botanist's Pocket-Book: W. R. Hayward (Bell & Daldy) —The
School Manual of Geology. Second Edition A, J. Jukes-Browne
(A. & J. Black),

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

ENGLISH.—Scottish Naturalist, Vol. ii. No. 9.—Food Journal, Vol iii.
No. 36.—American Journal of Science and Art, Nos. 24, 25, for Dec. 1872
and Jan. 1873.—The Astronomical Almanack, 1873: W H. Hollis (Simpkin
and Marshall).—Zoologist, No. 88.—Entomologist, No. 112.,—Sermons in
Sonnets: W. Whale.—Proceedings of the Zoological and Acclimatisation
Society of Victoria, and Report of the Annual Meeting of the Society, held
March 1, 1872, Vol. i—Fifth Annual Report of the Executive Committee of
the Manchester National Society for Women’s Suffrage.—Journal of the
Royal Horticultural Society of London, Part 11, 12, Vol. iii. 1873.—Prac-
tical Magazine, No.1. 1873. “

AmeErican,—The Lens, Vol. i. No. 4. t a

ForeiGn.—Rendiconti, Vol. v. No. 19 —Bulletin de Ja Société Imperial des
Naturalistes de Moscow,

CONTENTS Pace

THe NAVY AND SCIENCE «4 « «) 5.0 « «© 0 © © 6) «| () Unie

ELECTROSTATICS AND MAGNETISM. . «. + © «© © «© «© y» «© «© + 218

Qur Booxk)SHELF.. . . 2)» Sees © eb ee ee
LETTERS TO THE EpIToR:—

Phosphorescence in Fishes o! fol 225

Movements of the Earth's Surface-—F. W. Hutton . . «
Meteor Observed at Mauritius. -Rev. W. WRIGHT. . . -
Moon's Surface..—C, H. W. MERLIN. . « ;

The Twinkling of the Stars.—Dr. G. F. BuRDER «.. . «. 222

Logarithmic Tables.—Prof. ASAPH HaLL . . « «+ + s + 222

Will-o’-the-Wisps.—Howaro Fox. . . . « « «+ «© «© « 222

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SCHOLARSHIPS AND EXAMINATIONS FOR NATURAL SCIENCE AT CAM-

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NATURE

237

THURSDAY, JANUARY 30, 1873

THE INTERNATIONAL METRIC COMMIS-
STON *

7 | os continuation of the previous remarks upon the pro-
ceedings of the Commission, we may now notice some
of the more important scientific details of its operations.
The material for constructing the new Standards, for
which an alloy of pure platinum with 10 per cent. of iridium
has been selected, is obviously a matter of primary import-
ance. Before determining upon this metallic alloy, a series
of experiments was made by the French section of the Com-
mission. A material was needed, both for the metre and
the kilogramme, that should as far as possible be un-
alterable in its composition and molecular structure, in its
form and dimensions, from the ordinary action of air,
water, fire, or other chemical agents, or from mechanical
_ forces to which it might be subject ; that would in fact
possess physical properties rendering it invariable with
time. It should be hard, elastic, and yet not difficult to
work. It should at the same time be perfectly homo-
geneous, so that all the Standards should be as nearly as
possible identical in their material. And in order to
lessen the unavoidable influences of variations of tempe-
rature, it was obvious that a material was most desirable
that would experience the jleast alteration in its dimen-
sions from’ changes of temperature. Proceeding by an
exhaustive process, the Commission decided against em-
ploying any of the materials which have been hitherto
adopted. Brass and alloys of copper did -not satisfy the
requirements, and were rejected as liable to be injuriously
affected by air and heat, and from being composed of
different metals varying in their density and dilatation.
_ Quartz, though satisfactory in many respects, was too
fragile and bulky ; besides which there existed no pros-
pect of obtaining it of sufficiently large dimensions and of
the requisite purity. In addition to the objections attaching
to quartz, glass was inadmissible by reason of the dis-
turbing influences of moist air on its surface, and from its
molecular condition as a tempered and crystallised body
rendering it liable to changes from variation of tempera-
ture which might affect the constancy of its density,
expansion, and even length; for it was thought that a
glass metre, like a steel metre, would ‘thus ‘become
shorter in course of time. Even platinum, which was
the best pure metal for the purpose, has the disadvantage
of being too soft and too weak for a measuring bar.
_ Combined, however, with a proper proportion of iridium,
platinum satisfied all the conditions required either for a
Standard metre or kilogramme. These two metals have
the same system of regular crystallisation, the same
_ density and rate of expansion, and when alloyed in proper
_ proportions, they produce a perfectly homogeneous mate-
rial. They are the two metals which of all others dilate
the least by heat, and the proposed alloy of 10 per cent.
of iridium has been proved to have as nearly as possible
the same density and the same rate of expansion as the
existing Metric Standards, thej J/étre and the K7/o-
_ gramme des Archives. This fact alone is important as
greatly facilitating the identity of the length and weight
of the new Standards with those of the original proto-
* Continued from p. 197. z
No, 170—VoL. vit,

types of the Metric System. Platinum-iridium has also
been proved to be extremely hard and rigid, and to
possess the greatest elasticity, as well as cohesion of
resistance to fracture. At the same time, it is easily cut
with a diamond, and it has been shown that lines ;,5, of
a millimetre apart (or 0.00035 inch), so cut upon it, with
the aid of a microscope, are perfectly regular, even when
magnified from 300 to 600 times;

The experiments of M. Regnault have shown that plati-
num-iridium resists the penetration of absorbent gases,
and further experiments made by the Commission prove
that the influence of such gases can in no way cause any
change, either in its volume or its weight. A more severe
test had already been applied to platinum by M. Stas at
Brussels. He subjected a platinum kilogramme suc-
cessively to the action of alcohol, cold water, boiling water,
drying in a vacuum, and heating in a red heat of from
250° to 300° C., whilst guarded from flame ; and he ascer-
tained by comparisons in moist air, at a temperature of
15° C., with a platinum kilogramme not subjected to any
of these conditions, that no change whatever had occurred
in the weight of the kilogramme so treated. It was only
requisite to allow a certain number of days, at most a
fortnight, to elapse for the platinum to recover itself.

Another important question was that of the form to be
given to the new metre. The present Metre des Archives is
a bar of platinum with a rectangular section, 25 millimetres
wide, and 4 millimetres deep (or about 1 inch by } inch),
It had been determined that the new metre, which was to
be a standard @ ¢raits, or line-standard, should have its
defining lines marked at mid-depth of the bar, on the
same principle as our English standard of length, in order
that the actual length of the measure should be as little
as possible affected by any difference of temperature, and
consequently of dilatation, between the upper and lower
surfaces of the bar. But the Commission objected to the
English mode of sinking cylindrical holes to the mid-
depth of the bar, and tracing the defining lines on the
plane surface of the bottom of these holes, as being not
only inconvenient on many accounts, but also as inter-
fering with the uniformity of structure of the bar during
its whole length. The form of the new mdé¢re a traits
mentioned in the resolutions as having been proposed by
M. Tresca, one of the secretaries of the commission, who
had given much study to the question, and laid an elabo-
rate note upon the subject before the Commission, is of a
very ingenious and entirely novel character. Its trans-
verse section may be described as taken from the form of
the letter X, if divided down the middle into two halves,
and then joined by a band equal in thickness to the
other parts (3 millimetres). By lowering the upper surface
of this band to the mid-depth of the bar, it gives a con-
tinuous plane, upon which not only the two defining lines
of the metre can be cut, but also any intermediate lines
that may be required as subdivisions of the metre. By a
further slight reduction in the thickness of the lower half
of the sectional figure, the defining lines will lie not only
in the length of the neutral axis of the bar, but also in that
of its centre of gravity. The dimensions of the bar itself
when first constructed are to be 102 centimetres in length,
and 2 centimetres square in section, and the bar is after-
wards to be planed to the form decided upon. Its weight
will thus be reduced to about 3} kilogrammes, and the

te)

238

NATURE

| Fan. 30, 1873 :

a eee

defining lines of the metre will be cut at the distance of
1 centimetre from each end of the bar.

There appear to be many advantages in this new form
of measuring bar, of a geometrical, mechanical, thermal,
and economical character. Much importance is attached
to the absolute uniformity of the bar throughout its whole
length, as equalising its resistance and molecular action,
and also to the adoption of a geometrical form as sym-
metrical as possible. The absence of any acute angle
was also dwelt upon as facilitating the mechanical dis-
placement of the surplus metal; and it has since been
practically ascertained that the planing can be executed
with the utmost regularity and precision. It will also
prove an excellent test of the soundness of the metal
throughout the whole length of the bar. The great
rigidity of this form of bar, combined with the advantage
of the high elasticity of the platinum-iridium, was fully
shown ; as compared with the rigidity of the Metre des
Archives, it will be as 25°9to1, although its sectional area
is only half as much more, The new form will also be
highly favourable for equalising the temperature through-
out its whole length and thickness, and for taking the
temperature of the surrounding medium ; and it will
afford a most convenient lodgement for mercurial ther-
mometer tubes, thus enabling the actual temperature of
the measuring axis of the bar to be readily and accurately
determined. This measuring axis will be in one open
and unbroken line, and quite unaffected in its dilatation
by any contact with the support of the bar. Lastly, in
an economical point of view, the form proposed will give
the greatest possible strength with the least quantity of
the costly material used.

This form for the s¢re @ traits can be employed with
merely a slight modification for any métres d bouts, or end-
standards, that may be required. The form of the bars
for the metres @ bouts will have a similar sectional figure,
but symmetrical, the measure being defined by the sphe-
rical end of two small cylinders, 3 millimetres in diameter,
and projecting 1 millimetre from the middle of the ends
of the bar, the radius of curvature being 1 metre.

One other point may be noticed as to the mode of deter-
mining the temperature and dilatation of the standards.
The temperature at which the new metre will have its
true length has been decided to be the same as that of
the Metre des Archives, that is to say, o° C. All the
necessary arrangements have been already made for
making comparisons at this temperature by constructing
a cold chamber expressly for the purpose, and surround-
ing it with non-conducting materials. By a blast of cold
air driven by a steam-engine in an adjoining room over a
surface of ether and through pipes into the cold chamber,
the temperature in it may be reduced in a few hours to
the freezing point, and maintained constant there. From
this adjoining room also the requisite light is conveyed
into the cold chamber, ani is thrown by reflection on the
bars and apparatus. There is an inner part of the
chamber in which the standard metres and the comparing
apparatus are placed, whilst the observer is enabled to
make the adjustments and the comparisons through the
microscopes from an outer part, and thus the heat of his
body is prevented from exerting any disturbing influence

on the bars and apparatus,

Many comparisons of the metre will, however, be made
at other temperatures, and_in all such cases, as well as for

ascertaining the rate of expansion of the bars, the accurate
determination of the temperature by thermometers will be
requisite. The question of the amount of dependence to
be placed on the indication of the temperature by mer-
curial thermometers, which has recently been a good deal
agitated in this country, was considered by the Commis-
sion to be one of great importance. They found that in
all mercurial thermometers, the dilatation of the glass
envelope, which, so far as it is known, is only about one-
seventh that of the quicksilver, renders the reading of the
best calibrated thermometers liable to errors amounting to
some tenths of a centesimal degree. The best authorities
are also of opinion that implicit dependence cannot be
placed on the constancy of mercurial thermometers, so
far as they indicate the temperature, nor on the constancy
of the dilatation of the glass envelope. It was thought,
therefore, that for ascertaining the temperature with a
degree of precision exceeding o”r C., recourse must be
had to an air thermometer.

On the other hand, the air thermometer is an instru-
ment complicated in construction and difficult to use. It
requires the greatest precautions and practised skill in its
manipulation ; and the necessity of having recourse to an
air thermometer on every occasion of making com-
parisons with the primary standards would create very
serious embarrassments. On these grounds it was decided
that every one of the new metres should be accompanied
by two detached mercurial thermometers, carefully com-
pared with an air thermometer, and which should be re-
verified with it from time to time.

It was stated to the Commission by M. H. Saint-Claire
Deville, as the result of twenty years’ use of an air ther-
mometer, that no instrument could be more precise and
convenient in reading, more easy and expeditious in use.
He estimated that by employing an air thermometer
according to a method suggested by him, the mean tem-
perature of ‘a standard metre under comparison could be
determined with precision to the zisth of a degree of
the centigrade scale. :

On the subject of dilatation, we can only briefly allude
to M. Fizeau’s admirable method of accurately determin-
ing the rate of expansion of solid bodies by heat, by em-
ploying the length of a wave of monochromatic sodium
light (a constant = 0'005888 millimetre, or 0’00002318
inch), as his standard of measure. By means of an in-
genious apparatus constructed by M. Soleil, the yellow
ray is made to fall vertically through a piece of plate glass
on a horizontal plane of the solid body, and is reflected
in the under-surface of the glass. By counting the
number of Newton’s rings passing a fixed point upon the
glass, when they are set in motion from the expansion of
the surface of the solid body by observed degrees of heat,
its dilatation can be computed with the greatest precision,
This method has been described in the proceedings of the
Royal Society on November 30, 1866, when the Rumford
gold medal was awarded to M. Fizeau for it. The Com-
mission also hope to obtain a standard of dilatation by
marking a measure of length of one or two decimetres
upon the plane surface of a piece of Beryl in its axis of
non-dilatation. M, Fizeau has shown that Beryl varies
in its dimensions from heat less than almost any other
body, and that it possesses this peculiarity, that whilst it
expands by heat in the direction of its axis of crystallisa-
tion, it contracts by heat in the direction perpendicular to

this axis ; consequently in the line of the proper inter-
_ mediate angle there is no dilatation or contraction what-
~ ever from heat. Endeavours will therefore be made thus
to obtain an invariable standard measure of length, by
- comparison with which the rate of dilatation of measures
variable with heat may be determined.
There are other subjects of the investigations of the
committee which might be noticed, but we have probably
stated enough to enable some idea to be formed of the
magnitude of the work undertaken by the International
_ Metric Commission, and of the value and importance of
the anticipated results of their labours ; as well as the ad-
vantages expected to be obtained from the proposed
establishment of the permanent International Metric
Institution. H. W. CHISHOLM

DE MORGAN'S BUDGET OF PARADOXES

A Budget of Paradoxes. By A. De Morgan. (Longmans,

1872.)

4 hag work is absolutely unique. Nothing in the
slightest degree approaching it in its wonderful
combinations has ever, to our knowledge, been produced.
True and false science, theological, logical, metaphysical,
physical, mathematical, &c., are interwoven in its pages
in the most fantastic manner: and the author himself
; mingles with his puppets, showing off their peculiarities,
posing them, helping them when diffident, restraining
them when noisy, and even occasionally presenting him-
self as one of their number. All is done in the most
perfect good-humour, so that the only incongruities we
are sensible of are the sometimes savage remarks which
several of his pet bears make about their dancing-
master. :
‘De Morgan was a man of extraordinary information,
We use the word advisedly as including all that is meant
by the several terms knowledge, science, erudition, &c.
Everywhere he was thoroughly at home. An old edition
and its value-giving peculiarities or defects, a complex
mathematical formula with its proof and its congeners, a
debated point in theology or logic, a quotation from some
almost-unheard-of author, all came naturally to him, and
from him. With a lively and ready wit, a singularly
happy style, and admirable temper, he was exactly fitted
to write a work like this, And every page of it shows
that he thoroughly enjoyed his task. Witness, for in-
_ stance, the following extract :—
*T will not, from henceforward, talk to any squarer of
the circle, trisector of the angle, duplicator of the cube,
constructor of perpetual motion, subverter of gravitation,
stagnator of the earth, builder of the universe, &c, I will
receive any writings or books which require no answer,
and read them when I please: I will certainly preserve
them—this list may be enlarged at some future time.
There are three subjects which I have hardly anything
upon: astrology, mechanism, and the infallible way of
winning at play. I have never cared to preserve astrology,
The mechanists make models, and not books, The infal-
lible winners—though I have seen a few—think their
secret too valuable, and prefer #utare guadrata rotundis—
to turn dice into coin—at the gaining-house : verily they
have their reward.”
He was not, let it be at once said, a great original
- mathematician—not, that is, of the order of men like

NATURE

pee He) 4 Phe ee a i aes
ji ae hee Sie ee 1p jieh os re vg ; f

239

Boole or Rowan Hamilton—but extraordinarily great
mathematicians like these are very rare, and there were
not in Britain a dozen who were his superiors. We are
told in the Preface to this work that it was his intention
to have composed a companion volume on “the contra-
dictions and inconsistencies of orthodox learning.” What
a loss we have here sustained—how narrow an escape
several of our most popularly idolised men of science, &c.,
have made—must be known to many, perhaps even dimly
suspected (at least we hope so) by those who would
assuredly have been the earliest and most , prominent
sufferers.

A great part of the volume consists of reprints from a
series of almost weekly papers in the Atheneum ; but
much new matter has been added, and several modifica-
tions and corrections have been made. The task of
editing has been undertaken by the author’s widow, and
appears to have been exceedingly well done throughout.
The volume is not one which can be read through at a
sitting—nor even at three or four: the multiplicity of
subjects renders it bewildering if more than a dozen or
two of pages be read at a time—but we do not envy the
man who cannot, at a spare moment, find both pleasure
and profit in the perusal of a moderate portion of it, taken
ad aperturam.

De Morgan was a very dangerous antagonist. Ever
ready, almost always thoroughly well informed, gifted
with admirable powers of sarcasm which varied their
method according to the temperament of his adversary,
he was ready for all comers, gaily tilted against many so-
called celebrities; and—upset them. It is unfortunate
that the issue of his grand contest with Sir William
Hamilton (the great Scottish Oxford Philosopher) is but
in part indicated in this volume—it is softened down, in
fact, till one can hardly recognise the features of the extra-
ordinary A¢hene@um correspondence of 1847. There the
ungovernable rage of the philosopher contrasts most
strongly with the calm sarcasm of the mathematician,
who was at every point his master, and who “ p ayed”
him with the dexterity and the tenderness of old Isaak
himself! But it is characteristic of De Morgan that,
though he was grievously insulted throughout the greater
part of this discussion, no trace of annoyance seems to
have remained with him after the death of his antagonist ;
for none would gather from the “ Budget” more than the
faintest inkling of the amount of provocation he received.

Yet De Morgan had his weak points, and in an un-
guarded moment he made a first, and last, attack—one of
the few assaults in which he was unsuccessful—on Faraday.
At least he gets the credit of having reviewed a lecture of
Faraday’s in the Atheneum of 1857, and of having
for once wholly missed the main point at issue.

To return to the “ Budget.” The tenderness displayed for
trisectors, duplicators of the cube, circle squarers, per-
petual motionists, e¢ hoc genus omne—from J. Reddie
through J. Symons, to J. Smith—is most touching. The
real human interest evidently taken in the careers of those
hopelessly ignorant writers, does credit to De Morgan’s
heart. He does not hang up his Paradoxer on high as a
warning, nor does he dissect him for purposes of psycho-
logical study; he carefully spreads him out, under suffi-
cient but not extravagant pressure, on the white page of
his herbarium, and fondly preserves him as a specimen

240

for his future lectures. Thus the specimens may be said
to Jive in his pages, with all their bright motley of colour
and their extraordinary odours—only flattened a little by
the supreme necessities of the case.

Mingled with the paradoxes, and generally more or less
directly suggested by them, we have many valuable
pieces of information—as, for instance, about the calendar
(pp. 219, &c.), the names of the “beast” (p, 403), the
‘* Macclesfield Letters ” (p. 448), &c.—and we have anec-
dotes, verses more or less confessedly doggrel, and para-
doxes full-blown, from the author’s own pen.

One extract must suffice, though there are hundreds
equally good, for which we must refer the reader to this
most thoroughly enjoyable book itself. Our choice is
determined by the present aspect of the education ques-
tion ; and conveys a much-needed lesson to all who are

capable of comprehending.

“Tt was somewhat more than twenty years after I had
thus heard a Cambridge tutor show sense of the true place
of Horner’s method, that a pupil of mine who had passed
on to Cambridge was desired by his College tutor to solve
a certain cubic equation—one of an integer root of two
figures. In a minute the work and answer were presented
by Horners method. ‘ How!’ said the tutor, ‘this can’t
be, you know,’ ‘There is the answer, sir, said my pupil,
greatly amused, for my pupils learnt not only Horner’s
method, but the estimation it held at Cambridge. ‘Yes,’
said the tutor, ‘there is the answer, certainly; but it
stands to veason that a cubic equation cannot be solved
in this space.’ He then sat down, went through a process
about ten times as long, and then said with triumph,
‘There! that is the way to solve a cubic equation!’ I
think the tutor in this case was never matched, except by
the country organist. A master of the instrument went
into the organ-loft during service, and asked the organist
to let him Alay the congregation out; consent was given.
The stranger, when the time came, began a voluntary,
which made the people open their ears, and wonder who
had got into the loft; they kept their places to enjoy the
treat. When the organist saw this, he pushed the inter-
loper off the stool, with ‘You'll never play ’em out this
side Christmas.’ He then began his own drone, and the
congregation began to move quietly away. ‘There!’
said he, ‘that’s the way to play ’em out !’”

BURMEISTER’S ANNALS OF THE PUBLIC
MUSEUM OF BUENOS AYRES

Anales del Museo Publico de Buenos Ayres, para dar a
conocer los objetos de Historia Natural nuevos o poco
conocidos conservados en este establecimento. Por
German Burmeister, M.D. Vol. ii., parts 1—4. (Bue-
nos Ayres and London: Taylor and Francis.)

N a previous number of NATURE (vol. iii. p. 282),
Prof. Flower has given our readers an account of

the first volume of this most meritorious work, and of the
objects of its distinguished author in undertaking it.

Since Prof. Flowers’s article was published, four parts of

the second volume of the ‘‘Anales” have been issued,

containing a series of articles and illustrations of quite as
great zoological interest as those in the first volume. The
wonders of the extinct Mammalian Fauna of the Argen-
tine Republic are well known, and in the present volume

Prof, Burmeister devotes himself to their exposition. In

the first part he commences a complete monograph of

the Glyptodonts, or extinct gigantic Armadillos, repre-
sented by specimens in the museum under his charges

NATURE

[Yan. 30, 1873

and carries it on to the end of Part IV. In the first
volume of the “ Annals” Prof. Burmeister, in the course
of a general article on the fossil mammals of the dilu-
vium of Buenos Ayres, had given a preliminary expo-
sition of his views as to the arrangement of these won-
derful animals. He now enters vat length upon the
description of the species known to him, and gives a
series of splendid lithographs to illustrate their remains.
Not only are the bones of the Glyptodonts so perfectly
preserved as to enable many of the skeletons to be com-
pletely restored, but great portions of the extraordinary
suits of armour with which they were clad above and
below have likewise been discovered, so that their external
appearance can likewise be portrayed. Those who
interest themselves in palzontology will do well to secure
copies of these beautiful illustrations, a few of which are
on sale at Messrs. Taylor and Francis, of Red Lion Court,
at ros. a number.

We should add that, attached to each number of the
“Anales” is a “ Boletin del Museo Publico de Buenos
Ayres,” in which is given an account of the additions
made to the establishment during the year. An important
acquisition in 1871 was the series of remains of the
Machrauchenia patachonica, an extinct animal allied to
the horses and tapirs, formerly belonging to a naturalist
named Bravard, who was killed in the earthquake of
Mendoza. These specimens formed the basis of Prof.
Burmeister’s complete restoration of this animal, pub-
lished in the first volume of the “ Anales.”

OUR BOOK SHELF

Notes on the Post-pliocene Geology of Canada, &¢. By
J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Montreal ;
Mitchell and Wilson, 1872.)

THESE “ Notes,” which are reprinted from the Canadian
Naturalist, cannot fail to interest European glacialists.
Especially valuable for purposes of comparison are the
detailed notes on the fossils obtained from the glacial
beds. The lists include in all about 205 species, distri-
buted as follows :—Radiata, 24 ; Mollusca, 140; Arti-
culata, 26 ; Vertebrata, 5. All these, with three or four
exceptions, may be affirmed, says the author, to be living
northern or southern species. Moreover, the fauna of the
older part of the Canadian glacial deposits is more Arctic
in character than that of the modern part. It would thus
appear that since the accumulation of the boulder-clay a
gradual amelioration of climate has taken place; but the
change from Arctic conditions has evidently been less
decided on the west than on the east side of the Atlantic,
Dr, Dawson’s conclusions regarding what we may term
the physics of the glacial epoch will probably meet with
less acceptance than his paleontological results. He con-
siders the Erie-clay described by Whittlesey, Newberry,
and others to be of marine, and not of fresh-water origin,
as these authors believe. But his reasons for this opinion
can hardly be considered satisfactory. When an extensive
deposit of fine clay, after having been examined over a
wide area, is found not only to be totally destitute of
marine organisms, but to contain quantities of drift-wood,
and to have associated with it beds of peat and an old
soil containing tree roots, the probabilities are that the
clay-beds are of fresh-water origin, Besides, if we are
not mistaken, fresh-water shells have been got in the Erie
clay. That much-vexed question, the origin of boulder-
clay comes in for some discussion in these “ Notes,” the
author inclining to think the deposit is marine, It is some-
what significant, however, that the boulder-clay is only

eS ae

fossiliferous in the lower part of the St. Lawrence river ;
further inland it has not been observed to contain fossils,
From the author’s description of the boulder-clay as seen
at low levels in Canada, we think that deposit more
closely resembles some of the maritime fossiliferous
stony clays of Britain than our Till or lower boulder-clay.
Dr. Dawson seems to have satisfied himself that the “ real
cause” of the excavation of the American lakes “was ob-
viously the flowing of cold currents over the American land
during its submergence.” He also thinks that “ the fiords
on coasts, like the deep lateral valleys of mountains, are
evidences of the action of waves, rather than that of ice.”
No glacialist, as far as we know, holds the extravagant
belief that fiords have been cut out by ice. They are un-
doubtedly submerged valleys, and were hollowed out by
streams and other atmospheric influences in ages long
anterior to the glacial epoch. But however much we may
differ from Dr. Dawson in some of his conclusions, there
can be no doubt that he has added very considerably to
our knowledge of American glacial deposits, and we cor-
dially recommend the perusal of his “ Notes” to our geo-
logical readers.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. }

The Invention of the Water-Air-Pump
STATEMENT BY Pror. BUNSEN*

** A letter addressed to me by Dr. Sprengel, under date of
November 1, 1872, in which he says: ‘ Perhaps it will not have
escaped your observation, that the invention of the water-air-
pump, which you have constructed after the principle of my
mercury air-pump, according to your paper published in 1868 on
the washing of precipitates, is almost everywhere attributed to
you,’ induces me to make the following statement : *

‘The interesting discovery, that by means of columns of
liquids flowing downwards a more perfect vacuum can be pro-
duced, than was possible by the air-pumps hitherto in use,
belongs solely and only to Dr. Sprengel. He in his researches
on the vacuum (Journal of the Chemical Society, January 1865)
brings prominently forward, that water is from a practical point
of view the only liquid which could come into consideration as
a substitute for mercury used in the instrument described by him ;
and that it is not unlikely that such an iestrument, adapted for
water, might possess advantages which air-pumps of other
constructions have not, particularly in hilly countries, where the
large volume of a natural waterfall might be rendered available.
In the theoretical considerations on the action of his instrument,
which immediately follows the above, it is noticed, that it is
simply the reverse of the Trompe, with this addition, that the
supply of air is limited, while that in the Trompe is unlimited.

“Tf in the face of these facts, which are open to all, anyone
attributes to me, as I must conclude from Dr. Sprengel’s letter, a
share in his discovery, I can regret this only all the more keenly,
as in my treatise on the new method of filtration I could not
possibly have expressed myself with regard to Dr. Sprengel’s
claims more loyally and precisely than I have done. There, I
have stated expressly, that I have constructed the pump used for
filtrations and described by me in detail, after the principle of
Sprengel’s mercury-air-pump. It was the only apparatus of the
kind which Dr. Sprengel described, consequently the one to
which alone I could refer. **R, BUNSEN

“‘ Heidelberg, Nov. 5, 1872”

Expressing my best thanks to Prof. Bunsen for the above
statement, 1 beg to add, that since 1860 I have been using for
laboratory purposes a water-trompe, as described by me in
Posgendorff's Annalen for 1861, vol. cxii., which (by reversing
the action) led me in 1863 to the new method of air-rarefaction.
Water was the first liquid, which I used in my first pump, con-
structed during the sammer of 1863. But the fallacies arising
from the tension of aqueous vapour and from the air absorbed in

authorised by Prof. Bunsen.

NATURE

241

water, as well as the’ inconvenience of having to provide for the
requisite fall, caused me to discontinue the use of water, and to
substitute in its stead mercury as the most suitable liquid for
establishing ¢4e truth, which I had recognised by means of a
water-air-pump with an insufficient fall. My paper of 1865 was
written with reference to a// liquids ; in fact, on p. 15 (rendered
prominent by italics) I summed up thus :—

“* The main fact which I have established in this paper may
be shortly stated to be that, 7/ a liguid be allowed to run down a
tube, to the upper part of which a receiver is attached by means of
a lateral tube, and if the height at which the receiver is attached
be not less than that of the column of the liquid which can be
supported by the atmospheric pressure, a vacuum will be formed in
the receiver minus the tension of the liquid employed.”

I regret that the obviousness of the matter led me to refrain
from expressing myself in a more detailed manner, believing, as
I still believe, that what I wrote sufficiently described the con-
struction of the water-air-pump.

In conclusion Mr. Johnson’s aspirator * for establishing a
current of air ought to be mentioned here. It was recognised
by Prof. Hofmann’ to act on the principle of the trompe, and
of course might have served as an air-pump, had it been noticed
at the time that the instrument would furnish the means of
creating a vacuum. And I may also draw attention to the tubet
of a vacuum-pan, through which the water is made to escape,
which has served to condense the steam of the boiling liquid.
This no doubt would in like manner have served as a complete
water-air-pump, but it does not appear that its use as such was
discovered. H. SPRENGEL

London, Jan. 22, 1873

Kant on the Retarded Rotation of Planets and Satellites

Ir is now recognised that the tides are necessarily lengthening
the day; but the history of this recognitionseems to be incom-
plete. ‘‘ It appears,” says Mr. Tait in his ‘‘ Thermodynamics,”
p. 86, ‘‘that the first suggestion of such an effect is due to
Kant.” Mr, Stewart speaks more positively (‘‘On Heat,”
Pp» 356), but adds that Mayer ‘‘ was the first to give his conclu.
sions general publicity.”

The following are the facts with respect to Kant, as they are
to be found in Rosenkranz and Schubert’s edition of his works,
part vi. pp. vii. 3-12. The Berlin Academy of Sciences had pro-
posed, as the subject of a prize essay for 1754, the questions
whether the length of day and night had changed, and if so,
what the cause could be and how this was to be ascertained.
Kant did not compete ; apparently he was dissatisfied, as well
he might be, with his attempt to estimate the possible amount of
retardation ; but he published his views in a Konigsberg weekly
paper.

It is of some interest to compare Kant’s position with our own.
In the first place, he expresses himself with almost entire gene-
rality. He does not speak merely of the tides, but says that the
rotation of any planet is necessarily retarded if it contains a con-
siderable amount of fluid. Kant knew as well as we do that the
considerableness (that is the magnitude) of the cause affected only
the magnitude (and not the bare reality) of the effect ; so there is
nothing to be added to his statement of the condition of retarda-
tion but what our own writers do not seem to think worth
adding, namely the energy dissipated in consequence of the im-
perfect rigidity and elasticity of the solid parts of the planet.

Again, with respect to the final result, Kant makes two state-
ments, which, if literally contradictory, yet taken together go to
show the fulness of his knowledge. First he says the rotation
must ultimately cease ; further on that it must diminish till it is
equal to the revolution of the moon, so that the earth will con-
stantly face the moon, as the moon now constantly faces the
earth. The essay bears marks of hasty writing; and it seems
clear that the latter statement is only intended for that part of the
effect which is due to the moon. The former may be intended
to affirm the ultimate abolition of the solar day ; if it means
much more (as it ought) I presumeit is inconsistent with Kant’s
express rejection of the hypothesis of an interplanetary resisting
medium.

On the other hand, Kant betrays no suspicion of the reaction
upon the disturbing bodies, and the consequent lengthening of
the month and year. And in speculating on the possibility of

* Quarterly Yournal of the Chemical Society, vol. iv. p. 186, 1852.
+ Ibid

* Translated from Ann. Chem. Pharm. vol.clxv, p. 159, by H. Sprengel, Bs “ Elements of Physics,” by Neil Arnott, M.D, (Longmans,) 3rd edit,

ondon, 1823.

242

NATURE

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historical verification, he thinks only of an apparent shortening of
the year, forgetting the month, which, as it has turned out, has
proved the tell-tale. Least of all can he have imagined that the
question could be answered, or even asked—What becomes of
the lost velocity?

But he says expressly that it is probably the tidal influence of
the earth that has brought the moon to face the earth constantly
as it does. Mr. Tait, in the passage from which I have quoted,
treats this suggestion as originally Helmholtz’s, though, speak-
ing under correction, I should have said it formed part of
Laplace’s explanation. Be this as it may, Kant published it
when Laplace was five years old.

The essay was reprinted by Nicolovius in his collection of
Kant's minor pieces. I do not know the date of this publica-
tion, but 1839 is the date of Roseakranz and Schubert. Yet we
have Arago in his latest work, and Herschel at least as late as
1851, affirming the invariable length of the day, not merely as
approximately established by history, but (internal disturbance
apart) as a direct result of dynamical principles. It is not
“general publicity ” that was wanting in Kant’s case, but special
publicity, the publicity of Transactions and Jahrbiicher. It is
to be hoped that those who work in the several departments
of knowledge are now learning to know better what their neigh-

bours are about.
Hadley, Middlesex, Jan, 21 C. J. Monro

Pollen-eaters

IT AM sorry that Iam unable to give Mr. Bennett all the in-
formation that he desires, as I have never studied the classifica-
tion of the Diptera, and do not know the species of the flies in
question ; nor do I like to trust my memory as to those of the
flowers. The common dandelion is, however, I think, an espe-
cial favourite ; and it is evident that in this and other Compositz
the movements of any insect among the flowrets must scatter
some of the pollen upon the stigmas, and some may even be
carried on its legs and body in its wanderings from flower to
flower, though the smooth body and cleanly habits of the fly
must be rather an obstacle tothis. But to some other species of
flowers, on the pollen of which I have sometimes seen them
feeding, and paid particular attention to this point, I think it
very doubtful whether their visits can be anything but injurious,

W. E. Harr

P.S.—Allow me to correct a misprint in my former note, By
the substitution of an ‘‘ N” for the initial ‘*h,” the expressive
popular name of “‘hoverers,” which I used in writing of the
Syrphide, has been rendered quite meaningless. I should also
be glad to know whether I am correct in the use of the word
** mandibula,” in the same note.

Meteors in South Pacific

WHILE some natives of these islands were preparing my boat
for a journey during the night of October 27-28, they were con-
siderably alarmed by the appearance of a very large meteor. As
far as I could ascertain from them it became visible near to ¢
Ceti, and rushed towards the south-east, leaving a bright train in
its wake. One of the natives described it as being as large as a
man’s head ; the others thought it was larger than that. These
statements about size must be taken with caution, but from the
excitement it caused I believe the meteor was a very large one.
It was seen a little before local midnight.

I was travelling the same night from midnight to 3 A.M., and
during that time I observed eleven meteors: two of which
appeared near to Pollux, and disappeared near to 2 Hydre.
The other nine all appeared near to 7 Canis majoris and pro-
ceeded through the constellation Argo Navis. The last I saw,
at 3 A.M., reached nearly to the Southern Cross, which was then
just above the horizon. ~

Only one of the eleven meteors I saw was at all remark-
able for size, and that was about as bright as Sirius, with which
I compared it. This was the only one which left any percep-
tible train.

I should add that, although Samoa is in the Western hemi-
sphere, our local time is that of the Eastern hemisphere ; hence
the dates given are twenty-four hours ahead of the true time of
our geographical position. S. J. WHITMEE

Samoa, South Pacific, Oct, 30, 1872

Aurora Spectra, nts

-Mr. Capron’s notice of my observations with regard to the
auroral spectra compels me to say a few words with regard to
them which I should rather have deferred till I could confirm.
my suspicions by fresh experiments, The spectrum which.
appears to coincide with the aurora, is not the ordinary spectrum
of oxygen obtained by the disruptive discharge, but is, I have
little doubt, that described by Willner (Phil. Mag. p. 420, vol.

xxxvii.) It is not uncommon in ordinary /umiére tubes, but I ob-

tained it with a feeble discharge in tubes filled with electrolytic
oxygen, and therefore put it down to that gas. It is now two
years since I made these experiments. Circumstances compelled
me to leave the research incomplete, and I have hitherto been
unable to return to it; but greater experience in the difficulties

of spectrum work has suggested sources of error which I did not —

then suspect, and I should not feel any surprise if the spectrum
in question turned out to be that of some carbon compound from
the india rubber connections. It certainly has a strong family
likeness to these, and if it were so, would confirm Prof. Piazzi
Smyth’s coinciience with citron acetylene. I will endeavour
shortly to decide this.

As to instrumental power, the greatest I have used on the
aurora has been that of a 60° bisulphide prism; but this is
sufficient to show in both lines a breadth distinctly greater than
the slit. Unfortunately, however, as I think I have hefore
stated, the auroral line appears equally nebulous on both sides,
while that in the tube spectrum is shaded mainly towards the
red. On the other hand it is fair to note that this ceases to be
visible when the light is faint and the dispersive power not
greater than that employed on the aurora.

North Shields, Jan. 18 HEnryY R, PROCTER

—— .

On the Words ‘‘ Diathermanous,” ‘‘ Diathermancy,” etc.

In reply to the question of Mr. W. M. Williams in the post-
script to his letter (NATURE, vol, vii. p. 202) I beg leave to
make a few observations, I presume that the author of the
above terms thought that the idea of the permeability of a medium
by radiant heat could be better expressed by derivatives of the
verb @cpyatyw (I heat) than by those of the more elementary
words @epuos (hot) or @épun (heat). To the former of these
classes ‘‘diathermanous,” ‘‘diathermancy” (from @epuavots),
and “ diathermacy”’ (from @epyacla), all belong, though they are
not very regularly formed, as our English termination ‘*ey”
corresponds to the Latin “a, as “clemency ” from clementia, or
the Greek ‘‘7eia,” as “ policy,” from moAtréia. ‘* Diathermous ”
belongs to the latter class. A

According to precedents the substantive corresponding to
“diathermous” might be “ diathermy,” as bigamous, bigamy,
or ‘‘diathermeity,” as diaphanous, diaphaneity, or ‘‘ diather-
mosity,” as porous, porosity, but not ‘‘diathermacy,” in which
the toxin letter ‘‘a” clearly points out its derivation from the
verb,

In point of form the words of Latin origin, ‘ transcalent,”
‘*transcalency,” which have been used in the same sense, are
quite unobjectionable, and have the great advantage of corre-
sponding in form with “transparent,” ‘‘ transparency,” ‘* trans-
lucent,” “translucency,” so that the words expressing permea-
bility by the rays of light and heat are of similar form, though
perhaps the derivation of ‘‘calescence” from a neuter verb,
when an active sense is wanted, may be an objection to their
use.

» Seeing, therefore, that “diathermous” has no very eligible
substantive corresponding to it, I submit that the original words
“‘diathermanous” and ‘‘diathermancy” are most eligible in
sense and least objectionable in form of the words of Greek
derivation. Some perhaps, in spite of the above objection, may
prefer the Latin words. D

Dr. Sanderson’s Experiments

May I ask Dr. Burdon Sanderson to kindly state in your
columns one or two matters relating to the cheese employed by
Dr. Bastian in the experiments at which he assisted. He justly
remarks on the value of a knowledge of methods of demon-
strating important facts—and I would therefore ask for the
advantage of other readers as well as my own—some further
information. I have already to thank Dr. Bastian for stating the
specific gravity of his turnip-solution, in reply to my request.

; 1873 .

es

a

Fan, 30, 1873)

- In Dr. Sanderson’s letter additional particulars are given, which
_also do not form part of the statement of those conditions under

which Dr. Bastian tells us in his book on the ‘‘ Beginnings of
Life,” that he has in the proportion of 999 cases out of 1,000
obtained a development of Bacteria from turnip-solution—boiled
and sealed boiling. It appears that Dr. Bastian considers it a
condition favourable to success—that the rind of the turnip be
excluded from the preparation of the infusion. This is for the
first time announced in Dr. Sanderson’s letter, Also it is there
for the first time that an accurate description of the flasks (not
tubes) used, and of the quantity of infusion enclosed in each
flask is given. j

I now merely desire to know the quality of the small quantity
of pounded cheese added to each flask. Let me say that another
condition of the experiment—not given by Dr. Bastian, but now
for the first time by Dr. Sanderson, is the addition of the cheese
after the infusion is in the flask—so that no straining or filtra-
tion is made use of, subsequently to its addition. In the ab-
sence of so distinct a statement on this point as that of Dr.
Sanderson, it was natural to suppose that the turnip and cheese
infusion would be strained in some way, to get rid of coarse
particles. It seems important that it should be known (1) what
kind of cheese was used, (2) about how much to each fluid
ounce of turnip infusion, (3) to what extent the cheese was
pounded” before addition, and whether particles of cheese
visible to the naked eye, and of what approximate size, were
present in the infusion during its boiling? (4) whether the turnip
solution was strained before the addition of the cheese, and
whether it contained obvious solid particles, and of what size?

I trust that Dr. Sanderson having placed your readers, and
those interested in the natural history of Bacteria, under so great
an obligation by his careful statement of the conditions of the
experiments of which he was witness, will kindly add to our
debt by furnishing this additional information.

In numerous expetiments with turnip solution made by Dr,
Pode and myself recently in the laboratory of the Regius Profes-
sor of Medicine of this University, we found that under the condi-
tions given in Dr. Bastian’s book, no life was developed—a
result contrary to that obtained by him in 999 cases out of 1,000,
It will be necessary to make further experiments by aid of the
light furnished by Dr. Sanderson’s letter, in order to explain
this discrepancy. 6

It is desirable to call to mind that Pasteur himself and others
have recorded experiments regarded by them as demonstrating
the survival of the Butyric form of Bacterium or its germs, after
exposure to temperatures of 100° or even 105°C.

Exeter College, Oxford E. Ray LANKESTER

THE NATIONAL HERBARIA MEMORIAL

V E are glad to be able to lay before our readers the
reply to the memorial to Mr. Gladstone, signed by
so many eminent botanists, which appeared in NATURE
for January 16. The answer is in every respect satis-
factory :—
“ Treasury Chambers, January 23, 1873

“Sir,—The Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's
Treasury have had before them your letter of the 3rd
instant, and the Memorial enclosed in it from various
gentlemen engaged in the pursuit of botany or in instruc-
tion therein, with respect to the transfer to the branch
of the British Museum about to be constructed at South
Kensington, of the scientific collections and library now
existing at the Royal Gardens at Kew.

“Their lordships desire me to request that you
will inform the memorialists that Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment have not formed the intention of removing the
collection to South Kensington, and that should any-
thing lead them hereafter to entertain the idea, they will
take care that ample notice shall be given, and that the
judgment of the persons most accomplished in botany
shall be fairly weighed in the first instance.

“Tam, Sir, your obedient servant,
“WILLIAM Law
“ The Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Sibbertoft,
“Market Harborough ”

NATURE ie:

THE METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY AT

MAURITIUS

6) hes Meteorological Society of Mauritius have recently

presented to the Governor of that colony a memorial
(contained in a copy of the Commercial Gazette sent to us)
requesting him immediately to place on the estimates a
sum sufficient to complete the new meteorological obser-
vatory there before the end of the present year. ~One
of the objects for which this excellent society was formed
in 1851, was to aim at the establishment of a permanent
meteorological and magnetical observatory ; and since 1860
the members have been doing their best-to urge the Colonial
Government to help them to accomplish their object ; but
one untoward event after another has occurred to postpone
its consummation. The old observatory, a very incon-
venient one, was sold in 1866 for 10,843/. and about half
this sum was made available by the Government for the
new observatory and instruments ; besides this, another
sum of 4,500/. is available, though the Government hesi-
tate to make use of it. In 1870 a small portion of the
new building was erected, and the foundation stone of the
main building laid by H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh,
but nothing more has been done since; and the staff,
owing to the scanty allowance for the purpose, has been
utterly inadequate. The memorial then asks the governor
to grant at once the funds necessary to complete the
building and to maintain an adequate staff ; and urges, as
a reason for haste, among other more enduring and
general reasons, the approaching transit of Venus, The
people of Mauritius, both for their own sakes and for the
sake of science, the Society believe will be glad to lend
a helping hand. We cannot but think that if the Govern-
ment of Mauritius give the matter their serious considera-
tion, they will at once accede to the prayer of the society’s
memorial. The benefit which such an observatory, in the
heart of the Indian Ocean, would confer on science and
humanity would be immense: and to cripple such an in-
stitution would be anything but economy. The vast im-
portance in agricultural, nautical, and sanitary points of
view, of having an observatory in Mauritius, is generally
acknowledged ; indeed, it is well known to those who have
resided in Mauritius, as well as in other tropical countries,
that timely warning of a single hurricane (which experi-
ence shows can be given), might save as much money as
would suffice to build an observatory, and to maintain it
for years, The Society does not seek any help from the
Imperial Government; and we sincerely hope that no
narrow and short-sighted notions of economy will prevent
the Governor of Mauritius from at once granting the
means of fulfilling the so frequently frustrated hopes of
the Meteorological Society.

The Society concludes its memorial by “ strongly re-
commending that no deviation should be made from the
plan proposed by the President and Council of the Royal
Society of London; that is, that meteorological, mag-
netical, and solar spot observations should be carried on
simultaneously by photography. To endeavour to carry
out a half-measure, liable to change and interruption,
would be almost a waste of time and money. It is pro-
bable that meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, and sun-
spots, are intimately connected by some law or laws not
yet determined ; and nothing short of long-continued
photographic records of the several phenomena con-
cerned, would meet the present requirements of Science.”

TARE NATIONAL HERBARIA

HE Memorial printed in NATURE for January 16

will probably be held to be a sufficient indication of

the estimation in which Kew is held as a scientific estab-

lishment by the botanists of the country~as well as of the

undesirableness in their opinion of its being in any way
dismembered.

243.

244

It will not I hope be considered improper if I venture
(entirely, of course, on my own responsibility), to make
some remarks with the view of aiding those who are not
botanists to form an opinion upon the matter.

In the first place it may be well to give some notion
of the nature of a public herbarium and the purposes it
serves. Most persons are aware that with a little care
specimens of almost any plant can be dried under pressure,
so as to give, even to those who are not accustomed to
study such specimens, some notion of what the plant is
like in the fresh state. To a professed botanist they yield
of course a great deal more information.

A herbarium then consists of a collection of dried
plants. Whatever may be the plan adopted by private
individuals, it is absolutely necessary in a public her-
barium that the specimens should be securely stuck down
upon sheets of paper, in order that they may bear frequent
handling without injury. This does not, however, prevent
the detachment under proper supervision of such frag-
ments as can be spared and are requisite for scientific in-
vestigation. The sheets on which the specimens are
fastened are placed in loose covers, and these are arranged
in proper classificatory order on the shelves of cabinets
which are made to hold them.

Any botanist interested in any particular group of
plants, and visiting a well-worked herbarium, has only
to go to the proper place to find everything that the
herbarium contains belonging to that group ready to his
hand, and in a state suitable for study. Such a result
is not, however, attained without immense labour on the
part of those who have charge of the herbarium. Fresh
accessions of plants have contiaually to be examined in
detail before the proper positions for their intercalation in
the arranged collection can be determined.

A public herbarium derives its additions from three
sources :—gifts, exchange, and purchase. The first in-
cludes, besides collections given by the government de-
partments, at whose instance they have been made, sup-
plies coming from private individuals. At Kew the Garden
and the Herbarium benefit in common by the extensive
correspondence carried on in every part of the globe with
persons of every grade. Contributions, both large and
small, are constantly arriving of living and dried plants,
seeds, and specimens unsuitable for herbarium purposes
but which find their place in the Museums. This corre-
spondence it has required a long period to organise, and it
needs no small exertion to continue and extend it. I
conceive that it is, putting aside all others, a very strong
argument for the maintenance of a herbarium at Kew,
that it participates, as no other herbarium in this country
could do, in the results of a correspondence which must
necessarily be kept up for the purposes of the Garden,
and which indeed could hardly be carried on elsewhere
for the advantage of a herbarium alone, to anything like
the same extent. Moreover the correspondents of Kew
constantly send dried plants to be named, besides making
demands for every kind of information which nothing
but a herbarium and library on the spot could enable them
to be supplied with.

The dried plants which are received at Kew from
different sources necessarily include a large number of
duplicates, that is, of specimens not needed for the her-
barium. These, however, are not wasted, but are sent
from Kew to various establishments with which exchanges
can be effected. This is a most important matter, because
the authentically named specimens of foreign botanists
which are received in exchange are far more useful for
purposes of comparison than any figures or descriptions.

The uses of a large herbarium are in the main two. In
the first place it supplies the material for purely scientific
investigations, both with regard to the structure and classi-
fication of plants as well as with regard to their geo-
graphical relations and the problem of how their world
distribution has come to be what it is, But a herbarium

NATURE

pet ¢
.

[ Fan. 30, 1873

is also most important on purely utilitarian grounds. An
immense number of important products are derived from
the vegetable kingdom, and it is very necessary to have
exact and precise information as to the plants which
produce these. Dried plants preserved in herbaria are
standards of reference in comparison with which the
names of specimens can be accurately determined. Bota-
nical names have a universal currency, and therefore
obviate all the divergencies and confusion of those which
are merely local and vernacular. Horticulturists more-
over look to those who have access to herbaria to
guarantee the correctness of the nomenclature of garden
lants. ;
: Besides the herbarium at Kew there is the older one be-
longing to the British Museum, It is still in a measure
sub judice what is to be the future position of these two
institutions. That the. Kew Herbarium should not be
severed from the Garden is the all but unanimous judg-
ment of those who are best qualified to give an opinion.
With respect to the British Museum Herbarium there is
greater difference. Some botanists have wished to see
the valuable type specimens which it contains added to
those at Kew, just as they might wish, if it were in their
power, to condense there what is best in some of the
leading foreign herbaria. In my opinion the transference
to Kew of any portion of the British Museum collections
would be very undesirable. The British Museum speci-
mens are mounted on paper of a very different size, and
the sheets could not be cut down without impairing their
authenticity. Moreover, at the British Museum there is
an extensive series ot ante-Linnean herbaria most valuable
from a historical point of view, but not otherwise available
for study, and these would, on that account, be out of
place at Kew. Again, with collections so combustible as
those of dried plants, it is all but imperative to divide the
risk of losing the whole national accumulations in one
conflagration.

The two Herbaria have also two well-marked but
distinct fields of activity open to them, Let the Kew
Herbarium remain, as at present, to be used for the
varied ends of the Kew establishment, and by such
students as are engaged in important works, as origi-
nal memoirs and colonial or forest floras executed for
the Government. They would be willing to gain, as they
do now by the distance from town, tranquillity from the
incursion of visitors less permanently occupied with
botanical pursuits. Then the British Museum collections
(which, if it were possible, it would be a convenient arrange-
ment to retain in Bloomsbury) would serve still for persons
who would use them rather for reference than for con-
tinuous study, although this also would not be pre-
cluded. It must, however, be admitted that they are
capable of very great improvement even for purposes
of reference, and it would be very desirable to this end
that the Kew and Bloomsbury establishments should be
brought into some sort of amicable relation. I will givea
few instances quite arbitrarily selected from my own ex-
perience, which will show how very far behind the British
Museum Herbarium is in completeness to that of Kew.

The Indo-Malayan genus Dipterocarpus is represented
in the former by 17 sheets, including 10 species, in the
latter by 116 sheets, including 31 species; the South
African genus Svafedia, consisting of plants very difficult
to dry, in the former by 4 sheets of 3 species, in the
latter by 48 sheets of 25 species ; lastly the Tasmanian
Athrotaxis (Conifere), of which one specis is to be
found in nurserymen’s catalogues, is represented at Kew
by 16 sheets, illustrating all the three known species ; while
at the British Museum I have not succeeded in discover-
ing a single specimen in the arranged collection at all.

But a very large portion of the plants at the British Mu-
seum are practically inaccessible. Unfastened on paper,
and much in the state in which they were received from the
collectors, except a rough geographical distribution into

NATURE

245

cupboards, they are little more assorted than the plants
which constitute a haystack. A considerable part, if not
the whole, of the 7,000 specimens of plants from the expe-
ditions of Hooker and Thomson, which cannot have been
received less than fifteen years ago, were, quite lately,
still unmounted and unincorporated. Again, merely to
quote instances which have come unsought within my
own observation, the plants collected in Nepaul half a
century since by Wallich, and as I learn from a dis-
tinguished Indian botanist, in a district which has
never since been botanically explored, were recently, and
perhaps are still, amongst the unarranged collections.
These altogether, I should judge, roughly form in bulk
about one-sixth of the whole herbarium, The arranged
portion is estimated to possess 77,400 species of flowering
lants, contained in 306 cabinets with 8 shelves ; the Kew
lerbarium, on the other hand, possesses 105,000 to
“110,000 species in 450 cabinets, on an average of 16
shelves. As I have ascertained that the shelves are in
each case about the same width apart, and about equally
filled, these figures give roughly three times as many
shelves to the Kew Herbarium, and somewhat less than
half as many more species.

There can be no doubt, therefore, that the Bri-
tish Museum Herbarium might be materially deve-
loped, especially when it is remembered that Mr. Ben-
tham’s herbarium, when presented to Kew, contained
between 60,009 and 70,000 species, and that this was
formed in less than forty years by a single indi-
vidual. The examination of the unarranged collections
in the British Museum would, no doubt, yield a large
number of duplicates, and these should be exchanged
with foreign herbaria. If this were done—and there is
no reason why the appliances of Kew should not be uti-
lised for the purpose—it would be easy, without interfering
with the independent action of either establishment, to
bring about for the future a mutual interchange of speci-
mens. Nor is there any reason why, when needful, the
type specimens of the older botanists should not be lent
to Kew from the other Herbarium, considering that both
are Government property.

The development of the botanical collections in the
rooms open to the public at the British Museum into
something more useful, educationally, would probably be
achieved by the officers, if they possessed more space. In
this case it would be very desirable to transfer to them the
collections belonging to vegetable paleontology in the
Geological department. At present the nucleus of a col-
lection of fossil plants bequeathed to the Botanical de-
partment by Robert Brown is being gradually developed,
so that there are now actually two distinct collections,
both having the same object, and existing independently
of one another, and in charge of different officers, in the
same building. W. T. THISELTON DYER

THE RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE OF
NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE

aes Scottish Meteorological Society have just received
letters from their observers in Iceland and Faroe, to-
gether with the regular observations made by them for the
Society to the end of November last, which are of interest
in connection with the unprecedentedly wet and change-
able season we have had in Scotland and elsewhere.

The rainfall in Iceland this year to the end of October
has been 4'é4 inches under the average of the ten months,
the deficiency occurring chiefly in January, February,
July, September, and October. In Faroe the deficiency
has, to the end of November, amounted to I1’oo inches,
the dry months being February, 4°50 inches under the
average; July, 1'og inch; August, 2°97 inches, and
November, 4°17 inches. In Scotland, February was every-
where a wet month, except in the northern and western
islands and in Clydesdale ; and September, October,

and November were very wet months,—all these months
being characterised by a small rainfall in the north.

The mean temperature at Stykkisholm, in the north-
west of Iceland, was 33°°7 in January, or 6°8 above the
average, being the highest mean temperature recorded in
January since 1846, except that of 1862, which was 1°0
higher ; 52°°7 in July, and 51°°6 in August, being respec-
tively 3°6 and 3°4 above the average of these months,
and the highest that has occurred since July 1847 and
August 1846. And as June was 06 and September 1°0
above the average, the past summer has been one of the
finest experienced in Iceland for many years. The tem-
perature in April was 3°°5, in May 14, and in October
1°o under the average. On the other hand, the tempera-
ture of Faroe closely agreed with that of Scotland during
the year, viz., above the average in January, February,
March, April, June, July, and November, and under the
average during the other months, especially September.

At Melstadt, on the north coast of Iceland, the summer
was very fine, but in the beginning of October the weather
broke, and on the 13th the temperature fell to 30 or 29”0
below freezing. At Reykjavik, the summer was also fine,
but the autumn was remarkable for north and north-east
gales, frequent auroras, low sea temperature, and large
amount of ozone. Along with the unusual manifestation
of these phenomena, inflammatory diseases were preva-
lent, especially bronchitis, catarrh, croup, and diphtheria.

The temperature of the sea presented certain very
interesting anomalies during the year. In the earlier
months it was, equally with the temperature of the air,
above the average of former years in Iceland, Faroe, and
Scotland. But at Stykkisholm it was 2°7 in May, and
4°°2 in June below the average, it being at the same time
from half a degree toa degree above the average in Faroe
and Scotland. On the other hand, the sea was, at Styk-
kisholm, 2°°8 in August, and 2°°6 in September above the
average, whereas at Sandwick, Orkney, it was 1°'2 and
1*r below it in the same months. In Faroe the tem-
perature of the sea was above the average every month
of the year (except October, when it was 0°3 below it),
ouegsune during the eleven months to an average excess
Ofte Ts

The following are the differences from the averages of
the sea temperatures at Stykkisholm from March to
October, 1872 :—

March mi ae at July + 13
April — oOo! August + 28
May — 27 September + 2°6
June — 472 October +04

In May the mean temperature of the sea was 36°°7, and
in August 53°11. So great an increase as 17°°6 has not
been previously observed in these months.

It is also a noteworthy circumstance that the means of
the nine months’ barometric pressure, from February to
October, at Stykkisholm, have been in every case above
the average, amounting to an average monthly excess of
o'118 inch. In Norway also, from February to August, to
which the observations have reached us, the means were
every month above the average, amounting at Vardoe
(lat. 70° 20’) to a mean monthly excess of 0*260 inch ;
Christiansund, 0129 inch; Christiania, o'151 inch ; and
Maudal, near the Naze, 0'084 inch, On the other hand,
barometric pressure was every month from February to
October, below the average; at Paris, and in Guernsey,
the mean monthly deficiency being respectively 0'074 and
o’ogo inch. At Greenwich, the mean deficiency for the
last nine months was 0'083 inch ; Glasgow, o’og1 inch ;
Edinburgh, o’088 inch ; Aberdeen, 0'072 inch ; Culloden,
near Inverness, 0°34 inch ; and at Stornoway, the station
nearest to Iceland, only o’006 inch. This high barometer
in Iceland and Norway has had an important bearing on
the unprecedently wet weather, and the accompanying
low barometer we have had south of that region.

ALEXANDER BUCHAN

a « M4 Shel a ao
3 - ws

246

SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS:
IV.
N what has now been stated we first saw Newton
founding spectral analysis, by using a hole in a shutter

and a prism ; then we discussed Wollaston’s substitution
of the slit; after that Mr. Simms’ introduction of the
collimating lens was referred to ; and then the growth of
the modern spectroscope.

It is time, now, that we came to the applications of the
instrument. And in dealing with these applications I
shall divide my subject into two perfectly distinct portions.
I shall first deal with those which depend upon the diffe-
rent modes in which light is given out or radiated by

. ON THE

Fic.

9 - Electric Lamp.

various bodies under different physical conditions, with, in
fact, the vadiation of light. And, in the second place, I
shall deal with the spectroscope’s story of the way in
which white light giving a continuous spectrum is stopped
or absorbed by different transparent bodies—with in fact
the absorption of light.

The first application of this question of radiation is one
cf the most general importance. It enables us to differ-
entiate between solid, liquid, and gaseous substances, and
between gaseous or vaporous substances in different
Stages of pressure, If, for instance, we take a platinum
wire and heat it to redness, and examine by means of the
spectroscope, the light emitted we shall find that only red
rays are visible, then if the wire be gradually heated more
strongly, the yellow, green, and blue, rays will become
visible, until finally when the wire has attained a brilliant
white heat, the whole of the colours of the spectrum will

NA1IURE

———

7 ee
5 = vT

be present, If I were to burn a piece of paper, or a match

or an ordinary coal gas flame, you all know we should get.
a white light, but you may possibly not all know that if
we raise any solid or liquid to a state of incandescence or
glowing heat we should get exactly that same sort of light,
which will always give us a continuous spectrum. Before
a large audience the best method of showing this fact is
to use an apparatus called the electric lamp, and to pass
the current of electricity through two carbon points,
which are intensely heated by their resistance to the pas-
sage of the current. The spectrum obtained from these
points, by means of the dispersion of two bisulphide of
carbon prisms, is quite continuous from end to end. Now
carbon is a solid, and therefore if we take carbon as an
example of a solid or liquid substance in a state of vivid
incandescence, and we obtain from these carbon points a
continuous spectrum, you must accept that as an indica-

Fic. 20.—Arrangement of the electric lamp used for rapid comparisons.

tion of the truth of what I say, for I have not time to ex-
periment on every solid and every liquid substance.» The
spectrum is received on the screen, and you see it is con-
tinuous, that is to say, there are no breaks, such as those
we saw in the figure representing a portion of the solar
spectrum on page 167 where the black lines represent the
breaks in the solar spectrum which are called the Fraiin-
hofer lines.

Let us then consider this fact established, namely, that
solid or liquid bodies, when heated to a vivid incan-
descence, give a continuous sprectrum without bright
lines. Under these circumstances the light to the eye,
without the spectroscope, will be white, like that of a
white hot poker ; if the degree of incandescence is not
so high, the light may only be red, like that of a red-
hot poker. But so far as the spectrum goes—and it will
expand towards the violet, as the incandescence increases,
as before stated— it will be continuous,

Now, suppose, instead of giving you the spectrum of

eee

[ Fan. 30, 1873.

»

5

, 2

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" *

f » ee

| agaite : Seer ee cs
5 Fan. 30, 1873]

_ these solid white-light-giving carbon points or that from
an ordi flame, I show you the spectrum of a light
- source which is coloured. If, for instance, we burn seme

4

tig

A

Ad
L|

Me ret A

247

coloured fire, such as the red fire of our pyrotechnic dis-
plays. You must not consider that this is sensational, for
Sir John Herschel, very many years ago, was on the eve

Fic. 21.—Arrangement for determining the spectra of metals by means of the electric spark.

of discovering the great point of spectrum analysis which
I have to bring before you, by merely examining these
coloured fires. If we examined such a light by means of the
spectroscope you might expect that we should obtain the red

| localisations of light or bright lines in different parts of
the spectrum. Now, the differences in colour are accom-
panied by differences in the spectra. We have something
very different from the continuous spectrum we had before,

and this is, in fact, one of the first practical outcomes of
f spectrum analysis. It enables you in a moment to deter-

mine the difference between a solid or liquid body, which
gives you a continuous spectrum, and a vapour or gas,
which gives you a spectrum containing bright lines. The
reason that different vapours and gases are of different

|

Fic. 23.—Bunsen’s burner for flame spectra.

| colours is now clear ; if we examine the light by means of
| as p2ctroscope, we find that the hght rays wh’ch they emit
are located in different parts of the spectrum,

In these instances then, the spectra consist of lines which
are located in different parts of the spectrum. Let us burn
some sodium in air, and then examine the spectrum of its
: vapour, or better still, let us place some sodium, or a
end of the continuous spectrum ; that on burning green | salt of this metal, such as table salt, in a gas flame
fire we should see the green portion of the spectrum and/| which is consuming a mixture of air and gas, in a —
soon. But this is not so ; we findthat the background of | burner known under the name of a Bunsen’s burner, ©
the spectrum is dark or nearly so, and that we have certain | the bluish flamé of which is due to the complete com

Fic, 22.—The E estric'Arc

248

bustion due to the greater supply of air from the holes
at the bottom. The flame immediately becomes of an
intense yellow colour due to the vapour of sodium. In
this we have further evidence of the connection between
the colour of the light which we get from a vapour and
the spectrum of that vapour. It is usual to place the salt
to be examined in a platinum spoon, and insert it in the
flame, but the utmost constancy is insured by adopting
an arrangement of Mitscherlich’s shown in the accom-
panying drawing, (Fig. 24) in which a platinum wick is kept
continually moistened by a solution of the salt, generally
the chloride, the spectrum of which is required to be
examined. You will imagine, @ Aréori, from what I haye
already said, that as in the case of sodium vapour, the
colour of the light is orange, the line of the vapour will
appear in the yellow or orange part of the spectrum, and
you will not be mistaken, For you
will see on examining this flame
with a spectroscope, that we obtain
a spectrum consisting of a brilliant
yellow line upon an almost black
background ; if, however, the flame
is observed by means of a very
narrow slit, this line will appear
double, that is it really consists of
two extremely fine lines which are
very close to each other, and if the
slit be wide the images overlap one
another,

If we then pass on to another
substance, and take some lithium
instead of sodium, we obtain a bril-
liant carmine tinted flame, which
on examination by the spectro-
scope, is found to give a spectrum
consisting of one splendid red, and
a fainter orange line. Potassium
gives a violet coloured flame, and
yields in the spectroscope a red
line and a violet line. If, again,
we take a salt of strontium, which
was one of the ingredients in red
fire, it colours the flame crimson,
and by the eye the flame can
scarcely be distinguished from the
colour of the lithium flame, but in
the spectroscope there is no possi-
bility of doubt, the spectrum of
strontium, consists of a group of
several lines in the red and orange,
and a fine line in the blue end of
the spectrum.

If a higher temperature than that
of the Bunsen flame is required the
blow-pipe flame may be resorted
to; in this, the quantity of air and
coal-gas is varied at pleasure, and
a very high temperature may be
obtained.

We might proceed thus to examine all the elementary
substances one by one, but to observe the spectra of the
metals, it will be found necessary to use a higher tempera-
ture still, and for this purpose the electric arc or spark is
employed. If a temperature only slightly greater than
that of the blow-pipe flame is used, the spark from an
induction. coil worked by five Grove cells may be taken
as shown in Fig. 21, the Leyden jar not being em-
ployed ; a few metallic lines will then be seen, and a
background consisting generally of bands of light here
and there. :

If a higher temperature still is used, the jar may be
thrown into the circuit, upon which the spark will become
more intense, according to the power of the coil and size of
the jar ; or the electric are may be employed. The spectra

Fic. 24.—Geissler’s tube,
showing electric discharge.

y
>

NATURE

[ Fan. 30, 1873

thus obtained are much more complex; the spectrum
of iron, for instance, when examined at this high tempe+
rature, is found to consist of no less than 46olines, many of
which are situated in the green part of the spectrum.
With regard to solid and vaporous bodies, the electric
lamp affords a very handy method when properly em-
ployed, of examining and exhibitimg the spectra of these
bodies to large audiences. ‘
But there are a great many gases which the spectro-
scopist also has to study, and to study with the greatest

Fic. 25.—Mitscherlich’s arrangement for flame spectra.

care ; and] here, I am sorry to say, the electric lamp
utterly fails us. The light which we get from a gas by
the electric discharge is so feeble that it is quite impos-
sible to throw its spectrum on the screen, so as to be
observed by large audiences, for we cannot render stron-
tium incandescent in the way in which we render incan-

ab

Fic. 26.—Herapath’s Blow-pipe.

descent sodium and the other substances I have brought
before you. But we have other means of examining the
spectra. I have here some tubes containing hydrogen
and other gases at different pressures, and when we wish
to study the spectrum of a gas, we do it in this way: we
enclose it in a tube, and send a current through it by
means of aninduction-coil. If we pass a stream of elec-

Fan. 30, 1873)

tric sparks through a tube containing hydrogen at the
pressure of one atmosphere, we shall see that the colour
of the incandescent gas is a bright carmine red, the spec-
- trum of which can easily be cbserved by placing the
spark tube in front of the slit of one of the spectroscopes
before described. This arrangement is one that is in
daily use in many of our laboratories, and it must be
borne in mind as being the modus operandi by which a
"great deal of the work has been done to which I shall
have to allude shortly. If again we take a tube which
contains hydrogen that has been extremely rarefied,
and pass a series of electric sparks through it, instead of
having the brilliant red colour, we shall have a palegreenish
spark, quite different from the former. This great difference
is due to the difference in the pressures of the hydrogen
of the two cases.

The two spectra are equally distinct, the red light shows
three splendid lines, one in the red, another in the bluish
green, and the third in the violet, together with a con-
siderable amount of continuous spectrum, whilst almost
the only spectrum which can be obtained in the second
case, is a single green line in the same position as the
former green line spoken of. There is also this difference
which will be observed, that the green line obtained from
the tube at the atmospheric pressure is very broad and
indistinct at the edges; and that the line as seen from
the almost vacuous tube is very thin, comparatively speak-
ing, and perfectly sharp and well defined. If we were to
take another tube, with a pressure somewhere between
the two already mentioned, it would be seen that this
green line was not so wide and woolly as in the tube
at one atmosphere, and yet not so sharp and well
defined as in the almost vacuous tube. Thus it will be
seen that this widening out of the line is due to the
. difference of pressure.

J. NORMAN LOCKYER

(To be continued.)

NOTES

Our readers will be sorry, though not surprised, to hear that
the venerable Professor Sedgwick died at Trinity College,
Cambridge, on the morning of the 27th instant, aged 87 years.
He was fifth wrangler in Trinity in 1808, and was elected to a
fellowship in 1810, His contributions to science were very
numerous, and are mainly to be found in the Transactions of
various learned societies.

THE Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge University has given
notice that the election of a Woodwardian Professor of Geology,
in the place of Dr. Sedgwick, will be held in the Senate House
on Thursday, February 20, at 1 P.M. The Vice-Chancellor and
Proctors will receive the votes from I to 2.30, when the election
will be declared. The stipend attached to the professorship is
soo/7, per annum.

WE are very glad indeed to hear that renewed and better
organised efforts are likely to be made to induce Government to
undertake the expense of an Arctic expedition. We have good
reason to believe that Sir Henry Rawlinson will address a letter
to the President of the Royal Society urging the importance of
that body taking a lead in the advocacy of such an expedition,
This is as it should be, and we have no doubt if the matter is
gone about in a thoroughly well considered manner, a second re-
buff will not be experienced. Meanwhile we are glad to learn
from an obliging correspondent that Mr. Leigh Smith will pro-
ceed on his third voyage of Arctic discovery in the spring. He
has a fine strong steamer, the Diana, admirably adapted for the
purpose ; and will undoubtedly achieve all that can be done in
the way of discovery in the Spitzbergen seas, during the season
of 1873. For Mr. Smith is a good observer and explorer, and
ig now becoming a veteran Arctic voyager. In 1871 he made

NATURE

249

the most remarkable voyage in that direction since 1707, disco-
vering a large extent of coast line both on the north and south
sides of North East Land. He also attained the highest lati-
tude that has been reached in a ship, except by Scoresby and the
Swedes. In 1872 he went out again, and though the unfavour-
able state of the ice prevented him from doing much, he suc-
ceeded in taking a very important series of observations of sea-
temperatures at various depths. In 1873 he will again, with —
better means and in a steamer instead of a sailing vessel, make
an attempt to explore the unknown lands east of Spitzbergen,
and to attain the highest latitude that skill and perseverance will
enable him to reach.

THE Senior Wrangler at Cambridge this year is Mr. Thomas
Olver Harding, eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Harding, Wes-
leyan minister of Whitehaven. Mr, Harding, in January, 1866,
gained the first exhibition at the matriculation examination of
the London University, and the Gilchrist Scholarship at Uni-
versity Hall. In 1867 he gained the Andrews Scholarship in
mathematics at University College. In 1868 he proceeded to
the degree of B.A., in the University of London; and in 1869
and 1871 he passed the first and second examinations for the
degree of B.Sc., gaining the exhibition in mathematics at each.
Last year he was elected fellow of University College. In
1869 he entered Trinity as senior minor scholar in mathematics,
and was elected foundation scholar in 1871. Mr. Harding
has just completed his twenty-third year. His private tutor was
Mr, Routh; his college tutor the Rev. E. W. Blore. .The
Second Wrangler, Mr, Edward John Nanson, was educated at
the Grammar Schools of Penrith and Ripon. In 1869 he ob-
tained a Minor Scholarship at Trinity College. In July 1869,
he commenced reading with Mr. Routh, of St. Peter’s College.
In 1870 he obtained a Foundation Scholarship. He was Prize-
man, and placed in the first class at each of the annual College
Examinations. His college tutor was Mr. Blore.

AN alteration has been made in Prof. Tyndall’s arrangements.
We are now enabled to state that he will leave America on the
5th of next month in the Cuda.

WE are glad to see from the account of the annual meeting of
the Anthropological Institute officially forwarded to us, that Prof.
Busk has been elected President, and along with him the follow-
ing strong Council :—Vice-Presidents—John Beddoe, M.D. ;
J. Barnard Davis, M.D., F.R.S. ; John Evans, F.R.S. ; Col.
A. Lane Fox, F.S.A.; Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.; Sir John
Lubbock, Bt., F.R.S. Director—E. W. Brabrook, F.S.A.
Treasurer—J. W. Flower, F.G.S. Council—H. G. Bohn,
F.R.G.S.; Capt. R. F. Burton; A, Campbell, M.D.; Hyde
Clark ; W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. ; Prof. P.M. Duncan,'F.R.S.;
Robert Dunn, F.R.C.S. ; David Forbes, F.R.S. ; A. W. Franks ;
Francis Galton, F.R.S.; C. R. Markham, C.B. ; Capt. Sher.
Osborn, C.B., R.N.; Capt. Bedford Pim, R.N.; F. G. H.
Price, F.G.S. ; J. E. Price; F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.; C. R. Des
Ruffiéres, F.R.S.L. ; W. Spottiswoode, V.P.R.S. ; E. Burnet
Tylor, F.R.S. ; A. R. Wallace, F’.L.S.

A work of considerable importance, a geological map of
Australia and Tasmania, has been recently commenced by Mr. R.
Brough Smyth, secretary to the Mining department of the
Australian Government, which, when finished, will be of value
not only to the colony, but to the whole scientific world. As
the Minister of Mines has cordially approved of the work, it is
intended to communicate with the Governments of the various
colonies, forwarding a draft of the map after it has been partially
completed from the sources at hand, and a scale showing the
colours of the various rock formations, with a request that they
will as far as possible fill in the blanks from the records of the
departments in the respective colonies. By this means it is
anticipated that much zeliable information will be obtained, as

250

no doubt the surveyors-general of the colonies have in their
possession many reports relative to the rock formations of their
colonies. The map has been compiled from various sources,
some of the maps and reports from which it has been taken
haying been completed as far back as 1834; but to show the
accuracy with which the yarious surveys have been made, it
may be mentioned that in some cases where the geological for-
mation of a district has been compiled from two surveys, made
perhaps at the interval of many years, and by different indivi-
duals, they have been found to join one another without the
slightest mistake. Northern Australia is at present considered
almost a /erra incognita with regard to its geological character,
but still a good portion of this part of the continent has been
completed from the records of old explorers, It is intended by
the compiler that in the first map only the boundaries of the
several rock fermations will be shown, as there are many large
areas whose geological position has not yet been ascertained,
and therefore no attempt will be made to classify them unless
such classification is based on thorough geological information.
The map will not be complete at first, but even in its present
condition it will be of considerable value, and as the informa-
tion it contains will be added to year by year, in the end it will
become invaluable to the geological students of Australia.

THE Atlantic telegraph cable authorities have just done a
very handsome thing. Astronomers belonging to different
countries have, for some time past, felt the great inconvenience
caused by the delay in transmitting notes of observations of
new planets, comets, &c., by post, and therefore, especially in
America, the Atlantic Cable naturally suggested itself as a means
of exchanging discoveries. But the great expense of despatches
by it, and the poverty of astronomers, have prevented their
making use of this means of communication to any great extent.
For some time past, the scientific editor of Harper's Weekly if-
forms us, Prof. Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, has been
in correspondence with the authorities of the cable for the purpose
of inducing them to transmit such communications free, and at
last has had the pleasure of receiving from Mr. Cyrus W. Field
the announcement that this boon has been granted. The precise
details of the arrangement to be made are not yet fully estab-
lished, but it is probable that, in case of important discoveries in
America, the fact will be communicated by telegraph to the
Smithsonian Jnstitution, which will at once forward it to the
observatories in Paris, London, Berlin, and Vienna, which, in
turn, will supply the information to their associates. These
same institutions will be the recipients, by telegraph, of the first
announcements in Europe, to be transmitted to the Smithsonian
Institution as before, and the information sent from Washington
either by the medium of the Associated Press, or by direct
telegraphic despatch. The directors of the Atlantic Telegraph
deserve great credit for their enlightened liberality, and for thus
aiding in the scientific work of the day ; and it is to be hoped
that the inland American telegraph lines, as well as those in
Europe, will not be behind in their co-operation, so as to make
it an absolutely free interchange from one country to the other.
It is probable that the information in regard to the discovery of
comets in Amefica will be sent more directly to the Vienna
Academy of Sciences, as that body has a standing offer of
reward for all such announcements, made under certain specific
conditions.

M. LE BARON PIERRE CHARLES FRANCOIS DuPIN, who, so
long ago as 1818, was elected to the French Academy for his
geometrical writings, died on January 18, aged 89 years.

Pror. Huxey, the new Lord Rector of Aberdeen University,
has given his friends there to understand that it will be impossible
for him to deliver an inaugural address during the currency of the

Present session. He hopes to be able to do this at the beginning
of next session,

NATURE

A Oc ieee

| Han. 30, 1873

THE following are the scientific arrangements at Oxford for —
this term:—The Rev. Bartholomew Price, M.A., will lecture
onthe “ Dynamics of Rigid Systems,” beginning on Thursday,
Feb. 6. The Rev. C. Pritchard, M.A., will lecture on ‘* The
Ninth and Eleventh Sections of the Principia and the Lunar
and Planetary Theories,” beginning on Tuesday, Feb. 4. R. B.
Clifton, M.A., will lecture on ‘* Optical Instruments and Phy-
sical Optics,” beginning on Saturday, Feb. 1. The Physical -
Laboratory of the University will be open daily for instruction
in Practical Physics, from 10 to 4 o'clock, on and after Thursday,
Jan. 30. G. Rolleston, D.M., will lecture on the ‘‘ Nervous
System,” beginning on Friday, Jan. 31. The workrooms in the
Anatomical Department are open daily, from 10 A.M. to 5 P.M.
for practical instruction, under the superintendence of Mr,
Charles Robertson, the Demonstrator of Anatomy, and Mr,
S. J. Sharkey, of Jesus College. A special class will be formed
for instruction in Practical Microscopy. Mr. E, Ray Lankester,
M.A., of Exeter Coll., will lecture *‘On the General Classifi-
cation of the Animal Kingdom,” on Saturdays, at 1 o'clock,
beginning Feb, 1. J. O. Westward, M.A,, will deliver four
lectures on Entomology—t, Structure ; 2, Transformations ; 3,
Economy ; 4, Classification of Articulata, beginning Feb. 14.
J. Phillips, M.A., being engaged in arranging a part of the
Museum collections, does not purpose to lecture in the present
term ; but he will be happy to meet members of the University,
and to assist students of geology, sée lla solennitate, on Mondays
and Wednesdays, in the Museum, at 12 o’clock. Marmaduke
Lawson, M.A., will continue his course of lectures this term.

THE following Lectures in Natural Sciences will be given at
Cambridge during Lent Term. On Electricity and Magnetism,
by Dr. Trotter, Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays, at 11, com-
mencing Friday, Jan 31. On Electricity and Magnetism (for
the First Part of the Natural Sciences Tripos and the Special
Examination for the Ordinary Degrees), by Mr. Trotter, Tues-
days, Thursdays, Saturdays, at 11, commencing Thursday,
Jan. 30. On Chemistry, by Mr. Main, St. John’s College,
Tuesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays, at 12, commencing Thursday,
Jan. 30. Instruction in Practical Chemistry will also be given.
On Paleontology (the Annuloida, &c.), by Mr. Bonney, St.
John’s College, Tuesdays and Thursdays, at 9, commencing
Thursday, Jan. 30. On Geology, (for the Natural Sciences
Tripos, Physical Geology), by Mr. Bonney, Mondays, Wednes-
days, and Fridays at 10, commencing Wednesday, Jan. 29.
Elementary Geology (for the First Part of the Tripos and the
Special Examination), Tuesdays and Thursdays at 11, com-
mencing Tuesday, Feb. 4. On Botany (for the Natural Sciences
Tripos), by Mr. Hicks, Sidney College, Tuesdays, Thursdays,
Saturdays, at 11, in Lecture Room No. 1, beginning on Thurs-
day, Jan. 30.
Foster, Mondays and Wednesdays at 1.
tical Physiology on Thursdays, at II A.M., commencing Thurs-
day, Feb. 6. An Advanced Course of Practical Histology on
Tuesdays, at 11 AM., commencing Tuesday, Feb. 4.

A SLIGHT eruption of Vesuvius occurred last Saturday. Red-
hot stones were thrown up in the midst of flames to a con-
siderable height throughout the whole of yesterday, and at
Castellamare the windows were shaken, On Sunday morning
an unusual amount of smoke was issuing from the mountain.

THE Meteorological Society of Mauritius have resolved to
prepare as complete a list as possible of the hurricanes which
have been felt at Mauritius and at Bourbon in former‘times, and
of the years that have been remarkable for droughts or rainfall.
Their main purpose in doing so is to test the hypothesis that the
frequency of storms and the amount of rainfall have periodicities.
Meantime preliminary lists of hurricanes at the two places have
been prepared, in the case of Bourbon from 1733 to 1754, and in

ham
= >

an
.

On the Physiology of the Senses, by Dr. M. —
A Course of Prac- —

the case of Mauritius from 1695 to 1847. In the former list
_ there are only two years, 1741 and 1749, in which no mention
is made of hurricanes, while the latter is apparently much more
incomplete, having many gaps. While some of these gaps may be
owing to the absence of hurricanes, still, no doubt, hurricanes
have occurred which are not included in the list. But it is re-
markable that many of the gaps occur about the time of minimum
frequency of sun spots. It is to be hoped that the Society will
be able to compile a pretty complete and trustworthy list, as
such a list would go far to solve questions of high importance.
It is to be hoped that with an efficient observatory, which
Mauritius is likely soon to possess, and uninterrupted observa-
tion, complete data for future meteorologists may be gradually
collected,
Tue following note from the Colonial Farmer (Frederickton,
New Brunswick), concerning the recent shower, has been for.
warded us :—A brilliant meteoric display was observed in the
heavens early on Wednesday evening, Nov. 27th, and the clear-
ness of the night gave every facility for witnessing this attractive
exhibition. For at least two hours the falling meteors were
visible in hundreds, and seemed to come from the Milky Way,
with a course from the zenith to the south and south-west.
Above 190 were counted in about twenty minutes. The shower
commenced at dusk, and continued for two hours with increas-
ing brilliancy, after which it gradually faded away.

Some months ago we announced that the glass of the great
telescope of the Alleghany Observatory, one of the largest of the
kind in America, and valued at about 4,000 dols., was stolen
from the building, and all efforts to detect the robber and regain
the plundered article were unavailing. We now learn from the
College Courant that the Jens has been recovered, haying been
stolen by two men, but for what purpose is not said, It was
found to have received serious damage in the form of several]
scratches, which may require the regrinding of the glass at a
cost of 30 or 40 per cent. of the driginal cost.

- We learn from the Atheneum that Mr. Edward Thomas has
been elected corresponding member of the French Academy, for
his contributioas to Oriental Numismatic Archeology,

_ WE learn from the British Medical Fournal, that Dr. C. J.
B. Williams has been nominated by the Council of the Royal
Medical and Chirurgical Society for the Presidency.

Mr. E. B. NICHOLSON, librarian of the Oxford Union Society,
has been appointed to the Librarianship of the London Institu-
tion, in room of the late Mr. J. C. Brough.

Tue Fifth Annual Report of the Eastbourne Natural History
Society shows that it continues prosperous, and has been making
valuable additions to our knowledge of the Natural History of
the district in/all its departments.

THE lioness, which has so successfully reared the cubs born
in the Zoological Gardens, July 8, 1872, died on the 21st inst.

WE have received an advance sheet of the next number of
- Petermann’s A/ittheiJungen containing the second article on Dr.
Livingstone’s Exploration of the Upper Congo, appended to
which is a splendidly constructed map of the section of Africa
included between 2° and 12}° S. lat. and 22°— 40” E, long., in
which not only the most recent discoveries are filled in, but the
routes of all travellers are given from Lacerda in 1798 down to
Livingstone and Stanley in 1871-2. Moreover by seven shades
of colour the heights of the various regions are indicated from
1000 up to 18,710 feet.

Tue whole of No. 34 of the supplement to Petermann’s A/it-
theilungen is occupied with the journal kept by Jerhard Rohlfs,
who in 1865-6-7, journeyed through North Africa, from Lake
Tsad to the Gulf of Guinea. Two magnificent maps accompany

NATURE

251

the narrative, the one representing the region to the south of
Lake Tsad, and showing the routes. of Rohlfs and of all previous
travellers through that region ; the other represents the country
from Borneo to Lagos, and contains the routes of travellers from
Clapperton and Landor down to Rohlf.

LIEUTENANT GRANDY, leader of the Livingstone Congo Ex-
pedition, has written to Sir Henry Rawlinson reporting his
arrival at Sierra Leone on December 14, where he got together
his exploring party, consisting of his brother, Mr. M. B. Grandy,
two Congo men to act as interpreters, 19 Kroomen, and a steady
native from the police, Daniel E. Gabbidon, The party left
for the South Coast on the 27th, in good health, after an in-
spection and a few cheering words at Government-house. The
local Government presented Lieutenant Grandy with a travelling
tent, water-proof blankets, and other useful articles.

WE are glad to see that the botanical members of the Perth-
shire Society of Natural Science are preparing ‘‘a Flora of
Perthshire,” one of the richest counties, botanically, in the king-
dom. Botanists who can assist with information are requested
to communicate at once with Dr. Buchanan White, Dunkeld,
than whom no more competent editor could be found.

A MEETING was held the other evening which pledged itself
to use every effort to establish a South London Museum on the
model of that recently opened at Bethnal Green.

Tue first of a series of lectures was given on Tuesday evening
the 21st inst., on the ‘‘ Physical Geography of the Sea,” in the-
Town Hall, Shoreditch, by Dr. Carpenter. The lecture was
listened to by an audience of 2,000 persons, chiefly of the work-
ing classes, men and women, with marked attention, for nearly
two hours. :

A COLLECTION of Saxon antiquities, cf rare value, has been
presented to the library and museum of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, by Mr. White, sub-librarian of the society. These were
obtained from the site of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery, situate at a
place known (and described on maps 200 years old) as “ Edix-
hill hole,” near Orwell, Cambridgeshire. Mr. White’s donation
includes various implements in iron and spear heads, shield
bosses, and handles, &c., and some articles used in hunting and
for domestic use. Among the collection are three jaw bones,
one of immense size, all having the teeth perfectly sound. The
collection has been deposited in the library, :

THE Medical Record for January 15, in a note entitled
‘Science the Peace-maker,” has the following :—‘‘ Immedittely
after the war, the French Societies occupied themselves in
striking off the roll the names of all German Associates, and
French savans withdrew theirs from the German societies of
which they were honorary members. We are glad to note, as
indicating a return to a more sound and philosophic mind, that
at a recent meeting of the Berlin Chemical Society M. Cahours,
an eminent Frenchman, applied for, and was accorded, admis-
sion to the honorary membership.”

Tue principal article in the Revue Scientifique for January 25
is a long one by M. Léon Dumont on the theory of evolution in
Germany, with special reference to the doctrines of Haeckel.

A WELL-KNOWN British explorer, in the person of Com-
mander Alexander John Smitb, has recently died at Sandhurst,
Victoria. This gentleman was lieutenant on board the Zredus,
under Captain Sir James Clark Ross, in the expedition to
investigate the magnetism of the Antarctic region, and was
subsequently one of the officers in charge of the magnetic obser-
vatory at Hobart Town.

252

THE SCIENTIFIC ORDERS OF THE
“ CHALLENGER" *

II,

II. Chemical Observations

AMPLES of sea-water should be collected for chemical
analysis at the surface and at various depths, and in various
conditions. Each sample should be placed in a Winchester quart
glass-stoppered bottle, the stopper being tied down with tape
and sealed in such a manner that the contents cannot be tam-
pered with. : ;

2. Portions of the same samples should be, immediately after
their collection, boiled iz vacuo, the gases collected, their volume
determined as accurately as may be, and a portion, not less than
one cubic inch, hermetically sealed in a glass tube, to be sent
home at any time for complete analysis.

3. Frequent samples of sea-water taken at the surface, and
others taken beneath as opportunity offers, should have deter-
minations of chlorine made upon them at once or as soon as
convenient. :

This operation could easily be carried on in any but very
heavy weather. On the other hand, it is not thought that any
trustworthy analyses of gases could be made on board ship,
unless in harbour or in the calmest weather.

4. Such samples of the sea-bottom as are brought up should
be carefully dried and preserved for examination and analysis.

5. The gas contained in the swimming-bladders of fishes
caught near the surface and at different depths should be pre-
served for analysis. In each case the species, sex, and size, and
especially the depth at which the fish was caught, should be
stated.

III. Botanical Observations

The duties of a botanist in travelling are twofold, and in the
case of the voyage of circumnavigation about to be undertaken
by H.M.S. Challenger they are of equal importance. —

Of these, the one refers to forming complete collections of the
plants of all interesting localities, and especially of the individual
islands of oceanic groups.

The other, to making observations upon life, history, and
structure in the case of plants where special knowledge is con-
cerned.

In the first of these the botanist must necessarily be largely
helped by the assistance to be obtained on board ship from the
officers and crew, working under his guidance and close super-
vision. When time and opportunity are wanting for making
complete collections, preference should be given to the phanero-
gamous vegetation.

In the second he will have to depend upon his own resources,
and will therefore require that the mere process of collection
does not make too great demands upon his time, although in
itself exceedingly important, and by no means to be neglected.

The general directions for travellers, printed in the Admiralty
Manual of Scientific Inquiry, will of course be kept in view.

Especial stress must, however, be laid upon the necessity of
obtaining information about the vegetation of oceanic islands.
These are, in many cases, the last positions held by floras of
great antiquity; and, as in the case of St. Helena, they are
liable to speedily become exterminated, and therefore to pass
into irremediable oblivion when the islands become occupied.

Of many that lie not far from the usual tracks of ships, abso-
lutely nothing is known, whilst of the flora of a vast majority we
possess most imperfect materials. The following are especially
worth exploring ; and to the list is added an indication of the
least explored coast lines of the great continents. AAs far as
possible complete dried collections should be made, not only
of each group, but of each islet of the group ; for it is usually
the case that the floras of contiguous oceanic, islets are wonder-
fully different. Of those in italics the vegetation is absolutely
unknown, or all but so.

1. ATLANTIC Ocean, Capede Verd, Tristan d’Acunha
Fernando Noronha, Trinidad and Martin Vaz (off the Brazil
coast), Diego Ramirez, S. Georgia, The African coast between
Morocco and Senegal, the Gaboon, and Damara Land offer the
most novel fields, On the American coast, Cayenne, Bahia to
Cape Frio, Patagonia.

2. WesT INDiEs. The Bahamas and St. Domingo and the
Antilles have been very imperfectly explored except Dominica,

* Continued from p. 193.

Pate JW OE han OR SED Ce a eee "2 “ ,
: pate See ; (ee eer

NATURE

.

‘[ an. 30, 18 7.

Trinidad, and Martinique,
Nicaragua, and the coast region of Mexico, the Mosquito shores,
and Guatemala offer rich fields for botanical research.

3. INDIAN OcEAN. The Seychelles, Asmmirantes, Mada-
gascar, Bourbon, Socotra, St. Paul’s, and Amsterdam Islands,
Prince Edward’s, the Crozets and Marion groups. Of the E,
African coast to the north of Natal no part is well explored, and
the greater part is utterly unknown botfanically,

4. PaciFIc OCEAN. (1.) N. TEMPERATE, Collections are
wanted from N. Japan and the Kuriles and Aleutian Islands.
(2.) TRopIcAL, Considerable collections have been made only in
the Sandwich Islands, Figi Islands, Tahiti, and New Caledonia ;
from all of which more are much wanted. The Marquesas,
New Hebrides, J/arshall’s, Solomon’s and Caroline's, together
with all the smaller groups, are still less known. Of the
American continent, the Californian peninsula, Mexico, and the
whole coast from Lima to Valparaiso, are but imperfectly
known. Of the small islands off the coast, Juan Fernandez
and the Galapagos alone have been partially botanised. 3. S.
TEMPERATE. Juan Fernandez, J/asafuera, St. Felix, and
Ambroise, Pitcairn, Bounty, Antipodes, Emerald, Macquarie
Islands.

5. INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO, Java alone is explored, and the
Philippines very partially ; collections are especially wanted
from all the islands east of Java to the Louisiade and Solomon
Archipelagos, especially Lombok and New Guinea, Siam,
Cochin China, and the whole Chinese sea-board want explora-
tion.

6. AUSTRALIA.
explored.

Photographs or careful drawings of tropical vegetation often
convey interesting information, and should contain some reference
to a scale of dimensions.

An inquiry of much importance, for which the present expedi-
tion affords a favourable opportunity, is that into the vitality of
seeds exposed to the action of sea-water.

All the tropical coasts are very partially

On the mainland, Honduras,’

a4

Observations should especially be made on the fruits and —

seeds of those plants which have become widely distributed
throughout the tropical regions of the world, apparently without
the intervention of man; but further observations on other
plants of different natural orders may be of great value with
reference to questions of geographical distribution,

The following instructions have been drawn up for the
botanical collectors as to objects of special attention at particular
places :—

Porto Rico.—In collecting, distinguish the plants of the Sa-
vannahs from those of the mountains, which, if possible, should
be ascended. The palms and tree-ferns are quite unknown;
marine algze also are wanted.

Cape de Verdes,—Make for the highest peaks, where the
vegetation is peculiar, and analogous to that of Madeira and the
Canaries.

Fernando de Noronha.—Land if possible. Very remarkable
plants are said to occur, different from those of Brazil. A

Trinidad.—A complete collection is required. A tree-fern
exists, but the species is unknown. :

Prince Edward’s Island and Croszets.—Two spots more in
teresting for the exploration of their vegetation do not exist upon
the face of the globe. Every effort should be made to make a
complete collection. ;

Kerguelen’s Land.—A thorough exploration should be made,
and the cryptogamic plants and alge diligently collected. The
Antarctic Expedition was only there in midwinter ; flowering
specimens of /ringlea are wanted.

Auckland and Campbell Islands.—The floras should be wel
explored. .

South Pacific and Indian Oceans.—Attend to general instruc-
tions, more especially as regards palms and large monoco-
tyledons generally. Marine alge are said to be scarce, and should
be looked for all the more diligently. In the North Pacific,
south temperate alga are said to prevail.

Aleutian [slands.—Collections are particularly wanted,

Every effort should be made to land onislands detween Jat, 30°
N. and 30° S. along the marked track (between Vancouver
Island and Valparaiso), so as to connect the vegetation of the
American continent with the traces of it that exist in the
Sandwich Islands.

Straits of Magellan.—Cryptogams are abundant, but very
partially explored.

The following additional notes have been drawn up for the

‘

; s more especial guidance of the botanists of the circumnaviga-

es

tion :—

Phanerogams.—t. Fleshy parasitic plants (Balanophora,
Rafflesia, &c.) are little suitable for dissection and examina-
tion unless preserved in spirit, and the same remark applies to
fleshy flowers and inflorescences generally, Dried specimens,
however, are not without their value, and should always be ob-
tained as well.

_ 2, The stems of scandent and climbing plants are often very
anomalous in their structure. Short portions of such stems
should be collected when the cross section is in any way remark-
able, with the foliage, flowers, and fruit when possible. <A few
leaves and flowers should also be tied up between two pieces of
card, and attached at once to the specimens of the stem, so as to
ensure future identification.

3. Attention should be given to the esculent and medicinal
substances used in various places. Specimens should be ob-
tained, and whenever possible, they should be accompanied by
complete specimens of the plants from which such substances are
obtained. ;

4. The common weeds and ruderal plants growing about ports

or landing-places should not be overlooked, and, as far as prac-
ticable, trustworthy information should be recorded as to the
date and circumstances of the introduction of foreign species.
- 5. The distribution of marine Phanerogamic plants (Zostera,
Cymodocea, &c.) should also be noted, and specimens preserved
with their latitude and longitude. Their buds and parts of
fructification should be put into spirit.

6. The flowers of Zoranthacee and Santalacee should be pre-
served in spirit, and also dried to exhibit general habit.

7. The inflorescence of Aroids should be dissected when
fresh, or put into spirit, Note the placentation and position of
the ovules.

8. Devote especial attention to the study of Screw-Pines and
Palms when opportunity arises, even if necessary to the neglect
of other things. The general habit of the plants should be
sketched ; the male and female inflorescence should be pre-
served, and also the fruit; the foliage should be dried and
folded, and packed in boxes. Many fleshy vegetable objects
may be ‘‘killed” by a longer or shorter immersion in spirit.
They then dry up without decaying, and form useful specimens.

g. With respect to Palms, further note the height, position of
the spadix, and preponderance of the sexes in both moncecious
and dicecious species, also form and dimensions of leaves.

to. Surface-drifting should be examined, and any seeds or
fragments of land-plants carefully noted when determinable, with
directions of currents and latitude and longitude.

11. Facts are also required as to the part played by icebergs
in plant-distribution. If any opportunity occurs for their exa-
mination, it would be desirable to preserve and note any vege-
table material which might be found upon their surface ; also to
examine any rock-fragments for lichens.

12. Ferns.—Ferns should always, when possible, be obtained
with fructification. In the case of tree-ferns, our knowledge of
which, from the imperfection of material for description, is very
defective, a portion of the stem sufficient to illustrate its structure
should be obtained, with notes of its height ; a fragment of a
frond (between pieces of card) and the base of a stipes should be
tied to the specimen of the stem ; also a note as to whether the
adventitious roots were living or dead.

The number of fronds should be counted, their dimensions
taken, and the basal scales carefully preserved.

Note if tree-ferns are ever attacked by insects or fungi, and
whether they form the food of any class of animals.

13. Mosses, &c.—Many mosses are aquatic. In the case of
dicecious species of mosses, plants of both sexes should be,
when possible, secured.

14. Aquatic species of Ricciacee should be looked for. Minute
Fungermanniacee are found on the foliage of other plants.

15. Podostemacee are found in rocky running streams in hot
countries. They have a remarkable superficial resemblance to
Hepaticze. Except at the flowering season they are altogether
i ee Specimens should be preserved in spirit as well as

ri
16. Fungi.—Take notes of all fleshy fungi, especially as re-
gards colour ; the spores should be allowed to fall on paper, and
the colour of these noted also, The fleshy species may some-
times be advantageously immersed in spirit before preparing for
the herbarium.

17. Examine the fungi which grow on ants’ nests, taking care

“NATURE

253

to get perfect as well as imperfect states, and to secure, if pos-
sible, specimens which have not burst their volva,

18. Look out for luminous species, and ascertain whether they
are luminous in themselves, or whether the luminosity depends
on decomposition.

19. Secure specimens of all esculent or medicinal fungi which
are sold in bazaars, noting, if possible, the vernacular name.

20. Note any species of fleshy fungi which arise like the Pyetra
Fungaja from a mass of earth impregnated with mycelium, or
from a globose resting-mass.

2t. Attend especially to any fungi whic attack crops, whether
cereal or otherwise ; and particularly gather specimens of vine«
mildew and potato-mildew, should they be met with. Even
common wheat-mildew, smut, &c., should be preserved.

22. In every case note date of collection, soil, and other cir-
cumstances relative to particular specimens.

23. Look after those fungi which attack the larvz of insects,

24. In the case of the AZyoxogastres, sketches should be made
on the spot of their general form, with details of microscopic
appearance. It would be worth while attempting to preserve
specimens for future microscopic examination by means of osmic
acid.

25. Alge.—Marine alge may be found between tide-marks
attached to rocks and stones, or rooting in sand, &c. ; those in
deeper water are got by dredging, and many are cast up after
storms ; small kinds grow on the larger, and some being like
fleshy crusts on stones, shells, &c., must be pared off by means
of a knife,

The more delicate kinds, after gentle washing, may be floated
ina vessel of fresh water, upon thick and smooth writing or
drawing paper ; then gently lift out paper and plant together,
allow some time to drip ; then’place on the sea-weed clean linen
or cotton cloth, and on it a sheet of absorbent paper, and submit
to moderate pressure—many adhere to paper but not to cloth;
then change the cloth and absorbent paper till the specimens are
dry. Large coarser kinds may be dried in the same way as
land-plants ; or are to be spread out in the shade, taking care to
prevent contact of rain or fresh water of any kind; when suffi-
ciently dry, tie them loosely in any kind of wrapping paper ;
those preserved in this rough way may be expanded and floated
out in water at any time afterwards, A few specimens of each
of the more delicate algze ought to be dried on mica or glass,
A note of date and locality ought to be attached to every
species.

Delicate slimy alge are best prepared by floating out on
smooth-surfaced paper (known as ‘“‘sketching paper’), then
allowed to drip and dry by simple exposure to currents of air,
without pressure.

26. Very little information exists regarding the range of depth
of marine plants. It will be very desirable that observations
should be made upon this subject, as opportunity from time to
time presents itself.

Professor Dickie remarks, and the caution should be borne in
mind :—‘* When the dredge ceases to scrape the bottom, it
becomes in its progress to the surface much the same as a towing
net, capturing bodies which are being carried along by currents,
and therefore great caution is necessary in reference to any
marine plants found in it. Sea-weeds are among the most
common of all bodies carried by currents near the surface or at
various depths below, and from their nature are very likely to be
entangled and brought up.”

27. Carefully note and preserve alge brought up in dredge
in moderate depths, under 100 fathoms, or deeper. Preserve
specimens a¢fached to shells, corals, &c. which would indicate
their being actually 7 st, and not caught by dredge as it
comes up.

28. Examine mud brought up by dredge from different depths
for living Diatoms; examine also for the same purpose the
stomachs of Sa/fe and other marine animals.

29. Note algz on ships, &c. with the submerged parts in a
foul condition ; also preserve scrapings of coloured crusts or
slimy matter, green, brown, &c.

30. Observe algze floating, collect specimens, noting latitude
and longitude, currents, &c.

31. Examine loose floating objects, drift-wood, &c. for alge.
If no prominent species presents itself, preserve scrapings of any
coloured crusts. Note as above.

32. It might be useful to have a few moderate-sized pieces of
wood, oak, &c. quite clean at first, attached to some part of the
vessel under water to be examined, say, monthly. The larger

254

NATURE

: ye a

s

or shorter prominent algze should be kept and noted, and
crusts on such examined and preserved, with notes of the vessel’s
course.

33. Various instances have been mentioned by travellers of
the coloration of the sea by minute alge: as in the Straits of
Malacca by Harvey; any case of this kind would be worth
especial attention. .

34. The calcareous algee (Me/obesia, Kc.) are comparatively
little known, and are apt to be overlooked.

35. Fresh-water algze should be collected as occasion presents.
Prot. Dickie states that they may be either dried like the marine
kinds, or preserved in a fluid composed of 3 parts alcohol, 2
parts water, 1 part glycerine, well mixed. .

36. Cases are recorded of the presence of algze in hot springs.
If such are met with, the temperature should be noted and
specimens preserved,

IV. Zoological Observations

As the scientific director of the expedition is an accomplished
zoologist, and has already had much experience in marine ex-
ploration, it will suffice to offer a few suggestions under this
head,

The quadrant-like zone of the Pacific, which separates the
northern and eastern boundaries of the Polynesian Archipelago
(using ‘‘ Polynesia” in its broadest sense as inclusive of ‘* Micro-
nesia””) from the coasts of N. Asia and America, is as little
explored from the point of view of the physical geographer
as from that of the biologist. It would be a matter of great
importance to examine the depth, and the nature of the deep-sea
fauna, of this zone by taking a line of soundings and dredgings
in its northern half (say between Japan and Vancouver) and in
its eastern half (say between Vancouver and Valparaiso). If
practicable, it would further be very desirable to explore the
littoral fauna of Waihou, Easter Island, or Sala y Gomez, with
the view of comparing it critically with that of the west coast of
South America.

If H.M.S. Challenger passes through Torres Straits, it will be
very desirable to examine the littoral fauna of the Papuan shore
of the straits in order to compare it with that of the Australian
shore. The late Professor Jukes, in his ‘‘ Voyage of the Aly”
many years ago, directed attention to this point and to its theo-
retical bearings.

The hydrographic examination of ‘* Wallace’s line” in the
Malay archipelago, and of the littoral faunas on the opposite
sides of that line, is of great importance, considering the signifi-
cance of that line as a boundary between two distributional pro-
vinces. An additional interest has been given to the explora-
tion of this region by Capt. Chimmo’s recently obtained sounding
of 2,800 fathoms in the Celebes Sea, the mud brought up being
almost devoid of calcareous organisms, but containing abundant
spicula of sponges and vadiolaria.

The light from any self-luminous objects met with should be
examined with a prism as to its composition. The colours of
animals captured should also be examined with a prism, or by
aid of the microscopic spectroscope,

V. Concluding Observations

Attention should be paid to the Geology of districts which
have not hitherto been examined, and collections of minerals,
rocks, and fossils should be made. Detailed suggestions as to
the duties of the geologist accompanying the expedition are
unnecessary ; but it seems desirable that at all shores visited,
evidence of recent elevation or subsidence of land should be
sought for, and the exact nature of these evidences carefully re-
corded.

Every opportunity should be taken of obtaining photographs
of native races to one scale; and of making such observations
as are practicable with regard to their physical characteristics,
language, habits, implements, and antiquities. It would be
advisable that specimens of hair of unmixed races should in all
cases be obtained.

Each station should have a special number associated with it
in the regular journal of the day’s proceedings, and that number
should be noted prominently on everything connected with that
station; so that in case of labels being lost or becoming in-
distinct, or other references failing, the conditions of the dredging
or other observations may at once be forthcoming on reference
to the number in the journal. All specimens procured should be

carefully preserved in spirit or otherwise, and packed in cases.

with the contents noted to be dealt with in the way which

[Fan. 30, 1873

ok

yas

seems most likely to conduce to the rapid and accurate deve-

lopment of the scientific results of the expedition.

A diary, noting the general proceedings and results of each
day, should be kept by the scientific director, with the assistance
of his secretary ; and each of the members of the scientific staff
should be provided with a note-book in which to enter from day

to day his observations and proceedings ; and he should submit —

this diary at certain intervals to the scientific director, who would
then abstract the results, and incorporate them, along with such
additional data as may be supplied by the officers of the ship,
in general scientific reports to be sent home to the hydrographer
at every available opportunity, ; ;

The scientific staff should be provided with an adequate set
en books of reference, especially those bearing on perishable
objects.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

A LARGE portion of the American Naturalist, for October, is
occupied by Prof, Asa Gray’s address at the Dubuque meeting
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, to
which we have already alluded. Mr, B. Pickman Mann then con-
cludes his paper on the white coffee-leaf miner ( Cemeostoma coffee.
/um), a subject of great importance to coffee-growers, treated in an
exhaustive manner. Prof. C. F. Hartt, from whom articles on
the same subject have already appeared in the WVaturalist, con-
tributes a further paper on the occurrence of Face-urns in

Brazil; and Prof. N.S. Shaler concludes his article on the,

Geology of the Island of Aquidneck, illustrated by maps and
sections ; and Mr, C. V. Riley his important article on the
cause of Deterioration of Grape-vines.—-The November number
commences with an article by Mr. J. G. Henderson on some abo-
riginal relics known as ‘‘ plummets,” which are abundant in
various parts of the United States from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, with speculations as to their use. Prof. James Orton

continues his contributions to the Natural History of the Valley —

of Quito, the present article being devoted to the Articulata and
Plants; in the latter department the author notices the simi-
larity of the features of the flora of the Andes to those recorded
by Kerner in the Tyrolese Alps. Mr. R. Ridgway commences
some Notes on the Vegetation of the Lower Wabash Valley, with
an account of the Forests of the Bottom-lands. Mr. Samuel H,
Scudder, in an article on Fossil Insects from the Rocky Moun-
tains, records nearly 40 species, belonging to nearly all the
principal groups, found in Tertiary deposits. Prof. Cope, ina
paper read at Dubuque, discusses the geological age of the Coal
of Wyoming, which he refers without doubt to the Cretaceous
period. Prof. Shaler has a short note on the effects of extra-
ordinary seasons on the distribution of Animals and Plants.—In
the number for December:we find a short article by the Rey.
Samuel Lockwood on the Baltimore Oriole and Carpenter-bee,
followed by a continuation of Mr. Ridgways’s notes on the Vege-
tation of the Lower Wabash Valley, treating of the Peculiar
Features of the Bottom-lands. This is followed by an in-
teresting account of the Alpine Flora of Colorado, by the Rey. E.
L. Greene ; and Dr. J. W. Foster then contributes an abstract of
a paper read at Dubuque on certain peculiarities in the Crania
of the Mound-builders, illustrated with drawings. Another
Dubuque paper of a speculative character is by Dr, H. Harts-
horne, on the relation between organic vigour and sex; and
Prof. Shaler then gives a further instalment of his paper on the
Geology of Aquidneck. In all these three numbers is the usual
amount of Reviews, and interesting short paragraphs and notes.

ee ——— —

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

LONDON

Royal Society, Jan. 23.—Dr. Stenhouse read a paper,
‘* Contributions to the History of the Orcins.—No. III. Amido-
derivatives of Orcin.” He has confined his investigations to an
examination of the products obtained from Trinitro-orcinic acid.

A mido-diimido-orcin, Cz H5(N H)(NH).0..—This compound,
which has the properties of a base, is formed by the oxidation of
triamido-orcin, and is most conveniently obtained ina pure state
by decomposing a solution of the acetate with a slight excess of
ammonia, . The most advantageous method of preparing the
base is to reduce trinitro-orcin with sodium-amalgam, and to

&

ae re RET er

NATURE 255

oxidise the alkaline solution of triamido-otcin by exposure to the

air. Trinitro-orcin is also reduced by treatment with tin and
hydrochloric acid, or zinc and hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.

Amido-diimido-orcin hydrochloride.—The hydrochloride ob-
tained in the preparation of amido-diimido-orcin may be purified
by crystallisation from hot water ; but as heat decomposes solu-
tions of the salts of this base, it is better to precipitate a cold
solution of the acetate by a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, in
which the hydrochloride is but slightly soluble ; the precipitate
should be thoroughly washed with alcohol, pressed and dried.

Amido-diimido-orcin sulphate is readily prepared by precipi-
tating a dilute solution of the acetate with sulphuric acid, when
; forms minute lustrous plates which are purple by reflected
ight. ;

P daestdieainor cit nitrate is prepared, like the sulphate, by

adding a slight excess of nitric acid to a moderately strong solu-

tion of the acetate and washing the precipitate with alcohol.

Amido-diimido-orcin acetate dissolves readily in acetic acid, and
on carefully evaporating the solution at a low temperature, the
acetate is obtained in ill-defined crystalline plates having a purple
iridescence. It is readily soluble in cold water, but only slightly
soluble in glacial acetic acid.

Amido-diimitlo-orcin oxalate.—Very slightly soluble purple
scales obtained by precipitating a solution of the acetate with
oxalic acid.

Amido-diimido-orcin picrate.—On adding a solution of picric
acid to a dilute solution of amido-diimido-orcin acetate and wash-
ing the precipitate with alcohol, the picrate is obtained in iride-
scent green needles and plates, It is insoluble in alcohol, and
but slightly soluble in water.

Prof. Owen read a paper ‘‘ On the Fossil Mammals of Austra-
lia.—Part VIII. Family A/acropodide ; Genera Macropus, Os-
phranter, Phascolagus, Sthenurus, and Protemnodon.”

In the present part of the series of papers on the fossil mam-
mals of Australia, the author enters upon the description and
determination of the fossils referable to the family of Kangaroos
(Macropodide) ; restricting, however, the latter term to the
species in which the molar teeth have two transverse ridges for
the chief character of their grinding-surface, and excluding the
Potoroos (/ipsifrymnide), in which the working-surface of the
molars is formed by four tubercles in two transverse pairs. The
large extinct species of Kangaroo indicated under the names
Macropus Titan, M. Atlas, and M. Anak in former publications
here receive further elucidation of their specific distinction from any
known living Kangaroos and of the grounds (according to the value
assigned thereto by present zoologists) for referring two of these
(MZ. Adas, M. Anak) to distinct subgenera of Macropodide. The
author then enters on the elucidation, aided by the facts pre-
mised, of Macropfus Titan, M. affinis, Osphranter Cooperi, O.
Gouldit, Phascolagus altus,,Sthenurus, Atlas S. Brehus, Protem-
nodon Anak, P. Og, P. Mimas, and P. Rechus. The maxillary,
mandibular, and dental characters of these extinct species are
illustrated by the subjects of eight plates.

Zoological Society, January 21, Prof. Newton, F.R.S.,
V.P., in the chair.—Dr. Giinther, F.R.S., exhibited and made
remarks on a supposed ancient Egyptian, skull—A communica-
tion was read from the Rev. John T. Gulick, containing remarks
on the classification of the family Achatinelline ; which he re-
garded as containing ten well established genera, seven of {which
were arboreal and three terrestrial in habit.—Mr. A. H. Garrod,
read a paper on the visceral anatomy of the Sumatran rhinoceros
(Ceratorhinus sumatrensis) based on a specimen of this species

_ lately living in the Society’s gardens.—Mr. A. D.. Bartlett

gave an ‘account of the birth of a Sumatran rhinoceros which
had taken place on board the Ovchis at the Victoria Docks on
December 7. The mother and an adult male of the animal along
with her had been brought from Singapore, but the male had
died on the passage. The young one suckled freely and lived
for about a fortnight, and was said to have been accidentally
killed.—A communication was read from Surgeon-Major Francis
Day on some new or imperfectly known fishes of India and
Burma.—A communication was read from the Rev. O. P. Cam-
bridge on some new genera and species of Araneidea, chiefly
from Mr. Thwaites’ Ceylonese collections. —A communication
was read from Dr, J. E. Gray containing a description of the
skeleton of the New Zealand Right Whale (AZacleayius australiensis)
and of other whales, Dr. Gray concluded with a general list of
the known species of the marine mammalia of New Zealand.—A
communication was read from Mr. G. B. Sowerby, giving de-

scriptions of several new shells of the genus Coxus.—A commu-
nication was read from Dr. J. C. Cox, containing descriptions of
new land shells from Australia and the Solomon Islands.

Anthropological Institute, Jan. 21. Annual general
meeting.—Sir John Lubbock, Bart, F.R.S., president, in the
chair. The Report of Council showed that the income for 1872
was 1,238/. 5s. 4d., and the expenditure 1,084/. 18s., leaving a
balance in hand of 153/. 75. 4d.; and that after deducting the
expenses of the year, the debt of the Institute had been reduced
by 249/. 9s. 6d. The president delivered an address, in which
he reviewed the chief anthropological works of the past year by
continental and American authors. He also drew attention to
the continued destruction of prehistoric monuments, and made
further suggestions for their preservation. Prof. George Busk,
F.R.S., was elected president. -

Meteorological Society, Jan. 15.—Dr. Tripe, president, in
the chair. The first paper read was on solar radiation, by Rev.
Fenwick W. Stow, M.A. This paper treated of the comparison
of the measure of solar radiation obtained by a Herschel’s
actinometer with that indicated by the difference between the tem-
perature of a blackened bulb zz vacuo, and that of the air in the
shade ; the comparison of the latter with the difference of tem-
perature of blackened and unblackened bulbs zz vacuo ; sugges-
tions for a standard solar thermometer or actinometer ; errors of
thermometers iv vacuo, and the necessity of comparing them ;
experiments with blackened bulbs in glass air-jackets ; and the
objects to be aimed at in investigations of solar radiation, and
the importance of such investigations to meteorology and physics.
The next paper, also by the Rev. F. W. Stow, entitled ‘On
Temperature in Sun and Shade,” was an account of experi-
ments with different thermometers exposed (1) to full sun, (2) to
sun, but not to sky in zenith, (3) to sky in zenith, but not to
sun, (4) on open thermometer stand, and (5) in louvre board
screen, ‘The author found that ordinary mercurial thermometers
are affected more by radiation from the ground than from the
other sources of heat ; and concluded with some remarks on
open stands and louvre board screens.—The other communica-
tions read were—‘‘On the ‘Pocky’ Cloud observed July 27,
1872,” by J. S. Harding, F.M.S.; *‘ Account of the Hurricane
which passed over the Nichol Bay district of Western Australia
on March 20, 1872,” by R. J. Sholl, Government Resident ;
and an ‘‘ Account of a phenomenon observed on board H.M.S,
Fawn, on May 16, 1872,” by H. P. Knevitt.

Institution of Civil’Engineers, Jan. 14.—Mr. Thomas
Hawksley, president, in the chair, Colonel W. H. Greathed,
C.B., R.E., Chief Engineer of Irrigation to the Government of
the North-Western Provinces, read a paper ‘‘ On the Practice
and Results of Irrigation in Northern India.” The object of
the Paper was to describe what had been done and what was
now doing in that portion of Upper India where irrigation had
been longest practised, and on the largest scale.

GLASGOW

Geological Society, Jan. 9,—James Bryce, LL.D., F.G.S.,
read a paper on “The Upper Secondary Rocks of Sky and
Raasay.” After referring to the observations which have pre-
viously been published on the Lias and Oolite of Sky, Dr. Bryce
noticed the great geological interval which separates these upper
Secondary rocks in Scotland from the deposits on which they
rest. In the east of Scotland they are found overlying the Old
Red sandstone ; but in Skye and Raasay their base is formed of
the Torridon or Cambrian Sandstone, in a great trough or hollow,
in which they seem to have been deposited. He then described
at length the general succession of beds observed in Skye, from
the lower Lias at Lucy Bay to the middle Lias at Broadford,
Pabba, and Raasay, and the upper Lias and inferior Oolite in
the neighbourhood of Portree. Passing northwards these were
succeeded by beds still higher in the scale, till, at Loch Staffin
on the one side, and Uig on the other, members of the upper
Oolite were found. He had also found indications of what
appeared to be the equivalents of the ‘‘Purbeck beds” in
England, and the fossils from these were now under careful
examination. The paper was illustrated by maps and carefully-
prepared sections, together with a tabular view of the beds re-
ferred to, and a copious list of the fossils belonging to each
horizon, including some new species not yet named.

256

CALIFORNIA

Academy of Sciences, Dec. 17, 1872.—Mr. W. H. Dall
read, ‘‘Preliminary Descriptions of new Species of Mollusca
from the N. W. coast of America.” The AZagasella Aleutica (Dall,
n.s.), has its Aadifat in the Aleutian Islands from Akutan Pass
to the Shumagins, attached to the under surface of rocks at
extremest low water of spring tides. This pretty species resem-
bles in miniature Zagueus rubella of Sowerby, but is proportion-
ately shorter and broader.
Acmea (Colisella)-peramabilis (Dall, n. s.), inhabits the Shumagin
group of islands, Alaska Territory, on rocks near low water
mark, ‘This lovely species has no relations with A. sybaritica,
Dall, and rosacea, Cpr., except those of colour. The two latter
are much smaller and the rose colour is much lighter and differ-
ently disposed. Its nearest allies are some varieties of A. patina,
Argonauta expansa (Dall, n. s.) The interior of the shell is
smoothly polished, the exterior, especially on the protuberances
of the carinz, is covered with a multitude of exceedingly
minute rough pustules, which give a very rough, harsh feel to
the shell, and under a lens appear hemispherical. Laying the
shell upon its aperture, with the apex posterior, we have the
following measurements. Total length 3°25 in. Width of dorsal
area posteriorly 0°32 in. ; ditto, anteriorly 0°7. Height of shell
2‘oin. ‘Total extension of axis from end to end, 4 in Total
length of aperture 2°25 inches; length from the anterior edge
of the spire to the anterior edge of the aperture 19 in, Zaditat,
in the Gulf of California. This pretty and peculiar argonaut
possesses an assemblage of characters not common to any de-
scribed species, though there are several which have a some-
what similar lateral extension of the axis.

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, January 20.—M. de Quatrefages,
president, in the chair. The President announced the death of
M. le Baron C. Dupin, member of the Mechanical Section.—
M. Chasles read a paper on the number of points of intersection
of two curves of any order at a finite distance—M. Cahours
read a note on certain new derivatives of Propyl. The bodies
described were propylic sulphide, mercury propyl, tin propyl,
and nitro-propane; the author finds that propylic iodide, which
occupies @ place between the iodides of ethyl and amyl, behaves
like then.—M. A. Trécul read the first part of a paper on the
carpellary theory of the Papaveracea. This part of the paper
was devoted to the Papaver family.—An account of some
new researches on the tympanic chord, by M. A. Vulpian,
followed.—M. A. Dumont sent a paper on the possibility
of destroying the Phylloxera in the Valley of the Rhone
by submerging the vines.—M. du Pepin sent a note on
the residues of the fifth power and one on the quadratic
forms of certain powers of the primary numbers.—M. O, Tamin-
Despalles sent a note on the connection between ozonometric
determinations and the death-rate of Paris. The author finds
that the winds from south to north round by west are favourable
to health, and that large ozone indications are accompanied by
small death-rates.—M. Yvon Villarceau read a letter from M.
Borrelly detailing some observations of No. 128, and the discovery
of a new variable star. The latter is situated in the Balance ;
its mean position for 1873 is, 15" 14™ 5*69° R. A. ; 109° 55’ 42°7”
N.P.D.—M. P. Volcipelli sent his fifteenth note on the
“Blectric Influence.”—M. Ch, Viollette sent a note in reply
to the late communication of Messrs. Tomlinson and Van
der Mensbrugghe on the action of thin films of liquid on
supersaturated solutions. He asserts that the ten-atom sodic
sulphate crystal always caused the solidification of the solu-
tion of that salt, and that it does this of itself, and not by
means of its chemical dirtiness. —M. Arm. Gautier sent a note
on certain phosphorous compounds, in which that body appears to
exist in the amorphous form. The formula for one of these bodies

is P; H, O ; it is formed by the action of water on PI,.—M. A. |

Chevalier sent a note on the modifications produced on coloured
light by the various tinted glasses used for spectacles. He de-
cides that as the neutral tint alone cuts out the very brilliant red
and yellow portions of the spectrum that it alone is of any use.

DIARY

L d THURSDAY, JANvARY 30.

Roya Society, at 8.30.—Note on the Origin of Bacteria, and on their
Relation to the Process of Putrefaction: Dr, Bastian.—On Just Intonation
in Music : R. H. M. Bosanquet.—On the Composition and Origin of the
Waters of a Salt Spring in Huel Seton Mine, with a Chemical and Micro-
scopical Examination of certain Rocks in its Vicinity: J. A, Phillips.

NATURE

The animal is rather sluggish. !

Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Oriental Bronze Implements: A. W.

Franks.
FRIDAY, JANvARY 31.

Roya. InsTITUTION, at 9-—Music of the Future: Mr. Dannreuther.
Society oF ARTS, at 8.—Progress of India during the last Fourteen Years :
J. H. Stocqueler.

SATURDAY, FEsBruary 1
Royat INSTITUTION, at 3.—On Comparative Politics : E. A. Freeman.

SUNDAY, FEBRUARY 2.

Sunpay LecTurE Society, at 4—The Early History of Domestic Animals :
L. C. Miall.

MONDAY, FEsRuary 3-

Rovat InsTiTuTION, at 2.—General Monthly Meeting.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SocIETy, at 7.

AsIa?Pic SociIETY, at 3.

Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 4 —Physical Geography: Prof. Duncan.

TUESDAY, FrEpruary 4. "

Roya InstTiTuTION at 3.—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.
Rutherford.

Society oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—On the Looshais: A. Campbell.—
The Inhabitants of Car Nicobar; A. L. Distant.

Socrety oF BisticAL ARCHOLOGY, at 8.30.—On the Era of Ezra and
Nehemiah: Dr. H. Haigh —On an Assyrian Patera with an Inscription
in Hebrew Characters.—Rev. J. M. Rodwell.—Some Remarks upon a
Passage in the Pzenulus of Plautus: Rev. J. M. Rodwell. :

ZooLocica SociETy, at 8.30.—On a certain Class of Cases of Variable Pro-
tective Colouring in Insects: B. Meldola.—Report on the Hydroida col-
lected during the Expeditions of H.M.S. Porcupine: Prof. Allman.—
Measurements of the Red Blood Corpuscles of Batrachians: G. Gulliver.
—Notes on some Reptiles and Batrachians obtained by Dr. Adolf Bern-
hard Meyer in Celebes and the Philippine Islands: Dr. Giinther.

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 5.
Lonpon INsTITUTION, at 7.—Fresco and Siliceous Painting: Prof. Barff.
Society oF ARTS, at 8.
GEoLocicat Societyat 8. é
Microscopicat Society, at 8.—Anniversary.

THURSDAY, Fesruary 6.

Cuemicau Society, at 8.—On Anthrapurpurin: W. H. Perkin.—On the
Solidification of Nitrous Oxide: T, Wills.—On Isomerism in the Terpene
Family; Dr. C, A. Wright.

BOOKS RECEIVED

EnGutsu.—Lectures on the Philosophy of Law : J. H. Stirling (Longmans),
—The Botanist’s Pocket-Book: W. R. Hayward (Bell & D aldy} —The
School Manual of Geology. Second !Edition; Jukes Browne (A. & C.
Black).—History of Bokhara: A. Vambéry (H. S. King & Co.).—Ozone
and Antozone: Dr. C. B. Fox (J. and A. Churchill).

Foretcn.—Reisen in der Phillippen: F. Jager. (Bertin.)

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

ENGLISH.—National Education and New School Boards: Thomas Bonnar.
Quarterly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office, No. 14, Part 2,
April to June, 1871.--Journal of the Women’s Education Union, No. 1,
January, 1873 (Chapman & Hall).—Report of the Kew Committee for fifteen
months, ending Octoker 31, 1872.—Quarterly Journal of Science, No. 37,
January 1873.—On the Genetic Relation of Cetaceans and the Methods in-
volved in Discovery: Theodore Gill.

Forricn.—Zeitschrift fur Meteorologie, No. 1, Vol. viii. January 1873.—
Uber den Von Pogson, am 2 December, Aufgefunden der Komete on
Prof. Theodore V. Oppalzer.

CONTENTS

Tue INTERNATIONAL METRICAL Commission, II,—H W.CuIsHoLM,
Warden of the Standards . ... + Aare rer re

Pace

De Morcan's BupGeT OF PARADOXES . + + +» « « « «© « + «+ 239
BuRMEISTER’S ANNALS OF THE Pusiic Museum or Bugnos Ay2ES . 240
Our Book SHELF... . 2fe = ss 6 lf le 6 se ny ee
LETTERS TO THE EpiIToR:— ‘
The Invention of the Water-Air-Pump.—Dr SPRENGEL . « . «+ 24%
Kant on the retarded Rotation of Planets jand Satellites.—C. J.
Monro) 6). ).)_ eee reer ey
Pollen-eaters..-—W. E. HART. = 2. @ « s0 0» «© \s) sue eeueeeee
Meteors in South Pacific—S. J. WHITMEE ....+ + + « « 242
Aurora Spectran—H.R. PROCTER. « «© » « + + + + « + « 242
On the Words “‘ Diathermanous,” “‘ Diathermancy,” &c.. . . + 242
Dr. Sanderson’s Experiments.—E. Ray LANKESTER . . « « + 243
THe NATIONAL HERBARIA MEMORIAL . . » « « «© « © © + 2» 243
THE METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY AT MAURITIUS . . « + + «© 243
Tue NATIONAL HerpariA. By Prof. THISELTONDyER. . . « «. 243
Tue RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE OF NorTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
By-A. Bucian, M.A... |) leis Miaiiwlbe Niet owl ia. ca ite) bel tte nna
On THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS, IV. By J. NoRMAN
Lockyer, ERS. . .) Seeaieeie nese 1 . es) 16 ene
NOTES sce co 5. Aa. RRIRRMIIS ital wo: Las, . Seen
THE SCIENTIFIC ORDERS OF THE “CHALLENGER,” II,. . « « «. » 252
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS: .: .: Hayle Meaiey embelly Nettles) cs wre oss tiis alain
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES . + «+ « « + of. ey ee
BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED. . + . + oa ee, eee
DIARY Sn eC ee este oie: Se ete ti pits ene

[Fan. 30, 1873

| THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 6, 1873 | |

SEDGWICK

EOLOGY has lost her veteran leader! While yet
firm in intellect, full of kind and generous feeling,
and occupied on the last pages of the latest record of his
labours, in the ninth decad of a noble life, Sedgwick has
gone to his rest. Under the shadow of this great loss we
look back through more than half a century, and behold
no more conspicuous figure in the front ranks of advancing
geology than the strenuous master workman, the eloquent
teacher, the chivalrous advocate of science, who has now
finished his task. Severe illness, borne with fortitude,
had gradually withdrawn him from scenes once brightened
by his ever-welcome presence, but could not tame the
high spirit, or cloud the genial sympathies which had won
for him, more than for other men, the loving admiration
‘of his fellows in age and followers in study. Rarely has
a patriarchal life been crowned with such enduring and
affectionate respect.

Born in 1785, of a family long resident in a secluded
Yorkshire Valley under the shadow of Wharnside, the boy
early acquired the hardy habits and imbibed the free spirit
of the north, and the man retained till his latest hour, a
romantic love of the bold hills and rushing streams.
amidst which he first became an observer of nature.
Every homestead and every family in his native dale of
Dent were treasured in his memory, and one of the latest
of his minor literary essays was to plead against the
change of the ancient name of a little hamlet situated not
far from his birth-place.

Educated under Dawson, at the weil-known school of
Sedbergh, while Gough and Dalton were residing at
Kendal, he proceeded to the great college in Cambridge, to
which Whewell, Peacock, and Airy afterwards contributed
so much renown. Devoted to the Newtonian philosophy,
and especially attracted by discoveries then opening in
all directions in physical science, he stood in the list as
fifth wrangler, a point from which many eminent men
have taken a successful spring. He took his degree in
1808, became a fellow in 1809, was ordained in 1817, and
for some years occupied himself in the studies and duties
of academic life. His attention to geology was speedily
awakened, and became by degrees a ruling motive for the
long excursions, mostly on horseback, which the state of
his health rendered necessary in the vacations.

It was not, however, so much his actual acquirements
in geology as the rare energy of his mind, and the habit
of large thought and expanding views on natural phzeno-
mena, that marked him out as the fittest man in Cam-
bridge to occupy the Woodwardian chair vacated by
ailstone, Special knowledge of rocks and fossils was
mot so much required as a well-trained and courageous
antellect, equal to encounter theoretical difficulties and
theological obstacles which then impeded the advance of
geology.

The writer well remembers, at an evening conversazione
at Sir Joseph Banks’s, to which, as a satellite of Smith, he
was admitted at eighteen years of age, hearing the remark
that the new professor of geology at Cambridge promised

No, 171—Vot. Vil.

G5 tamales
“NATURE

257

to master what he was appointed to teach, and was
esteemed likely to do so effectually. In the same year
Buckland, his friendly rival for forty years, received his
appointment at Oxford, where he had previously begun to
signalise himself by original researches in palzontology.

At this time the importance of organic remains in geo-
logical reasoning, as taught by Smith, was not much felt
in Cambridge, where a new-born mathematical power
opened out into various lines of physical research, and
encouraged a more scientific aspect of mineralogy, and a
tendency to consider the pheenomena of earth-structure in
the light of mechanical philosophy. This is very apparent
in the early volumes of the Cambridge Philosophical So-
ciety, established in 1819, with Sedgwick and Lee for
secretaries. Accordingly, the earliest memoirs of Sedg-
wick, which appear in the Cambridge Transactions for
1820-21, are devoted to unravel the complicated phzeno-
mena of the granite, killas, and serpentine in Cornwall
and Devon ; and to these followed notices of the trap-
dykes of Yorkshire and Durham, 1822, and the stratified
gual irruptive greenstones of High Teesdale, 1823-24. Inhis
frequent excursions to the north he was much interested in
the varying mineral characters and fossils of the magnesian
limestone, and the remarkable nonconformity of this rock
to the subjacent coal, millstone grit, and mountain lime-
stone ; and at length his observations became the basis
of that large systematic memoir which is one of the most
valuable of the early contributions to the Transactions of
the Geological Society. Begun in 1822 and finished in
1828, this essay not only cleared the way to a more exact
study of the coal formation and New Red sandstones of
England, but connected them by just inference with the
corresponding deposits in North Germany, which he
visited for the purpose of comparison in 1829.

To one of these equestrian excursions the writer was
indebted for his first introduction to Sedgwick. In the
year 1822 I was walking across Durham and North
Yorkshire into Westmoreland. It was hot summer-time,
and after sketching the High Force, in Teesdale, was re-
clining in the shade, reading some easily carried book.
Came riding up, from Middleton, a dark-visaged, con-
spictious man, with a miner’s boy behind. Opposite me
he stopped, and courteously asked if I had looked at the
celebrated waterfall which was near ; adding that though
he had previously visited Teesdale, he had not found an
occasion .for viewing it ; that he would like to stop then
and there todo so, but for the boy behind him, “ who had
him in tow to take him to Cronkley Scar,” a high dark
hill right ahead, where, he said, “the limestone was
turned into lump-sugar.”

A few days afterwards, on his way to the lakes, he
rested for a few hours at Kirkby Lonsdale to converse
with Smith, who was engaged on his geological map of
the district, and had just discovered some interesting
fossils in the laminated strata below Old Red sandstone,
on Kirkby Moor, perhaps the earliest observation of shells
in what were afterwards called the upper Ludlow beds.
The two men thus brought together were much different,
yet in one respect alike : alike in a certain manly simpli-
city, and unselfish communication of thought. Eight
years after this Adam Sedgwick was President of the
Geological Society, and in that capacity presented to
William Smith the first Wollaston medal. The writer

: P

258

may be permitted the pleasure of this reminiscence, since
from the day when he learned the name of the horseman
in Teesdale, till within a few days of his death, he had
the happiness of enjoying his intimate friendship.

Sedgwick had acquired fame before Murchison began
his great career. After sharing in Peninsular wars,
and chasing the fox in Yorkshire, the “old soldier”
became a young geologist, and for many years worked
with admirable devotion to his chief, and carried his
banner through Scotland, and Germany, and across the
Alps, with the same spirit as he had shown when bearing
the colours for Wellington at Vimiera.

Important communications on Arran and the north of
Scotland, including Caithness (1828) and the Moray Firth,
others on Gosau and the eastern Alps (1829-1831),
and still later, in 1837, a great memoir on the Paleozoic
Strata of Devonshire and Cornwall, and another on the
coeval rocks of Belgium and North Germany, show the
labours of these intimate friends combined in the happiest
way—the broad generalisations in which the Cambridge
Professor delighted, well supported by the indefatigable
industry of his zealous companion.

The most important work in the lives of these two
eminent men was performed in and around the princi-
pality of Wales ; Sedgwick, as might be expected, lavish-
ing all his energies in a contest with the disturbed strata,
the perplexing dykes, and the cleavage of the lowest and
least understood groups of rocks; Murchison choosing
the upper deposits exceptionally rich in fossils, and on
the whole presenting but little perplexity as to succession
and character. One explorer, toiling upward from the
base, the other descending from the top, they came after
some years of labour (1831 to 1835) in sight of each other,
and presented to the British Association meeting in
Dublin a general view of the stratified rocks of Wales.

Thus were painfully unfolded the Cambrian and Silu-
rian systems, which speedily became, ina sense, thescientific
property of the discoverers, and were supposed to be
firmly separated by natural and unmistakeable bound-
aries. They were, however, not really traced to their
junction, though Murchison stated that he had found
many distinct passages from the lowest member of the
Silurian system into the underlying slaty rocks named by
Prof. Sedgwick the “ Upper Cambrian ;” while Sedgwick
admitted that his upper Cambrian, occupying the
Berwyns, was connected with the Llandeilo flags of
the Silurian system, and thence expanded through
a considerable portion of South Wales (Reports of Brit.
Assoc., 1835). The Bala rocks were disclaimed on
a cursory view by Murchison, the Llandeilo beds sur-
rendered without sufficient examination by Sedgwick ;
thus the two kingdoms overlapped largely ; two classifi-
cations gradually appeared ; the grand volume of Murchi-
son was issued ; and then began by degrees a difference
of opinion which finally assumed a controversial aspect,
always to be deplored between two of the most truly
attached and mutually helpful cultivators of geological
science in England :—

“ Ambo animis, ambo insignes preestantibus armis.”

This source of lasting sorrow to both, if it cannot be for-
gotten, ought to be only remembered with the tenderness
of regret,

NATURE

[Feb. 6, 1873

Familiar as we now are with the rich fauna of the
Cambrian and Silurian rocks, and their equivalents in
Bohemia and America, it is not difficult to understand,
and we may almost feel again the sustained enthusiasm
which welcomed the discoveries which seemed to reveal

the first state of the sea, and the earliest series of marine _

life, “ primaque ab origine mundi,” almost to complete the
physical history of the earth. Starting with a general view
of the structure of the Lake Mountains of the north of
England, and the great dislocations by which they have
been separated from the neighbouring chains (Geol.
Proc. Jan. 1831). Sedgwick won his difficult way through
North Wales to a general synopsis of the series of strati-
fied rocks below the Old Red sandstone, and attempted to
determine the natural groups and formations (Geol.
Proc. May, 1838). Three systems were named in order—
Lower Cambrian, Upper Cambrian, Silurian—the working
out of which, stream by stream, and hill by hill, worthily
tasked the energies of Ramsay and his friends of the
National Survey for many useful years, after increasing
ill-health had much reduced the field-work of the Pro-
fessor.

But now he began to labour more earnestly than
ever in the enlargement and setting in order of the
collections which were under his personal charge. In
1818, these consisted almost wholly of the small series be-
queathed by Dr. Woodward ; nowthey have been expanded
by the perpetual attention and generosity of Sedgwick, into
one of the grandest collections of well-arranged rocks and
fossils in the world. One of the latest acquisitions is the
fine cabinet of Yorkshire fossils, purchased by C mbridge
as a mark of loving respect for her great teacher in his
fast decaying days,

In this work of setting in order a vast collection gathered
from various regions, and from all classes of deposits,
Prof. Sedgwick, with wise liberality, engaged the willing
aid of some of his own pupils, and of other powerful
hands brought to Cambridge for the purpose. Ansted,

Barrett, Seeley, M‘Coy, Salter, Morris, have all helped in

this good work, and to their diligence and acumen were
added the unrivalled skill and patience of Keeping, one
of the best “fossilists” in Europe. Those who in this
manner have concurred in the labours of their chief, one
and all found in him the kindest of friends, the most con-
siderate of masters—one who never exacted from others,
and always gave to his assistants more than the praise
and the delicate attention which their services deserved.

The ample volumes entitled “ British Palzeozoic Rocks
and Fossils, 1851-5,” by Sedgwick and M‘Coy, must be
consulted for a complete view of the classification finally
adopted by Sedgwick; and further information is ex-
pected from the publication of a Synoptic Catalogue, to
which Salter gave some of his latest aid.

Never was a man so universally welcome among the
members, and especially the junior members of his own
university. Wonderful was the enjoyment of a voyage to
Ely with a happy crew of his pupils (1850). If one
stopped at Upware, the oolite there uplifted became the
topic of an amusing and instructive discourse ; the great
cathedral was visited in a more serious mood ; the shores
rang with the merriment of the returning boat; and the
evening closed with a joyous banquet in the hospitable
college rooms.

Psa

"eb. 6, 1873]
_ During his long tenure of a Fellowship in Trinity Col-
lege, Prof. Sedgwick witnessed great changes in the
mathematical training, and contributed as much as any
“man to the present favourable condition of Science in
Cambridge.
_ To defend the University against hasty imputations, to
maintain a high standard of moral philosophy, and a
_ dignified preference for logical induction to alluring hy-
pothesis was always in his thoughts. Hence the “ Dis-
course on the Studies of the University of Cambridge,” at
first an eloquent sermon, grew by prefix and suffix to a
volume which he himself likened to a wasp—large in front
and large behind, with a very fashionable waist.

Under such feelings he spoke out against the “ Vestiges
of Creation ” with a fervour of argument and declamation
which must have astonished the unacknowledged author of
that once popular speculation. Nor was he silent when
the views of Darwin came to fill the void places of biolo-
gical theory, against which he not only used a pen of steel
but made great use of his heavy hammer,

The vigour—vehemence we may call it—of his pen and
tongue in a matter which touched his sense of justice,

morals, or religion, might mislead one who did not tho-
roughly know his truth and gentleness of heart, to sup-
pose that anger was mixed with his honest indignation—

’

ov yap pewdtyxos coke ev Sat Avypy
But it was quite otherwise. In a letter addressed to the
writer, in reply to some suggestion of the kind, he gave
the assurance that he was resolved “ no ill blood” should
be caused by the discussion which had become inevitable.

He never failed in courtesy to the honest disputant
whose arguments he mercilessly “contunded.” Taken
altogether, Professor Sedgwick was a man of grand pro-
portion, cast in a heroic mould. Pressed in early life
through a strict course of study, he found himself stronger
by that training than most of his fellow geologists, but
never made them feel his superiority. Familiar with great
principles, and tenacious of settled truths, he was ready to
welcome and encourage every new idea which appeared
to be based on facts truly observed, and not unprepared or
unwilling to stand, even if alone, against what he deemed
unfair objection or unsubstantial hypothesis.

This is not the place to speak of his private worth, or
to indulge in reminiscence of his playful and exuberant
fancy, the source of unfailing delight to those who knew
him in his happier hours. Unmarried, but surrounded by
plenty of cheerful relatives, his last hours of illness were
soothed by sedulous affection; his kindly disposition no
suffering could conceal; his lively interest in passing
events nothing could weaken. Ever

“* Against oppression, fraud, or wrong,
His voice rose high, his hand waxed strong.”

With collected mind, on the verge of the grave, he would
express, with undiminished interest, his latest conclusions
on his own Cambrian system, purely as a matter of scien-
tific discussion, free from all personal considerations. It
will be well if this mode of treatment be reverently fol-
lowed by those who while speaking of Protozoic and
Paleozoic Rocks, know enough to feel how much they
have been benefited by the disinterested labours of a long
and noble life.

JOHN PHILLIPS

NA 7 i URE

259

PALMIERI’S VESUVIUS

The Eruption of Vesuvius in 1872. By Prof. Palmieri,
Director of the Vesuvian Observatory. With Notes and
an Introductory Sketch, &c.. By Robert Mallet, F.R.S.
(London: Asher and Co., 1873.)

kes in these days of rapid intercourse, the re-appear-

ance of volcanic phenomena on the large scale in
any part of the earth’s surface should awaken a far more
than mere local interest, was well illustrated in the case
of the late great outbreak of Mount Vesuvius, during the
continuance of which the telegraphic bulletins received
from the fiery mountain became the subject of general
inquiry and discussion in all parts of the civilised world ;
and even now that the eruption has entirely subsided, the
publication of a translation by Mr. Mallet, of the report of
the well-known Italian savant, Professor Palmieri, en-
titled “ Incendio Vesuviano del 26 Aprile, 1872,” will be
welcomed as a valuable contribution to English scientific
literature quite independently of its being a book likely
to secure numerous readers amongst the non-scientific
public also.

This report of Professor Palmieri, who so courageously
stuck to his post in the Observatory on the side of Mount
Vesuvius, when that building actually stood between two -
torrents of liquid fire, the heat from which cracked the
glass in the windows and even scorched the very habita-
tion itself, is one of the most important records of volcanic
phenomena which we possess. Written in the most un-
assuming style, it does not go into theoretical points, but
confines itself all but entirely to recording such facts as
were considered by its author to be important or interest-
ing from a scientific point of view, alluding only inci-
dentally to the destruction caused by the lava and ashes
on the morning of April 26. In point of fact it is
to be regarded as a scientific rather than a popular de-
scription of the eruption. Although the professor specially
excels in details, the main features of the different phases
of the eruption are well described, and a vivid impression
of the enormous force developed on such occasions is
conveyed by his observation that on April 26 the volume
of smoke, ashes, lava fragments and bombs projected up-
wards from the crater attained a height of no less than
1,300 metres (4,265 feet) above its edge.

The report itself contains a mass of data calculated to
be of invaluable assistance in the future investigation of
volcanic phenomena, and although it may be said that the
conclusions arrived at from the study of this eruption, do
not present us with any strikingly new or startling deduc-
tions, their great value lies in the corroboration or cor-
rection of those resulting from previous observations.
Amongst these may be mentioned, the opinion now held
by the professor, that to a certain extent eruptions may
be predicted, which he bases upon the observations that
when the central crater commences to be agitated, this is
followed by a series of slight convulsions which terminate
in a grand outbreak or eruption, after which the volcano
first settles down again into a state of repose; the evi-
dence brought forward to prove the crystallisation of the
leucite out of the fluid lava and against its pre-existence
in it, as has been assumed by some previous writers ; the
order of appearance of the acid vapours ; the constant
presence of certain metallic compounds and sublimates ;

- oe SEC SS ae eee ee» ye
se ae patie i poise ;
sk NATURE

and the respective electrical conditions of the smoke and
ashes.

The report is illustrated by eight plates of the instru- |

ments employed at the Vesuvian observatory, and of views
of the eruption in its different stages, which latter, how-
ever, as is frequently the case when taken from photo-
graphs, cannot be regarded as altogether satisfactory ;
the translation is done with evident care, but the nomen-
clature is open to objections, especially when such terms
as sulphide of potash and ferrochloride of ammonia are
encountered.

The introductory sketch by which the translation is
prefaced, occupies 90 out of 148 pages, and must

be regarded as quite a distinct treatise, being only in-

directly connected with the report on Vesuvius ; and
its style, which cannot be regarded as an agreeable

one, is not very gracious to the labours of the many
| eminent men who have preceded or now hold views

differing from those of the author. Although brought —
forward as representing the present state of knowledge of
terrestrial vulcanicity, we find no reference to any of the
continental men of science, who have done so much in this
direction, and it should be more correctly entitled an
exposition of the author’s views on seismology and what
he terms vulcanology, the first 46 pages being but an ab-

stract of his previously published investigations into the —

phenomena of earthquakes.
The second part of this sketch is a resumé of the

7

Vesuvius, on April 26, 1872, from a Photograph.

took the direction of the Camaldoli

main features of Mr. Mallet’s dynamical theory of
volcanic energy, published in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society for 1872, a hypothesis which explains
volcanic action as originating in the secular cooling
of our globe, when, to use the words of the abstract,
“As the solid crust sinks together to follow down
after the shrinking nucleus, the work expended in mutual
crushing and dislocation of its parts is transformed into
heat, by which, at the places where the crushing suffi-
ciently takes place, the material of the rock so crushed,
and that adjacent to it, are heated even to fusion. The
access of water to such points determines volcanic erup-
tion.” To one who, like Mr. Mallet, assumes that heat,
and heat alone, is in the first instance all that is required

x The Observatory.—2. Fossa della Vetrana. V
Surface of the Lava. 4. The Novelle, St. Sebastiano, and Massa. 5. Lava which took the direction of Resina. 6. Lava which, from the Crater,

7. The Grain Stores, near Naples. 8. Resina.

3. Eruption of Smoke and Ashes, with Stones, from the

9. Torre del Greco. to. The Camaldoli.

to account for the varied phenomena of volcanic activity,
this explanation may appear satisfactory enough, although
even if it be proved experimentally that the intensity of

| the heat thus produced in such cracks of contraction, or

faults, as a geologist would probably term them, is suffi-
cient to fuse the substance of therocks in immediate contact,
it would nevertheless be found even still more difficult to
account for the quantity of heat requisite to melt up such
vast volumes of rock matter as are known to proceed from
volcanoes. Allowing, however, that even this difficulty
can be satisfactorily explained away—and it is admitted
that the conversion of the mechanical force into heat is
sufficient to effect the melting part of the operation—there ~
remains the still greater difficulty of explaining the chemi-

4

EE

Feb. 6, 1873),

»

~ eal and mineralogical features which characterise volcanic

phenomena. For although mechanical force is admitted
to be convertible into its equivalent in heat, which heat
my in its turn set in operation chemical action, still no
such forces, either alone or combined, can transmute one
chemical element into another, or bring about the forma-
tion of products having at all times a definite chemical and
mineralogical constitution, out of the incongruous materials
likely to be met with on the sides of such faults, or cracks,
or contraction. Our present knowledge of the mine-
ral characters of the earth’s crust does not entitle us to
entertain the supposition that the substance of the rocks
immediately contiguous to fissures of this character occur-
ring in so many different parts of the globe, could in all,
or even in other than solitary instances, when fused by
the action of mere heat, afford products identical with
those of known volcanoes. On the other hand, nothing
is more certain, from the examination of volcanic
products, than that, no matter from what part of the
world they be derived, whether from volcanoes situated
near the north or south poles, in the islands of the Pacific
or Atlantic oceans, or from the craters of the Andes or the
Apennines, they are all identical in chemical or mineralo-
gical constitution—a result which indicates forcibly that
that they must be derived from some one common source,
and not be mere local accidents, as Mr. Mallet’s hypo-
thesis would require us to assume. For these and other
reasons which we need not bring forward on the pre-
sent occasion, it does not seem probable that this hypo-
thesis will receive the adherence of either chemist, mine-
ralogist, or geologist.

In conclusion, attention might here be directed to the
disadvantages which, in a pecuniary point of view, the
British student labours under when making himself ac-
quainted with foreign science by means of translations.
The original pamphlet of Prof. Palmieri in Italian, and its
translation into German by the eminent chemist, Ram-
melsberg, were procured here in London for the small
sum of eighteenpence each, whereas English translations
of scientific works, got up, however, in superior paper,
wide margin, and elaborate covers, can rarely (if ever) be
obtained under several times the cost of the original
works, DAviID FORBES

OUR BOOK SHELF

Human Physiology the Basis of Sanitary and Social
Science. By T. L. Nichols, M.D. Pp. 479; woodcuts.
(Triibner, 1872.)

THE title “ Human Physiology,” which alone appears on

the back of this book, is misleading, and even the title as

given above would scarcely prepare a reader for what he
will find. The preface, however, gives fair warning.

_ “ Physiology,” writes Dr. Nichols, “the science of life,

has been handed over to the medical profession, which
has an unfortunate interest in the popular ignorance of
sanitary laws ; while metaphysicians, moralists, and theo-
logians have confused rather than enlightened our ideas
“as to the moral nature of man and his consequent social
requirements.” This seems rather hard on the doctors,
who have certainly done all that has yet been done in
preaching the laws of health and in getting them carried
out, both by public supervision or compulsion and by pri-
vate influence ; but the whole volume is an exemplifica-
tion of the latter part of the melancholy result, whether
due to those designing persons who study metaphysics,

Ween are

“«

NATURE

261

morals, and theology or to some other cause. Dr. Nichols
is an ardent advocate of the numerous theories which
blind and bigoted Science has consistently and universally
refused to accept, to the great disgust of circle-squarers,
anti-Newtonians, popular “ scientists,” and Social-Science-
mongers. The first section of the book treats of prevent-
ible mortality, poverty, ignorance, drunkenness, and
prostitution ; the second of matter, force, and life, includ-
ing adverse criticism, on the feeblest grounds, of the doc-
trines of evolution and of materialism, with some remarkable
“proofs of immortality.” The third part gives a popular
account of the human body, with some of the oddest illus«
trations ever printed. The fourth treats of the laws of
generation, including chapters on love and marriage,
hereditary transmission, and problems of the sexual rela-
tion. This section is, perhaps, the best in the book, and
its subjects are handled with freedom and modesty, while
the conclusions are sensible enough. The fifth, part on
health, disease, and cure, contains a good many useful
and obvious remarks on the value of cleanliness, exercise,
and temperance, together with a number of utterly unsup-
ported or demonstrably false propositions, The last part,
is devoted to the discussion of morals and society, in
which important questions in political economy, ethics,
agriculture, are stated, benevolent wishes for all classes
of mankind are expressed, and the questions left much as
they were found,

In a book of this kind the reader is not surprised to en-
counter the old and new dogmas of phrenology, vege-
tarianism, clairvoyance, homceopathy, animal magnetism,
anti-vaccination, and cure by Psychic force. But though
unscientific and sometimes anti-scientific, the author would
deserve credit for putting before the public information
which, however trite, is too little acted on, if his assertions
of the wonderful cures he has made by hydropathy at
Malvern, and the quotation from “a little book,” by Mrs.
Nichols on the same subject, did not suggest a doubt
whether in his case singleness of motive can be admitted
in excuse of ignorance. LANSP

Se

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. | z

Dr, Bastian’s Experiments

Mr. LANKESTER asks me several questions relating to the
experiments by Dr. Bastian, reported by me in NATURE a few
weeks ago. In reply I beg to say that new Cheddar cheese was
used. The cheese was not weighed, but the quantity added to
the contents of each flask probably did not exceed two grains.
The turnip infusion was filtered before it was introduced into the
flasks : the filtrate was limpid. After boiling, the liquid was
somewhat turbid, and contained visible particles.

Feb. 3 J. BuRDON SANDERSON

Eyes and No Eyes

Mr. Ray LANKEsTER’s letter has reminded me of a little
experiment of my own which converted me to Bastianism. I
had some turnip and cheese flasks which Dr. Bastian had been kind
enough to prepare in my presence. I took them home and in
due time examined the contents in a good microscope, using what
I thought adequate power. I saw nothing, and went triumphant
to Dr. Bastian to report my failure, taking the flasks with me.
Dr. Bastian looked at the fluid, smelt it, and told me he would
eat his hat if it was not full of life. I thought he would have to
eat his hat. He put a drop under his microscope and told me
tolook. It was full of small Bacteria. I wasa good deal puzzled
at first, but after a little discussion I found out why I had failed
to see what was in the fluid. Without going into details, I may
say that the short result was that I had been rather a muff with
the microscope. May not this explain some other failures ?—
not Mr, Lankester’s, of course, QUERY }

262

Meteor at St. Thomas

Tue enclosed reached me from a meteorological correspondent
in St. Thomas. The records of such phenomena must be rare ;
there may be something peculiar in this one ; I therefore forward
it to you. Rawson RAWSON

Government House, Barbados, Dec. 30, 1872

‘©Qn November 30, 1872, at 82 10" P.M. a beautiful large
meteor was observed, which passed from west to east with great
brilliancy, and exploded in the zenith in numerous little stars.
It lasted about three seconds. A little after a rumbling noise,
like distant thunder, was heard. It is reported by the watch-
man of the floating dock, which lies at present on the eastern
beach of Long Bay in eight feet water, for repairs, that he was
sleeping on the platform under an awning ; he awoke from the
heat and the strong light which passed close to him through the
lattice work ; and some ashes fell on the dock which he found
but did not collect, not knowing that it was of value. As is well
known, aerolites travel at the rate of 10,000 feet per second.”

Brilliant Meteor

Last night about 10.0, the moment after leaving the room in
which I had been lecturing, at Wordsley, near Stourbridge, the
ground about me was lighted up as by the sudden flash of a near
Jantern or the emergence of the full moon from a bank of cloud,
On looking up at the sky, I saw a rocket-like object shooting
down with a slightly zigzag motion like that of a fish, and leav-
ing behind it a trail of mingled and mingling tints of green,
purple, and yellow of nearly the semi-diameter of the moon.
After a first thought about fireworks, I felt sure it was a meteor,
and looked about for the constellations, so that I might be able
to describe its path. The sky, however, was covered with
clouds, only a star here and there being visible, and the moon,
though easily seen, presenting a very hazy appearance. From
inquiry at the Rectory as to the aspect of the schoolroom from
which I had just come out, I judge that the course of the meteor
must have been from north-west to west. When I first saw it, it
was about 40° or 50° above the horizon, and it traversed about
half the remaining space before disappearing, occupying, I esti-
mate, about six seconds in doing so. Its path formed an angle
of about 40° with the horizon.

From the fact that the sky was covered with clouds and that
the meteor illuminated the ground with a light superior to that
of the ‘‘half” moon shining at the time, I judge that the meteor
was between the clouds and the earth. This nearness, would,
of course, be an element in its great apparent size (which would
be added to by the zigzag motion) ; and as it would also prevent
its being seen at great distances and by many observers, I have,
after some hesitation, penned this record of my very imperfect
observations. GEORGE ST. CLAIR

London, Feb. 4

The Antinomies of Kant

My attention has been directed by a friend to an address by
Prof. W. K. Clifford, in AMacmillan’s Magazine for this month,
containing a curious misrepresentation of Kant’s teaching, and
therein an instructive instance of ultracrepidism. The professor
remarks: “The opinion that at the basis of the natural order
there is something which we can know to be zveasonadble to
elude the process of human thought . . . is set forth first by Kant,
so far as I know, in the form of his famous doctrine of the anti-
nomies or contradictions, a later form of which I will endeavour
to explain to you.” ** This doctrine,” he continues, ‘‘has been
developed and extended to the great successors of Kant, and
this unreasonable, or unknowab'e, which is also called the abso-
lute and the unconditioned, has been set forth in various ways as
that which we know to be the true basis of all things.”

T am sure I should not be allowed, in the columns of NATURE,
sufficient space to point out in detail the misapprehensions in-
volved in these remarks. It is plain to me that Professor
Clifford has approached the very difficult subject of Kant’s Anti- |
nomies from the system of Sir William Hamilton. To start with |
Hamilton, however, is to be handicapped in the pursuit, and to
augment the difficulties to be surmounted. In truth the doctrine
Professor Clifford expounds is simply that of Hamilton; but
Hamilton did not either develop or extend the Antinomies of
Kant, He never understood them, but carved his little system
out of .a few splinters he gathered by the way. All Hamilton’s |
characterisations of Kant are ludicrously false. This doctrine |

NATURE

of the Antinomies does not answer, either, to Professor Clifford’s
touch. The Antithetic is not ‘*‘ zsreasonable,” nor does it ‘* elude
the processes of human thought ;” for, though it presents an un-
avoidable z//usion, Kant has used reason, with matchless power
and subtlety, to show that reason is master of the position, can
solve every Autinomy, and can therefore guard against the very
possibility of delusion. It is not any “natural order” of
thought or things, that is found to be unreasonable, but the
offence against coon logic which is involved in every attempt
to prove the thesis or antithesis of an antinomy. I refer all who
care to sce the thing for themselves to Kant’s K. r. V., Element.
ii. Th., ii. Abth., ii. Buch., 2 Hauptst., 7 Abschnitt: Kritische
Entscheidung des kosmologischen Streits der Vernunft mit
sich selbst + e¢ seg. C. M. INGLERY
Athenzeum Club, Jan. 21

The Source of the Solar Heat

Ir gave me great pleasure to find that Captain Ericsson has
taken the same views as myself with regard to the Source of the
Solar Energy; but there is a certain part of his article in
NaTuRE, vol. vi. p. 539, which I do not quite understand.

My views on this subject were sent to the Royal Astronomical
Society, and were published in the Monthly Notices for April
1872, where it was easily shown that if E be the total energy
destroyed in a given time by the crushing-in of the sun’s mass—

E=$7 fo p% Ay
where g, is the force of gravity at the sun’s surface,
p the density, supposed constant, i
7, the sun’s radius,
z, the contraction of that radius in the given time; all
corresponding to the present epoch.

To find s, we must express E in thermal units by means of the
dynamical theory of heat, and equate the result to the total
amount of heat radiated by the sun ; and it is easy to show that
z, must be 129 ft. per annum; and since Captain Ericsson finds
the eontraction to be 121 ft., we are so far in agreement.

But 4 7 p 7,3 is the mass of the sun, and g, varies inversely as
7°, hence we may write ‘

E=CZ

R?
where C is a constant, and R, Z, the valves of the radius and ot
the contraction at any other epoch of time. Now there is no
connection between Z and R ; if Z varies as R, then E is con-
stant ; if Z varies as R, which I believe to be the most probable

assumption, then E varies inversely as R, and the total solar

radiation must be slowly increasing ; but I see no reason what-

ever for supposing that Z varies directly as R*, so that the solar

radiation must be diminishing in proportion to the square of the

sun’s radius. MAXWELL HALL
Jamaica

The Twinkling of the Stars

THE phenomenon observed and described by G. F, Burder in
NAtuwRE of Jan. 23, p. 222, does not, as I understand it, accountin
any way for the twinkling of stars, seeing that, by means of any two
lights (gas lamps for instance) at the distance of a few hundreds

of yards, the same effect may be observed, and this quite irre- —

spective of the angle at which they are placed with reference to
the horizon or the ‘‘ blind spot” of the observer's eye.
THos, HAWKSLEY

Meteorological Cycles 7

THE following observation may possess some interest in con-
nection with the subject of recurring meteorological cycles. It
is found at the conclusion of Mr. Consul Wallis’s report on the
trade and commerce of Costa Rica for 1867, dated June 1, 1868
(Parliamentary Papers for 1868-69, vol. lix. p. 520) :—‘* In the
state of the public health there is a marked and satisfactory im-
provement to report. t
large number of epidemic disorders which have afflicted this
country for the last ez years and since the visitation of the

cholera, nor for the improvement which took place in the eleventh —

ear.”
London, Jan. 2

Feb, 6, 1873

No reason can be assigned here for the

PS

Feb. 6,1873)

ON THE OLD AND NEW LABORATORIES AT
THE ROVAL INSTITUTION *
Il.

iG fal the next great name connected with our Institution,

namely, Michael Faraday, of his life and his dis-
coverics the history has been already written, so far indeed
as it can be written, by Bence Jones, by Tyndall, and by
Gladstone. Sz monumentum queris circumspice. These
volumes of notes, from 1831 to 1856, will give some idea
of the amount of work which he did in our laboratory; and
their value will be better appreciated through the con-
sideration that before these notes were made, no less than
sixty of his scientific papers had been printed, nine of
them in the “ Philosophical Transactions”

_ Those of us who were present at Tyndall’s two memor-
able lectures on “ Faraday as a discoverer” are not likely
to forget the impression of the man left by them on our
minds ; and for those who were not present it would be
an office thankless to your lecturer and burdensome to
his hearers, to contribute a feeble reproduction of those
life-like memoirs, For our present purpose it will be
sufficient to say that the entire fabric of those brilliant
and manifold contributions to human knowledge was
wrought out within the walls of the Royal Institution.

His great experiments have been so often and so well
exhibited in this theatre, that some apology is needed for
bringing any of them before you again ; but in repeating
for my own instruction some of those which bear more
particularly upon the subject of Light, I have been
tempted to reproduce one of them here. In doing this I
I have been perhaps moved more by a fascination of the
phenomenon, and by a piece of instrumental good fortune
which enables me to introduce an old friend under a new
garb, than by any better reason. The experiment in ques-
tion is that which Faraday called “the magnetisation of
light, and the illumination of the lines of magnetic force ;”
we should now term it the rotation of the plane of polari-
sation under the influence of the magnetic field. And in
order that we may not even by inadvertence confuse the
rotation here produced with that due to quartz, or oil of
turpentine, I will draw your attention, by way of memo-
randum, to the nature of the magnetism produced by
spiral currents in given directions, and of the rotations of
free currents produced by magnets.

[The lecturer then showed the opposite rotations of
two sparks discharged about the two poles respectively of
an electro-magnet, and the reversal of those rotations,
first by a change of the poles, and secondly by a reversal
of the direction of the sparks. ]

You now see upon the screen an image of the figures
produced by a magnificent piece of heavy glass under the
action of polarised light. Its size enables me to make
use of about four times the amount of light usually avail-
able in this experiment ; and I have taken advantage of
the figure which its imperfect annealing produces, to vary
the effect upon the screen. The dark parts of the figure
indicate the parts of the beam in which the vibrations are
perpendicular to those transmitted by either polariser or
analyser, and which are consequently cut off. Now if
anything should intervene to change the plane of those
vibrations a portion of them will be! transmitted, and a
partial illumination of the screen will ensue. This turn-
ing of the plane of vibration is effected by the magnet as
soon as its force is developed by the electric current sent
through its coils. _

[The lecturer then “dispersed” the dark lines of the
figure by means of a plate of quartz; and after turning
polariser and analyser so as to colour the centre of the
field with the tint intermediate between red and violet
(teinte sensible), he showed that when the magnet was
excited the field was rendered red or green according to
the direction of the poles. ]

* Continued from p. 224.

eat ee Eee TR” FP te oes ee
= y ee ‘ ; .

NATURE

MS ‘sg

._-
- 2 .
+

263

Professor Frankland before coming to us had isolated
the compound radicals Methyl, Ethyl, and Amyl, and
had proved their resemblance to Hydrogen. Hehad also
combined them with the metals zinc, tin, mercury, and
boron. By this means he had obtained a very powerful
chemical reagent, which proved of eminent service in sub-
sequent operations. An instance of its power will be
found in zinc— ethyl, which by its rapid combination with
oxygen of the air, bursts into spontaneous combustion as
soon as a flask containing it is opened.

In conjunction with Mr. Duppa, Prof, Frankland
worked in our laboratory at the artificial formation of
ethers, They treated acetic ether with iodine and with
the iodides of methyl, ethyl, and amyl; and by their
means they arrived at a method for the formation of
many organic substances which had previously been
obtained only through the agency of animals or of
vegetables.

In 1866 Dr. Frankland determined by a long series of
calorimetric experiments the maximum amount of force
capable of being developed by given weights of the diffe-
rent foods commonly used by men.

In the following year he investigated the effect of pres-
sure (up to 20 atmospheres) upon the luminosity of flames
of hydrogen and of carbonic oxides. He found that these
flames, so feebly luminous at ordinary atmospheric pres-
sure, burn with brilliant light under pressures of from 10 to
20 atmospheres, and that the spectra of these brilliant
flames are perfectly continuous. From the latter circum-
stance he infers that solar light may be derived from
glowing gas and not from incandescent solid or liquid
matter.

As these researches have so important a bearing upon
spectral analysis and solar physics, I will venture to re-
peat one or two of the experiments. Here are three
closed tubes filled respectively with hydrogen, oxygen,
and chlorine, at atmospheric pressure. The densities of
these substances are in the proportions 1: 16: 354; and
if the spark from an induction coil be made to pass
through them, the luminosity of the discharge will be
found to be nearly in the same proportions. That this
result is really due to the density, and not to the chemi-
cal constitution of the gases, may be proved by allowing
the discharge to pass through this tube, and by pumping
air into it during the discharge. It will then be seen that
the brilliancy increases with the pressure.

These researches were suggested by an old experiment
of Cavendish’s, in which he exploded a mixture of oxygen
and hydrogen, first under atmospheric pressure and then
under a pressure of from 10 to 12 atmospheres. In the
first case there is much noise and little light; in the
second, a brilliant flash and no noise. The labours of
Dr. Frankland have rendered this experiment intelligible,
and have correlated it with other phenomena.

Of Dr. Frankland’s successor, Dr. Odling, I should
have had more to say, had he not been attracted by a
well-deserved offer of the chemical chair at Oxford. As
a member of that University I rejoice at the appoint-
ment, while here we regret the loss.

Of Faraday’s successor, John Tyndall, I am greatly at
aloss howto speak. In this place his presence seems so
near to us, his thoughts so subtle, his words—even when
rung back to us from those busy cities far away on the
other side of the Atlantic—so familiar and yet so stirring,
that it behoves us that ours should be wary and few.
Few men have brought so large a burden and bulk of
contribution to the common stock of knowledge ; but still
fewer have inspired in his hearers so strong a love, such
ardent enthusiasm for the subjects of his research.

' It is now twenty years since Prof. Tyndall began his
researches in our laboratory. During the first thirteen
years he produced no less than thirteen papers, which
were printed in the “ Philosophical Transactions :” on
Sound, on Diamagnetism, on Glaciers and Ice, on the

264

Radiation and Absorption of Heat, and on Calorescence.
In these he established the important fact that if the
various gases be arranged in order according to their
power, first of radiating heat, and secondly of absorbing
radiant heat, the order will be the same in both cases.
He further proved that the chief absorbing action of our
atmosphere on non-luminous heat is due to its aqueous
vapour. He applied his discovery to the explanation of
many meteorological facts : e.g. the great daily range of
the thermometer in dry climates ; the production of frost
at night in the Sahara; the cold in the table-lands of
Asia, &c.

He discovered also the means of separating the in-
visible from the visible radiations, and proved that in the
case of the electric light the former is no less than eight
times as powerful as the latter. Healso made the daring
experiment of placing his eye at a focus of dark rays
capable of heating platinum to redness.

Since 1866 his attention has been largely occupied in
examining the action of heat of high refrangibility (instead
of low), as an explorer of the molecular condition of
matter

In this investigation one obstacle to be overcome was
the presence of the floating matter in the air. The pro-
cesses of removal of these particles became the occasion
of an independent research, branching out into various
channels ; on the one hand, it dealt with the very practi-
cal problem of the preservation of life among firemen ex-
posed to heated smoke ; and, on the other, it approached
the recondite question of spontaneous generation.

He subjected the compound vapours of various sub-
stances to the action of a concentra'ed beam of light.
The vapours were decomposed, and non-volatile products
were formed. The decompositions always began with a
blue cloud, which discharged perfectly polarised light at
right angles to the beam. This suggested to him the
origin of the blue colour of the sky ; and as it showed the
extraordinary amount of light that may be scattered by
cloudy matter of extreme tenuity, he considered that it
might be regarded as a suggestion towards explaining the
nature of a comet’s tail. :

(The lecturer then exhibited the polarisation of light
scattered by small particles suspended in the medium
traversed by a beam from the electric lamp, employing
for the purpose the chromatic effects due to the circular
porlarisation of quartz. ]

His volume of contributions to molecular physics in the
domain of radiant heat, which contains only his original
investigations on this subject, would alone suffice to show
what is doing in the laboratory of our Institution.

If we compare him to Faraday at the same time of life,
he has still many years of intellectual energy, the conver-
sion of which into its scientific equivalent may, perhaps,
be effected within these walls.

No one has regretted the destruction of the laboratory
of Davy and of Faraday more than Prof. Tyndall. He
almost prayed for the preservation of the place where
their discoveries had been made ; but as soon as he saw
that in our struggle for existence such material aids as
improved buildings would conduce alike to the progress
of science and to the permanence of the Institution, he
withdrew his objections, and threw all his powers into
making the new laboratories as perfect as possible for the
good of his successors.

I add a few words on the reasons which led the mana-
gers to recommend the rebuilding of our laboratories, and
the consequent demolition of the place where the great
discoveries that I have touched upon were made. In the
opinion of those best qualified to judge, our chemical
laboratory was badly ventilated, badly lighted, badly
drained, and quite unfit to be occupied for many hours
daily. It was probably the very worst, and certainly all
but the worst chemical laboratory in London ; and com-
pared with more modern ones both at home and abroad,

NATURE

- [Feb. 6,1873

it was nowhere. The physical laboratory had remained
for nearly seventy years in its original state. At first it
was said to be equal to any laboratory ; but then there were
hardly any in existence in this country ; and during the
last few years such splendid edifices have arisen in Lon-
don, in Oxford, in Cambridge, inManchester and in Glas-
gow, and elsewhere, that the laboratory of Davy, of
Faraday, and of Tyndall was much inferior to the private
laboratories of the professors who carry on their course
of instruction in public rooms of still greater size and
extent of resource. The main purpose of our laboratories
is research, and instead of offering by their excellence an
inducement to professors to come and to stay, the one
was a makeshift, the other a noble relic. Neither afforded
facilities which were not offered in a larger measure else-
where. And those only who know what is going on both
at home and abroad can form an adequate idea of the
competition which, in this respect alone, will prevail for
a generation to come.

By the construction of new laboratories this material
disadvantage will be removed. Future professors will
have buildings constructed to aid research. Your libe-
rality has spared no judicious expense ; and, so far as the
site would admit, our laboratories will be as perfect as
the skill of our architect and the advice of our professors
can make them.

In conclusion, let me lay before you what must still be
done, in order that there may be earned for the new
laboratories a reputation comparable with that which has
hitherto proved both our glory and our support.

Our first and foremost object, beyond bricks and
mortar, and money, and apparatus, must be to find a suc-
cession of professors of the old type; men who love
research. But even Faraday would perhaps have been
compelled to leave us, on account of the smallness of the
sum which we could afford him, had not the endowment
of the chemical chair, with 1oo/. a year, by the late Mr.
Fuller, happily intervened. This timely endowment was
probably a critical turning point in the history of the
Institution. We may not easily find successors worthy
of the great names who have gone before them; biit we
may do much toward preventing mistakes in future
appointments by keeping steadily in view, that the pro-
motion of natural knowledge is our main object; and
that instruction and amusement, and brilliant audiences
are all secondary to our principal purpose. Not that
these subsidiary purposes are to be neglected or despised ;
and I, as your Treasurer, should be the last to undervalue
them, but we feel confident that if the main purpose is
effected, all the others will follow as a simple sequence.

Secondly, when we have found professors of the type
that I have described, our next need is that we may be
able, from independent resources at the disposal of the
Institution, to offer them a remuneration which, all things
taken into account, shall be an equivalent to what they
would receive elsewhere. So that neither Government
appointments, nor University professorships, nor the
liberality of mercantile men, should be able to lure them
from the path of discovery, to tuition, to arts, or to manu-
factures, i

The one act of wisdom, among the many aberrations
of an eccentric member of Parliament, saved Faraday to
us, and thereby, as seems probable, our Institution to the
country. The liberality of a Hebrew toy-dealer in the
East of London has made the rebuilding of our labora-
tories possible.

It is said that Mr, Fuller, the feebleness of whose con-
stitution denied him at all other times and places the rest
necessary for health, could always find repose and even
quiet slumber amid the murmuring lectures of the Royal
Institution ; and that, in gratitude for the peaceful hours
thus snatched from an otherwise restless life, he be-
queathed to us his magnificent legacy of 10,0007. If this
evening’s discourse shall have ensured one such blissful

*

ie
"iS ar
oy Nr aN os See
r z .

Feb, 6, 1873}
hour to any of his audience, your lecturer’s efforts will
not have been altogether in vain. But to each such
happy individual he would express the hope that, as you
have resembled Mr. Fuller in your experience of life, so
may you emulate him in your liberality at death. In
short, I would conclude almost in the words of old Bishop
Andrews : “ Unum operze mez pretium abs te peto, hoc
autem vehementer expeto, ut mei pecatoris meorumque in
precibus interdum memor sis.” Which being interpreted is :
“ For these my efforts I beg but one thing in return, and
this I beg most earnestly, viz. that you will now and then
remember me a sinner against your patience and for-
bearance in your prayers, and that you will also be mind-
ful of our professorships in your wills.”

The following Table of the principal items of original
work done by our Professors, taken in connection with
their long series of laboratory notes, forms a monument
of the intellectual activity, the manual dexterity, and the
persevering industry, developed in the laboratories of the
Royal Institution :—

DAVY

1806 Chemical Agencies of Electricity,
1807. Decomposition of Potash. .
1810 Chlorine.
1812. Discourse on Radiant or Ethereal Matter,
1813 Iodine.
1815-6 Researches on Fire-damp and Flame.
1817 The Safety Lamp.
FARADAY
1820 Alloys of Steel.
1821 History of Electro-magnetism.

es Magnetic Rotations.
1823 Liquefaction of Chlorine and other Gases.

1825-6 New Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen,
1825-9 Manufacture of Optical Glass.
1831 Vibrating Surfaces.
* Magneto-Electricity.
1832. ‘Terrestrial Magneto-Electric Induction
1833 Identity of Electricities.
1834 Electro-Chemical Decomposition,
$ Electricity ofthe Voltaic Pile.
1835 The Extra Current,
1837-8 Frictional Electricity.
~ Specific Inductive Capacity.
1845-8 Magnetisation of Light.

Lines of Magnetic Force.
Tagnetic Condition of all Matter.
_ magnetism.

i agne-Crystallic Action,

1849-50 Magnetism of Flame and Gases.

Atmospheric Magnetism.

1856 Relations of Gold and other Metals to Light.
1860 The Regelation of Ice.
TYNDALL
1853 Transmission of Heat through Organic Substances.
1854 Vibrations due to Contact of Bodies at Different Tem-
peratures.
1855 Researches on Diamagnetic Force.
1856 Slaty Cleavage.
1857-8 Physical Properties of Ice and Glaciers.

1859-63 Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gases.

1865 Calorescence, EA
1866-7 Action of Heat of high Refrangibility.
1868-9 Yormation of Clouds.

s Colour and Polarisation of the Sky.
1870 Smoke and Dust Respirator.

FRANKLAND

1863-6 Synthesis of Acids of the Lactic Series,
1863 Mercury-methyl, Mercury-ethyl, and Mercury-amyl.
1864 Transformation of Organo-Mercury Compounds into

Organo-Zinc Compounds.
Combustion of Iron in Compressed Oxygen.
Synthesis of Acids of the Acrylic Series.
Synthesis of Fatty Acids.

NATURE

265
1866 New Organic Radical Oxatyl.
1866 The Source of Muscular Power. Potential Energy in
various kinds of Food.
1867 Source of Light in Flame. Effect of Pressure upon

Luminosity of Flame,

THE GROWTH AND MIGRATIONS OF
HELMINTHS

af migration of helminths is one of the most inte-
resting discoveries of modern zoology. These wornis,
generally parasitic, must often, in order to complete their
growth, pass from one animal into another. This passage
is of course accomplished by chance, as when one
animal devours the whole or part of another, in which
the helminth at a certain stage may be imbedded.

It is known that sheep attacked by sturdy, have in
their brain a little worm, the Cenurus. That worm
when it is eaten by a dog is not digested by him, but
grows in the intestine under the form of a peculiar tenia.
It is also known that the tenia, or tape-worm, is gene-
rated by the growth of the human cysticercus of the pig.
Very interesting researches have been made by several
physiologists on that subject.

M. Villot has filled up many gaps in the history of
the growth of the gordins. The gordins (Miller) are
aquatic worms, whose body is very long and slim, the
extremities being obtuse,

The form of the embryo is very different from that of
the full-grown animal. It is a microscopic worm, cylin-
drical, not more than 0'209 mm, (0'00807 in.) in length,
by 0'049 mm, (0'00177 in.) in breadth, and on which a
head and a tail can be easily discerned. The head, as
big as the body, is quite retractile ; it has a triple crown
of prickles, and is terminated in front by a kind of trunk
or sucker, which is kept rigid by three strong needles
that serve it as support ; the head, in its motion of pro-
traction and retraction, turns from its extremity to its base
as a glove, and during that time the points of the prickles
describe half a circle. When the head is out of the body,
the point is directed backward; when it is retracted into
the interior of the body the reverse takes place.

Numerous transverse folds exist on the body ; they are
close to one another and regular as real rings. The tail,
not quite so broad as the body, is separated from it by a
deep groove.

The great difference between those embryos that
are free in the water and the worms which grow out
of them after many migrations into the interior of several
animals,. deserves to be noticed. The embryo after
leaving its egg for the water in which it must live, has
little means of locomotion. Its tail, cylindrical and
scarcely moveable, is useless to it for swimming, so that
it may be driven by any current. It probably sticks to
pebbles, or tothe roots or stems of aquatic plants, where
it waits for the larvee, whose parasite it is to become.
The author has verified these statements by putting
in the same vessel several embryos with larvee of tipulars
(Corethra, Fanipus, Chironomus), and has seen the former
encyst themselves in the insects. The worm penetrates
with its cephalic prickles into those larve, the teguments
of which have little power of resistance. It continues
the operation, piercing through more and more, till the
membranes get solidified around it and form areal cyst,
shut up at the posterior post. It continues to penetrate
the body of the larvee, lengthening its cyst and proceeds.

Those cysts do not grow normally in the interior of
insects as has been believed up to this time, but in certain
fishes, and particularly in the loaches (Coditis darbatula)
and minnows (Phoxinus lavis). Fishes are generally very
fond of the larvze of insects, but most especially for the
larve of Chironomus, It is precisely in those larvae, as
we have already seen, that the embryos of gordins encyst
themselves. By swallowing them, the fish swallows at

266

the same time the cyst which they contain. The insects
and their cysts thus arrive in its intestine ; the insects are
digested by it, the membranes of the cysts are dissolved,
and the embryos included in them are set free. The
latter settle immediately in their new living abode; by
their cephalic prickles they penetrate into the membrane
of the intestines and encyst themselves again.

But that new cyst is not like the one that protects the
embryo in the body of the insect ; it is spherical or ovoid,
not lengthened, and provided with a membrane not thick
and opaque, but slender and perfectly transparent.

In that second state it undergoes another and im-
portant transformation and becomes a larva. The tail,
hardly as long as the body, extends more and more, roll-
ing up on itself; the body extends likewise, and the
groove situated between them vanishes and the volume
of the cyst increases at the same time. The worm, thus
merely transformed, resembles a hematoid in its general
appearance, though its unmodified head makes what is
more like acanthocephalus.

When in autumn one of the above-named fishes is
dissected and the intestine is laid over a glass slide, mi-
croscopical examination shows that it is strewed with
numerous cysts containing embryos and larvz of gordins
at different stages of growth. The author has always
found some. Sometimes they almost touch each other, so
numerous are they.

The gordins offer, then, in the course of their growth,
complete metamorphosis and very complicated migra-
tions ; they take successively three distinct forms, encyst
themselves twice, and change three times their abode.
In the embryo state they at first live in water, then in the
body of several aquatic larvae of Diptera, and in the state
of larvae they inhabit the intestines of fishes; at last, in
the perfect condition, they cease to be parasites and be-
come river worms.

There exists, however, an important hiatus in the history
of the growth of these worms. How can we harmonise
what has just been said with the assertion (that seems to
be trustworthy) of the naturalists who have seen real
gordins in the abdomen of terrestrial insects (grass-
hoppers, crickets, &c.) ? Has there been an error of obser-
vation committed? Or would these be single individuals
gone astray from the water where they had to lay their
eggs? M. Villot adopts the latter opinion.

Should any one ask of what service are such curious,
difficult, and apparently useless researches, it could
be replied that many illnesses, some of them mortal,
arise from parasites that attack certain parts of our body
(the intestines, the liver, &c.) ; and every advance in our
knowledge of the habits of those beings is a service ren-
dered, not only to science, but also to humanity.

M. CORNU

A PRIVATE CIRCUMNAVIGATING EXPE-
DITION

[= Les Mondes, for some time past, details have

been given of a proposed expedition, partly
scientific and partly for pleasure, on a somewhat gigan-
tic scale. The proposed scheme seems to be the
idea of a single gentleman, M. le Capitaine Bazerque,
who has been twice round the world; though it has
the hearty commendation of the Abbé Moigno, editor
of Les Mondes, and of Le Comte Pennazzi, as well
as others. The scheme is called “La Caravane Uni-
verselle,” and has for its main object a grand voyage for
scientific exploration over the five parts of the globe.
The excursion-party may be joined by men of science,
and also, we understand, by artists and others belong-
ing to all nationalities, who wish to see the world for
themselves under intelligent guidance. A subscription
has been opened in the various European countries and
in America, to provide Captain Bazerque with a steam-

NATURE

[ Fed. 6; 1873

vessel suitable for the expedition. The modus operandi,
we understand, will be that the vessel shall visit in suc-
cession all the most interesting parts of the world, stay-
ing long enough at each place to enable all its features to
be investigated by the sevants and artists composing the
expedition. ‘The material organisation of the expedi-
tion,” says Count Pennazzi in commending it, “ will allow
those who form part of it to investigate thoroughly the
rich treasures of Nature. The eastern slope of the Cor-
dilleras, the sources and upper course of the Amazon, the
Rocky Mountains, the country of the Mormons, the
eastern coast of Africa, Australia, Japan, China, Indies,
are among the regions whose flora, fauna, geology, and
ethnography will furnish to the caravan much that is
unknown to discover, and many interesting problems to
solve.” Verily the Count is right in calling the scheme
“ sympathetique et seduisant.”

The organiser of the scheme intends, of course, that the

vessel shall be fully furnished with all necessary scientific _

instruments. As concerns the material and moral well-
being of his “sage companions,” Captain Bazerque pro-
poses to make the following provisions :—(1) Bi-monthly
telegraphic communication between each of the members
of the caravan and his family. (2) A Roman Catholic
and Protestant chaplain to accompany the expedition.
(3) Special and easy camping material, allowing the ex-
pedition to sojourn in the midst of countries hitherto
unexplored. (4) To ensure the possibility of transit
everywhere, a company of sappers will be provided, to go
before and clear the way of wood; to construct rafts,
bridges, to help as instrument-holders, constructors of
beacons and of marks, It is supposed that 35 sailors
will fulfil these and many other useful functions.

The Captain proposes to divide the scientific work of
the expedition as follows :—(1) Meteorology, astronomy,
and terrestrial magnetism ; (2) Geography and cosmo-
graphy ; (3) Mineralogy, geology, palzontology, botany,
zoology ; (4) Anthropology, ethnology, ethnography ; (5)
Hygiene, medicine and surgery ; (6) Photography applied
to the works of man ; (7) Study and collection of agricul-
tural processes and implements; (8) Study, collection,
and photographing of pottery: (9) Metallurgy and me-
tallurgic history ; (10) Dye-stuffs ; (11) Histology, archee-
ology, biography ; (12) “Compte rendu anecdotique de
Yexpedition.” In order to keep the eager world informed
of the conquests of this scientific army, the bold origina-
tor contemplates the establishment of a periodical, Za
Caravane Universelle, exclusively devoted to the chro-
nicling of its deeds. This journal will be under the care
of a central editorial committee, located in Paris, we
suppose, to whom will be sent, every month, collections
of plants and other objects, photographs, drawings, and
statistics of all kinds, together with a scientific and de-
scriptive narrative of what is seen and done. The journal
will be printed in handsome type, embellished with en-
gravings, maps, and drawings “by the best European
artists ;” and each number will appear in English, French,
German, Spanish, and Italian,

When we say that Zes JZondes publishes an elaborate
table, showing the states and countries to be visited, the
families, tribes, and races of the Aborigines, and the con-
quering families, our readers will perceive that from
beginning to end the scheme is thoroughly French in the
ideal perfectionand completeness of its conceptionandplan,

Much, no doubt, can be accomplished by a judicious
division of labour ; and if the 100 or 150 gentlemen who
are expected to compose the expedition should always be
of one mind, be all animated by such a love for science
as to be willing to endure any hardships, be prepared to
submit implicitly to the guidance of a man of perfect
organising faculty, wide knowledge and sympathy, com-
bined with promptness and decision ; if each confines him-
self strictly to the department for which his experience and
attainments fit him, and if various other important condi-

——

bata sh,

NATURE

267

tions are fulfilled, Za Caravane Universelle may have some-
thing worth listening to, to tell the world monthly. At all
events, we heartily wish the project success, and hope
that Captain Bazerque may soon havea list of subscrip-
tions large enough to encourage him to commence the
practical organisation of his scientific pleasure-party. We
see from Les MJondes of January 23, that at Captain
Bazerque’s request, M. de Quatrefages, president of the
Academy, has nominated a committee to indicate the
principal parts of the earth that ought to be specially ex-
plored, and to find out a number of young energetic
European men of science, willing to accompany the
expedition.

Hitherto such expeditions have been thought practi-
cable only with Government assistance. If Captain
Bazerque’s scheme is successful in all respects, he will
have the merit of showing that Science need not look to
Government for help, even in her weightiest undertakings,
though we fear the world is not yet ripe for this new
application of “the voluntary principle.”

FOSSIL CRYPTOGAMS

4% HE exogenous(circumferential) growth of fossil vascular
cryptogams is a subject of so much interest and
importance, that I may perhaps be permitted to say a
few words regarding it. In a paper which was read at
the December meeting of the Edinburgh Botanical
Society, I combated the idea of the circumferential
growth of calamites. The moist nature of the soil in
which calamites must have grown would lead one to
expect a poor development of the fibro-vascular bundles,
and in comparing what I believe to be the fibro-vascular
bundles of calamites with those of our recent equisetums,
this idea is fully confirmed. Then in Equisetum there is
a large development of the sclerenchyma of Mettenius,
which forms the strong hypoderma. Ina Brazilian fern
which has come under my notice, this sclerenchyma runs
to the fibro-vascular bundles, and presents an appearance
exactly like Williamson’s woody wedges, the large and
small cells giving an appearance wonderfully like me-
dullary rays. There is another point which, to my mind,
is of much importance; namely, that in most of our
recent vascular cryptograms, the embryonic parts do
not enlarge; but as each successive leaf and portion of
stem is produced, every such leaf and portion of stem is
larger than the part preceding it, and this continues
until a certain maximum is reached, when the stem be-
comes cylindrical, It is impossible to overlook that this
mode of growth is evident in calamites, and until con-
vincing proof can be brought forward of the circum-
ferential growth of calamites, I must decline to accept it.

Turning from the calamites to Lepidodendron, it is
evident that in it circumferential growth was much more
likely to have occurred. In the calamites there is no
evidence that they required year by year increasing
quantities of water for purposes of transpiration, while in
Lepidodendron the numerous small leaves which must
have gone on increasing in number during the whole life
of the plant (which however need not have been very
long) demands that some addition to the conducting tissue
should be made. As in botany we constantly find the
same physiological purpose provided for in many mor-
phologically distinct ways, I do not think it is at all
necessary to believe in a form of growth identical with
that in dicotyledons, because that would involve a
complete change intype. Looking at sucha stemas Lyco-
podium chamaecyparissus, in which the cortical tissues

_ become so curiously modified, there is’no difficulty in ima-
gining that an increase by means of a cortical meristem
might take place, a condition which I believe still exists
-in Isoetes. Hegelmaier in his paper, “ Zur Morphologie
der Gattung Lycopodium” in the Aotanische Zeitung,

1872, p, 796, points out the presence in lycopods of a

peculiar layer which he calls the phloem sheath, outside
the phloem of the bundle, but inside the cortical portion,
and therefore a series of cells belonging to, the plerom
and not to the periblem tissues. It seems to me probable
that this phloem sheath may have represented a meristem
layer from which new tissue was formed, as it would be
the representative of the plerom meristem of the higher
plants, while its position outside the vessels would further
seem in some way related to the absence of vessels in the
secondary wood of conifers.

Passing from the fossil lycopods, of which Lepidoden-
dron is the type, with its central axis of fibro-vascular
bundles, we come to Dictyoxylon, which I believe we must
take as the type of Strasburger’s new group the Lycop-
teridze (Die Coniferen und die Gnetaceen, p. 259). Stras-
burger, in pointing out the relation of the archisperms to
the vascular cryptogams, shows that the transition from
the lycopods to the conifers is abrupt, and states thata
new group intermediate between the two must have
existed, To this group he gives the name Lycopteridz,
and I have no hesitation in referring Dictyoxylon
stigmaria and sigillaria to it, and considering the former
to be the type. The main root of stigmaria has more
affinity with conifers than lycopods, while the branching
of the root is distinctly lycopodiacous and not coniferous
the root of conifers not branching in a dichotomous
manner. Itis not difficult to understand how the phloem
sheath would in Dictyoxylon be still further differentiated,
as plerom meristem, and even true cambium formed,
thus affording the passage from the lycopodiacious to the
archispermous stem. It is also not improbable that trigono-
carpon may be referable to the lycopteridz. While there-
fore I cannot see my way to accept the theory of the
exogenous growth of calamites, I do not see any reason to
doubt that in lycopods the circumferential growth may
have taken place by means either of a periblem meristem,
or plerom meristem, or by both : while in Dictyoxylon the
relation of the growth of the stem to that of a conifer
must be very close indeed.

W. R. McNap

NOTES

One of the principal events of the past week has been the
funeral of Professor Sedgwick, whose death, though at a ripe
old age and after a life devoted to work of the highest import-
ance, yielding valuable results to Science, has called forth ex-
pressions of sympathy and regret from all quarters, from Royalty
downwards. In this week’s NATURE will be found a sketch of
the life and work of the veteran geologist, from the pen of one
who knew him long and well.

Coats in London are upto 48s. a ton, and there seems every pro-
bability that the rising process will continue. If they went at once
up to 100s. a ton it might be the best thing that could happen to the
nation, as thereby it might be ‘‘tunded ” into adopting one or more
of the obvious and easily applied means whereby the scandalous
waste of our precious fuel might be avoided. It is a low average
when we say that at least three-fourths of our coal is absolutely
thrown away, and that simply because people ‘‘ canna be fash’d ”
to prevent it. Men of science have dinned the alarming state of
“the coal-question” into the ears of the nation for years, but
we fear most men’s heads, like their hearts, must be reached
through their pockets. Sir W. Armstrong’s address at New-
castle, which we reprint this week, is one of the most practical,
forcible, and intelligent on the subject we have hitherto seen,
It is deserving of attention from all who have to pay for coals.

THE Council of the Anthropological Institute has appointed
a Committee of Psychological Research, viz., Francis Galton,
F.R.S., chairman; Dr. John Beddoe; Hyde Clarke; David
Forbes, F.R,S. ; Sir John Lubbock, Bt. F.R.S. ; E. B. Tylor,

268

F.R.S.; A. R. Wallace ; with power to add to their number,
and to confer with other scientific bodies.

THE United States exploring ship Portsmouth, which has
been busily engaged in preparing for her cruise to the Pacific,
has finally left for her destination. The scientific corps of the
expedition is to consist of Messrs. Byer and Beardsley, from the
Hydrographic Office, Washington, Paymaster Horace P. Tuttle
as astronomer, and Dr. Streets as naturalist. The Portsmouth
will carry three steam launches for cruising around shoal places.

Tue Tyneside Naturalists Field Club have struck out a new
line of work for similar societies throughout the country. They
propose to obtain a complete record of all remarkable trees at
present growing in the district embraced by the club, whether
from their age, dimensions, or historic associations. Seventy
or eighty such trees have already been catalogued from infor-
mation supplied by the members of the club; and it is pro-
posed that the record shall be as full and complete as possible,
both in respect to letterpress and illustrations. The letterpress
is to consist of the fullest particulars obtainable as to measure-
ments and history, and it is recommended by the Committee
appointed on the subject that the illustrations be photographs
taken by some permanent process, either Swan’s ‘‘ carbon” or
the ‘‘ Woodbury ;” the expenses to be paid out of the general
funds of the Club, the catalogue to be supplied to members of
the Club for a small subscription, to the general public at a
higher rate. It is obvious that such an illustrated catalogue
will become very useful in after years, especially if the observa-
tions are repeated on the same trees at intervals. Though the
Woolhope Club has already published in its Reports photo-
graphs of a few remarkable trees, we do not recollect that any-
thing of this kind has been hitherto attempted in a systematic
way.

Tue Academy of Natural Sciences at Stockholm has recently
purchased one of the finest cryptogamic herbaria in existence,
the great collection of European mosses formed by Milde.

THE Royal Commission of Scientific Instruction and the
Advancement of Science holds its first meeting of this session
to day.

THERE are at present five candidates for the vacant Profes-
sorship of Geology at Cambridge—the Rey. T. G. Bonney,
M.A., Fellow of St. John’s College ; Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.R.S., of Jesus College, Oxford, and Director of the
Owens College Museum, Manchester; the Rev. Osmond Fisher,
M.A., late Fellow and Tutor of Jesus College; Mr. McK.
Hughes, Member of the Geological Survey; and Mr. A. H
Green, M.A., late Fellow of Caius College.

A CORRESPONDENT writes, with regard to hurricanes in the
Mauritius (vol. vii. p. 250), that itis desirable applications should
be made to the French Minister of Marine, as it is possible log-
books of men-of-war may be preserved, which will fill up the
lacunze in the last century, In the beginning of this century
our Admiralty records may supply additional information.

Dr. E. L. Moss, of the Royal Naval Hospital, Esquimalt,
Vancouver’s Island, writes us that on the nightof Saturday, Dec.
14, an earthquake wave passed through the district at 9.33. A
rumbling noise and a quick vibration, causing the windows to
rattle, preceded the shock a few seconds. The waves then
passed from E.N.E. to W.S.W., causing the wooden house in
which he sat to creak and strain like a ship at sea, and leaving
an index of their direction in the oscillations of a swinging lamp.
He could not detect any accompanying marine wave. The ship’s
lights were reflected from the surface of the harbour in perfectly
unbroken lines. The night was clear, the thermometer at 2)";
and there was no trace of aurora, From the Daily British Colom
nist we learn that the shock appears to have been more severely

NATURE

felt on the mainland than on the island. At Olympia and
Seattle the shock was very severe, and was accompanied by a
slight tidal wave. At Clinton the ground was cracked, and the
shock was felt at all the towns on the Fraser.
toria has not experienced so severe a shock of earthquake,

Dr. DuDLEY, of Bogoti, South America, writes that on the
morning of Dec. 17 last, at 42 20" A.M., a smart shock of earth-
quake was felt at that place, which lasted about 20 seconds, It
appeared to move ina §.W. direction. It was sufficiently strong
to awaken the inhabitants from their sleep with some alarm,

THE Times of India reports a very destructive earthquake
which occurred in Sinde on the evening of December 15 last.
A succession of shocks took place about 9 o’clock at Shekarpore
and other places, followed by a slight shock at about half-past
10. In the town of Lehree, in Eastern Catchi and Zehri, accord-
ing to one report 200, according to another 500 persons were
killed from the fall of houses and walls. The direction of the
earthquake was from east to west, with a slightly undulating
motion.

AccoRDING to a telegram in the 77es from Constantinople,
February 4, the island of Samos had been visited with succes-
sive shocks of earthquake during the previous four days, gradu-
ally increasing in violence. Houses have been déstroyed, and
the affrighted inhabitants of the island are wandering about the
open country.

A CORRESPONDENT sends us the following :—‘*‘ A correspon-
dent in Salvador, in Central America, under date of December 8,
writes to the Panama Record as follows :—‘ The volcano which
is some six leagues distant from the town of Santana, has dried
up a lake which for 500 years or so existed at the base ‘of the
craters ; but although vast quantities of steam are ejected, and
the trees lining the inside of the crater are scorched up and
withered, as also are those to a limited distance near the top on
the outside, no ejection of lava has yet taken place. The yol-
cano of Isaleo, which was active until quite recently, now shows
no sign of life ; and the supposition is that some strata which
cut off the communication between the two volcanoes have burst
through or fallen in, and so changed the channel of the fire. The
Government of Salvador intends sending up an exploring party
to examine and report on the subject. At the date of the above
letter, no change had taken place in the volcano,

Mr. HARDING, senior wrangler at Cambridge, has been de-
clared first Smith’s prizeman ; while the second prize has gone
to Mr, Nanson, the second wrangler.

WE have received a paper by Prof. Theodor von Oppolzer on
the comet discovered by Pogson on December 2, following the
telegraphic hint of Prof. Klinkerfues. Prof. Oppolzer enters
into an elaborate series of calculations to prove that the observed
comet was intimately connected with the star-shower of Novem-
ber 27, and that in all probability it was one of the heads of
Biela’s comet.

A REPORT, coming of course from America, has been going
the round of the papers that Prof. Tyndall has been coining
money by thousands from his lectures in the United States.
Dr. Bence Jones writes to Les M/ondes of January 30, giving the
facts of the case, as told by Prof. Tyndall himself. His ex-
penses in America, partly caused by the death of ‘poor Mil-
lard,” his assistant, have been very high. There still remains,
however, Prof. Tyndall says, 2,000/. This sum he intends to

[ Feb. 6, 1873

cE EEE

Since 1864 Vic-

devote, in consultation with Prof. Henry of Washington, to the

promotion of some worthy purpose in America, .
WE are glad to see that a new edition of Chambers’s /nforma-

tion for the People is about to be issued. The first edition was
issued in 1833, and the last in 1857, since which, science in all

a

its departments has made such rapid strides that scientific

treatises published sixteen yc.rs ago must now be considered

_ seriously defective and in many cases absolutely misleading. We

are therefore glad to see from the prospectus that the scientific
treatises have been entirely recast, so as to be adapted as nearly
as possible to the present state of knowledge, and we have reason
to believe that the various articles have been put into the
hands of men who are acknowledged masters of their several
subjects. Indeed we think it a sufficient guarantee that the work
will in every respect be up to the mark, that the editorial super-
vision has been entrusted to Dr. Andrew Findlater, who has
already deservedly won himself so great credit as Editor of
Chambers’s Lxcyclopedia ; science at least is likely to have fair
play in his hands, This work has already done much good in
spreading accurate and valuable knowledge among the people,
We hope the new edition will have as wide a circulation as its
predecessors among the classes for whom it is adapted.

A SUPPLEMENTARY number of Z’/wstitué has been issued,
containing reports of the French Academy from September 5 to
December 26, 1870, during which time, on account of the in-
vestment of Paris, the publication of the journal had to be
suspended. Besides the French Academy, it contains reports of
the Royal Society, the Berlin, Munich, and St. Petersburg
Academies of Science, and the Gottingen Society of Science for
the same period.

WE have received the ‘‘ Report of the Birmingham School
Natural History Society ” for'the year 1872, anda very satisfactory
one it is. The society was founded in 1869, under the auspices
of the Rev. C. Evans, Head Master of theschool, since which it
has made very creditable progress. Liberal grants have been
made by the governors of the school for the purchase of books
on Natural History, and the library contains several standard
works, In 1871 a museum was fitted up, and during the past
year three sections have been formed—botanical, entomologi-
cal, and geological ; and it is hoped that, eventually, new sections
will be formed for the study of other subjects, such as physi-
ology, zoology, &c. Three excursions have been made during
the year, and there would have been several more, had it not
been for unfavourable weather. The report contains some very
creditable papers by the youthful members of the society, and we
hope that future reports will contain the results of original ob-
servations on the part of the members.

From the report of the Grant Medical College, Bombay, we
learn that during 1872 the total number of students was 283,
showing an increase of 37 over 1871. Great improvements have
taken place in the Museum, and Dr. Sylvester, the officiating
principal, says, that for the last twenty years it has not been in
such good order as it is at present. Dr. Sylvester reports that
the system of education is not so sound and deep as it ought to
be, and wisely reccommends that some subjects should be omitted
from the course, and a more strict and penetrating knowledge
insisted on in the others. He also seems to think that more care
ought to be exercised in the appointment of professors, and that
a sort of supplementary professor should be appointed to each
chair, who would be ready at any time to undertake the duties
of the professorship in case of a vacancy.

WE are glad to notice that the evening lectures to working
men at the school of Mines have been eminently successful. The
600 available seats are all occupied, and about 600 more appli-
cants have been necessarily refused. Those who attend are all
bona fide working men, who in various ways show that they
appreciate and understand the scientific lectures delivered, Each
professor gives a course of six lectures every other year.

EARLY on Saturday morning a fire broke out in the Royal
Military Academy at Woolwich, which terminated in the total

é NATURE

, eS Oe. eR
ie MS ae ioke 5 een en Rt :

269

destruction of the large central block of the building. A foul
flue is supposed to have been the cause of the fire. The damage
is estimated at 100,000/,

THE principal paper in Za Revue Scientifique for February 1
is a long analysis of Darwin’s Descent of Man, which has
recently been translated into French. The writer endeavours to

‘give a perfectly fair view of the work, but the tone of the article

shows that Darwin is beginning to be better understood and ap-
preciated in France than he has hitherto been. The writer sees
in Darwinism a gigantic effort of the human mind to arrive at
an explanation of phenomena which had previously been re-
garded as beyond the human grasp. He thinks it the duty of
every naturalist, whatever may be his leanings, to study the facts
and theories put forth by Darwin.

WE have received the prospectus of a German work likely to
be of considerable interest and value—a history of Writing
(“Geschichte der Schrift und Schrifttums,” &c.) and written
characters, symbolical and otherwise, from its earliest beginning
in the shape of tattoo marks, down to the signs used in modern
telegraphy, including an account of the modes of writing among
all the nations of the world, savage and civilised. The speci-
mens of the illustrations sent us are carefully executed ; one of
them represents aman, most elaborately and minutely tattooed
from the crown of his head to the tips of his toes. The author
is Heinrich Wuttke.

WE noted some time since that the French Govertiment con-
templated suppressing the Bureau des Longitudes,in order to
save its expense to the nation. The French Academy has
made a vigorous and indignant protest against such a philistian
proposal. The protest recounts the glories which have in
former times accrued to France from the discoveries of its
eminent astronomers, shows the important position formerly held
by the Bureau, the valuable assistance it has given to astronomy
and navigation by means of its journal, the Conmnaissance des
Temps, and declares that by degrees in recent years, the means
of doing efficient work have been withdrawn from it. Since
1854 the Bureau has ceased to have the control of the Obser-
vatory. The Academy demands that instead of suppressing the
institution, Government should restore to it the means of making
itself more useful.

THE first number of an illustrated paper printed in Japanese,
Lai Sei Shimbun, or Great Western News, was published in
London on January 15. Its object is to clearly reflect the
opinions of Japanese who have seen the world and learned
European languages for the benefit of their countrymen at home.
It is edited by a Japanese resident in London, in conjunction ~
with Prof Summers, of King’s College.

A CORRESPONDENT writes asking us whether any Alpine walker
among our readers has had experience of Sir T. Troubridge’s
knapsack, the weight of which is borne principally upon the
pelvis instead of on the shoulders, [thus leaving the chest more
free. Also where it can be obtained.

WITH the commencement of volume Ixxxi. of Astronomische
Nachrichten, the office of that journal will be removed from
Altona to the Observatory at Kiel, to Prof. C. A. F. Peters, at
which address all communications should be sent.

No. 1917 of Astronomische Nachrichten is mainly occupied
with letters from various quarters on the star-shower of Noy. 27,
1872.

To No. 1919 of Astronomische Nachrichten, Prof. Spirer
contributes the results of observations on the distribution of
sun-spots for the periods of rotation, vi. and vii, for the year
1871.

--.

270

NATURE

Sir BARTLE FReERE and suite arrived at Zanzibar Jan 12.

' Nort Africa is at present overrun by exploring expeditions,
The latest news from Sir Samuel Baker is contained in a tele-
gram dated Khartoum, Nov. 7, 1872. According to this he left
Gondokoro in 1871 for Kimrasi, but from the hostility of the
natives was compelled to return some distance. In consequence
of the prolonged absence of Sir Samuel, we learn from Ocean
Highways, the Viceroy of Egypt decided upon sending a
relief expedition of sixty-five men under the command of Colonel
Purdy, an American officer in the Egyptian service. The plan
is to start from Mombas and to make a journey to the supposed
position of Baker, above Gondokoro, If the expedition is
successful, very important geographical results may be expected
from the route to be taken by Colonel Purdy, which will lead
him across the Victoria Nyanza region.

Ocean Highways for February contains the first part of
an article by Dr. Beke, entitled, ‘‘ Position of the Sources of
the Nile,” his object being to show the influence which Ptolemy’s
determination of these sources has had on later geographers,
down even to Livingstone, who adheres essentially to Ptolemy’s
opinion. The almost unanimous conclusion, however, come to
by geographers of the present day, Dr. Beke tells us, is that the
rivers described by Livingstone are tributaries of the Congo, and
that the numerous sources described by him as the great water-
parting of Southern Africa, are those of that river, and not of
the Nile.

CoMANDATORE NEGRI is making satisfactory progress in his
endeayour to enlist Italian public opinion in favour of an Italian
Arctic expedition.

TuHE first number of Xosmos, an Italian geographical bi-
monthly journal, edited by Guido Cora, has just appeared.

In NATURE for Jan. 23, we noted the supposed discovery of
a great Arctic Continent by M. Pavy. The story appeared many
weeks ago in the Scotsman, which took it from ‘the American
papers.” We, however, took no “note” of it till a similar
account appeared in the 7imes a week or two ago, when we
noted it with some expressed distrust. According to Ocean
Highways, the story, as we feared, turns out to be, in all likeli-
hood, a hoax. The French Geographical Society have received
no such report as the American papers say has been transmitted
to them. Far from M. Pavy having reached Wrangell Land,
there are now doubts whether the expedition will start at all.

WE learn from the Atheneum that Sir John Lubbock is pre-
paring a Bill, to be brought forward early this session, having
for its object the preservation of the megalithic monuments to
the United Kingdom.

WE have received the first number of the Journal of the
Women’s Educational Union, the main purpose of which is to
promote the very commendable objects of that Union.

From pamphlets and periodicals before us we cull the fol-
lowing notes:—Dr. Hollis’s Astronomical Almanack for 1873
contains a large quantity of very valuable and well-arranged
information, which will be found useful to the rapidly increasing
number of amateur astronomers, and to those who do not possess
or who shrink from consulting the ‘‘ Nautical Almanack,”—
The Garden learns that the celebrated Jardin Fleuriste of the
city of Paris, which since the war has been in a ruinous condi-
tion, is at last to be entirely abolished, and the ground whereon
it stood let for building purposes. A few years ago it was one
of the most interesting and instructive gardens in existence.—
The principal articles in the Yournal de Physique for January
are a review of the fundamental theories relative to electro-
dynamics and induction, by M. A. Potter: one by M. Berthelot
on Calorimetric thermometers, in which he expounds the results
of his studies on the subject fora number of years past : and a

1
short one by M. C, Decharme, giving the results of a number of

experiments to show the rate at which different liquids ascend a
capillary tube.—A French newspaper, the A/onde, contains a
justly laudatory article on the Abbé Moigno'’s Salles du Progrés,
which it seems are being more and more taken advantage of by
the Parisian middle classes.—The ,{‘ Annuaire de ]’Academie
Royale de Belgique,” besides a mass of valuable information
concerning the Academy, contains memoirs of a number of
deceased Academicians, including one of the late Mr. Babbage,
who was an associate of the Academy.—The Penn Monthly
(Philadelphia) for May, July, August, and September, contains
a series of articles by Mr. Edward D, Cope, on ‘“‘ Evolution
and its consequences,”
evolution so far as it concerns animals and plants.—We
have received a reprint from the Quarterly Fournal of thr
Geological Society of the admirable paper ‘‘ On the Evidence for
the Ice-sheet in North Lancashire and adjacent parts of York-
shire and Westmoreland,” by Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, M.A.,
F.G.S., of the Geological Survey. It is accompanied by a
well constructed map.—An address delivered before the Chemical
Society of the Lehigh University, by_Dr. B. Silliman, on ‘‘ De-
ductive and Inductive Training,” contains a very interesting
history of the two systems from the earliest times to the present
day.—A translation of Prof. Donati’s oration at the inauguration
of the new observatory at Florence, October 27, 1872, appears
in the Astronomical Register for February.

ON THE COAL QUESTION *

THE North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers was, in its origin, a society limited in its scope
to the discussion of subjects belonging to the practice of mining,
and especially of coal mining. At that period the working of
coal and other minerals was carried on with less aid from machi-
nery than at present, and the district in which the society is
located was not so distinguished as it now is for the practice of
mechanical engineering in all its branches. Hence, the society,
inits growth, has gradually assumed more and more of an engi-
neering character ; and my recent election, as your president,
indicates that mechanical science is no longer regarded by the
members as secondary, or merely subsidiary, to the practice of
mining. But we must guard against this tendency of the engi-
neering element to outgrow the mining element of this insti-
tute. We must not forget that we are situated in the very heart
of the coalfield which, more than any other, has rendered Eng-
land pre-eminent as a producing nation, and that, notwithstand-
ing the increasing magnitude and importance of the engineering
works of this district, the raising of coal is still foremost amongst
the industries of the North, both as regards the extent of the in-
terests involved, and its importance to the general prosperity of the
nation, 3
For these reasons, although I come before you as the first pre-
sident of thissociety elected from theranks of mechanical engineers,
I shall, in this address, make coal the principal topic of my
remarks, including, however, mechanical applications associated
with its use or involved in its production. As I shall speak of
coal in an economic as well as ina technical point of view, I
cannot well avoid making some reference to its present excessive
cost, because coal, like everything else, must be governed in
the extent of its application by its price in the market. In
addressing an institution, so largely composed as this is of col-
liery proprietors, it is not an agreeable task to dwell on the evil
of dear coal ; but our institution is not a commercial one, and
I must speak of this subject, not as affecting individual interests,
but as bearing upon mechanical art and national prosperity.
For many years past the consumption of coal has been increas-
ing at the rate of about 4 per cent. per annum, computed in the
manner of compound interest. We are all familiar with the
cumulative effects of compound rates of increase ; and it is easy
to see that if the consumption of coal continued to advance at
this rate, we should speedily arrive at impossible quantities. Thus
in 18 years our present enormous consumption would be

* Inaugural Address by Sir William Armstrong, C.B., President of the
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, delivered
at Newcastle, February 1.

[ fed. 6 1873

in which is expounded the theory of —

wae. ?
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=

Feb. 6, 1873]

SPE ON ee, He
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NATURE

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271

doubled ; in 36 years it would be quadrupled ; and in 54 years

it would be eight times greater than at present. It is clear,
therefore, that our consumption has been increasing at a rate
which could not possibly Jast. If nothing else was destined to
arrest it, a failure of mining labour was inevitably approaching
to have that effect ; but a few years would probably have yet
elapsed before the number of hands becamé inadequate to meet
the required demand, had not the miners precipitated the event
by restricting the hours of work. The hours of mining labour
in this district 25 years ago were 9 per day. Ata subsequent date
they were reduced to 8, then to 7, and finally to 6. Hitherto,
the men have worked 11 days a fortnight, but it seems doubtful
whether more than 10 can now be worked consistently with the
very proper limitations of the recent Coal Mines’ Act, in regard
to the labour of the boys. The full hours per fortnight will,
therefore, at the most, be 66, or 33 hours per week of labour
at the face of the coal; but as it is only the steadiest men that
work full time, the average time will, of course, be considerably
below that limit.

Tam not aware to what extent reduction of time has been
carried in other parts of England ; but we hear of the same
policy of restriction, either of time or output, or of both, being
put in practice in all the important coal districts. I do not
_ suppose that the average output, per man, has fallen off propor-
tionately to the reduction of hours. The men work hard, even
harder than formerly, while at their post, but it is impossible that
so great a reduction of working time can have taken place with-
out so lessening the output, per head, as to neutralise in a great
degree the increase of production due to the numerical growth of
the mining population. Under these two conditions of increasing
consumption and restricted labour, we have reached a point at
which the demand has overtaken the supply. As yet, the
deficiency cannot be great, for it has only very recently become
apparent. Consumption does not advance by jumps; and we
may assume that if a progressive increase of four or five per cent.
per annum could have been maintained in the production of coal,
a balance would still have existed between supply and demand.
Though production has ceased to keep up with demand, it has
not, so far as we can judge, actually receded, and’ it would
therefore appear that a small addition to the present supply
would restore the equilibrium. But small as the deficiency
must be, it is sufficient to create a sense of scarcity, and as a
consequence, to send up coals to a famine pitch.

The situation is a grave one, and the public has not yet fully
realised how very grave itis. Taking the present consumption
at 110 millions of tons (evclusive of exportation) and estimating
the extra price to consumers at 8s. a ton over all, the annual loss to
the community from the additional cost of fuel, amounts to 44
millions sterling, Had a Government tax of 44 millions been
levied upon coal, in addition to existing taxation, the effect
would have been regarded as utterly ruinous, not only in regard
to its prodigious amount, but on account of its repressive effect
upon every kind of production. Yet it is a fact that we are now
paying the equivalent of such a tax, with this unfavourable
difference, that the money does not go into the coffers of the
nation. Whether it chiefly goes to coal-owners or coal-miners is
a question which I need not discuss, but I may observe that the
restrictive action of the men has benefitted their employers as well
as themselves, and that the public are the only sufferers. Coal-
owners have long been aware that limitation of quantity was the
only effectual mode of raising price, but they have never been
able, by their own action, to maintain a restricted production.
At last their workmen have done it for them, and we see the
result.

Whether the trade of the country will bear up against the
heavy burden of dear coal, combined as it is with dearness of
other products, arising from similar causes in other industries,
is a question on which I shall not attempt to prophesy. It
will be more to the purpose to consider what can be done to
mitigate the evils under which the nationis now labouring in
regard to the price of coal. It is vain to appeal for relief either
to coal-owners or coal-workers. Self-interest is the ruling
principle of trade, and it is visionary to expect that men will
sell either labour or the produce of labour for less than the
market price. However generous a man may be, he will not
exhibit his generosity by selling an article below its value.
Speaking then, as one of the public and not as a coal-owner, I
say, we must strive to economise the use of coal ; speaking as
president of an institution of mining and mechanical engineers,
I say, we must endeavour to make up for the deficiency of

human labour by a more extended use of machine labour. The*
waste of coal, both in domestic and manufacturing use is a

threadbare subject, but there never was a time when its con-
sideration was of so much importance as at present. The small

deficiency of supply which is now so violently stimulating the

market would be just as effectually expunged by economisinz

consumption as by increasing production. If, on the one hand,

the mining population could easily, by a few hours’ addition to

their weekly labour, restore the equilibrium between supply ard

demand, so on the other hand consumers taken as a body, coukl

do the same thing, by discontinuing in a small degree those

reckless habits of wasting coal to which they obstinately adhere.

The consumption of coal takes place under three great
divisions, each absorbing about one-third of the whole produce :—
(1) domestic consumption ; (2) steam-engine consumption ; and
(3) iron making and other manufacturing processes. In the first
two divisions the waste is simply shameful ; in the third it is not
so great, but still considerable, though in some processes, and
especially in the smelting of iron, economy of fuel has been so
diligently pursued that there remains but little apparent scope
for further saving. I shall not dwell on the waste of coal in
domestic consumption, as it is scarcely a subject for engineers ;
but the circumstances of the times are such as to forbid my
passing it unnoticed. It is impossible to conceive any system cf
heating a dwelling more wasteful than that of sinking the fire-
place into a wall directly beneath the chimney which carries off
the products of combustion. Nothing can be clearer than the
advantage to be gained by merely advancing the fire-place a little
into the room, and constructing it with proper heating surfaces,
asin the ‘‘Gill-stove,” and many other stoves acting on the
same principle. There is no occasion to shut out the fire from
view. Neither is there any difficulty about ventilation, since
fresh air can easily be introduced from the exterior by a pipe
delivering its supply against the heated plates, so as to temper
the air before it enters the room, By this simple and unob-
jectionable departure from the conventional fire-place, the quan-
tity of coal required to produce a given heating effect might
easily be reduced to one-half, and still greater economy would
be effected by the use of hot-water apparatus, which, however,
has the objection of being too costly in first outlay to aamit
of very general application. For cooking purposes also, the
consumption of coal is in most houses equally extravagant, and
I may add, equally inexcusable, since the means of prevention
are attainable by the adoption of known methods and appliances
for concentrating the heat upon the work to be done.

A more appropriate subject for the consideration of this insti-
tution is the wasteful employment of coal for steam power. The
steam engine is, at best, a very imperfect machine for utilising
the mechanical power of heat, for in no case do we realise more
than about one-tenth of the theoretical effect of the fuel. But
the difference in economy between our best steam engines and
our worst is enormous, and unfortunately by far the most nume-
rous class belong to the category of the worst. In the best kind
of engines, the consumption of coal per horse-power is rather
less than 2Ibs., but there are thousands of steam engines in
daily use which burn from 12 to 14]1bs, per horse-power. This
excessive wastefulness arises from defects, both in the mode of
raising the steam and in the mode of applyingit. Theoretically,
1 lb. of coal is capable of evaporating 13 lbs. of water, but the
conclusion arrived at on this subject by the late Royal Commis-
sion on the duration of coal was, that in practice 1 1b. of ordinary
coal did not, on an average, evaporate more than 4 lbs. of water.
The causes of this deficient result are perfectly understood, and,
therefore, cannot be excused by ignorance. They are—insuffi-
cient boiler surface to absorb the heat, insufficient steam space
to allow of a complete separation of the steam from the water,
unclothed boilers, and imperfect combustion of the fuel, arising
from badly constructed furnaces and from bad firing. The
defects in the mode of applying the steam, or in other
words, the defects which belong to the engine, in contra-
distinction to the boiler, are equally well known and equally
remediable. The steam—to begin with—should be taken
from the boiler at a much higher pressure than is usual. It
should be admitted upon the piston at the full boiler pres-
sure, and allowed to expand in the cylinder until its power
is practically exhausted. The cut-off valves should be close to
the end of the cylinders, as in the Corliss arrangement, so as to
leave the smallest possible amount of space between the valve
and the piston when commencing its stroke. Finally, the cylin-
der should be steam jacketed to prevent its cooling during the

272

expansion of the steam, and thereby causing condensation on
the next admission of steam. Nobody disputes these require-
ments of a good engine, and yet how few engines there are in
which these conditions are fulfilled. The responsibility, how-
ever, for this waste of coal lies more with the users than with
the makers of steam engines. Old-fashioned engines are retained
in use partly on account of the outlay involved in replacing
them, and partly from a dread of novelties and refinements
requiring more care and delicacy of treatment than steam engines
commonly receive. Even in replacing old engines the repug-
nance to any increase of first cost, and the distrust of departure
from long-tried patterns, powerfully tend to a conservation of
antiquated types of steam engines. As an encouragement to
those who contemplate reforming their engine power, I may
state what my own experience has been of the advantage of
so doing. The engines and boilers originally applied at the
Elswick Works, though representing a fair average of efficiency,
were of the simple description then almost invariably used in
factories. My firm, like others, was naturally averse to changing
them. on account of the expense of so doing; but about two
years ago they determined to begin the renoyation of all their
old engines by putting down, as a first instalment, two large
engines of the Corliss pattern to do the work previously per-
formed by ten smaller engines, These two Corliss engines are
now both at work. They have boilers of the best construction,
and are fitted with various accompaniments favourable to
economy of fuel, including Jukes’ arrangement of mechanical
firing. One of these engines uses twenty-four tons of coal per
week against sixty tons used by the engines it has superseded.
The other appears to be doing equally well, but I have not the
necessary data for making a similar comparison. Assuming the
economy effected to be the same in both cases, the aggregate
saving of coal amounts to seventy-two tons per week. The
number of firemen required is also much diminished, and the
general result is, that, notwithstanding the enormous rise which
has taken place in the price of coal, the required steam power
is now obtained at a less cost than before, after allowing for
interest on the capital expended.

Thus, then, the consumers of coal, as well for domestic use
as for steam engines (under which two heads about two-thirds
of our own consumption are comprised), have it in their power
to economise their use of coal to an enormous extent, without
any diminution of effect. In metallurgical and other manufac-
turing processes there is also room for much saving of coal;
but I must not extend my observations into that division of the
subject. Speaking generally of coal consumption in all its
branches, there can be little doubt that without carrying eco-
nomy to ifs extreme limits, all the effects we now realise from
coal could be attained with half the quantity we use. If a re-
duction to that, or any approximate extent were effected, we
should hear nothing more of scarcity or prchibitive prices for
many years to come.

And now as to the practicability of economising human labour
in coal mines by the employment cf machinery. Much has
already been done in applying machinery for the underground
traction of coal, anda great reduction has thereby been effected
both in men and horses; but the cutting of the coal is still
almost exclusively performed by human labour. The service is
a hard and dangerous one, and as it requires skill and experi-
ence, it is not easily taken up by untrained men. In every point
of view, therefore, there is the strongest inducement to substitute
mechanical appliances for manual Jabour in the process of cutting
coal. Many attempts have been made to make a machine do
the work of a man in this kind of Jabour, but with only imper-
fect success ; and yet the problem does not appear, upon the
face of it, to be one of very difficult solution to persons accus-
tomed to mechanical invention, and thoroughly acquainted with
the conditions under which the work has to be performed.

What is wanted, is a machine capable of cutting a groove at
the base of the coal, so as to allow the superincumbent mass to
be easily dislodged. The mode of cutting may be by hewing,
by slotting, by sawing, or by scooping. The machine must
travel along the face of the coal so as to follow up its cut. It
should have a long face to work at, so as to avoid frequent
stops and changes, and for this purpose the long-wall system
of working must be adopted. The difficulty of supporting the

NATURE

roof may, in some cases, be an impediment to the adoption of
the long wall system, but I believe the cases would be few in
which this difficulty would be insuperable.

Then, es to the power for driving the machine; that. must ,

clearly be compressed air transmitted from a steam-engine at the
surface, as is now actually practised for the propulsion of all
forms of these machines. Compressed air is not an economical
medium for transmission of power, partly because the power ex-
pended in its preliminary condensation is not recovered by cor-
responding expansion in the exercise of its power, and partly
because much of the force exerted in compression takes the form
of heat, which is dissipated during the transmission of the air.
In other respects compressed air is peculiarly adapted for con-
veying power into a mine, because, unlike water, it requires no
provision for its removal, and actually helps to supply the neces-
sary ventilation. ‘This is a fair statement of the nature of the
work to be done, and of the conditions under which it must be
performed, Whatever difficulties there may be must be of a
nature capable of being surmounted by mechanical skill and
careful observation of the impediments to be overcome. Partial

success has already been realised, and I confidently look forward —

to a time when, to the many services which we exact from coal
as a source of motive power, we shall add the cutting of the
parent material from the solid beds in which it is deposited.

But it is not alone in coal-mines that the extension of ma-
chinery is called for. The dearth of labour is being felt in every
department of industry, and we have to fear on the one handa
ruinous collapse of trade, or on the other a continued rise in the
price of all productions, threatening to neutralise the advantage
of high wages, and impoverish persons dependent on fixed in-
comes. The only hope that I see of escaping one or other of
these alternatives is by increasing the use of machinery and di-
minishing the direct employment of men. It is in the interest
of working men, as well as of all other classes, that we should
throw the burden of our wants as much as possible upon inani-
mate power ; and it is a high function of mechanical science to
relieve man from that description of labour which consists in the
exertion of mere animal force, and leaves him more free for the
exercise of skill which is beyond the province of machinery.

One of the worst effects of dear coalis that it involves dear
iron. Coal may be economised, but iron cannot, without positive
loss. Production of every kind, as also steam navigation and
railway transport, are essentially dependent upon the use of iron
as well as of coal. Hence, dear iron, like dear coal, is a burden,
both on manufacture and on commerce, and its dearness diffuses
itself over every article which we derive either from foreign
trade, or from home manufacture. But although the present
high price of iron is chiefly due to the scarcity of coal, it is
not wholly so. The dearness of labour employed in its pro-

(Feb. 6, 1873

duction is also telling seriously upon its cost, and the impor- —

tance of substituting some system of mechanical puddling for

the present laborious process is daily becoming more apparent.

Many inventions for attaining this object have been tried, but
no substantial success was realised, until Mr. Danks produced
his rotating furnace in America. If Mr, Danks’ success be
confirmed by continued trials, he will have conferred an immense
benefit, both upon the makers and the consumers of iron, Un-
happily for him, the general ideas embraced in his apparatus
appear to have been suggested before, and although he has
the great merit of having shown how the previous ideas on the
subject can be rendered available, the patent laws do not afford
him that protection which they so lavishly bestow upon others
who have accomplished no practical result. Under an equitable
and discriminative system of patents, Mr. Danks would have
obtained a monopoly as due to the importance of his invention,
notwithstanding the abortive attempts of others to reduce the
same ideas to successful practice. It is to be hoped that ad-
vantage will not be taken of Mr. Danks’ unprotected position to
deprive him of an adequate reward. 5
Having spoke of steam engines in reference to the great
defects of those in most general use, it is only fair that I should
acknowledge the great improvements which are exhibited by
nearly all classes of those engines in their most modern forms.
Mr. Bramwell, in his recent presidential address to the Me-
chanical Section of the British Association at Brighton, points
out with justice how much has recently been done to improve
the efficiency of marine, locomotive, and agricultural engines,
and urges the importance of carrying out toa still greater ex-
tent the application of those principles which have already
been productive of so much advantage. To this recommend-
ation I may add that we must not neglect to follow up any new

| line of improvement which the progress of discovery may present

to us. .

(To be continued.)

re.

Be SESE tee PO ay

NATURE

273

q RADIANT HEAT
i Lop ROSSE has shown* that the diathermacy of flame

' cannot be determined by the method described by Mr. W.
Mattieu Williams, in his communication to NATURE, vol. vi.
p. 506. Referring to the discrepancy which the reader may re-
member that Mr. Williams pointed out, Lord Rosse says: ‘‘ The
explanation of the discrepancy seems to be that the radiant heat
from a flame, like that from any other body, varies as the inver-:e

square of the distance and therefore the total effect is propor-

5 I I I . ee I
tional to + a + rib + &e., not | + 7 + 7
d, d@", &c., are the distances of the flames from the thermometer ;
in which latter case the order of lighting the jets would answer
the desired object.”

Mr. Williams, in order to meet the objection raised, presents
calculations based on the assumption that the mean distance
between the seventeen small flames and the thermometer is
14in. The space from centre to centre of the flames being } in.,
the distance between the thermometer and the centre of the
nearest flame will be 12in. Evidently Mr. Williams is not
aware that a thermometer placed at a distance of 12 in. from his
cluster of diminutive flames, cannot indicate 53° C. (127°4° F.),
unless the surrounding atmosphere be heated to a temperature
exceeding 123° F. Had he ascertained, experimentally, that the
radiation of a cluster of such feeble flames, at the distance of
I2in. from the thermometer, imparts a temperature less than

+ &c,, where

-3°C. above that of the atmosphere, he would no doubt have

admitted the correctness of Lord Rosse’s explanation of the sup-
posed discrepancy, as freely as he admits the correctness of the
theory on which that explanation is based.

The subject having attracted much attention, the writer has
deemed it necessary to institute a series of experiments in order
to test the accuracy of the table of temperatures which Mr.
Williams desires Lord Rosse to accept on the ground that ‘‘ the
maximum error is less than ;'; of a degree, and the mean error
lies between that and ~;}-z; of a degree.”

Before entering on an examination of the result of the experi-
ments adverted to, it will be necessary to call attention to the
fact that, the transverse sectional area of a flame produced by
17 jets arranged in a straight line, jin. apart, consuming 5 cubic
feet of gas an hour, corresponds with the area of a civcle of
0°87 in. diameter. The distance between the nearest point of
the flame and the thermometer being 12 in., it will be found on
calculation that the mean angle subtended by the heat rays pro-
jected towards the thermometer will be 4° 9’. Agreeably to the
laws of radiation, the temperature produced at a given point by
the heat rays projected from a deep radiating body, depends on
the mean angle subtended. It may be shown, therefore, that in
order to produce the differential temperature of 53° — 19° = 34°C.
(61°2° F.), observed by Mr. Williams, the intensity of the tlame
must far exceed that capable of being developed by’any chemical
means. A brief explanation of this important’ subject will be
proper in this place. The accompanying illustration represents
a pyrometer constructed by the writer for measuring with desir-
able precision intensities of all degrees. The pyrometer consists
of a conical vessel communicating with a cylindrical chamber,
as shown in the sectional elevation, both being surrounded by
an external vessel through which a current of water, of uniform
temperature, is circulated. The thermometer for registering the
temperature produced by the radiation of any incandescent body,
is inserted in the cylindrical chamber at a fixed distance from the
opening of the conical vessel ; hence the angle subtended by the
heat rays projected by the radiating body towards the bulb of
the thermometer, will remain constaut whatever be the distance
of that body from the instrument. Of course the radiation must
be large enough to cover the entire field contained within tie
radial lines drawn from the bulb through the circumference of
the opening of the conical vessel. We have already adverted to the
fact that the temperature transmitted to the thermometer depends
on the subtended angle. Consequently, by ascertaining practi-
cally what degree of temperature is imparted to the thermometer
of the pyrometer, by a radiator of vow intensity, we can
determine the intensity of any other radiator by merely observing
the temperature it imparts to that thermometer. It should
be stated that in the pyrometers which have been constructed,
the diameter of the opening of the conical vessel is }th of the
distance from the thermometer ; hence the angle subtended is
very nearly 11° 26’ Experimen{s m-de with an incandescent

_* Naturg, vol. vii. p. 28.

block of cast-iron, arranged as represented in the illustration,
have shown that when the temperature of the block is 1930”
above that of the surrounding atmosphere, the thermometer of
the pyrometer indicates a temperature 20°7° higher than the
circulating water in the casing. Applying the pyrometer in a
similar manner, for ascertaining the temperature of a mass of
overheated fused cast-iron, the indication of the thermometer has
been found to reach 31°4° above that of the water in the en-
closure. Now, the temperature of radiators is proportional to
the radiant heat which they transmit, provided the subtended
angles be alike; hen e it follows that the temperature of the
fused metal must be 214 * 1930 = 19a 2940° above that of the

20°7
water in the casing surrounding the conical vessel. Adding
the latter temperature, viz. 60°, we ascertain that the
actual temperature of the fused metal will be very nearly
3o0o°. The result of several experiments shows that this tem-
perature corresponds with that determined by the practical ex-
pedient resorted to during the investigation, of melting wrought-

lion in the fused mass, It should be mentioned that in

Pyrometer ‘or various intensities,

constructing the scale of the new pyrometer, the radiant power
correspording with given sulitended angles and given tempera-
tures, has been ascertained wit critical nicety by experiments
conducted within a vacuum. For the purpose of demonstrating
that the distances assumed by Mr. Williams in his reply to Lord
Rosse are greatly exaggerated, a reference to the amount of
radiant heat transmitted to the thermometer by the fused metal
will no'doubt be most convincing. We have before stated that
the heat rays projected towards the thermometer from a flame
produced by seventeen gas-jets subtend a mean angle of only
4° 9’, while the heat rays projected from the fused metal towards
the thermometer of the pyrometer, subtend an angle of 11° 26’,
The areas corresponding with these angles being 4157 : 11°43?
= 1: 7°6, it follows that, unless the intensity of the gas flame is
3000° x 7°6=22800° F., it cannot transmit to the thermometer
the same temperature as the fused metal, viz. 31°4° F. But
Mr. Williams records an increment of temperature of 53°—19°=
§ 61°2 x 22800

34° C. (61°2° F.) ; hence —Ti
temperature of his flame, if twelve inches be a true distance.
Having thus proved by demonstration that the distances
assumed by Mr. Williams are exaggerated, let us now briefly
examine the result of the experiments which have been made
with an apparatus constructed agreeably to the description con-
| tained in his original communication. In carrying out these
| experiments, it was deemed necessary, before inserting the re-
cording thermometer in-a box as directed, to expose the same to
the radiant heat of the flame, freely suspended in the atmosphere

=44723° F., must be the

274

NATURE

but carefully protected from currents of air by screens appro-
priately arranged. Thehorizontal gas-pipe with its perforations,
1 inch between each, having been so adjusted that the distance
between the central perforation and the thermometer was 14 in.,
the 17 jets were ignited, and the supply of gas regulated at pre-
cisely 5 cubic feet per hour. The temperatures imparted to the
thermometer during the experiment are recorded in Table A. It

TABLE A,
: Indication Temperature Differential
5 f surroundin
ca heerdometer. “Aegeatate, Temperature.
|
m. 5s Deg. Fah. Deg. Fah. Deg. Fah.
oOo 62°8 62°8 oo
Gv 64° 4 | 62°8 16
Biz 5 65°6 | 63'0 2°6
18 6 66'5 63°2 33
, 24 8 67°0 63°4 376
30 II 67°3 63°6 Bal
136 9 67°4 63°7 | 37

will be seen on examining this table that the temperature im-
parted to the thermometer at the expiration of -36 minutes, was
only 3'7° F., in place of 61'2° observed by Mr. Williams ; the
rate of discrepancy being thus 3°7 : 61°"2=1 : 16°56.

This extraordinary discrepancy between the temperatures
published by Mr. Williams in his original communication, and
the distances assumed in his reply to Lord Rosse, having been
fully established by the experiment, the arrangement was changed,
the thermometer being brought within 3 in. of the flames. But
even at this short distance, the thermometer exposed to the
radiant heat during an interval of 29 minutes, indicated a differ-
ential temperature of only 22°6° F,, in place of 61'2° F. as stated
by Mr. Williams—a fact clearly showing that the high tempera-
ture observed by him was owing to the intervention of the box
in which he inserted the thermometer. Such a box composed
of polished tin plate, open at the end presented towards the
flame, was accordingly applied ; its position being such that the
space between the thermometer and the flame measured 3 in., as

before. The 17 jets being ignited and the supply of gas regulated at
5 cubic feet per hour, the column of the thermometer rose rapidly,
attaining a height of 136° in 20 minutes. Deducting the tem-
perature of the surrounding air, 63°5°, the increment of heat
proved to be 72°5°, thus showing that by the intervention of the
box, the differential temperature was increased threefold. It
scarcely requires explanation that owing to the close proximity
of the flame the air in the box becomes heated, imparting its heat
to the thermometer, by convection ; while the reflection of the
heat rays against the sides and bottom of the polished box, im-
parts radiant heat to those parts of the bulb which are not ex-
posed to the direct radiation of the flame.

In view of the foregoing explanation it will be evident that,
ina properly conducted experiment, the temperatures recorded
in Mr, Williams’ table cannot be produced unless the thermo-
meter be placed even nearer than 3in. from the flame. But
admitting that the recorded temperatures could be developed at
a distance of 3 in., it will be found that the mistake to which
Lord Rosse has called attention is fatal to Mr. Williams’ de-

ductions. Referring to Table B, constructed in accordance with
TABLE B,
No. of jet from Energy No. of jet from Energy
‘Thermometer. Transmitted. Thermometer. Transmitted.
I 2°77 Io 090
2) 2°37 II 0°82
3 2'O4 12 o'75
4 177 13 0°69
5 1'56 14 0°64
6 1°38 15 0'59
7 1'23 16 0°55
8 I'll 17 o'51
9 1'00

the theory pointed out by Lord Rosse in his letter to NATURD,
it will be seen that each pair of jets so far from developing an
equal amount of radiant energy, as indicated by Mr. Williams’

table, they differ to a very great extent.

For instance, while the
two jets on each side of the centre develope respectively 1°11
and 090 (the energy transmitted by the central jet being repre-
sented by unity), the two outside?jets develope respectively 2°77

and o’51. Accordingly, the energy developed by the central
pair will be 1°11 + 0°90 = 2’01, while the outside pair develope
2°77 + 0°51 = 3°28. Leaving out of sight the imperfections of
the method adopted in making the observations, this great dif-
ference of the radiant energy transmitted to the thermometer by
each pair of jets, is conclusive against the deduction concerning
diathermacy of flame, which Mr. Williams has based on his pub-
lished table of temperatures.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Tue Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles contains a

long and admirable article by Prof. Plantamour, on the meteo- —

rology of Geneva and the Great St. Bernard for 1871, a year
of very exceptional weather at these places. In a series of
carefully compiled tables, the various meteorological phenomena
observed are compared in every possible way, and deserve the
study of meteorologists. The second paper is an exceedingly
interesting one from the work published by M. de Candolle,
‘* Histoire des Sciences et des savants depuis deux Siécles,” &c.,
containing the result of much acute and original research, on
Transformations of Movement among Organised Beings. The
other two principal papers are one by M. Ernest Favre, on the
Geology of the Ralligstécke on the banks of Lake Thun, and
one by MM. de la Rive and Sarasin on the rotation’ under
magnetic influence of the electric discharge in rarefied gases,
and on the mechanical action which this discharge may exercise
in its movement of rotation.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts, and-
Letters, 1870-72. This academy was organised in 1870, ‘* by a
convention called by the Governor and more than one hundred
other prominent citizens of the State,” its general objects being
‘the material, intellectual, and social advancement of the
State,” as well as, or rather by means of the advancement of,
science, literature, and the arts. This first volume of Tran-
sactions contains some specimens of the work already done
by the Academy in its various departments, to which is pre-
fixed an extremely interesting 7¢swmé of what has already
been done by Wisconsin for science. This is followed.
by a long list of papers on various subjects read before the
Academy since its formation. Of the scientific papers contained —
in the volume before us, Dr. Lapham contributes one ‘‘ On the
Classification of Plants ;” Mr. J. G. Knapp ‘‘ On the Coniferce
of the Rocky Mountains ;” Prof. Irving on ‘‘ The Age of the
Quartzites, Schists, and Conglomerate of Sank Co. Wisconsin ;”
Prof. Chamberlain a few suggestions, some of them original, as
to a Basis for the Gradation of the Vertebrata; and Prof.
Davies “ On Potentials and their Application to Physical
Science ;” in which he attempts to give a physical interpretation
to the potential function, and to illustrate it and its use by some
simple examples. We hope the Academy will continue to pro-
duce as satisfactory work in the future as it has done since it
commenced,

WE have received numbers 8, 9, 10, and 11 of the

Australian Mechanic and Journal of Science and Art for __

August, September, October, and November, and highly
creditable is the quality of the contents to its able editor,
Mr. Ellery, Superintendent of Melbourne Observatory, and a
hopeful sign of the intelligence and progress of the Australian
people it is, that such a high-class scientific journal should
have a paying circulation in so young a colony. Mr, Ellery
himself is contributing a series of valuable and well-illus-
trated articles on ‘‘ How to make and how to use a Spectro-
scope,” while another contributcr, ‘‘ Delta,” concludes in the
August number a series of seven papers on ‘* Spectrum Analysis.”
The subjects treated of are very various, and mostly practical,
but whatever the subject of an article may be, science and the
application of scientific principles are never lost sight of.
There is a series of articles on agriculture, in which the
application of science to this department of industry is well
illustrated; and in an article on ‘Science and Govern:
ment,” principally with reference to the supply of coal, the
writer concludes thus :—‘‘ There is scarcely any subject within
the range of material science, however trifling it may at first ap-
pear, that has not a direct and important interest for the whole
community, and especially for those who hold the responsibility

J. Ericsson

’

of conducting the affairs and guarding the interests of the State.”
Would that all ministers would realise and act upon the great.
truth, so clearly and pithily expressed. Mr. Ellery contributes
__ monthly a very valuable and interesting set of ‘* Astronomical
Notes,” in which he gives all the details in a tabular form neces-
sary to find out the positions, on the first of each month, of the
planets, nebulze, clusters, and double and other peculiar stars.
We hope the journal will have all the success it well deserves.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
. LONDON

Royal Society, Jan. 30.— Prof. George Busk, vice-president,
in the chair. The following communications were read :—
“Note on the Origin of Bacteria, and on their Relation to the
Process of Putrefaction.” By Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S.
In his now celebrated memoir of 1862, M. Pasteur asserted
and claimed to have proved (1) that the putrefaction occurring
in certain previously boiled fluids after exposure to the air was
due to the contamination of the fluids by Bacteria, or their
germs, which had before existed in the atmosphere; and
(2) that all the organisms found in such fluids have been
derived more or less immediately from the reproduction of
germs which formerly existed in the atmosphere.
The results of a long series of experiments have convinced me
that both these views are untenable.
In the first place, it can be easily shown that living Bacteria,
or their germs, exist very sparingly in the atmosphere, and that
solutions capable of putrefying are not commonly infected from
this source.
It has now been very definitely ascertained that certain fluids
exist which, after they have been boiled, are incapable of giving
birth to Bacteria, although they continue to be quite suitable for
the support and active multiplication of any such organisms as
may have been purposely added to them. Amongst such fluids
I may name that now commonly known as ‘‘ Pasteur’s solution,”
and also one which I have myself more commonly used, con-
sisting of a simple aqueous solution of neutral ammonic tartrate
and neutral sodic sulphate.* When portions of either of these
fluids are boiled and poured into superheated flasks, they will
continue quite clear for many days, or even for weeks—that is
to say, although the short and rather narrow neck of the flask
_ remains open the fluids will not become turbid, and no Bacteria
are to be discovered when they are submitted to microsco-
_pical examination.
But in order to show that such fluids are still thoroughly
favourable media for the multiplication of Bacteria, all that is
necessary is to bring either of them into contact with a glass
rod previously dipped into a fluid containing such organisms.

In about thirty-six hours after this has been done (the tempera-
ture being about 80° F.), the fluid, which had hitherto remained
clear, becomes quite turbid, and is found, on examination with
the microscope, to be swarming with Bacteria.t |

Facts of the same kind have also been shown by Dr. Burdon
Sanderson} to hold good for portions of boiled ‘* Pasteur’s
solution.” Air was even drawn through sucha fluid daily for a
time, and yet it continued free from Bacteria.

Evidence of this kind has already been widely accepted as
justifying the conclusion that living Bacteria or their germs are
either wholly absent from, or, at most, only very sparingly
distributed through the atmosphere. The danger of infection
from the atmosphere having thus been got rid of and shown to
be delusive, I am now able to bring forward other evidence
_ tending to show that the first Bacteria which appear in many
boiled infusions (when they subsequently undergo putrefactive
changes) are evolved de vovo in the fluids themselves. These
experiments are moreover so simple, and may be so easily
repeated, that the evidence which they are capable of supplying
lies within the reach of all.

That boiling the experimental fluid destroys the life of any
Bacteria or Bacteria germs pre-existing therein is now almost uni-
versally admitted. It may moreover be easily demonstrated.
Tf a portion of “ Pasteur’s solution” be purposely infected with
boiled Bacteria and subsequently boiled for two or three minutes, it
_ will continue (if left in the same flask) clear for an indefinite

* In the proportion of 10 grains of the former and 3 of the latter to r ounce
eo Ape ae £ F ‘
© Modes of Origin of Lowes anist 5 *
agai Reyedide the Medical Officer of he Privy’ Council (1871),

NATURE

275

period ; whilst a similarly infected portion of the same fluid, not
subsequently boiled, will rapidly become turbid. Precisely
similar phenomena occur when we operate with the neutral fluid
which I have previously mentioned; and yet M. Pasteur has
ventured to assert that the germs of Bacteria are not destroyed in
neutral or slightly alkaline fluids which have been merely raised
to the boiling-point.*

Eyen M. Pasteur, however, admits that the germs of Bacteria

and other allied organisms are killed in slightly acid fluids which
have been boiled for a few minutes ; so that there is a perfect
unanimity of opinion (amongst those best qualified to judge) as
to the destructive effects of a heat of 212° F. upon any Bacteria
or Bacteria germs which such fluids may contain.
_ Taking such a fluid, therefore, in the form of a strong filtered
infusion of turnip, we may place it after ebullition in a super-
heated flask with the assurance that it contains no living orga-
nisms. Having ascertained also by our previous experiments
with the boiled saline fluids that there is no danger of infection
by Sacteria from the atmosphere, we may leave the rather
narrow mouth of the flask open, as we did in these experiments.
But when this is done, the previously clear turnip infusion in-
variably becomes turbid in one or two days (the temperature
being about 70° F.), owing to the presence of myriads of
Bacteria.

Thus if we take two similar flasks, one of which contains a
boiled ‘‘ Pasteur’s solution,” and the other a boiled turnip infu-
sion, and if we place them beneath the same bell-jar, it will be
found that the first fluid remains clear and free from Bacteria for
an indefinite period, whilst the second invariably becomes turbid
in one or two days.

What is the explanation of these discordant results? We
have a right to infer that all pre-existing life has been destroyed
in each of the fluids; we have proved also that such fluids are
not usually infected by Bacteria derived from the air—in this
very case, in fact, the putrescible saline fluid remains pure, al- -
though the organic infusion standing by its side rapidly putrifies,
We can only infer, therefore, that whilst the boiled saline solu-
tion is quite incapable of engendering Bacteriat, such organisms
are able to arise de wove in the boiled organic infusion.

Although this inference may be legitimately drawn from such
experiments as I have referred to, fortunately it is confirmed and
strengthened by the labours of many investigators who have
worked under the influence of much more stringent conditions,
and in which closed vessels of various kinds have been
employed. +

Whilst we may therefore infer (1) that the putrefaction which
occurs in many previously boiled fluids when exposed to the air
is not due to a contamination by germs derived from the atmo-
sphere, we have also the same right to conclude (2) that in many
cases the first organisms which appear in such fluids have arisen
de nove, rather than by any process of reproduction from pre-
existing forms of life.

Admitting, therefore, that Aacteria are ferments capable of
initiating putrefactive changes, I am a firm believer also in the
existence of not-living ferments under the influence of which
putrefactive changes may be initiated in certain fluids--changes
which are almost invariably accompanied by a new birth of
living particles capable of rapidly developing into Bacteria.

‘©On Just Intonation in Music ; with a description of a new
Instrument for the easy control of all Systems of Tuning cther
than the ordinary equal Temperament.” By R. H. M.
Bosanquet. :

The object of this communication is to place the improved
systems of,tuning within the reach of ordinary musicians ; for this
purpose the theory and practice are reduced to their simplest form:-
A notation is described, adapted to use with ordinary written music.
by which the notes to be performed are clearly distinguished.
The design of a key-board is described, by which any system
of tuning, except the ordinary equal temperament, can be con-
trolled, if only the fifths of the system be all equal. The design
is on a symmetrical principle, so that all passages and combioa-
sions of notes are performed with the same handling, in what-
ever key they occur. The theory of the construction of scales
is then developed, jand a diagram is given, from,which the characs

* How unwarrantable such a conclusion appears to be, I have elsewhere
endeavoured to show. See “ Beginnings of Life,” 1872, vol. i. pp. 326-333,
and pp. 372-399- P= % :

+ See * Beginnings of Life,” vol. ii. p. 35, and vol. i. p. 463.

{ See a recent communication by Prof, Burdon Sanderson, in NATURE
January 9.

276

NATURE

w,

| Feb. 6, 1873

teristics of any required system can be ascertained by inspection,
‘An account is then given of the application of such systems to
the new key-board, and particularly of a harmonium, which has
been constructed, and contains at present the division of the
octave into fifty-three equal intervals in a complete form. Rules
for tuning are given. Finally, the application of the system of
fifty-three to the violin is discussed,

Throughout the work of former labourers in the same field is
reviewed ; the obligations of the writer are due to Helmholtz,
the late General T., Perronet Thompson, F’.R.S., and others.

“© On the Composition and Origin of the Waters of a Salt
Spring in Huel Seton Mine, with a Chemical and Microscopical
Examination of certain Rocks in its Vicinity.” By J. Arthur
Phillips.

After giving some tables, the author proceeds as follows :—
A consideration of the various phenomena connected with the
occurrence of this and other apparently similar springs, which
have at different times been discovered in the district, would
seem to lead to the inference that they all have some more or
less direct communication with the sea, and that they are either
the result of infiltration of sea-water through faults, or are true
and independent sources which, before being tapped below the
sea-level, had found their way to the ocean through faults or
channels,

The following would appear, in the present state of our know-
ledge, a probable explanation of the origin of the Huel Seton spring,
The cross-course ,is believed to extend through both granite
and clay-slate to the sea. From the close contact of its
surfaces, the presence of clay, and from other causes, this
fault may be supposed not to be uniformly permeable by
water, which can only follow a circuitous passage. In this way
it penetrates to depths where reactions take place, which,
although not entirely in accordance with the results of daily
experience in our laboratories, can, after the investigations
of M. Daubrée, M. de Sénarmont, and others, be readily under-
stood. By the action of sea-qater on silicates of calcium, silicates of
sodium and chloride of calcium may be produced. The sulphate
of sodium of the sea-water will be decomposed by this chloride
of calcium, with the production of sadphate of calcium and
chloride of sodium, The decomposition of clayey matter by
common salt may produce chloride of aluminium and silicates of
sodium, while the magnesium of the chloride of magnesium
may be replaced by ca/ciwm ; lastly, a portion of the potassium
in the sea-water appears to have been replaced by the /i¢hium of
the granite.

Royal Geographical Society, Jan. 27.—Major-General Sir

H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—‘‘ Journey |

from Bunder Abbas to Meshed, by Seistan,”’ by Sir Frederick
Goldsmid. The object of the author's journey was to carry into
effect a settlement of the frontiers of Seistan, with which he had
been entrusted. He left Bunder Abbas for the interior, with his
party, on December 23, 1871, travelling in an E.N.E. direction
first towards Bam. Beyond Bam and Azizabad, the country was
fertile and well cultivated; this afterwards ceases, and near
Fahraj the central desert begins. Beyond this, to the west, is
another tract of mountainous country, bounding the fertile dis-
trict of Seistan. The Hamun Lake was found dry, except pools
of water at the mouths of the rivers, and the party crossed its
southern part, where the bed was perfectly dry. Its limits are,
however, well-marked by belts of reeds, The waters of the
Helmund near and in the Delta had been led off by irrigation
canals. The area of Seistan Proper was estimated at 947 square
miles, and the population at 35,000. Majors St. John and
Lovett, R.E, the surveyors attached to the party, had super-
intended the execution of a new wall-map of Persia, which was
exhibited, and which gave quite a new character to the geo-
graphy of many parts of Persia. The two great central areas of
desert (1,500 to 3,000 feet above the sea-level) were clearly
shown, and the snowy-ranges running in a north-west and south-
east direction, nearly parallel to the Persian Gulf, well defined.
One of these ranges rises to a height of more than 17,000 feet.—
“On the Comparative Geography and Ethnology of Seis-
tan,” by the President. The country physically is dependent
entirely on the River Helmund ; and it is probable the earliest
Aryan colonists drew off the whole of the water for irrigation,
for in the earliest Geographical List, that contained in the ‘* Ven-
didad,” the country was called, not from the lake, but from the
river. None of the sites of the citiesand places named in an-
cient history could be identified with certainty. Seistan formed

me most southerly provin-e of the ancient Aryan country of
ran.

DIARY

THURSDAY, Fesruary 6,

Royvat Society, at 8.30.—On the Osteology of Hyopotamidze: Dr. W.
Kowalevsky.—Magnetic Survey of Belgium in 1871: G. J. Perry.

Royat InsTiTuTION, at 3.—Formation of Organic Substances: Dr. Arm-
strong.

Bee Society, at'8.—Notes on Aristolochiacez : Dr, Masters.

Cuemicac Society, at 8.—On Anthrapurpurin: W. H. Perkin —On the
Solidification of Nitrous Oxide ; T. Welf§ —On Isomerism in the Terpene
Family: Dr. C. A. Wright. :

Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—On Donnington Castle; H. Goodwin.

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 7.
Roya. InsTITUTION, at 9.—Old Continents : Prof. Ramsay. ‘
GEoLoGIsTs’ ASSOCIATION, at 7 30.—Annual Meeting.—On the Diprionide
of the Moffat Shale: Charles Lapworth.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY. at 8.15.
ARCHAOLOGICAL INSTITUTION, at 4.
Oxp CHANGE MicroscopicaL SocigTy, at 5.30.—On the Internal Economy
of Insects: T. Rymer Jones.

SATURDAY, Fesruary 8.

Rovat InsTITUTION, at 3.—Comparative Politics: Dr. E. A. Freeman.
Roya Botanic SocigTy, at 3.45.

MONDAY, FEBRUARY Io,

Royat GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.
Lonpon InstITUTION, at 4.—Physical Geography: Prof. Duncan.

TUESDAY, FEpruary 11.

PuHoroGRapPuic Society, at 8.—Annual Meeting.—The Achromatisation
ofan Object Glass: Prof, G. Stokes.

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 12.
Lonvon InsTITUTION, at 7.—Fresco and Siliceous Painting; Prof, Barff.
Society oF ARTS, at 8.
ARCHAOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, at 8.

THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 13-
Royat Socrety, at 8.30.
Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30 :
MaTHuHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 8,—On Systems of Linear Congruences : Prof.
H. J. S. Smith.

BOOKS RECEIVED

ENGiisH.—On a Hzematozoon inhabiting Human Blood: T. R. Lewis,
Calcutta.—A Report of Microscopical and Physiological Researches into the
Nature of the Agent or Agents producing Cholera: IT. R. Lewisand D. D.
Cunningham.—Lhe Useful Plants of India; Col. H. Drury. Second Edit.
W. H. Allen & Co.).—A Handbook of Hygiene; George Wilson (J. A.
Churchill).—Chambers’ _Arithmetical Exercises: J. S. Mackay (W. & R.
Chambers).—Standard Algebra (W. & R,. Chambers).—Chambers’ Elemen-
tary Physical Geography: J. Donald (W. & R. Chambers).—Chambers’
Scientific Reader (W. & R: Chambers)—Chambers’ Electricity: RM.

| Ferguson (W. & R. Chambers).—Recollections of Canada: Lieut. Carlile,

R.A., and Lieut.-Col. Martindale, Quebec (Chapman & Hall, London).

Foreicn.—Die Kalkschwamme: eine Monographie. 3 vols, Ernest
Haeckel (Williams & Norgate)'—Gespinnst Fassern, &c. : Dr, R. Schlesinger
(Williams & Norgate).

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

EnG.isH.—Potential Functions and their Applications in Physical Science :
Prot. J. E. Davies,—Symon’s Monthly Meteorological Magazine, No. 74,
Vol. vit _January.—Quarterly Journal of Education, No. 5, January
(Grcembsidee) Meee of Mathematics, No. 21, January (Macmillan
& Co).

Foreicn.—Correspondenzblatt des Naturforcher: Riga —Sulla Corona
Sollare: Prof, L. Respighi.

CONTENTS

Sepcwick By Prof Puiurs, F.R.S . .-
Pavmigri's Vesuvius, By Davin FoRBEs,
tion.) «0 + 6 MEE! ie ib nee
Our Book SHELF. .
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :--
Dr. Bastian’s Experiments.—Dr. J, Burpon SANDERSON, F.R.S.
Eyes and no Eyes Wage se) 8 ee
Meteor at St. Thomas—Hon. Rawson Rawson . . -

PAGE

Pr hy
» ERS. (With Illustra-

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ie.

Brilliant Meteor.—-G. St, Carr, F.G.S. . . . + .
The Antinomies of Kant.—Dr, C. M. InGLEpy . . .
The Source of the Solar Heat —Maxwett HALL . .
The Twinkling of the Stars.—THos. HAWKSLEY . :
Meteorological Cycles. 9.9. s 5 + « +» 0 + sl
On THE OLD AND New LABORATORIES AT THE RoyAt InsTITUTION,

an ale a ee
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II. By W. SrortiswoopE, Treas RS... ..-- . « « » 963
Tue GrowTH aNp MicRAvIONS OF HELmiInTHS. By M. Cornu. . 265
A PkivaTE CIRCUMNAVIGATING EXPEDITION . . . = + rg
Fosstu UrypToGrams. By Prof.McNaB,. .. +--+ + «+ « » 267
INGTES .. ss «4s SRUMMEIERSMSUR SDS 5: 0 a) cote at
On THE CoAL Question. By Sir W. ARMSTRONG, C.B.. . « + + 270
Rapiant Heat. By Capt. J. Ericsson (With Lédustration.). . + 273
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS . ee ew ee we ew a) ie reas
SocrETIgs AND ACADEMIES » << «© 2 - + + + 6 = «@ - 2 6 275
Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED, . . - + + « » #© « «© «© « 276
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NATURE ua 277

THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 13, 1873

MODERN APPLICATIONS OF THE DOCTRINE
OF NATURAL SELECTION*

N OTWITHSTANDING the objections which are
still made to the theory of Natural Selection on
the ground that it is either a pure hypothesis not
founded on any demonstrable facts, or a mere truism
which can lead to no useful results, we find it year
by year sinking deeper into the minds of thinking
men, and applied, more and more frequently, to elucidate
problems of the highest importance. In the works now
before us we have this application made by two eminent
writers, one a politician, the other a naturalist, as a means
of working out so much of the complex problem of human
progress as more especially interests them.

Mr. Bagehot takes for granted that early progress of
man which resulted in his separation into strongly marked
races, in his acquisition of language, and of the rudiments
of those moral and intellectual faculties which all men
possess ; and his object is to work out the steps by which
he advanced to the condition in which the dawn of history
finds him,—aggregated into distinct societies known as
tribes or nations, subject to various forms of government,
influenced by various beliefs and prejudices, and the slave
of habits and customs which often seem to us not only
absurd and useless, but even positively injurious. Now
every one of these beliefs or customs, or these aggrega-
tions of men into groups having some common charac-
teristics, must have been useful at the time they origi-
nated ; and a great feature of Mr. Bagehot’s little book
is his showing how even the most unpromising of these,
as we now regard them, might have been a positive step
in advance when they first appeared. His main idea is,
that what was wanted in those early times was some
means of combining men in societies, whether by the
action of some common belief or common danger, or by
the power of some ruler or tyrant. The mere fact of
obedience to a ruler was at first much more important
than what was done by means of the obedience. So, any
superstition or any custom, even if it originated in the
grossest delusion, and produced positively bad results,
might yet, by forming a bond of union more perfect than
any other then existing, give the primitive tribe subject to
it such a relative advantage over the disconnected families
around them, as to lead to their increase and permanent
survival in the struggle for existence. In those early days
war was perhaps the most powerful means of forcing men
to combined action, and might therefore have been neces-
sary for the ultimate development of civilisation. Free-
dom of opinion was then a positive evil, for it would lead
to independent action, the very thing it was most essential
to get rid of. In early times isolation was an advantage,
in order that these incipient societies might not be broken
up by intermixture, and it was only after a large number
of such little groups, each with its own idiosyncrasies,
habits, and beliefs, had been formed, that it became

* “Physics and Politics; or, Thoughts on the Application of the Prin-
ciples of ‘Natural Selection’ and ‘ Inheritance’ to Political Society.” By
Walter Bagehot. (King and Co., 1872.)

“* Histoire des Sciences et des Savants depuis deux Siécles suivie d’autres
études sur les Sujets Scientifiques en particulier sur la Sélection dans I'Espece
Humaine.” Par Alphonse de Candolle. (Genéve: H. Georg, 1873.)

No, 172—VOL. vit.

advantageous for them to meet to intermingle or to
struggle together, and the stronger to drive out or exter-
minate the weaker. Out of the great number of petty
tribes thus formed, only a few had the qualities which led
toa further advancement. The rest were either extermi-
nated or driven out into remote and inaccessible or in-
hospitable districts, and some of those are the “savages”
which still exist on the earth, serving as a measure of the
vast progress of the human race. Yet even these never
show us the condition of the primitive man; they are
men who advanced up to a certain point and then became
stationary :—

“Their progress was arrested at various points; but
nowhere, not even in the hill tribes of India, not even in
the Andaman Islands, not even in the savages of Terra
del Fuego, do we find men who have not got some way.
They have made their little progress in a hundred dif-
ferent ways; they have framed with infinite assiduity
a hundred curious habits; they have, so to say, screwed
themselves into the uncomfortable corners of a complex
life, which is odd and dreary, but yet is possible. And
the corners are never the same in any two parts of the
world. Our record begins with a thousand unchanging
edifices, but it shows traces of previous building. In his-
toric times there has been but little progress, in prehis-
toric times there must have been much.”

Again our author shows how valuable must have been
the institution of caste in a certain stage of progress. It
established the division of labour, led to great perfection
in many arts, and rendered government easy. Caste
nations would at first have a great advantage over non-
caste nations, would conquer them and increase at their
expense, Buta caste nation at last becomes stationary ;
for a habit of action and a type of mind which it can
with difficulty get rid of is established in each caste,
When this is the case, non-caste nations soon catch them
up, and rapidly leave them far behind.

This outline will give some idea of the way in which
Mr. Bagehot discusses an immense variety of topics con-
nected with the progress of societies and nations and the
development of their distinctive peculiarities. The book
is somewhat discursive and sketchy, and it contains
many statements and ideas of doubtful accuracy, but it
shows an abundance of ingenious and original thought.
Many will demur to the view that mere accident and
imitation have been the origin of marked national pecu-
liarities ; such as those which distinguish the German,
Irish, French, English, and Yankees: “The accident of
some predominant person possessing certain peculiarities
set the fashion, and it has been imitated to this day” ;
and again, “Great models for good or evil sometimes
appear among men who follow them either to improve-
ment or degradation.” This is said to be one of the
chief agents in “ nation-making,” but a much better one
seems to be the affinity of like for like, which brings and
keeps together those of like morals or religion or social
habits; but both are probably far inferior to the long-
continued action of external nature on the organism, not
merely as it acts in the country now inhabited by the
particular nation, but by its action during remote ages
and throughout all the migrations and intermixtures
that our ancestors have ever undergone. We also find
many broad statements as to the low state of morality
and of intellect in all prehistoric men, which facts hardly
warrant, but this is too wide a question to be entered

Q

278

NATURE

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upon here, In the concluding chapter, “The Age of
Discussion,” there are some excellent remarks on the
restlessness and desire for immediate action which civi-
lised men inherit from their savage ancestors, and how
much it has hindered true progress; and the following
passage, with which we will conclude the notice of Mr.
Bagebot’s book, might do much good if by means of any
skilful surgical operation it could be firmly fixed in the
minds of our legislators and of the public :—

“Tf it had not been for quiet people, who sat still and
studied the sections of the cone, if other people had not
sat still and worked out the doctrine of chances, the most
‘dreamy moonshine,’ as the purely practical mind would
consider, of all human pursuits ; if ‘idle star-gazers’ had
not watched long and carefully the motions of the
heavenly bodies, our modern astronomy would have been
impossible ; and without astronomy, ‘ our ships, our colo-
nies, our seamen,’ all that makes modern life, could not
have existed. Ages of quiet, sedentary, thinking people
were required before that noisy existence began, and
without those pale preliminary students, it never could
have been brought into being. And nine-tenths of
modern science is, in this respect, the same; it is the
produce of men whom their contemporaries thought
dreamers—who were laughed at for caring for what did
not concern them—who, as the proverb went, ‘walked
into a well from looking at the stars’—who were believed
to be useless, if anyone could be such. And the conclu-
sion is plain, that if there had been more such people, if
the world had not laughed at those there were, if rather
it had encouraged them, there would have been a great
accumulation of proved science ages before there was.
It was the irritable activity, the ‘wish to be doing some-
thing,’ that prevented it. Most men inherited a nature
too eager and too restless to find out things ; and even
worse—with their idle clamour they ‘ disturbed the brood-
ing hen,’ they would not let those be quiet who wished to
_be so, and out of whose calm thought much good might
have come forth. If we consider how much good science
has done, and how much it is doing for mankind, and if
the over-activity of men is proved to be the cause why
science came so late into the world, and is so small and
scanty still, that will convince most people that our over-
activity is a very great evil.”

In the second work, of which we have given the title,
the veteran botanist, Alphonse de Candolle, sets forth his
ideas on many subjects not immediately connected with
the science in which he is so great an authority. The
most important, though not the longest, essay in the
volume is that on “Selection in the Human Race,” in
which he arrives at some results which differ consider-
ably from those of previous writers. In a section on
“Selection in Human Societies or Nations,” we find a
somewhat novel generalisation as to the progress
and decay of nations. Beginning with small inde-
pendent states, we see a gradual fusion of these into
larger and larger nations, sometimes voluntary, some-
times by conquest, but the fusion always goes on, and
tends to become more and more complete, till we have
enormous aggregaticns of people under one government,
in which local institutions gradually disappear, and re-
sult in an almost complete political and social uniformity.
Then commences decay ; for the individual is so small a
unit, and so powerless to influence the Government, that
the mass of men resign themselves to passive obedience.
There is then no longer any force to resist internal or ex-
ternal enemies, and by means of one or the other the

“vast fabric” is dismembered, or falls in ruins, The
Roman Empire, and the Spanish Possessions in America,
are examples of this process in the past; the Russian
Empire and our Indian Possessions will inevitably
follow the same order of events in a not very distant
future.

Although M. de Candolle is a firm believer in Natural
Selection, he takes great pains to show how very irregular
and uncertain it is in its effects. The constant struggles
and wars among savages, for example, might be supposed
to lead to so rigid a selection, that all would be nearly
equally strong and powerful; and the fact that some
savages are so weak and incapable as they are, shows, he
thinks, that the action of natural selection has been
checked by various incidental causes. He omits to notice,
however, that the struggle between man and the lower
animals was at first the severest, and probably had a
considerable influence in determining race-characters.
It may be something more than accidental coincidence
that the most powerful of all savages—the negroes—in-
habit a country where dangerous wild beasts most
abound ; while the weakest of all—the Australians—do
not come into contact with a single wild animal of which
they need be afraid.

Selection among barbarous nations will often favour
cunning, lying, and baseness ; vice will gain the advan-
tage, and nothing good will be selected but physical
beauty. Civilisation is defined by the preponderance of
three facts—the restriction of the use of force to legiti-
mate defence and the repression of illegitimate violence,
speciality of professions and of functions, and individual
liberty of opinion and action under the general restriction
of not injuring others. By the application of the above
tests we can determine the comparative civilisation of
nations; but too much civilisation is often a great danger,
for it inevitably leads to such a softening of manners,
such a hatred of bloodshed, cruelty, and injustice as to
expose a nation to conquest by its more warlike and less
scrupulous neighbours, Progress in civilisation must
necessarily be very slow, and to be permanent must per-
vade all classes and all the surrounding nations ; and it is
because past civilisations have been too partial that there
have been so many relapses into comparative barbarism.
All this is carefully worked out, and is well worthy of at-
tention.

In the last section, on the probable future of the human
race, we have some remarkable speculations, very dif-
ferent from the somewhat utopian views held by most
evolutionists, but founded nevertheless on certain very
practical considerations. In the next few hundred or a
thousand years the chief alterations will be the extinction
of all the less dominant races, and the partition of the
world among the three great persistent types, the whites,
blacks, and Chinese, each of which will have occupied
those portions of the globe for which they are best
adapted. But, taking a more extended glance into the
future, of 50,000 or 100,000 years hence, and supposing
that no cosmical changes occur to destroy, wholly or
partially, the human race, there are certain well-ascer-
tained facis on which to found a notion of what must by
that time have occurred. In the first place, all the coal
and all the metals available will then have been exhausted,
and even if men succeed in finding other sources of heat,

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and are able to extract the metals thinly diffused through
the soil, yet these products must become far dearer and less
available for general use than now. Railroads and steam-
ships, and everything that depends upon the possession
of large quantities of cheap metals, will then be impos-
sible, and sedentary agricultural populations in warm and
fertile regions will be the best off. Population will have
lingered longest around the greatest masses of coal and
iron, but will finally become most densely aggregated
within the tropics. But another and more serious change
is going on, which will result in the gradual diminution
and deterioration of the terrestrial surface. Assuming the
undoubted fact that all our existing land is wearing away
and being carried into the sea, but bya strange oversight,
leaving out altogether the counteracting internal forces,
which for countless ages past seem always to have raised
ample tracts above the sea as fast as subaérial denudation
has lowered them, it is argued that, even if all the land
does not disappear and so man become finally extinct,
yet the land will become less varied and will consist
chiefly of a few flat and parched-up plains, and volcanic
or coralline islands. Population will by this time neces-
sarily have much diminished, but it is thought that an
intelligent and persevering race may even then prosper.
“They will enjoy the happiness which results from a
peaceable existence, for, without metals or combustibles
it will be difficult to form fleets to rule the seas or great
armies to ravage the land ;” and the conclusion is that,
“such are the probabilities according to the actual
course of things.” Now, although we cannot admit
this to be a probability on the grounds stated by
M. de Candolle, it does seem a probability, at some
more distant epoch, on other grounds. The great
depths of the oceans extend over wide areas, whereas the
great heights of the land are only narrow ridges and
peaks ; hence it has been calculated that the mean height
of the land is only 1,000 feet, while the mean depth of
the sea is about 15,000 feet. But the sea is 2} times
as extensive as the land, so that the bulk or mass
of the land above the sea level will be only about one
thirty-seventh of the mass of the ocean. Now, does not
this small proportion of bulk of land to water render it
highly probable that the forces of elevation and depression
should sometimes cause the total or almost total sub-
mersion of the land? Of such an epoch no geological
record could be left because there could be no strata
formed, except from the debris of coral islands, and such
a period of destruction of the greater part of terrestrial
life may have repeatedly occurred between the period
when the several Primary or Secondary formations were
deposited. At all events, with such a proportion of land
and sea surface as now exists, with such a small bulk of
land above the enormous bulk of water, and with no
known cause why the dry land rather than the sea-bottom
should be constantly elevate1, we must admit it to be
almost certain that great fluctuations of the area of the
land must occur, and that, while those fluctuations could
not very considerably increase the area of the land
they might immensely diminish it. There is here,
therefore, a cause for the possible depopulation of the
earth likely to occur much sooner than any cosmical
catastrophe.

The largest and most elaborate essay in the volume is
that on the “ History of the Sciences and of Scientific

Deseo)

NATURE

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279

Men for the last two Centuries.” In this the author
endeavours to arrive at certain conclusions as to the pro-
gress of science under different conditions and in different
countries, the influence of political institutions and of
heredity, and various other phenomena, by a method which
is novel and ingenious. He takes account only of the
men honoured as foreign associates or members by the
three great European Scientific. bodies, the Royal So-
ciety of London and the Paris and Berlin Academies,
By this means he avoids all personal bias, and secures,
on the whole, impartiality. The tables drawn out by this
method are examined in every possible way, and the results
worked out in the greatest detail. The main conclusion
arrived at is the determination of a series of eighteen
causes favourable to the progress of science; and it is
shown that a large proportion of these are present
in a considerable degree in countries where science
flourishes, while they are almost wholly absent in bar-
barous or sémi-civilised countries where science does
not exist.

Another interesting essay is that on the importance for
science of a dominant language, and it contains some
very curious facts as to the way in which the English
language is spreading on the Continent. M. de Candolle
believes that in less than two centuries English will be the
dominant language, and will be almost exclusively used in
scientific works,

There are also short but very interesting essays on
methods of teaching drawing and developing the ob-
serving powers of children, on statistics and free will,
and on a few other subjects of less importance, all of
which are treated in a thoughtful manner, and illustrate
one of the views on which much stress is laid in this work,
viz., that the mental faculties which render a man great
in any science are not special, but would enable him to
attain equal eminence in many other branches of science
or in any profession al or political career.

ALFRED R. WALLACE

HACKEL ON SPONGES

Die Kalkschwimme. Eine Monographie. Von Ernst
Hackel. 2 vols., with an additional vol. of 60 litho-
graphic plates. (Berlin, 1872.)

oh splendid contribution to the knowledge of the

sub-class of Calcareous Sponges is worthy of the
high reputation of Prof. Hackel. In the preface he
speaks of it as one of the many results of the stimulus
given to zoology by the Darwinian Theory ; and the list
of those who have contributed the materials on which this
monograph is based is honourable alike to the author and
to the friendly helpers from our own and every other
civilised country. It includes the names of Agassiz from
the United States, Allman from Edinburgh, Percival

Wright from Dublin, Barboza du Bocage from Lisbon,

Lacaze Duthiers from Paris, the lamented Claparéde from

Geneva, Eschmark and Sars from Christiania, Steenstrup

from Copenhagen, and Lieberkiihn, Peters, Oscar

Schmidt, Semper, von Siebold and many others from

Germany. In addijion to this, the author has himself

collected sponges in Heligoland, Nice, Naples, Messina,

the Canaries and Mogador, Algesiras, Bergen, and the
neighbouring Norwegian coast, and lastly in the Adriatic

Sea.

280

NATURE

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With this admirable material, and, what is no less
important, with the philosophical spirit which a mere
specialist always lacks, it is no wonder that a work of the
first importance has been produced.

The first chapter gives an appreciative account of the
admirable labours of Prof. Grant, and of the subsequent
contributions to the subject by Johnston, Bowerbank,
Lieberkiihn, Carter, Oscar Schmidt, and Ko6lliker. The
defects of Mr. Bowerbank’s “Monograph of British
*Sponges” are clearly pointed out, but its great merits
receive equally cordial recognition, while the criticism
passed on Dr. Gray’s “ Classification” is as just as it is
severe.

After a description of the methods of examination, the
author proceeds to give a detailed account of the anatomy
and natural history of the calcareous sponges, and this
occupies the greater part of the first volume. The
second is devoted to a detailed description of the whole
group in systematic order, with diagnosis of species
and ample synonomy. The plates in the third volume,
drawn by Prof. Hickel with the camera lucida, are
admirably exact, though artistic effect is sometimes sacri-
ficed to a somewhat diagrammatic clearness. They
remind one of the excellent illustrations of Bronn’s
“ Thierreich.”

The class of sponges is divided into Fibrospongie, in-
cluding most of Grant’s and Bowerbank’s siliceous and
ceratose genera, JZyvospongi, represented by Halisarca
and Calcispongie vel Grantie. This third class con-
tains three families, Ascones (Leucosolenia Bowerbank),
Leucones (Leuconia Bowerbank), and Sycones (Grantia
Bowerbank), represented by Ascetta, Leucetta and Sycetta
respectively. The genera are chiefly characterised by
their spicula.

The author agrees with Oscar Schmidt in deducing all
known sponges from a single primitive form (Archi-
spongia, Protospongia), which he supposed to have re-
sembled Hadésarca more than any other existing genus.
He regards the class as very distinct from the Protozoa,
and most nearly related to the Coelenterata, a view with
which English readers are familiar from Mr. E. R. Lan-
kester’s interesting paper on Zoological Affinities of
Sponges in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History
(vol. vi. 1870). Indeed it was the position taken by
Leuchart himself in 1854, seven years after the sub-king-
dom of Coelenterata had been established by himself and
Frey. If we admit that each sponge-pyramid is not a
colony of Protozoa, but a multicellular organism, its likeness
to a polyp is very striking: the chief differences are the
absence of tentacles and of thread-cells. The latter struc-
tures, however, have, we believe, been detected in some
Mediterranean sponges since the publication of Prof.
Hiickel’s work.

Comparing the “ Stammbaum” given at the end of the
first volume with that in the third edition of the “ Schépf-
ungsgeschichte” (1872), published five months earlier, we
find that the author now makes all sponges descend
through “ Archispongia,” and “ Protascus” from an
equally hypothetical ‘ Gastreea,” while the Ccelenterata
diverge from Protascus as Archydra. This makes the
affinity less close between Myxospongiz on the one
hand, and between Calcispongize and Coralligena on the
other, The modification brings the Stammbaum nearer

to the classifications actually used by other zoologists
and is so far an advantage, ;

With regard to nomenclature, Prof. Hiickel defends
the proposal which he made in 1869 to revive the old
name of Zoophyta (used by our countryman Wotton in
1552) in order to include sponges (or Porifera) and Cce-
lenterata (or, as he prefers to call them, Acalephz). Ad-
mitting the justice of the classification, there seems no
sufficient justification for the change of names. 1. Priority
belongs to the name given by those who first establish
true affinities, and not to vague and fanciful names given
two hundred years before Linnzeus. 2. To say ‘Zoo-
phyta” is no worse a name to revive than “ Vermes” is
sufficiently to condemn it. 3. Whether the cavity in a
sea-anemone is all stomach or partly perivisceral may
admit of dispute, but “Coelenterata” only affirms that the
animal is hollow; and if the term suggests either interpre-
tation, it rather lends itself to Prof. Hackel’s. 4. If another
word must be invented to apply to Anthozoa (or “ Coralla ”)
and Hydrozoa (or “ Hydromedusze”) in common, Huxley's
“ Nematophora,” suggested in 1851, is just as good as
“ Acalephe,” which was used in a more restricted sense
by Cuvier. But it is not impossible that before long
neither term will be properly exclusive of sponges.

These perpetual changes of names and invention of
fresh ones to fit kinsfolk of every shade of propinquity
and even avowedly mytholozical ancestors, is a real draw-
back to the value of such excellent works as this, and is
aimost as bad as the endless nomenclature of the species-
mongers with whom Prof. Hackel is so justly indignant.
However the new wine is still working, and we may say
of even “endless genealogies ”—

** Doch sind wir auch mit diesen nicht gefahrdet,
In wenig Jahren wird es anders sein :
Wenn sich der Most auch ganz absurd geberdet,
Es gibt zuletzt dech noch ’nen Wein.”
And this book will remain an important contribution to
philosophical zoology, no less than to the special history
of the group to which it is devoted. Poss

OUR BOOK SHELF

Grotesque Animals. Invented, Drawn, and. Described
by E. W. Cooke, RA. F.R.S., F-GS., FP. ZiGieecc.
(London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1872.)

Mr. E. W. COOKE possesses so high a reputation, not
only as one of the leading artists of the day, but also as
a man eminently devoted to science, as evidenced by
the fact of his having attained the double distinction
of Royal Academician and Fellow of the Royal Society,
that anything proceeding from his pencil cannot fail to
be worthy of notice, and we have accordingly looked
through this quaint collection of facsimile drawings with
very great interest. Mr, Cooke states, in his preface, that
he commenced this series of “ grotesque combinations,”
to which he also assigns the euphonious title of “ Ent-
wickelungsgeschicte” (history of development), while
secking rest and relief on the Somersetshire Coast after
the dissipation attendant upon the meeting of the British
Association at Manchester, in 1864, and that the idea of
publication was forced upon him by friends who wished
to have copies of the drawings. We are not surprised at
his numerous friends and admirers desiring that these
results of his holiday recreations should be given to the
world ; for, apart from the merits of the drawings in an
artistic point of view, containing, as they do, powerful
delineations of animal forms, they exhibit a singular and

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amusing fertility of imagination, the disjecta membra of
birds, beasts, and fishes, being worked up together in a
variety of fantastic forms which it would puzzle Mr.
Darwin or Professor Owen to classify. The plates are
accompanied by short descriptions, also by Mr. Cooke,
and intended, he says, “as a key to aid the unintiated
in animal lore.” We give our readers the following
descriptions as a sample :—“ Plate v. No. 1. An odd
fish—Platax—with dress of a bivalve shell, Pectcx
Gibbosus. The feet of a sprat-loon, Colymbus Stel-
Jatus, and tail of Beroe. No. 2. Eucrinus entrocha,
a Lily-encrinite, wears the head-dress of a porpita, one
of the Acalephz. Her dress being of Flustra, her right
arm is a Pentelasmis, her left a species of Serpula.
No. 3. This pig-faced lady, whose body is ‘ Pavasmilia
centralis, has wings of Avicula cygnipes (both species
from the chalk), and limbs of a bird (species unknown).
.- Platex. No. 1. This scaly creature, capped by Cepha-
laspis, has the feet of a Brazilian porcupine, the hetero-
cercal tail of a Paleozoic fish, and the lower jaw and
tusks of Dinotherium wherewith to scratch himself. . . Plate
xiii. No, 3. This ancient spinster, truly Palzozoic, has the
triturating teeth of a fish, Cestracion Philipi ; her cap is
an Argonauta, her body that of the Port Jackson shark,
her fan (Spanish, of course) a Renilla. Jsés hifpuris fur-
nishes her arms... Plate xviii. No. 1. This hollow cha-
racter, formed of the lower jaw of the hippopotamus, has
very diverse arms, the right being an Ancyloceras, the left
Hamites attenuatus. His head-gear is well got up with
hide, horns, and the beak of a spoonbill!... Plate xx.
4 No, 1, thanks to Monte Bolca and its elevated strata of
dried fish, we have Semiophorus vellifer (a fish of the
_ Eocene.) With Scutes on his neck, and the claws of a
lion, he walks his chalks; an upper cretaceous shell,
Plagiostoma spinosum, defends his body.” Many of the
plates remind us of the gambols of the crustacez and
other marine animals in adil and Bijou, and we have
no doubt that Mr. Boucicault, in his next attempt to “im-
piove the British Drama,” will find in this volume an
endless variety of suggestions for humorous stage effects.
We must not omit to mention the admirable manner in
which the drawings have been reproduced by Mr. Sawyer
of the Autotype Fine Art Company, the plates being
___ exact facsimiles of the drawings. We anticipate an ex-
tensive circulation for this beautifully-executed and enter-
taining work. Giolek..C.

Abstract of the Reports of the Surveys and other Geo-
graphical Operations in India for 1870-71.

WE learn from these reports that during the season of
1870-71, the Great Trigonometrical Survey has been pro-
ceeded with on six series, and the complete work is repre-
sented by 11,203 square miles of principal, and 10,076 of
secondary triangulation. The total area surveyed up to
1871 by the Topographical Surveys which do not in-
clude the Topographical work of the Trigonometrical
Survey, is 665,909 square miles, three times the area of
France. The Geological Survey has been going on more
briskly than in previous years, and the Geological Sur-
veyors are gradually building up the materials which will
enable a geological map of India to be prepared. The
tidal observations, from which much was expected, and
for which gauges were made and sent out to India more
than two years ago, were not gone on with on account of
the financial difficulties of the Indian government. The
government has finally adopted Mr. Hunter’s plan for the
spelling of Indian names; it is as near an approach to
what is known as the “ scientific system,” as the public in
the present state of education are able to endure. The
“scientific system” consists in scrupulously rendering
letter for letter, without any particular care to preserve
the pronunciation. Uniformity in the spelling of geo-
graphical names is a great matter, no matter on what
principle.it may be based.

———

SO NATORE

281

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Inherited Instinct
THE following le‘ter seems to me so valuable, and the
accuracy of the statements vouched for by So high an authority,
that I have obtained permission from Dr. Huggins to send it
for publication. No one who has attended to animals either
in a state of nature or domestication will doubt that many

special fears, tastes, &c., which must have been acquired at a

remote period, are now strictly inherited. This has been clearly

proved to be the case by Mr. Spalding with chickens and
turkeys just born, in his admirable article recently published
in AMacmillan’s Magazine. Tt is probable that most in-
herited or instinctive feelings were originally acquired Ly
slow degrees through habit and the experience of their utility ;
for instance the fear of man, which as I showed many
years ago, is gained very slowly by birds on oceanic islands.
It is, however, almost certain that many of the most wonderful
instincts have been acquired independently of habit, through the
preservation of useful variations of pre-existing instincts. Other
instincts may have arisen suddenly in an individual and then
been transmitted to its offspring, independently both of selection
and serviceable experience, though subsequently strengthened
by habit. The tumbler-pigeon is a case in point, for no one
would have thought of teaching a pigeon to turn head over
heels in the air ; and until some bird exhibited a tendency in this
direction, there could have been no selection. In the following
case we see a specialised feeling of antipathy transmitted through
three generations of dogs, as well as to some collateral members
of the same family, and which must have been acquired within a
very recent period. Unfortunately it is not known how the feel-
ing first arose in the grandfather of Dr. Huggins’s dog. We
may suspect that it was due to some ill-treatment ; but it may
have originated without any assignable cause, as with certain
animals in the Zoological Gardens, which, as I am assured by

Mr. Bartlett, have taken a strong hatred to him and others with-

out any provocation. As far as it can be ascertained, the great-

grandfather of Dr. Huggins’s dog did not evince the feeling of
antipathy, described in the following letter.
CHARLES DARWIN

‘*T wish to communicate to you a curious case of an inherited
mental peculiaiity. I possess an English mastiff, by name
Kepler, a son of the celebrated Turk out of Venus. I brought
the dog, when six weeks old, from the stable in which he was
born. The firsttime I took him out he started back in alarm
at the first butcher’s shop he had ever seen. I soon found he
had a violent antipathy to butchers and butchers’ shops. When
six months old, a servant took him with her on an errand. At
ashort distance before coming to the house, she had toy pass a
butcher’s shop ; the dog threw himself down (being led with a
string), and neither coaxing nor threats would make him pass
the shop. The dog was too heavy to be carried ; and as a
crowd collected, the servant had to return with the dog more
than a mile, and then go without him. This occurred about
two years ago. The antipathy still continues, but the dog will
pass nearer to a shop than he formerly would. About
two months ago, in a little book on dogs published by
Dean, I discovered that the same strange antipathy is
shown by the father, Turk. I then wrote to Mr. Nichols, the
former owner of Turk, to ask him for any information he might
have on the point. He replied—‘I can say that the same anti-
pathy exists in King, the sire of Turk, in Turk, in Punch (son of
Turk, out of Meg) and in Paris (son of Turk, out of Juno).
Paris has the greatest antipathy, as he would hardly go into a
street where a butcher’s shop is, and would run away after passing

282

NATURE

it. When a cart with a butcher’s man came into the place where
the dogs were kept, although they could not see him, they all
were ready to break their chains. A master-butcher, dressed
privately, called one evening on Paris’s master to see the dog.
He had hardly entered the house before the dog (though shut in)
was so much excited that he had to be put into a shed, and the
butcher was forced to leave without seeing the dog. The same
dog at Hastings made a spring at a gentleman who came into the
hotel. The owner caught the dog and apologised, and said he
never knew him to do so before, except when a butcher came to
his house. The gentleman at once said that was his business.
So you see that they inherit these antipathies, and show a great
deal of breed.’ “ WitLtraAmM Huccins”

The unreasonable

My attention has directed itself to a letter by Dr. Ingleby
in your last number, containing two curious but inconsistent
misrepresentations of my words, and therein something that, if
the writer were not Dr. Ingleby, might be called an instructive
instance of cynophatnism or doggimangerness—the behaviour of
one who will neither understand a thing himself, nor allow other
folk to understand it. As, however, the writer is Dr. Ingleby,
I feel sure that a less cursory contemplation of the matter will
modify his. views.

The following doctrines are in the A7vitik :—

1. At the basis of the natural order is a transcendental object.

“Das ¢ranscendentale Object, welches den aiisseren Erschei-
nungen, ingleichen das, was der inneren Anschauung
zum Grunde liegt, ist weder Materie, noch ein denkendes
Wesen an sich selbst, sondern ein uns unbekannter
Grund der Erscheinungen, die den empirischen Begriff
yon der ersten sowohl als zweiten art an die Hand
geben,” (1Vth Paralogism, of Ideality ; Hirst Edition.)

2. The transcendental object is wsreasonable, or evades the

processes of human thought,

(a) OF the sensibility :—

‘*Dienichtsinnliche . .. Ursachedieser Vorstellungenist uns
ginzlich unbekannt, und diese _kénnen wir daher nicht
als Object anschauen.”. . . (VIth section of Antithetic.)

(4) OF the understand ng :-—

‘* Unser Verstand .. Dinge an sich selbst (nicht als Ersch-
einungen betrachtet) Vowmenanennt. Aber er setzt sich
auch sofort selbst Grenzen, sie durch keine Kategorien
zu erkennen, mithin sig nur unter dem Namen eines
unbekannten Etwas zu denken.” (Ground of distinction
between Phenomena and Noumena.)

3. The doctrine of the contradictions is one means by which

we know this.

“Mann kann aber auch umgekehrt aus dieser Antinomie
.. . die transcendentale Idealitit der Erscheinungen. . .
indirect... beweisen,” &c., (VIIthsection of Antithetic. )

The Kantian theory had two legs to stand upon; one the
alleged necessity of mathematical axioms, the other these alleged
necessary contradictions in our ideas of the natural order. How
completely the first has been amputated I hope to have shortly
an opportunity of showing in a course of lectures at the
Royal Institution. The doctrine, that we may infer the exist-
ence of an unknowable from supposed contradictions in the
knowable, ‘has been developed and extended by the great suc-
cessors of Kant;” and when in ‘‘a later form” these contra-
dictions were set forth from an ultimately empirical standpoint
(not that of Hamilton, but of Spencer, as stated in my note) the
doctrine became fit for notice ina scientific lecture. Only the
contradictions themselves, however, could be criticised, and not
the step from them to the existence of the unknowable, or the
unknowability of the existent. And Kant’s name coud only be
mentioned as the historical starting-point of the doctrine ; whose
importance for the empiricist is mainly due to the modifications
it has undergone since his time,

| three points in space.

If Dr. Ingleby will kindly look at my lecture (A/acmillan’s |

Magazine, October 1872) again, he will see that I have attri-
buted to Kant no more than the above-quoted doctrines ; that I
never pretended to expound Kant’s form of them, or their relation
to the rest of his system ; and that I never said nor accused any-
body of saying either that the antithetic was unreasonable, or
that any natural order of thought or things was unreasonable,

In regard to the other misrepresentations he speaks of, I shall
be very glad indeed to be told of them, and to he set right, pro-
vided only they exist in my words, and not in the exuberant
imagination of my critic.

London, Feb. 9 W. K. CLirrorD

P.S.—There is an important error in p. 508 of the lecture in
question. The surface-tension of camphor and water is /ess than
that of water, not greater, as there stated. The general argu-
ment depends only on there being a difference.

Prof. Clifford on Curved Space

THE friend, who (as I stated in my letter in NATURE, Feb. 6)
called my attention to Prof. Clifford’s address in A/acmillan’s
Magazine for October last, asked me certain questions respecting
curved space, which I was quite unable to answer: and another
friend, occupying the foremost place among English philoso-
phers, has since communicated to me the great discomfort which
Prof, Clifford’s views had occasioned him, and suggested that I
should comment upon them in Nature. I am not sure that
what I have to say will prove to be helpful either to my discom-
forted friend, or to truth : yet the doctrine of curved space is so
extraordinary in itself, and so momentous in its consequences, if
it be true, that it is a fair subject for sceptical scrutiny. More-
over, I do not conceive that in commenting upon it Iam going
ultra crepidam ; for the nature of space is not a subject on which
the mathematician can claim a monopoly. Jz imine allow
me to express my regret that Prof. Clifford should have
selected such a topic for the entertainment of a popular audi-
ence. It is quite incredible that any of his hearers could have
apprehended his meaning. There was assuredly no need for the
lecturer to have cast a glamour on their mental eye by the inyo-
cation of those awful names, Lobatchewsky and Gauss, Riemann
and Helmholtz. :

The principle, in exemplification of which Prof. Clifford ex-
pounded the doctrine in question, was this: that a law can be
only provisionally universal (7.e. as ‘‘ we find that it pays us to
assume it’’), but that it is theoretically universal, or true of all
cases whatever, ‘‘is what we do not know of any law at all”
p. 504. I fancy he would not include numerical formule under
the term ‘‘law:” else arithmetic and algebra would afford an
infinity of examples of sucha law. Be that as it may, he does
not select an example from either of those sciences, but from
Euclidian geometry. He takes the proposition established by
Euclid, that in any plane triangle the three angles added together
are equal to two right angles. This he asserts we do not know
as a universal truth, I now quote his own words: ‘* Now
suppose that three points are taken in space, distant from one
another as far as the sun is from a Centauri, and that the shortest
distances between these points are drawn so as to form a
triangle : and suppose the angles of this triangle to be very
accurately measured and added together ; this can at present be
done so accurately that the error shall certainly be less than one
minute. . . . Then I do not know that this sum [? apart from
the question of error] would differ at all from two right angles;
but also I do not know that the difference would be less than
10°.” If, then, after a sufficient number of observations it were
found that the deviation were greater than the assigned limit of
error (less than one minute), it would follow that the Euclidian
law is not universal, and that for triangles of such dimensions
it isnot true. Tne conclusion would be, then, that our Tri-
dimensional space is not ahomaloid. We need not run our heads
against the ghost of a fourth dimension ; for the refinements of
the geometer enable him to investigate a curved tridimensional
space, just as he inves igates a homaloidal tridimensional space.
But all the same, it is absurd to attempt the interpretation of the
results without supposing that fourth dimension as tbe conditio
sine qué non.

Now we will suppose that the triangle in question has been
surveyed, and that the sum of its three angles have been found
to deviate from 7 far beyond the assigned limit of error: what
have we really got thereby? The triangle, says Prof. Clifford,
is formed by drawing ‘‘ lines of shortest distance” between the
Is observation through a telescope draw-
ing such a line? Be it so, for the sake of argument. Then, if
the conclusion to be drawn is that space is curved, I ask does it
or does it not follow that the sides of the triangle are themselves
curved? Observe that i! those seemng (to us) straight lines are
really curves of an exceedingly small curvature, the Euclidian
law is not touched. Of course, then, Prof. Clifford did not
mean to assert that in a case in which the sides of a ttiangle are

s

4
P

not absolutely straight lines, it does not necessarily follow that
the sum of its angles is equal to w: tor Euclid himself is quite
ready to admit that. No: Prof. Clifford must have meant that
those three sides, though adsolutely straight to us, creatures who
can only imagine a homaloidal tridimensional space, are curved
in a sense (thanks to a fourth dimension) which vitiates the
Euclidian law.

Of course he may disclaim this interpretation: or he may
assert that in the case supposed the three sides are both straight
and curved, or neither straight nor curved, if such be his view.
But until I see his disclaimer I shall hold that he meant to sug-
gest to his audience that straight lines (proved to be so by the
standard of straightness which is alone imaginable by creatures
constituted as we are) are in another sense really curved, and as
such afford jan observable exception to the Euclidian Law.
Now I say that, constituted as we are, we could have seen
straight lines only as straight, and therefore we simply cou/d not
see those sides otherwise than as verifying that Law; and
so we could never bring to the test of observation the ques-
tion raised by the great qua’ernion of geometers ; and therefore
must for ever remain in absolute ignorance whether the space,
in which we ‘‘ live and move and have our being,” be (in another
relation) something different from what we find it to be in rela-
tion to our faculties. ~ C, M. INGLEBY

Athenzum Club, Feb. $

Earthquake in Pembrokeshire

I HAVE received a letter from the west part of Pembrokeshire,
dated February 3, from which the following is an extract :—

**Last Saturday, at 7A.M., my bed shook twice under me;
and at the same time the servant went into the dining-room, the
fire-irons rattled and the room shook ; an hour later, ——’s bed
shook twice.”

I do not know whether any notice has been taken of the
occurrence elsewhere. I have paid some attention of late years
to the indications of earthquakes in this neighbourhood, and am
inclined to think that slight tremulous movements take place
more frequently than may have been supposed or recorded.
They would naturally be unnoticed in the daytime, and their
detection would depend upon accidental wakefulness ac night.

Hardwick Vicarage, Feb. 8 T. W. Wess

Meteorology of the Future

Ir is with some satisfaciion that I have read in NATURE of
December 12, 1872, the very interesting paper of Mr. J. Norman
Lockyer, entitled ‘‘ Meteorology of the Future,” giving adhesion
and the support of his name to the discovery of Mr. C. Meldrum,
of acycle of 11 years in the recurrence of the maximum of
cyclones and rainfall in the southern hemisphere ; a cycle corre-
sponding with that already recognised in the maximum of sun-
spots. But I have been somewhat surprised to see that my name
has not been mentioned by Mr. Lockyer in reference to Mr.
Meldrum’s paper, as I have also published a paper on the con-
nection of sun-spots with rainfalls, storms, cyclones, &c., prior to
the first paper of Mr. Meldrum, which appeared in NATURE,
October 24, 1872. Thinking that my paper has escaped your
notice, and trusting that you might have some interest to see it,
I take the liberty to forward it to you with this same mail. It
was published in the Boston Daily Advertiser, November 2, 1871.
Overa year has elapsed since its publication, and few are the days
on which I had no opportuni y of seeing the sun and scrutinising
its spots with especial care, with the aid of telescope and spectro-
scope ; and to-day I do not see the neccssity of changing a word
of the conclusions which I had come to in that paper. Only it
appears that, in addition to the laws which I have drawn out,
the position of the moon will have to be taken in consideration
as a complicating element ; as it seems that the conjunction and
opposition have a tendency to increase the influence of the spots
on our atmosphere, while the quadrature diminishes it in a certain
measure. I could make some other remarks taken from my
greater experience on the subject, but they are of secondary
importance, and I will wait for another opportunity to publish
them.

Perhaps I did not guard myself sufficiently in my paper, and
have not explained with a sufficient amount of clearness, that
though the effect of sun-spots on the weather is general all over
the globe, yet the result cannot be expected to be abso-
lutely the’ same; as local causes, very numerous, like mountain

NATURE

chains, forests, rivers, coasts, oceans, and climates, have an in-

dependent influence on the distribution of rains and the direction

of winds, &c. But local causes are of a secondary order, and

will be easily determined when once we are sure that the primary

cause of atmospheric disturbances is te be found in the solar

spots L, TRoUVELOT
Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 27

Deep Wells

SINCE the question of the supply of water to deep wells was
touched uponin Narure (vol. vii. p. 177), in connection with the
rainfall of 1872, I have been in hopes each week of seeing the sub-
ject thoroughly and scientifically discussed. It will be recollected
that while we were all sneezing and spluttering, and thoughtlessly
complaining of the long-continued wet, Mr. Bailey Denton de-
precated the premature interference of the Archbishop of Canter-
bury with the rain, on the ground that the deep wells were not
yet filled. This raised a great deal of discussion ; people lost
their tempers over the rain; and the country seemed to be
divided into three bitterly hostile parties—the supporters, the
opponents, and the suppliants of Providence. But still the
geologists held aloof, and no one even answered the question,
** What is a deep well?” but continued to talk as if wells were
oe into two classes, deep and shallow, by a hard and fast

ine.

I therefore venture to hope that some geologist will take up
the question in your columns, and give us a few facts instead of
opinions. Meanwhile, I will state the ca-e as it appears to me,
With the exception of chalk and limestone formations, deep
wells are, I believe, unknown in hiils. In the side of a hill
water comes naturally to the surface in a spring. Wells are only
required—or, at all events, deep ones—at a distance from hills.
They derive their water from water-bearing strata supplied in all
cases either directly from hills, or indirectly from hills through
the leakage of river-beds. No amount of rain falls upon culti-
vated, and therefore comparatively low-lying, land in Europe,
sufficient to penetrate to even a shallow well through the earth
immediately around it, This, at least, I presume to be the
case, for 33 per cent. of their own bulk may be taken as an
average amount of water for average soils to be able co retain
and hold, so that ifa well were 15 ft. deep to the top of the
water it could not be affected by less than 5 ft. of rainfall, and
when we deduct the enormous proportion of the 5 ft. that would
be lost by evaporation and intercepted by vegetation, it is mani-
fest that even 5 ft. of rain could not penetrate 15 ft. through any
ordinary average soil. How, then, could any rainfall penetrate
to a “deep” well of, say 100 or 200 ft. in depth?

Feb. 9 W. Hope

THE GRESHAM LECTURES ON PHYSIC

ee Hilary Term Course of Lectures on Physic were
delivered at the Gresham College, Basinghall
Street, by Dr. Symes Thompson, on the evenings of the
17th and r8th ult., and the subject of the discourses upon
this occasion was the important and interesting one of
Contagious and Infectious Diseases. The professor
started on his career of familiar explanation by describing
two recent instances of outbreak of infectious disease in
rural districts, in which the introduction and march of the
fell agent of communication through the ranks of the.
small community could be distinctly traced. In the one
case, the infection of scarlet fever was brought to the
village of Flindon, in Hampshire, by a girl who came from
Worthing, and served in a small general shop which was
resorted to by all the villagers. Only two houses in the
village that had children in them, escaped from the
disease. In the other case, enteric fever was taken to
Whitchurch, in Hampshire, by a young woman from
Basingstoke, who returned to Basingstoke to die, after
only six days’ sojourn in Whitchurch. The fever, never-
theless, spread from the house in which she stayed, and
within the next seven months there were seventy cases of
enteric fever in a small community numbering only 1,450
people. The instance at Whitchurch acquired especial
importance and interest, because it was made the ground
for an investigation and report by the Local Government

284

NATURE

[ Feb. 13, 1873

Board, which now concerns itself with matters of this
class. The inspector, Dr. Thorne, found that the place
had been remarkably healthy until the potential cause, or
infection, of the fever was conveyed to it by this chance
visitant ; but that it was most cunningly and elaborately
prepared to receive and energise the deadly influence
when once it came in the way. About one-third of the
town stands upon the porous gravel of the alluvial bed of
the river Test, and into this gravel, side by side, shallow
wells were dug, to furnish the place with water, and pits
were hollowed forthe reception of ali kinds of refuse
filth and exuvize incident to the conditions of life obtain-
ing with a town community. Special care seems to have
been taken to place the wells at a somewhat lower level
than the pits containing the sources of pollution, when-
ever this was possible, as if to make sure that the
liquid refuse should run into the reservoirs of the
water ; and in a few road-drains that had been laid down
in the streets, commodious catch-pits were provided, to
serve as traps and lurking-places for the offensive waste.
Piggeries and small manure-yards were profusely scat-
tered through the streets; and when once the enteric
disorder had appeared, in order that it might have the
fairest possible field for its operations, it became in some
instances the practice to put ‘sound people to bed with
relatives actually suffering fromthe fever. In the case of
Whitchurch, it amounts almost to a demonstration that
the bowel discharges of the chance visitant from Basing-
stoke, containing the poison of enteric fever, must have
been passed immediately into the water that was pro-
vided for the general service of the town; and that an
exhaustless supply of the particular pabulum that is re-
quired for the elaboration of fresh quantities of the poison
for the propagation of the malady, was kept ready on
hand with the poison and the water. Enteric fever
came by chance to the neighbourhood of Whitchurch ;
but, once there, it cannot be said that it made itself at
home, and spread through the houses of the community
by chance. The most elaborate provision had been made
in the township to secure for it an easy resting-place,
and a ready path of dissemination.

These cases of actual occurrence were happily selected
by the Gresham Professor of Physic as the text of his
discourse, because they aptly illustrate the value of the
popularisation of information of this class, a result which
it is the object of the Gresham College to insure. In the
fever outbreak at Whitchurch, enlarged upon by Dr.
Thompson, and from which something like every four-
teenth member of the community was infected more or
less gravely before the plague was stayed, nothing could
be more clear than that the lodgment and seed-bed of
the pestilence was prepared for it by human agency, but
of course in entire ignorance of the dreadful work that
was being performed. It is scarcely possible to believe
that, if any single member of the constituted “ nuisance
authority” and “sewer authority” of Whitchurch had ever
been present at the Gresham College when a lecture upon
infectious and contagious disease had been delivered by
the Gresham Professor of Physic in its theatre, there
would have been an eight-months-long prevalence of
enteric fever in the town.

The obvious, and indeed only certain, cure for evils of
this character is the spread of sound information regard-
ing matters that affect, and physically influence, health
and disease, and the enlightenment of public opinion.
The inhabitants of Whitchurch were the only people in
this case who could’ possibly have been the efficient
guardians of their own well-being.

Dr. Thompson designedly touched lightly upon the
precise nature of the seed-germs of contagion ; he satisfied
himself upon this occasion by pressing home to the
ordinary understanding, the great and incontrovertible
fact, that diseases of this character, which sometimes
decimate crowded communities, and which at all times levy

ee
ee eee

a heavy tax upon human vigour and life, are caused and
spread by influences which are well known to human
intelligence, and largely within the sphere of human
governance and control. Each form of infectious fever
has its own characteristic habit and idiosyncrasy. Enteric
fever and cholera tend chiefly to disseminate themselves
through water, passing into the wells and fountains of
daily supply, and at times travelling from house to house
in the milk-cans of the easy-conscienced dairyman. Scarlet
fever hybernates in a drawer, and after long months of
seclusion comes forth with some old and cast-aside
garment to be thrown with it round the throat or head of
some new victim, and so to start thence upon a fresh
career. Typhus fever crawls sluggishly almost fron hand
to hand and mouth to mouth, and is immensely sociable
and companionable in its spirit, languishing away when
condemned to solitary confinement. Typhoid fever
generates itself where filth, overcrowding, and impure
habits of life prevail; and relapsing fever glides in the
track of privation and misery. But the entire band of
the ruthless co-fraternity agreein their subordination to
known laws, ana controllable conditions.

The beneficent influences and allies upon which humar
intelligence draws in dealing as efficiently and successfully
as it now can with the work of controlling these evil
ministrants, are, in the main, careful isolation of the
sick; the preservation of the water from which daily
supplies are derived in uncontaminated purity; the un-
interrupted ventilation alike of hospitals and dwelling-
houses, and fresh air; the immediate removal from the
vicinity of active human life of all material contami-
nations that issue from the bodies of the sick, and the
destruction of their morbific influence and energy by
mixing them with antiseptic and disinfecting chemical
agents such as carbolic acid, sulphuric acid, chlorides of
lime and zinc, permanganate of potash, and charcoal; the
preservation of the vital forces and resisting powers of the
living frame by a well-ordered temperate rule of life, and
avoidance of any undue indulgence in any kind of excess ;
and above all things the cultivation of an intelligent
and ever enlarging familiarity with the great material
conditions of nature that have been made the means of
working out the marvellous arrangements and operations
of civilised human life.

In considering the influence and powers of the various
health-preserving chemical substances that are spoken of
as antiseptics and disinfectants, it should be understood
that agents of the character of carbolic acid, which are
properly antiseptics, operate mainly by arresting the
progress of fermentation and decomposition, while agents
of the nature of Condy’s fluid (permanganate of potash),
chloride of lime, and especially charcoal, which are
properly disinfectants, act by absorbing the noxious
products of decomposition. Dr. Thompson very prettily
illustrated this part of his subject by stopping the gradual
evolution of bubbles of gas from a fermenting solution of
sugar by adding to it a few drops of carbolic acid, and by
showing that any drinking water that contains a hurtful
trace of the rotten egg gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, imme-
diately discharges the beautiful violet colour of Condy’s
disinfecting fluid. But his most telling illustration was
the mortal remains of a defunct rat which he presented to
his audience {enshrined in a glass jar, and simply em-
balmed in charcoal. This rat was placed in the jar
with the charcoal, at the termination of its natural life,
some six or eight years ago; and from that time to this
has been kept in the laboratory of Charing Cross Hos-
pital for the greater part of the time with only a light
paper cover over the jar. At the present time there
remains of the rat’s organism only the bones and a few
hairs. But throughout the lengthened period of decom-
position, no trace of disagreeable smell was at any time
emitted. All gaseous products of decay were at once
seized, and held by the charcoal.

THE BIRTH OF CHEMISTRY
VII.

Avicenna.—Albertus Magnus.—S. Thomas Aquinas.—Roger
Bacon.—Raymond Lulli.—Arnoldus de Villa Novd.— George
Ripley.—Basil Valentine.

THE Schools and Colleges of Arabia soon gave evidence of their

value by the development of several considerable geniuses,
whose works formed the text-books of Europe during a portion
of the Middle Ages. Prominent amongst these learned Arabians
was Ali-ben-Sina, or Avicenna, who was born in 980 in the
neighbourhood of Shiraz. His abilities were considerable, and
no pains were spared in his education ; as a boy he read the
Almagestum of Ptolemy, the Geometry of Euclid, and the

‘Philosophy of Aristotle, and later in life he studied medicine

with great success. We are told indeed that at the age of six-
teen he was an eminent physician, and that at eighteen he cured
a caliph of some grave disorder, and was hence promoted to
great honour.

Avicenna is best known by his celebrated ‘* Canons,” which
were translated at an early date into Latin, and often printed
under the title of ‘*Canones Medicinz.” This work has been
translated into the languages of all civilised countries, and for no
less than six centuries was the standard medical treatise of
the world.

Avicenna also wrote on Alchemy and on Chemistry. If the
works attributed to him are genuine he appears to have adopted
the Aristotelian theory of the tour mutually convertible ele-
ments. He speaks of air as the aliment of fire, and of the
metals as compounds of a humid substance and an earthy sub-
stance. This last idea evidently arose from the observation of
the calcination of metals. It was well known that if certain
metals, such as lead and tin, are heated fora length of time in
the air they are converted into a powdery substance or calx, and
it was long before \t was proved that this calx is not the metal
from which one of its constituents has been expelled by fire; but,
on the other hand, the metal combined with another substance.
Avicenna divides all minerals into four classes; viz., (1) Infus-
ible mimerals ; (2) Minerals which are fusible and malleabie, that
is, metals; (3) Sulphurous minerals ; and (4) Salts. He noticed
that mercury can, by heat, be caused to unite with sulphur and
produce a solid body, having different, properties from its con-
stituents.

Avicenna was largely indebted for his knowledge to Alfarabi
and to Rhazes. The latter wrote on medicine, and was one of
the first to introduce substances formed artificially by chemical
means into medicine.

Turning now our attention to European alchemists we meet
at the outset with the name of Albertus Magnus (b. 1193, d.
1282), who became Bishop of Ratisbon in 1259. Various works
on Alchemy are attributed to him: he wrote on the philo-
sopher’s stone, on the origin of metals, and on minerals ; and
he has described at some length various chemical operations,
such as sublim ition and distiliaiion, and various forms of appa-
ratus, such as aludels, alembics, and water-baths. He followed
Geber in the belief thar metals are composed of sulphur and
mercury, and that different metals are produced by different
combinations, and to some extent by the variations in the purity,
of these substances. Albertus Magnus employs the term affinity
(affinitas) to designate the cause of the combination of sulphur
with silver and other metals; in this precise sense, applied to
all cases of chemical combination, the term is used in the pre-
sent day. He also speaks of sulphat: of iron as vitriol, a name
which it long retained. He describes the Bereparerion of nitric
acid, its principal effects upon certain metals, and its utility for
separating silver from gold, inasmuch as it will dissolve the
former and not the latter. Cinnabar, or sulphide of mercury,
had long been known and used as a source of mercury ; Albertus
proved that it consists of sulphur and mercury by preparing it
artificially, by subliming sulphur with mercury.

Albertus was not alone learned in Alchemy ; he was a profound
theologian, a scholar, an astronomer, a physician, and some said
an adept in magic and necromancy. He embodied his wisdom
in twenty-one’ folios, which were published in a collected form
in 1651. M.Lenglet Dufresnoy, in his ‘* Histoire de la Philosophie
Hermetique,” has mentioned several magical operations gravely
attribued to Albertus Magnus by various writers. The most
noticeable piece of magic was the sudden transformation of a
winter's day into glowing summer :—‘‘ Horridam hyemem,” says
Trithemius, ‘in florigeram fructiferamque vertit.” It is said

that once during a very severe winter, he invited Count William
of Holland, when he was passing through Cologne, to a feast.
The Count, on his arrival with a considerable retinue, was sur-
prised to find the feast spread in the garden, in which there were
several feet of snow; and this treatment so angered him that
he remounted his horse and prepared at once to leave his inhos-
pitable host.

Then the monk falling on his knees besought

The Count to sit one moment at the board.

He having done so, a most wondrous change

Passed on the instant over all around.

The dark clouds floated off, and left a sky

Intensely blue, an air exceeding clear ;

The sun shone brightly, and the warm south wind

Laved their pale cheeks and warmed them into life.

They sit on greenest grass, the snow is gone,

Sweet flowers bloom beneath their very feet,

Ripe peaches blush upon the garden wall,

And orange blossoms scent the humid air.

A swarm of insect life on droning wing

Is floating up above them in the breeze.

The voice of birds is heard ; the cooing dove

Speaks softly to her mate ; the nightingale

Trills a sweet lay, half hidden in the leaves.

All nature is most joyous in her garb

Of brightest summer day, and all things seem

To glory in the flood of warmth and light.
Upon this, the Count expressed considerable astonishment, as
although he had heard a good deal of the magical powers of his
host, he was quite unprepared to find him capable of changing
the seasons. As soon as the feast was ended, Albertus Magnus
repeated a magical formula—

Now snow obscures the air, the flowers fade.

The trees are torn by pitiless strong winds

And weep their shrivelled fruit upon the earth ;

All sound of life is gone, a roar of elements

Succeeds the plaintive quavering of the leaves,

The birds fall dead to earth, and the dark air

Betokens fearful tempests yet to come.
So the Count and his retinue rush off into the house to warm
themselves, and thus ends the feast of Albertus Magnus, Some
will have it that the story alludes to a winter garden, unknown
at that time, which had been devised by Albertus for the preser-
vation of rare plants. Middle Age books on science abound
with such stories, and the belief in them was almost universal,
as it well might be in an age in which the power of witches and
wizards was acknowledged, and the raising of the dead was
an admitted possibility. Briicker (Jvstitutiones Historie Philo-
sophice) says :—‘* Quee enim de ejus convivio magico narrantur,
merito inter inficeti seculi fabulas referuntur, que ex ignorantia
rerum naturalium. eo tempore crassissima et Alberti mirabili
rerum physicarum cognitione prodierunt.”

In the church of S. Andreas in Cologne they show to this
day the shrine and relics of Albertus—the accomplished church-
man, scholar, magician and alchemist, of whom Trithemius says,
‘* Magnus in Magia Naturali, major in Philosophia, maximus in
Theologia.”

Albertus had for his pupil the ‘‘angelic doctor,” S. Thomas
Aquinas (b. 1225, d. 1274), who was a great alchemist, and who
wrote a treatise called ‘‘ The most secret Treasure of Alchemy,”
together with some other works on the subject, which are equally
obscure and unintelligible. He wrote also on the artificial
preparation of gems, by fusing glass with certain substances,
like oxide of copper, to communicate different colours; he
mentions that if copper be heated with white arsenic, the former
becomes white, something like silver. According to some,
S. Thomas Aquinas was the first to employ the term amalgam, to
de-ignate a compound of any metal with mercury. S, Thomas
was, like his master, a magician. We are told that between them
they constructed a brazen statue, which Albertus animated with
his elixir vite. It was useful as a domestic servant, but very
talkative and noisy; nor could they cure it of this propensity.
It happened one day that S. Thomas, who was a mathe-
matician, was deeply engaged in a problem, but was continu-
ally interrupted by the talking statue ; at length in a rage he
seized a hammer and smashed it to atoms, to the great regret of
his master.

Our great countryman Roger Bacon (b. 1214) also suffered from
a charge of magic, and during his residence in Oxford was severely
persecuted in consequence. He replied to thecharges made against
him by the admirable treatise “De nullitate magiz,” and in it
clearly showed that what his contemporaries mistook for the work
of spirits, were in good sooth the ordinary operations of Nature.
In this work he speaks of gunpowder, although somewhat ob-
scurely, ‘* Mix,” says he, “together saltpetre, /uru vopo vie

— P —<— a Ss ee

286

“way

aie VN WRONG MOR eae +e.

PA, Lx ee : ee — ¢ aiais
- NATURE een

” =:
y

con utriet, and sulphur, and you can make thunder and lightning,
if you know the method of mixing them.” Tlsewhere he says,

“a small quantity of matter properly manufactured, and not
made to produce a horrible
The third constituent of gun-

larger than one’s thumb, may be
noise and sudden flash of light.”

Fic. 11.—An alchemist hermetically sealing a flask containing a
solutioa of gold.

powder is designated under the anagram Juru vopo vir con utriet,
for it was dangerous in those days to speak too plainly ; indeed

Bacon tells us that he adopted an obscure style both on account |

of the example of other writers, and of propriety, and also on
account of the dangers of plain speaking. According to some

writers, the following passage is to be found in Bacon’s writings :
—-** Sed tamen salis petra, /uxu mone cap ubre, et sulphuris,
ct sic facies tonitrum si scias artificium.” Thus the saltpetre
and the sulphur are directly designated, while the anagram /uru
mone cap ubre is convertible into carbonum pulvere, the re-
maining constituent—powdered charcoal. It is improbable that
Roger Bacon invented gunpowder, although he was the first to
know of its properties in England ; he probably procured the
knowledge from an Arabic source. Gunpowder was first used
| by the English at the battle of Crecy"in 1346, 61 years after the
death of Bacon ; at this time it was apparently unknown to other
European nations.

Roger Bacon is believed to have been far in advance of his
times in all matters of science. To him has been attributed the
invention of the telescope and Camera obscura, and several dis-
coveries of a later date. The evidence is less conclusive than
one could wish, but enough remains in his writings to prove that
he was a very learned man and profound thinker. His ‘‘ Opus
Majus” clearly proves that he fully recognised the value of the
experimental method, and of the inductive philosophy afterwards
so ably advocated by his namesake Francis Bacon. Roger Bacon
' wrote largely on alchemy. Many of the alchemical MSS. in

the British Museum are transcripts of portions of his works,
/among the more celebrated of which we may mention the

“‘Medulla Alchymiz,” ‘‘Secretum Secretorum,” and ‘ Spe-
culum Secretorum.” He collected together the principal alchemi-
| cal facts of his predecessors, and appears in many matters to
| have closely followed Geber. Bacon describes the distillation of
organic substances, and alludes to the inflammability of the
evolved gases. He proved that air is the food of fire by burning
| a lamp in a closed vessel.

Raymond Lulli (b. 1235) is by some asserted to have been a
pupil of Roger Bacon, He was a voluminous writer on alchemy,
his most celebrated treatise being his ‘* Ultimum Testamentum.”
He also wrote on transmutation, on the Philosopher’s Stone, and
on magic. Lulli does not appear to have added to the chemical
| knowledge of his predecessors ; he followed Geber closely, and
| was well acquainted with the processes and compounds which he
describes. He describes alcohol under the names of agua vite
ardens, and argentum vivum vegetabile, and was in the habit of

Fic. 12,—Alchemical representation of processes.

rendering it anhydrous by allowing it to stand in contact with
dry carbonate of potassium. He was also acquainted with
ammonia.

Whatever Lulli’s knowledge may have been, he obtained great
reputation as a successful alchemist. He asserts in his ‘‘ Ulti-
mum Testamentum” that he converted fifty thousand pounds
weight of base metals into gold. He is said to have been em-
ployed by one of the Edwards to make gold, and to have fur-
nished His Majesty with six millions of money. Dickenson tells
us that Lulli had a laboratory in Westminster Abbey, in which,

after his depariure, a quantity of gold dust was found.

Of the general tone and character of alchemical writings we
shall speak more fully in the next article. Of the professors of
the art litle more need be said ; a long list of names might be
given, but it would be found that they did little to develop what
afterwards became the science of chemistry. Let us glance at
the work of a few of the remaining alchemists. Arnoldus de
Villa Nova (b. 1240) was a great alchemist and physician, and
the author of many works on the subject. His “ Rosarius
Philosophorum ” purported to contain a key to all alchemical
operations. He followed Geber closely. He considered a solu-
tion of gold the most perfect medicine, and we usually find that

oa op “a

in cn

y

a -
: G2 = )
Z z,
Ge &

NVA

OR

E 287

such solution was recommended by alchemists as a necessary
constituent of the elixir vitae, and essential for the work of trans-
mutation. In Fig. 11 the solution of gold in the flask is repre-
sented by the sun emitting rays. The simple disc of the sun is
the more common symbol for gold.

Arnoldus also distilled various oils and essences. He con-
tended that sulphur, arsenic, mercury, and sal ammoniac—all
volatile bodies be it noted—are the souls of metals, and are
given off during calcination. He also affirmed that silver is
intermediate between mercury and other metals, just as the soul
is intermediate between the spirit and the body. Arnoldus is
said to have had for his pupil Pope John XXII., an accom-
plished alchemist, who left at his death eighteen millions of
florins, which the alchemists fondly cite as a proof of the possi-
bility of transmutation. Our own George Ripley, Canon of
Bridlington in Yorkshire (b. about 1460) wrote a poem on
alchemy, and passed for a successful disciple of the art, but we
cannot point to a new fact which he elucidated. He divided all
chemical operations into twelve processes—Calcination, dissolu-
tion, separation, conjunction, putrefaction, congelation, cibation,
sublimation, fermentation, exaltation, multiplication, and pro-
jection. Several MS. copies of his poem exist in the British
Museum, bound up with copies of the works of Roger Bacon
and earlier writers. Here is a specimen of his rugged
rhymes :—

The fyrst chapter shall be of naturall Cadetnation ;
The second of Dysso/ution, secret aud phylosophycall ;
The third of our elementall SeSaration;

The fourth of Cozjunction matrimoniall ;

‘The fyfth of Putrefaction then followe shall :

Of Congelation Albyficative shall be the sixt,
Then of Cyéation, the seaventh shall follow next.

One of the most celebrated of the alchemists was Basil Valen-

=,
anos

aT Ss

yy)

RY (

Fic, 13.—Alchemical representation of processes.

tine, who was born at Erfurt in 1394. According to Olaus
Borrichius his works were accidentally discovered in the wall of
a church at Erfurt many years after his death. A thunderbolt
struck the church and exposed to view the long-lost alchemistical
treasures. Basil Valentine was the author of many treatises,
the most important being his ‘‘ Currus Triumphalis Antimonii,”
in which he discusses the properties of antimony and of many of
its compounds. He regarded the metals as compounds of salt,
sulphur, and mercury; and he was acquainted with many
metallic compounds, among others nitrate of mercury, sulphide
of arsenic, red oxide of mercury, chloride of iron, sulphate of
iron, fulminating gold, carbonate of lead, acetate of lead, and
the oxides of lead. He was aware that iron precipitates copper
from solution, and that solution of potash precipitates iron from
solution. He was well acquainted with the preparation of nitric
and sulphuric acids, and used them for various purposes of disso-

lution. In order to obtain nitric acid he distilled powdered |

earthenware with nitre, or equal parts of nitre and green
vitriol, or nitre with finely powdered flints. He obtained fuming
sulphuric acid by distilling green vitriol, after the manner ‘still
practiced at Nordhousen and elsewhere. Basil Valentine wrote
very obscurely and was fond of symbolical designs. Woodcuts
12 and 13 are taken from his works, and represent various pro-
cesses imperfectly described. Thus the lion in Fig. 12 would repre-
sent a solution of a metal, the serpent another solution, or perhaps
the serpent a metal, and the lion devouring it a solvent ; the sun
and moon are watching the operation, and the symbol of mercury
appears between two roses, Fig. 13 represents some operation
which is thus thus described by the principal figure :—I am an
old, infirm, debilitated man, my soul and spirit (represented by
the two boy-headed birds above his head) leave me, and I assimu-
late the black crow. In my body are found salt, sulphur, and
mercury. This may possibly refer to the solution of gold in
aqua regia : it loses its metallic nature, its solidity and lustre,
and assimulates the acid ; but one may conjecture in vain con-
cerning the enigmatical devices in which some of the alchemists
took so much delight, and which they often employed, like
Roger Bacon’s anagram, to conceal the full significance of their
operations or discoveries.

The following extract, in which he treats of the generation of -
metals, will show the style of Basil Valentine’s writing :—

“Therefore think most diligently about this ; often bear in mind,
observe, and comprehend that all minerals and metals together
in the same time, and after the same fashion, and of one and the
same principal matter are produced and generated. That matter
is no other than a mere vapour, which is extracted from the ele-
mentary earth by the superior stars or by a sidereal distillation
of the macrocosm, which sidereal hot infusion, with an airy sul-
phureous property, descending upon inferiors, so acts and
operates, as in those metals and minerals is implanted spiritually
and invisibly a certain power and virtue, which fume afterwards
resolves in the earth into a certain water, from which mineral
water all metals are thenceforth generated and ripened to their
perfection, and thence proceeds this or that metal or mineral
according as one of the three principles acquires dominion, and
they have much or little of sulphur and salt, or an unequal
mixture of them ; whence some metals are fixed, that is constant
or stable ; some volatile and easily mutable, as is seen in gold,
silver, copper, iron, lead, and tin.”

Now this is by no mew the most obscure piece of alchemical
writings with which we shall come in contact.

G. F, RopWELL

GLACIER MOTION

1N making some experiments on the freezing of water

some time ago it was noticed that after the same water
had been melted and frozen a number of times it gene-
tally burst the tube in which it was frozen. On looking
for an explanation of this phenomenon, it became at once
evident that the experiment contained the germ of the ex-
planation of glacier motion. Every time the water was
frozen in the tube there was a mimic representation of
glacier motion, The ice possessed, the first two or three
times it was frozen, a certain amount of viscosity which
enabled it to adapt itself to the shape of the tube, as was
evident from the distortion of the upper surface of the ice
in the tube. How came the ice to lose this plasticity or
viscosity, this power of adapting itself to the shape of the
tube, the loss of which caused it to burst the tube after it
had been frozen and melted a number of times ? Wherein
did the ice which had only been frozen once differ from
the other? The answer to this seemed to be, that the ice
which had only been frozen once had more air in it than
that which had been frozen and melted a number of times,
as each succeeding freezing deprived the ice of a quantity
of air or some other gases. The natural conclusion,
therefore, seemed to be, that ice with air in it is a viscous
substance, though pure ice is not. The first question then
to be asked is, Is ice with air in it a viscous substance ?
In order to get an answer to this question, glass tubes
‘4-inch in diameter and twelve inches long were filled
with water in which was dissolved a great quantity of
air. The tubes were then placed in a freezing mixture.
After the water was frozen in the tubes the tubes were

288

slightly heated and the rods of ice withdrawn from them
and placed on two supports eight and a half inches
apart, and a weight of one pound hung from the
centre of these ice beams. The beams at once began
bending and continued bending so long as the weights were
left on them, thus proving the viscosity of the ice experi-
mented on. The ice of these beams though similar was
not the same as glacier ice; other ice beams were there-
fore made, in as close imitation of glacier ice as possible,
which was done by placing a small quantity of water in
the tubes, then some snow, and pressing it firmly to the
bottom of the tubes, then adding more snow, and again
firmly pressing it down, and so on till the tubes were
filled, as much pressure being applied as possible to the
snow to drive out the water. The tubes were then placed
for some time in the freezing mixture. The ice beams
were afterwards withdrawn from the tubes and placed on
the supports, and a weight of one pound hung from the
centre. The beams of snow ice so made were found to
be more easily bent than those made from the water, The
rate at which they bent varied, possibly owing to there
being more or less water-ice mixed with the snow-ice:
one of the beams bent one inch in five minutes. Tem-
perature seemed to have some influence on the rate of
bending of these beams, but this point was difficult to
determine on account of the different beams bending at
different rates at the same temperature ; but so far as
could be ascertained from the experiments, the beams
bent slower the lower the temperature. The lowest tem-
perature used in these experiments was rather more than
three Fahrenheit degrees below freezing.

Smaller rods of snow-ice were then made ‘2-inch in
diameter, and as it was found that these could be easily
bent in the hand, it was thought possible to bend them
into rings. In attempting to bend these rods round a
cylinder three inches in diameter, a difficulty was met
with, After the pressure had been applied a short
time, and before the circle was half turned, the
rods always broke with a pressure which they
easily bore at the beginning. Here, then, was
a difficulty, The explanation seemed to fail at the last
moment. The bending had so altered the structure of
the ice, that it had lost much of its viscosity and become
brittle. How then are we to account for glacier ice
keeping its viscosity after years of bending. On exa-
mining the fracture of the beams it appeared as if a
fibrous structure had been developed in the ice by the
bending. The fracture did not go straight across, but
part of it ran parallel with the axis of the beam, strongly
resembling the fracture of poor bar iron, crystalline at
one part, fibrous at another. The bending of the ice had
evidently developed a laminated structure in it, similar to
that found in glaciers. This laminated structure was
developed along the beams, as was to be expected ; for the
direction in which this structure will be developed depends
more on the direction in which the particles of ice are
caused to slip over each other, than on the direction in
which the pressure or tension is applied. The bending
having produced this laminated structure in the ice, it
is evident that the beams will be weaker after this
structure is developed than before, on account of the
cohesion of the ice being weakened along the planes of
lamination. It was thought therefore that if the pressure
was taken off the ice so as to relieve the particles from
strain and stop them sliding over each other, that the
laminz which had been developed in the ice, would, so
to speak, become welded together, and the strength and
plasticity of the beam be restored. Acting on this sup-
position an attempt was again made to bend the ice-beam
into acircle. After a small part of the circle had been
turned, the pressure was taken off the beam and a
short time given for the particles to rearrange them-
selves; the pressure was then again applied, a small
part more bent and so on, When done in this way

a ee eee

it was found that the ice-beams were easily bent -

into a circle, the ends were then united by means of pres-
sure, and a solid ring was thus produced from a straight
beam of ice. These conditions of alternate rest and
pressure are in all probability those which exist in glaciers.
After pressure has acted at one part of the glacier, bend-
ing takes place, so relieving the ice at that part from the
pressure, which comes to bear on another part of the
glacier ; and before the pressure again comes to bear
on the first part its strength and plasticity or viscosity
has been restored by rest.

Although ice under certain conditions has by these ex-
periments been shown to be a viscous substance, to have
the power of changing its shape and so enabling it to
flow—though slowly—in its channel; although it has
thus been shown that the viscosity of ice is a cause of
glacier motion, yet it must not, therefore, be concluded
that it is the only cause. Among other causes which
may assist in producing glacier motion may be men-
tioned; 1st. The sliding of the ice over its channel ; this
sliding being assisted by the tendency which the ice has
to melt where it rests on its channel. znd. The melting
of the ice in front of obstacles, the melting being produced
by the melting point of the ice in contact with the
obstacle being lowered by the pressure of the ice behind.
3rd. The melting of the ice in the body of the glacier, by
heavy pressure being brought to bear at certain points,
part of the water so formed finding its way to the channel
under the ice, and part being re-frozen. 4th. The cre-
vasses in the glacier formed by the fracture of the ice.
This breaking up of the ice will enable large masses of
ice to move into different positions relatively to each
other, much more easily than if the ice was solid. This
breaking up of the ice will also make the motion due to
its viscosity take place quicker than if the ice was in one
mass, 5th. The old dilatation theory explains some-
thing of the motion of glaciers, though it may not explain
how that motion takes place, yet it accounts for some of
the pressure which produces that motion.

JoHN AITKEN

SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION

S {NCE the last quarterly report, troublesome accidents
have delayed this undertaking. On the very day of
the meeting in Jermyn Street in December last, the drill-
ing tool broke off close to the edge, leaving a flat chisel
(9 in. wide tapering up to 2 in.) at the bottom of the bore.
A fortnight was lost in the endeavour to extract it. Mr.
Bosworth’s ingenuity and patience were sorely tried ; but
he at last succeeded in bringing it to the top from a depth
of about 96 ft. 34 {t. consisting of narrow bands of cal-
careous shale, alternating with argillaceous limestone in
layers of from 4 to 6in. were passed through; but on
January 28, at 131 ft, from the surface, a bed of pure solid
white gypsum 4 ft. in thickness, was reached and per-
forated, the new trifid drilling tool bringing up solid
cores. This is the first time a bed of gypsum of this
character has been found in Sussex, and it probably indi-
cates the presence of the Purbeck beds. If so, strata
hitherto unknown to exist in Sussex are now added to
our geological information, and the scientific world will
have its interest re-awakened to this, the first boring
attempted in England for purely scientific purposes,
Boring is a tedious and expensive process, and we hear
that the preliminary cost of machinery has exhausted the
treasury. Subscriptions are earnestly requested to com-
plete the second sum of 1000/. promised on condition
that 2000/. be raised. Mr. Henry Willett, Arnold House,
Brighton, will be pleased to receive any sums for the’
purpose, It would be a great disaster indeed if the boring
had to be stopped for want of funds ; but we feel sure that
when the state of matters is made known to the friends of

science Mr, Willett will soon have to reporta full treasury.

:

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r
4
7

ee

s

NATURE

980

NOTES

THE candidates for the chair of Geology held by the
late Prof. Sedgwick now stand ‘as follows :—Mr. Morris,
Lecturer on Geology at University College, London, and
a Vice-President of the Geological Society; Mr. P. Martin
Duncan, F.R.S., also a Vice-President of the Geological
Society, Professor of Geology in King’s College, London, and
Lecturer at the Indian College of Civil Engineering at Cooper’s
Hill; the Rey. Osmond Fisher, formerly Fellow and Tutor of
Jesus College, Cambridge ; the Rev. T. G. Bonney, Fellow and
Tutor of St. John’s College, Cambridge ; Mr, Boyd Dawkins,
F.R.S., formerly on the Geological Survey, and now Director
of the Museum and Lecturer in Geology at Owens College,
Manchester ; Mr. A. H. Green, of the Geological Survey, for-
merly Fellow of Gonvillle and Caius College, and now Lecturer
in Geology at the School of Military Engineering at Chatham ;
and Mr. Hughes, of Trinity College, also on the Geological Sur-
vey. Mr. Morris has acted for the last two years as deputy to
the late professor.

A CORRESPONDENT in Paris informs us that M. Janssen was
to be nominated to a vacant place in the French Institute last

_ Monday, and that there is every likelihood of his obtaining a
_ majority of votes when the election takes place a few weeks

hence.

M. Janssen is to be sent to Pekinin December 1874, for
the purpose of observing the transit of Venus.

PROBABLY the first telegram transmitted by the Atlantic cable,
under the generous arrangement mentioned in NATURE of
January 30 last, was received by the Astronomer Royal on Feb-
ruary 7, and forwarded to us the same day. It announced the
discovery of a new planet, No. 129, of the 1oth magnitude, on
the night of February6: R.A. g! 16™ north decl. 15° ,38’.
Such an excellent arrangement is likely to save all disputes as

to priority of discovery.

4

,

Pror. FLowers’s Hunterian Lectures at the College ot Sur.
geons for this year will treat of the Osteology and Dentition of
Extinct Mammalia, with their geological and geographical distri-
bution and relation to existing forms. The course commences
on Monday next (the 17th) at four o’clock, and the lectures will
be continued at the same hour on Mondays, Wednesdays, and
Fridays until March 28. It may not. be generally known that

_ this course is open to all who wish to attend, without fee or any

for mality.

Dr. T. R. Lewis has made the ‘important discovery of a
haematozoon, which he has provisionally named /i/aria sangui-
nis hominis. In a paper lately published at Calcutta, he de-
scribes its discovery last July in the blood of a patient suffering
from a disease well known in tropical countries, Chyluria. The
worms appear to be present in very large numbers in the blood
and insome of the secretions ; indeed, they were first observed
in the urine two years ago. They are evidently hematoids, but
sexual distinctions have not been hitherto observed, nor is any-
thing known of their ova or development, nor how they gain an
entrance to the body. Each is inclosed in a hyaline sheath, in
which it can contract and expand itself, so that they may be
probably regarded as in an encysted form. The average length
is °175 of an inch, the breadth about that of a red blood-disc ;
they are therefore much smaller than the Guinea-worm or 777-
china spiralis. The disease of which it is probable that they
are the cause is not rare in tropical countries, and is sometimes
fatal. This curious ‘‘ Filaria” was discovered independently in
chylous urine, by Dr. Lewis and by Wucherer, in 1870. Dr.
Crevaux, of the French navy, published a memoir on the same
subject a few months ago (‘ De I’Hematurie chyleuse ou grais-
seuse des pays chauds;” A. Delahaye, Paris, 1872). In the
Montpellier Revue des Sciences Naturelles, for September, 1872,
Dr, A. Corre figures and describes some specimens as trans-

parent, colourless, and varying in size from ‘2 to *265 of a milili-
metre long, by ‘006 to ‘007 broad at the thickest part. This
exactly corresponds with the diameter of a human red blood-disc,
as given by Welker. He has sometimes observed a slight con-
striction below the head, as has Dr. Crevaux, who also noticed
the dark spot supposed by Dr. Lewis to be a mouth, “qui res-
semble plut6t 4 un amas de granulations qu’ un orifice.” MM.
Crevaux and Corre have been unable to distinguish any organs,
only granulations forming a central Jine down the body, “ qui
simule, au premier aspect, un canal étendu de la téteA la queue.”
Wucherer regards the worm as probably a larval form. It is
important to remark that the cases examined by their authors
were all from tropical America. The descriptions and the draw-
ing referred to abundantly confirm Dr. Lewis’s admirable obser-
vations, though they a e not nearly so complete. To him belongs
the undivided merit of discovering this parasite in its true /aditat,
the living blood.

THE Director of the Observatory of Harvard College purposes
to publish a series of astronomical engravings, which shall repre -
sent, as nearly as possible, the most interesting objects in the
heavens, as they are seen with the powerful instruments of the
observatory under his charge. The series will consist of at least
thirty pictures, and will embrace the principal planets, moon-
craters, sun-spots, solar prominences, nebula, and spectra of
variable stars. To obtain some assistance towards defraying the
expense of printing, as well as to secure for them a more general
circulation than can be expected fo: volumes of annals of an
observatory, they will be offered to subscribers at the rate of
2/. tos. forthe set. The engravings will be delivered from time to
time as they are completed, and they will be followed by some
pages of notes and explanations. Messrs, Triibner and Co. are
instructed to register the names of intending subscribers.

Tue American Government has establishe] an Observatory at
Fort Garry, Manitoba, which is, as nearly as possible, the cen-
tral spot of the American continent.

AMMONITES have been discovered by Dr. Waagen (‘‘ Memoirs
of the Geological Survey of India, IX.”) in a carboniferous
formation near Jabi, north of Shabpoor, in the N.E. of the Pun-
jab. The form appears to be allied to some species found in the
Whitby lias. The presence of this family in palzeozoic rocks is
a new and important observation.

SouTH AFRICAN sportsmen have got a bid name among
many people, the increasing scarcity of the various kinds of so-
called “‘ big game” being commonly attributed to their exploits.
There are those, however, who think otherwise, and believe, as
is doubtless the case, that the deeds of an occasional Gordon
Cumming, who makes a shooting excursion up the country, had
little lasting effect upon its animal and particularly its mammalian
life, the decrease in which is mainly caused by the spread of
settlements. The University of Cambridge seems to be of the
latter opinion, and on Thursday last, by grace of the Senate,
authorised the payment, from the Worts’ Travelling Bachelors’
Fund, of 200/, to Mr. T. E. Buckley, F.Z.S. and B.A. of
Trinity College, who is about to make an expedition into the
interior from Natal, for the purpose of forming natural history
collections, and especially of obtaining skeletons of the larger
animals, with the understanding that specimens be sent to the
Museum of the University, accompanied by reports, Mr,
Buckley has had much experience as a traveller, having visited
some of the wildest parts of Lapland, explored Turkey, and
braved the dangers of the Gold Coast : and he has contributed,
in conjunction with his fellow-voyagers Captain Elwes and
Captain Shelley, to the Zdis, good accounts of the ornithology
of the two countries last mentioned.

A SEVERE shock of earthquake was felt at Lahore on
January 1, at 7.55 A.M. and at Suchin cn Decenber 31. The

eS lal en, SPO a at re -
4 aes ets aan aS iy
We aay ote

290

NATURE “yt

“

[7ed. 13, 187

e

earthquake, which on December 15 was felt at Lehree in Eastern
Cachi and Zehri and the Scinde frontier of India, was also felt
at Dadur, Suawan, Shikarpore, and Jacobabad, within British
territory,

In the beginning of January a sharp shock of earthquake was
felt inthe island of Imbros, opposite the Dardanelles. Several
small works were destroyed, and other damage done. This
was, perhaps the same as the earthquake felt on January
13 at Gallipoli, and Chanak, Kalehsi (Dardanelles), at about
10.30 A.M. The oscillation was from S.toN. This earthquake
was slightly felt at Constantinople, but not at Smyrna,

TuE Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction met on Tues-
day and Wednesday of the present week.

WE learn, from the British Medical Fournal, that Dr. Stru-
thers, Professor of Anatomy at Aberdeen, gives free evening
lectures on this subject to students of Divinity and Arts, and to
all who take an interest in Natural science.

WE have received an “Extract from the Science Directory,
revised to November 1872,” showing the nature and amount o!
assistance afforded by and through the Science and Art Depart-
ment to Instruction in Science. This gives all the information
needed both by pupils or teachers who are desirous of quali-
fying themselves to participate in the various grants, scholarships,
exhibitions, prizes, &c., by which Government se:ks to encourage
scientific education. Since the publication of the last directory,
several alterations have been made in the administration of this
department. One is that grants are given to encourage the con:
struction of special laboratories in Schools, and collec ions of
apparatus adapted to teaching will be sent on loan to schools
under certain conditions. For the year 1873 arrangements will
probably be made to enable a certain number of teachers to stay
about six weeks in London, to undergo a course of instruction
in teaching certain special subjects, Several improvements haye
also been made in the course of instruction for s'udents who have
completed their course at the ordinary Elementary School.
These alterations all tend in the direction of greater stringency
and thoroughness, and an attempt has been made so to frame
the course, as to lay the foundation of a systematic scientific
‘training.

WE with pleasure notice that a new local scientific society has
been started at Kensington, under the title of the Kensington
Entomological Society. There are now a considerable number
of similar societies in the London suburbs, and we hope this one
will meet with encouraging success, and produce some work of
lasting value. We hope next week togive a paper read to the
Society by Mr. A. Murray, 67, Bedfcerd Gardens, Kensington,
who, we have no doubt, will be glad to iurnish information to
anyone desirous of joining the Society.

WE are glad to see one more provincial paper devote some of
its space to Science. <A copy of the Leighton Buzzard Observer
sent us devotes a whole column to scientific jottings, selected
with considerable judiciousness.

Mr. G. St. CLarR, in reference to his letter of last week, sends
us a letter from the Manchester Guardian, of February 5, which
says that the writer and two friends were walking down Oxford
Street, Manchester, about 10 P.M., when suddenly the place was
illuminated with a bluish light equal to the light of mid-day, and
right over their heads burst, as it were, a ball of fire ; instantly
it shot through space, when it burst again, and final'y disap-
peared. After a few seconds more they distinctly heard the
sound of a report like thunder, The course of the meteor ap-

pearcd to them to be from east to west; the time was about
seven scconds,

A MeEpIcaL Society has been formed at Smyrna, on the basis
of the Imperial Medical Society at Constantinople.

_ Tue Abbé Moigno, after all, has brought his Sed/es du Progrés
to a termination ; not, however, we are gladjto learn, because his
praiseworthy scheme of popular education has turned out a

failure, but because he has found another means of accomplishing

his “great object of intellectual regeneration by true science,
good and beautiful.” The founders of the Catholic Circle of
Workmen—a scheme apparently meant for the elevation of the
French working classes—have proposed to make use of the
Abbe’s services, his educational staff and matériel, to carry out
their educational plans both in Paris and in the provinces. He
has, we think wisely, accepted the offer, and, although he has
been compelled to terminate his own particular scheme, he will
be in a much better position for accomplishing the admirable end
he has in view.

Mr. W. B. GAMLEN, M.A., of Exeter College, has been
elected Secretary to the Curators of the Oxford University
Chest.

Tue following information has been sent us by the scientific
editor of Harper's Weekly :— Prof. Powell has returned from the
exploration of the Colorado River of the West, having completed
the examinations of the wonderful series of cafions along the
course of this river about October 1 last. He then visited a
group of volcanic mountains north of the Grand Caiion, com-
posed of about sixty basaltic cones, to which he has given the
name of Uinkaret Mountains (the Indian name, signifying
“Where the pines grow”). An extensive series of faults has
been examined by the party this year. These run in a northerly
and southerly direction across the Grand Cajion, and north into
the plateaus at the head of the Sevier, and some as far as the
Wasatch Mountains. They are from 50 to 200 miles in length,
and the drop from 100 to 3,000 ft. The fissures of these faults
have been vents for volcanic eruptions, and along their courses
vast floods of lava have been poured out and cones built up. A
number more of the ruins of ancient communal houses have been
discovered, making in all more than a hundred so far found by
the party in the valley of the Colurado, One of these was situ-
ated on the crater of a volcanic cone, The collection of picture-
writings (etchings on the rocks) has been much enlarged ; and
the seven ancient towns, called by the Spaniards the Province
of Tusayan, have been revisited for ethnological purposes. The
professor has also continued his studies of the Ute Indians. He
has discovered among them an extensive system of mythology
and a great number of rude songs, and brought with him a large
collection of articles illustrating the state of the arts among the
people who inhabit the valley of the Colorado, composed of stone
implements, pottery, basket-ware, clothing, implements for
hunting and entrapping animals, musical instruments, ornaments
of featuers, bones, teeth, and claws, and various miscellaneous
articles. Prof, Thompson remains in the field for the purpose of
extending the exploration north, toward the Wasatch Moun-
tains.

AN article by Herr von der Wengen, on the artificial breed-
ing of salmon in Silesia during the season of 1871 and 1872,
published in the circular of the Deutsche Fisherei-Verein, con-
tains some very interesting facts in reference to this fish. As
the result of four successive years of observation, he remarks
that he finds salmon generally descend to the sea in the second
year, and remain there not one year, as is so generally assumed,
but more nearly two, before returning to the river and home of
their youth. The establishment at Hammel, which has already
done so much to increase the stock of salmon in the Upper
Weser, has determined, from numerous observations, that a
period of four years elapses between the birth of the salmon and

| its first return from the ocean.

ay
“ * ;

:

———

Oscar Grim describes Bacteria and Vibriones from his own
investigations in the Archiv fur Mikrosc. Anatomie. He has
observed their conjugation and fissiparous multiplication, and
also has seen leucocyles breaking up into granular matter which
ultimately assumed the form of Bacteria. ’

Pror. MOLteER, of Lund, Sweden, has published the Ephe-
_ merides of Faye’s comet for its next return to the neighbourhood
of the sun. It will be in perihelion about July 18, and will
continue to approach nearer and nearer to the earth till Jan. 10,
1874. It will not, however, be in a position favourable for ob-
servation, and it is very probable that not even the most powerful
telescope will be able to catch it.

M. Caras in Zes Mondes endeavours to account for a dry
haze (4rouillard sec) which is seen in the atmosphere at certain
seasons in particular countries. At Paris he says it is clearly
visible on the horizon on the morning of lovely summer days,
and is regarded as the presage of fine warm weather. It is of a
light roseate hue. In proportion as the day is dry and warm,
- the denser and higher above the horizon is the haze. This haze

is seen at all heights, having been observed by Saussure in

Switzerland, by Lecay and Charles Martin in Auvergne, and by
~ Wilkomer in Spain; in all cases, the phenomenon is seen at its

best when the day is dry and warm. M. Callas attributes it to

the combustion of aerolites and shooting stars. The attraction
of the earth, he says, causes these bodies to deviate from their
regular course and to be precipitated to the earth’s surface with

a rapidity which certainly exceeds 20 kilometres per second, and

which is sufficient to set them on fire and render them vola-

tile. The vapours thus produced rapidly become so rarified
that they may be looked upon as the ultimate limit of
divisibility of insoluble bodies and form the dry mists alluded to,

Obeying the law of gravity these descend to the earth from the

heights where they are formed, slowly however, on account of

their extreme tenuity. As they approach the earth they come
under the influence of winds which dissipate them, and of cold
moisture, which absorbs them. Hence it is that they are per-
ceived only in certain countries and in warm seasons ; especially
in Spain, and on the table-lands of Abyssinia and Mexico.

M. Callas thinks that the haze may be regarded as a sort

of cosmical matter akin to that which composes the tails of
comets. The hypothesis has the merit of being at least curious,
and so far as we know, original.

THE first paper in the last number of the Bulletin of the
French Geographical Society is in connection with a well-exe-
cuted map of the chief physical features of Eastern Brazil,
appended to the number. M. Charles Grad contributes a long
article on the geology of the Algerian Sahara and its system of
waters. Perhaps the most interesting article is by M. Paul
Gaffanel on the Great Sargasso Sea in the middle of the Atlantic,
the history of which he traces from the Phcenicians downwards,
describes its geography historically and with reference to what is
known of it at present, which seems to be comparatively little,

and concludes by pointing out that the wrack or algse of which it
is composed might be put to immensely profitable industrial
uses.

WE have received the prospectus of the new Italian Geo-
graphical Magazine, whose first appearance we announced last
week. Dr, Petermann has written a very hearty preface for his

young friend, the editor, Guido Cora, whose plan is very compre-
hensive, embracing not only geography proper, but also geo-
gnosy, botany, zoology, anthropology, ethnography : hence the
name of the magazine,—Cosmos, We wish it ample success.

THE Revue Scientifigue for Feb. 8 contains Dr. Liebreich’s
Royal Institution lecture on the effect of School Life on Vision
in the Young,

SIR W. ARMSTRONG ON 1HE COAL
QUES TION *

VM

A? the present moment attention is being drawn to a new
method of increas ng the efficiency of the steam engine by
pumping heated air into the boiler. It is impossible to conjecture
what theoretical considerations could have led Mr. Warsop,
the discoverer of the system, to anticipate beneficial results
from the adoption of such an expedient, and yet the experiments
that have been made in proof of its efficacy are so authoritative
that they cannot be repudiated on the ground of their being un-
supported by theory. This subject, alihough much debated of
late, is still so ambiguous and obscure that I shall take the pre-
sent opportunity of stating the difficulties of the case in the hope
of eliciting satisfactory explanation. Mr. Warsop’s method con-
sists in attaching to a steam engine a forcing pump for the
purpose of injecting air into the boiler. The pipe from this
forcing pump is formed into a coil in the flue so that the air may
absorb a portion of the waste heat. Aft r entering the boiler
the pipe is laid along the bottom, and being perforated with holes
allows the air to bubble up through the water at many different
points. The result appears to be that, with a given expenditure
of fuel, the available power of the engine is considerably in-
creased by the action of the air-pump, notwithstanding that the
power for working it is derived from the engine itself. How,
then, is this to be explained? It is clear that air forced into a
receiver cannot without the aid of extraneous heat give back all
the power expended upon the forcing pump. There must of
necessity be loss of power by friction, and also from the im-
possibilijy in practice of realising all the expansive action of the
condensed air corresponding to the compressive action of the
pump prior to actual injection taking place. It would be a liberal
estimate to assume that one-half of the power expended on the
pump is recoverable from the air. Hence, to make up the defi-
ciency by the application of heat, we should have to double the
volume of the air, which would require it to be heated to up-
wards of 500° F, above its initial temperature. Now, in the case
of the Warsop arrangement, considering the inconsiderable heat-
ing power of the escaping gases to which the air-pipe is exposed ;
considering also the slow absorbing power of air, and the small-
ness of the surface presented by the coiled pipe, it is hard to
believe that the air could enter the boiler at such a temperature
as I have named ; but even if it did, where is the surplus power
to be found that gives the engine a palpable increase of efficiency?
The mere reaction of the compressed air, with all the aid it can
possibly derive from the absorption of waste heat, would barely
save a loss, and certainly could never account for an important
gain. It seems obvious, therefore, that whatever beneficial action
is exercised by the air must be of an indirect nature, and not the
immediate effect of its mechanical energy. A
Four modes of action have been put forward to account
for the effects obtained. Firstly, it is said that the air, in bub-
bling through the water, facilitates the disengagement of the
steam. This may very possibly be the case, for we know that
water, entirely deprived of air, may be heated in an open vessel
to a temperature greatly exceeding the usual boiling point, before
ebullition commences. The reason of this is, that the adhesion
between the water and the containing vessel, and also between
the particles of water themselves, is sufficient to restrain the
formation of steam at the usual boiling heat, unless air be pre-
sent to afford points of separation. So far the explanation is
plausible; for if the abstraction of air from water rai-es the
boiling point, we may infer that the addition of air will
lower it. But the reduction of the boiling-point within
any supposable limits, would not lessen the quantity of heat
required for the production of the steam sufficiently to
afford a solution; because the sum of the latent and sensible
heat, though not constant, as was formerly supposed, does not
vary in relation to the boiling point to such an extent as would
account for any important saving in that direction, A tangible
advantage might, however, accrue from the accelerated trans-
mission of heat from the fire to the w:ter, caused by the increase
of difference which a lowered boiling pvint would occasion between
the temperature of the water and that of the fire and gaszs acting
onthe boiler ; but in the absence of thermometric experiments to
show how much the boiling point is actually reduced, and how
much the escaping gases are cooled, it is impossible to form any
definite opinion as to the amount of this saving. It is certain,
however, that unless the reductions of temperature be greater

* Continued from p, 272,

292

than can be readily conceded, they will not be sufficient to
account for so Jarge an economy as is said to be realised.

Secondly, it is argued that the bubbles of air virtually afford an
extension of heating surface. So they do, in relationto the heat
carried in by the air ; but the air can only part with its heat by
lessening its direct contribution to the power of the engine.
Moreover, if the heat carried in by the air be insignificant in
quantity, as I believe it to be, the explanation fails in every poiat
of view.

Thirdly, it is stated that the action of the air prevents and even
removes incrustation, and thereby keeps the heating surfaces free
from all obstruction as regards the transmission of heat. Very
careful observation would be required to establish this fact ; but,
granting the fact, it would follow that the advantage of injecting air
would be limited by those cases in which deposit would otherwise
be formed. Ina boiler perfectly free from incrustation the injection
ofair ought to be nugatory, but this does not appear to be the case.

Fourthly, it has been ingeniously suggested by Mr. Siemens
that the air passing with the steam into the cylinder may form a
film on the interior surface capable of arresting, in a great mea-
sure, that condensation which is known to be so wasteful of
power in unjacketed cylinders, where the steam is used expan-
sively. It is highly probable that the air would really accumu-
late in this manner against the sides of the cylinder ; because,
while the particles of steam sank down into water, the particles of
air wouldremain. It is also pretty clear that this film of air would
intercept the abstraction of heat by the cooled material of the
cylinder ; but if we admit this mode of action, then it would seem
to follow that it is only in the absence of a steam jacket to the
cylinder that the economy of injecting air is realised, and in fact
that the injection of air is merely a substitute for steam jacketing.
Moreover, if such be the action of the air, pumping into the
steam should, in this point of view, produce the same effect as
pumping into the water.

I have dilated upon this subject more, perhaps, than necessary,
but I have done so with a view to stimulate action in the matter,
for it is time that the doubts and obscurities which beset the
system should be cleared up, and its adoption or rejection be
brought to an issue. There is no class of steam-engine in which
economy of fuel is of so much importance as it is in marine
engines, for not only is it an object in steam navigation to di-
minish the cost of coal, but it is a still greater object to save
room, and thereby increase the space available for cargo. The
introduction of compound engines has enabled steam to be used
of much higher pressure than formerly, and with greatly in-
creased expansive action. The result has been a saving of about
50 per cent. in the consumption of coal, and I believe I am sub-
stantially correct in saying that in steam vessels, employed on
long voyages, this saving of coal has been attended with a four-
fold increase of the previous carrying power. It is highly
probable that still further reductions of fuel will be effected by
following in the same path, which has already lead to such great
economy. ‘The pressure of steam in marine engines is still far
inferior to that which is used in locomotive engines, and there is
no obstacle, of an insurmountable nature, against the expansive
action being increased proportionately to any further increase of
pressure.

But our efforts to increase the efficiency of marine engines
must not run too much in one groove. Recent improvements
have been almost exclusively directed to the mode of aff/ying
the steam, and but little attention has been paid to the mode of
producing it. The engine has advanced enormously in improve-
ment, but the boiler has actually receded ; for we now get less
evaporative effect from marine boilers than was obtained from
those previously in use. This diminution of effect has resulted
from changes made in the form of the boiler, to enable it to resist
the greater pressure of the steam ; but there is no inherent ne-
cessity for sacrificing evaporative power to meet this requirement,
as is proved by the example of the locomotive boiler, which,
while it produces steam of double the pressure of that supplied
by marine boilers, stands unrivalled in regard to evaporative
effect. The superiority of the locomotive boiler in regard to
evaporating power is chiefly due to the large capacity of its fire-
box, which affords ample space above thie surface of the fuel for
perfecting the combustion of the gases. In the old form of
marine boiler the flame space above and beyond the fire was also
very large, and the evaporation per pound of coal was nearly as
great as in the locomotive. But this advantage has been sacri-
ficed in the modern form of boiler, by adopting a cylindrical
fire chamber within the boiler, This form is very favourable to

NATURE

wv i ‘
r ty
‘ 7 ,

[Fes. 13, 1873

strength, but it affords very little head-room over the fire, and
the consequence is that, although the tubular heating surface is
relatively as great as before, the evaporation per pound of coal
has fallen considerably. I do not say that the locomotive form
of boiler, pure and simple, is that which ought to be adopted
for marine engines, but it is well worth consideration, whether
by adopting the same principle of gonstruction, a more efficient
boiler would not be obtained fer marine engines. A more
powerful draught would probably be required than is now neces-
sary, but this could be obtained by known mechanical methods,
applied either to draw air through the furnaces, or to force it
into a closed stoke-hole. The production of draught by aux-
iliary power, would have the great advantage of enabling the
rate of combustion to be regulated at pleasure, so as to meet the
varying demand for steam, and it would also facilitate the appli-
cation to marine boilers of mechanical firing, which does not
succeed with a slow draught, and requires a variable draught to
meet the fluctuating production of steam required at sea. The
great number of stokers required in large steamers, the severity
of the work, and the inefficiency of the method they pursue, as
evidenced by the dense clouds of smoke they produce, render
the introduction of mechanical firing in such vessels a matter of
the utmost importance; and I do not believe that any of the
difficulties which appear to stand in the way are incapable of
removal.

I must not dismiss the subject of steam power without some
allusion to its application to agriculture. In no description of —
steam-engine has economy of fuel been more perseveringly and
successfully followed out than in engines for agricultural use ;
and Mr. Bramwell, in his late address to the Mechanical Section
of the British Association, does full justice to the mechanical
engineers who have ben the means of bringing these engines to
such a high degree of efficiency. It is satisfactory to see that
the application of steam to the cultivation of the land, and to
every kind of farming operation, is rapidly extending ; for if the
food producing power of the land has to be increased, it must be
by substituting, as far as possible, the comparatively cheap
power of steam, for the labour, both of men and horses, The
greatly increased demand for labour in manufacturing occupa-
tions, as well as for mining and constructive purposes, will cer-
tainly diminish the supply of rural labour and increase its cost.
Such a result is not to be regretted, considering how miserably
ill requited farm labour in most parts of England has been ; but
unless the growing cost of agricultural labour and of horse work
can be counterpoised bya more extensive use of steam power,
we may expect much of the land in this country to be thrown
out of cultivation. Very different are the views of those who
maintain that food would be more economically produced by
increasing, instead of diminishing, the labour employed on the
land. Such is the doctrine of those who advocate the parcelling
out of the land in small plots to peasant holders, and who even
contend that waste lands, incapable of profitable return by ordi-
nary treatment, could, by this means, be advantageously culti-
vated. It would, indeed, be a retrograde step to renounce the
aid of capital and mechanical skill in tillage, and fall back upon
the primitive system of spade husbandry. If there be a country
in the world where such a mode of cultivation is the best, that
country is assuredly not England, where all the resources of
science and skill are necessary to the maintenance of a large
population, under adverse conditions of soil and climate, and
where labour is more highly paid in manufacture than in agricul-
ture.

I have had considerable personal experience of steam cultiva-
tion, and am a thorough believer in its efficacy ; but I may here
draw attention to a very general subject of complaint concerning
the machinery and implements employed for the purpose.
refer to the frequency of breakages due to insufficient strength in
the construction. If makers of the apparatus, used in all the
varieties of steam tillage, could only be induced to be more
liberal in the use of material, the introduction of their machines
would be very greatly accelerated.

I must also touch upon the subject of steam traction on com-
mon roads, which has lately received a considerable impulse from
the introduction of Mr. Thomson’s invention of India-rubber tyres.
The number of horses in this country is enormous, and being great
consumers of food, their maintenance isa heavy charge on the re-
sources of the nation, Next to human power, horse power is the
most expensive that we can use, and we may welcome the dawn
of a period when steam will, to a great extent, supplant animal
power in our streets and highways.

But these, and all other extensions of steam power, involve
consumption of coal, and we may well look with anxiety
fo our diminishing stock of this precious mineral, which, when
‘once expended, can never be replaced. It will therefore, be a
fitting conclusion to this address briefly to review the results ar-
rived at by the late Royal Commission, of which I was a member,
as t6 the extent of our available coal and its probable duration.
I will not trouble you with the vast amount of detailed inform-
ation collected by the Commissioners as to the extent ofthe British
coal fields, nor with the elaborate calculations of the quantities of
coal which those coal fields contain, but I will chiefly direct my
observations to those points of the inquiry which fall within the
province of mining and mechanical engineering, and to the broad
conclusions at which the Commissioners arrived.
It being well known that a great extent of our coal lies at depths
greatly exceeding those of our present deepest mines, it was essen-
tial to the inquiry that the limit of possible depth of working
should be approximately defined. One of the committees, there-
fore, into which the Commission was divided, was entrusted with
this branch of the subject, and having acted in the capacity of
chairman to that committee, I am especially familiar with its pro-
ceedings. It fortunately happens that water is never met with in
large quantities at great depths, and it is easy to exclude it from the
upper portion of a deep shaft, by the modern process of encasing
the shaft with cast-iron segments. Nothing, therefore, is to be
feared on the score of excessive pumping power being required ;
neither would there be any practical difficulty in drawing coals
from the utmost depth to which we should have todescend. Steel
Wire ropes tapering in thickness towards the downward end, would
not be overstrained by their own weight added to the usual load,
and even if the depth were carried to such an extreme as to render
strain on the rope due to its weight a serious difficulty, the
alternative of drawing at two stages could be adopted.
With regard to explosive gas it might have been anticipated
that the greater superincumbent weight upon deep coal would
Cause more gas to exude, and thereby render the workings more
fiery, but this does not appear to be the case. On the contrary,
the evidence given before the committee on this point was to the
effect that the evolution of gas appeared generally to diminish with
increase of depth. In short, the only cause which it is necessary
to consider as limiting the practicable depth of working, is the
increase of temperature which accompanies increase of depth.
The rate of this increase of temperature is about 1° F. for every
feet in depth, starting from 50 feet from the surface, where
temperature is in this country 50° at all seasons. The ques-
ions involved in this increase of temperature are, at what depth
would the air become so heated as to be incompatible with human
labour, and what means could be adopted to reduce the tem-
erature of the air in contact with the heated strata. A great
of interesting evidence was heard by the Commission as to
the limit of human endurance of high temperature. The natural
nperature of the human body, or rather of the blood which
lates through it, is 98°. A higher temperature is the con-
ion of fever, and the maximum of fever heat appears to be
105°. Labour appears to be impossible, except for very
rt intervals when the external conditions are such as to in-
Crease materially the normal temperature of the blood. The tem-
perature of the air may be considerably in excess of 98° without
unduly heating the blood, provided the air be very dry, because
the rapid evaporation which then takes place from the body keeps
down the internal temperature; but if the air be humid, this
‘counter-action does not take place, or not in a sufficient degree,
ad then the blood absorbs heat from the surrounding medium
and the condition of fever sets in. Now, in a coal mine, the air
is never very dry, and is often very moist, and we must, therefore,
egard a temperature of 98° in a coal mine as the extreme limit
that could be endured by men performing the work of. miners.
For my part, I believe this temperature is beyond the limit of
jossible continuous labour in a mine, and most persons familiar
with the interior of coal mines will agree with me in thinking that
even 90° would prove a very distressing temperature, and one
hich would render the cost of labour much greater than usual.
However, granting the practicability of working in a coal mine in
atmosphere at 98°, the next question is, what depth would
involve that temperature of the air? The depth at which the
earth would exhibit 2 temperature of 98° would be about 3,000
feet, but it is a different question at what depth the air circu-
ng through the mine would acquire that temperature. The air
g cold when it enters the workings at the bottom of the shafi,

293

through which it flows. As it travels along it continues to absorb
heat, but less rapidly as its own temperature increases, The
rate of absorption is complicated by the superficial cooling
of the passages by the contact of the air. This cooling
action is necessarily greatest near the shaft, where the air is
coldest, and diminishes by increase of distance, so that both the
air, and surfaces against which it sweeps, become hotter as the
length of the air-course is increased. The progress towards com-
plete assimilation of temperature is much slower in the perma-
nent air courses than at the working face of the coal, because the
coal at the face being newly exposed is hotter, and therefore com-
municates heat more readily to the air. In any case, however,
the air will eventually acquire the heat due to the depth, if its
contact with the strata be sufficiently prolonged. It follows,
therefore, that the temperature of the air in a mine depends on
the extent of the workings as well as on the depth of the pit.
But great depth involves extensive workings, because the cost of
the sinking could only be repaid by working a large area of coal.
Extremely deep mines will consequently possess doth the con-
ditions tending to produce a high temperature of the air, and
unless those conditions can be counteracted by some artificial
expedient, the air would acquire the temperature of 98°, assumed
to be the limit of practicable labour at a depth not greatly ex-
ceeding 3,000 feet. -

It is a common idea that increase of temperature may be kept
down to any extent by increase of ventilation, but this opinion
will not bear examination. In the first place it requires an extra-
vagant increase of motive power to accelerate the velocity of the
current of air in any considerable degree, because the re-
sistance increases in a ratio somewhat exceeding the cube of
the velocity. In fact, the only way of materially increasing
the volume of air is by enlarging the sectional area of the
shafts and air-courses, which would be attended both with diffi-
culty and expense. Assuming, however, that it would be gene-
rally practicable to effect a large increase of ventilation under the
conditions incident to extremely deep mining, it is necessary to
consider what would be the cooling effect realised by so doing.
This is a very complex question, because the reduction of tempe-
rature ia the air increases the emission of heat from the strata, and
because the rate of absorption is affected, not only by difference
of temperature, but also by the velocity of the current.

The uncertainty on the question of the power of air to absorb
heat when flowing at different velocities and in different volumes
through heated air-courses, and the difficulty of reasoning out
any conclusion upon the subject led me to make, for the guidance
of the committee, a series of experiments in which air was forced,
in varying quantities, through pipes of different lengths and sizes,
immersed in hot water, the temperatures being observed at the
point of emergence. In these experiments the pipes were re-
garded as representing, on a small scale, the air-courses of a
deep mine; the hot water being the equivalent of the heated
strata through which the air would be conveyed. The particulars
of these experiments will be found in the appendix to the evidence
taken by the committee, and the results are embodied in tables,
illustrated by diagrams, which show the progressive heating of
the air as it travels along the passages, and exhibit the reductions
of temperature effected by successive increments of the volume
of air. From these tables and diagrams it will be seen that,
with short pipes, representing short distances from the shaft, in-
creased circulation has considerable effect in lowering tempera-
ture ; but with pipes representing long distances from the shaft,
the cooling effect of increasing the volume of air becomes insig-
nificant. The conclusion to which the committee came, as to
the depth at which coal could be worked, is expressed in the
following words :—‘‘ The depth at which the temperature of the
earth would amount to 98° would be about 3000ft. Under the
long-wall system of working a difference of about 7° appears to
exist between the temperature of the air and of the strata at the
working faces ; and this difference represents a further depth of
420 ft., so that the depth at which the temperature of the air
would, under present conditions, become equal to the heat of the
blood, would be about 3,420 ft. Beyond this point the consider-
ations affecting increase of depth become so speculative, that the
committee must leave the question in uncertainty ; but they con-
sider that it may be fairly assumed that a depth of at least
4,000 ft. could be reached.” : ':

The committee decline to deal with hypothetical expedients
for overcoming the difficulties, but they recognised the possibility
of future discovery and experience counteracting, in some un-

bsorbs heat with great avidity from the surfaces of the passages | known degree, the effects of heat and humidity in restricting the

294

depth of working. It will, therefore, be for mining and mechani-
cal engineers to bring all the resources of their science to bear
upon this difficult problem of counteracting terrestrial heat, at
depths where it approaches the limit of human endurance. The
Commissioners adopting 4,000 ft. as the probable limit of prac-
ticable depth, came to the conclusion that there exists in this
kingdom an aggregate quantity of about 146,480 millions of tons
of available coal. If we assume that the future population of
this country will remain constant, and that the consumption for
domestic and manufacturing purposes, including exportation, will
continue uniform at the present quantity, or merely vary from
year to year without advancing, then our stock of coal would
represent a consumption of 1,273 years. But if, on the other
hand, we assume that population and consumption will go on
increasing at the rate exhibited by the statistics of the last fifteen
years, or, I might probably say, of the last fifty years, had accu-
rate statistics been so long recorded, then the whole quantity of
coal would, as shown by Mr. Jevons, be exhausted in the short
space of 110 years. It will be generally admitted that the truth
is likely to lie between these two extremes. The Commissioners
refrained from expressing an opinion as to what the period of
duration would actually be, but they presented certain alternative
views of the question, resulting in periods varying from 276 to
360 years. But, all these estimates of duration have reference
to the time required for absolute exhaustion of available coal,
and leave untouched the important question of how long we are
likely to go on before we become a coal-importing instead of a
coal-exporting country. The computation of quantities made by
the Commissioners, includes all coal seams exceeding 1 ft. in
thickness, whatever the quality may be, and it is obvious that
vast quantities of such coal can never be worked, except at a
price which would render it more advantageous to purchase coal
from abroad than to work it from such unfavourable beds. If,
at the present time, while working our best and most available
coal, our markets will barely exclude the coal of Belgium, what
will be our position when driven to inferior coal more costly to
work? If we Jook to cheaper labour for enabling us to work
less valuable coal, I fear we shall look in vain ; but there is one
hope for a longer endurance of our prosperity as dependent on
our coal, and that hope rests on the skill and perseverance of
mining and mechanical engineers, who, even now, are called
upon to lessen, by all the resources of mechanical science, the
amount of human labour required in coal mines.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Monthly Microscopical Fournal.—The first paper is
one of Mr. Parker’s excellent siudies, being on the osteology
of the head of the sparrow-hawk, The first paragraph
contains a generalisation which will surprise many orni-
thologists, for the Cariama is included among the raptorial
birds; is this a result of the study of the skull? ‘The accom-
panying drawings are excellent.—Dr. Royston-Pigyott gives
two articels, ‘Onan Aérial Stage Micrometer,” and ‘‘On the
Spherules which compose the Ribs of the Scales of the Red Ad-
miral Butterfly, and the Lepissna Saccharina.”—An ingenious
method of obtaining an equal illumination in both tubes of a
binocular is contributed by Mr. W. R. Bridgman; and Mr
Stewart endeavours to prove that the hair follicles of the negro’s
scalp are curved instead of straight ; he also describes clearly the
framework of the sucking feet of the Echinus.—These papers
are followed by abstracts of intcrest, including several from the
American journal, the Zevs,

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDON

Royal Society, Feb. 6.—“ Memoir on the Osteology of Hyo-
potamidze.” by Dr. W. Kowalevsky. The paper is intended to
fill a deficiency in our knowledge of the exrinct creation by giving
a complete osteology of one family of the Paridigitate Ungulate.
It has been supposed thay fossil representatives of this family
would exhibit a less reduced skeleton and a more complete
number of digits than recent genera; yet such is not the case,
The genera Anofplotherium and Liphodon present in their feet the
same degree of reduction as in recent Ruminants, save the con-
fluence in a canon-bone, Notwithstanding this, they have been
considered the progenitors of the Ruminautia, from a deficiency
in other forms. The present paper introduces a new form, known

NATURE

only by the teeth till now; these, the Ayofotamida, vary con-
siderably in specific and generic form, ranging from the Lower
Eocene up to the Lower Miocene period, and in size from a
rabbit to a hippopotamus. The Eocene species, except one
termed diplopus, have not lost the lateral digits, and are included
in the genus /Yyofotamus. The division of the Ungulata into
Paridigitata and J/mparidigitata mst have occurred about the
cretaceous period, as shown by the diversity exhibited by both
groups from the lowest Eocene. The former, the Paridigitata,
split very anciently, perhaps in the chalk, into those with tuber-
cular, and others with crescentic teeth. These groups, once —
separate, kept entirely apart, but frequently followed parallel
lines of descent, Following these two divergent lines of descent,
both groups culminate at the present time in such forms as Pha-
cocherus and Dicotyles for one group, and the Bovide for the —
other, links between these being absent. The Paridigitata with
crescentic teeth will be termed Par. selenodonta, and those with
tubercular Par. bunodonta. To the first group belong Axoplo-
therium, Liphodon, Hyopotamus, and others, together with the
existing ruminants, whilst the second embraces the Swina, Hippo-
potamina and Entelodon, There is in some cases difficulty in
deciding whether the teeth are tubercular or crescentic, the lobes
being so thick.

It is important to find some osteological characters to confirm
the above division, and the hand and foot from their variations
suggested probable data. In tracing the Paridigitata in time,
there is a marked tendency to the gradual reduction of the
manus and pes, and an advantage to the individual apparently
arises from the simplification. By comparison of all forms, a
simple structure of the manus and pes may be obtained, such
as was probably possessed by the common ancestor, and such a
typeis nearly retained by Hippopotamus, and was possessed by
Hyopotamus. In none of these forms is the limb pentadactylate,
Supposing the feet to be pentadactylate, the following is the
disposition of the digits in the type :— The two outer digits (the
fourth and fifth) are always supported by one bone, the unciform
in the manus, and the cuboid in the pes; the three succeeding
inner digits are supported each by a separated bone, the third,
second and first cuneiform in the pes, and the os magnum, trape-
zoideum, and trapezium, in the manus. In the latter the third
digit touches the unciform, and the second the magnum; the
second digit of the pes touches the third cuneiform. The first
digit being lost in all Ungulata, the trapezium and first cuneiform
support the second digit.

Beginning with this type, which was probably exhibited by
the progenitors of the Paridigitata, the reduction along both
lines of descent may be followed, and in doing so a series of
parallel modifications may be obtained, though it is found among
the crescent-toothed line thatthe reduction is much more rapid than
along the tubercular toothed. By reduction of the foot is meant
that locomotion is carried on by the two middle toes instead of
by the original four ; and this seems to be an advantage to the
organism, as it is exhibited by all descending lines of Ungulata.
Going further into detail, it is found that both in Selenodont
and Bunodont Paridigitata, a two-fold method of reduction of
the manus and pes, a simple or zzadaptive, and an elaborate or
adaftive method is observed. In the first or zzadaptive mode of
reduction, the foot, whilst losing its lateral digits, acquires no
better adaptation to altered circumstances of locomotion than is
derived from the mere thickening of the remaining digits. The
relation between the carpal and tarsal bones, and the remaining —
two metacarpal and metatarsals, remains unaltered, and the —
remaining digits do #ot enter into any modification by which they
can receive more ample support from the carpal and tarsal
bones, by taking the place formerly occupied by the reduced
digits. Anoplotherium, Liphodon, and Hyopotamus, are
examples of this method of reduction, -

In the second or adaptive method of reduction, the midile
digits grow larger and thicker than in the first mode ; but while
broadening transversely they du not adhere to the ancestral type,
but tend to gain a support on a@// the bones of the carpus and
tarsus, pushing the lateral digits tu the side and thereby gaining —
a better and more complete support for the body. The lateral”
digits, being rendered useless, tend to disappear, and the remain-
ing digits, being pressed from both sides by the carpal and
tarsal bones, tend to coalesce to form the canon bone of recent
ruminants, or of the hind fout of Dicoty/es. In this, the adaptive
method, modification keeps pace with inheritance, and examples
of it may be seen in Sws, Dicotyles, Hyemoschus, and the
Ruminants. =S

- All-extinct Paridigitata follow the first or inadaptive mode of
eduction, whilst all living genera follow the second. Did the
mer not become extinct because of their incapacity to adapt
selves to altered circumstances, and the latter survive from
ig able to adapt themselves more fully to those circumstances?
om an examination of fossil remains, it is found that the
digitates, of the genus Hyopotamus, were Selenodonta of
1¢ inadaptive line of descent, inheritance in them being stronger
than modification. " Among the Bunodonta following the 77-
adaptive method, the old representatives are but little known,
Listriodon and Elotherium being the most certain, and the latter
apparently didactylate.
ollowing the adaptive method, among the Selenodonta are
Cherotherium, Paleocherus, and the Swme, and the culminating

or most reduced stage is not yet reached among the Suna, but
it is certainly the direclion in which they tend. Among the
Bunodonta there is great difficulty in tracing the line of descent
whence originate the Ruminantia. From the existence of ye-
moschus we may predict that they were originally tetradactylate,
nd there are many other intermediate condi ions, as Tragu/us
and Gelocus.

“Magnetic Survey of Belgium in 1871.” By Rev, S. J. Perry.
The magnetic observations which furnished the results con-
3 ed in this paper were made ducing the Autumn months of
71.
_ The instruments used and the methods adopted were almost
identical with those employed in previous magnetic surveys
pf France.
_ The dip was observed by Mr. W. Carlisle, magnetic assistant
f Stonyhurst Observatory, and the rest of the observations were
taken by the Rev. S. J. Perry.
This new series of determinations of the terrestrial magnetic
elements was rendered the more necessary, as preceding observers
had chosen very few stations in Belgium, and as the curvature
of the isodynamics and isoclinals in Dr. Lamont’s maps of
Belgium, Holland, and North-west Germany, indicated a very
cons derable disturbing cause in the first-named country.
_ The values obtained in 1871 are a strong confirmation of the
spicions of irregularity, to which former observations had
given rise. For although the lines of equal dip, declination, and
horizontal force bear a sufficiently close resemblance to those of
neighbouring countries, there is evidence of much disturbance ;
‘and when the valves of the dip and horizontal force are combined,
the isodynamics show clearly that the coal-measures, which
‘stretch completely across the south-east portion of Belgium,
exercise a strong disturbing influence. This local magnetism
ight be incapable of producing more than a decided curvature
of the isodynamics of an extended tract of country; but when
all the stations of observation are situated within narrow limits,
the perturbation completely masks the normal direction of the
lines.
The following is a complete list of the magnetic elements
observed at the different stations, and reduced to the common
epoch of January 1, 1872.
Station.

Declination. Dip. Horizontal force, Intensity.

°o °
Aix-la-Chapelle.. 16°464 66°637 4°c064 10"1025
17°349 67°210 39518 10°2016
17489 — 66°999 3°9296 10°0559
16°398 65907 4°1175 10°0857
177938 67155 3°8950 10'0321
17°959 66°975 3°9613 To"1271
17°756 66678 4/0028 IO°1103
17°823 67'221 39197 10°1232
16'233 66464 4°0145 10°0522
_ 66948 —_— —_
16°824 66 898 3°9565 10°0828
— 66°714 = “=
17216 66°573 4°0065 10°0767
17°541 667538 3°9941 100311
18°097 67 211 39152 10°1077
16627 66°653 4°0239 1071531
Pewee... | 17° 6O% 66°632 3°9975 10°0776
Tronchiennes.... 17°867 67°361 3°9032 10°1397
‘Turnhout. Mes 1'7 O25 66-113 3°9542 10°1665
BeEEviers. . cnauieeck _ 66°718 ~ _ --
Secular variation —o'1255 -0'0573 +0°00542 —O'OII55

'
_ Zoological Society of London, February 4.—Professor
Huxley, F.R.S., V.P., in the chair.—A letter was read from

295

Mr. Henry W. Piers, late acting curator of the South African
Museum, Capetown, containing remarks on a specimen of the
Chimera australis.—Mr. E. Blyth exhibited and made remarks
on some Tiger Skins from India, Burmah and Siberia. —A com-
munication was read from Mr. R. Meldola, containing remarks on
a certain class of cases of variable protective colouring in insects.
—A communication was read from Mr. G, Gulliver, F.R.S.,
containing a series of measurements of the Red Blood Corpus-
cles of various Batrachians.—A paper was read by Dr. A.
Giinther, F.R.S., containing an account of certain species of
Reptiles and Batrachians, obtained by Dr. A. B. Meyer in Ce-
lebes and the Philippine Islands.—A communication was read
from Mr, A. G. Butler, containing a monographic revision of the
genera Zephronia and Sphevotherium of the sub-order Myrio-
poda, together with descriptions of some new species of these
genera.—A communication was read from Mr, G, French
Angus, containing descriptions of eight species of Land and
Marine Shells from various localities:—Messrs, P. L. Sclater
and Osbert Salvin read the sixth of a series of papers on Peru-
vian Birds, collected by Mr. H. Whitely, in the Andes of
Peru. The present communication contained an account of
eighty species, collected principally at Cosnipetz, in the province
of Cuzco.—A communication was read from Mr. H. Whitely,

containing notes on the Humming Birds collected and observed |

by him in the Andes of Peru.—A communication was read from
Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., on the genus Ocadia, which he con-
sidered should be referred to the family Bataguride.

Chemical Society, February 6,—Dr. Williamson, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair.—A communication was made by
Dr. H. &, Armstrong ‘‘ On the action of Sodium on Aniline,”—
A paper on ‘‘ Anthrapurpurine,” by Mr, W. H. Perkin, was
then read by the author. Anthrapurpurine is a colouring matter
which accompanies alizarine in the crude “artificial alizarine,”
now so largely manufactured and employed in dyeing instead of
madder. Like alizarine it is capable of imparting brilliant and
fast colours to cloth mordanted with alumina or iron.—A paper
was also read by Dr. C. R A. Wright on ‘Isomerism in the
terpene family of hydrocarbons.” In it he gives an account
of his experiments with oil of nutmegs and oil of orange-peel.

Anthropological Institute, Feb. 4.—Col. A. Lane Fox,
vice-president, in the chair.—Mr. W. L. Distant read a paper on
the inhabitants of Car Nicobar.” The people of Car Nicobar
are taller than the average Malay, and darker in the colour of
the skin, Their faith in a good spirit is slight, and in an evil
spirit, which is invested with a personality, is strong. Their
honesty is so well known that traders at once deliver their stores
on the promise of these islanders to pay the necessary number of
cocoanuts in return ; and the promise is always fulfilled. They
take but one wife, and adultery is severely punished.—A paper
by Mr. J. E. Calder was read on the extirpation of the native
tribes of Tasmania.” The author who had had the advantage
of above forty years’ experience of the Tasmanians, entered very
fully into their physical and mental characteristics, habits, cus-
toms, and modes of warfare, and the causes which led to the
rapid extinction of all the tribes. They were intelligent, capable
of considerable culture, and showed every disposition to become
civilised ; but the abundant supply of food induced indolence,
which, together with the sudden and violent change of habit
from savage to civilised life was one of the chief causes of ex-
tinction. The chairman announced tlie appointment of a Com-
mittee of Psychological Research. .

Entomological Society, January 27, Annual Meeting.—
Professor Westwood, president, in the chair. Statement of
treasurer's account for 1872 read, and report of council.—Pro-
fessor Westwood was re-elected as president for 1873, Messrs.
S. S. Saunders, G. H. Verrall, C.O. Waterhouse and J.J. Weir,
new members of council ; Mr. McLachlan as treasurer ; Messrs.
F. Grut and G. H. Verrall, secretaries, and|Mr, E. W. Janson as
librarian.— ‘he president delivered an address on the progress
of entomology during the past year.

Geologists’ Association, Feb. 7.—The Rev. T. Wiltshire,
M.A., the retiring president, in the chur. —Henry Wood-
ward, F.G.S., was elected president for 1873; and Robert
Etheridge, F.R.S., Prof. Morris, F.G.S., James Thorne, F.S.A.,
and the Rev. T. Wiltshire, M.A., vice-presidents. Messrs. W.
Hislop, J. L. Lobley, and A. Bott were re-elected treasurer,
honorary secretary, and honorary librarian respectively. The
report for the year 1872 shows the association to be in a
flourishing state, and was unanimously adopted.

2096

ec ean

NATURE

BS hh

MANCHESTER

Literary and Philosophical Society, Dec. 24, 1872.
—The president, Dr, J. P. Joule, F.R.S., drew attention
to the increasing number of cases of hydrophobia.
There was every reason for believing that this
dreadful disorder was communicated from one
animal to another by a bite, and seldom, if ever,
was spontaneously developed. Inasmuch there-
fore as the effects of a bite nearly always occurred
within four months, it would only be necessary to
isolate all dogs for that period in order to stamp
out the disease. That was the opinioa of Dr.
Bardsley, whose elaborate paper will be found in
the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Society,
and probably gave rise to the practice of confining
dogs at certain periods of the year, which has
unfortunately been rendered to a great extent
nugatory in consequence of having been only
partially adopted.

Jan. 7.—The president referred to the great
loss which the Society had experienced by the
death of one of its most distinguished honorary
members, Dr. Rankine ; called away in the prime
of life, his loss is one of the most severe that
could have befallen science.—Mr. William H.
Johnson called attention to the action of sulphuric
and hydrochloric acids on iron and steel. If after
immersion for say ten minutes in either of these
acids a piece of iron or steel be tested, its tensile
strength and resistance to torsion will be found to
have diminished. Exposure to the air for several
days, or gentle heat will, however, completely re-
store its original strength. Prolonged immersion

“in acid has a tendency to produce a crystalline
structure in even the best wrought iron.

January 21.—The president explained a sim-
ple apparatus by means of which a very high
degree of rarefaction of air could be produced
with much facility, and which might in some cir-
cumstances be found preferable to the common air-
pump or even the Sprengel. It consists of a glass
funnel @ surmounting a globe 4, from the lower
part of which a tubee¢ descends to a jar of mercury
d, ‘The tube e, in connection with the receiver to
be exhausted, is furnished with a vulcanised india-
rubber plug which fits into the neck of the funnel.
In using the apparatus the stopcock / is shut and
the funnel filled with mercury. Then by lifting
the tube e with its plug, the mercury fills the globe
éand the pipe c. The tube eis then replaced,
and the stop-cock being opened, the mercury de-

scends in c, emptying the globe. By returning the mercury into
the funnel by means of a pump, or more simply, by lifting the
jar d, the process is repeated until the requisite degree of rare-
faction is produced.

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Jan. 27.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
deat, in the chair.—M. A. Trecul read the second part of his
paper on the carpellary theory of the Papaveracez. This portion
of the paper treats of Glaucium and Lschscholtaia.—M. Boussin-
gault read a note on alimentary substances preserved by cold.
‘The author exposed-geveral articles of food to a temperature of
— 20° for several hours in closed flasks ; this was in 1865. he
substances are now perfectly sound and free from putrefaction.
—-M. Th. Lestiboudois read the continuation of his paper on
the structure of the He/erogene.—M. Marés read a note on the
vine sickness characterised by Phylloxera. The paper was re-
ferred to the commission on that subject.—A letter from M. I.
Pierreon the determination of the boiling point of liquid sulphurous
anhydride was then read. The method coasists in introducing a
thermometer, through a pierced cork, into a thin tube con-
taining the anhydride. Another hole in the cork holds
an exit tube; the apparatus is then suspended in the air,
the SO, begins to boil, and the thermometer is then read.
—M. Faye presented M. Heis’s ‘f Atlas ccelestis novus,” and
made some quotations from it on the number of stars visible
to the naked eye; the author can see many stars put down
by other astronomers as of the 7th or 8th magnitude.—M.
L. d’Henry read a paper on the use of the mono-chromatic

sodium light in observing the tints of litmus in alcalimetry. The
author finds that this reaction is much more easily seen by the
yellow light.—M. Ch. Valson sent a note on the modulus of
refrigerating power in saline solutions. —MM. C. Friedel and R.
D. Silva sent a note on a new tertiary alcohol, &c.; M. H..
Joulie a note on the commercial estimation {of nitrates; and
MM. Gayon one on the spontaneous alteration of eggs: the
author finds the putrid eggs full of yibriones ; he intends to seek
for the origin of these bodies—M. Gréyhant sent a note on the
estimation of carbonic oxide combined with hzemoglobin,—M. F.
Pisani sent a paper on the analysis of Jeffersonite from New
Jersey, and on the analysis of Arite from Mount Ar (Basses
Pyrénées).—M. S. Chautrain sent a paper on the reproduction
of eyes in the crayfish. The author has cut out the eyes of the,
crustacean, and finds that they grow again in about eleven
months.

DIARY
THURSDAY, Yesruary 13.

Roy at Society, at 8.30,—On Curvature and Orthogonal Surfaces: Prof.
cay —On a New Relation between Heat and Electricity: Prof.
Guthrie

Society or ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—On a Brass Bowl of the r2th century :
'T. A. Gardiner —On Early Deeds and Charters: R. H. Wood.

MaritemaTicat Society, at 8 —On Systems of Linear Congruences : Prof,
H. J. S. Smith.—Application of the Hodograph to the Solution of Pro-
blems on Projectiles : J. Macleod.

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 14.

ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 8.—Anniversary.

Roya Institution, at 9.—On Recent Progress in Weather Knowledge ;
R. H. Scott.

QueketT Cvvs, at 8.

SATURDAY, Feervary 15.
Royat InstiruTIon, at 3.—Comparative Politics : Dr. E. A. Freeman,
SUNDAY, Frsruary 16.
Sunpay Lecture Sociery, at 4.—Pre-Historic Fortifications : Lawson

Tait.
MONDAY, Frpruary 17-

Lonpon INstITUTION, at 4.—Physical Geography: Prof. Duncan.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.

Asiatic Society, at 3.

COLLEGE oF SuRGEONS, at 4.—-Osteology ana Dentition of Extinct Mam-
malia, with their Geological and Geographical Distribution, &c.; Prof.
Flower (cluntcrian Lectures)

TUESDAY, Ferrvary 18.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—Note on the Macas Indians: Sir John
Lubbock, Bart.—On the Relation of the Parish Boundaries in the South
East of England to Great Physical Features: William Topley.

ZoOLoGIcAL Society, at 8.30.—Report on the Hydroida collected during
the Expeditions of H.M.S. Porcupine: Prof. G. J. Allman.—On (igitho-
gnathous Birds: W. K Parker.—Notes on the Anatomy of the Binturong
(Arctictis binturong): A, H_ Garrod.

Royat LInstiruTIon, at 3.—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.

Rutherford.
WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 19.

Society or Arts, at 8.

MereoroLoGiAt Society, at 7.—Description of an Electrical Self-regis-
trating Anemometer and Rain-gauge : Fenwick W. Stow.—On the Madras
Cyclone of May 2, 1872: Capt H. Toyabee.—On the Character of the
Storm of August 21-23, 1868, over the British Isles: Capt. T. O. Watson.
—On some Results of Meteorological Teclegraphy : Robert H. Scott.

Lonpon InstITuTION, at 7.—Paper and Discussion.

CoLLeGE or SURGEONS, at 4.—Hunterian Lectures.

BOOKS RECEIVED

Encuiisu.—On the Miracle recorded in Joshua x.: Rev. E. Biley

(Hatchard).—Lessons on Elementary Anatomy ;: St. G. Mivart bag ereT
ForriGn.—Annuaire de l'Academie Royale de Belgique, 1873.—Lehrbui

der Physik: 2nd part, 1873—Fauna der Kieler Bucht, vol. ii.: H, A.

Mayer and R. Robins (Englemann: Leipzig).

CONTENTS

Pace
Mopvern AppcicaTions oF THE Doctrine oF NATURAL SELECTION.

By A. R. Waciace, PUGS. 3 <5 5 + © © ee © (ss eee
HACKEL ON SPONGES. «es ¢ ¢ + 5 = © = ota) 5)
Our Book SHELF. . ee Re ni
Lerrers To THE Epiror:--

Inherited Instinct.—CuHarvtes Darwin, F.R.S...°. « © « + « 280

The Unreasonable.—Prof. W. K. CuirrorpD . . - « « « « . 282

Prof. Clifford on Curved Space.—Dr. C. M.InNGteBY. . . . . 282

Earthquake in Pembrokeshire.—Rey. T. W. Wenn, M.A.,F.R.A.S 283

Meteorology of the Future. —L. TROUVELOT . . « » » © « « 283

Deep Wells.—W. HOPE = 2 9. 5 « a LSA ree ee
Tue GRESHAM LECTURES ON PHysic. « - « « « » «+ « « « - 283
‘Tue Birru or Cuemisrry, VIL. By G, F Ropwett, F.C.S. (With

Illustrations.) ec Na eR ry or er eee re ye
GuacreR Morion. By JoHN AITKEN .. 2. 6 + + «© « © « « 287
Sup-WEALDEN EXPLORATION. «© 2 © . 2 © 8 + «6 © « «se eSB
Nores . ee ee SCM
On THE Coat Qugstion, IL. By Sir W. ArmstrRonG, C.B., F.R.S.. 291
ScreNTIFIc SERIALS. sis 95 6% + «© : oye
SOCIETIES AND ACADBMIES + + 2 ¢ © «+ + «© « © 6 + =e (204
Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED. . . - + + « + «© « © © 5 290 |
DIARY. . . » + + goes sue) > © 5 2 -onste leer

THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 20, 1873,

THE PRESERVATION OF OUR NATIONAL
MONUMENTS

pp BE necessity of some measures being taken for the
preservation of our national pre-historic monu-
ments is constantly being forced upon public attention by
the acts of destruction so frequently reported in the
newspapers, and which, it would appear, the power of
public opinion is by itself unable to prevent.
We have only to refer to any archeological work which
treats of our cromlechs and dolmens, and other megalithic
monuments, to see at once how fearfully many of them
_ have been mutilated, if they have not been absolutely de-
stroyed within the last century or two, The disappear-
ance of the monolith near Kit’s Coty House, which,
though fallen in Stukeley’s time, was still there to mark
what was then known as “the general’s grave;” the
hopeless confusion into which the “ Countless Stones,”
also near Aylesford, have been thrown ; the cairns within
the circle, known as Long Meg and her Daughters, which,
since Camden’s time, have vanished, while the Daughters
appear to have been reduced in number from 77 to 68 ; the
double row of immense stones near Shap, the destruction of
which has been so great that a village has been almost
entirely built out of their remains ;—these are but a few
examples of this kind culled at random from Fergusson’s
“ Rude Stone Monuments.”
It was, moreover, only last year that a portion of Ave-
bury, a monument perhaps only second in importance to
Stonehenge, was threatened, and was only saved for pos-
terity by the public-spirited liberality of Sir John Lubbock,
who purchased the site.
With barrows and earthworks the destruction has been
equally rapid, though less noticed. We have, however,
seen an expostulation in the Z7zzzes on the subject of the
_vallum of an ancient circular camp being converted into
‘bricks, and the threatened destruction of Casar’s Camp
at Wimbledon is still a matter of public interest.
_ It is, perhaps, rarely the case that these monuments are
destroyed in a merely wilful manner; it is usually from
economical motives. The barrows offer a mound of soil
well adapted for being carted away to give a top dress.
ing to some neighbouring field, and there is also the
secondary advantage, that their site, after the removal
_ of the mound, offers no impediment to the passage
of the plough. The stones of the megalithic monuments
_ offer supplies of material both for the purposes of building
_ and the repair of the neighbouring roads. As it was with
“the Egyptian mummies, which Cambyses or Time had
spared and which Avarice now consumeth,” so it is with
these rude monuments of our forefathers. When the belief
was strong that “ Mizraim cured wounds,” there was some
cuse for “mummies becoming merchandise,” and
“Pharaoh being sold for balsams ;” but to dress our fields
with the sepulchral mounds of our predecessors, and to
break up their monuments for the repair of our barns
and roads, seems to us what Sir Thomas Browne would

NATURE ro 297

Session of Parliament, to make provision for the preserva-
tion of certain national monuments, which has now been
read a first time. The means adopted for dealing with
this somewhat difficult subject appear to us well calculated
for producing the desired result, and in a manner which
even those who consider they have a right to destroy any
monuments on their own property, cannot but regard as
equitable. ;

The conservation of monuments such as barrows, dol-
mens, menhirs, earthworks, stone-circles, &c., is placed
by the Bill under the charge of a body of Commissioners,
consisting of the Inclosure Commissioners, the Master of
the Rolls, the Presidents of the Societies of Antiquaries of
London and of Scotland, the Keeper of the British An-
tiquities at the British Museum, and three other Com-
missioners to be nominated by the Crown, Under their
charge are placed certain monuments specified in a Sche-
dule attached to the Bill; but, with the consent of the
Treasury, other monuments of a similar kind may, at any
future time, be brought under their control. When once
this has been done, any injury or damage to the monu-
ments will be treated as a malicious injury and become
penal, unless the written permission of the Commissioners
has been obtained, or they have declined to purchase
either the monument itself, or a power to restrain the
owner or occupier of it from injuring it during a certain
period of years.

Powers are given to the Commissioners to purchase the
freehold, or other estate, in any monument and rights of
way for the public to it, as well as to exercise the power of
restraint from injury. The amount of compensation to be
awarded under either head is to be determined under the
provisions of an already existing Act of Parliament ; but
in all cases the consent of the Treasury will be necessary
before there can be any outlay of public money.

These are the main provisions of the Bill, but the neces-
sary Clauses with regard to notices, powers of access, con-
servation of monuments, and other matters, have not been
omitted, and have evidently been carefully considered.
The Schedule attached to the Bill is at present appa-
rently undergoing revision, but about eighty of the prin-
cipal prehistoric monuments of the United Kingdom are
already specified.

It appears to us that it would be wise for the local so-
cieties in our different counties to furnish Sir John Lubbock
with catalogues of the principal monuments in their re-
spective districts, such as in their opinion ought to be
placed under the protection of the Commissioners, so as
to make the list as complete in the first instance as pos-
sible, and avoid the necessity of making continual additions
to it.

The mere fact of a barrow, dolmen, or camp, being
thought of sufficient importance to be cited by name in an
Act of Parliament would tend to raise it in the respect of
the inhabitants of the surrounding country, and in most
cases suffice to preserve it from wanton injury. The
general spread of education will also do much to encou-
rage a regard for our national antiquities, of which, not-
withstanding neglect in the past, we have still a fair num-
ber to show. Let us do what we can to preserve them ere
it be too late, and not let posterity charge the present gene-
ration with neglect, should at some future time a greater
interest arise in these relics of a dim past, and it then be

R

298

found that of monuments na i: all that can be said
will be “‘ Etiam periere ruinz.”

In France it is certainly the case that where a building
or other ancient structure is “classé comme monument
historique,” it is regarded with some degree of pride and
affection by those who live near it, and the necessary ex-
penses for the preservation of such monuments do not
appear to be grudged.

In this country, also, what small expense the Treasury
might incur in the defence and preservation of our na-
tional monuments would, we are sure, be cheerfully met ;
but we are inclined to think that it will only be in rare
and exceptional cases that any outlay whatever, beyond,
perhaps, the expense of a few notices, will be necessary.

Among the multitude of private Bills brought in at
the commencement of a Session, it is not always that the
doctrine of the “survival of the fittest” applies. In this
instance, however, we trust that the Bill will be exposed
to neither neglect nor mishap. It is supported by mem-
bers on both sides of the House; it does not appeal to
Party, but to the patriotism of the whole nation, and it is
brought in under the auspices of a member whose repu-
tation as an archzologist, though great throughout the
country, is exceeded by his popularity as the author of the
most successful measure of private legislation in modern
times—the Bank Holiday Act,

HERBERT SPENCER’S PSYCHOLOGY

The Principles of Psychology. By Herbert Spencer.
Second Edition. (London: Williams and Norgate.)

Me

O give readers some idea of the contents of a good
book is very often the most useful thing a reviewer
can do, Unfortunately that course is not open to us in
the present instance. The subject is too vast. We can-
not exhibit the grandeur ; we can only in a few general
phrases express our admiration of the profound, all-
embracing philosophy of which the work before us is an
instalment. The doctrine of evolution when taken up by
Mr. Spencer was little more than a crotchet. He has
made it the ideaof the age. Inits presence other systems
of philosophy are hushed, they cease their strife and
become its servants, while all the sciences do it homage.
The place that the doctrine of evolution has secured in
the minds of those who think for the educated public
may be indicated by a few names taken just as they occur,
Mr. Darwin’s works, the novels of George Eliot, Mr.
Tylor’s “ Primitive Culture,” Dr. Bastian’s “ Beginnings
of Life,” and Mr. Bagehot’s “ Physics and Politics,” have
almost nothing in common but the idea of evolution,
with which they are all more or less imbued. In a word
we have but one other thinker with whom in point of
influence on the higher thought of this, and probably of
several succeeding generations, Mr. Spencer can be
classed :—it does not need saying that that other is Mr.
J. S. Mill.

As we cannot present such an outline of Mr. Spencer’s
system of psychology as would make it generally intelli-
gible, the purpose of directing attention to the work will
perhaps be best served by selecting as the subject of
remark one or two points to which the presence of the
controversial element may lend a special interest. After

NATURE

[Fed. 20, 1873

pointing out that the cardinal fact brought to light when
nervous action is looked at entirely from the objective point
of view, is, that the amount and heterogeneity of motion ex-
hibited by the various living creatures, are greater or less
in proportion to the development of the nervous system,
Mr. Spencer comes to the vexed question of the relation
between nervous phenomena and phenomena of con-
sciousness. This is a subject about which in its more
subtle aspects there is much uncertainty and some
confusion of thought. It may be taken as established
that every mode of consciousness is a concomitant of
some nervous change. Given certain physical conditions
accompanied bya special state of consciousness, and
there is every reason to believe that physical conditions
in every respect identical, will always be attended by a
similar state of consciousness. This, and not more than
this, we think, was intended by Mr. Spencer in his chapter
on A®stho-physiology. Nevertheless, several able men
have, it would appear, been led to suppose that he coun-
tenances a kind of materialism (not using the word to
imply anything objectionable, for why not be materialists,
if materialism be truth ?), which forms no part of his philo-
sophy. To give precision and emphasis to what we say,
we would take the liberty to refer to the position taken
up by Dr. Bastian in his remarkably able and’ important
work on the “ Beginnings of Life.” The expression that
definitely raises the issue of which we wish to speak, and
which at the same time fixes Dr. Bastian to a view not in
harmony with the teaching of Mr. Spencer, is the
following :—“‘ We have not yet been able to show that
there is evolved, during brain action, an amount of heat,
or other mode of physical energy, less than there would
have been had not the Sensations been felt and the
Thoughts thought ;” but he believes that this is the case,
Our present object isnot so much to show that here
speculation has got on a wrong track, as that, if we
understand Mr. Spencer, it is not his opinion that any-
thing of this kind takes place; though certainly some
ambiguous phrases might be held to convey this meaning.
We have mentioned the significant fact that the size of
the nervous system holds a pretty constant relation to the
amount and heterogeneity of motion generated. The impli-
cationis that none of the motion evolved during nervous
action disappears from the object world, passes into
consciousness in the same sense that physicists speak
of momentum passing into heat ; that whether conscious-
ness arise or not, there will be for the molecular motion
set up in the nerve substance, exactly the same mechani-
cal equivalents. Whether, for example, those ganglia
that in the body of each one of us are employed in carry- —
ing on what we call reflex attion, are so many distinct
seats of consciousness, like so many separate animals, an
idea for which much has been said, or whether the nerve-
changes that go on in these ganglia have no subjective
side ; in either case the objective facts will remain the
same. If consciousness is evolved, it is not at the expense
of a single oscillation of a molecule disappearing from
the object world. No doubt it is hard to conceive. con-
sciousness arising in this apparently self-created way ;
but if any suppose that by using phrases that would
assimilate mind to motion they ease the difficulty, they
but delude themselves. It is as easy to think of con-
sciousness arising out of nothing, if they will, as to

Feb, 20, 1873]

conceive it as manufactured out of motion; that is to say,
_ the one and the other proposition are alike absolutely
unthinkable. On this point Mr. Spencer writes, “Can we
think of the subjective and objective activities as the same?
Can the oscillations of a molecule be presented in con-
sciousness side by side with a nervous shock, and the two
_ be recognised as one? No effort enables us to assimilate
them. That a unit of feeling has nothing in common
with a unit of motion, becomes more than ever manifest
when we bring the two into juxtaposition.” Mr. Spencer’s
idea is that feeling and nervous action are two faces of
the same ontological something,—a view that prohibits the
notion of the one passing into or being expended in pro-
ducing the other. The conclusion is that the transforma-
tions of physical energy remain unaffected by the presence
_ or absence of consciousness.

Psychology has as yet been made a serious study by
only a few individuals. Accordingly it is only the more
striking and easily grasped peculiarities of Mr. Spencer’s
system that can be referred to with advantage. Of these
the most imposing, and the one of which the educated
_ public have already a slight second-hand acquaintance,
is the doctrine that the brain and nervous system is an
organised register of the experiences of past generations,
_ that consequently the intelligence and character of indi-
viduals and of races depend much more on this, on the
experiences of their ancestors, than on their individual
experiences. The flood of light thrown by this conception
on so many things previously dark and unfathomable, its
power of bringing about harmony where before there was
nothing but confusion and unsatisfactory wrangling, ought
to have been sufficient to have secured it a universally
favourable reception. This, however, has not been the
case, and partly, perhaps, because of the very merits that
recommend it. It may be that veterans who have won
their laurels on, say, the battle-field of innate ideas, love
the old controversy, and are not anxious to learn that
_ both sides were right and both wrong. Moreover, it is
the misfortune of this important addition to psychology

that it shows that previous workers in this field of inquiry
nave at times been labouring in the dark to solve prob-
lems like in kind with the famous difficulty of accounting
for the supposed fact, that the weight of a vessel of water
is not increased by the addition of a live fish. For
‘instance, should Mr. Spencer be right, the celebrated
_ theory of the Will, elaborated by Prof. Bain, the able repre-
sentative of the individual-experience psychology, becomes
a highly ingenious account of what does not happen.
Thus, the new doctrine can be accepted only at the ex-
pense of giving up much of what has hitherto passed for
mental science.

The following sentences will serve to indicate Mr.
Spencer’s position : “‘ The ability to co-ordinate impres-
sions, and to perform the appropriate actions, always
implies the pre-existence of certain nerves arranged in a
certain way. What is the meaning of the human brain?
It is that the many esfad/ished relations among its parts
stand for so many esfadlished relations among the psy-
chical changes. Eachof the constant connections among
the fibres of the cerebral masses, answers to some con-
stant connection of phenomena in the experiences of the
“Those who contend that knowledge results
wholly from the experiences of the individual, ignoring as

NATURE

299

they do the mental evolution which accompanies the au-
togenous development of the nervous system, fall into an
error as great as if they were to ascribe all bodily growth
and structure to exercise, forgetting the innate tendency
to assume the adult form.” “The doctrine that all the
desires, all the sentiments, are generated by the experi-
ences of the individual, is so glaringly at variance with
facts, that I cannot but ponder how anyone should ever
have. entertained it.” The circumstances which account
for the existence of the individual-experience psycho-
logy, and which enable it still to hold out as a rival of the
more advanced form that Mr. Spencer has given to the
science are these: (1) the immaturity of the human in-
fant at birth; (2) the lack of precise knowledge with
regard to the mental peculiarities of the lower animals ;
(3) the still popular notion that the human mind does not
resemble the mental constitution of the animals, that it is
of a different order. Of course this last is now-a-days
little more than a popular superstition, nevertheless it
can be taken advantage of; and an argument to the
effect that the mental operations of the animals are, to
all appearance, so very different from the workings of the
human mind, that they can supply nothing more than a
worthless, if not a misleading analogy, has a very specious
and scientific look about it, in the eyes of those who are
not very well acquainted with the subject. Our ignorance
of animal psychology may be still more boldly drawn on
in defence of the theory under consideration. With a
hyper-scientific caution, its advocates refuse to take into
account anything (incompatible with their theory) con-
cerning any one species of animal that has not been
proved by a very overwhelmingly large number of very
accurate observations. And they find it possible to main-
tain that it still remains unproved that any species of
animal possesses either knowledge or skill not wholly
acquired by each individual. A better acquaintance with
the mental peculiarities of the animals is certainly a de-
sideratum, and we hope that this rich field of investigation
will not long remain uncultivated. In Macmillan’s Maga-
sine for this month there is an account of a series of
observations and experiments on young animals by the
present writer, which, unless they can be discredited,
may reasonably be expected to go far to establish the fact
of instinct, the fact of innate knowledge and unacquired
skill ; in other words, the phenomena on which the expe-
rience-psychology, minus the doctrine of inheritance, can
throw no light whatever. Now, had not Mr. Darwin
banished from every scientific mind the hypothesis of
the miraculous creation of each distinct species of animal
just as we see it, with allits strange organs and, to most
people, still stranger instincts, the presumption against
asystem of human psychology that not only can give no
account of the most striking phenomena in the mental
life of the animals, but which strongly inclines those who
hold it to pronounce such phenomena incredible, might
not have been so apparent. But in the present state of
our scientific knowledge, such a psychology, professing
to be a complete system, is self-condemned. Inits funda-
mental principles the science of mind must be the same
for all living creatures. Further, if man be, as is now
believed, but the highest, the last, the most complex
product of evolution, asystem professing to be an analy-
sis and exposition of his mind, yet confessing itself in-

300

competent to deal with the necessarily simpler mental
processes of lower creatures, must surely feel itself in an
uncomfortably anomalous position.

It is, however, on the first-mentioned circumstance, theim-
maturity of the infant at birth, that most stress can be laid.
The newly-born babe cannot raise its hand to its mouth,
and doubtless for a long time after birth it has no con-
sciousness of the axiom “things that are equal to the same
thing are equal to one another.” The helplessness of in-
fancy is pointed to as furnishing ocular demonstration of
the doctrine that, whatever may be the case with the ani-
mals, all humanknowledge, all human ability to perform use-
ful actions, must be wholly the resultof associations formed
in the life-history of each individual. But it can surely
require little argument to show that this is an entirely
unwarranted assumption. It might as well be main-
tained that because a child is born without teeth and
without hair, the subsequent appearance of these must be
referred wholly to the operation of external forces. Of
the several lines of argument that might here be em-
ployed, let us, for the sake of freshness, take the analogy
from the lower animals. We are not aware that it can be
asserted as the result of prearranged and careful ob-
servations, that any creature at the instant of birth ex-
hibits any of the higher instincts. A number of isolated
and more or less accidental observations have been re-
corded; and apparently on the strength of these Mr.
Spencer has made the following unqualified statement :—
“A chick, immediately it comes out of the egg, not only
balances itself and runs about, but picks up fragments of
food, thus showing us that it can adjust its muscular
movements in a way appropriate for grasping an object
in a position that is accurately perceived.” The fact is,
that on emerging from the shell, the chick can no more
do anything of all this than can the new-born child run
about and gather blackberries, But between the two
there is this great difference, that whereas the chick can
pick about perfectly in less than twenty-four hours, the
child is not similarly master of its movements in as many
months. Our present point is, that it can be shown by
experiment that the performances of the chick a day old,
which involve the perceptions of distance and direction
by the eye and the ear, and of many other qualities of
external things, are not in any degree the results of its
individual experiences. Let it now be remembered that,
in the absence of conclusive evidence to the contrary, it
has been considered a safe position to hold that the early
knowledge and intelligent action of the chicken “may
be, after all, nothing more than very rapid acquisitions,
the result of that experimentation, prompted by the
inborn or spontaneous activity.” May we now, on the
other side, similarly presume, until the contrary is shown,
that the more tardy progress of the infant is not because
its mental constitution has to be built up from the foun-
dation out of the primitive elements of consciousness,
which the chicken’s has not, but rather because the child
comes into the world in a state of greater physical, and
therefore mental immaturity? The progress of the infant,
however, has been so continually spoken of as if it werea
visible process of unaided acquisition, that it may give
some surprise when it is asserted from the other side that
we have no sufficiently accurate acquaintance with the
alleged acquisitions of infancy to justify the doctrine that

NATURE

i eee:

(Feb. 20, 1873

they are different in kind from the unfolding of the in-
herited instincts of the chicken. ‘To give definiteness to
the attitude taken up, we would say, for example, that the
facts concerning the early movements of the two lambs
and the calf observed by Prof. Bain, and which, looked at
from his point of view, were stfong confirmation of the
doctrine of individual acquisition, may be just as readily
interpreted as the unfolding of inherited powers ; which,
as far as we know, start into perfect action at the moment
of birth, in no single instance. From observations on —
several newly-dropped calves, the facts corresponding
substantially with those recorded by Prof. Bain, the pre-
sent writer could draw no conclusive evidence in favour
of either the one theory or the other. One observation,
however, may here be mentioned that seemed rather to
favour the doctrine of inheritance. A calf one hour old,
which had been staggering about on its legs forten minutes,
stepped out at the open door of the byre. It no sooner
found itself in the open air, than it began to frisk and
dance ; it was left entirely to itself, and whenit had been
on its legs fifteen minutes, it—apparently in obedience to
the feeling of fatigue—deliberately lay down, folding in
its limbs after the established manner of its kind. This
is all we know about calves; about children we know
nothing at all. And it may fairly be asked how, when
called in question, the assumption that underlies such
statements as the following can be made good. We quote
from Prof, Bain’s account of the growth of voluntary power.
He says :—“ The infant is unable to masticate; a morsel
putinto its mouth at first usually tumbles out, But ifthere
occur spontaneous movements of the tongue, mouth, or
jaw, giving birth to a strong relish, these movements are
sustained, and begin to be associated with the sensations;
so that after a time there grows up a firm connection,’
Bearing in mind that when born the child has no occa-
sion for the power of masticating solid food ; that the
ability to suck, which involves an equally complex series
of muscular adjustments, is what it requires, and this it
has by instinct ; bearing all this in mind, the question is,
why may not the innate ability to masticate be developed
by the time it is required quite as spontaneously as the
teeth used in the operation? Takeaparallel. The feeble
nestling when it leaves the shellis blind. One ofthe seve-
ral very pronounced and interesting instincts it exhibits at
this stage is, that in response to certain sounds it opens
its mouth and struggles to hold up its head to be fed.
Several weeks later it begins to pick for itself. Now we
put the question, is this second mode of filling its stomach
to be considered a pure acquisition, while its original
plan must certainly be regarded as pure instinct? No
one, we think, will venture to answer in the affirmative ;
the more so as this is a case that may any day be put to
the test of experiment. Where, then, is the evidence that
the analogous progress from drawing milk to masticating
solid food is of a different kind?
DoucLas A. SPALDING

OUR BOOK SHELF

Beitrige zur Biologie der Pflanzen.

von Dr. Ferdinand Cohn.
1872.)

THIS part contains the following memoirs :—Dr,

Ciesielski, “ Investigations on the downward Curvature

L Herausgegeben
Zweites Heft: (Breslau,

Feb. 20, 1873}.

of the Root.” Dr. Frank “ On the position and direction

of floating and submersed parts of plants.” Dr. Cohn

“On Parasitic Alge.” Dr. Schroeter “On certain

Pigments formed by the Bacteria,” and Dr. Cohn’s

‘Investigations on Bacteria.” a.

This work—Cohn’s “ Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen”
—is the organ more especially of the workers in the phyto-
physiological laboratory at Breslau, under the guidance
of the eminent Professor of Botany in the University
o) The first part appeared in 1870 (NATURE, vol. iil.

. 242).

P Dr. Ciesielski’s researches follow up the interesting

inquiries into the same subject opened a few years ago.

by Prof. Hofmeister and others. He sums up with the
following propositions :—

1. The normal growth of germinating seedlings may be
observed in a saturated atmosphere, ifthe albumen or
cotyledons be kept constantly moist, without the root
descending into either water or moist earth. The de-
velopment of the root ceases however as soon as the
reserve of nutrient matter in the seed is exhausted.

2. The longitudinal extension of the root takes place
exclusively in a relatively narrow region behind the tip.

3. The downward curvature of the root takes place at
that point where the longitudinal growth of its cells is at
a maximum.

4. Gravitation occasions the downward curvature.

5. This curvature is not passive but active; that is to
say, gravitation occasions in the root a tension of the
tissue whenever it departs from its normal direction, and
thus determines downward curvature.

6. This tension is due to the more considerable growth
of those cells which lie on the side of the root turned
towards the zenith.

7. The more marked growth of the cells of this side of
the root is occasioned by the circumstance that the cell-
contents of the upper side turned towards the zenith are
much less concentrated than in the under side ; which,
again,is due to the action of gravity which determines
that the more concentrated cell-sap, being the heavier,
shall occupy the under side of the root.

8. If the outermost tip (Vegetationskegel) of a root be
cut off, it may indeed elongate through mere extension
of its tissues, but it is no more capable of downward cur-

- vature.

9. If however it afterwards developes a new formative
apex, as occasionally happens, and so elongates at the
cut apex, the root again becomes capable of downward
curvature.

1o. Centrifugal force determines in a similar manner
and on ana'ogous ground, the curvature of the root in the
direction of this force, as does gravitation in that towards
the nadir.

The next thing will be to explain the relation of
ascending axes to gravitation. It would seem as though
heliotropismus and geotropismus had squabbled over the
embryo and compromised matters at last by each taking
a Vegetationskegel, one of the plumule the other of the
radicle, with its active future contro! !

Dr. Frank’s paper is an inquiry into the causes which
influence the position and direction of the floating and
submersed leaves of aquatic plants apart from the direct
operation of gravity and sunlight, which are not causes
directly produc ive of special modifications of growth, but
rather guides accorcing’ to which the organ in the course
of growth adjusts itself so far as itis able, until it has
attained a position the most advantageous to it.

Prof. Cohn’s memoir touches upon the question, of
peculiar interest just now, of the relation of the lower
forms of vegetable life destitute of chlorophyll to the
organic matter in which they find their matrix and to the
inorganic world, with regard to their power of assimilating
independently their necessary nutriment and reducing
carbonic acid. He also carefully describes as a new

NATURE s01

unicellular genus of truly parasitic alge, Chios ochytrium
(allied to AHydrocytium and the Chytriding) which he
finds inhabiting the fronds of Lemna trisulca. The
occurrence of this chlorophyll—containing alga in Lemna,
he regards as presenting an analogy with the presence of
the green gonidial layer in lichens, which he looks upon
similarly as an endophytal alga.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

The Janssen-Lockyer Application of the Spectroscope

I sEE by a letter in the Zxglish Mechanic and World of
Science of January 31, that Mr. R. A. Proctor claims for Dr.
Huggins the credit of having publicly described in Feb. 1868,
the method of viewing the solar protuberances without a total
eclipse.

Permit me to state that to Mr. Lockyer undoubtedly belongs
the credit of having known this method even before his preli-
minary paper in 1866 in which it was sufficiently published.
We had numerous. conversations on the subject, and when he
showed me the MS. of his preliminary paper and told me at
the same time that he was about to ask a grant for the purpose
of procuring a more powerful spectroscope, I advised him to
introduce his views in the shape of a question, which he accord-
ingly did in the following terms :—‘‘ May not the spectroscope
afford us evidence of the existence of the ‘red flames’ which
total eclipses have revealed to us in the sun’s atmosphere,
although they escape all other methods of observation at
other times? and if so may we not learn something from this of
the recent outburst of the star in Corona?”

I gave this advice to my friend, Mr. Lockyer, because I thought
that as it might be some time before he obtained the new instru-
neit it might be well thath: should publish what Ifconceived
would enable him to claim for himself the knowledge of this
principle. And I think that anyone well acquainted with
spectra on reading the question put, could not fail to see what
was meant, and if he were previously ignorant of the principle,
he could not fail to perceive it. I therefore feel rather astonished
that anyone should claim the statement made by Huggins two
years afterwards as being the commencement of a new principle.
The method founded upon this principle was first successfully
applied by Messrs. Janssen and Lockyer, acting independently of
each other, in the year 1868. Mr. Lockyer had by this time
obtained his improved spectroscope, and the very first day he
used it he made the discovery. I do not think there is any
reason to suppose that Mr. Lockyer was at all aided, as was sug-
gested by Mr. Huggins, in detecting these lines by the somewhat
vague information of what had been done at the total eclipse in
India. He was now provided with an instrument capable of show-
ing these lines to a child—made in fact for the purpose of showing
them. Now what wouldhave beenthoughtof any one of the Indian
observers if during the few minutes of a total eclipse he had
failed to detect the existence of bright lines? Can we imagine
therefore that an intelligent observer like Mr. Lockyer, with an
instrument constructed for the purpose and with unlimited time
at his disposal, should have failed in detecting such lines even had
he not previously been sure that they existed? I confess I cannot
understand any observer failing in a thing of this nature, and
therefore I do not know well how to account for the somewhat
puzzling remark made by Dr. Huggins in his notes to Schellen’s
** Spectrum Analysis” as follows :—

“Though to Mr. Lockyer is due the first publication of the idea
of the possibility of applying the spectroscope to observe the red
flames in sunshine, as a matter of history it should not be passed
over that, about the same time, the same idea occurred quite
independently to two other astronomers, Mr. Stone of Green-
wich, and Mr. Huggins. These observers were however un-
successful in numerous attempts which they made to see the
spectra of the prominences, for the reason probably that the
spe:t o cope wh c : they employed’was not of sufficient dispersive
power to make the bright lines of the solar flame easily visible.
When the position of the lines was known, Huggins saw them
instantly with the same spectrosc pe (two prisms of 60°), which
he had previously used in vain.”

I confess I cannot yet understand why a distinguished observer

302

like Dr. Huggins, possessing such an instrument as he did,
should fail to have seen the bright lines at first, nor why, be-
lieving as he did in the aid afforded by the Indian observations
to an observer searching for these lines, he should yet have left it
to Mr. Lockyer to make this discovery.

BALFOUR STEWART

Dr. Bastian’s Experiments on the Beginning of Life

IN the issue of NATURE for January 9, Dr. Burdon Sanderson
has recorded some experiments on the behaviour of certain
organic mixtures boiled for five or ten minutes in flasks which
were hermetically sealed during ebullition. He found, as Dr.
Bastian had done, that Bacteria appeared in these sealed vessels
—not always, but frequently. Dr. Sanderson is, however, care-
ful not to endorse the conclusions which Dr. Bastian has drawn
from these experiments. This method of experimenting appears
to me to involve two serious sources of error which invalidate
them in so far as they are used to support the theory of spon-
taneous generation.

The first source of error is the possibility of the introduction
of atmospheric germs at the moment of sealing.

Those who are practised in the sealing of flasks during ebulli-
tion are aware that the sealing can only take place just as ebulli-
tion is about to cease ; otherwise the vessel bursts, or the impris-
oned steam opens a path for itself through the softened glass
where the flame is being applied. There is thus at the moment
of sealing, a risk of some reflux of air into the flask and a conse-
quent vitiating of the experiment. Perhaps it may be thought
that because air thus introduced has to pass through the flame
applied to the tube through the red-hot tube itself, and enters a
flask whose contents are not far below the boiling temperature,
any germs contained in it must be destroyed ; but that is a very
hazardous assumption. JA/omentary contact (or approximate
contact) with a flame or a heated surface is by no means so
destructive as at first appears, and experience has taught me to
suspect that the contents of a boiling flask are not speedily de-
prived of vitality. This source of error is probably not a frequent
occurrence in Dr. Bastian’s experiments, but I am inclined to
think that it was a frequent one in Dr. Wyman’s experiments,
and that it seriously vitiates all those experiments in which air
passed through a heated tube was used. At any rate the exact-
ness of experiments so conducted is very much at the mercy of
the care and dexterity of the operator, and hence, probably, their
contradictory results in different hands.

In repeating Dr. Bastian’s experiments I have avoided this
source of error by inserting a tight plug of cotton wool in the
neck of the flask before beginning to boil. In this way any
chance germs introduced by an accidental reflux of air during
sealing are prevented from passing into the flask.

The second source of error is much more important. It is
this :—Dr. Bastian’s process does not insure that the entire con-
tents of the flask are effectively exposed to the boiling heat. Herein
lies, I believe, the chief cause of the inconstant and contra-
dictory results obtained by him. It is beyond doubt that Dr.
Bastian is perfectly correct in his statement that the experiments
made by Pasteur with ‘‘ Pasteur’s solution,” and by Lister with
urine, ‘yield different results when made with other solutions and
mixtures. The contrast is most striking. In my own experi-
ments I have found that filtered infusions of any animal or
vegetable substances (and I have tried a very great variety) can
be invariably preserved unchanged when boiled for five or ten
minutes in a flask plugged with cotton wool ; but if milk be
treated in the sime way, or if a few fragments of a green vege-
table be added to the infusion, or if alkaline albuminous solu-
tions or mixtures, containing cheese, be treated in the same way,
they almost invariably breed Bacteria in abundance. What is
the cause of this difference? For some time it appeared to me
difficult to account for, but I came to the conclusion at length
that it was simply due to the fact, that with the more complex
organic mixtures every particle of the material within the flask
does not really attain the boiling heat. Thes? more complex
mixtures generally froth excessively in boiling, and spurt about
particles which adhere to the glass, and probably some of these
escape the full effect of the heat. What first led me to this con-
clusion was the behaviour of milk. Milk boiled for ten or even

wenty or thirty minutes, in a plugged flask, almost invariably
curdled and produced Bacteria in a few days ; but when the milk
was put into a long-necked flask, plugged with cotton wool, and
hermetically sealed, and the flask boiled in a good-sized can of

NATURE

water for twenty or thirty minutes, then the milk remained per-
manently unchanged, and produced no Bacteria. I possess speci-
mens of milk treated in this way which have remained unchanged
for many months, though exposed to warmth, to light, and free
access of air, that is to say, to air filtered through a good plug of
cotton wool. I obtained similar results with the other organic
mixtures which could not be kept un@hanged by simple boiling
over the flame. Highly putrescent mixtures, containing blood-
serum, egg-albumen, fragments of meat and vegetables, remained
perfectly barren after the flask containing them had been im-
mersed in a water-bath kept at a boiling heat for twenty or thirty
minutes.

The essential conditions of the experiment are, first, the effec-
tive exposure of the whole contents of the flask to a boiling
heat ; secondly, the absolute prevention of any fresh entrance of
extraneous solid or liquid particles; and the conclusion I have
come to is that if these conditions are rigidly observed, the flasks
remain barren ; if they do not remain barren it is simply because
one or other of thes? conditions has not been observed.

Manchester Wo. ROBERTS

The unreasonable

I UNRESERVEDLY accept Prof. Clifford’s disavowal of the
meaning I attributed to his words concerning Kant’s Antinomies,
in his Address (A/acmillan’s Magazine, Oct. 1872). At the
same time I cannot allow that the misprision was wholly due to
my ‘‘exuberant imagination.” He said, ‘The opinion . . .
is set forth by Kant in the form of his famous doc-
trine of the antinomies,” &c. This ought to mean that the
‘doctrine of the antinomies” is one form of that ‘‘ opinion ;”
and the opinion being, ‘that at the basis of the natural order
there is something which we can know to be unreasonable,” I
was fully justified by the mere words of the Address in the in-
ference (which he disclaims) that he intenied to ilentify the
doctrine of the antinomies (the Antithetic, in fact) with that of
the unreasonable basis of the natural order. How was I to
know that the ‘‘ something” was either (? which) ‘‘ the trans-
cendental object” or the world of xoumena?

I premise, then, that it is the Antithetic which ‘‘is set forth by
Kant in his famous [but little understood] doctrine of the Anti-
nomies,” and zof ‘*the opinion that at the basis of the natural
order there is something which we can know to be unreason-
able.” Prof. Clifford, however, meant to signalise the latter;
and he asserts, and by sundry extracts from the A. ~ VF. at-
tempts to substantiate the assertion, that ‘‘the transcendental
object [which lies at the basis of the natural order] is wmreason=
able, or evades the processes of human thought.”

Now Kant, so far from proving (or asserting) ¢Aa¢, takes pains
to show that it is 7casonad/e, though it persistently seems to be
the reverse! According to Kant, the thing Jer se illusorily ap-
pears to be the object of experience ; and this illusion is in-
evitable, and no criticism can dispel it. (Kant compares it to
the seenting magnitude of the horizontal moon.) But criticism
can and does explain it, so that, though it persists as a spectre
haunting the reason, it is wholly and strictly amenable to the
processes of reason, or in Prof. Clifford’s sense, veasonable.

OF Prof. Clifford’s quotations, (a) and (4) are irrelevant to his
second position ; the former does not directly touch ‘‘the processes
of human /Aought;” the latter does not touch ‘‘the transcendental
object !” His third position is equally unsupported by the ex-
tract, ‘‘ Man [wot Mann] kann aber,” &c., which may be thus
rendered :—‘‘ But conversely we can also deduce from this anti-
nomy a real, not indeed a dogmatical, but a critical and doctri-
nal advantage, namely, of indirectly showing the transcendatal
ideality of phenomena (Zrscheinungen).’ The method is by
showing that the antithesis is contrary, as distinguished from
contradictory, and by invalidating both the alternatives, whence
it follows that the subject of them is not an existing totality.
The antinomies are thus used, not as Prof. Clifford vainly im-
agines, to prove that the transcendental object is unreasonable,
but that the postulate of its being a moumenon, or thing fer se,
or true basis of the natural order, is untrue, both alternatives
being false.

Prof. Clifford is, as I said, really attacking Hamilton. I do
not care where he got the doctrine from, nor what he does with
it. If it amuses him to set up these absurd nine-pins and then
bowl them over, with flourish of trumpets, I have no wish to
interfere with him, only he had better mind his H’s and K’s, and
not impute this stuff to Kant. Once for all: in Hamilto

[Fed. 20, 1873

Feb. 20, 1873]

eg PS Bee hae oe
a: aed \/ .

NATURE

Y

303

system the opposed propositions, which do show their subject to
be unreasonable, are intended to do duty as contradictories. But
in Kant’s system the opposed propositions in an antinomy are
only seeming contradictories, are virtually contraries, and their
common subject remains the subject of an intelligible propo-
sition, and one that Kant believes himself to have substantiated,
after the contraries are invalidated: so that the subject is after
all amenable to the processes of human thought, though not
representing an object of experience. I dare not further trespass
on the columns of NATURE to comment upon Prof. Clifford’s
views of the two legs of Kant's philosophy! Certainly the one
leg is wholly due to my opponent’s “exuberant imagination :”’
it is Hamilton’s leg, not Kant’s.
Athenzum Club, Feb. 17

C, M. INGLEBY

Inherited Feeling

THE remarkable case of an inherited feeling of dislike for a
special class of persons, communicated by Mr. Darwin, appears
to me to support a view I have long held (but not yet published)
as to the explanation of another class of so-called instincts. The
three separate instances given in which the dogs showed a violent
antipathy to butchers, either without seeing them or when they
were dressed as gentlemen, clearly indicates that it was through
the sense of smell that the painful sensation was experienced ;
and this is quite in accordance with the wonderful delicacy and
importance of this sense in most animals, and especially in dogs.
It is natural to suppose that some ancestor of these dogs was

tematically and cruelly ill-treated by several butchers, perhaps

rom some thievish propensity or other bad habit which required

frequent punishment, so that the smell of a butcher came to be
invariably associated with pain and a desire for revenge. But
the most important fact to observe is, that there must be some
_ peculiar edour developed in human beings by constant contact
with flesh, which a dog can recognise apart from individual
peculiarities and in spite of perfect disguise. Now the power
many animals possess to find their way back over a road they
have travelled blindfolded (shut up in a basket inside a coach
for example) has generally been considered to be an undoubted
case of true instinct. But it seems to me that an animal so cir-
cumstanced will have its attention necessarily active, owing to
its desire to get out of its confinement, and that by means of its
most acute and only available sense it will take note of the suc-
sessive odours of the way, which will leave on its mind a series
of images as distinct and prominent as those we should receive
by the sense of sight. The recurrence of these odours in their
proper inverse order—every house, ditch, field, and village
having its own well-marked individuality—would make it an
€asy matter for the animal in question to follow the identical
route back, however many turnings and cross-roads it may have
followed. This explanation appears to me to cover almost all
the well-authenticated cases of this kind.
- ALFRED R. WALLACE

I Am able to corroborate the remarkable fact mentioned in
Dr. Huggins’s letter in your last.

My father possessed a mastiff, a son of Sybil, daughter of
Turk, who has, ever since he was a pup, evinced the same
antipathy to butchers. We have hitherto been unable to explain
it, for he is always perfectly good tempered with other trades-
men who come to the house. The butchers have, on several
occasions, tried to propitiate him by throwing him presents of
meat, but although willingly enough received, ic has done
nothing towards abating his hostility. H. G. BRookE

Hale Carr, Altrincham, Feb. 15

I HAVE a cat, of a long-haired breed, whose aversion to dogs
_ is unusually strong. Last autumn, six kittens of hers, under

‘two days old, were ina corner of the kitchen where they had
had no opportunity of making acquaintance with any dog;
yet, on being stroked (in their mother’s absence) by a hand
which a dog had just licked, more than one of them ‘‘ swore”
violently. This was repeated several times, but the little crea-
tures showed no dislike to being touched with a clean hand.
: A LovER OF ANIMALS

Two or three months ago I was walking with my two little
girls near the railway bridge at West Kensington, when the

children (who always find the attraction of a fine dog irresistible)
made me stop to admire a tall and remarkably handsome mastiff,
2pparently the property of a man who stood by with a hand-
barrow. He wasspeaking to two other men of this dog, and of
another of the same kind which he had at home, and telling
them that they were quiet and amiable to all men but butchers,
and that it was not safe for a butcher to come near either of
them. One of the men said that he believed all dogs of that
breed showed the same antipathy ; and added that wh-n they
were left loose at night to guard premises, they would always
allow a policeman to enter.

This chance conversation is perhaps hardly worth troubling
you with, as I have no means of ascertaining whether these dogs
claimed kindred with Turk, but I send it to you, nevertheless.

Kensington Square, Feb. 17

EFFECT OF LIGHT ON SELENIUM DURING
THE PASSAGE OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT.*

EING desirous of obtaining a more suitable highresis‘-
ance for use at the Shore Station in connection with
my system of testing and signalling during the submersion
of long submarine cables, | was induced to experiment
with bars of selenium,a known metalof very highresistance.
I obtained several bars varying in length from § to Io cen-
timetres, and of a diameter from 1 to 14 millimetres.
Each bar was hermetically sealed in a glass tube, anda
platinum wire projected from each end for the purpose of
connection.

The early experiments did not place the selenium in a
very favourable light for the purgose required, for although
the resistance was all that could be desired—some of the
bars giving 1,400 megs. absolute—yet there was a great
discrepancy in the tests, and seldom did different operators
obtain the same result. While investigating the cause of
such great differences in the resistance of the bars, it was
found that the resistance altered materially according to
the intensity of light to which it was subjected. When
the bars were fixed in a box with a sliding cover, so as to
exclude all light, their resistance was at its highest, and
remained very constant, fulfilling all the conditions neces-
sary to my requirements ; but immediately the cover of
the box was removed, the conductivity increased from 15
to 109 per cent. according t» the intensity of the light
falling on the bar. Merely intercepting the light by pass-
ing the hand before an ordinary gas-burner placed several
feet from the bar increased the resistance from I5 to 20
percent. If the light be intercepted by rock salt or by
glass of various colours, the resistance varies according to
the amount of light passing through the glass.

To ensure that temperature was in no way affecting the
experiments, one of the bars was placed in a trough of
water so that there was about an inch of water for the
light to pass through, but the results were the same ; and
when a strong light from the ignition of a narrow band of
magnesium was held about nine inches above the water
the resistance immediately fell more than two-thirds,
returning to its normal condition immediately the light
was extinguished.

PARTING BANQUET TO PROF. TYNDALL
ON the evening of February 4 Prof. Tyndall's visit to

the United States was crowned by a banquet at
Delmonico’s, New York, at which there were present
about 200 of the most distinguished citizens of the
country, presided over by the Hon, William M. Evarts.

Among the company present were the following :—The
Rev. Dr. Bellows, Parke Godwin, Dr. Draper, A. M.

* Communicated to the Society of Telegraph Engineers, February 12,
by Mr. Latimer Clark, from Mr. Willoughby Smith, Electrician to the Tele-
graph Construction Company.

‘ay Tee fy. Pease
@ . CS aaneba

304 NATURE

Mayer, Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, President F. A. P.
Barnard, Rev. Dr. Hitchcock, Rev. Dr. H. C. Potter, Dr.
A. Flint, Dr. Hammond, Rev. Dr. Osgood, A. Appleton,
G. S. Appleton, Judge Brady, Dr. H. Draper, V. Botta,
J. C. Draper, Judge Daly, the Hon. E. D. Morgan, B.
Silliman, Prof. G. F. Barker, of Yale College, Gen.
Franklin, D. Van Nostrand, H. S. Kendrick, Prof.
Chandler, Prof. S. F. Baird, of the Smithsonian Institute,
Prof Michie, Prof. Pompelly, E. L. Godkin, Fred, Law
Olmsted, Prof. W. H. Chandler, of Columbia College,
Sterry Hunt, C. W. Field, Gen. Myers, E. L. Youmans,
A. S. Hewitt, Wilson G. Hunt, Dr. Sims, Col. Dwight,
J. B. Scribner, W. H. Appleton. :

There were several very happy after-dinner speeches,
by men of various professions and opinions. We present
our readers with a few extracts from the speech of Prof
Tyndall. ;

Referring to the interest shown in his lectures, he said :
— Every such display of public sympathy must have its
prelude, during which men’s minds are prepared, a desire
for knowledge created, an intelligent curiosity aroused.
Then in the nick of time comes a person who, though but
an accident, touches a spring which permits tendency to
flow into fact, and public feeling to pass from the poten-
tial to the actual. . The interest displayed has really been
the work of years, and the chief merit rests with those
who were wise enough to discern that, as regards physics,
the detent might be removed, and the public sympathy
for that department of science permitted to show itself.
Among the foremost of those who saw this must be
reckoned my indefatigable friend Prof. Youmans. Inno
other way can I account for my four months’ experience
in the United States. . . To no othercountry is the culti-
vation of science in its highest forms of more importance
than to yours. In no other country would it exert a more
benign and elevating influence. What, then, is to be done
toward so desirable a consummation? Here I think you
must take counsel of your leading scientific men, and they
are not unlikely to recommend something of this kind.
I think, as regards physical science, they are likely to
assure you that it is not what I may call the statical ele-
ment of buildings that you require so muchas the dynami-
cal element of brains. Making use as far as possible of
existing institutions, let chairs be founded, sufficiently but
not luxuriously endowed, which shall have original re-
search for their main object and ambition. With such
vital centres among you, all your establishments of educa-
tion would feel their influence ; without such centres even
your primary instruction will never flourish as it ought.
I would not, as a general rule, wholly sever tuition from
investigation, but, as in the institution to which I belong,
the one ought to be made subservient to the other. The
Royal Institution gives lectures—indeed-it lives in part
by lectures, though mainly by the contributions of its
members, and the bequests ofits friends. But the main
feature of its existence—a feature never lost sight of by
its wise and honourable Board of Managers—is that it is
a school of research and discovery. And though a by-
law gives them the power to do so, for the twenty years
during which I have been there no manager or member
of the institution has ever interfered with my researches.
It is this wise freedom, accompanied by a never-failing
sympathy, extended to the great men who preceded me,
that has given to the Royal Institution its imperishable
renown.

“T have said that I could not wholly sever tuition from
investigation, and I should like to add one word to this
remark, In your chairs of investigation let such work as
that in which I have been lately engaged be reduced to a
minimum. Look jealously upon the man who is fond of
wandering from his true vocation to appear on public
platforms. The practice is absolutely destructive of ori-
ginal work of a high order. Nowand then the discoverer,
when he has anything important to tell, may appear with

benefit to himself and the world. But as a general rule
he must leave the work of public lecturing to others. This
may appear to you a poor return for the plaudits with
which my own efforts have been received; but these
efforts had a special aim. My first duty toward you,
moreover, is to be true, and what,] say here is the inexo-
rable truth.

“As to the source of the funds necessary for founding
the chairs to which I have referred it is not for me to offer
an opinion. Without raising the disputed question of
State aid, in this country it is possible to do a great deal
without it. As I said in my lectures, the willingness of
American citizens to throw their fortunes into the cause of
public education is without a parallcl in my experience.
Hitherto their efforts have been directed to the practical
side of science, and this is why I sought in my lectures to
show the dependence of practice upon principles, On the
ground, then, of mere practical, material utility, pure
science ought to be cultivated. But assuredly among
your men of wealth there are those willing to listen to an

appeal on higher grounds, to whom, as American citizens,

it will be a pride to fashion American men so as to enable
them to take their places among those great ones men-
tioned in my lectures. Into this plea I would pour all my
strength. Not as a servant of Mammon do I ask you to
take science to your hearts, but as the strengthener and
enlightener of the mind of man.

“ Might I now address a word or two to those who in the"
ardour of youth feel themselves drawn toward science as
a vocation. They must, if possible, increase their fidelity
to original research, prizing far more than the possession
of wealth an honourable standing in science. They must,
I think, be prepared at times to suffer a little for the sake
of scientific righteousness, not refusing, should occasion
demand it, to live low and lie hard to achieve the object
of their lives. I do not here urge anythingupon others that
I should have been unwilling to do myself when young.
Let me give you a line of personal history. In 1848,
wishing to improve myself in science, I went to the Uni-
versity of Marburg—the same old town in which my
great namesake, when even poorer than myself, published
his translation of the Bible. I lodged in the plainest
manner, in a street which, perhaps, bore an appropriate
name while I dwelt upon it. It was called the Ketzerbach
—the heretic’s brook—from a little historic rivulet run-
ning through it. I wished to keep myself clean and
hardy ; so I purchased a cask and had it cut in two by a
carpenter. Half that cask, filled with spring water over
night, was placed in my small bedroom, and never during
the years that I spent there, in winter or in summer, did
the clock of the beautiful Elizabethekirche, which was
close at hand, finish striking the hour of six in the morn-
ing before I was in my tub, Fora good portion of the
time I rose an hour and a half earlier than this, working
by lamp-light at the differential calculus when the world
was slumbering round me. And I risked this breach in
my pursuits and this expenditure of time and money, not
because I had any definite prospect of material profit in
view, but because I thought the cultivation of the intellect
important— because, moreover, I loved my work, and en-
tertained the sure and certain hope that, armed with know-
ledge, one can successfully fight one’s way through the
world. It is with the view of giving others the chance that
I then enjoyed that I propose to devote the surplus of the
money which you have so generously poured in upon me, to
the education of young philosophers in Germany. I ought
not, for their sake, to omit one additional motive by which
I was upheld at the time here referred to—that was a
sense of duty. Every young man of high aims must, I
think, have a spice of this principle within him. There
are sure to be hours in his life when his outlook will be
dark, his work difficult, and his intellectual future uncer-
tain. Over such periods, when the stimulus of success is
absent, he must be carried by his sense of duty. It may

{fed..20, 18973, 7

"Sts la

Bical Bie D:D foc a ie AAD _
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Feb. 20, 1873] NATURE 305

not be so quick an incentive as glory, but it is a nobler
one, and gives a tone to character which glory cannot
impart. That unflinching devotion to work, without
which no real eminence in science is now attainable, im-
plies the writing at certain times of the stern resolve upon
the student’s character: ‘I work not because I like to
work, but because I ought to work.’ In science, how-
ever, love and duty are sure to be rendered identical in
the end.”

——————EE————————————e———EeEeE>E>_ > ——————————————————E——

THE TROGLODYTES OF THE VEZERE*

\ HAVE come to speak to you about the Troglodytes
of the Vezére, of that fossil population whose sub-
terranean dwellings we are about to visit.

Their existence dates back to a startling antiquity. We
do not know their name ; no historian has mentioned them,
not a vestige of them had been discovered until the last
eight years ; and yet they are better known to us, in
many respects, than certain nations celebrated in classical
history. We know their mode of life, their industry, their
arts, and all the details of their existence. Is not this the
true history of races, a history far more interesting than
that of their battles, their conquests, and even their dynas-
ties? How can we know so much of a people who have
left no trace in the memory of man, and whose very exist-
ence would have been declared impossible twenty yearsago?
Are they the creatures of a dream, like the celebrated
Troglodytes of Montesquieu? No. Nothing is more
real than our Troglodytes ; nothing more authentic than
their annals. In the caverns which they inhabited, in
those in which they laid their dead, have been found frag-
ments of their meals, productions of their industry and
arts, and remains of their bones. It is in this book that
their history has been read ; it is with these documents
that their past existence has been resuscitated.

Many savants have taken part in these researches.
Among others, Christy, the Marquis de Vibraye, M. Fal-
coner, and our two colleagues, MM. Louis Lartet and
Elie Massénat, deserve honourable mention ; but there is
one name that eclipses all the others, it is that of the
founder of human palzeontology—Edward Lartet.

1.—Determining the Epoch

Before speaking about a people it is well to assign it a
place in time. But in this instance ordinary chronology
is inapplicable. We are touching on periods of an incal-
culable length. Since the epoch when our Troglodytes
lived, the climate and fauna have undergone considerable
modifications, which have been produced slowly, without
any revolution, without violent action, under the influence
of those imperceptible causes which are still at work in
our own day ; and when we consider that, during the
course of centuries of known time, these causes have only
produced scarcely appreciable changes in our surround-
ings, we can have some idea of the prodigious duration of
what is styled a geological epoch. These immense periods
can neither be measured by years, by centuries, nor by
thousands of years; these dates cannot-be expressed in
numbers, but we can determine the order in which the
geological epochs followed each other, and the periods of
which each is composed. These are the dates of the his-
tory of our planet; and the elements of what Edward
Lartet has designated paleontological chronology. It will
_ suffice for us to determine our dates from the commence-
ment of the guaternary epoch.

_ The end of the tertiary epoch had been signalised by
aremarkable phenomenon, of which the cause is not yet
_ perfectly known. The northern hemisphere had gradually
become colder. Immense blocks of ice, descending from
the sides of the mountains into the valleys and plains, had
* Being the substance of the Address of M. Paul Broca to the French

Association for the Adyancement of Science, at the Session held at
jis Eee

covered a considerable portion of Europe, Asia, and North
America ; and the temperature of our zone, till then tor-
rid, had by degrees become frigid. The duration of this
cold period, called the glacial period, was excessively long.
After having attained their farthest limits, the glaciers
retired considerably, then they advanced again, but with-
out regaining their former position. This was the last
phase of the tertiary epoch. The glacial period was nearly
at anend. A gradual modification of temperature caused
the melting of the ice, and the quaternary epoch com-
menced. The glaciers, those immense masses of snow,
hardened by time and accumulated during thousands of
ages, produced, when they melted, gigantic torrents,
sweeping along in their ‘powerful waves the ruins of
mountains, flooding the plains, ploughing up the soil,
hollowing the valleys and leaving in their track large
deposits of sand, pebbles, and argile. From that epoch,
called the dz/uvian, are dated our present rivers, but they
give us in these days but a faint idea of what they were
then.

The extraordinary power of the water floods was above
all remarkable during the early part of the quaternary
epoch ; it gradually decreased from that time, but it was
not until the glaciers had retired within their original
bounds, until the temperature had become nearly equal to
that of our own day, that the phenomenon of the great
inundations ceased, and that the quaternary epoch drew
toaclose, Since that time, we still find sand and pebbles
displaced, and sometimes even masses of more or less
volume torn from the sides of the valleys by the tor-
rents, but the rivers and streams no longer bear along
with them more than particles of clay and slime, and
these deposits have formed alluvial soil. The whole
period which has elapsed since the close of the quaternary
epoch bears the name of Jresent efoch, and the soil which
has been formed in this period is called recent soz/. It is,
certainly, recent, if we compare it with the quaternary soil,
but not with reference to our ordinary chronology, for
several hundreds of ages must necessarily have elapsed
during its formation.

These considerations will aid us in comprehending the
most essential facts which have served to establish the
dates of human paleontology. These dates are deter-
mined in the first place by pure geology, in the second by
paleontology, and in the third by prehistoric archeology.

The geological dates are chiefly inscribed in the valleys
and in the plains, where the great floods of the quaternary
epoch have left deposits in the shape of layers more or
less regularly stratified. Except where some event has
disturbed or excavated the soil, the layers are superposed
in order of antiquity. The oldest are found beneath and
are called low level ; above them are ranged the middle
level, which succeed them, and which are, in their turn,
covered by the layers of the upper level. dating from the
latter part of the quaternary epoch. We find a layer
more or less thick of recent soil, formed of accretions,
turf, vegetable matter, &c., covering almost all the qua-
ternary soil.

It must suffice to explain’in a general way how the
study of the stratification of the layers, termed strati-
graphy, enables us to determine the relative age of the
recent or quaternary deposits, This primary classification
is purely geological. Thanks to the data which it fur-
nishes, we can calculate the period of existence of those
animals whose bones are found in the different layers ;
these animals in their turn serve to characterise periods,
and can thus establish the dates of certain soils, or of
those partial deposits which do not form a part of a com-
plete and regular stratification,

I. Among the animals living in our land at the begin-
ning of the quaternary epoch, some, like the mammoth,
no longer exist save in a fossil state ; these are the extinct
animals ; others, like the reindeer, have disappeared from
our climate, but still live in other regions ; these are the

306

emigrant animals ; others, like the horse, have survived
to this day in our land, these are the existing animals.

The extinct animals abounded in the earlier quaternary
age. Several were large and powerful mammalia, carry-
ing terrible weapons of their own, and the human form
looked weak and puny by their side. There were, among
others, the great cave bear (Ursus speleus), the great cave
lion (Felis sfel@a), the amphibious hippopotamus (Az.
amphibius), the rhinoceros with the expanded nostrils
(RA. tichorhinus), the ancient elephant (Z/ephas anti-
guus), finally and above all the giant, and we may say the
king of this fauna, the mammoth (Zlephas primigenius).

It would be superfluous to enumerate the other extinct
species which lived at the same epoch. The reindeer
and several animals, now emigrants like itself, were also
to be found in this fauna, but they were still rare ; and a
good number of existing species had already made their
appearance.

It is with good cause that the first period of the quater-
nary epoch, that which corresponds with the low level of
the valleys has been called the mammoth age.

Every condition favourable to the prosperity of this
species was then combined. But changes supervened
which, in the long run, were to lead to its decay. The
temperature had become less rigorous, and a great number
of herbivora, till then stunted in their development by the
inclemency of the atmosphere, had been able to improve
and increase.

Already the mammoth sawarrayed against him the power
of man, who, under this somewhat modified climate, could
join in bands sufficiently formidable to declare war against
him. Finally,and above all, this same climate, which suited
his enemies and his rivals, had become hurtful to his own
organisation, which required a colder temperature. The
mammoth, therefore, so common in the earlier quaternary
period, began to decline. We are inclined to think his
existence was prolonged to the end of the palzeontological
age ; but long ere that he had ceased to reign.

II. There was thus, in the middle of the quaternary
epoch, an intermediate age, corresponding to the middle
level of the valleys : an age in which several species con-
temporary with the mamisch were already extinct, in
which others, represented only by solitary specimens, were
on the point of disappearing, while those species were
on the other hand flourishing, which were better adapted
to the changing atmospheric conditions. Among these
latter, the reindeer (Cervus tarandus) already occupied
an important place, but it was in the succeeding period
that it flourished. :

III, This intermediate age gave way by degrees to the
third and last stage of the quaternary epoch. When the
layers of the upper level began to be formed, the species
which we call extinct had almost entirely disappeared.
A few rare mammoths still survived. Still more rare were
the gigantic Irish deer (Megaceros hibernicus) and the
great lion of the caverns. The rest of the fauna had but
slightly changed, but the reindeer had multiplied to a
wonderful extent. It formed at that time the chief
nourishment of man, The third period of the quaternary
epoch is therefore deservedly styled the Reindeer age.

The difference in the fauna of those days from that of
our own time did not alone consist in the presence of .the
reindeer ; many other hardy species, to whom a cold
climate was necessary and a temperate one injurious, were
still existing in our as yet frigid zone. When the state of
the atmosphere more nearly approached that of the
present day, there was a disappearance of the individuals
which represented these species in our hills and plains ;
but the species themselves did not on that account perish.
In the colder regions whither they had wandered they

_* The urus is now extinct, but it is not more than three or four centuries
Since it existed in Germany and Great Britain. The aurochs is only to b:
found now in a forest of Lithuania, under the protection of a special law of
the Russian Empire, A troop of them has been also seen in the Caucasus

NATURE

[Z2d. 20, 1873

found a more congenial air, and they have thus been
enabled to perpetuate themselves to the present time.

IV. The disappearance of the reindeer and of the other
emigrant species marked the end of the quaternary epoch
ani of the palzeontological age. Then began the modern
epoch. Our climate was probably still a little colder than
itis in our own days, but it was alréady temperate, and the
slight changes which it has since undergone have not
affected the conditions of life to such a degree as to en-
danger the existence of species. If the urus (Bos primi-
genius) and the aurochs (Bison Europeus) have disap-
peared from our land, we must attribute these results
more to the destructive action of man than to that of
climate,* and to man is also attributed the introduction
of several new species, for the most part domestic animals.
With these few exceptions, we may say that from the end
of the quaternary epoch our fauna has not changed, and
that the recent soil only contains existing species.

The dates which we seek to establish are therefore
determined at the same time by stratification and paleon-
tology. They also rest on data of another order, and
these constitute a real science, namely prehistoric arche-
ology. '

The point which is certain and which has been irre-
vocably proved by Boucher de Perthes, is that. the
most ancient beds of the quaternary epoch contain vestiges
of human industry. The knowledge of metals only dates,
one may say, from yesterday; before possessing these
powerful auxiliaries, man was not unarmed. In the
manufacture of his weapons and tools he had employed
several hard substances, the bones, the teeth of large
animals, the horns of the Ruminantia, but above all, stone,
and more particularly flint; hence the name Svone age,
given in the history of man to all the period which pre-
ceded the use of metals.

This stone age still continues among some savage
nations, and it only came to an end among the civilised
people of antiquity at an epoch very little anterior to the
historic age. Hence it embraces nearly the whole dura-
tion of human existence. Now the mode of fabricating
weapons, their shape, their nature, must necessarily have
varied during this immense period, according to the
changes in the wants, the mode of life, and the social
state of man who employed them; and if we now con-
sider that hard stones will Jast an indefinite time in the
ground, we shall understand that the tokens of this primi- -

Fic. 2. Fic. r.
The type o! »aint Acheul; Hatchet carv:d on both sides. Fig. 1.—Front
view. Fig. 2.—Edge view. .

tive industry constitute indelible medals and chronological
documents of the highest importance.

The dates established by prehistoric archeology agree
pretty well, and sometimes coincide in a remarkable
manner with those of palzontology and stratification,

: Feb i:

i 20, 1873

NATURE

307

Just as certain species of animals have perpetuated them-
selves since the earliest quaternary epoch, in like manner
certain forms of hewn flint have been found almost with-
out change through several archzological ages.

You have just seen that geologists have been able, more
than once, to determine and designate an entire fauna
from a single characteristic specimen ; archzeologists, in

F.ia 4. Fic 5 Fic. 3. 3

The Moustier type: Lanc: Point carved on oneside. Fig. 3.—The plain
side, cut out with one stroke ; the projection of the bulb of percussion
is visible at the base. Fig. 4.—The carved side. Fig. 5.—Edge view.

like manner, have chosen in each case the most charac-
teristic tool to distinguish the different periods of the
Stone age. We cannot strictly determine these periods
and their precise number, for working in flint may have
had many modifications at the same epoch, but in different
localities. However, in studying the question in its en-
tirety, we may, following M. de Mortillet’s example, reduce
to three the number of archzological periods of the quater-
nary epoch. .

I, The most remarkable type of the early quaternary
age is the hatchet of St. Acheul (see Figs. 1 and 2).
It is a flint of varying bulk, always rather large, longer
than it is wide, thick in the centre, graduated towards
the edges, presenting one extremity pointed, or rather
arched, while the other is rather rounded ; and the pre-
dominant characteristic is its being carved on both sides,
and the sides are more or less convex and more or less
symmetrical. This type abounds at St. Acheul, near
Amiens, in the valley of the Somme, hence its name ;
but it has been found in most of the beds of the Mam-
moth Age. It is sometimes, but rarely, to be met with in
less ancient beds. :

II. A second epoch of the Stone Age is characterised

‘by the point of Moustier (see Figs. 3, 4, and 5). This
weapon, which was fixed to the end of a huge lance, pre-
sents an exterior contour not dissimilar to that of the

_ hatchet of St. Acheul, unless, perhaps, in being slightly
more pointed ; but its distinguishing mark lies in its being
carved on one side only ; the other side is cut out with
one stroke, and has not been retouched. It is not there-
fore biconvex, like the other, but planoconvex, and con-
sequently half the thickness.

The Moustier type takes its name from the Moustier
Cave, where it is verycommon. It was not common until
the intermediate reriod. .

III. The art of cutting flint was perfected in a third
epoch, which corresponds with the Reindeer Age. The
pointed or sharp-edged weapons became less massive ;

the contours and sides were more regular, more symmetri-
cal, and a delicate touching up, in fine little strokes, gradu-
ated them towards the edges. This period of the Stone
Age is less marked by the nature of the weapons than by
the style of workmanship, It is, however, agreed to take
as a type the lance point of Solutré, because a short time
since the lances found at the station of Solutré, in Macon-
nais, were the best-cut weapons that had been extracted
from the quaternary beds (see Fig. 6); but, since: then,
Dr. Jules Parrot, and his brother M. Philippe Parrot, have
found at Saint Martin d’Excideuil (Dordogne), ina cave
of eg Reindeer Age, several flints carved ina yet superior
style.

IV. We have now arrived at the end of the Reindeer
Age. Directly the present epoch opens upon us, we see
apparent in the flint cutting a further improvement,
which marks the commencement of a new archzological
era. Upto this time the flint had only been fashioned
by pressure or percussion. They had learnt, it is true, to
round by friction some objects in stone in a very rough
style, but the weapons and tools in flint were always hewn.
In the new era now commencing, many weapons were
still made of cut flints; but from that time forth they

knew how to polish them, and the polished hatchet, too
well known to need description, became man’s principal
auxiliary (see Fig. 7).

This hatchet characterises the epoch of polished stone,
or the neolithic epoch, which terminates the age of stone,
and which, consequently, lasts until the introduction of
metals. The entire period preceding the appearance of
the polished hatchet constitutes the epoch of hewn stone,

Fic. 6.

Fic. 7.

Fic 6—The type of Solu:ré: Lance Point of Solutré (Hamy. Human

Palzcntology). Fig. 7.—Ihe Polished Hatchet.

which is also called the archzolithic epoch, or better still
palzolithic.

The different phases of the epoch of hewn stone suc-
ceeded each other progressively, and by almost impercep-
tible transitions, like the corresponding geological periods ;
the epoch of polished stone, on the contrary, stands out
clearly and almost abruptly from that which preceded it,
Its commencement coincides exactly with the disappear-

308

ance of the reindeer, that is, with the end of the palzon-
tological age, and with the commencement of the present
epoch of geologists. It likewise coincides with a com-
plete change in the social condition of man, with the
domestication of the dog, with pastoral life, marked by
the domestication of several herbivora, and soon after
with agriculture. Along succession of ages then elapsed,
until the appearance of bronze, which put an end to the
Stone Age. The epoch of polished stone was therefore
a very long one ; compared to this the whole period of
historic time sinks into insignificance : nevertheless, this
period of polished stone, however long it may appear to
us, was infinitely shorter than any of those of which the
epoch of hewn stone is composed.

(To be continued.)

THE ITALIAN REPORT UPON THE ECLIPSE
OF 1870*

HIS is a folio volume about an inch thick, in a yellow
paper cover. It is a well-printed book, made of
tolerably good foolscap, and as the title-page informs us,
produced at the expense of the Italian Government, under
the care of Prof. Sir G. Hunter, as we should call him,
but in his native tongue, Il Cavaliere Professore G.
Cacciatore +; and the first remark that occurs to one on
looking through it is that whether the Government paid
handsomely, or whether it gave with a grudging stingi-
ness, its cash was at all events well laid out, alike without
extravagance and without meanness, and that the result
reflects honour upon Italy.

On dipping into its contents here and there in a cur-
sory way, the next thing you notice is the eager interest
which the several contributors seem to take in their work,
and the earnest simplicity with which they recount their
experiences and achievements.

Speaking generally, the volume is a picture-book ; the
plates, some of them distributed through the letterpress,
but accumulated in a considerable mass at the end, form
an important feature of it, and will be found very inte-
resting and suggestive even to those who are not so fortu-
nate as to read the text.

For the convenience of the latter class of persons, I
propose now to give a slight sketch of the report, begin-
ning at the preface, and describing the several papers in
the order in which they occur; and if, whilst doing so,
I should venture to make any comments, the reader must
remember not to attach too much weight to them, because
it is hardly possible for a foreigner to do justice to men
whose words and ways must always bear from his point
of view something of the interest proper to pictures by
the old masters. I ought not to presume to review this
book critically, because, in the first place, the chief per-
formers concerned in it are in every way my superiors ;
and in the second place, I am obliged to confess at once
that they are personally so vividly present in my memory,
that it seems almost a rudeness to analyse their writing
for public uses.

I find it impossible to eliminate the romantic charm of
their manners, and my own recollections of the high
courtesy they showed towards us when we were associated
with them in Sicily.

A slight reflection of this latter will be perceived by
the reader the first time he opens the book. Fronting
the title-page he will find a lithographed drawing of the
Station at Augusta, purporting to show the several ob-
servatories, in which those of the Italian astronomers are
shown in the background ; whilst the rough shed of the
English observers, and the tents in which they were en-

* Raporti sulle osservazioni dell’Eclisse totale di Sole del 22 Dicembre,

1870, eseguite in Sicilia dalla commissione Italiana.
He always signs himself G, Cacciatore, but his first name is Gaetano.

NATURE

ee RM She

[ Fed. 20,.1873

camped, form the most prominent features of the picture.
In passing from this first page of the volume, I must
testify to the singular faithfulness of the drawing.

After the title-page there occurs a short paragraph, con-
sisting of Prof. Cacciatore’s apology for the delay in the
production of the Report. (By the way, I wonder what
our unfortunate editor will say in this respect when, after
we are all dead and turned to dust, he produces at his
own untold expense the English report of the same ~
eclipse as an astronomical curiosity! Is not that a
rather pathetic and sugyestive reflection ?)

Next follows the index, and then an address to the
Minister of Public Instruction, from which it appears that
a royal decree of July 5 of the year previous to the
eclipse appointed a Commission consisting of Professors
Cacciatore, De Gasparis, Donati, Santini, and Schiapa-
relli “to draw up a programme of the observatories, and
to appoint the persons, the instruments, and whatever
might be considered necessary to the success of the
enterprise” ; and of this Commission, Prof. Santini of
Padua, was appointed president, and Prof. Cacciatore, of
Palermo, vice-president. This address is signed by San-
tini, and recounts further how the Commission assembled
in Florence in September 1869, and added to its numbers
Professors Padre Secchi and Pietro Blaserna, of which,
and of all its other proceedings, the Minister had been
kept informed. Santini goes on to say that his present
duty is to express the thanks that Science owes to that
official for the eagerness he showed in backing them up
with a considerable augmentation of the fund originally
appropriated, and getting placed at their disposal a Royal
steamship, and so on,

He then says that, owing to his advanced age, the chief
burden of the work fell to the lot of Cacciatore, and that,
thanks to his careful diligence, and so on, things were got
ready nearly as intended; the “nearly” being a conse-
quence of the extraordinary political changes of the pre-
ceding year. Cacciatore however seems to have found
it no joke, and the part confided to him, he says, was
very arduous and rugged (“ben ardua e scabrosa”),

Here follows Cacciatore’s account (ve/azione) of all that
he did, and it forms, perhaps, the most interesting chap-
ter of the whole book, The rest of the observers pass
before the reader in single file, each relating what he saw
and did, in his own words; but Cacciatore gives us a
peep behind the scenes, and tells us what was done in the
way of preliminary arrangement, and how he tried to aid
every man in the manner best calculated to develope his
own particular abilities ; and in these operations (if I
may be allowed to pass a remark) he appears to have done
his work in a masterly way ; and he relates the story with
a graceful facility that makes it most attractive reading.
He describes his preliminary canter over the course of
the totality in search of a suitable site for the observa-
tories ; tells how he first examined the neighbourhoods of
Villa “Smunda and Terranova, as affording beyond all
doubt the most favourable conditions, and how he after-
wards reluctantly abandoned the former on account of its
unhealthiness, and fell back on Augusta for his chief
Station, the fortress of which he describes, and says he ~
found it admirably adapted for the purpose. Most truly
it was so; and if I were to give an account of it, I should
find Cacciatore’s allowance of adjectives very inadequate
to convey my impression of its attractions, although De-
cember was by no means the month in which they could
be fairly appreciated.

Leaving his colleague, Tacchini, there to make prepa-
rations, he returned to his observatory at Palermo, which
formed the base of operations. After this he gives a
summary of the instruments, the observers, and the vole
assigned to each, and tells how he marshalled them in two
complete and independent divisions, one of them destined
for Augusta and the other for Terranova. On November
25 the steamer P/ebiscifo cast anchor at Palermo, having

Feb. 20, 1873]

!
picked up on her way from Genoa certain members of the

expedition, with their instruments, and on the 27th they

ot under weigh again and proceeded to the east coast of
fhe island, where they admired the scenery, and where
their ctherwise considerate and polite captain, 11 Cavaliere
Foscolo, strangely neglected the opportunity of running
them ashore.*

Arriving thus at their citadel, nearly a month in ad-
vance, and finding that ample preparations had already
been made, they were now in a position to devote them-
selves quietly to their own particular pursuits, and to
carry on their experiments with reference to the important
occasion. However, they were no soorer comfortably
settled than their troubles began, somewhat after the
fashion of Job’s—“a great wind from the wilderness
smote the four corners” of the fortress, and threatened to
leave poor Cacciatore alone to tell the tale ; and he seems
to have had to put up with not a little “chaff” from his
comforters as to his selection of a site; but he consoles
himself with the thought that it would have been all the
same if he had settled anywhere else.

Then follows a little paragraph about the English,
which I may as wall translate :—“ Meantime the most
enlightened Prof. Adams, together with several of the
numerous English Commission—others having remained
in Catania—escaped from the misfortune of the Psyche,

a magnificent steamer of the British Navy, stranded
-amongst the coasts of Acireale, arrived in Augusta for
the observatior. of the phenomenon. Colonel Porter, of
the Engineers, accompanied by soldiers of the same
arm, having preceded them, visited our temporary esta-
blishment, passed graceful encomiums on the organisation,
and planted tents and barracks (huts) at the foot of our
fortress, and at the extremity of the open space which
divided it from the town. With these distinguished
gentlemen we maintained such friendly and cordial rela-
tions as are becoming between the citizens of cultivated
and free nations.”

The incidents of the three or four days preceding the
eclipse, and the anxieties caused by the weather, are
told with a graphic vividness that will cause those of us
who were there to live over again through that period of
painful suspense, a suspense only less felt by the English
because of the demands made on their energies by the
hurry and hard work of preparation. For we had to do
in a five days’ encampment in a foreign country what
they very reasonably employed more than a month to do
in theirown. After describing the fitful changes of the
wind, clouds, and barometer, which kept them oscil-
lating between hope and dread up to the very beginning
of the eclipse, he says : “And just then the sun appeared
radiant and luminous, so as to provoke a cry of joy from as
manyas stood intent to observe him. Soit went on until the
moment of totality ; but then some clouds began to tra-
verse the obscured disc, and so rapid was their movement
and their succession one after another, that they in-
fluenced the degree of visibility to each one of the
observers in a different sense, and in such a fashion that
there were some of them more fortunate and others less
so.” This admirably careful description corresponds
perfectly with our own experience, and should be duly
taken into account when the value of the observations
comes to be considered. Cacciatore’s own estimate of
the work done, an estimate formed on the spot imme-
diately after the eclipse, when he came to review his
company, is expressed in reserved and general terms as
follows :—“I was able to satisfy myself that alhough the
sky was not largely propitious, it nevertheless conceded
to us a certain interval, the fruits of which had been
reaped to the utmost; and that if in general the ob-

* When it came to the knowledge of this gentleman (through the ever
attentive Secchi) that our military escort, in consequence of ‘‘ superior
orders,” had taken away our tents, and left us without shelter upon the open

glacis at Augusta, he sent us a polite message, placing his ship at our service
in the handsomest manner,

NATURE

399

servations of the eclipse of 1870 turned out unfortunate,
the Augusta division would be able to supply facts which
would not be without importance in the present state
of science.”

He then proceeds to summarise the results as follows :—

“Padre Secchi had assumed the photographic depart-
ment, and the spectroscopic determination of the protu-
berances previous to the eclipse, with the view of being
able to compare them with those which should be seen
during the totality. The position and the shape of these
were obtained on the morning of the same day, favoured
by a fine serene sky. Ten photographs were made during
the phases, and at the moment of totality photographs of
the protuberances were obtained, in spite of the obstacle
of acloud. At the same time their forms were directly
noted, and immediately afterwards were confronted with
the spectroscopic figures. The spectrum of the most
acute cusps of the sun was studied, and photographs of
the later phases were taken until the end of the eclipse.

“Prof. Denza made spectroscopic observations of the
corona, which discovered two bright lines, one near the
E, the other probably of nitrogen (de//’ azofo). Together
with Signor De Lisa they obscrved and drew the protu-
berances.

“ Prof. Donati in the time of totality was able to see
the bright lines of one protuberance already studied
before the eclipse. He saw the lines of hydrogen and
one line in the yellow more refrangible than the sodium,
but did not see any of the iron lines.

“Prof. Blaserna examined whether the corona con-
tained polarised light. Employing a Savart polariscope
applied to a refracting telescope of moderate magnifying
power, he was able to examine three points situated at
45° from each other. The polarisation was most pro-
nounced, and very nearly of the same intensity as the
atmospheric polarisation seen recently on clear days at
about 50° fromthesun. At the distance of a degree and
a half from the moon not a trace of polarisation was seen,
the influence of the air, therefore, in the observed pheno-
menon remains eliminated. The plane of polarisation
was found in all the points radial or tangential to the
sun’s limb, It remains then established that the corona is
polarised, and hence contains reflected light sent out
from the photosphere.

“ The purely astronomical part assigned to me (the di-

rector) was, as far as the variable condition of the heavens
admitted, fulfilled to the best of my ability. I was
able, in fact, to note with some precision the instants of
first contact, and the beginning of totality and the end of
it (although the last through the clouds), besides some
other observations which I shall refer to afterwards.”
’ This summary concludes with a mention of the mag-
netic and meteorological observations, and the Professor
goes on to remark concerning the station at Terranova,
that the circumstances there were not dissimilar to those
at Augusta—the same strong wind and clouds interfered
as at the latter place.

Thus ends the general account of the operations de-
scribed by the leader of the expedition—a most interest-
ing introduction, and well worthy of the seven independent
papers from Augusta which follow it, to which are added
about the same number from Terranova, and some dozen
more abridged accounts by outsiders, which form an
appendix.

The leading place is accorded to that most accom-
plished of ecclesiastics, Father Secchi, who, in his ringing
and trenchant style, gives a vivid picture of the whole
experience, from the ordering of the instruments to the
ultimate effect of the phenomenon. Next follows Donati,
“in a speech curt tuscan, sober, expurgate, spare of an
‘issimo,’” as Robert Browning says, in which the blunt
but attractive manners of that genial soul are nearly as
appreciable by the reader as if he were present in the
flesh. After him Cacciatore details his own observations

310

NATURE

.

[ Feb, 20, 1873

in his gracefully fluent yet finished style, and then come
Blaserna’s polariscopic experiments, clearly and ener-
getically expressed, and, as far as I can judge, affording
most conclusive results. It is not a little remarkable how
much is contributed towards the value of the observations
by the manner in which each observer relates them.
The descriptions are given with such charming naiveté
and absence of affectation, that the reader can appreciate
almost the exact degree in which the writer’s hand shook
as he manipulated his instrument, not to speak of the
degree in which his assertions can be relied upon for
accuracy or freedom from bias.
JOHN BRETT

NOTES

M. JANSSEN has been elected a member of the Astronomical
Section of the French Academy, the votes recorded for him being
42, against 13 for M, Loewy, and x for M. Wolff.

AT a recent meeting of the Natural Science Section of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of Sheffield, a discussion
took place on ‘* The Attitude of the State to Science,” in which
Dr. Hime, Mr. Alfred H. Allen, Mr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S.,
and Mr. J. Spear Parker successively took part, and the opinion
of the meeting was embodied in the following resolution, which
was passed unanimously:—‘‘ That this meeting deplores the
supineness of the Government with respect to science, and be-
lieves that the national recognition of research, and the establish-
ment of better means of rewarding discoverers, would be a direct
benefit to the country.”

In order to remove any apprehension that might arise in the
minds of some members of the Anthropological Institute (parti-
cularly of those residing in the country), from statements made
that, in consequence of the recent change in the composition of
the Council, a preference would be given to papers of an ethno-
graphical class over those relating to other branches of anthro-
pology, the director, with the full concurrence of the president,
has thought it advisable to assure the members of the Institute
that no such result need be feared. Papers on every branch of
anthropology will always be cordially received, provided they
comply with the requirements demanded in all communications
to a Scientific Society intended for publication, amongst which,
a very essential one is, that they should contain either ‘‘ new

- facts or new applications of admitted facts.” As a further
assurance that all proper {subjects will receive due and equal
attention, it may be well to state in general terms what may be
regarded as proper subjects to be brought before the Anthropo-
logical Institute. They may be included under the following
heads :—(1) The Physical History of Man and of the Human
Race ; (2) Psychology ; (3) Comparative Philology ; (4) Priscan

Archeology, @ Prehistoric, 4 Protohistoric ; (5) Descriptive |

Ethnog:aphy, comprising’the Reports of Travellers and Explorers
on the Physical Characters, Derivation$and Relation, Manners,
Customs, Religion, Language, &c., of various Races or Nations ;
(6) _Comparative Ethnography ; (7) The Relations between
Civilised Man and Aboriginal Savage Peoples. In this pro-
gramme it will be seen that any subject properly coming under
the cognizance of the anthropologist may finda place. And in
order to insure confidence that each and every subject will receive:
due attention, it is suggested that committees might, if thought
desirable, be formed of such members of the institute as may

take a special interest in any of the above branches of inquiry,

the collection of materials and the production of papers reldting
to the subject in which they may feel particular interest. In this
way it is clear thatall the subjects will be placed on an equality,

and to be hoped that each inits turn will receive the same

attention.
—

SoME weeks ago we expressed a hope that the vacant Swiney
Lectureship would not be given to one who is already well off, but
to some well-qualified young man, who would thus have leisure to
perform work of high scientific value. Our hope, we are glad
to see, has been essentially fulfilled in the appointment of Dr.
Carpenter, who, unusually young in spirit, assuredly deserves
the leisure which this appointment will ultimately help to bring
him, leisure which, we have good reason to believe, will be de-
voted to the completion of work of very high scientific value
indeed. Few men have devoted gratuitously more of their time
to the pubiic benefit, and we believe that he accepts the appoint-
ment mainly in order that he may have a good opportunity of
working out in fuller detail the applications to geology of the
inquiries in which he has been engaged during the last few
years. Dr. Carpenter, we understand, has had by him for
years, the material, fully worked out, of important papers which
he has had no time to produce. Dr, Carpenter has once before
held the Swiney Lectureship, and it has been offered to him
again without any solicitation on his part.

ON Monday last, in the first of his Hunterian lectures for this
year, Prof. Flower drew special attentivn to the peculiarities
of anew animal discovered by Prof. Marsh, of Yale College,
and named by him Dinoceras mirabilis, This remarkable ungu
alte, nearly the size of the elephant, was obtained from the
Eocene beds of the Rocky Mountain region, It possessed
osseous cores for three pairs of horns, which rise successively
one above the other ; a supra occipital crest is greatly developed,
projecting obliquely backward beyond the condyles. The pos-
terior pair of horns arise from this crest, the median from the
maxillaries, and the anterior from the tips of the nasals. The
canines are greatly developed, and the upper incisors are want-
ing. The skull is unusually long and narrow, and carries six
small molar and premolar teeth, The extremities resembled
very nearly those in the proboscidia, but were proportionately
shorter. The femur possessed no third trochanter and no
pit for the ligamentum teres, It therefore possesses characters
allying it with the perissodactyles as well as the pro
scidia, :

Pror. Marsu has also drawa attention to a new sub-class of
fossil birds from the cretaceous shales of Kansas. The specimens,
while possessing the scapular arch, wing, and leg-bones of thetruly
orthnithic type, present the very aberrant conditions of haying
biconcave vertebrze and well developed teeth in both jaws.
These teeth are quite numerous and implanted in distinct
sockets ; the twenvy in each ramus of the lower jaw are inclined
backwards and resemble one another. The maxillary teeth are
equally numerous and like those in the mandible. The sternum
have a carina and elongated articulations for the coracoids. The
lower of the posterior extremities resemble those of swimming
birds, The last sacral vertebra is large, so it may have carried a
tail. Professor Marsh proposes the name Odontornithes for the
name of the new sub-class, and Jchthyonithes for the order to
contain this remarkable species, which is about the size of a
pigeon,

AT a meeting of the Senate of the University of London held
last week, a resolution was passed by a majerity of two, that it

is desirable to make Greek an optional subject at the Matricula- _

whose function would be, each in its own sphere, to promote’ tion Examination, The practical effect of the carrying ou

aa

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v4

Feb. 20, 1873]

NATURE

311

of this regulation will be, that while those who are in-
tending to proceed to degrees in Arts will continue to take
Greek at the matriculation, as a matter of course, it will not be
required from those who are going on to degrees in Science or
Medicine.

Mr. A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., has been elected
Lecturer in Botany at St. Thomas’s Hospital School of Medicine,
in the place of the Rey. J. W. Hicks, A vacancy is thus caused
in the Lectureship on Botany at the Westminster Hospita
School.

THE following new candidates for the Professorship of Geology
at Cambridge are announced :—Mr. William King, Professor of
Mineralogy and Geology, Queen’s College, Galway ; and Mr. P,
Brodie, M.A., F.G.S., of Emmanuel College, and Vicar of
Rowington,

_ THE office of Chief Assistant in the Observatory, Cape of
Good Hope, will be filled up by open competition on March 18
next, and the following days. Candidates must be between
eighteen and twenty-five years of age, and the salary com-
mences at 320/., rising 10/. a year to 450/,

WE are really sorry to hear that the much-talked-of Arctic
expedition of M. Pavy, who was recently fabled to have dis-
covered an Arctic Continent, has vanished into worse than ‘‘ thin
air.” It is perhaps unprecedented in the annals of science that
the funds meant to be devoted to a noble and heroic purpose,
should be literally wasted in riotous living.. We hear, on too
good authority, alas, that M. Pavy’s explorations have been
confined to certain not unknown phases of “‘life” in San
Francisco,

Coat has been discovered on the railway from Mollendo to
Arequipa in Peru. The seam is four yards thick. The coal
has been reported as of good quality, and it is already being
used on the railway..

Dr. Reiss, one of two German ‘travellers in Ecuador, has
succeeded not only in ascending Sotopax, but in entering the
crater.

A GERMAN from Berlin has been for some time at Panama
butterfly hunting. His first remittance was one hundred pounds’
worth of butterflies.

On December 28, 1872, a slight shock of earthquake was felt
at Goalpara in Northern India, and again on January 3.

On December 28, 1872, a strong earthquake was felt at 10
A.M., doing much damage at Chinameca, Salvador, Central
America. It is attributed to the volcano of San Vicente, now
in eruption.

On January 1 there was a slight shock of earthquake at
Guayaquil.

THE Times of Jndia reports a sharp shock of earthquake
which was felt on January 7, about 4 P.M., at the camp between
Sultanpore and Fyzabad, in Oudh.,

THE great shock of earthquake in Samos on Jatfuary 31 hap-
p-ned at 1.10 A.M., and lasted 10 seconds, Several houses were
thrown down, and many damaged. ;

Tue French authorities at Tahiti report in their official journal
that, in consequence of changes in the coast line and reefs, new
rules for navigation have been issued. They announce, also, that
the island placed in 21° 50’ S., and 152° 20” W., does not exist,
as the place has been sailed over by three vessels. Captain
Truxton, of the U.S. ship 7: Yamestown, has informed them that
he has passed over the position of a reef assigned to 24° 45'S.
and 150° 40’ W., without seeing any token of danger.

M. DE FONVIELLE has been authorised by the French
Academy to make a series of experiments on a new lightning
conductor which he has devised.

THE Report of the Marlborough College Natural History
Society for the half year ending Christmas, 1872, contains much
that is of considerable interest and value, though we are sorry
to see from the very honest preface, that the Society is not in so
satisfactory a condition as it ought to and might be. While
admitting that a fair amount of work has been done, the preface
complains of the lack of interest in the work of the Society,
and the comparatively small amount of energy displayed by many
of the members. With regard to nearly all the sections,
the tone of the preface is desponding, though hopeful that
a change for the better may take place next year. The
Society contains some excellent workers, who have shown no
disposition to relax their efforts, and we earnestly hope that
their example will be largely contagious, and that the next report
will be written in a very different tone. It is a pity thata society
so favourably situated in many respects as this is should not pro-
duce more abundant and more valuable results. The geological
section, we are sorry to see, is nowhere, mainly for want of a
permanent head. The society is also very much cramped for
want of a suitable. building for the museum. We hope this
report will stimulate all the members to renewed activity; let
them take to heart the very excellent advice given in the paper
on ‘‘ An Ideal School Natural History Society,” by Mr. E. F,
im Thurm, who deserves great praise for his efforts on behalf of
the society. Appended are reports of the out-door work done
in entomology and botany during the half year, and a long and
ve1y interesting paper by the Rev. J. A. Preston, describing
what he saw on a recent visit to Brazil. The concluding article
of the Report is Part I. of a carefully compiled descriptive
Catalogue of the Archeological Collection of the Society, by
Mr. F. E. Hulme, which is accompanied with a beautifully
executed illustration of some of the articles in the collection.

AT the first meeting of the Sheffield Naturalists’ Club held a
few days ago, Mr. H. C. Sorby, the president, delivered a very
excellent inaugural address, in which he gave his views as to the
objects of the formation of such a society. Such a society as
this, he said, had two characters. First of all, the subjective
influence it had on the members who composed it. The study
of natural history was most desirable in many ways. Man had
a certain amount of energy ; it must be expended in some way
or other, and the examination into natural history furnished
them with a study which was advantageous to both body and
mind. By being joined together in a society they might greatly
help one another. With regard to the objective value of such a
society as this, he thought they ought not to limit their efforts to
the mere making out of accurate lists of flora and fauna which
occurred in the district. The efforts of naturalists also ought to
be devoted to the discovery of general philosophical principles,
as applied to both animals and plants. He thought they coula
learn a great deal more by the careful study of the commonest
things than by looking for rarities, They could not hesitate in
saying that a great deal remained to be done in the study of
natural history in every district. The following, he thought,
were some of the points which such a society should inquire into:
—What is life, and how have the various species of animals and
plants originated ?_ Why do particular plants grow in particular
localities? The determination of that question would have a
most important bearing on geological theores. Another problem
for study was what was the effect of dry or wet seasons on cer-
tain plants? _If that question were settled, they might know
the effect that must have been produced in bygone ages—by the
alteration of climate—on certain plants and animals, Another
most interesting subject for investigation was the influence of

gi2

plants on plants, animals on animals, and one on the other ; the
fertilisation of plants by insects, and the attractability of diff2-
rent colours for diffzrent insects. Other points recommended
for study were the following:—The manner in which the
habits of animals have been acquired ; the manner in which
varieties or species have been formed ; the limit of the succes-
sive genera‘ion of insects through none but females ; the diseases
of plants due to parasitic fungi and insects.

Tue first number of Petermann’s AMittheilungen contains a
b.ief account of the eruption of a new volcano in Chili, which
occurred during part of last Jume and July. The volcano,
known by the name of Lhagnell, is situated in the south of the
country, in Arauco, between the volcanoes Villarico and Llaima,
near the river Cautin. Immense quantities of sand seem to have
been thrown out, some of which, according to Dr. Philippi, of
Santiago, reached a distance of 300 or 400 miles north from the
volcano. This sand is described as consisting of angular, tran-
Sparent greea particles of volcanic glass. Dr. Philippi also
Teports that for fourteen days, about midday, a stronz south
wind blew, as far north as Santiago, small quantities of sand,
much coarser than the above, with rounded corners, opaque and
grey. Great quantitics of lava, according to the report of a
spectator, have overflowed the district, causing considerable
destruction to life, and stopping up the river Quepe, which is
thus being converted into a considerable lake.

We have received a small pamphlet, by Mr.-B. H. Babbage,
coataining a description of a portion of the late Mr. C. Babbage’s
calculating machine or difference engine, put together in 1833,
and now being exhibited in the educational division of the South
Kensington Museum.

La Revue Scientifique for February 15, gives a summary of the
mu-h needed administrative reforms which have been introduced
into the Collége de France. -

WE have received the following papers recently read before
the Eastbou-ne Natural History Society:—‘‘On Geoglossum
difforme or Earth-tongue,” by Mr. C, J. Muller; ‘‘A Note on
the Wall Pelletory,” by Mr. F.C. S. Roper; ‘‘On the Planet
Venus,” by Mr. T. Ryle.

THE principal articles in the Quarterly Fournal of Science
are :—‘* On the Probability of Error in Exper:mental Research,”
by Mr. Crookes ; ‘‘ Condition of the Moon’s surface,” by Mr.
Rk, A. Proctor, with photograph ; “Colours and their Relations,”
by Mr. Mungo Ponton ; and ‘‘ Remarks on the Present State of
the Devonian Question,” by Mr. H. B. Woodward.

THE Annual of the Royal School of Naval Architecture, &c.,
contains some good technical papers. This publication will be-
cone vastly increased in importance, and we hope in value, by
the establishment of the new school at Greenwich.

WE take the following from the Zxgincer :—The question as
t> whether a gasometer will explode when fired was settled in
Manchester on Tuesday, February 11, when one of the gas-

meters at the Manchester Corporation Gasworks in Rochdale- |

road was destroyed by fire. The origin of the fire is not known,
but about 2 o’clock a workman saw flames issuing from one end
of the gasometers, and the flames could not be checked till the
whole contents of the gasometer, about 600,000 cubic feet of
gas, had been consumed. Many inhabitants of the neighbour-
hood hurried away with loads of their furniture, fearing an ex-
plosion, but nothing of the kind occurred.

ADVICES from Cyprus state that no rain had fallen on the |

island for months ; but this is probably an exaggeration.

WE learn from the A¢heneum that the Rev. Thomas Hincks,
F.R.S., is now engaged in preparing a ‘‘ History of the British
Polyzoa.”

NATURE

[ Feb. 20, 1873 _

PROFESSOR RAMSAY ON LAKES

ROF. RAMSAY, F.R.S., delivered a course of six lectures

to working men, on Monday evenings, commencing Jan. 5,

1873, in the Lecture Theatre of the Geological Museum. The

subject of the course was ‘‘ Lakes, fresh and salt: their origin,

and distribution in geographical space and in geological time,”
and the following is an abstract of them :—

I, FRESHWATER LAKES, THEIR ORIGIN AND GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION

There are many classes of lakes in the world, formed ia
various ways, and though he had been unjustly charged with |
ascribing all lakes to one origin, he would be the last person to
doso. He then went on to examine the various means which
might be supposed to produce lake basins, and especially that
class of lakes scattered over the whole northern hemisphére—in
Wales, Cumberland, Scotland, Sweden and Norway, Russia.
and N. America—the basins of which had evidently been formed
by the erosion and grinding out of portioas of the earth’s crust.
In many cas2s these lakes are in true rock basins, surrounded by
lips of rock. How were these hollows produced by Nature ?
The dislocations of the earth’s crust could not produce them ; as
a rule the sides of faults are close together or the fissure is filled
up with other matter, and the depressions due to synclinal
curves were never so simple or perfect as these lake basins,
owing to violent disturbances, and to subsequent denudation.
The theory of a special area of subsidence for each lake seems
absurd, on considering the vast numbers of separate lakes, in
N. America for example, lying in some case within a mile or
two of each other. Again, a lake cannot make its own hollow ;
what little motion there is in the water can only affect the waste
of the shores. Neither can a river scoop out a lake hollow, it
can only produce a long narrow channel, and go on widening
and deepening that, and the sediment which it carries down ~
into the lake will in the long run fill up the lake basin. The
action of the sea, too, on its shores cannot scoop out a lake
hollow, it can merely wear back its cliffs and forma ‘‘ plain of
marine denudation” just below the level of its waters. And
thus having exhausted all the other natural agencies which effect
the denudation of the land, what agency remains to us to account
for the formations of these lake basins, but the grinding power
of ice? The lecturer then adverted to the phenomena of the for-
mition and progress of glaciers, illustrating his remarks by
diagrams of the great Rhone glacier. In the Alpine valleys
there are numerous iadications—in the mammellated surface of
the rocks, the striation, moraines, and boulders—that at some
period in the past all these glaciers had been very much more
extensive than at present, and were found in many parts where
now they are altogether wanting. In G:eenland the whole
country is covered by a universal ice sheet, which extends into
the sea in some cases several miles, and where cliffs of ice ris>
out of the sea 209 to 300 ft. high, and, as recent soundings have
shown, are sometimes 3,000 ft. deep. Large masses of these
breaking off float away as icebergs, bearing with them stones and
rubbish which they deposit, on melting, irregularly over the
sea bottom. Inthe mountains of Wales and Scotland, in the
Vosges, the Black Forest range, and in N. America are nume-
rous signs of glacier action, all which prove that at one period,
recent in a geological sense, glacier; were present in those dis-
tricts ; and boulders and boulder clay deposits show also that
the Northern part of the Northern hemisphere was passing
through a glacial epoch.

Boulder clay and moraines have sometimes dammed up a
stream of water aud formed a lake, but lakes of that kind are
neither numerous nor of much importance. The theory that the
true rock basins were scooped out by glaciers first occurred to
the lecturer whilst observing in N. Wales, and he applied it
first to the eXplanation of the tarns about SnowJon, but ex-
tended observation of the Italiaa and other great lakes, and
subsequently of the American lakes, warranted him in applying
it to them also. He had e-pecially applied it to the Lake of
Geneva, which lies directly in the course of the old Rhone
glacier. The lake is 983 ft. in depth in its deepest part, nearly
in the centre. Where the glacier entered the lake it could not
have been less than 3,009 fr. thick, and as the rock underneath
is comparatively of a soft character, where the ice was thickest
the grinding power was greatest, and it scooped out its deepest
hollow ; but towards the south end the mas; had grown less
through melting, and the result was a shallowing of the basin

It is in the valleys of Sw tz2rlanl down which the glaciers must

* Fab, 20, 1873]

formerly have extended that the lakes lie. The great depth of
Lake Maggiore beneath the sea-level—2, 300 ft.—is no argument
_against the theory, for a large mass of ice would block out the
sea-waters. In Wales the lakes are never of large size, Lake
Bala, the largest, being about 44 miles long ; Lake Windermere
lies in a true rock basin, as do many others in that district ; in
Scotland, where the climate was more severe, the lakes are
larger and more numerous ; in Sweden and Norway, in Finland
and N. Russia the lakes are almost innumerable, while in N.
America they are scattered almost broadcast over the country
N. of lat. 43°. Where the glacial action was most intense, there
the lakes become more and more numerous, and he believed
they were due not to special glaciers, like those on the south
side of the Alps, but to that great ice sheet which, according to
Agassiz, covered the whole country. In South America and
New Zealand, too, are signs of a similar action, and there too,
lakes of this class occur. ‘The present glaciers of New Zealand
are very small compared with what they evidently were at a
previous’period, and in the course of every one of them are lakes,
which, according to reports he had received, also lie in true
rock basins,

II, SALT WATER LAKES, THEIR ORIGIN AND

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
The lecturer said that he could not account for the origin of
all salt-water lakes, but for some of them the evidence is clear,
and it is plain to see why they are salt. The principal minerals
forming the rocks of the earth’s crust are silica, alumina, lime,
potash, soda, magnesia, peroxide of iron, &c. — Rain-water
takes up from the atmosphere and the earth’s surface a small
proportion of carbonic acid, and thus acquires the power of
dissolving certain of these minerals as it percolates through the
rocks, notably lime, which it carries away in the form of a bi-
carbonate. And thus the water of all springs is charged more
or less with mineral ingredients, though these may be recog-
nisable only by the skill of the chemist. Thus the water of the
fountains in Trafalgar Square contain 69°75 grains of salts per
gallon, including chloride of sodium 2577 ; bi-carbonate of soda
14°5 ; sulphate of soda 18°4. The Thames water at Teddington
contains 22°5 grains per gallon, and thus carries to the sea in the
course of a year 377,000 tons of salts; the old well at Bath
holds 144 grains of salts per gallon, thus bringing to the surface
608 tons of salts per year. The apparently small quantity of
bi-carbonate of lime in a per-centage of the salts of sea-water,
is still sufficient to furnish to marine creatures materials for their
shells and skeletons, and thus indirectly to build up the great
beds of limestone which are now in course of formation, or
belong to former geological periods. The analyses of salts in
sea-water andin the water of various lakes is given in the
following table :

Mediter- Black Seaof Caspian Dead
Per centage of ranean Sea. Sea. Azof. Sea. Sea.
Chloride of Sodium..... 2°9460 14020 09658 0 3673 12°110
ra Magnesium 0°3223 0'1304 0°0887 00632 7822
= = = = 2455
a 070505 oor oo128 070076 1217
Bromide of Magnesium — 00005 O0004 trace
Sulphate of Lime .......- 0°1357 070105 0'0288 00490
Ep Magnesium "2480 0°1470 0°0764 01239
Bromide of Sodium .... 0°0558 -_ = _ 0'452
Carbonate of Lime...... o"oIr3 ©0359 0'0022 o’or7r
cH Magnesi: - 07020} 00129 00013
Peroxide of Iron... 070004 — a a
3°7700 1°7661 11880 0°6294 24°056

Salt lakes though not so numerous as fresh-water lakes, occur
in large numbers in certain regions. The Caspian Sea with an
area as large as Spain, the Sea of Aral, and a vast number among
the mountains and table-lands north of the Himalaya; the Dead
Sea in Syria; L.Utah,and neighbouring lakes among the moun-
tains on the western side of North America; and among the moun-
tains of South America and in the interior of Australia are ex-
amples of large salt water lakes. It will be noticed that all these
lakes lie in an area of inland drainage, that they have rivers
ranning into them, but that they have no outlet. On inspecting
the above table it will be seen that the Black Sea is fresher than
the Mediterranean, by reason of the greater supply of fresh water
-furnished by the rivers, and Edward Forbes showed that this
freshening has caused certain of the shells of Mediterranean
species to assume “monstrous” shapes. The Caspian is'stiil fresher,
and its fauna and fossils in recent deposits in the neighbourhood
prove it to have once had connection with the Black Sea, from
which it has been separated by changes in physical geography ;
it was then salter than at present, but is now growing salter

P Fy ree Ne ee, |
mn oe hers eae
. ia P
ae E
«ee .
ee ved : Ml

SS SS SSS eS a ee ee

313
again every year, and the fauna now inhabiting its waters
have likewise considerable affinities with North Sea types.’
Its surface level is -83°5 ft. below that of the Black Sea,
while the surface of the Dead Sea is 1300 ft. below that of
the Mediterranean. In all cases where rivers flow into de-
pressions in the land, however these might have been formed
(oscillating movements of the earth’s crust might perhaps form
such large ones as the Caspian basin), carrying with them certain
salts in solution, if the lake have no outflowing river, the water
must. be carried away by evaporation, in which case the salts
will be left behind, and the remaining waters become more and
more saturated. It is stated that crystals of salt have been
brought up from the Dead Sea, and on the shallow waters on its
coasts evaporating in summer saline incrustations are left. The
same water which flows ¢hrough the Sea of Galilee, a fresh-
water lake, renders the Dead Sea one of the most remarkable salt
lakes in the world. And in this and all similar cases accumulation
of salts will go on till the saturation point is reached, and
then precipitation will commence. The region to the north of
the Himalayas is comparatively rainless, owing to the mountains
condensing the moisture carried by the south winds, and the
rivers consequently do not carry into the lakes sufficient water to
make them overflow their boundaries, hence they are salt. Lake
Baikal, with an outlet to the sea, is quite fresh. For a similar
reason the moisture from the south-west winds being condensed
in great part by the Sierra Nevada, the lakes which lie in the
great plains and table-lands to the east of that range have not a
sufficient supply of water to cause them to overflow, and conse-
quently they are salt, and are continually becoming salter. In
Ioo parts by weight of the water of the Great Salt Lake in that
region, there are of chloride of sodium (common salt) 20°196 ;
sulphate of soda 1°834; chloride of magnesia 0°252; chloride
of calcium a trace, making a total of 22°282. And by means of
the old water levels in the form of terraces round its margin,
it can be proved that it has shrunk very considerably, and there-
fore its salts must be becoming very much concentrated. On the
surrounding plains a saline efflorescence is found, which the
lecturer believed might be explained by the rain which saturated
the rocks during the rainy season rising again to the surface
charged with salts dissolved from the rocks, during the intenss
heats of summer.

(Zo be continued).

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Zovlogist for January and February contains reviews of
the works of Capt. Shelley and the late C. J. Andersson. Dr.
Gray contributes a paper on the Cetacea of the British Seas,
and Mr. Harting has a supplement to his paper on the British
Heronries, a subject on which there are several letters also
published. Messrs. Stevenson and J. H. Gurney, jun., send
Omithological notes from Norfolk, and Messrs. Gatcombe and
Cordeux from Devon and Lincolnshire respectively.

Tue Entomologist for January and February, among other
articles of interest, contains one by Mr. H. C. Lord, on ‘‘ The
Lepidoptera of Switzerland,” as far as could be obtained in a
twelve days stay. Out of the sixty-three species of butterflies
met with, twenty-four are not British. Many of the English
commonest forms are among the most frequently found there.
Colias Hyale is commoner in some parts than C. Zdusa, and C,
Helice is not unfrequently found. Mr. F, Walker continues
his papers on ‘‘ Economy of Chalcidiz.”

SOCI-FTIES AND ACADEMIES

LONDON

Royal Society, Jan. 9.—‘‘ On a new Method of viewing the
Chromosphere,” by J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S., and G. M. Seabroke.

The observations made by slitless spectroscopes during the
eclipse of December 11, 1871, led one of us early this year to the
conclusion that the most convenient and labour-saving contriv-
ance for the daily observation of the chromosphere would be to
photograph daily the imaye of a ring-slit, which should be coin-
cident with an image of the chromosphere itself.

The same idea has since occurred to the other.

We therefore beg leave to send in a joint communication to
the Royal Society on the subject, showing the manner in which
this kind of observation can be carried out, remarking that, al-
though the method still requires some instrumental details, which

314

NATURE

{F2s. 20, 1873

will make its working more perfect, images of the chromo-
sphere, almost in its entirety, have already been seen on several
days during the present month and the latter part of last
month.

The adaptation of this
seen at a glance from the accompanying drawing.

The image of the sun is brought to focus on a diaphragm
having a circular disc of brass (in the centre) of the same size as
the sun’s image, so that the sun’s light is obstructed and the

Fig. 1.—Diaphr
looking thro:
inside B, and
spectroscope.

h apertures in the side of the tubes.—Fig. 2.

G. Collimator of spectroscope.

methed to a telespectroscope will be |

diverzent to pass through the prisms at the same time, and that |

the image of the whole annulus may be seen at once. There are
mechanical difficulties in producing a perfect annulus of the re-
quired size, so one } inch in diameter is used, and-can be reduced
virtually to any size at pleasure.

The proposed photographic arrangements are as follows :

A large Steinheil spectroscope is used, its usual slit being re-
placed by the ring one.

December 6, 187

2, at 11.30. ae

Outer circle roo sec, from inner one.

The size of the image of the chromosphere obtained by the
method adopted will be seen from the accompanying photograph,
taken when the ring-slit was illuminated with the vapours of
copper and cadmium.

As this photograph is not reproduced, it may be stated that
the ring-images have an internal diameter of nearly } of an
inch.

The accompanying solar profiles are copies of drawing made,
on the dates stated, by means of the new method, which were
exhibited by the authors at the meeting.

[Since reading the above paper it has come to our knowledge
that Zollner had conceived the same idea unknown to us, but
had rejected it. Prof. Wenlock in America has tried a similar
arrangement, but without success.—J.N.L., G.M.S., January
17, 1873.]

Feb. 13.—‘* Ona new Relation between Heat and Electricity,”
by Frederick Guthrie.

It is found that the reaction between an electrified body and a
neighbouring neutral one, whereby the eletricity in the neutral
body is inductively decomposed and attraction produced, under-
goes : modification when the neutral body is considerably
heated.

Under many circumstances it is found that the electrified

chromospheric light is allowed to pass, The chromosphere is
| afterwards brought to a focus again at the position usually oc-
| cupied by the slit of the spectroscope ; and in the eye-piece is
‘ seen the chromosphere in circles corresponding to the “C” or
other lines. The lens D is used to reduce the size of the sun’s
image, and keep it of the same size as the diaphragm at different
times of the year ; and the lenses F areused in order to reduce
the size of the annulus of light to about } inch, so that the
pencils of light from either side of the annulus may not be too

Fic. 2,

howing annulus, the breadth of which may be varied to suit the state of the air. The annulus is viewed and brought to focus by
: A. Sliding eye-tube of telescope.
arrying lens D and diaphragm E. F. Lenses bringing image of diaphragm to a focus at the place generally eccupied by the slit

C. Tube sliding
of the

B. Tube screwing into eye-tube.

A solar beam is thrown along the axis of the collimator by a
heliostat, and the sun’s image is brought to focus on the ring-slit
by a 33-inch object-glass, the solar image being made to fit the

slit by a suitable lens.

By this method the image of the chromosphere received on
the photographic plate can be obtained of a convenient size, as a
telescope of any dimensions may be used for focussing the
parallel beam which passes through the prisms on to the plate,

December 7, 1872, at 11.30.

Chromosphere at normal height, except where prominences marked

body is rapidly and completely discharged. The action of dis-
charge is shown to depend mainly upon the following condi-
tions :—(1) The temperature of the discharging body and its
distance from the electrified one. (2) The nature (+ or—) of
the latter’s electricity.

With regard to (1), it is shown that the discharging power of
a hot body diminishes with its distance and increases with its
temperature. But, concerning the temperature, it is proved that

| the discharging power of a hot body does not depend upon the

quantity of heat radiated from it to the electrified body, but
chiefly upon its quality. Thus a white hot platinum wire con-
nected with the earth may exercise an indefinitely greater dis-
charging power, at the same distance, than a large mass of iron
at 100° C., though the latter may impart more heat to the elec-
trified body.

Neither the mere reception of heat, however intense, by the

| electrified body, unless the latter have such small capacity as to

be itself intensely heated, discharges the electricity if the source
of heat be distant : nor is discharge effected when the electrified
body and a neighbouring cold one are surrounded by air through
which intense heat is passing. But, for the discharge, it is
necessary that heat of intensity pass to the electrified body from
a neutral body, within inductive range.

NATURE

315

White- and red-hot metallic neutral bodies exercise this dis-
ing power even when isolated from the earth, but always
with less facility than when earth-connected.

The hotter the discharging body, whether isolated or earth-
connected, the more nearly alike do + or—electricities behave
in being discharged ; but at certain temperatures distinct differ-
ences are noticed. The —electricity, in all cases of difference,
is discharged with greater facility than the +.

Attempts are made to measure the critical temperatures at
which earth-connected hot iron (1) discharges + and — electricity
with nearly the same facility, (2) begins, as it cools, to showa
preferential power of discharging —, and (3) ceases to discharge
—. The temperatures so obtained are measured by the number
of heat-units, measured from o° C. in I . Of iron of the
respective temperature, represented by the value of the expres-
sion Fe ,w.

It is shown that various flames, both earth-connected and
isolated, have an exceedingly great power of discharging both
kinds of electricity.

The effects in regard to discharge are shown to be similar
when platinum wire, rendered hot by a galvanic current, is used,
and also when the condensed electricity of a Leyden jar is ex-
-perimented on, q :

As hot iron shows a preferential power of discharging — over
+ electricity, so it is found that white-hot but isolated iron
refuses to be charged either with + or—electricity. As the
iron cools it acquires first the power of receiving — and after-
wards of receiving +. Further, while white-hot iron in contact
with an electrified body prevents that body from retaining a
charge of either kind of electricity, as it cools it permits a +
charge to be received, and subsequently a — one.

A suggestion is made as to the existence of an electrical co-
ercitive force, the presence of which, together with its diminu-
tion by heat would explain much of what has been described.

“On Curvature and Orthogonal Surfaces.” By A. Cayley,
F.R.S., Sadlerian Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Cambridge.

Entomological Society.—lebruary “Stem W. Bates,
vice-president, in the chair.—Mr. F. Smith exhibited a
box of Hymenoptera, collected near Calcutta, contain-
ing, amongst other insects, a new species of Asvafa, and four or
five beautiful species of the genus Vomia.—Mr. McLachlan ex-
hibited a quadrangular case formed by the larva of a trichopterous
insect, taken by the Rev. A. E. Eaton in the river Dove in
Derbyshire.—Mr. Champion exhibited specimens of a large
species of Pu/ex found in a mouse’s nest in Sheppy.—Mr. Mel-
dola exhibited a living specimen of a myriapod of the genus
Spirobolus, sent to him from San Francisco, Also eggs of a leaf
insect from Java (Phiyllium pulchrifolium).—Mr. Miller made
remarks on pouch galls found on the leaves of cinnamon from
Bombay.—Rev. Mr. Eaton read a paper on the Hydroptilide, a
trichopterous family.—Mr. A. G. Butler communicated a mono-
graph of the genus Gasteracantha, or crab-spiders,

Royal Microscopical Society, Feb. 5, Anniversary Meeting.
—W. Kitchen Parker, F.R.S.,in the chair. The report and
treasurer’s statement of account having been presented the
president read a highly interesting address descriptive of his
own further researches upon cranial development, which, during
the year, had been chiefly confined to the formation of the
skull of the pig. He briefly indicated the methods adopted,
and some of the results obtained, and concluded by expressing
the opinion that what he had already observed led him to
conclude that if all existing forms had been really derived from
one, the process must have been slow indeed. The report
having been adopted, and some ciscussion having taken place
as to the society's position, cordial votes of thanks to the
retiring president, hon. secretary, and to the other officers of
the society for their services during the past year were unani-
mously carried. The following is a list of the officers and
council for the ensuing year :—President--Charles Brooke, M.A.,
F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—William B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. ;
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.; William Kitchen
Parker, F.R.S.; Francis H. Wenham, C.E. Treasurer—
John Ware Stephenson, F.R.A.S. Secretaries—Henry J.
Slack, F.G.S.; Charles Stewart, F.L.S. Council—James Bell,
F.C.S. ; John Berney; Robert Braithwaite, M.D., F.L.S. ;
William J. Gray, M.D. ; Henry Lawson, M.D. ; Benjamin T.
Lowne, F.L.S.; Samuel J. McIntire; John Millar, F.L.S. ;
Henry Perigal, F.R.A.S.; Alfred Sanders; Charles Tyler,

F.L.S.; Thomas C, White. Assistant Secretary—Walter W.
Reeves,
MANCHESTER

Literary and Philosophical Society, Feb. 4.—Dr. J. P.
Joule, F.R.S., &c., president, in the chair. E. W. Binney,
F. R.S., paid a warm tribute to the memory of one of the most
illustrious honorary members of the Society, the late Professor
Sedgwick.—Prof. Williamson, F.R.S., stated that the second
fossil plant described by Mr. Binney at the last meeting of the
Society, Jan. 21, and of which a notice appeared in the Society’s
Proceedings, does not belong to some new genus, as Mr. Binney
supposed, but is one that he has already described on two or
three occasions as being the stem or branch of the well-known
genus Asterophyliites. The author said that he had obtained the
plant in almost every stage of its growth, from the youngest twig
to the more matured stem, and that the genus would be the sub-
ject of his next, or fifth, of the series of memoirs now in course
of publication by the Royal Society.—‘‘ On a large meteor seen
on Feb, 3, 1873, at 10 F.M.,” by Prof. Osborne Reynolds,*
On Feb. 3, at 1oh. 7m. (as afterwards appeared) by my watch
(which was 7 minutes fast), I was walking from Manchester
along the east side of the Oxford Road (which there runs 30° to
the east of south), I had just reached the corner of Grafton-street,
when I saw a most brilliant meteor. I first became aware of it
from the brightness of the wall on my left, #2, on the north-
east, which caused me to tum my head in that the wrong,
direction ; the first effect was that of a flash of lightning, but it
continued and increased until it was equal to daylight. On lift-
ing my head I saw directly in front of me, what had previously
been hidden by the brim of my hat, a bright object, apparently
fixed in the sky, as though it were coming directly towards me;
immediately afterwards it turned to the west, and passed just
under the moon (which it completely outshone). I was very
much startled when I first caught sight of it, owing doubt-
less to the rapidity with which it was increasing in size, and
the directness with which it seemed to be coming. The next
instant I saw that it was only an extraordinary meteor. It
passed the moon, falling at an angle of, I should say, 20°, and
then ceased suddenly, having traversed a path of about go°,
from the south to the east. The colour of the light was
that of a blue light, or rather burning magnesium. The
sky was cloudy, but there was no appearance of redness
about either the head or the train. I endeavoured to fix its
course by the stars, but it was too cloudy, although I could
see here and there a star. The conclusions I came to, there
and then, were that its course must have been nearly parallel
with the road, which by the map runs, at that point, 30° to the
west of north ; that when I first saw it it was about 40° above
the horizon and due south ; and that it passed about 20° to the
north of the moon. (This would make its line of approach from
Pegasus.) While I was thinking of its course I heard a report,
not very loud, but which I connected with it. I judged it was
about 30° after the display. I then looked at may watch ; it
was 10h. 7m. I then walked along, talking to a fellow-travel-
ler who had not quite recovered his alarm. Presently we heard
a loud report, like ashort peal of thunder or the firing of a large
cannon ; I immediately looked at my watch, it was then 10h. fom.,
so that this second report was from three to four minutes after
the display. I have no doubt that this was the report of the
meteor, for compared with the other it was like the firing of a
cannon to a musket. The time of the second report would
make the distance 30 or 40 miles, so that it would have passed
over Chester and burst over Liverpool. In this case it must
have been a tremendous affair, for the sky was cloudy, and I do
not think I exaggerate when I say that at one instant it was as
light as day ; the train was very long, and the speed great. It
ceased suddenly, as when a ball from a Roman candle falls into
water ; there were no fi ents, as from an explosion.—
*““Note on a Meta-Vanadic Acid,” by Dr. B. W. Gerland.
—Dr. Roberts spoke on the subject of Biogenesis. (See
his letter in this week’s NaTURE).—P.S. To Dr. Joule’s
description of a Mercurial Air-Pump.—The exhauster described
in the last number (p. 296) has been further improved by dis-
pensing with the glass tube ¢, and its stop-cock f This is effected
by attaching the base of the globe 4 to a strengthened india-
rubber pipe, connected at the other end to a glass vessel of rather
larger capacity than 6, This vessel has only to be successively
raised and lowered in order to exhaust-the receiver. The mer-
cury in the vessel may be either under atmospheric pressure or

* See Natore, Feb. 6, p, 262, and Feb. 23, p. 200.

316

relieved therefrom. In the former case it must be alternately
raised and depressed from 30 inches below é up to that level.
In the latter it must be raised and depressed from the level of 4
to 30 inches above it. Castor oil is a useful medium to prevent
the passage of air between mercury and the glass vessels. It is
important to add a little sulphuric acid to the mercury, in order
to remove the film of water which adheres to the inside of the
globe 4. On this account it would, perhaps, be desirable to
substitute a plug of glass for the indiarubber one between a
and 4,
PaRIs

Academy of Sciences, Feb. 10.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dent, inthe chair. M. Faye read an answer to Fathers Secchi
and Tacchini’s criticism on his recent paper on the solar spots.
With regard to the assertion of the former that the gyratory
motion of solar cyclones must be small, he replied by proving
that it must be at least five times that of the most violent terres-
trial cyclones ; he then proceeded to answer the other objections
in detail, and quoted a recent letter from Mr. Norman Lockyer,
in opposition to the Rev. Father’s theory of the spots being
eruptions. MM. Becquerel and E, Becquerel then read a note
on the temperature of soils, bare, and covered with vegetation,
during rainy seasons. The bare soils are always at a lower
temperature.—M. Daubrée read a note on two meteorites which
fell, one at Montlivant in 1838, andthe other at Beust in 1859,
and also a communication on a new arrangement of the meteorite
collection in the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle. —M. des Cloiseaux
read a note on the determination of the form of amblygonite
crystals ; and M.Trécul the third part of his paper on the carpel-
lary theory of the Papaveracee (Chelidonium Macleya), and on
the same subject as regards the /ossifora Laudoni. These
papers were followed by one by M. de Caligny on certain works
used in canal navigation. ‘Notes on vine sickness and Phylloxera
were received from MM. Mares, de Luca, Fancon, Nourrigat,
Jeanheury, and Madame Vivien Jaworsta. A letter from M. Is.
Pierre on the density of absolutely pure alcohol was read.—
M. Janssen was then elected to the astronomical section in
succession to the late M. Laugier. Out of fifty-six votes he ob-
tained forty-two, M. Loewy thirteen, and M. Wolff one.
M. A. Cornu read a paper on anew determination of the
velocity of light. His determinations agree well with
those of Foucault.—A note on the electric resistance
of metals was then read.—M. V. de Luynes sent a note on the
annealing of glass MM. Rabuteau and Ducoudray one on the
toxic properties of calcic salts. The authors state that metals
are more poisonous as their atomic weights increase, and com-
pare calcium with strontium and barium, both of which are
poisonous to a considerable extent—M. F. Papillon sent a
second note on experimental researches on the modification of
the composition of bone.—-M. Champouillon one on the proper-
ties of silicate of soda, &c.—M. S. de Luca one on a stalagmitic
body from the solfaterra of Pozzuoli—Messrs. Lockyer and
Seabroke sent a description of their method of observing the
solar prominences with an annular slit ; this was followed by a
paper on the “ Heat of Transformation,” by M. J. Moutier ; and
one on the maximum resistance of galvanometers, by M. Th. du
Moncel.—MM. Laussedat and Magnin sent a note on the use
of the pocket aneroid and on a new hypsometric formula of great
simplicity.—M. E. Bourgoin sent a paper on the action of bro-
mine on di-bromosuccinic acid. The author has thus obtained
a hydride of tetra-brominated ethylene—M. F. Hamel sent a
note on a new red colouring matter from aniline. The body in
question is produced by acting on aniline with chloride of sul-
phur.—M, J. Carlet sent a description of a new osmometer.—
M. Locari sent a paper on the presence of human bones in the
osseous brecchia of Corsica; and M. E. T. Hamy one on the
age of the fossil men of Guadeloup.—M. W. de Fonvielle sent
a description of a new lightaing conductor. The session then
adjourned.

DIARY
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 20.

Rovat Society, at 8.30.—On the Anatomy and Histology of the Land
Planarians of Ceylon: H. W. Moseley.—On a new Locality of Ambly-
gonite, and on Montebrasite, a new Hydrated Aluminium and Lithium
Phosphate: A. O, Des Cloizeaux.

Socirry or ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Memoirand Funeral Expenses of James
Montagu, Bishop of Winchester, a.p, 1618: E. P. Shirley.

LinnEAan Socigry, at’ 8.

Cuemicat Society, at 8.—On Aurinj: R. S, Dale and Dr. C. Schorlemmer
—Researches on the Action of the Copper-Zine Couple on Organic Bodies.
—I On Iodide of Ethyl: Dr Gladstone and A. Tribe.—Solidification cf

NATURE

[ Fed. 20, 1873

Nitrous Oxide: Mr. Wills.—Action of Hydrochloric Acid on Codeine: ~

Dr. C. R. A, Wright.
Numismatic SocigtTy, at 7.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 4.

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 21.

GEoLoGIcAL Society, at 8.—Anniversary.

Royat InsTITuTION, at 9.—Action at a Distance ; Prof. Clerk Maxwell.

Roya CoLLEGE OF SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals (ifunterian Lec-
tures): Prof. Flower. 7

OLp CHANGE MiIcRoscopPIcaL Society, at 5.30.—On the Internal Economy
of Insects: T. Rymer Jones,

SATURDAY, Fesrvary 22.
Royat InsTITUTION, at 3.—Comparative Politics : Dr. E. A. Freeman,
SUNDAY, Fesruary 23.
Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—The Skin; its Structure and Uses:
A. Balmauno Squire. .
ss MONDAY, FEBRUARY 24.

Roya GeoGrapuHicaL Society, at 8 30.—A Journey in Southern Formosa
J. Thomson.—Notes on Badakhshan and Waknan: The President.

Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 4.—Physical Geography: Prof. Duncan.

Roya CoLLeGe OF SuRGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower,

TUESDAY, FEpruary 25.

Roya INstiTUTION, at 3.—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.
Rutherford.

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 26,

Lonpvon INstiITUTION, at 7.—Lecture.

Roya CoLieGE oF SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.

Society or Arts, at 8.—Discussion ou Lieut.-Col. A. Strange’ Paper-on
“* Ships for the Channel Passage.”

GEoLoGica. Society, at 8.—On the Jurassic Rocks of Skye and Raasay:
Dr. James Bryce.—Observations on the more remarkable Boulders of the
North-West of England and the Welsh Borders: D. Mackintosh.—On
the Origin of Clay-ironstone:; J. Lucas.

ARCHAOLOGICAL A‘SOCIATION, at 8. :

Royat Society or LITERATURE, at 8.30.—Remarks on Early Monastic and
other Seals attached to Charters in the Bodleian Library, Oxford: W. H.

Turner.
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 27.
Roya Society, at 8.30.
Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30
Roya InsTiTuTION, at 3.—Artificial Formation of Organic Substances :
Dr. Armstrong.

BOOKS RECEIVED

EnGLisH.—Elementary Anatomy: St. G. Mivart (Macmillan).—Caliban
the Missing Link : Dr. Wilson (Macmillan).—Recent Discussions in Science,
Philosophy, and Morals: new edition : H. Spencer.—Science Primer, No. 4,
Physical Geography: A. Geikie (Macmillan)—Key to North American
Birds: E. Coues (Triibner). Exalted state of the Nervous System: R. H.
Collyer (Renshaw). Ty.

AMERICAN.—What am I? Vol. i.: E. W. Cox (Appleton, New York).
Foreicn.—Anwendung des Spectral appartus: Dr. K. Vurdott (Asher).

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Encuisu.— Annual of the Royal School of Naval Architecture, No. 3, Jan.
1873.—Physical Condition of the Inlacd Seas.—Report of the Scientific Re-
searches carried on during the months of Aug., Sept., Oct., 1871, in H.M.
Surveying Ship Shearwater: W. B. Carpenter.—Science and Art Dept. :
Babbage Calculating Machine.

Pica one Ba Nat. Gel. Isis, Dresden, April to September
1872.

CONTENTS

Pace
THE PRESERVATION OF OUR NATIONAL MONUMENTS. . «. + « « 297
HERBERT SPENCER'S PsycHoLocy. By DouGias A. SPALDING. . 298
Our Book SHELF. .« octets pe tee « yee nlite) eens
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :--
The Janssen-Lockyer Application of the Spectroscope.—Prof.
BALFOUR STEWART F.RIS, 2 2 © us « © » » © = pennor
Dr. Bastian's Experiments on the Beginning of Life.—W. RoBERTS,
MIDS SO. .. S R o e
The unreasonable.—Dr. C.M. INGLEBy . . . . » « + + + 302
Inherited Feeling —ALFrep R Wa tvace, F.L.S.; H.G. Brookz 303
Errect or LiGHT ON SELENIUM DURING THE PassAGE OF AN ELEC-

TRIc CURRENT. By WILLOUGHBY SMITH . .. .~. «© + « = « 303
PartinG Banquet To Pror. TYNDALL. . . 2 « » «© « « «# « 303
ri TROGLODYTES OF THE VEZERE (With Iilustrations). By PAuL

ROCA..6 0 10 ae 66. oy ae nase bes ates ie ee
Tue Iractan Report UPON THE EcLipsE OF 1870. By JoHN BRETT, =

FOR.AS. 0 0 ce eo eI mere ie og Gplitn” ess ate anne
NOTES J 0%. 3 ce \o 0. op opie ERMNe? follisi hie hls lth) Te Msi oy Ne
Lakes. By Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S. .« . « ss © 2 « « «5 0. SES
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS . . 1's sielis (ss 66 0 se = <0 sm ere
SocrETIEs AND ACADEMIES .« + « ~ 5 eater ° ae Se
Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED. - »« + + + « + «© « «© © « 316
DIARY .. 4.15. 2 0 0) pee . eres

Errata.—Vol. vii p. 280, rst col. 3rd line from bottom, after Myxrosponzia,
insert and Hydrozea: p. 280, 1st col., line 17 from bottom, for hematoids
read Nematoids : p. 289, 1st col., line 11 from bottom, for "175 read -yth:
Pp. 291, 18t col. line 4 from top, ‘or dexcocyles read Jencocytes. Rae

NATURE

317

’ THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 27, 1873

WESTERN YUNAN

_A Report on the Expedition to Western Yuna, via
Bhamé. ByJohn Anderson, M.D, (Calcutta: Office
of the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1871.)

i Ses interesting volume consists of the first section

of a report on the expedition from Burmah over the
Chinese frontier into Yunan, sent out under the auspices
of the British Government, in the year 1868. It was
under the charge of Major Sladen and Captain Williams,
with the author, Dr. Anderson, as naturalist to the Expe-
dition. They were accompanied by Messrs. Bowers,
Stewart, and Burn, as representatives of the commercial
community at Rangoon ; the main object in view being
to ascertain how far it was possible for the great highway
to China by the valley of the Tapeng, could be made open
to British commerce. The desirability of this access to
the western frontiers of China has long been felt, and
many attempts have been made during the last two
centuries to establish an emporium either at Bhamé or
in its neighbourhood, and one of the results of the
recent expedition has been the sanction on the part of
the Burmese Government of the residence of a British
representative at Bhamé for the protection of our com-
mercial interests. :

The first part of the volume before us is chiefly his-
torical, and deals with the relations of the ancient Shan
kingdom of Pong, with the neighbouring States of Burmah
and China, and the wars which resulted in Pong becoming
a Burmese province. The wars between China ‘and
Burmah are also described, but during the last hundred
years or more the intercourse between the two nations
has been one of peace.

The European intercourse with Bhamé is next traced
from the days of Marco Polo downwards ; for from some
of the details given by that traveller asto the customs of
the inhabitants of the province of Kardandan, there can
be but little doubt that his route must in part at least
have almost coincided with that of the expedition.

The description of the physical features and geology of
the Bham6 district and of Western Yunan forms an
interesting and important chapter. At Bham6é itself the
Irawady, though 600 miles from the sea, is one and a half
miles in breadth during the heavy rains, and about a
mile during the dry season. Its great valley is, however,
in places broken up by low isolated ranges which confine
its waters to comparatively narrow but deep channels.
These hill ranges are usually of metamorphic and crystal-
line rocks on which Eocene and Miocene strata, consisting
of limestone, sandstone, clay, coal, and ferruginous con-
glomerates, have been deposited together with interbedded
traps. The Tapeng, along the valley of which the course
of the expedition lay, has a course of about 150 miles
from its rise in the Kananzan hills to its confluence with
the Irawady above Bham6. Fora considerable portion
of this distance there isa continued succession of water-
falls and rapids, though it is navigable for about twenty
miles when it reaches the Burmese plain. The Kakhyen
hillsthrough which it passes attain a height of 5,000 or

No. 174—Vot. vu, ,

6,000 ft., and appear to be mainly composed of meta-
morphic and crystalline rocks. Their surface, even to
the highest peaks, is strewn with water-worn boulders,
to which Dr. Anderson assigns a marine origin, be-
lieving that since their deposit this tract of country has
been raised from beneath the sea, and that the immense
valley of the Irawady was subsequently excavated. The
Kananzan range appears to attain an elevation of about
g,000 ft., and to consist of rocks of the same character.

The Nantin valley leading to Momien seems to belong
to another geological age, as in that district there has
been a comparatively recent outflow of trappean rocks,
while the country to the west is exclusively granitic and
metamorphic. There, as well as in the Sanda Valley,
are hot springs which issue at almost the boiling-point,
andat the head of the Nantin valley is the large extinct
volcano of Hawshuenshan. An extremely interesting
feature in this valley and lower down the stream in the
Mawphoo gorge, consists in the well-marked river terraces.
Two of these seem to extend the whole length of the
valley of Nantin—about sixteen miles—and there are
indications of a third at:a still higher level.

Of the mineral products, the coal seems to hold out the
promise of good fuel and in fair quantity. It crops out
on the surface in several places on the right bank of the
Irawady, but as yet has been but little worked. Its geo-
logical age has yet to be determined.

Galena, rich in silver, is found in the valley of the
Tapeng, and gold also occurs, sometimes in grains as
large as small peas. The most interesting products of
this part of Burmah are, however, amber and jade. The
amber mines are at an elevation of about 1,o5oft.,ina
low range of hills to the S.W. of the Meinkhoom plain,
in the Hukong valley. It is procured in a primitive
manner by digging holes about 3 ft. in diameter, and
sometimes as much as 4oft.indepth. “Fifteen to twenty
feet of the superficial soil is clayey and red, but the
remainder consists of a greyish black carbonaceous
earth. Foliated limestone, serpentine, and coal, are
among the other strata) The amber is found in both of
the former, and its presence is indicated by small pieces
of lignite which are easily detected.” It is made into
Buddhist rosaries, finger-rings, pipe mouth-pieces, &c.
The dark sherry-coloured amber is most highly valued.

Jade is found in more or less rounded boulders em-
bedded in a reddish yellow clay, Pits are sunk in search
of it on no defined plan, and at certain seasons of the
year there are as many as 1,000 men engaged in digging
for jade in the Mogoung districts. Blocks are occasionally
found so large that they require three men to turn them.
Everything in connection with the trade is taxed—diggers,
purchasers, jade, and even the ponies used for its trans-
port—and the revenue from the mines was, in 1836, about
4,000/, The jade used to be largely worked at Momien,
and the manufacture is still carried on there to some
extent. It is cut by means of thin copper discs about
eighteen inches in diameter, used in conjunction with
fine siliceous grit, composed of quartz and little particles
resembling ruby dust. The boring of earrings and
bracelets is effected by a revolving cylinder tipped at the
free end with the same siliceous mixture. The most
valuable jade is of an intense bright green colour, but
the red and pale pink varieties are also prized. A pair

s

318

of bracelets of the finest jade costs about 1o0/ at
Momien.

At some remote period the jade appears to have been
applied to useful rather than to ornamental purposes, for
celts formed of this material are found all over the district,
lying on the surface soil, and doubtless turned up by the
plough. They have also been formed of various other
rocks, such as quartz, Lydian-stone, green-stone, clay-slate,
&c. Lithographic plates are given of twenty-three of these
instruments of various size, form, and material; but
about 150 were procured by different members of the
expedition. A good series of them has been presented
to the Christy collection by Major Sladen.

A bronze celt, socketed, but without any side loop, and
of peculiar form, with an oblique segmental cutting edge,
was also procured. These are so highly valued that as
much as 5/. apiece was asked for them. The composition,
curiously enough, is identical with that usual in European
antiquities of the same class, being 9 of copper to 1 of
tin. The stone celts being more abundant than those in
bronze, were less valued, being sold in the bazaars and
elsewhere at from 4d. to 1s, 6d. each. Both they and
the bronze celts are regarded as thunderbolts, which,
after they fall and penetrate the earth, take nine years
to work their way up to the surface. Not only is this
belief in the celestial origin of these implements common
to Asia and Europe, but the healing powers attributed to
them in most European countries, are also accorded
them in Yunan. They are worn as charms and carefully
kept in small bags ; and water, in which they have been
placed, is administered as a medicine, especially in the
case of tedious labour. It is rather a compliment to the
students of prehis‘oric archzology that the only objects
thought worthy of being figured by Dr. Anderson should
be these celts.

The ethnological details given by the author as to the
Shans, and what may be regarded as the transitional
varieties between them and the Burmese on the one side,
and the Chinese on the other, are highly interesting. A
more barbarous people with whom the expedition was
brought in contact, are Kakhyens or Chingpaws, who,
though hemmed in on either side by Buddhist nations,
still retain an ancient worship of good and evil spirits
whom they call “nats,” and to whom they are constantly
making propitiatory offerings of pigs, fowls, and rice.

Their method of producing fre is very remarkable, and
is effected by “the sudden and forcible descent of a
piston in a closed cylinder. There is a small cup-shaped
cavity at the end of the piston rod, into which a little
tinder is inserted. The piston is then introduced into
the cylinder, which it tightly fits, and by a blow is made
to descend with great rapidity and force, and is as rapidly
withdrawn, when the little pellet of tinder is found to
have become ignited.” The instruments are not rnore
than four inches long, and are in general use. It would
be highly interesting to trace the origin and date of this
invention,

At Bhamé one of the articles exposed for sale in the
shops was flint, which would therefore appear to be the
fire-producing material of the Burmese-Shans. Iron is
abundant, and the Chinese-Shans, who resort annually to
Bhamé for the purpose of manufacturing the dahs or
swords, are expert blacksmiths, their bellows consisting

NATURE
ee eee eee

of a segment of bamboo with a piston, and a valve at
each end.

Among some of the Shan tribes neck-rings or forgues,
curiously like those found in Western Europe, are still in
use ; but the majority of the ornaments appear to be
Chinese in character. It would, however, extend this
notice beyond all reasonable limits were an attempt made
to give even a short abstract of the chapter on the Shans,
Kakhyens and other races to the east of Bhamé, The
curious practice of horse-worship in connection with the
Buddhism of the Sanda Valley may, however, be noticed,
as well as the Shan method of concealment of gold and
precious stones, by burying them beneath the skin of
their chest and necks by making slits, through which the
coins or stones are forced, and which subsequently heal up.
When the valuable object is wanted a second cut is made
upon the spot, and it is extracted. In some instances, as
many as fifteen stones or coins were found to be hidden
beneath the skin of men just arrived with a caravan at
Mandalay. It is needless to follow the author in his
report on the Mahomedans in Yunan, the presence of
whom, however, proved of great service to the expedition,
as many of their guard were of that religion, and thus
found friends. Nor need the trade routes of Upper
Burmah be here discussed. The geographer will find
much information in the chapter on the Irawady and its
sources, and in the accompanying map. This chapter
conciudes the Report, and the remainder of the volume
contains the diary of the author, written during the expe-
dition. His report on the Natural History collections
formed during his travels, has yet to appear, and will no
doubt contain curious details, Even now we may call
attention to the remarkable instance of the taming of fishes
in a large river like the Trawady, by the phoongyees or.
Buddhist priesis. At the boatman’s cry of “it, tt, t2t,
numbers of fish came to be fed with rice and plantains,
putting their heads above water, allowing themselves to
be stroked, and even permitting Dr. Anderson to put his
fist into their mouths so as to feel their teeth. He was
unable to procure a specimen, as there were strict orders
from the kiag that they should not be killed,

With this anecdote we must conclude our notice of this
interesting Report, and must express a hope that a cer-
tain number of copies of it may be consigned to some
London publisher so that it may become accessible to
the general publtc, which as yet it apparently is not, —

JOHN Evans

THE HYGIENE OF AIR AND WATER

The Hygiene of Air and Water. Being a Popular Ac-
count of the Effects of the Impurities of Air and Water,
their Detection, and the Modes of remedying them,
By William Proctor, M.D., F.C.S., Surgeon to the
York Dispensary, and formerly Lecturer on Chemistry
and Forensic Medicine in the York School of Medi-
cine. (Hardwicke)

a Pes IS is auseful little book, but it wants some revising :

it is too sweeping a statement to say that the
oxygen of the air is constant in amount and the carbonic
acid variable ; it is true that the variations in the amount
of oxygen are very small in proportion tothat amount. It
would have been well to state even in a popular treatise

'

.

—— ae

a

Fob. 27, 1873)

.

that other substances besides ozone affect Schénbein’s
papers, which are not “ browned” by the way.

We are glad to see that the organic impurities intro-
duced into the air by the respiration of animals receive
due attention, and that the gradual deterioration of
health caused by breathing impure air is well insisted on.

The pages on the ventilation of sewers, &c., want re-
writing, and the three conclusions all require alteration ;
they are as follows :—

1. “That no sewers, or drains, or pipes, should run into
drains in dwelling houses,” This sentence as it stands is
too ambiguous to be of any value,

2. “If this be impracticable, all sink pipes or waste
pipes should be broken off at least one foot above the
trapped grating into which they discharge.” The first
clause here is unnecessary and even misleading ; it would
be well left out.

3. “On no account should a cesspool be placed within
the wails of a dwelling, but as far as possible from the
house.” Surely it would have been weil here to advise
the abolition of these nuisances where not absolutely
impracticable, or at any rate their construction of suitable
impervious materials.

This is certainly the weakest part of the book, and shows
how little such matters are generally understood even yet.

On the other hand the remarks on the relations of
filth and disease are excellent: “the negligence of the
upper and lower classes of society alike, in these matters,
entails terrible calamities on both, The fevers and con.
tagious disorders arising from the neglect of the poor,
either on their own or on our part, find their way into the
dwellings of all classes, and equally establish disease.
The poorer class cannot with impunity live in a state of
unnecessary filth and dirt; neither, on the other hand,
may the rich without danger neglect the sanitary and
physical conditions of the poor around them.”

The currents of air produced in rooms by differences
in the temperature of various parts should, if classed with
winds (the aspirating effect of which latter is not men-
tioned), be at any rate in a separate subsection ; and the
law of diffusion of gases does not hold for vapours, and it
is certainly not in virtue of it that “the dispersion of
vaporous matter” in the air is effected. Otherwise the
pages on ventilation are well worth study, and the same
may be said of the part devoted to disinfectants, which
contains much sound practical information.

The second part of the book, on “the impurities of
water and their removal,” is decidedly good ; some of the
best known cases illustrating the connection between
polluted water and specimens of cholera and enteric fever
are given, and the dangers to be apprehended from the
habitual imbibition of impure water (apart from specific
diseases) are insisted on ; the presence of more than a
small amount of chlorides is rightly pointed out as a
suspicious circumstance, and the simpler tests for the
detection of the various impurities are concisely de-
scribed ; then follows a short account of the methods to
be employed for the purification of presumably impure
water by means of boiling, filtration, &c., and several of
the best household filters are mentioned. Clark’s process
is, however, only casually alluded to, and not by name.

We are glad to find that the importance of a continuous
water supply especially to the poorer classes is pointed out.

NATURE

319

The book before us will, with a small amount of correc-
tion, do valuable service if widely circulated, as we have
little doubt that it will be. If we have drawn attention to
a few defects in it, we have done so because we believe
that it is of the utmost importance that popular manuals
should contain exact information, and enter as little as
possible into disputed points. W.. Bice

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Coat-fields of Great Britain, &c. By Edward Hull,
M.A, F.R.S., &c. Third edition. (London : Stanford.)

THIS new edition of Prof. Hull’s well-known work is in
most respects a great improvement upon the previous
ones. Not only are the coal-fields of Britain itself treated
of in more detail, but those of the colonies and foreign
countries also come in for fuller notice. The introduc-
tion of numerous excellent maps illustrative of the English
coal fields imparts an additional value to the volume, by
enabling the reader to grasp at a glance the leading fea-
tures in the geological structure of the districts embraced,
Prof. Hull has, moreover, 1 rgely availed himself of the
report prepared by the recent Coal Commission, the chief
results of which have been embodied in his work. That
report, as everyone knows, has calmed the fears of those
who saw looming in the near future the exhaustion of
our coal supplies and the consequent decline of our
industries, It is comfortable to reflect upon the
fact that we have still 146,480 millions of tons avail-
able within a depth of 4,000 feet, and something like
48,465 millions of tons at a greater depth. From the first
of these estimates, Prof. Hull would deduct one-twentieth
for coal-seams under two feet in_ thickness, thus leaving
the available quantity of 139,156 millions of tons lying
within a depth of 4,000 feet from the surface. Beyond
this depth he believes it will not be practicable to pene-
trate, owing to the effect of increasing temperature and
pressure. This, however, is quite an open question. No
good reason can be shown why ventilation should not be
made effective at a still greater depth than 4,000 feet. If
the deeper-lying coal should ever be needed no doubt the
engineers of the future will be equal to the occasion and
able to render it available. Then, as regards the effect of
pressure, we know from actual experience that the “ density
of coal-seams is not perceptibly greater at 500 or 600
yards than at half that depth.” One might almost have
inferred as much. beforehand, for many of our coal-fields
which are now being worked at easy depths must at one
time have been covered with thousands of feet of strata,
long since removed by denudation; yet the seams
in such fields are not denser than those of fields which do
not appear to have been covered by such great rock
masses. Again, we have heard mining engineers assert
that the increased pressure in the deeper pits actually aids
in the excavation of the coal, which comes away in larger
lumps than would be the case with a similar coal in shal-
lower workings. But whether or not it will ever be neces-
sary to sink deeper than 4,000 feet, there can be no doubt
that there is yet abundance of fuel above that limit to
keep our furnaces going for many long years to come,
and if Britain be destined ere long to retire from her
place in the vanguard of nations her loss of prestige will
probably be due to other causes than the exhaustion of
her mineral resources.

The author expresses himself strongly on the subject of
“waste” in working the coal, but not a whit more strongly
than is necessary. Everyone who has any acquaintance
with British collieries knows how lamentably great this
waste is, amounting in some cases to so much as 4o per
cent. No doubt, in miny of our best conducted collieries
waste is reduced to a minimum, but there is still woful

\

320

need for improvement in this matter. It is, of course, im-
possible for Government to interfere in squabbles about
disputed boundaries, &c., and hence jealousy and stub-
bornness will continue to put considerable areas of coal
beyond the chance of being “won.” But surely some-
thing might be done towards increasing the number of
our mining schools; and, as Prof. Hull suggests, the
Legislature might establish some educational test without
which no one should be allowed to have the supervi-
sion of collicry workings. With well-educated managers
the waste of coal arising from ignorant methods of work-
ing would be checked, and we should hear less frequently
of those frightful accidents which ever and anon throw
whole mining communities into mourning. ye.

The Natural History of Plants. By H. Baillon ; trans-
lated by M. M. Hartog. VolII. (London: L. Reeve
and Co., 1872.)

PURSUING the somewhat erratic arrangement to which
we alluded in our notice of the first volume of this work
(see NATURE, vol. iv. p. 199), Prof. Baillon proceeds to an
account of the small order of Connaracez, the three
sections of the large order Leguminose, viz., Mimosez,
Czesalpiniez, and Papilionaceze, and then goes off ata
tangent to four orders of Incomplete, viz., Proteacez,
Lauracez, Elzagnacex, and Myristacacee, The same
plan is pursued as in the first volume, of giving first of all
a general sketch of the characters of the order, and then
dividing it into a number of “series,” each containing one
or more genera, An immense mass of information is thus
collected, though wanting in convenient arrangement.
The references to original authorities are, however, com-
mendably copious. The illustrations, as before, are excel-
lent, the translation apparently well and carefully done.

Memorandum des Travaux de Botanique et de Physiologie
végétale qui ont été publiés par l’Académie Royale de
Belgique pendant le premier stdcle de son existence,
1772—1871. Rapport Séculaire per E, Morren.
(Bruxelles : Hayez, 1872.)

THOUGH Belgiurn has not produced any botanical star
of the first magnitude, yet a large amount of excellent
work has been done in the little kingdom, especially
during the period of its independent existence, since 1830,
as shown by the labours of Decaisne in the flora of Japan,
and of Galeottiin that of Mexico, of Jean Kickx in crypto-
gamic botany, of Charles Morren in teratology and general
morphology, and of Quetelet in the periodic phenomena
of vegetation. M. E. Morren’s short abstract of the
service done by his countrymen in each department of
botany, with a list of the dates of publication of the
various memoirs, is a useful contribution to the history of
the science.

Results of Five Years’ Meteorological Observations for
Hobart Town,
WE are here presented with carefully constructed tables
and valuable remarks on the climate and vital statistics of
Tasmania, It includes the results of observations for the
five years ending in 1870, with which are incorporated the
statistics for the previous twenty-five years, so that it pre-
sents us with a complete set of statistics of meteorology
for thirty years. That the observations have been care-
fully and correctly made is proved by the fact that the
results of thirty years’ observations agree very closely with
those of the twenty-five years, the difference in many cases
amounting to only a second or third place of decimals,
The observations tor the five years ending 1870, have been
made gratuitously at the Toronto Observatory, by Mr.
Francis Abbott, the tables having been constructed by
Mr. T. Roblin, Curator of the Museum, and revised by Dr.
E. Swarbeck Hall, who appends an elaborate and care-
fully drawn up health report for Tasmania. The intro-
duction, among other matters, contains a descriptive list

of the various instruments used ; the set seems to be com- |

NATURE |

plete, and all the apparatus trustworthy. The following
are the mean resultants from the thirty years’ observations
for Hobart Town from 1841 to 1870 inclusive :—Baro-
meter (at temperature 32°), 29°580. Thermometer, mean
temperature, 54°72; mean diurnal range, 17°91; mean
solar intensity, 93°39; mean terrestrial radiation, 43’0I.
Humidity of air—Dew point—meéan position, 45°49; hu-
midity of air, 75; elastic force of vapour, ‘316; conden-
sation, rain in inches, 1 89 ; number of days on which rain
fell, 1166; Ozone, mein daily amount, 7 24; prevailing
direction of wind, N W., S.E. ; prevailing force of wind,
58:37 lbs. per square foot,

Fahrbuch der k k. Geologischen Reichsanstalt, xxii.
band, No. 2. (Wien.)

FRANZ RITTER V. HAUER gives, in this number of the
Year-book, an outline sketch of the sedimentary forma-
tions met with in Austria. He arranges his materials
somewhat after the manner of Studer’s *‘ Index der Petro-
graphie,” the names of the various deposits following in
alphabetical order. The geological horizons are briefly
indicated, and copious references to authorities are given.
The descriptions are necessarily brief, but they are clear
and comprehensive, and the paper will be invaluable to
those who may desire to widen their acquaintance with
Austrian geology. Among the mineralogical contri-
butions, we notice the description of a new mineral from
Mexico—Guadalcazerite, the composition of which is
given as6 Hy S + Z,S. From the laboratory of Prof,
Bauer come several useful rock-analyses, chiefly iron-
stones. Professor Tschermak gives a description of
sundry meteorites, and some account of basalts, meta-
phyres, and other eruptive rocks from the Caucasus,
There is also an interesting paper by Professor Inostran-
zeff on the Vesuvian lavas of 1871 and 1872.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Prof. Balfour Stewart on the Spectroscope

I BEG to say a few words in reply to some statements in the
letter of Prof. Baifour Stewart in NATURE, February 20.

Ist. I wish to state that I had no knowledge of Mr. Proctor’s
letter in the English Mechanic until I saw it by accident in a
copy of that journal which had been sent to me for another
erie Ihave never made the claim to which Prof. Stewart
refers,

2nd. The note in Schellen’s “Spectrum Analysis,” of which
Frat Stewart asks an explanation, consists of three statements
of fact.

a ‘Though to Mr. Lockyer is due the first publication of
the idea of the possibility of applying the spectroscope to observe
the red flames in sunshine, as a matter of history it should not
be passed over that about the same time the same idea occurred
independently to Mr. Stone, of Greenwich, and to Mr, Huggins.”
I wish to remark that I made no claim on Mr. Stone’s part or
on my own. On the contrary I said expressly ‘tas a matter of
history” these facts should not be passed over. I conceive that
this statement of facts ought to have a place in a book which
professes to give the history of the subject.

& ‘* These observers were, however, unsuccessful in numerous
attempts which they made to see the spectra of the prominences,
for the reason probably that the spectroscopes they employed
were not of sufficient dispersive power to make the bright lines of
the solar flames easily visible.” Prof. Stewart remarks that he
“cannot yet understand” why I failed. The reasons can now
be a matter of conjecture only. All workers in science know how
much more difficult it is to discover the unknown than to recognise
the known. It may be that I passed over too carelessly the
deep red (C) and the blue (F) where the brightest lines occur,
The observation of the bright lines in the star in Corona B (May
1866), in which the same silting principle of the prism came into
operation, shuld have suggested to me to look for the lines of

- Feb. 27, 1873]

hyrdogen. Later (June 1867) Mr. Johnstone Stoney showed, in
an important paper on the ‘‘ Constitution of the Sun and Stars,”
that hydrogen was to be expected. I acknowledge that I ought
to have found the lines.

___ ** When the position of the lines was known, Huggins saw
them instantly with the same spectroscope which he had pre-
viously used in vain.” Of course in this remark I refer only to
my own experience ; I do not wish to be thought to imply that
such assistance was either needed or received in the case of any
other observer. Prof. Stewart asks why I did not see the lines
sooner after receiving the news from India, This question
awakens painful memories. At the time the Indian reports
reached me I was watching by the bed of the dying, and a few
_ days afterwards I suffered so severe a bereavement that I was
unable to resume work in the observatory until the beginning of
December, when I saw the lines. WiLiiaM Huccins

The Beginnings of Life

Ir seems advisable for me not to pass without comment the
communication made by Dr. Wm. Roberts, of Manchester, in
last week’s NATURE.

Dr. Roberts calls attention to what he considers two possible
sources of error in my experiments. The first is the ‘‘ possibility
of the introduction of atmospheric germs at the moment of seal-
ing the vessels,” owing, as he says, to the fact ‘‘ that the sealing
can only take place just as ebullition is about to cease,” and to
the consequent risk of some ‘‘ reflux of air into the flask.” After
Dr. Roberts has made a series of experiments similar to those
_ which have been recently cited in these columns (see NATURE,
Feb. 6, p. 275 with Zrratum in Feb. 13, p. 296), he may per-
haps be a little less apprehensive as to this source of contamina-
tion. It is, however, not the fact that flasks cannot be sealed
during ebullition, and this I shall be very happy to demonstrate
to Dr. Roberts. Moreover, if he will refer to Dr, Sanderson’s
letter, Dr. Roberts will find that in speaking of the seal-
ing of the flasks in the blow-pipe flame, he says care was
taken ‘‘ to continue the ebullition to the last.” And in several
series of experiments M. Pasteur also made use of flasks which
had been sealed during ebullition—believing that in so doing he
was experimenting with vessels from which all living germs had
been excluded. Speaking of the preparation of such flasks,
Pasteur says (Ann. de Chim, et de Physique, 1862, p. 74):
“je ferme l’extremité effilée pendant |’ebullition. Le vide se
trouve fait dans les ballons.” No one has hitherto questioned
M. Pasteur’s skill as an experimenter.

The second alleged source of error is, according to Dr.
Roberts, much more important. My mode of experimenta-
tion, he says, ‘‘ does not insure that the entire contents of the
flask are effectively exposed to the boiling heat.” Although
Dr. Roberts confirms my statement that many fluids treated in
the manner I have described do soon swarm with living things,
he seems to think their appearance may be due to the fact that
“several of the mixtures ‘froth excessively in boiling, and spurt
about particles which adhere to the glass, and probably some of
these escape the full effect of the heat.” I feel quite sure that
in my experiments no portion of the inner surface of the glass
has escaped the scathing action of the boiling fluid The vessel
has generally been more than three-fourths full before he ;ro-
cess of heating has been commenced, so that when ebulliti in
occurs the fluid has always swept over the previously uncovered
inner surface and, as Dr. Sanderson tes ifies, ‘‘ during the boiling
some of the liquid was frequen'ly ejected from the almost capil-
lary orifice of the retort.” The inner surface of the vessel was,
in fact, always thoroughly and repeatedly washed with the boil-
ing fluid, nearly half of which has been spurted away in order
that I might effect this object
_ Dr. Roberts says :—‘‘ Dr. Sanderson is, however, careful not
to endorse the conclusions which Dr. Bastian has drawn from
these experiments.” But this is scarcely a fair statement, since
Dr. Sanderson had near the beginning of his letter announced
his intention of taking no part in the controversy, Dr. Sander-
son’s opinions, however, on the elements of the question have
already been set forth (see Thirteenth Report of Medical Officer
of Privy Council, p. 59). Whilst not believing in the danger
of atmospheric contamination by Bacteria germs, he does believe,
in common with other biologists, that immersion in boiling
liquids is a ready means of de-troying them. If Dr. Sanderson

d not thought that the conditions of the experiments were such
as to be exclusive of the intervention of living germs, why
should he have previously doubted ‘‘my statements of fact” in

NATURE

321

respect to them? Does Dr. Roberts consider Dr, Sanderson so
much of. a tyro in these matters as to suppose that he would
doubt the well-known fact that living germs will always rapidly
multiply in suitable fluids? If not, then the only other source of
doubt that could have arisen, must have been as to the possi-
bility of the appearance of swarms of living things in hermetically
sealed vessels in which all pre-existing organisms had been
killed. And if Dr. Roberts wishes ample proof that such has been
the view also entertained by others I need only refer him to the
last few pages of a curious article (purporting to be a review of
my work “‘The Beginnings of Life”), which appeared ina
recent number of a journal (Quart. Yourn. of Micros. Science) of
which Mr. Ray Lankester is one of the editors. It is perhaps
fortunate for the reviewer’s reputation and for his fame as a
scientific experimenter that his name does not appear, or that
his unsuccessful experiments, destined to upset my views, were
not published before the advent of Dr. Sanderson's letter.

In some respects the actual results of the experiments per-
formed by Dr. Roberts differ from those of other experimenters.
Thus he has found that filtered infusions of any animal or
vegetable substances can be ‘invariably preserved unchanged
when boiled for five or ten minutes in a flask plugged with
cotton wool.” The results obtained by M. Victor Meunier and
by myself have been different, and we have both shown that they
are apt to vary according to the strength and nature of the in-
fusions employed. Dr. Roberts says he has also found
that many ‘‘highly putrescent mixtures” remained perfectly
barren “‘ after the flask containing them had been immersed in a
water-bath kept at a boiling heat for twenty or thirty minutes,”
although several of the same mixtures ‘‘ could not be kept un-
changed by simple boiling over the flame,” and the sealing of
the flask during ebullition. If, after what I have already said
concerning the latter mode of experimentation, anything is to
be deduced from these facts, it would perhaps be that the partial
vacuum within the flask is more favourable to the initiation of
putrefactive changes in some boiled fluids than their contact with fil-
tered air. This is what I have always thought, and evidence point-
ing that way may be found in Afpendix C of my ‘‘ Beginnings
of Life.” Certainly one cannot assent to the conclusion which
Dr. Roberts would draw from such experiments, based upon the
supposition that the boiling of the sealed flasks in water is a
protective measure. Dr. Roberts’ results are here again some-
what different from others which have long become matters of
history. Need I say that this was essentially the method of ex-
perimentation introduced more than a century ago by Needham,
and that his results were confirmed by his adversary, Spallan-
zani, who says: ‘‘ L’ebullition d’une demi-heure ne fut pas un
obstacle a la naissance des animalcules du dernier ordre qui peu-
plérent toujours, plus ou moins, tous les vases exposés a son
action pendant tout ce temps-la.” Does Dr, Roberts forget that
Dr. Wyman boiled his flasks for two hours and yet obtained
positive results? that he boiled others in a Papin’s digester
under a pressure of two and five atmospheres respectively, and
sull obtained living organisms from his flasks. Must I also
remind him of the numerous experiments by Prof. Cantoni, of
Pavia, in which the hermetically scaled flasks were heated in a
Papin’s digester to temperatures ranging from 109°—117° C.;
and to several of the experiments that I have myself recorded
in which undoubtedly—living organisms were obtained from
flasks that had been heated in fluids raised to temperatures vary-
ing from 130°—153° C. (e.g. such experiments as are recorded in
“The Beginnings of Life,” vol. i. pp. 441, 443, 447, and 463).

When wiil those who do me the honour of referring to my
experiments look all round and cease to argue from one half of
the facts ? H. CHARLTON BasTIAN

University College, Feb. 24

Himalayan Ferns

Dorin the years 1861-66 I took every available opportunity
to collect ferns in the Sevalik and Himalaya ranges. There being
at that period no published work on the ferns of British India,
and one subsequently published in Madras not having come
under my notice, my specimens, several hundred in number, and
all well dried, remain unclassified.

Would this collection be of any scientific value, and if so, to
what society could [ present it? I opine it would be worse than
useless to offer it to the herbarium of the British Museum, as
there it might remain untouched for the next fifty years; whilst
at Kew I presume Hooker’s superior collection would render my
poor mite useless.

322

If not worthy of presentation to any herbarium, would any
competent botanist classify it for the sake of the duplicates?
FE, G'S. P:
General Travelling Notes

Durinc the years 1857-66 I was in India, and in that period
travelled much, both in the Plains and the interior of the
Himalaya.

Since my return to England I have constantly regretted
that I took few notes, and those few notes, from lack of
knowledge, of little or no value, on flora, fauna, geology, and
altitudes. In a few months I shall return to the same part
of India (North West Provinces and Punjab), and purpose re-
maining in that country for some years. There are many men
in the army who, like myself, have a general taste for scientific
observations, but our efforts end in gratifying our own minds
only, our observations lacking sufficient accuracy and classifica-
tion, whilst much is overlooked from sheer ignorance as to the
how and where to look.

To the end that I (and others of like mind) may, perchance,
furnish some useful jot ings during my next term of foreign
service, can any contributor to NATURE inform me where the
following are to be met with :—

1. A plain code of what to look for and observe, after the
manner of, but shorter than, ‘*‘ The Scientific Orders of the
Challenger,” published in NATURE for Jan. 9 and 30.

2. What is the best text-book on each head (e,¢. on barometrical
and thermometrical observations, Indian yeology, botany, &c.).
It is very essential each such text-book should be comprised in
one handy volume ; if possible as clear and concise as Tyndall’s
‘¢ Lectures on Electricity.”

3. Whar instruments should be taken, I suggest—An ordi-
nary thermometer, tested at Kew; a max. anda min thermo-
meter ; an aneroid (of what size?); a prismatic compass ; an
Abney’s clinometer-level for ascertaining the slope and conse-
quent he'ght of mountains and depths of valieys roughly ; also
a small foréable rain-gauge, if such is made ; a simple micro-
scope, and a magnifying ylass. Are these sufficient? and if so,
where should they be procured, and at what price? the cost
being a vital point. 4

4. Can these, or similar instruments, be obtained in a single
case sufficiently small to be carried, like a smali theodolite hox,
in one hand ? a Cy SSS

Mirage

TuE following references to the literature of this subject are
in answer to the note by Prof. J.D, Everett in Nature for
January 2 last :—

Bravais, Aug.— Notice surle mirage,” Annuaire Soc. Meteor.
Fr., p. 227 (1852), p. 55 (1855).

Dufour, Chailes.—‘‘ Mirages et réfractions aunormales sur le
lac Leman,” Bull. Soc. Vaud. Lausanne, vol. iv. p. 366 (1854-5);
386 ; vol. v. p. 26 (1856) ; 217.

Escayrac de Lauture.—‘‘ Sur le ragle ou hallucination du
désert,” Bull. Soc. Geogr, vol. ix. p. 121 (1855).

Gergonne, J. D.—‘‘ Recherches sur les refractions terrestres et
particulierement sur le mirag ,” Notice Trao. Acad. Gard., p.
129 (1808).

Gergonne, J. D.—‘‘ Essai analytique sur l1 phenoméne du
mirage,” Ann. Math. Gergonne, xx. p. I (1829).

Giovene, G. M.—‘‘ Wunderbare Phanomene nach Art der
Fata Morgana,” Gilbert, Annal. xii. p. 1 (1803).

Jackson, C. T.—‘‘ Observations on the Mirage seen on Lake
Superior in July and August 1847,” Proc. Amer. Assoc., p. 143

1849).
: Kelly, W.—‘‘ On some extraordinary forms of Mirage,” Trans.
Lit. Soc. Quebec, vol. iii. p. 292 (1837).

Orioli, F.—‘‘ Della Fata Morgana,” Tortolini Annali, ii. p. 47
1851).
‘ Bake "Note sur le Mirage,’’ Comptes Rendus, yol. xii. p.
87 (1855).

Parés.—‘‘ Note sur le Mirage des Cotes du departement cde
YHerault,”” Mem. Acad. Sci. Montpellier, iii. p. 1; 493 (1855).

A. Ramsay

Brilliant Meteor of Feb. 3

To supplement Prof. Osborne Reynolds’ interesting paper on
the meteor of February 3, which he saw in Manchester, and
which he thinks must have passed over Chester and Liverpool
(NATURE, February 20, p. 315), I enclose you a cutting from a

NATURE

local Cheshire paper showing that this meteor was seen about

the same time in Northwich, which is some twenty-five or thirty —
miles S.W. from Manchester, and almost in a direct line drawn ~

from Manchester to Chester.

By consulting the various local papers published in Northwich,

Chester, Birkenhead, Liverpool, &c., iffcould easily be discovered
at what place it was last seen, and where the loudest explosion was
heard, and so the approximate path of this splendid meteor and
its height might be traced out. These papers will mostly all be
found in the Exchange and the Athenaum Reading Rooms,
Manchester, where I believe they are regularly filed. d
Merton College, Oxford J. P. EARWAKER

‘*\ METEOR SHOWER AT NoRTHWICH.—At Northwich on
Monday night, February 3, about ten o’clock, a very brilliant

meteor was observed in the sky passing from east to west. The

meteor displayed an intense white light in its course, and
emitted sparks which appeared of various hues.
about six or eight seconds, and from one to two minutes afier
the passage of the meteor a loud rumbling report like distant
thunder was heard. The night was very clear, and starlight at
the time.” _

A VERY bright meteor was imperfectly seen here by me at
gh 58™ on Monday evening, February 3. At the time of its
appearance the sky was much clouded though not entirely over-
cast, and become suddenly i/luminated by what I at first con-
sidered to be flashes of lighining. The clouds in the north sky
particularly were illuminate, and as L thought it possible that
the phenomenon might be due to the appearance of a Jarge fire-
ball behind the clouds, I noted the exact situation in which the
greatest quantity of light (which was about equal to the moon

when five days past conjunction) existed. This was, as accurately”

as could posi»ly be determined, at a place about 10° eastward
of the north point, or north by east, and in the vicinity of the
horizon. When traversing this part of its path it is possible that
the meteor was at its brightes’, and on the point of disappearance.
It was imposible to note any further details as to the exact course
of the luminous appearance seen, inasmuch as but few stars were
perce) tible, and the north sky was much obscured by cumulus
clouds. This meteor was also seen at Manchester at 9h 57™ ;
it appeared near the zenith of that station.
Bristol Wi.L14mM F, DENNING

Inherited Feeling :
As every instance of inherited antipathy in the offspring of

Turk adds to the weight of proof, I beg to state that a mastiff in

my possession, a grandson of Turk, anda brother of Mr. Brooke's
dog, showed the same unaccountable antipathy to butchers, ma-
nifesting violent rage when any one of that honourable fraternity
showed himself in the yard where he was kept. He was other-
wise of a remarkably mild and gentle disposition.
Bowdon, near Manchester, * ARTHUR RANSOM |
Feb, ‘21 :

WOULD it not test the correctness of Mr. Wallace’s ingenious
theory as to animals finding their way back over an unseen
country by their sense of smell, to shut upa cat in a basket along
with a piece of stale fish, the scent of which would certainly
overpower any external scent by which it might be able to trace
the way back? It seem§ to me that many instances are on record
of this curious power of certain animals, especia:ly of cats, which
are quite inexplicable on Mr, Wallace’s hypothesis.

ALFRED W. BENNETT

External Perception in Dogs

THE view to which Mr. Wallace gives expression in your last
number had occurred also to me, and I should like, with your
leave, to offer a remark or two in support of it.

That a dog shut up ina basket may through smell acquire a

series of impressions so definitely marked as to be able therewith —

to find its way back to the place it was taken from, becomes less

improbable if we think what is the part that must be played by |

smell in its ordinary objective experience. Our external world
(whether as actually perceived or imaginatively represented) may
be called a world of sights and touches, blended with and modi-
fying each cther in the most intimate way. These mutually
involved sights and touches, in our consciousness, are run out

into the form of a continuum in space (how or why it is not to.

(Feb. 27, 1873

It was visible

Feb. 27, 1873) —

the present purpose to inquire),
hearing, smell, and taste,
and intermittently,
the same things.

while all other sensations, as of
come before us only discontinuously
not being had from all things nor always from
But in a dog’s experience touch cannot possi-
bly co-operate with sight as it regularly does in ours. The organ
of effective touch in man—touch that gets associated with vision
—is in the last resort the hand, conbining mobility and _sensi-
_ tiveness in the highest degree ; and the doz has no hand. Its
mobile limbs are not sensitive at the extremities, and, though it
has sensitive lips, these, having no such active mobility as the
human hand has, are extremely limited in the scope of their ap-
prehension. Its touch being thus defective, wha: is there then
in the dog to play second to sight, which as leader needs support,
were it only because there is not always light tosee with? Smell,
I cannot but think, seeing that, while the organ is incontestably
acute, it has the great advantage over the tactile surface of the
lips, of receiving impressions from things already at a distance,
_ If we only suppose—what the facts make very hk-ly—that the
dog’s smell is acute enough to have som= sen-ation from all
ies without exception, nothing more is wanting to enable a
psychologist to understand that the dog’s worli may be in the
main a world of sights and s nells continuous in space. In that
case a dog conveyed in a basket might by smell alone find its way
back pretty much as a man blindfolded finds his way by touch
alone, j
_ To argue properly so difficult a qu

letter, and I must be content now, for reasons like those in jicated
rather than stated above, with giving my adhesion to Mr.
Wallace’s view—so far at least as dogs are concerned, and to the
extent that in smell we have a source of explanation for the phe-
nomena which has never been sufficiently considered. That the
explanation covers all the facts related even about dogs is more
than I would assert; and whether it is equally serviceable for
other animals like cats and horses, concernin z which not less
wonderful stories are told, is not so clear. Cats, however, seem
to have very acute smell. What is the truth about the smell of
horses? G. CruoM RopEertTson
University College, Feb. 24

Fiords and Glacial Action

In Naturg, vol. vii. pp. 94, 95, I find the following :—

“‘ Poggendorf’s Annalen—A, Helland adduces a large amount
of evidence to show that the fiords in Norway have been formed
by glacial action.”

It appears an obvious remark, and yet I have not met with it,
at fiords are chiefly found in those coasts where from the
graphical conditions there must have been the most glacial
action. The most favourable condition; for glacial action are
vidently those of a mountainous coast ina high and therefore
cold latitude, fronting the rain and snow-laden west winds of
the higher latitudes as they blow in from the ocean. These
Conditions are fulfilled in the highest degree by the coasts of
Norway and Western Scotland: the western coast of North
America from Vancouver’s Island northwards 3 and the western
t of South America from Chile southwards; and these
Coasts are accordingly more cut up into fiords than any others
in the world.

_ The western coast of America along the enormously long line
from Vancouver's Islard to Chiloe is one of the most unbroken
nthe world. It is significant that the change in the coast at
Chiloe from an unbroken one to one very much broken into

2stion is impossible ia a short

8, according to Mrs. Someryille’s ‘‘ Physical G-ogriphy.”
the third south of it,

About 33° S. (near Valparaiso) . 12,780 feet
OE Or a aes 7,960 ,,
53° (Strait of Magellan) . 3,390 ,,

_ Although the height of the snow-line depends chiefly on Iati-
tude, it is sensibly influenced by the aspect of the mountains
pecting the rain and snow-bearing winds. The best instance
f this is probably that of the Himalayas, where, according to
\ Somerville (page 314), the heizht of the. snow-line is
620 feet on the no.th .side, and only 12,980 on the south.

ee Bet es eh ee fer 2
ae oi
Fs eal , i

NATURE
ae A 2 UNS a! ald

[

|

{

rding to another anthority (Capt. Sta they), quoted Ly
Somerville (p. 54), the heights are 19,000 to 29,009 feex
he north side, and 15,5co on the southers, The difference
[ the two estima‘es is about the same. The reason of the

323

difference is evidently that the south side receives the moisture-
laden winds from the Indian Ocean.

Old Forge, Dunmurry JoOsEPH JOHN MurpPHy
ee Ea) tii ge i

NOTE ON A POLYDACTYLOUS CAT FROM
COOKHAM-DEAN
BY the kindness of Dr. Plumbe, of Maidenhead, I
have been able to procure one of these cats; and
from the many curious points he poss: sses, I think a note
on his peculiarities will interest some of the readers of
NATURE.

Readers of Mr. Darwin’s “Origin of Species” are
familiar enough with the illustration he: gives of corre-
lation of arrest of development in the deafness of blue-
eyed cats. Some years ago I showed that our great
naturalist had fallen into error on this point, and that the .
correlation is not between the blue eyes and the deafness,
but between the latter and the sex of the cat.

I have made a great many inquiries on this point, and
have completely confirmed my former observation, that
all perfectly white tom-cats are deaf, and that they have
blue eyes occasionally, because that item of beauty is
common among white cats. I have seen many white
Tabithas with blue eyes, but none of them were deaf.
My little “Pudge” from Cookham is perfectly deaf, and
has one blue eye and a yellow one. For the first few
days after I had him, I thought he could hear a little, but
am now quite satisfied that his deafness is complete,
thouzh he is alive to sounds conveyed through solid
media. A further point of interest is that he is not mute
as most deafs are, but there is a kittenish shrillness
in his voice and a loudness in his purring, which are not
commensurate with his age. I think, therefore, that it is
posse that early in life he may have heard a little, for I

now of two instances where perfect mutism accompanied
the deafness in cats, and I do not know of any contrary
condition, The cne yellow eye favours my view that
“ Pudge” may have heard in infancy his mother's voice.
His sense of touch is extremely acute compared to that of
another cat I have, but his sight does not seem so sharp
as that of cats generally is. He has twenty-six digits,
and these are arranged—seven on each fore limb, and
six on each hind limb. The supernumerary digits on the
fore limbs are thumbs, and are placed one on either si je
of the true pollex, being joined to it, but having no meta-
carpal bones. In the hind limb the supernumerary digit
is probably of the same hature, or a supernumerary index,
being placed on the outer side of the hallux, and attached
to the tarsus by a completely-developed metatarsal bone.

Lawson Tair

eee ee ee ee
ON ACTION AT A DISTANCE*

HAVE no new discovery to bring before you this
evening. I must ask you to go over very old
ground, and to turn your attention to a question which
has been raised again and again ever since men began
to think,

The question is that of the transmission of force. We
see that bodies at a distance from each other exert a
mutual influence on each other’s motion. Does this
mutual action depend on the existence of some third
thing, some medium of communication, occupying the
space between the bodies, or do the bodies act on each
other immediately without the intervention of anything
else?

The mode in which Faraday was accustomed to look
at phenomena of this kind differs from that adopted by
many other modern inquirers, and my special aim will
be to enable you to place yourselves at Faraday's point
of view, and to point out the scientific value of that con-

* Lecture delivered at the Royal Tastitution, Feb. 21, 1873, by Prof,
Clerk Maxwell.

324

NATURE

ception of dines of force which, in his hands, became the
key to the science of electricity.

When we observe one body acting on another at a
distance, before we assume that this action is direct and
immediate, we generally inquire whether there is any
material connection between the two bodies, and if we
find strings, or rods, or mechanism of any kind, capable
of accounting for the observed action between the bodies,
we prefer to explain the action by means of these inter-
mediate connections, rather than to admit the notion of
direct action at a distance.

Thus when we ring a bell by means of a wire, the suc-
cessive parts of the wire are first tightened and then
moved, till at last the bell is rung at a distance by a pro-
cess in which all the intermediate particles of the wire
have taken part one after the other. We may ring a bell
at a distance in other ways, as by forcing air into a long
tube at the other end of which is a cylinder with a piston
which is made to fly out and strike the bell. We may
also use a wire, but instead of pulling it, we may connect it
at one end with a voltaic battery, and at the other with
an electro-magnet, and thus ring the bell by electricity.

Here are three different ways of ringing a bell. They
all agree, however, in the circumstance that between the
ringer and the bell there is an unbroken line of commu-
nication, and that at every point of this line some physi-
cal process goes on by which the action is transmitted
from one end to the other. The process of transmission
is not instantaneous, but gradual, so that there is an in-
terval of time after the impulse has been given to one
extremity of the line of communication, during which
the impulse is on its way, but has not reached the other
end.

It is clear, therefore, that in many cases the action
between bodies at a distance may be accounted for by a
series of actions between each successive pair of a series
of bodies which occupy the intermediate space, and it is
asked, by the advocates of mediate action, whether, in
those cases in which we cannot perceive the intermediate
agency, it is not more philosophical to admit the existence
of a medium which we cannot at present perceive,
than to assert that a body can act at a place where it is
not.

To a person ignorant of the properties of air, the
transmission of force by means of that invisible medium
would appear as unaccountable as any other example of
action at a distance, and yet in this case we can explain
the whole process, and determine the rate at which the
action is passed on from one portion to another of the
medium.

Why then should we not admit that the familiar mode
of communicating motion by pushing and pulling with
our hands is the type and exemplification of all action
between bodies, even in cases in which we can observe
nothing between the bodies which appears to take part in
the action ?

Here for instance is a kind of attraction with which
Prof. Guthrie has made us familiar. A disc is set in
vibration, and is then brought near a light suspended
body, which immediately begins to move towards the disc
as if drawn towards it by an invisible cord. What is this
cord? Sir W. Thomson has pointed out that in a moving
fluid the pressure is least where the velocity is greatest.
The velocity of the vibratory motion of the air is greatest
nearest the disc. Hence the pressure of the air on the
suspended body is less on the side nearest the disc
than on the opposite side, the body yields to the greater
pressure, and moves toward the disc.

The disc, therefore, does not act where it is not. It
sets the air next it in motion by pushing it, this motion
is communicated to more and more distant portions of
the air in turn, and thus the pressures on opposite sides
of the suspended body are rendered unequal, and it moves
towards the disc in consequence of the excess of pressure. |

-weight.

The force is therefore a force of the old school—a case of
vis a tergo, a shove from behind,

The advocates of the doctrine of action at a distance,
however, have not been put to silence by such arguments.
What right, say they, have we to assert that a body
cannot act where it is not? Do We not see an instance
of action at a distance in the case of a magnet, which
acts on another magnet not only at a distance, but with
the most complete indifference to the nature of the matter
which occupies the intervening space? If the action
depends on something occupying the space between the
two magnets, it cannot surely be a matter of indifference
whether this space is filled with air or not, or whether
wood, glass, or copper, be placed between the magnets.

Besides this, Newton’s law of gravitation, which every
astronomical observation only tends to establish more
firmly, asserts not only that the heavenly bodies act on
one another across immense intervals of space, but that
two portions of matter, the one buried a thousand miles
deep in the interior of the earth, and the other a hundred
thousand miles deep in the body of the sun, act on one
another with exactly the same force as if the strata
beneath which each is buried had been non-existent.
If any medium takes part in transmitting this action, it
must surely make some difference whether the space
between the bodies contains nothing but this medium, or
whether it is occupied by the dense matter of the earth or
of the sun,

But the advocates of direct action at a distance are not
content with instances of this kind, in which the pheno-
mena, even at first sight, appear to favour their doctrine.
They push their operations into the enemy’s camp, and
maintain that even when the action is apparently the
pressure of contiguous portions of matter, the contiguity
is only apparent—that a space a/ways intervenes between
the bodies which act on each Other. They assert, in
short, that so far from action at a distance being im-
possible, it is the only kind of action which ever occurs,
and that the favourite old ws d@ tevgo of the schools has
no existence in nature, and exists only in the imagination
of schoolmen.

The best way to prove that when one body pushes
another it does not touch it, is to measure the dis-
tance between them, Here are two glass lenses, one
of which is pressed against the other by means of a
By means of the electric light we may obtain on
the screen an image of the place where the one lens
presses against the other. A series of coloured rings is
formed on the screen. These rings were first observed
and first explained by Newton. The particular colour of
any ring depends on the distance between the surfaces
of the pieces of glass. Newton formed a table of the
colours corresponding to different distances, so that by
comparing the colour of any ring with Newton’s table, we
may ascertain the distances between the surfaces at that
ring. The colours are arranged in rings because the sur-
faces are spherical, and therefore the interval between the
surfaces depends on the distance from the line joining
the centres of the spheres. The central spot of the
rings indicates the place where the lenses are nearest
together, and each successive ring corresponds to an
increase of about the 4,oooth part of a millimetre in the
distance of the surfaces. i

The lenses are now pressed together with a force equal
to the weight of an ounce, but there is still a measurable
interval between them, even at the place where they are
nearest together. They are not in optical contact. To
prove this, I apply a greater weight. A new colour appears
at the central spot, and the diameters of all the rings in-
crease. This shows that the surfaces are now nearer than at
first, but they are not yet in optical contact, for if they were,
the central spot would be black. I therefore increase
the weights, so as to press the lenses into optical contact.

But what we call optical contact is not real contact.

[ Fed. 27, 1873,

a

Feb. 27, 1873]

Optical contact indicates only that the distance between
the surfaces is much less than a wave-length of light.
To show that the surfaces are not in real contact, I
remove the weights. The rings contract, and several of
them vanish at the centre. Now it is possible to bring
two pieces of glass so close together, that they will not
tend to separate at all, but adhere together so firmly
that when torn asunder the glass will break, not at the
surface of contact, but at some other place. The glasses
must now be many degrees nearer than when in mere
optical contact.

Thus we have shown that bodies begin to press against
each other while still at a measurable distance, and that
even when pressed together with great force they are not
in absolute contact, but may be brought nearer still, and
that by many degrees. ‘

Why, then, say the advocates of direct action, should
we continue to maintain a doctrine founded only on the
rough experience of a pre-scientific age, that matter can-
not act where it is not, instead of admitting that all the
facts from which our ancestors concluded that contact is
essential to action were in reality cases of action at a dis-
tance, the distance being too small to be measured by their
imperfect means of observation ?

If we are ever to discover the laws of nature, we must
do so by obtaining the most accurate acquaintance with
the facts of nature, and not by dressing up in philo-
sophical language the loose opinions of men who had no
knowledge of the facts which throw most light on these
laws.

And as for those who introduce etherial, or other
media, to account for these actions, without any direct
evidence of the existence of such media, or any clear
understanding of how the media do their work, and who
fill all space three and four times over with ethers of
different sorts, why the less these men talk about their
philosophical scruples about admitting action at a
distance the better.

If the progress of science were regulated by Newton’s
first law of motion, it would be easy to cultivate opinions
in advance of the age. We should only have to compare
the science of to-day with that of fifty years ago, and by
producing, in the geometrical sense, the line of progress,
we should obtain the science of fifty years hence.

The progress of science in Newton’s time consisted in
getting rid of the celestial machinery with which gene-
rations of astronomers had encumbered the heavens, and
thus “ sweeping cobwebs off the sky.”

Though the planets had already got rid of their crystal
spheres, they were still swimming in the vortices of
Descartes. Magnets were surrounded by effluvia, and
electrified bodies by atmospheres, the properties of which
resembled in no respect those of ordinary effluvia and
atmospheres.

When Newton demonstrated that the force which acts
on each of the heavenly bodies depends on its relative
position with respect to the other bodies, the new theory
met with violent opposition from the advanced philo-
sophers of the day, who described the doctrine of gravi-
tation as areturn to the exploded method of explaining
everything by occult causes, attractive virtues, and the
ike.

Newton himself, with that wise moderation which is
characteristic of all his speculations, answered that he
made no pretence of explaining the mechanism by which
the heavenly bodies act on each other. To determine the
mode in which their mutual action depends on their
relative position was a great s'ep in science, and this step
Newton asserted that he had made. To explain the pro-
cess by which this action is effected was a quite distinct
_ Step, and this step, Newton, in his “ Principia,” does not
- attempt to make,

But so far was Newton from asserting that bodies really
do act on one another at a distance, independently of any-

NATURE

SS Se ee ee eS eee eee eee

325

thing between them, that in a letter to Bentley which has
been quoted by Faraday in this place, he says :—

“ It is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should,
without the mediation of something else, which is not ma-
terial, operate upon and affect other matter without mutual
contact, as it must do if gravitation, in the sense of Epi-
curus, be essential and inherent in it... . That gravity
should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that
one body can act upon another at a distance, through a
vacuum, without the mediation of anything else, by and
through which their action and force may be conveyed
from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I
believe no man who has in philosophical matters a com-
petent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it.”

Accordingly, we find in h’s “ Optical Queries,” and in his
letters to Boyle, that Newton had very early made the at-
tempt to account for gravitation by means of the pressure
of a medium, and that the reason he did not publish these
investigations “proceeded from hence only, that he found
he was not able, from experiment and observation, to give
a satisfactory account of this medium, and the manner of
its operation in producing the chief phenomena of na-
ture.” *

The doctrine of direct action at a distance cannot claim
for its author the discoverer of universal gravitation. It
was first asserted by Roger Cotes, in his preface to the
“ Principia,” which he edited during Newton’s life. Ac-
cording to Cotes, it is by experience that we learn that all
bodies gravitate. We do not learn in any other way that
they are extended, mov able, or solid. Gravitation, there-
fore, has as much right to be considered an essential pro-
perty of matter as extension, mobility, or impenetrability.

And when the Newtonian philosophy gained ground in
Europe, it was the opinion of Cotes rather than that of
Newton that became most prevalent, till at last Boscovich
propounded his theory, that matter is a congeries of ma-
thematical points, each endowed with the power of attract-
ing or repelling the others according to fixed laws. In his
world, matter is unextended, and contact is impossible.
He did not forget, however, to endow his mathematical
points with inertia. In this some of the modern repre-
sentatives of his school have thought that he “had not
quite got so far as the strict modern view of ‘matter’ as
being but an expression for modes or manifestations of
“force, at ;

But if we leave out of account for the present the de-
velopment of the ideas of science, and confine our atten-
tion to the extension of its boundaries, we shall see that
it was most essential that Newton’s method should be
extended to every branch of science to which it was appli-
cable—that the forces with which bodies act on each other
should be investigated in the first place, before attempting
to explain “ow that force is transmitted. Nomen could
be better fitted to apply themselves exclusively to the first
part of the problem, than those who considered the second
part quite unnecessary. ;

Accordingly Cavendish, Coulomb, and Poisson, the
founders of the exact sciences of electricity and mag-
netism, paid no regard to those old notions of “magnetic
effluvia” and “ electric atmospheres,” which had been put
forth in the previous century, but turned their undivided
attention to the determination of the law of force, accord-
ing to which electrified and magnetised bodies attract or
repel each other. In this way the true laws of these
actions were discovered, and this was done by men who
never doubted that the action took place at a distance,
without the intervention of any medium, and who would
have regarded the discovery of such a medium as com-
plicating rather than as explaining the undoubted pheno-
mena O! attraction.

(To be continued.)

* Maclaurin’s Account of Newton's Discoveries. ak,
+ Review of Mrs. Somerville’s “ Molecular Science,” Saiurday Review,
Feb, 13, 1869.

326

THE TROGLODYTES OF THE VEZERE*

Il.

E have now examined the succession of prehistoric
periods, from the begimming of the quaternary epoch,
under the threefold aspect of stratification, palzeontology,
and archeology. We have thus obtained three series of
dates, which do not always agree very strictly. They
coincide only in the latest date, which marks the com-
mencement of the modern epoch, and only approximate
in the more ancient dates ; but that is sufficient to enable

us to arrange the following table, as a summary :—

Stratigraphical
Dates.

Palzontological
ates.

Archzeological
Dates.

Low level of the val-

Quaternary!| leys undisturbed |Mammoth Age Hatchet of St. Acheul
Epoch | |Middle level Intermediate Age) Moustier point
Upper level Reindeer Age Solutré point
ek { Recent soil Present Fauna _| Polished hatchet

Il.— Successive Stations
of the Troglodytes of

NATURKL

| Feb. 27, 1873

Thus the Troglodytes of Perigord have existed in the
two last periods of the quaternary epoch, from the deca-
dence of the mammoth to the disappearance of the rein-
deer. It is impossible for us to measure the immense
number of ages in which they lived, but wecan have some
idea of it by studying their stations in connection with
the level of the Vézére. :

Since the Moustier Cave has ceased to be inhabited it
has so often been flooded by the Vézére that it has been
entirely filled with alluvial earth. This layer of earth,
nearly two metres in thickness, does not contain either
bones or flint. It has covered the layer which was for-
merly the inhabited soil, in which man has left the tokens
of his industry and the remnants of his feasts. This
proves that the mouth of the cave was within reach of
frequent floodings, and that consequently it was at a level
hardly above that of the river. Now, at the present day,
it is situated twenty-seven metres above the lowest water-
mark ; the depth of the valley is therefore considerably
increased since the epoch of the Moustier Troglodytes.

On the other side, the
station of La Made-

the Vézere

We now possess the
facts necessary to en-
able us to assign a place
in chronology to the
Troglodytes of the valley
of the Vézére. There is
not one polished hatchet
to be found in their nu-
merous stations; all
their industry belongs
to the epoch of hewn
stone. They were there-
fore anterior to the mo-
dern epoch, They were
acquainted with the
mammoth ; they fought
him ; they ate him ; they
even sketched him ; they
also knew the gigantic
cive lion, and the cave
hyena. Nevertheless, in
their most ancient sta-
t on—at least, the oldest
with which we are ac-
quainted, that of Mous-
tier—the extinct species
are already very rare,
Our Troglodytes, there-
fore, do not date from the
first quaternary period
or Mammoth Age; but
their station at Moustier
belongs incontestably to | pee
the age which we have |,
called intermediate, and ‘——~
which preceded _ the
Reindeer Age.

Their other stations
ringe from epoch to
epoch unt:l the end of
the Reidzer Age; they therefore helped to des-
troy the ancient fauna. They did not, it is true, wit-
ness the disappearance of the last survivor, the mammoth,
for some few rare vestiges of that animal are met with in
the most recent caves of the Vézére, but at some leagues
distance, at Excideuil, where MM. Jules and Phillippe
Parrott have discovered a palzolithic cave in which was no
trace of the extinct species, and in which even the reindeer
was becoming rare.

rrr

wu

amin ni
pA
ssi

Set

1.—Moustier cave. 2.—Moustier shrlter.
aud burying-place of Cromagnon

Lower Laugerie.

* Continued from p. 272

Fic. 8.—Map of the quaternary stations of the Vezére.

5.—Shelter of Upper Laugerie.
7-—Cave of the Gorge d'Enfer.

_ laine, which is one of
the most recent, per-
haps zke most recent
of the valley, is very
slightly above the level
of the largest present
floodings. We may
hence conclude that the
valley of the Vézére was
very much then what
it is now, and that since
the epoch of La Made-
laine the level has be-
come lowered to the
extent of a few metres
only.

Thus this depression
of twenty-seven metres,
due to the action of the
waters, was effected al-
most entirely under the
eyes of our Troglo-
dytes, and from that
time, during the whole
length of the modern
epoch, that is in hun-
dreds of centuries, it
has made very little
progress. Judge from
this how many human

a

come and gone between
the. epochs of Moustier
and La Madelaine.

It is easy to see that
in such an immense
lapse of time the man-
ners and industry of
this people must have
undergone notable
changes. We shall have
no trouble in proving this by the study of their different
stations in succession.

2000 _ 3000 £000

Echelle de 86-500

3 —Shelter of th- Madelaine. 4.—Shelter
6.—Shelter of
8.—Cave of the Eyzies.

All those of the stations that are known up to the
present time are grouped on both banks of the Vézére in

a very circumscribed space. From Moustier, which is up
the river, to Eyzies, which is down, the distance is but
eight kilometres as the crow flies; it is nearly double

when you follow the windings of the valley. Between -

these extreme stations we see succeeding each other, on
the right bank, those of the Madelaine, Upper Laugerie,

generations must have.

27, 1873]

Lower Laugerie, the Gorge d’Enfer, then, on the left
a that of Cromagnon, very near the Eyzies (see the
map).

Some are really habitable caves, others are simply
shelters under the rocks, with large openings towards the
valleys. But these distinctions have no chronological im-
portance. It is not by the nature of the habitations, but
by the nature of the dedris they contain that we can esti- |
mate their relative antiquity. The stations at Moustier
are evidently the oldest, that of Cromagnon is less |
ancient, but evidently belongs, like the preceding, to the |
intermediate age. Upper Laugerie, the Gorge d’Enfer, |
belong to the Reindeer Age ; and finally Lower Laugerie,
the Eyzies, the Madelaine, form a last group, and bring
us to the end of the quaternary epoch.

The Moustier Troglodytes were quite uncivilised.
They did not know how to fashion bones and horns ; they
only understood working in stone. Carved flints abound
in their stations, but, with the exception of an arrow-
point, rather carefully cut, all these flints are of very
rough workmanship. The distinguishing weapon of the
Moustier Troglodytes, that which characterises this sta-
tion and epoch, is the lance or spear-point which we have
already described (see above, Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

This powerful flint, with an arched point, sharp at both
edges, wide enough to make large wounds, thin enough
to penetrate easily into the flesh, constituted a much more
terrible weapon than the hatchet of Saint Acheul. Fas.
tened to the end of a spear, it could put to death the most
gigantic mammalia. Vestiges of the manmoth, of the
huge cave lion, and of the cave hyena have been picked
up at Moustier. But the principal human food at that
time was first the horse, then the aurochs; the reindeer
came third. The weapons of the chase were more suited
to attack the enemy that resisted than the game that fled.
They neglected those lighter shafts that bring down birds

and smaller quadrupeds. Fishing was also neglected

Feb.

were less massive, more numerous, more varied, and,
above all, better finished. They had not the Moustier
point, but they had a kind of flint poignard. They wore
-shell ornaments, and their numerous scrapers seem to in-
dicate that they prepared skins for clothing. Their prin-
cipal food was still the horse, but they had a great variety.
We find in the deéér7s of their repasts, besides the rein- |
deer, which was beginning to be plentiful, bones and teeth |
of aurochs, wild boar, stag, wild goat, wolf, fox, spermo- |
pile, hare, and even of a bird belonging to the Crane

NATURE

377

and probably not known. There is not a single fish-bone
or bird-bone in the Moustier stations.

Fic. 9. Fic, 19. Fic, rr.

Fig. 11.—Point in deer horn, without barbs (Gorge d’Enfer). Fig. 9.—
Arrow with bilateral barbs. Fig. 1o.—Harpoon with unilateral barbs.

The men of Cromagnon, less ancient than those of
Moustier, had considerably advanced, Their implements

Fic. 12.—The Mammoth, carved on ivory. (Engraving from the Madelaine.

genera, They consequently hunted small game as well
as large animals; but they were still ignorant of fishiaz,
Among these remains of animals we still find the mam-
moth and the great cave lion; likewise a large bear,
which might well be the Ursus Speleus. We must like-
wise remember that the reindeer had not begun to mul-
tiply rapidly, that it was less plentiful than the horse;
we are therefore still in the intermediate age. But, on
arriving at the following stations, we enter definitely the
Reindeer Age ; henceforward the vestiges of this animal

328

NATURE

[Fed. 27, 1873

will be more abundant than those of all the others put
together.

The finest works in flint of the Valley of the Vézére are
those of Upper Laugerie. All the implements, all the
weapons of that station are in flint. They are innume-
rable ; their shapes and dimensions are very varied. Side
by side with imperfectly fashioned objects we find others
whose elegant form and delicately finished contours reveal
accomplished workmen.

These beautiful flints of Upper Laugerie belong to the
Solutré type. Their shape is Janceolated; they are not
thick ; their graduated edges, jagged with little notches,
are regular and symmetrical; their base is often fashioned
so as to facilitate putting ona handle. They are evidently
destined to be adapted tothe extremity of a piece of wood.
Their dimensions vary considerably ; the shape is much
the same. It is easy to see that the small ones are
arrow-points; the medium size doubtless furnished the
darts which were hurled from the hand, The largest are
lance-points, but their want of width shows that those
lances were rather light.

These carefully-wrought points, so common at Upper
Laugerie, are not to be found in the later stations of the
valley of the Vézére. It was surmised, from this circum-
stance, that the workmanship of flints, after having pro-
gressed till the time of Upper Laugerie, had then declined.

This caused surprise, and justly ; for it would be asto-.

nishing if such an intelligent people, as were evidently
the Troglodytes of the Reindeer Age, had allowed their
main branch of industry to decay. But many objects
found in their more recent stations prove that they had
not Jost the secret of fine carving; and that, if they no
longer wrought the points of Upper Laugerie, they no
longer needed them,

A great progressive stride had been accomplished.
They had learned how to shape the deers’ horns, and the
bones of animals. It was with those substances, more
pliable than flint, less hard, no doubt, but quite solid
enough to fabricate darts and arrows of a longer flight
and a greater precision. Then, when these modes of
workmanship were once known, the bones and horns of
deer were used to manufacture a vast number of tools and
utensils of every description.

But, for all that, the reign of flint was not over. On
the contrary, the varied assortment of cut flints was
greater than ever ; to those which served as weapons and
implements were now added a multitude of small tools
destined to use for working the deer-horn.

We have here arrived at an important evolution of
industry. Upto that time there had only been simple
industry, or as it were primitive, utilising the original su-
stance direct. Now we come to progressive industry. Tools
were manufactured whose sole use was to fabricate others.

In all ages flint had been employed as an instrument of
workmanship. From the commencement of the Stone
Age it had been used to cut the horn, to make pikes,
clubs, handles of lances or darts. The idea of making
use in the same manner of the bones of animals was not
new either, for in the ancient station of Cromagnon were
found some dart-points of deer-horn, and even some
pieces of ivory. But the characteristic feature of the
epoch on which we are entering was the creation of
special tools which were not necessary for the wants of
life, and which were destined to facilitate and perfect the
fabrication of useful implements. From that time com-
menced that division of labour which, in a future day, was
to increase a hundredfold the power of man and subject
all nature to his sway.

The workmanship in deer-horn was already pretty far
advanced in the station of Gorge d’Enfer. We find there
a complete assortment of objects in this substance—
lances, darts, arrows, bodkins, needles, hunting marks,
account registers, &c. These articles are pretty well
wrought, but without ornaments, and the darts are of the

simplest shape. They are conical points, without any
barbs. (See Fig. 11.)

The invention of barbs is worthy of attention. These
recurring points no doubt rendered the blow more dan-
gerous ; the projectile remained fixed in the flesh, and the
wounded animal could not get rid of it as he fled through
the bushes. But this was probably not the principal
object of the barbs. Placed in a regular series on both
sides of the arrow (see Fig. 9), they sustained it in the
air like wings ; they increased the flight and the precision
of the aim, and this innovation suggests a certain know-
ledge of experimental physics, The barbs are generally
provided on one side with one or more openings, which
are supposed to be destined for the reception of poison.
The barb of the arrows and the ornamentation, more or
less artistic, are the two distinguishing marks of the sta-
tions of the latest epoch. These are three in number—
the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, and the Madelaine. They
resemble each other closely, and it is probable that they
were nearly contemporary.

Ill. The Society of the Troglodytes

The caves of the Troglodytes were situated near the
Vézére, without any special aspect, excepting perhaps
that they were never open to the north,

They lived in them the whole year round. This is
proved by the remains of their food, for they ate the rein-
deer fawn of every age. An examination of the teeth of
these young animals, of their bones, of their horns in
different stages of growth, enables us to determine the
number of months they had lived, and consequently the
season of the year in which they were killed. Hence we
may aver that our Troglodytes had a fixed residence, in
other words, that they were not nomads. ;

When they went out fishing or hunting they closed the
mouth of their caves to prevent the entrance of carnivora.
A single bone, found at the Madelaine, has the trace of a
hyena’s teeth. This animal may have once by accident
gained an entrance. The hyena was rare at that epoch,
but wolves and foxes were numerous, and if they did not

come and gnaw the bones scattered all over the floor of —

the cave, it was because the latter was carefully closed.
As there is no vestige of a stone door at the approach to
our caves, the Troglodytes, doubtless, closed their doors
with palisades. Hi
There have certainly been found, in the thiee stations
of the latest epoch, a certain number of stones in granite,

sandstone, or quartz, rounded and polished nearly smooth

with friction, presenting on side a very regular depression
in the form of a little cup, and resembling little mortars.
From this has arisen the supposition that the Troglodytes
ground corn for food ; but all concur in proving that they
did not understand agriculture. It is much more pro-
bable that they used their mortars to triturate poisons or
colours.

Hunting was their chiet resource and occupation.
The remnants of bones accumulated on the floor of their
caves prove that they hunted animals of every size, from
the small bird to the mammoth, This old giant of the
early quaternary age still survived, but he was becoming
very rare.

Here is the representation of a piece of ivory discovered
in 1864, at the Madelaine, by MM. Ed. Lartet, de Ver-
neuil, and Falconer. On this surface, an engraved draw-
ing represents the mammoth, with his head erect, his brow
concave, his great tusks bent, his small eye, his long trunk,

his tail elevated, and his long mane. In a word, precisely ©

like the mammoths in flesh and bones, which a perpetual
frost has preserved to our own days on the banks of th
Lena. (See Fig. 12.) Me
The Troglodytes of the Reindeer Age had rarely an op-
portunity of encountering the mammoth. They more fre-
quently hunted the aurochs, the horse, the ox ; and it was
doubtless for hunting these large animals that they still

those of Moustier. But nearly all their weapons were
light, and the deer-horn points replaced the flint points of
an earlier epoch.

The bow had become the predominant weapon, for
henceforth nothing resisted man ; all fled before him, and
hunting was no longer a struggle but a chase. There
were two kinds of arrows ;: the little pointed arrow, not
barbed, for small animals and birds, and the large dart
with two sets of barbs, which was principally used in hunt-
ing the reindeer. Light spears, terminating in a flattened
point, darts with conical points, and long sharp poignards,
which gave, when necessary, the finishing blow, completed
the hunting equipment. I was nearly fo: getting the rally-
ing whistle. It was a reindeer’s phalange, pierced near
one end, with an oblique hole which did not go right
through, and only penetrated to the medullary canal. By
blowing on this hole as on a drilled key, one can, even to
this day, extract shrill sounds.

(To be continued.)

THE NEW HYDROCARBON GAS

sepia new hydrocarbon gas produced by Mr. Ruck’s
process certainly promises to realise the concep-
tion that has long floated in the minds of scientific men
of turning the exhaustless store of heating power to
account that lies ready to hard in water. Mr. Ruck
appears literally, by the successful development of his
invention, to have set the Thames on fire. At this
present time, at the Battersea water-works, on the
banks of the old river, near to Battersea Park, both light
and heat may be seen and felt in the process of evolution
from the decomposition of the water of its stream, and
further light is added to the gas first produced by a very
simple and uncostly extension of the process. until the
illuminating power is raised to the intensity requisite for
artificial lighting during the dark hours of the night. The
Battersea water-works are now lit experimentally by this
new forin of gas, an apparatus having been erected there
to test and prove the efficiency and value of the method.
Mr. Ruck’s hydrocarbon gas, it should be at once
understood, differs entirely from the so-called “ air gases”
that consist mainly of air impregnated with the vapour of
some form of naphtha or petroleum, in the fact that its
base is essentially a gas. The heating gas, which is the
form first generated, is true honest hydrogen mingled
with a little taint of carbonic oxide, and a small and prac-
tically unimportant percentage of carbonic acid ; and the
apparatus by which this heating gas is produced is re-
markably ingenious and simple. Ordinary steam is
brought through a pipe from one of the boilers of the
engine house, and this steam is poured through a horse-
shoe-shaped tube that passes through the red heat of
a fierce coke furnace. In this tube it is superheated,
or raised to a temperature which disposes its constituents,
the oxygen and hydrogen, to dissolve their intimate
alliance, and in that state it is passed on into retorts,
also contained in a lower region of the same furnace,
which are packed full of coke and fragments of iron.
The steam is discharged into the interior of these retorts
out of its own conducting pipe, so that it has to traverse
their entire length amidst the masses of heated metal and
coke, and during its journey it ceases to be steam. The
oxygen attaches itself to the iron, and forms scales of
black rust, and the hydrogen passes on free, with only a
commingling with carbonic oxide and carbonic acid
formed by the action of the disengaging oxygen upon the
coke packing of the retort, and with certain sulphurous
vapours that also issue from the coke. In this impure
state the gas issues from the retort, and is carried to a
purifying chamber containing oxid> of iron, which at
once clears it from all the sulphur compounds, and it is

Be us

ins!

te de aN by > Natal “®e : F
Feb. 27, 1873] ‘ NATURE 329
had some large spears, armed with flint, differing little from | then stored in a gas reservoir of ordinary form. In this

state it is the “heating gas ;” that is, gas supereminently
suited for all purposes where heat, without light, is re-
quired, as, for instance, for gas stoves of whatever kind, or
for boiling water, and generating steam. When the gas
is taken from this reservoir, and discharged through an
ordinary burner, it nurns with’the pale colourless hydrogen
flame, streaked with a few lines. of yellow scintillations,
ana of the characteristic pale greea colour of incandescent
carbonic oxide.

At the present time, with coals quoted in the London
markets at 52s. per ton, this part of the affair, the pro-
duciion of a heating gas out of water, at the cost of a
very simple apparatus, a very small consumption of fuel,
and with a demand for an incredibly small application of
manual labour, seems to be the one that is most deserving
of thought and attention. In the practice of the manu-
facture at the Ba'tersea water-works, by the expenditure
of one ton of coke for the interior of the retorts, and of
two tons of coke for the support of the heat of the
furnace, 133,000 cubic feet of gas are produced, that, to say ~
the least of it, is quite equal for all purposes of heating to
coal gas in ordinary use, and that is as chemically endur-
ing and perfect for storing in gasometers and for trans-
mission to unlimited distances through pipes. In a direct
experiment with the gas, tried by the writer, one quart of
cold water was boiled in four minutes and a half by a jet
of flame issuing from an orifice one-eighth of an inch in
diameter, and under a pressure of three inches of water,
without any arrangement for the concentration and pro-
tection of the flame from chill and draughts. There was
no provision on hand to measure the exact consumption
of the gas, but the man who was engaged in the Labora-
tory estimated it at about five cubic feet per hour. Now
the cost of this gas at the works is found to be 7d. per
1,000 cubic feet. In this experiment, therefore, the result
was something like converting seven gallons of water at
a temperature of 38° Fahrenheit, into boiling water for 1d.
One thousand cubic feet at a cost of 7¢. would boil about
50 gallons of cold water. At the works at the present
time the steam is supplied independently from the boiler
of the engine room. But this does not need to be taken
into consideration, because the waste heat of the retort
furnace is more than enough for the production of the
steam, and in ordinary circumstances will be used, as a
matter of course, for the purpose.

When it is desired to use the gas for lighting purposes,
it has to be further prepared and manipulated. The
“heating gas” from the gasometer is made to bubble
through a reservoir containing rectified petroleum at a
specific gravity of about 0680. It then passes at once
into the pipes for circulation and consumption, and issues
from these burners a very excellent gas, equal in illumi-
nating power to 16} candles with a consumption of 5 cubic
feet an hour in an Argand burner. The cost of the gas
in this form is a trifle less than Is. 8d. per 1,000 cubic feet,
and the saving in the manufacture over ordinary coal gas
with coals costing 26s. per ton, is estimated to be 40 per
cent.—in exact figures 1s. 8d. per 1,000 cubic feet against
2s. 4d. per 1,000 cubic feet. One thousand cubic feet of
the heating gas require a gallon and a half of the petro-
leum to convert them into illuminating gas, but they are
considerably increased in volume by the conversion—
133,000 cubic feet of “heating gas” become 165,000 cubic .
feet of “ illuminating gas” after it has been passed through
the petroleum. Arrangements have been made for the
purchase of several millions of tons of crude petroleum
at a price which will represent a cost of 6d. a gallon after
rectification.

Some rather severe experiments have been already
tried to test the power of the illuminating gas to retain
its full charge of carbon “after travelling through long
distances of delivery at low temperatures, and the report
of the testing engineers is that so far the experiment was

,

330

eminently satisfactory, and that there was no perceptible
loss of illuminating power. Experiments on this point,
however, and also upon the arrangements that will best
enable the heating gas to be turned to account, are still
in progress, and will afford ground for further notice in
due time.

The furnace and retorts which are at work at Battersea
are very compact, occupying about the space of an ordi-
nary well-packed steam engine of 20 or 30 horse power.
These retorts however are only in use for about two hours
out of the twenty-four to supply the works with illumina-
tion, and it is estimated that they would be quite large
enough to supply illuminating gas for the consumption of
a small town of about 4,000 inhabitants. As regards the
most important bearing of saving of manual labour it is
found to amount to dispensing with the services of 29
labourers out of every 30 who are required in the old pro-
cess of coal distillation. The charge of coke and iron
which is now in the retorts yielding the gas at Battersea
has not been changed, or renewed, for several weeks.
The iron in the retorts is in the form of old chain, for the
convenience of withdrawal, and seems to cover itself with
thin black scales. The carbon in the interior of the
retort is removed entirely by the gas as it is gradually
converted in the process of manufacture into carbonic
acid and carbonic oxide.

It may, perhaps, be well to remark that a process for
the manufacture of “water gas” was presented by M.
Gillard some fourteen years ago, in which superheated
steam was decomposed in retorts by the action of incan-
descent charcoal ; the carbonic acid, so formed, issued
from the retort with the hydrogen, and was afterwards
removed in aspecial purifier. Lighting power was secured
by heating platinum wire in the flame. The distinctive
features of Mr. Ruck’s process are—the decomposition of
the superheated flame by coke and iron, which remain
long periods in the retorts without change ; the removal
of sulphur products by oxide of iron ; and the carbonising
for illumination by passing the hydrogen through rectified
petroleum.

HUNTERIAN LECTURES BY PROF. FLOWER
Lectures I, II, III.
I*

considering the various formations which compose

the earth’s crust, it is unnecessary, whilst speaking of

the mammaiia, to refer to rocks lower than those of the
secondary formation, for no palzeozoic mammals are known.
Respecting the value of palzontology in supporting or
disproving the various theories at present in vogue re-
garding the origin of life, the details of the course will
supply evidence of value. The amount of “the imper-
fection of the geological record” will be demonstrated in
the classes considered. The extreme unlikelihood of any
aérial animals being preserved in the fossil state is scarcely

realised by many, nor is the smallness of the extent of |

the surface of the earth which has been examined. An
accidental discovery like that in the upper oolite, of an
extremely small deposit containing numerous marsupial
remains, has done more to throw light on the subject
than many more painstaking researches over larger fields.
These facts being taken into consideration, it is clear that
if it can be shown that the examination of fessil 1emains
indicates only a tende: cy towards the filling of the gaps
between existing groups, the tendency will be strongly in
favuur of evolution ; but if it brings to light nothing but
types which are entirely new, the doctrine of special crea-
tions will be supported. Prof. Huxley has been able to show
. many of the transitions between reptiles and birds, and
Prof. Marsh’s new discovery of (dontornis is an im-
portant addition. It is among mammalia that in the pre-
‘sent state of our knowledge there are the greatest gaps.

The relations of the Cheiroptera are indeterminable, and |

NATURE wre:

ay

so are those of the Edentata ; not much is known of the ©

Cetacea as regards their affinities, though they may be
near the seals on the other hand. The Ungulata constitute
a group in which the considerable gaps between existing
types are almost completely removed by the study of
fossil forms.
Pliocene, Equidee abounded in America as well as in
the Old World. Tapirs and Rhinoceroses were equally
abundant ; these are the remnants of a large group which
is probably becoming extinct, as it is indicated by the
fact that the species are becoming less numerous. A little
further back we find Hipparion with rudimentary side toes.

Taking first the Rerissodactylata, in the —

In the Miocene and upper Eocene, Anchitherium and

Palzotherium represent the group, though the latter is
peculiar in its teeth. Fossil Rhinoceroses have larger
teeth and no horn, some pdssess incisors, and the other
teeth less specialised. The Tapir stands much by itself,
and an ancient type containing Lophiodon and Hyraco-
therium seems to be now unrepresented. Again, among
the Artiodactylates, Cheropotamus and Hyopotamus as far
back as the Eocene are the most generalised, and from
them as we ascend in the series the differentiation towards
existing types becomes more and more evident. Among
these later forms the North American Oveodon, which has
been obtainedin such great numbers, tends to the ruminants,
but possessed upper incisors and canines. The Miocene
of France and Germany affords very similar evidence.
It is also interesting to note that the further we go back,
the more do the individuals of the Perissodactylate group

approach the Artiodactylates, but as yet no connecting —

link has been obtained. The Proboscidia, animals first
appearing in the Miocene, approach in the older forms to
the Ungulata, and Prof. Marsh’s newly discovered Dino-
ceras seems to help to fill the gap.

In reviewing the various strata which are found to con-
tain remains of mammalia, those of the quaternary or
post-pliocene period are rich in species not far removed
from existing forms. In most countries where limestone
rocks exist, caverns are found containing large numbers
of bones, such as those of Kirkdale, Liege, and Gibraltar,

the last having been lately explored by Mr. Busk. Those

of the Wellington Valley in Australia have afforded nu-
merous remains of marsupials, showing that those animals

have been located there for a considerable period. Again ~

from the Pampas of South America many of the valuable
skeletons which enrich the collection of the College of

Surgeons have been obtained. The Miocene formation —

is particularly interesting from the richness of its fauna.
Dinotherium and Mastodon being obtained in South
France, as well as at Pikermé in Greece, where they are
associated with A/7pparion, the giraffe and others. Belong-
ing to the same formation are the strata of the Siwalik
Hills of India, which abound in hoofed animals, and
have been so well worked out by Dr. Falconer. The
peculiar mammalia of the territory of Nebraska, at the
foot of the Rocky Mountains, belongs to the same age.
In the Eocene period lived the animals so fully described
by Cuvier, Palgotherium, Anoplotherium, &c. Besides
in the Paris basin, similar strata occur at Hordwell, in
Hants, and at Binstead, Bembridge, and Headon, in the
Isle of Wight. In the Lendon Clay of Sheppey Hyraco-
therium and Lodhiod mare found. ~

Early in this century, it was supposed that mammalia
were not present in the secondary rocks ; but this was
shown to be incorrect. In 1847, Prof. Pheninger dis-
covered in sone Triassic sand he was sifting a minute

tooth with double fangs, probably belonging to some mar-—

supial anima’, which he named Mzcrolestes. Prof. Owen
considers it to be related to MM/yrmecobius. Similar’
teeth from the Rhaetic beds have been discovered
by Mr. C. Moore, of Bath. An equally minute”
Triassic tooth was found by Mr. Boyd Dawkins at
Watchet, in Somersetshire, and from its slight resem-"
b'ance to that of A/ypsiprymnus it has beea named>

Feb. 27, 1873]

Hypsiprymnopsis. Among the coal-fields, probably of
the Trias Age, in North Carolina, the late Prof.
Emmons obtained the lower jaws of three insecti-
vorous or carnivorous animals, with the following
dental formula—i. 3, c. I, p.m. 3, m. 7, and, as
Prof. Owen has pointed out, this large development of
the molar series approximates it to Myrmecobius. A
peculiarity of these jaws, as of all others from the secon-
dary formations, is that a long groove runs along their
inner side in the position of the mylo-hyoid groove of
recent mammals; this is only a result of arrested de-
velopment round Meckel’s cartilage, and it does not
indicate—as has been supposed by some—reptilian affini-
ties, there not being any signs of more than two centres
of ossification. So early as 1812, a man working in the
Lower Oolite of Stonefield found a perfect lower jaw one
inch long. This was taken to Mr. Broderip and Mr.
Buckland ; Cuvier also had an opportunity of seeing it,
and called it an opossum. Dr. Blainvile thought that it
was reptilian, and called it A mphitherium. Owen clearly
proved that it was marsupial, the angle being inflected.
The dental formula is i. 3, c. 1, m. 12, and the shape of
the teeth indicates an insectivorous or carnivorous diet.
Phascolotherium, another genus from the same slates, has
the formula i. 3, c. 1, m 7, which, if it had one more in-
cisor, would be like that of the opossum. Higher up in
the secondary formation, in the Purbeck, Mr. Brodie
obtained several small jaws from Durdlestone Bay, near
Swanage. Mr. Beccles thoroughly explored this bed,
and very valuable results have been obtained, more than
forty jaws, nearly all lower, of twenty-four species belong-
ing to ten genera, having been described by Owen.

NOTES

By five decrees of the French government, dated February 13,
the working of the French observatories has been thoroughly
reorganised, and if the new system is faithfully carried out,
we have no doubt it will be productive of good results. The
management of the government observatories is entrusted to a
body of astronomers responsible to the Minister of Public In-
struction, and consisting of titular astronomers (astronomes
titulaires), associate astronomers (astvonomes adjoints), and
assistant astronomers. This /evsonne/ is distributed among the
various observatories according to the requirements of the
service, and the special resources offered by each establishment
for the researches of observers. The staff of the observatory of
Paris consists of a director, six titular astronomers, ten associate
astronomers, and several assistants. A responsible secretary is
attached to the establishment. The Paris observatory has a
scientific council, composed of the director, the various chief
astronomers of the service, and of six councillors of the observa-
tory, chosen from among scientific men eminent in mathematics,
astronomy, or physics, and of whom four at least must belong
to the Academy of Sciences or to the Bureau des Longitudes.
These are to be nominated by decree, in accordance with the
advice of the Council, and upon the proposal of the Minister.
The Council is 0 meet once a month, and every year, at Easter,
the directors, the councillors, and the chiefs of the various scien-
tific establishments, meet in general assembly with the Minister
of Public Instruction. The directors and the titular astronomers
are appointed by the President of the Republic, acting according
to the advice of the General Assembly. The salaries of the
titular astronomers vary from 6000 to 8000 francs, those of the

associate astronomers, divided into three classes, from 3,500 to
" 6,000 francs, and those of the assistant astronomers, also divided
into three classes, from 1,000 to 3,500 francs. These salaries
do not strike us as being particularly liberal. By a second
decree, M. Le Verrier has been made Director of the Paris Ob-
-servatory ; the Councillors of the Observatory are, MM, Bel-

NATURE

331

grand, Fizeau, Vice-Admiral Jurien de la Graviére, Janssen,
Tresca, Daubrée; and Members of Council, MM. Yvon Vil-
larceau, Wolf, Gaillot, and Rayet. M. Marie Davy is appointed
Director of the Meteorological Observatory of Montsourris, and
M. Stephan of the Observatory of Marseilles.

THE arrangement of the buildings in which the Annual In-
ternational Exhibitions are held, makes it almost essential for
their success that visitors should be able to pass from one side
to the other across the gardens of the Royal Horticultural So-
ciety. A large body of the Fellows, however, more especially
those residing in the neighbourhood, object to the admission of
the exhibition visitors, as an infringement upon the privacy of
the gardens, At the late adjourned annual meeting there was a
very stormy discussion upon the subject, and the report of the
Council recommending a continuance of the policy of meeting
the views of the managers of the exhibitions was rejected by a
large majority. The Council thereupon expressed their inten-
tion of resigning ; but this, it appears, they have no legal power
to do till the expiration of their term of office.

Carrain M. F. Maury, the well-known American hydro-
grapher, died on February 1, at Lexington, Virginia, at the age
of sixty-six years,

THE Times announces that the Council of the Royal Society
are about to nominate Dr. Hooker as President of the Society,
in succession to Sir George B. Airy, who retires from the chair
at the Society’s anniversary in November next.

Ir is announced in a ‘‘cable” telegram from America to the
Astronomer Royal, that a new planet (130) was discovered by
Peters on February 18. It is of the eleventh magnitude, and
was moving rapidly towards the north, R, A., 1oh. om., Deecl.,
13°. 40 Ne

Mr. T. M‘Kenna HuGues, M.A., of Trinity College, has
been elected Woodwardian Professur of Geology at Cambridge,
in succession to the late Prof. Sedgwick. Originally there
were nine candidates, but most of them retired before the poll,
and the real contest lay between Mr. Hughes and Mr. Bonney,
a Senior Fellow of St. John’s, the numbers at the close being
112 and 105 respectively.

By a resolution of the Board of Trinity College, Dublin,
the Natural Sciences have been introduced into the Under-
graduate Course. Hitherto a student might select the Natural
Science Course for his final examination in Arts, obtaining a
senior or junior Moderatorship, according to his answering ;
now having once passed his ‘‘ little go,” the student may in
his third year select for his term Lectures and Examinations,
Botany and Zoology ; and in his fourth year Physical Geo-
graphy and Palzontology. For this purpose the following
courses of lectures have been arranged :— Michaelmas Term—
Prof. Haughton, M.D. F.R.S., lectures on Physical Geo-
graphy; Prof. E. Perceval Wright, M.D. on Histological
Botany; Prof. Macalister, M.D. on Vertebrata. Hilary Term
—Prof. Haughton on Paleontology ; Prof. Wright on Crypto-
gamia; Prof. Macalister on Mollusca and Arthropoda. Trinity
Term—Prof. Haughton on Paleontology; Prof. Wright on
Phanerogamia ; Prof. Macalister on Annulosa, Ccelenterata and
Polyzoa. In addition, in Trinity Term, Demonstrations are
given by the several Professors in Palzeontology, Comparative
Anatomy, and Botany.

Ar the Fellowship Examination at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, in 1874, a Fellowship will be obtainable by ade-
quate proficiency in Natural Science. The Examination,
which will take place in the end of September or the
beginning of October, will be chiefly in Chemistry, Physics,

Sd

and Biology, and in the subjects of any papers which may have
been sent in. Candidates are invited to send in to the Exa-
miners (care of Mr. Trotter), on or before May 15, 1874, any
papers which they may have published containing original
observations or experiments, or discussions of scientific ques-
tions, or any similar matter in manuscript. The papers may be
on any branch of Natural Science which is not strictly medical.
They must be accompanied by a statement as to what portions
of the matter are claimed as original, and of the sources from
which the rest is derived so far as they are not explicitly stated
in the paper itself. Candidates will be liable to be examined in
the subjects of their papers, and in matters connected with
them, or in the branches of science to which they refer. This
Fellowship will be open to all Bachelors of Arts, Bachelors of
Law, and Bachelors of Medicine of the University, whose
standing after their first degree does not exceed three years.
Candidates who are not members of the College must send their
names to the Master on or before September 15, accompanied
by certificates of good character. For further information, apply
to the Rev. Coutts Trotter, Tutor of Trinity.

M. RENE DE BREBISSON writing under date of Fetruary 16
to the Secretary of the Dublin Microscopical Club, mentions that
while the smaller collections of Algz belonging to his late
distinguished father, had for some time past been disposed of, yet
the large collection of Diatomacez was still forsale. This
collection contains (1) 8,000 prepared slides, some in fluid, but
the greater part by far in Canada Balsam ; (2) about 600 tubes
and bottles of Diatoms in alcohol ready for mounting; and
(3) a collection of Diatoms on mica and some few n paper.
These collections contain the types of most of the species de-
scribed by De Brebisson, Kutzing, Smith, Ralfs, Grunow,
W. Arnott, De Notaris, &c. &c. The price asked is 10,000
francs, but possibly for a public collection 8,000 francs might be
taken. The collection is well worthy the attention of botanists,
and we hope soon to be able to report that it has been
disposed of.

TueE Royal Dublin Society has inaugurated a course of lec-
tures on subjects connected with public health, in the arrange-
ment of which the Dublin Sanitary Association afforded its
advice and assistance ; the first of the series, being Introductory,
was delivered on Saturday, Feb. 22, by Dr. W. Stokes, F.R.S.,
and the remaining ten will be delivered each Saturday until com-
pleted. The Subjects and Lecturers are as follows :—On the
discrimination of Unadulterated Food, by Dr. J. Emerson Rey-
nolds. On Meteorology in ils bearing on Health and Disease, by
Dr. T. W. Moore. On the Geographical Distribution of Disease,
by Dr. T. Little. On Zymotic and Preventible Diseases, by Dr.
T. Grimshaw. On liability to Disease, by Dr. Alfred Hudson,
On Antiseptics and Disinfection, by Dr, R. Macdonnell, F.R.S.
The Prevention of A:tisans’ Diseases, by Dr. E. D, Mapother.
On the Contagion Theory of Epid. mics, by Rev. Dr. Haughton,
F.R.S. On the Construction of Dwelling Houses, with refe-
rence to their Sanitary arrangement, by Mr..G. C. Henderson ;
and on Sanitary Legislation, by Mr. R. O. B. Furlong.

WE understand that the delay which has occurred in the
issue of the volume of the Zoological Record for 1871, has been
caused by the iliness of one of the contributors to the Inverte-
brate section. At a recent meeting of the Council of the
Zoologica! Record Association it was determined to issue the
portion of the volume already completed (down to the end of
the Insecta) immediately, leaving the remaining section until the
health of the contributor allows of its completion.

ProF. GIGLIOLI, of Florence, has lately re-examined the
skull of the Chimpanzee of East Africa, which was obtained
some years ago from the Upper White Nile, and was formerly
in the Museum of the School of Medicine of Cairo, and has

NATURE

| Feb. 27, 1873

come to the conclusion that it belongs to a new species which he
proposes tocall Zroglodytes Schweinfurthit, after the well-known
African traveller of that name.

THE Royal Zoological Society of Ireland has just issued its
forty-first annual Report. It would appear that the Gardens
were visited during 1872 by 147,184 persons, being nearly
20,000 less than 1871; but this is abundantly accounted for by
the extreme wetness of the past year. Perhaps the most inte-
resting addition to the Garden during that period consisted of
two living specimens of the Climbing Perch of India (Anadas
scandens) ; these were presented by Staff-Surgeon Dobson of
Calcutta.

WE bave received from Mr. Rooseve't, the secretary, the
third and fourth annual Reports of the American Museum of
Natural History, from which we learn that this newly founded
national collection, situated in Central Park, New York, is being
conducted with an enterprise and discretion which, if continued,
will shortly render it worthy of the capital it represents.
quently during the last year it was visited by more than 10,000
people in one day, and every encouragement is given to students
of science. Among the most valuable donations during the last
two years is a great Auk, presented by Mr. R. L. Stuart, and a
large collection of insects from Madame Verreaux, of Paris.

Pror. TYNDALL arrived at Liverpool on the 19th inst., in
the Cuda.

Av Thorn, in Prussia, where he was born-in 1473, the four
hundredth anniversary of the birthday of Copernicus was cele-
brated on February 19. Speeches were delivered by several
scientific men, and a ball was given in the town hall.

ACCORDING to the accounts we have as yet seen of the Samos
earthquake it was of a remarkable character. It affected chiefly
the pretty little capital of Vathy. The shocks were not felt
throughout the island, but only on the coast between Kotzika
and Pagonda. Nevertheless a counter shock was felt as far off
as Smyrna. So far as we can make out, the first shock, which
was the strongest, was felt at1 A.M. Up to Feb. 3, 104 shocks
had been felt at intervals, 4 or 5 very strong and threatening.

THE Smyrna earthquake was on Feb. 1 or Jan. 31 at night,
and was violent. ‘The oscillation is reported as from S.W. to
N.E.

THE weather in Vanina, in Epirus, up to the beginning of
February, had been most remarkable. There had been great
rains, and the fruit trees had already yielded fruit. In the
neighbouring provinces of Bosnia and Prizrend the fruit trees had
also Llossomed in full winter, and some had given fruit. The
like is reported from Verzin, where plum trees, pears and figs
had produced iruit of good quality.

A COAL mine has been discovered in the Bagdad district
between Yezireh and Zeto. According to the report of M.
Mougel, engineer to the viceroyalty, the furmation extends over
a length of more than four miles with a breadth of from 400 to
450 feet. About $4 tons were got out in the first three weeks.

WE have received from Dr. Petermann a beautifully executed
map of South-west Germany, with Alsace and Lorraine as they
existed before the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789.

WE learn from the Zimes of Zndia that the Bombay Geogra-
phical Society has been formally amalgamated with the local
branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.

WE learn from the Garden that an American has made an
experiment with the view of ascertaining how far soil is pro-
tected from cold by snow. For four successive winter days,
there being four inches of snow on a level, he found the average
temperature immediately above the snow 14° below zero ; imme-
diately beneath, 10° above zero ; and under a drift 2 ft. deep, 27°
above zero,

Fre- —

ee

ve ee

Feb. 27, 1873|

PROFESSOR RAMSAY ON LAKES*

II.

I11.— Zhe Waters of the Cambrian and Silurian Epochs and the
: Lakes of the Old Red Sandstone

THE lecturer first briefly summarised the reasoning and the con-
clusions contained in his two preceding Jectures on the origin
of fresh and salt water lakes, and then proceeded to apply them
to explain certain phenomena of the above geologi:al epochs as
deduce from the rocks belongi g to those periods. He was
about to endervourt» prove that certain of the formations in-
cluded in a table of the stra‘ified rocks were not formed in the
open sea as usually supposed, bit were formed in yreat lakes.
The small numbers of fossil shells fund in fresh-water strata
and in some cases their total absence rendered absolute demon-
stration very difficult. The Cambrian strata, seen in England,
in North Wales, Shropshire, and other parts consist of red and
mottled sandstones and slates, and contain but few fossils ; trilo-
bites and one or two fossil shells have been found, not in the red
strata, however, but in blue and grey shades. Above these the
Lingula flags (a member of the Lower Silurian) contain fossils
in great numbers, and of such creatures as must have lived in
the open ocean of that period. In the Upper Silurian, too,
fossils are very numerous, and all inhabitants of the sea. But
above these, in the Old Red sandstone, the numbers have de-
clined both in genera and species and individuals, and the shells,
&c., which remain are small and dwarfed in size. Yet the strata
of the Old Red sandstone lie conformably on the Upper Silurian,
showing that the passage from the one set of beds to the other
was gradual, and the change in the fossils is likewise gradual.

The Old Red strata consist of red sandstones (forming about two-
thirds of the whole strata) and a red marl developed in England,
in South Wales, Herefordshire, &c., throughout the whole
of these strata fossils are very scarce, chiefly occurring in the
uppermost and lowermost portion. Ia the Ludlow rocks, at the
upper portion of the Silurian strata, are found fragments of stones
and seed vessels of land plants for the first time, Not that land
plants did not exist before that period ; the lecturer thought they
had done so, but that their remains were not preserved in the
rocks, inasmuch as they had been formed in the open sea, far
from land. But their occurrence in the Ludlow rocks evi-
dently proves that those strata, although truly marine, were
formed in the neighbourhood of land, and, as the lecturer be-
lieved, in waters more or less land-locked. These passage beds
also contain the remains of fish of various genera—Cephalaspis,
Onchus, &c. But passing upwards into the beds of the Old Red
sandstone, the fish which occur have their nearest living
analogies in inland fresh-water areas ; ¢.g. the Lepidosteus of the
North American rivers, the Polypterus of the Nile, and the
recently discovered Ceratodus in the rivers of Australia, Large
crustaceans—Eurypterus and Pterygotus—occur higher up in
the formation, and in all cases where they are found, and in the
majority of cases where fish are found in these strata, shells are
not associated with them. Hence from the absence of shells,
and their dwarfed forms when they do occur, especially as com-
pared with the underlying Silurian beds, and from the presence
of those peculiar kinds of fish, we are entitled to infer that the
strata were deposited in inland lakes. Again, examination of a
piece of the red sandstone will show it to be composed of a
number of minute grains, each surrounded by a thin pellicle of
peroxide of iron, to which the red colour of the rock is due, for
when this iron is discharged by chemical means the rock remains
purely white. All truly marine rocks that we know are in no
case coloured red ; they are black, blue, green, or yellowish, but
never red, and there is no reason why in the sea iron should be
deposited as a peroxide. But in certain lakes in Sweden there
is a constant deposit of iron oxide ; and though this is due to
organic agency, still it occurs in lakes, but never in the sea. The
Old Red sandstone is not a wide-spread formation, but has more
of a local character.

The lecturer then showed by means of diagrams how he
conceived that certain areas of the Silurian seas might be
isolated and shut off from the ocean by elevation and de-
pression of the land, that the gradual freshening of these
inland areas would result in dwarfing and deforming the marine
creatures in the waters, and rendering them gradually extinct.
The lakes in the north of Europe, which must have been filled

~ with sea-water just after the glacial epoch, are similar cases, for
jn some of them the marine forms are not yet totaily extinct, but

* Continued from p. 313.

NATURE

| of lime and maynesia, often in about equal proportions.

333
have become partly acclimatised, and so the occurrence of a few
such forms in these rocks is no conclusive evidence against their
being formed in inland and fresh-water lakes, but rather the
contrary. At the top of the Old Red sandstone beds Jand-
plants and fresh-water shells occur. In the north of Scotland
the Old Red sandstone rocks are well developed, the Grampians
at that time standing out of the waters. The bottom bed is a
clay with angular b »u'd-rs, much resembling the ‘boulder clay”
fo: mation, and evidently of glacial origin, and though the lecturer
dire not assert that glaciers scooped out the lakes in which the
rocks were deposited, still it was very interesting to have evidence
of their connection with those lakes. He likewise pointed out
that if this the »ry of the lake origin of certain formations, first
suggested by Mr. Godwin Austen, were established, it would
open out an entirely new field of geological research by revealing
to us the conditions not only of the ancient seas, but also of old
continental areas.

IV.—Salt Lakes of the Permian Epoch

Prof. Ramsay first explained that it was necessary, in attempt-
ing to demonstrate the truth of his assertions as to certain
formations having been deposited in inland waters to commence
by considering the conditions of the preceding epoch, and trace
the gradual change in the deposits resulting from the changed
conditons. He therefore commenced by describing somewhat
fully the rocks belonging to the carboniferous formation. The
mountain limestone or carboniferous limestone, which lies at the
base of the system in the south of England, is a nearly pure
limestone, composed almost entirely of encrinites, corals, and
other similar marine forms, and attaining a thickness of two or
three thousand feet. Above that lies the millstone grit, about a
thousand feet thick, likewise marine, but containing the remains
of land plants ; overlying that are the coal measures, consisting
of an alternation of beds of sandstone, slate, coal, and ironstone.
In the north of England and Scotland the base of the system
consists of alternating beds of limestone, sandstone, and shale,
with occasional beds of coal, and above that the true coal
measures. The coal was formed by the life and death of Jand-
plants—Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Calamites, &c., and under
every bed of coal is a layer of clay—‘‘underclay,” which is
nothing more nor less than the ancient soil on which the plants
grew, and contains the roots of some of the above plants, ¢.2.
Stigmaria, the root of Sigillaria. The remains of the plants
accumulated somewhat like existing peat bogs, and were at times
submerged and covered with a layer of sediment, and again up-
heaved and oyerspread by vegetation. There must have been a
large continental area in the latitude in which Britain now stands
to furnish the gigantic rivers at the mouths of which many of
these coal-measure forests grew.

Above the carboniferous strata lie the Permian seen sur-
rounding some of the Midland coal fields, in a strip from
Derbyshire into Cumberland, and forming the base rocks
of a portion of the Vale of Eden. The beds lie unconform-
ably on or against the coal measures, implying that a
vast lapse of time, sufficient to allow for the denudation of
thousands of feet of thickness of strata in some places, took
place between the deposition of the two formations. At the
base of the Permian strata lie beds of red conglomerate, sand-
stone, and marl, known on the Continent as Rothiiegende; and
above those lie the magnesian limestone. In the magnesian
limestone a considerable number of marine forms of life occur,
but compared with the great abundance of those forms in
the carboniferous limestone, the fauna seems poor and the
individuals are dwarfed; out of 1800 species of shells in
the carboniferous genera only 38 genera and 180 species are
found in the magnesian limestone. The latter strata also
contain some fossil fish in its lower beds (marl slate), of the
same genera as those found in carboniferous strata, and some
show considerable resemblance to those living forms inhabiting
inland fresh-water areas, mentioned in the last lecture. And
there are various reptiles found —Labyrinthodont reptiles—which
were truly amphibious, and which in some cases have left their
skeletons, but far more frequently their foot-marks impressed
upon the soft mud of some ancient shore, which likewise shows
occasionally rain marks and sun cracks. Some of the reptiles
belong to the Protosaurian genus, closely allied to the modern
crocodiles or Thecodont saurians, and therefore probably ulti-
mately connected with the land. And a very significant point
in regard to the origin of these rocks is their chemical com-
position, the magnesian limestone consisting of the Spi cae
Now

334

NATURE

te!

[F2b. 27, 1873

limestone is formed from the sea-water by the agency of animals,
but no creature is known which secretes carbonate of magnesia
from the sea waters to make its skeleton, and therefore we may
conclude that it was precipitated from chemical solutions ; and
this could not take place in the open sea, but must have occurred,
as in thecase of rock-salt in confined inland waters. It is
probable that by extensive changes in physical geography, large
areas of the ocean were shut off, and in the lakes thus formed,
the Permian rocks were deposited, the magnesian limestone
being formed by the mixture of the carbonate of magnesia, precipi-
tated by means of evaporation with limestone built up by
organic agency. Crystals of gypsum too occur in these rocks,
and pseudomorphous crystals of rock-salt pointing to evapora-
tion, and consequently conc=ntration of these salts in the waters
of confined areas. A thin pellicle of peroxide of iron surrounds
the grains in the sandstone and marl, which gives the red colour
to the rocks, and which peroxide was formed by the reduction
of the carbonate of iron, carried into the lakes by the rivers, by
means of the oxygen of the air. The lecturer had no hesitation
in saying that in all those formations which we know to be
truly marine, the rocks are never red. So that from the paucity
or absence of shells, from the remains of terrestrial or amphibious
reptiles, and their foot-prints, from the occasional presence of
true land plants (of the same genera, but not the same species,
as in the carboniferous rocks), from the chemical composition
of the rocks, from the presence of peroxide of iron, and from
the presence of chemical precepitates, we are justified in con-
cluding that the Permian rocks were deposited in great salt lakes,
though perhaps not salt ia every case. And a refl-x of the
conditions under which they were deposited may be seen in
the state of the Caspian Sea (with a marine fauna like the
North Sea, though the species are few and dwarfed), and of the
salt lakes of Asia.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Tue Lens for November 1872, contains the following com-
munications: ‘‘ The preparation of Diatomacez,” Christopher
Johnstone, M.D.: a succinct account of the most usual and
approved methods of cleaning Diatomaceous deposits. A short
reply of Dr. J. J. Woodward to Dr. Lionel S. Beale; and a
memorandum by Chas. Stodder, entitled ‘‘ Draw-tubes v, Deep-
eye-pieces.” A continuation by Dr. J. N. Danforth of his com-
munication on “the cell,” treats of the theories of cell develop-
ment. H. H. Babcock’s ‘‘ Flora of Chicago and its vicinity,”
Part IV. completes, we presume, the phanerogamic plants of
Part III. ; ‘‘ Microscopical Memoranda for the use of Practitioners
of Medicine,” by Dr. J. J. Woodward, relates the results of the
author’s experience on ‘“‘the Imbibition of the Tissues with
Chloride of Gold and Osmic Acid.” Prof. H. L. Smith gives
a brief notice of the Bailey Collection of Diatomacez in the
Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History. Dr. j. J.
Woodward also advocates the employment of Frussudia Saxonica
as a test of high-power definition in preference to Amphipleura
pellucida, S.A. Briggs gives an enumeration of some of the
Diatomacee of Upper Lake Huron and the Sault. The usual
brief notes, with title-page and index, complete this number and
the first volume of this American Quarterly Journal of Microscopy.

La Belgique Horticole, gives a short life of Redonte, the cele-
brated French painter of flowers, A description of a new tea
rose, the “Pearl of Lyons,” contains a short history of these
plants, from which we learn that they w-re introduced into Eu-
rope in 1793 by an Englishman, Mr. Parsons, and reintroduced
early in this century by others, Sir A. Hume being one of them.
M. E. Morren describes, in a very clear and concise manner, the
physiology of the nutrition of plants.

THE Revue Bibliographique Universelle contains short reviews
of several botanical works, including that by Grisebach and En-
gelman, on the geographical distribution of plants, in which the
world is divided into twenty-four botanical regions, several of
these being, according to the reviewer, unnecessary. Referring
to a work by M. Hamilton on the Botany of the Bible, the fol-
lowing occurs :—‘‘ Il a joint 4 chacun de ses articles une photo-
graphie prise sur nature, mais malheureusement dans Jes environs
de Nice, et non point en Terre Sainte.” Prof. Balfour's Intro-
duction to the Study of Palzontological Botany is considered too
deficient in detail and from the fewness of the references to other
authors, the incompleteness of the Edinburgh libraries is pre-
sumed,

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

LONDON

London Mathematical Society, Feb 13.—Dr. Hirst, presi-
dent, in the chair. The following papers were read :—Prof.
H. G. Smith, on the higher singularities of plane curves, and
on systems cf linear consequences.—Mr. J. Macleod, on the
application of the hodograph to the solution of problems on
projectiles. ‘

Geologists’ Association, February 1.—Henry Woodward,
F.GS., president, in the chair.—‘*On the Diprionidz of the
Moffat Shale,” by Charles Lapworth, F.G.S. After reviewing
the history of investigation among the biserial Grapfolites, and
the antagonistic opinions regarding their internal structure held
by different palzeontologists, the author stated that a careful de-
composition and examination of specimen of Chinacograptus trom
the Moffat Shale, preserved in a state of relief, had forced him to
the conclusion that the view of the duplicate nature of the poly-
pary in this genus advocated by Professor Nicholson is substan-
tially correct. The internal characters are identical with those
in Diplograptus. The diprionidian polypary is in reality com-
posed of two complete monoprionidian polyparies (each with its
own ceenosarc, virgula, and distinct hydrotheze), placed back to
back and coalescing along their flattened dorsal walls. There is
certain evidence that this type of structure obtains among all, or
nearly all, of the Moffat Chinacszrapti. Nevertheless, he was:
not prepared to deny the accuracy of Professor Hall’s inter-
pretation of the internal characters of his China(?)typicalis. As
long as a single doubt remained upon this point, it was argued
that it would be unsate to exclude Refiolites and its allies from the
Dipliotide, which might meanwhile be considered as embracing
three sub-families, D:plograplide, Retiolitide, and a third and in-'
termediate sub-family, of which C.(?) ¢yficalis is the only known
example. The sub-family Diplograptide will include all those
species at present referred to Diplograptus and Chinacograptus,
Now that the type of structure in these two genera is proved to
be identical, a new system of classification is necessary. The
only remaining characters which can in all cases be empioyed for
the purpose o! separation at our command are the form of the -
polypary and the shape and arrangement of the hydrotheca. It:
was shown that the different species of the Dzplograptide
naturally arrange themselves into five groups, clearly individual-
ised by striking distinctions in these characters. Each of these
groups, it was contended, was of sufficient importance to be con-
sidered as forming a distinct and separate genus. In this way the
genera Climacograptus (Hall) and Cephalograpius (Hopk.) would
rumain untouched, and the author suggested that the generic term
Diplograptus (M‘Coy) should be restricted in future to those —
species of which Dif. folium (His.) is the type, and he proposed
two new genera, viz., Orthograptus, to include those species re-~
sembling Dip guadrimucronatus (Hall) and Glyptograptus for
those formed after the pattern of D. ¢amariosens (Nich.). The*
second portion of the paper was devoted to a revision of the
genera and species of Diplograptidz found in the Moffat Shales,
and the following new species were described :—Orthograptus
aculeatus, O. Carruthersi, O. fasilicus, O. Pageanus, O, explana
tus, O. compactus ; Glyptograptus gregarius, G, per excavatus,
G. modestus ; Chinacograptus styloidens, C. tubulzferus, C. Lon-
gicaudatus, C. Wilsont, C. antiquus, C. brevicornis, C. mira-
bilis.

- Zoological Society, Feb. 18.—John Gould, F.R.S., V.P.,
in the chair.—The Secretary read a report on the additions that
had b-en made to the Society’s collection during the month of
January, 1873. Amongst these were specially mentioned a pair
of Fruit-Bats from Formosa, presented by the Rev. Mr. Ritchie
of Takoo, and a tapir from Paraguay, which presented some
points of distinction from the ordinary form of the American
tapir.—Prof. Newton, F.R.S., V.P., exhibited a print by Adrian
Collaert (circa, 1580) containing the figure of a bird, cepied in
Leguat’s ‘‘ Voyages ” (1708), and mentioned by the latter under
the name of the ‘‘ Géant.”—Extracts were read from a letter
received from Dr. John Kirk, H. B. M. Consul at Zanzibar,
respecting a female koodoo, and other antelopes, of which he
had obtained specimens for the Society.—Mr. Garrod gave a
notice of the death of a kangaroo in the Society’s gardens,
which had been caused by strangulation of the small intestine,

| produced by the folding of the elongate caecum round a loop of

the small intestine. —A communication was read from Prof. G.
J. Allman, F.R.S., containing a report on the Aydroida col-

war

| Feb. 97, 1873)

NATURE

sau

_ lected during the two expeditions of H.M.S. Porcupine in 1869 | remarkable relations between the mean motions of Jupiter,

and 1870.—Mr. W. K. Parker, F.R.S., read a memoir on
ABgithognathous Birds, in which it was shown that the peculiar
_ palatal structure of this group was met with in three stages.
_ These might be denominated incomplete, complete, and com-
pound Aigithognathism.—Mr. A. H. Garrod read some notes on
the anatomy of the Binturong (Arctictis binturong) founded on
the dissection of a male specimen of this animal which had
recently died in the Society’s Gardens.—Mr. E. L. Layard,
_ H.B.M.Consul atPara, communicated some notes on Mr. E. W.H.
__ Holdsworth’s recently published catalogue of the birds found in
Ceylon.—A communication was read from Mr. H. Adams,
¥F.L.S., containing descriptions of eighteen new species of land
and marine shelis, the former from Borneo and the Island of
Tobago, and the latter from Mauritius, the New Hebrides and
the Persian Gulf. Mr, Adams proposed to establish a new
sub-genus of /e/ix, under the name Ca/dwellia, for H. philyrina,
Morel, and some allied species from Mauritius and the Isle of
Bourbon.

Chemical Society, Feb. 20.—Dr. Frankland, F.R.S., pre-
sident, inthe chair. The first paper read after the usual busi-
ness of the society had been transacted, was entitled “ Solidifi-
cation of nitrous oxide,” by Mr. Wells. The gas having been
_ previously liquefied by compression in a strong iron vessel, can
be caused to solidify by the rapid evaporation of the liquid in a
current of air. It somewhat resembles solid carbonic acid in
appearance.—A paper on aurin, by Messrs, R. S, Dale and C.
Schorlemmer, F.R.S., was then read, giving an account of the
authors’ investigation of the composition and chemical properties
of this dye.—‘* Researches on the action of the copper-zinc
couple on organic bodies, I. on iodide of ethyl,” by J. H.
Gladstone, F.R.S., and A. Tribe, was read by Dr. Gladstone;
and the last communication, ‘‘ On the determination of ammonia
in the atmosphere,” was read by the author, Mr, A. H. Smee,
Jun. Themethod employed is to collect and examine the mois-
ture condensed from the atmosphere, on the external surface of
a suitable glass vessel filled with ice. The lecture was illus-
trated by carefully-made drawings of the magnified crystalline
forms which are left on evaporating the liquid.

Royal Horticultural Society, Feb. 11,—Annual General
Meeting.—Lord Henry G. Lennox, M.P., in the chair.—The
Report of the Council stated that there were now 3,572 Fellows
on the books. They thought that, notwithstanding that a por-
tion of the Fellows preferred to have the Garden and Society
kept dis'inct from the Exhibition, it was for the interest of the
former that the two establishments should work harmoniously.
They have accordingly done their best to make arrangements
with Her Majes'y’s Commissioners for the present year. The
nature of these arrangements appeared in a letter from the Com-
missioners appended to the Report. They excited a very stormy
discussion, and the further consideration of the Report was re-
ferred to an adjourned meeting. é

Feb. 12,—Scientific \Committee.—Dr. Masters, F.R.S., in
the chair.—A letter was read from Col. Jervoise, stating that the
two plan's of Agave Americana which had flowered during the
past summer were 23 years old in 1797. The presence of the
Phylloxera vastatrix on vines about London was stated as having
been ascertained without doubt. A discussion then took place
on a letter from Major-General Cotton as to the best means of

rresting a belt of moving sand which threatens the destruction of
Beyrout. General Meeting.—Mr. Wilson Saunders, F.R.S., in
the chair—The Rev. M. J. Berkeley commented on a fine
specimen of Vanda Cathcarti, which, though a native of the hot
alleys of Sikkim, was found to succeed best under a cool treat-
ent. A sezd-pod of Yucca Draconis, sent by Mr. Wilson
aunders, was noteworthy, because Yuccas rarely fruited in this
country.
_ Feb. 18.—Adjourned Annual General Meeting.—Mr. Wilson
Saunders, F.R.S., in the chair—The consideration of the
Report of the Council was resumed. A letter was read from
e Commissioners reverting to the subsisting agreement between
hem and the Society. On the motion of Sir Alfred Slade, the
eport of the Coun il was not adopted. The Council then inti-
mated their intention of resigning, and the meeting again
journed.

PHILADELPHIA

American Philosophical Society, March 15, 1872.—A
aper by Prof. Daniel Kirkwood was read, entitled ‘*On some

Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.”

April 15.—On the Magnetism of Rocks of the Marquette
group, by Prof. F. B. Brooks, State Geologist of Michigan.
Beds of this formation were shown to possess such an influence
on the needle, as to be correctly located by it, even when at
considerable depths.—Prof. Pliny E. Chase presented numerous
new relations which he had obtained by his method of coms
paring molar and molecular forces. He showed that the
principal maxima of the annual auroral curve follow the principal
annual meteoric displays; that all the primary planets are
arranged near centres of inertia, or centres of primary or
secondary oscillation ; that superficial gravity both at Jupiter
and at the earth, acting against orbital force for a ,half-rotation,
gives a velocity nearly equivalent to that of a planet revolving at
the sun’s surface; that solar gravity under the same circum-
stances gives the velocity of light ; that the sun-spot period is
governed by the centre of gyration of the planetary system ; that
polarity is a necessary consequence of a rotating uniformly
elastic fluid ; that the elasticity of hydrogen is nearly perfect,
and that, therefore, its density is, approximately, 54, 130,000,000
times as great as that of the luminiferous ether. He also gave
several additional physical approximations to the sun’s distance,
all of which are within the limits of the best recent astronomical
estimates.

May 3.—Prof. Rogers described a new form of galvanic
battery.—Prof. Lesley described a fault in the Unaka Mountains,
on the Nolichucky River in East Tennessee.—Prof. E. D. Cope
made some observations on the life of the Wyandotte Cave,
Indiana, y f

May 17.— Prof. Chase exhibited an annual auroral curve,
and explained its relations to the periodic maxima and minima
of meteoric displays, &c. He then presented a number of tables
expressive of recent calculated planetary relationships.—Prof,
Rogers explained his manner of obtaining an unlimited supply
of electricity from a high-pressure steam jet, not insulated and in
all weathers.—Dr. Emerson and Mr. Trego described the de-
struction of Adies excelsa, Maclura, and Thuja during the
preceding winter as far south as lat. 40°._—Prof. Blodget described
the meteorology of March s, 6, and 7, during which a dry cold
gale prevailed. In the succeeding spring fruit trees exhibited
an inability to blossom as though paralysed.

July 19.—A paper was received from Prof. Cope ‘‘On the
Tertiary Coal and Fossils of Osino Nevada.” The fossils were
shown to be /Vanoréis and other freshwater forms; insects
(largely Dzptera) in beautiful preservation, and fishes. The
shales resemble the papier kohle of Bonn, and contain great
numbers of leaves.—Prof. Chase read a paper on ‘‘ Aetherial
Oscillation, the primordial force ;” and stated that certain
me'eorological predictions had been verified, which had been
based on his observations of the rainfall at San Francisco.

August 16.—‘‘ Descriptions of some new Vertebrata from the
Bridger group of the Eocene; second account of new extinct
Vertebrata from the Bridger Eocene,” In the former, among
other new forms, was described Afesonyx, a genus of Carnivora
or allied form with teeth with only one row of conic tubercles
and with flat claws, allied to Hyacnodon. Also a genus allied
to both Proboscidians and Rodents, without molar teeth, called
P.eudstomus.—A communication from Prof. Cope was read on
his discovery of ‘‘ Proboscidia in the Wyoming Eocene,” this
order having been previously unrecognised below the Miocene in
America, A new genus, Zodasileus, was described ; dentition,
i, 0; c, 1; pm, 3; m, 2, horns on the top of the head. Three
species were described, Z. cornutus, of gigantic size, represented
by cranium, scapula, vertebrze, pelvis and femur complete. The
horn cores trihedral, the muzzle with two horizontal superior
shovel-like expansions. £. /wrcatus with bifurcate nose, with
spatulate proce:ses ; and £. pressicornis with massive feet, flat-
tened horns and high occiput. The tusks were dangerous
weapons, a foot long, and sabre-shaped, but the molars were
small,

ITaLy

R. Accademia del Lincei, Jan. 5.—Prof. Respighi, in a
note upon the solar diameter, proposed to show that the differs
ences of the results in the daily observations of the duration of
the meridian passage of the solar disc, ought not to be attributed
to real variations in the diameter of the solar disc, caused by the
temporary enlargement or diminution of the photosphere, or to
variations in brightness arising from the constitution of the

336

photosphere, but rather to the inaccuracies of measurement
which inevitably attend such very difficult observations. In
observations of the contacts on the solar border by means of the
micrometer, there are two principal sources of error, the influ -
ence of which may sensibly vary from day to day; they are:
(1) The difference of the conditions between the contacts
of the west and east limbs. Prof. Respighi observed first by
a micrometer in a faintly illuminated field, and secondly in a
highly illuminated one : this is apt to introduce an error variable
from day to day into the observations of the same person, in
proportion to the clearness or transparency of our atmosphere, and
will probably become greater when the sky is less clear. (2) From
the state of un ‘ulation of the solar limo, variable from day to
day, there may result a sensible and variab.e inc ease of the extent
of the disc or diameier of the sun, These influences will not be ex-
cluded by the proficiency of the observer, by the use of good in-
struments, nor by the chronographic registration of the contacts.
For the purpose of more thoroughly studying these varia-
tions, and investigating their origin, recourse was recently
had to the spectroscopic combination of Father Secchi, by
which the solar limb or image was obtained, formed
by monochromatic or almost monochromatic rays ; and from a
series of observations made with this apparatus it was found that
the solar diameter was less by “6” than that given in the Vautical
Almanac. Hence it has been inferred that by depriving the
solar disc or diameter of the influence of the chromosphere its
extent is diminished by about 8” from that obtained by means of
the telescope. And therefore it has been inferred that the varia-
tions in the solar diameter very probably depend on the vari-
able increase produced on it by the chromosphere, in relation to
the extent and intensi y of light and the varying state of trans-
parency of our atmosphere. Prof. Respighi, after having suown
how the light of the chromosphere could not make any sensible
difference to an image of the solar limb or disc, expounded the re-
sults obtained from various observauions, made by him on the
solar diameter by means of the spectroscupic combination alluded
to, both with the objective and direct-vision prisms, applied in
front of the slit of the spectroscope, using every precaution to ex-
clude the various sources of error. From these observations it
results that the duration of the passage of the solar diameter is
essentially the same, taking the contacts at the various spectral
lines, B, C, D, E, F, and that the measurement agrees very
closely with that of the Mawlical Almanac. The same result
is obtained in determining the duration of the passage of the solar
limb by means ;of the slit of the simple specitruscope. Hence
Prof. Respighi concludes that while the ditterence beiween the
solar diameter, as given by the spectroscope and that gtven by
the telescope alone has not been proved, so the suspected origin
of this difference is inadmissible, and therelore also any daily
variations in the solar diameter.

VIENNA

I. R. Geological Institute, Jan. 7.—Contributions to a
more accurate interpretation of fossil vegetable remains from
the salt-stock of Wieliczka (Galicia), by M. Dionys Sur. By
dissolving in water pieces of salt from Wieliczka, which included
vegetab e remains, M. Stur succeeded in getting the Jatter in a
state of preservation and purity which permitted an accurate
examination ; hs very inieresting inquires rectly in many poiuts
the determinations made by one or the firs authoriues in tossil
botany, Prof. Unger, who many years ago had piven a descrip-
tion of these remains in the first volume of the memvirs of the
Vienna Academy. To the most frequen: of them belong pine-
nuts ; besides the one spe ics, Pimus salinarum Partsh, descrived
by Unger, Stur discovered two other species : P. polonica, which
is allied to the existng P. Massoniana Lamb, and the larger,
P. Russeggeri, resembling the P. 7#gida Mill. A very curious fact
is note1 in connection with these cones ; while many of them
are perfectly well preserved, many others were found with
scales gnawed or bitten off, exactly in the same manner as
squirrels (Scirus) demolish the pine-nuts of our forests in order
to get their seed corns. Pine-nuts which were not quite ripe
are bitten on one sie (the sun-side) only, while perfectly ripe
nuts are demolished to the basis, which then shows a decep-
tive likeness with the cupula of an acorn. Indeed the two
vegetable remains described by Unger as the cupulz of Quercus
Saturni and Q. limnophila are but pine-nuts destroyed in the
same manner: moreover the oak-apples themselves, mentioned
by Unger, have proved to belong to quite different plants. The
so-called nut of Q. glans Saturni Unger, is the nut of Carya

NATURE

[ Feb. 27, 1873

costata Sternb, which is also gnawed by a squirrel, whilst the
nut taken by Unger for the fruit of Q. /immophila, is the fruit of
a palm very similar to that of the existing Raphia tacdigera, andis
named by Stur Raphia Ungeri.—K. v. Hauer gave a description
of the large quarries in the tertiary limestone of Zogelsdorf in
Austria, ; in former years they had furnished almost all building
stones for Vienna, especially for the famous tower of St. Stephen.
Upon the discovery of a very good building stone nearer
to the town in the Leitha mountains the quarries of Zogels-
dorf decayed, but as soon as the Franz-Joseph railway,
which passes very near the spot, made cheap transport prac-
ticable, they were reopened by the present possessor,
Baron Suttner, and are worked now very extensively.—Dr. G,
Stache described an earthquake which was felt in Vienna on
January 3, some minutes before 7 o'clock in the evening. In
some parts of the iown, for instance in the working rooms of
the Geological Institute, in the palace of Prince Liechtenstein
two shucks were observed, the second tolerably vehement, with
a rolling noise. The direction seemed N. W. to S.E, ; the dura-
tion of the phenomenon was about four seconds,

DIARY

THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 27.

Royat Society, at 8.30.—On Leaf Arrangement: Dr. Hubert Airy.

SociETY OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Northamptonshire Star-Chamber Pro-
ceedings, Temp. James I.; W. H. Hart.

Roya Inst TuTION, at 3 —On the Aruficial Formation of Organic Sub-
stances : Prof. Ruther ord.

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 28.

Rovav InsTITUTION, at g.—On Livingstone’s Explorations in Africa: Sir
H. C. Rawlinson.

QueketT C.vs, at 8.

Roya CoLLuGE oF SuRGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.

SATURDAY, Marcu 1.

Rovat InsTiTuTION, at 3.-—On the Philosophy of the Pure Sciences: Prof.
W. K. Clifford.

MONDAY, Marcu 3.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.

Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 4.—Physical Geography: Prof. Duncan,
Roya Co.iece oF SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals; Prof. Flower.
Royat InsTITUTION, at 2,—General Monthly Meeting.

Cantox Lectures, at 8 —On the Energy of Electricity: Arthur Rigg.

TUESDAY, Marcu 4.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SociEgTY, at 8.—On the Looshais: Dr. A. Campbell.—
implements and Pottery from Canada: Sir Duncan Gibb, Bart, M.D.—
The Veninor F.ivts ; Hodder M. Westropp.

SocteTy OF HIBLICAL ARCHOLOGY, at 8.30.

Zoo.oGicaL SocixTy, at 8.30 —On the Spiders of St. Helena: Rev. O. P.
Camoridge.—On some Marine Mollusca from Madeira: R. B. Watson.
ane PASTKEU TION, at 3.—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.

utheriord,

WEDNESDAY, Marcu 5.

Society or Arts, at 8.—On Gas-lighting by Electricity, and Means for
Lighting and Extinguishing Street and other Lamps: W. Lloyd Wise.
MickoscoricaL Society, at 8.—Notes on the Micro-Spectroscope and

Mic osec»pe: E. | Gayer.
Lonpon LNstITUTION, at 7.—Musical ! ecture.
Roya CoLLece or SuxGkons, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.

CONTENTS Pace
WESTERN YuNAN. By JOHN EVANS. . « - © © «© + «© © = = 317
THE HYGIENE OF AIx AnD WATER. . oe @ © (6 tele iite aae mC
UUR BOOK -HELF. . . 2 « « PaO
LETTER> TO THE EDITOR :--
Prof. Baltour Stewart on the Spectroscope.—Dr. Wm. Hucecins,
ERS. = Be AS Ss POR Se ae So
The Beginnings of Life.—Dr. H. CHarLTon Bastian, F.R.S. . 321
Himalayan Ferns ic) « 0 & <0 @ ©" 2 ue celeeetenemEnneEn
General Travelling Notes. . . » » + + © «© «© © © «© + «© 322
Mirage —A. RAMSAY. 5 <) 3 8 ss 5) alm) in ee
Bniliant Meteor of Feb. 3.—J. P. EARWAKER: WILLIAM F.
DENNING, F_R.A.S. eo Bich = Selina) ood
oo ge teeling —ARTHUR Ransom; ALFRED W. BENNETT,
External Perception in Dogs.—Prof. G. CkoomM ROBERTSON. a
Fiords and Glacial Action. —JoserpH JoHN MurpHy F.G.S.. . . 323

Norte on a PoLyDACTyLuUS CAT FROM COOKHAM Dean. By Prof.

Lawson TalT . . Oe ee ee Ns 2
On AcTION aT A Distance. By Prof. CLERK MAxwe tt, F.R.S. . 323

Tue TROGLODYTES OF THE VEZERE (With Lilustrations), II. By Paut

Roca. . = » & gue Delle ss Se. i le aoc fete
Tue New Hyprocarson Gas ... + + PPM he
HUNTERIAN LEctuRES BY PROF. FLOWER . . . - « en er ease
Nores. . . . « « GRO Ge 4. oe sw) en
Pror. RAMSAY ON LAKSSie 4s 0 0% © 6 « « clo Seemann
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS . GgeNewne re ess S «. fog shite Meee
SocieTIBS AND ACADEMIES «+ + + +. «+ «i 33% + 0 © 334
DDTARY » (ce, 6, 6 oR eo) acre Pee en

’

:

;

NATURE

337

THURSDAY, MARCH 6, 1873

HARVESTING ANTS AND TRAP-DOOR
SPIDERS

Harvesting Ants and Trap-Door Spiders. Notes and
Observations on their Habits and Dwellings. By J.
Traherne Moggridge, F.L.S. (L. Reeve and Co., 1873.)

— beautifully illustrated little book is a good

example of what can be done by a careful ob-
server in a very short time. It might have been thought
that the habits of European insects were pretty well
known, and that a person comparatively new to the sub-
ject could not hope to add much to our knowledge. But
the fact is quite otherwise, for Mr. Moggridge, in the
course of a few winters spent in the south of Europe has,
by careful observation, thrown considerable light on the
habits and economy of two important groups of insects,
and, as regards one of them, has disproved the dogmatic
assertions of several eminent entomologists. Nothing is
more curious than the pertinacity with which scientific
men will often draw general conclusions from their own
special observations, and then use these conclusions to set
aside the observations of other men. Mr. Moggridge now
confirms, in many of their minutest details, the accounts
given by classical writers of the habits of ants. , These
habits were recorded with so much appearance of minute
observation, that they bear the impress of accuracy ; yet
because the Ants of England and of Central Europe have
different habits, it was concluded that the old authors
invented all these details, and that they were at once
accepted as truths and became embodied in the familiar
sayings of the time. The ants were described as as-
cending the stalks of cereals and gnawing off the grains,
while others below detached the seed from the chaff and
. carried it home; as gnawing off the radicle to prevent ger-
Mination, and spreading their stores in the sun to dry
after wet weather. Latreille, Huber, Kirby, Blanchard,
_ and many less eminent authors, treat these statements
_ with contempt, and give reasons why they cannot be true
for European species, yet we here find them verified in
every detail by observations at Mentone and other places
on the shores of the Mediterranean. Mr. Moggridge has,
however, supplemented these observations by discovering
the granaries in which they are stored (sometimes ex-
cavated in solid rock), of which accurate plans are given.
_ He has seen them in the act of collecting seeds, and has
traced seeds to the granaries, from which all husks and
refuse are carefully carried away ; he has seen them bring
out the grains to dry after rain, and nibble off the radicle
from those which were germinating ; lastly, he has seen
_ them (in confinement) feed on the seedssocollected. Avery
curious point is, that the collections of seeds, although
stored in very damp situations, very rarely germinate ; yet
nothing has been done to deprive them of vitality, for‘on
being sown they grow vigorously. The species of harvest-
ingants observed were, Pheidole megacephala, Attastructor,
A. barbara, and a larger and differently coloured variety of
the last. A/ta structor is found over a large part of Cen-
tral Europe, yet, as it has never been observed to lay up
stores of seeds in more northern countries, it either has
different habits according to locality, or local observers
have strangely overlooked its peculiarities. The seeds of
more than thirty species of plants were found stored up,
none of which were cereals ; but at Hyéres, M.Germain St.
No, 175—VoL, vu.

Pierre has observed these latter stored by ants in such
quantities that he thinks their depredations must cause
serious loss to cultivators. Thus we have another im-
portant confirmation of the statements of the old writers,

The second part of the book gives a very interesting and
elaborate account of the curious nests of the Trap-Door
spiders of the south of Europe, of which two new forms
are described, one of them being constructed by a hitherto
undescribed species of spider. The nests previously known
have a hinged door at the upper end of the tubular nest,
but Mr. Moggridge found another kind with a second door
lower down, and also one with a lateral chamber the open-
ing to which, as well as the main tube, is closed by the
second door. In these nests the lower door is strong and
fits closely, and can be held fast by the spider on the in-
side, while the upper door is for concealment only, being
very thin, but almost always closely resembling the sur-
rounding surface. In many cases it is overgrown with
living moss and lichens, and Mr. Moggridge thinks that
the spider plants or sows the mosses, having found little
bits of moss stuck on to a newly-made door. A curious
and instructive observation occurs as to the simple man-
ner in which a protective adaptation may be brought about
unconsciously. Having cut away the top of one of these
nests and thus left the tube exposed on a surface of bare
earth, the spider made a new door in which it stuck pieces
of moss from the neighbouring moss-covered bank, thus
making its nest very conspicuous bythe round patchof green
on a surface of fresh earth. The simple and natural habit
of covering the door of the nest with any material that
grows or lies around it usually leads to concealment, but
the above example shows that in doing so the insect does
not consciously work with this object. Even more curious
is the fact that little spiders only a few days old construct
nests exactly like those of the parent—tubes excavated in
the earth, lined with silk and provided with one or two
doors and lateral passages, as the case may be, but only
about one-sixth the size. Good reasons are given for
believing that these small nests are not abandoned, but
enlarged from time to time as the occupant grows bigger.
Whether the very young spiders build their nests inde-
pendently of all teaching or experience is a curious point
of inquiry to which our author adverts, and as he suggests
that it might not be very difficult to rear young spiders from
the egg and place them in conditions favourable for their
existence, it is to be hoped that he will try the experiment
and help to throw light on a subject on which we have so
little positive knowledge.

The numerous coloured plates, giving full-sized repre-
sentations of the spiders and their habitations, are very
carefully drawn, and add greatly to the interest of one of
the most original and entertaining books on natural his-
tory we have met with for some,

ALFRED R, WALLACE

SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS OF CORNWALL
Nenia Cornubie. A descriptive essay, illustrative of the
Sepulchres and Funereal Customs of the early Inhabi-
tants of Cornwall. By W. Copeland Borlase, B.A.,
F.S.A. (London: Longmans; Truro: Netherton, 1872.)
EETING with a recent work on any branch of the
antiquities of Cornwall, by an author bearing the

t name of Borlase, is so much like falling in with the ancient

t

338

landmarks, after having long failed to detect them, as to
be in itself a source of pleasure ; and this is enhanced on
learning that the author of the work before us is not only
a namesake, but a great-grandson of Dr. Borlase, the
author of “Ohservations on the Antiquities, Historical
and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall,” published
at Oxford in 1753.

Whilst we have read the book with much pleasure, we
have now and then had to regret a lack of distinct method,
a tendency to digress, and a tone somewhat too judicial
when dealing with questions on which the author differs
from older and more experienced antiquaries. As we
learn from the Dedication that the author is young, we
have little or no doubt that such blemishes will be less
conspicuous in the “second series” he contemplates, and
which we hope to see at no distant period.

He declines to accept “the hypothetical distinctions
drawn between stone, bronze, and iron periods,” on
account of a few facts he has met with, but which do not
appear to contain any danger to the distinctions in ques-
tion. He lays down the excellent law that the antiquary
“should never be ready to sacrifice a fact merely because
it is hard to explain, upon the altar of a much more inde-
fensible theory,” and soon after reminds us of the well-
known maxim—“ Do as I say, not as I do ;” for when
mentioning two instances of graves in each of which, he
says, “the monument has consisted of two pillars of un-
hewn granite, placed at no great distance apart,” he adds
that “Graves adorned in this manner are the common
property of all ages and all religions,” and then slides
into an attempt to make Homer support the converse
proposition—that such pillars are to be always regarded
as indications of a grave. For this purpose he quotes
the Ziad, xxxiii. 329, and gives the following as Mr.
Wright’s translation :—

‘*On either side
Rise two white stones, set there
To mark the tomb of some one long since dead.”

We are afraid that Mr. Borlase has here been willing
to sacrifice a fact rather than his ¢#eory. The passage in
Homer and its bearing on the question had been pre-
viously mentioned by Sir John Lubbock,* who also uses
Wright’s translation, At the burial of Patroclus, Nestor,
pointing out to his son the course for the chariot race,
says :—

‘Plain is the goal
That now I tell thee of ; nor canst thou miss it—
Upraised four cubits high above the ground
There stands a wizen stump, of oak or pine,
Not rotted by the rain. On either side—
Where narrowest is the way, and all the course
Around is smooth—rise two white stones, set there
To mark the tomb of seme one long since dead,
Or form the goal for men in ages past,
But now the goal of Peleus’ god-like son.”

It is obvious, from the last line but one, that Homer
was by no means certain that such stones invariably
marked a grave,

Having pointed out the few defects of the book which
struck us, we now proceed to the more agreeable duty of
giving a brief summary of its contents.

Mr. Borlase rejects unconditionally the hypothesis that
the megalithic remains in Cornwall are druidical. To Sir
J. Lubbock’s remark that “A complete burial place may

* Prehistoric Times,” 2nd edition, 1869, pp. 109, TTo.

NATURE

NN.

1S OR ts PTD Pp ere we ae

ae our

[ Mar. 6, 1873

be described as a dolmen, covered by a tumulus, and sur-
rounded by a stone circle; often, however, we have only
the tumulus, sometimes only the dolmen, and sometimes
only the circle,” he proposes to add, “sometimes only
two adjacent menhirs, and sometimes only the single
standing stone,” and states that “under the one or the
other head may be classed every mode of interment
hitherto discovered in Cornwall.” \

He divides European Cromlechs into three classes:
1. The Dolmen, or “ table-stone” proper, where the ver-
tical supports do not enclose a space, or form a continuous
wall. 2. The Larger Kist-Vaen, or stone chest, where
the vertical supports and the covering stone form an en-
closed chamber, designed to hold the body, and covered,
sometimes very slightly, with a mound. 3. Monuments
similar in structure to the Kist-Vaen just described ; but
instead of receiving the body are merely cenotaphs raised
over the actual grave, There is in Cornwall no instance
of the third class.

The first, or dolmen, is much higher than the others,
and is comparatively rare, there being but two examples
in the county. Lanyon Cromlech, in the parish of
Madron, near Penzance, consists entirely of granite, and
was described by Dr, Borlase. It fell in 1815, and was
set up again in 1824, but some of the stones had been
broken. The covering stone, or quoit as it is termed in
Cornwall, measured 47 ft. in circumference, and averaged
20 in. in thickness. It was supported by three thin un-
hewn pillars, at a height sufficient to permit a man on
horseback to sit under it. Caerwynen Cromlech, near
Camborne, resembles that just described in construction
and material. The quoit measures 12°75 ft., and its
three supporters varied from 5'17ft. to 49ft. high,
This monument has also fallen and been replaced. A
simple, but unoccupied, grave cut in the soil was found
under the quoit at Lanyon, but it does not appear that
any search has been made at Caerwynen.

Of the second class of cromlechs, or larger kist-vaens,
Mr. Borlase describes no fewer than eight examples—
five near the western extremity, two near the centre of
the northern coast, and one in the south-east of the
county ; but no more than one in each division is now
perfect or approximately so. They all consist of the rock
of the district or its vicinity, and six of them are of
granite, whilst two are of a “sparry rock.” One is in a
valley, but at least five occupy conspicuous positions
on high ground. There are distinct indications that
several of them were covered with a barrow of
earth or stones, and one, Lower Lanyon Cromlech,
was so covered when

parish of Morvah, near Penzance, the distinction of
being the most perfect and compact now in the county,
and ventures on the following speculation respecting the

process of its erection :—The east and west ends, each ©

63 ft. high and 39 ft. and 4 ft. broad respectively,
were first set up 6 ft. apart. Against their western edges
a flat block of granite, 8°3 ft. long, was placed in a
slanting position. On this northern side, probably over
this sloping stone, with the assistance of an embankment
and rollers, a rough slab of hard-grained granite, convex
on one side, 12 ft. in length and breadth, and from 14 in.

, to 2ft. in thickness, was raised as the covering-stone.

it was found. The author
claims for the Chywoone or Chitin Cromlech, in the

ee

Mar. 6, 1873]

~

’ the least known of the Cornish cromlechs.

NATURE

339

Finally a stone 7°67 ft. long, but not high enough to
reach the covering stone, was placed on the south side.
The chamber is 7 ft. high within, and a small pit seems
to have been sunk in the natural soil at the centre.
The pile is surrounded, and was probably covered, with a
barrow, which still in some places nearly reaches the top
of the side stones. It measures 32 ft. in diameter and is
surrounded with upright stones. The interstices between
the sides of the chamber were filled with small stones,
calculated to prevent the entrance of any rubbish.

The Pawton Cromlech, in the parish of St. Breock, near
Wadebridge, occupies high ground, and is intact. The
kist, 7'5 ft. long, 2 ft. wide at one end and 3'5 ft. at the
other, and at least 5 ft. deep, is formed with eight sparry
side-stones, more than half buried in an oval tumulus,
6o0ft. long. The quoit, also a sparry stone, supported by
only three of the side-stones, is 7 ft. broad, 2'5 ft. thick,
and, though a portion of it has been broken off, still 13 ft.
long.

Trethevy, or Trevethy, Cromlech, or “Stone,” in the
parish of St. Cleer, near Liskeard, in south-east Cornwall,
is stated by the author to be the jargest, though perhaps
Neverthe-
less, he adds that it was described by Norden about 1610,
and has been the subject of two papers in the present
century. It consists of six upright stones, only three of
which support a quoit, 13 ft. long, 9 broad, and 1 thick,
which, on account of the unequal heights of its supporters,
is 13 ft. above the ground at one point, and not more than
7'5 feet at another. The eastern or principal and highest
supporter, rising nearly roft. above the small mound on
which the whole stands, has almost the appearance of a
wrought stone. A ruder stone, almost equally high, rests
against it like a buttress. The two stones on each side
of the chamber are several feet shorter. The western
end is open, but an eighth stone, considerably longer
than the side-stones, lying lengthways along the kist, as
if it had fallen there, was probably the supporter of that
extremity, The interior of the chamber is from 9 to Ioft.
long, and from 5°5 to 6°5 ft. broad. There is near the
bottom of the eastern supporter an aperture 2 ft, high, and
1'75 broad, and in the north-east corner of the quoit,
where it extends beyond the kist, a hole not quite cir-
cular, from 6 to 8in. across. Norden speaks of the latter

as “an arteficiall holl, which served as it seemeth to put

out a staffe, whereof the house itself was not capable.”
Mr. Pattison, a careful student of the geology and anti-
quities of Cornwall, also states that “ the sides are smooth,
as if worn by a staff;” and Mr. Borlase is of opinion
that “such is, without doubt, the account of it.” If
this be so, it apparently indicates that the cromlech,
whatever its origin, had not been restricted to funeral
uses. The author calls attention to the fact that a hole
is frequently found in the dolmens of Eastern Europe
and India, adding, however, that this always occurs in
one of the sides and communicates with the interior of
the chamber, whilst in the Cornish example it passes
through an overlapping portion of the quoit. Without
expressing an opinion on this question, we would remind

those who have “done” Dartmoor that they have pro-

bably been taken by the guide to see, lying in some of

___ the streams, blocks of granite having approximately cir-
_ cular smooth holes passing completely through them,

and, though there could be no doubt that they were due
to the action of running or falling water, have been ex-
pected to regard them as somewhat mysterious. Is it
not possible that, when choosing their slabs, one which
happened to be thus naturally perforated, if suitable in all
other respects, would be selected rather than rejected by
the cromlech builders? Trethevy Cromlech consists of
granite, and Mr. Pattison, quoted by Mr. Borlase, has
called attention to the fact that this rock, where nearest
the cromlech, occurs as boulders about haif a mile distant
across a broad upland valley, and adds that “the builders
must therefore have credit for the exertion of combined
strength and skill in transporting these enormous masses
of rock across the hollow and up the hill on which they
stand.” Though, if necessary, we are quite prepared to
concur in this, it must not be forgotten that the agency
which lodged boulders on one side of the valley, may
perhaps have deposited a few on the other, so that
the builders may have found their materials nearer
home.

Zennor Cromlech, in the parish of the same name, near
St. Ives, now dismantled, was in the time of Dr. Borlase
the most interesting and perfect kist-vaen in West Corn-
wall, and remarkable on account of the extension of the
side-stones beyond the eastern end of the chamber, where
with the aid of two additional stones, they formed a little
cell. Such an addition appears to be unique in Cornwall,
but in Wales and Anglesea it seems to be the rule rather
than the exception for a small kist-vaen to exist side by
side with the large one.

Though there are no Passage graves in Cornwall in the
sense in which the term is used by Swedish antiquaries,
there are several instances of long chambers buried in
tumuli, and roofed with large flat stones, and, as in Den-
mark, termed “Giant’s Graves.” In 1756 Dr. Borlase
described the largest of a group in the island of St. Mary,
in Scilly, as 4°5 ft. wide at the mouth, 13°6 ft. long, and
3°6 ft. high, covered from end to end with large flat
stones, and having a tumulus of rubbish on top of all.

The largest of a group of three in the parish of Zennor
was described and figured in the Gentleman’s Magazine,
July 1865, by Mr. J. T. Blight, who stated that its direc-
tion was from N.W. to S.E., and that its dimensions were
9'5 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 4°3 ft. high. The roofing slabs,
like those in St, Mary’s, were of granite; the first, being
6in. lower than the others, appeared to be designed as a
lintel, and made the clear height beneath it no more than
3'5 ft.. The walls were of neat masonry, similar to the
hedging work still in use in the neighbourhood; and
the whole was covered with a tumulus 7oft. in circum-
ference, 8 ft. high, and built round at its base with large
stones.

Near the village of Castle Euny, in the parish of San-
creed, near Penzance, Mr. Borlase discovered a cham-
bered tumulus in April 1863, in a valley long known to
be rich in ancient remains. The tumulus is conical, 8 ft.
high and 50 ft. in circumference, and supported at the
base with large granite stones, one rising 4 ft. above the
ground. The Chamber is 6 ft. long, 3 ft. broad at the en-
trance and 3°75 at the opposite or northern end, and
3'5 ft. high. Each side and end consists of a single
block of granite resting on an artificial elevation 2 ft. high,
and the roof is formed of two stones. Though probably

340

the most perfect barrow of its kind in the west of England,
it was used by the farmer as a shelter for sheep or pigs,
but it is not known when it was opened.

(To be continued.)

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Useful Plants of India, with Notices of their chief
Value in Commerce, Medicine, and the Arts. By Col.
Heber Drury. Third edition, with Additions and Cor-
rections. (W. H. Allen and Co., 1873.)

THE first edition of this useful work was published in
1858, since which period our knowledge of the economical
products of our vast Indian possessions has greatly in-
creased ; and we have here an enumeration of 600 herbs
or trees from which more or less valuable substances are
obtained. The species are aranged in alphabetical order,
the natural order and native and English names of each
are given, followed by a description, and an account of its
economic uses, taken from various standard works, or
from the author’s own observation. The list is not con-
fined to natives of the country, but includes also such in-
troduced plants as are largely cultivated and of great eco-
nomic importance, as cinchona, tea, cacao, tobacco, and the
Australian eucalyptus, now so extensively planted toreplace
the forests which have been destroyed in many parts of
the peninsula to the great deterioration of the climate. In
an appendix are statistics of the cultivation of cinchona,
indigo, tea, and some of the fragrant woods, a table of
exports and their value, and lists of synonyms in the Hin-
dostanee, Bengalee, Tamil, Teloogoo, and Malayalam lan-
guages. The technical descriptions, and other details,
have been worked out with great care, and with abundant
reference to original authorities, as far as was possible toany
one undertaking a work of this description at Trevandrum,
and without access to the libraries and herbaria which
are at the command of students in this country. Col. Drury
has, however, obtained the assistance of Dr. Hugh Cleg-
horn, and other practical botanists, and his work is one
that can be fully relied on as giving an accurate and
nearly exhaustive account of the economical productions
of our Indian empire, A. W. B.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

External Perception in Horses

May I be allowed to express my entire agreement with the
theory about smell in dogs, brought forward by Mr, Wallace
and Mr. Croom Robertson. The latter gentleman’s arguments,
in your lastnumber, seem tome as sound in fact as they are
metaphysically acute.

May I assure him, from long observation, that horses and
donkeys ‘‘think with their noses” as certainly, though not, I
believe, as acutely or as continuously as dogs do. But the eye-
memory of a horse seems to me so much more exercised than
his nose-memory, that he is, perhaps more able, when lost, to
find his way home than is the dog, who has smelt everything,
but looked at very little, C. KINGSLEY

Feb. 28

External Perception in Dogs

Mr. G. Croom Rosertson’s and Mr. Alfred W. Bennett’s
observations may be easily tested by the cases of blind dogs. A
blind dog in my house finds her way about as truly as a sighted
dog, so that a stranger on seeing her would not be aware of her
blindness. As she lost her sight by illness, she has of course
the precedent knowledge derived from seeing.

To a considerable extent this case answers Mr. Bennett's
requirements. HYDE CLARKE

St. George’s Square, March 1

NATURE
eS eee

[Mar. 6, 1873,

Mr. Wallace on Instinct

_ IN reference to the letters of Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace,
the following passage from Boswell’s Life of Johnson may be
worth recalling :—

‘©The custom of eating dogs at Qtaheite being mentioned,
Goldsmith observed that this was also a custom in China; that
a dog-butcher there is as common as any other butcher; and
that when he walks abroad, all the dogs fallonhim. Johnson.—
‘That is not owing to his killing dogs, sir. I remember a
butcher at Lichfield, whom a dog, that was in the house where
I lived, always attacked. It is the smell of carnage which pro-
vokes this, let the animals he has killed be what they may.’
Goldsmith.—‘ Yes ; there is a general abhorrence in animals at
the signs of massacre. If you put a tub full of blood intoa
stable, the horses are like to go mad,.’” (Croker's Ed., vol. iii.

p- 275.) W. R. NICOLL
Aberdeen ——
Effect of Light on the Electric Conductivity of

Selenium

Tr is of course impossible not to feel intense interest in the
statement (NATURE, vol. vii. p. 303) which Mr. Willoughby
Smith makes and which Mr. Latimer Clark endorses. That I
have been unable to obtain the same result has doubtless been
due to my having worked under conditions different from those
existing in Mr. Smith’s experiments. My failure has not been
one of degree, but has been absolute. I have not only been
unable to find that light increases the electric conductivity of
selenium, but I have failed to get a current through selenium at
all, even through a thickness of o'r millimetre. As I do not
know how to put myself at once in direct communication with
Mr. Smith, perhaps you will permit me to ask him through your
columns to guide me on the following points :—

(z.) What was the form of battery employed, and what its
power of overcoming British Association units of resistance ?

(6.) What was the molecular condition of the “metal” (sic)
employed,—vitreous or crystalline?

(c.) Where can ‘‘ bars” of selenium be obtained which will
afford the results stated ?

(@.) Are there any unstated conditions essential to the success-
ful production of the phenomenon ?

Harry NAPIER DRAPER

In the description given in NATURE. of February 20 last,
of the very remarkable variations in the electrical resistance of
bars of selenium due to the action of light, no detail is given
to show how such an excessively high resistance as 1400
megohms is measured.

I am anxious to repeat the investigation of this very inte-
resting, and as far as I know, wholly unexpected property of
selenium, my idea being to measure the resistance of the bars —
when exposed to the light of the solar spectrum, noting the
position in which the effect is at a maximum, and the extent to
which the resistance is affected in the different parts of the
Spectrum.

But before I can do this I must be able to measure these enor-
mously high resistances satisfactorily, and I would therefore ask
if you or any of your readers would tell me how I am to do this,
using resistance coils up to 60,000 B.A.U., and a reflecting gal-
vanometer with a resistance of 1,200 B.A.U. M. L. SALE

Brompton Barracks

The Zodiacal Light

Since I last wrote upon this subject my views have been
strongly confirmed. Both branches of the zodiacal light have been
visible for some time past, and it is either getting brighter, or
four months’ continual practice enables me to detect its presence
under unfavourable circumstances much more readily.

The night of January 30 was wonderfully fine ; the ground
of the heavens was intensely black, and the Milky Way was
simply one blaze of light from the zenith to the very horizon :
only on such nights as these are observations of the zodiacal
light worth recording ; all others must be very imperfect.

That night the western branch was very distinct from the
horizon up to the Hyades in Taurus; at this point its breadth
was much greater than on November 27 ult. ; here it probably
crossed first the branch of the Milky Way which tends towards
Orion, then the Milky Way itself, and so was not visible for
about 40° on the Ecliptic ; but it became visible again in Gemini,
though very faint, and it did not quite reach Prasepe in Cancer.

et aie
ert 3

‘ Mar. 6, 1873 |

NATURE

ie +. Sage ee ee lk et Se ee as. aS

7) Ye 5 2 Rs 2 -

341

The eastern branch was fainter than the western, and at mid-
night it was seen from y Virginis, near the horizon, up to Pre-
sepe in the zenith, as a broad and tapering cone of light.

Hence the zodiacal light, when seen in perfection, consists of
two cones of light, whose common axis is the Ecliptic, and
whose common vertex isa point on that axis almost exactly 180°
from the sun. The fact that the western branch is brighter than
the eastern also confirms my idea of its origin, the brighter
branch being over the warmer portion of the earth’s surface ;
but I hope to make more observations of its breadth at different
times of the year before writing more on this subject.

Jamaica, Feb. 6 MAXWELL HAL

[We hope our correspondent will continue to send us more of
his interesting and valuable letters. It isindeed a great gain to
scienceto have an observer stationed on the vantage ground
which he occupies. —ED.]

As no one has replied to Maxwell Hall’s letter on the zodiacal
light (vol. vii. p. 203), I might state that his theory that the earth
has two tails which stretch to an indefinite distance away from the
sun is not in accordance with observation, for I have often seen
the zodiacal light 180° off the sun. This is no proof against
M. H.’s other idea that the two tails curve round and meet ; but
is there anything in M. H.’s observations contrary to the gene-
rally received theory of the zodiacal light? This is that it is not
aring, but a somewhat lens-shaped disc of light, brightest and
thickest at its centre (at the sun), and gradually growing thinner
and less dense, till it seems io vanish some distance beyond the
earth’s orbit. Its thickness at its centre would therefore be
60,000,000 miles, or more, according to M. H.’s observation.
The circumstance that he could not see it more than 177° off the
sun might very likely be accounted for by the milky way obscur-
ing it there. T. W. BACKHOUSE

West Hendon House, Sunderland, Feb. 10

The Meteoric Shower

THE shower of meteors on the night of Nov. 27 last year was
evidently well seen in Europe, as I had anticipated, but no
notice seems to have been taken of the shower on the night of
the 24th. On that night there was an equally fine display in
Jamaica, from about the same radiant point; the night of the
25th was cloudy, and only a few meteors were seen on the night
of the 26th, which was clear ; and the shower on the 27th was
simply a repetition of the shower on the 24th; but on both
occasions the numbers seen here were somewhat less than in
Europe.

These meteors must therefore form two almost distinct bands
passing round the sun, which their association with. the comet
of Biela renders particularly interesting ; it is just possible that
these two bands intersect, and that one part of the comet belongs
to one band and the other part to the other, and that they
came into notice and actual contact about the same time in
the year 1846, and of course afterwards separated.

Jamaica, Jan. 5 MAXWELL HALL

Maupertius on the Survival of the Fittest

CoNnSIDERING that the theories of Darwin and Spencer are
among the most important additions ever made to human know-
ledge, it seems to be a matter of much interest to trace out any
occasional glimpses which previous philosophers may have had
of the Principles of Natural Selection. Ina long note appended
by Lord Bolingbroke to his fourth essay concerning Authority
in matters of Religion (octavo edition of the Philosophical
Works, 1754, vol. ii, p. 253; quarto edition, 1754, vol.
iv. p. 255), he reviews a Memoir by Maupertius printed
in the History of the Royal Academy of Berlin, for the year
1746. Speaking of the appearances of design, Lord Boling-
broke says :—‘‘ Mr. Maupertius proceeds, and admits, but ad-
mits, as it were, for argument’s sake alone, that the proportion
of the different parts and organs of animals to their wants carries
a more solid appearance ; and he judges that they reason very ill
who assert that the uses to which these parts and organs are ap-
plied, were not the final causes of them, but that they are so
applied because the animal is so made. Chance gave eyes and
ears ; and since we have them we make use of them to see and
hear. He thinks, however, it may be said, that chance having
produced an immense number of individuals, those of them whose

parts and organs were proportioned to their wants, have sub-
sisted, whilst those who wanted this proportion have perished
and disappeared. Those who had no mouth, for instance, could
not eat and live; those who wanted the organs of generation
could not perpetuate their species ; and thus from the present
state of things theists draw an argument which will appear falla-
cious when it is applied to the possible original of things.”

I am not aware that notice has been drawn to this distinct
allusion to the survival of the fittest. So far as regards the intro-
duction of the notion of chance the statement is no doubt erro-
neous. W. STANLEY JEVONS

Manchester, Feb. 12

** Diathermanous” or ‘‘ Transfervent ”

THE words ‘‘ transfervent” and ‘‘transfervency ” are similar
in form to ‘‘ transparent” and ‘‘ transparency,” and clearly con-
vey their meaning to those who cannottrace them to their source.
In number of syllables, also, and in sound are they not more
English, or as a Greek might say, less barbarian than words of
five, six, or seven syllables which are coined directly from the
Greek, but which do not suit so well the Saxon tongue ?

W. G. ADAMS

Flight of Projectiles— A* Query

I SHALL feel thankful to any of your numerous mathematical
correspondents who will kindly favour me with a simple formula
for determining the deflection in the flight of a leaden cylindro-
conoidal projectile—the time of flight of which is known—
caused by wind of known force acting at different angles to the
vertical plane of the trajectory, with an application of the formula
to the following cases. Any other cause of deviation, such as
that due to rotation, &c., may be neglected :—

Suppose the bullet to be 1°27" long, and its diameter +447”,
weight 480 grs. and the wind to be of force 4, approximate
pressure 4 lbs. per square inch, what is the deviation?

1. When the wind acts at right angles to the trajectory ?

2. When it acts at any angle less than a right angle, say 45°?

Robert REID

School of Musketry, Hythe, Feb. 10

ON ACTION AT A DISTANCE*

Ve have now arrived at the great discovery by Orsted
2 of the connection between electricity and magnetism
Orsted found that an electric current acts on a magnetic
pole, but that it neither attracts it nor repels it, but causes
it to move round the current. He expressed this by
saying that “the electric conflict acts in a revolving
manner.”

The most obvious deduction from this new fact was
that the action of the current on the magnet is not a
push-and-pull force, but a rotatory force, and accordingly
many minds were set a-speculating on vortices and streams
of zther whirling round the current.

But Ampére, by a combination of mathematical skill
with experimental ingenuity, first proved that two electric
currents act on one another, and then analysed this action
into the resultant of a system of push-and-pull forces be
tween the elementary parts of these currents.

The formula of Ampére, however, is of extreme com-
plexity, as compared with Newton’s law of gravitation,
and many attempts have been made to resolve it into
something of greater apparent simplicity.

I have no wish to lead you into a discussion of any of
these attempts to improve a mathematical formula. Let
us turn to the independent method of investigation em-
ployed by Faraday in those researches in electricity and
magnetism which have made this institution one of the
most venerable shrines of science.

No man ever more conscientiously and systematically
laboured to improve all his powers of mind than did
Faraday from the very beginning of his scientific career.

* Continued from p. 325.

342

‘NATURE

>

a SNS SERIE oe SCL) am ees
i as 8-4

+ or “oe

But whereas the general course of scientific method then
consisted in the application of the ideas of mathematics and
astronomy to each new investigation in turn, Faraday
seems to have had no opportunity of acquiring a technical
knowledge of mathematics, and his knowledge of astro-
nomy was mainly derived from books.

Hence, though he had a profound respect for the great
discovery of Newton, he regarded the attraction of gravi-
tation as a sort of sacred mystery, which, as he was not
an astronomer, he had no right to gainsay or to doubt, his
duty being to believe it in the exact form in which it was
delivered to him. Such a dead faith was not likely to
lead him to explain new phenomena by means of direct
attractions.

Besides this, the treatises of Poisson and Ampére are
of so technical a form, that to derive any assistance from
them the student must have been thoroughly trained in
mathematics, and it is very doubtful if such a training can
be begun with advantage in mature years. ;

Thus Faraday, with his penetrating intellect, his devo-
tion to science, and his opportunities for experiment, was
debarred from following the course of thought which had
led to the achievements of the French philosophers, and
was obliged to explain the phenomena to himself by means
of a symbolism which he could understand, instead of
adopting what had hitherto been the only tongue of the
learned. :

This new symbolism consisted of those lines of force
extending themselves in every direction from electrified
and magnetic bodies, which Faraday in his mind’s eye
saw as distinctly as the solid bodies from which they
emanated, ;

The idea of lines of force and their exhibition by means
of iron filings was nothing new. They had been observed
repeatedly and investigated mathematically as an inte-
resting curiosity of science. But let us hear Faraday
himself, as he introduces to his reader the method which
in his hands became so powerful.*

“Tt would be a voluntary and unnecessary abandon-

ment of most valuable aid if an experimentalist, who
chooses to consider magnetic power as represented by
lines of magnetic force, were to deny himself the use of
iron filings. By their employment he may make many
conditions of the power, even in complicated cases, visible
to the eye at once, may trace the varying direction of the
lines of force and determine the relative polarity, may
observe in which direction the power is increasing or
diminishing, and in complex systems may determine the
neutral points, or places where there is neither polarity
nor power, even when they occur in the midst of powertul
magnets. By their use probable results may be seen at
once and many a valuable suggestion gained for future
leading experiments.”

Experiment on Lines of Force

In this experiment each filing becomes a little magnet.
The poles of opposite names belonging to different filings
attract each other and stick together, and more filings
attach themselves to the exposed poles, that is, to the ends
of the row of filings. In this way the filings, instead of
forming a confused system of dots over the paper, draw
together, filing to filing, till long fibres of filings are
formed, which indicate by their direction the lines of force
in every part of the field. ‘ :

The mathematicians saw in this experiment nothing
but a method of exhibiting at one view the direction in
different places of the resultant of two forces, one directed
to each pole of the magnet ; a somewhat complicated re-
sult of the simple law of force.

But Faraday, by a series of steps as remarkable for
their geometrical definiteness as for their speculative in-
genuity, imparted to his conception of these lines of force
a clearness and precision far in advance of that with

* Exp. Res, 3284.

which the mathematicians could then invest their own
formule.

-In the first place Faraday’s lines of force are not to be
considered merely as individuals, but as forming a system,
drawn in space in a definite manner, so that the number
of the lines which pass through an area, say of one square
inch, indicates the intensity of the*force acting through
that area. Thus the lines of force become definite in
number. The strength of a magnetic pole is measured
by the number of lines which proceed from it ; the electro-
tonic state of a circuit is measured by the number of lines
which pass through it.

In the second place each individual line has a con-
tinuous existence in space and time. When a piece of
steel becomes a magnet, or when an electric current be-
gins to flow, the lines of force do not start into existence
each in its own place, but as the strength increases new
lines are developed within the magnet or current, and
gradually grow outwards, so that the whole system ex-
pands from within, like Newton’s rings in our former ex-
periment. Thus every line of force preserves its identity
during the whole course of its existence, though its shape
and size may be altered to any extent.

I have no time to describe the methods by which every
question relating to the forces acting on magnets or on
currents, or to the induction of currents in conducting
circuits, may be solved by the consideration of Faraday’s
lines of force. In this place they can never be forgotten.
By means of this new symbolism, Faraday laid down with
mathematical precision the whole theory of electro-mag-
netism, in language free from mathematical technicalities,
and applicable to the most complicated as well as the
simplest cases. But Faraday did not stop here. He went
on from the conception of geometrical lines of force to
that of physical lines of force. He observed that the
motion which the magnetic or electric force tends to pro-
duce is invariably such as to shorten the lines of force
and to allow them to spread out laterally from each
other. He thus perceived in the medium a state of stress,
consisting of a tension like that of a rope, in the direc-
tion of the lines of force, combined with a pressure in
directions at right angles to them.

This is quite a new conception of action at a distance,
reducing it to a phenomenon of the same kind as that
action at a distance which is exerted by means of the
tension of ropes and the pressure of rods. When the
muscles of our bodies are excited by that stimulus
which we are able in some unknown way to apply
to them, the fibres tend to shorten themselves and
at the same time to expand laterally. A state of
stress is produced in the muscle, and the limb moves.
This explanation of muscular action is by no means
complete. It gives no account ofthe cause of the excite-
ment ofthe state of stress, nor does it even investigate
those forces of cohesion which enable the muscles to sup-
port this stress. Nevertheless, the simple fact, that it
substitutes a kind of action which extends continuously
along a material substance for one of which we know only
a cause and an effect at a distance from each other, in-
duces us to accept it as a real addition to our knowledge
of animal mechanics,

For similar reasons we regard Faraday’s conception of
a state of stress in the electro-magnetic field as a possible

method of explaining action at a distance by means of —

the continuous transmission of force, even though we do
not know how the state of stress is produced.

But one of Faraday’s most pregnant discoveries, that ot
the magnetic rotation of polarised light, enables us to
proceed a step further. It has been pointed out by Sir
W. Thomson that the phenomenon, when analysed into
its simplest elements,can be expressed thus: that of two
circularly polarised rays of light, precisely similar in con-
figuration, but rotating in opposite directions, that ray is
propagated with the greater velocity which rotates in the

(Mar. 6, 1873

|

q Mar. 6, 187 3]

same direction as the electricity of the magnetising
current. -

It follows from this, by strict dynamical reasoning, that
the medium under the action of magnetic force must be
ina state of rotation—that is to say, that small portions of
the medium, which we may call molecular vortices, are
rotating, each on its own axis, the direction of this axis
being that of the magnetic force.

Here, then, we have an explanation of the tendency of
the lines of magnetic force to spread out laterally and to
shorten themselves. It arises from the centrifugal force
of the molecular vortices. The mode in which electro-
motive force acts in starting and stopping the vortices is
more abstruse, though it is of course consistent with
dynamical principles.

We have thus found that there are several different
kinds of work to be done by the electro-magnetic medium
if it exists. We have also seen that magnetism has an
intimate relation to light, and we know that there is a
theory of light which supposes it to consist of the vibra-
tions of a medium, How is this luminiferous medium
related to our electro-magnetic medium ?

It fortunately happens that electro-magnetic measure-
ments have been made from which we can calculate by
dynamical principles the velocity of propagation of small
magnetic disturbances in the supposed electro-magnetic
medium.

This velocity is very great, from 288 to 314 millions of
metres per second, according to different experiments.
Now the velocity of light, according to Foucault’s experi-
ments, is 298 millions of metres per second.- In fact, the
different determinations of either velocity differ from each
other more than the estimated velocity of light does from
the estimated velocity of propagation of small electro-
magnetic disturbance. But if the luminiferous and the
electro-magnetic media occupy the same place, and trans-
mit disturbances with the same velocity, what reason have
we to distinguish the one from the other? By considering
them as the same, we avoid at least the reproach of filling
space twice over with different kinds of zther.

Besides this, the only kind of electro-magnetic disturb-
ance which can be propagated through a non-conducting
medium is a disturbance transverse to the direction of
propagation, agreeing in this respect with what we know
of that disturbance which we call light. Hence, for all
we know, light also may be an electro-magnetic disturb-
ance in a non-conducting medium. If we admit this, the
electro-magnetic theory of light will agree in every respect
with the undulatory theory, and the work of Thomas
Young and Fresnel will be established on a firmer basis
than ever, when joined with that of Cavendish and Cou-
lomb by the keystone of the combined sciences of light
and electricity—Faraday’s great discovery of the electro-
magnetic rotation of light.

The vast interplanetary and interstellar regions will no
longer be regarded as waste places in the universe, which
the Creator has not seen fit to fill with the symbols of the
manifold order of His kingdom. We shall find them to
be already full of this wonderful medium ; so full, that no
human power can remove it from the smallest portion of
space, or produce the slightest flaw in its infinite conti-
nuity. It extends unbroken from star to star, and when
a molecule of hy‘rogen vibrates in the dogstar, the
medium receives the impulses of these vibrations; and
after carrying them in its immense bosom for three years,
delivers them in due course, regular order, and full tale
into the spectroscope of Mr. Huggins, at Tulse Hill.

Butthe medium has other functions and operations besides
bearing light from man to man, and from world to world,
and giving evidence of the absolute unity of the metric
system of the universe. Its minute parts may have rota-
tory as well as vibratory motions, and the axes of rotation
form those lines of magnetic force which extend in un-
broken continuity into regions which no eye has seen,

NATURE

> c

‘:

343

and which by their action on our magnets, are telling us
in language not yet interpreted what is going on in the
hidden under-world from minute to minute and from cen-
tury to century.

And these lines must not be regarded as mere mathe-
matical abstractions. They are the directions in which
the medium is exertinga tension like that of a rope, or
rather like that of our own muscles. The tension of the
medium in the direction of the earth’s magnetic force is
in this country one grain weight on eight square feet. In
some of Dr, Joule’s experiments, the medium has exerted
a tension of 200 lbs, weight per square inch.

But the medium, in virtue of the very same elasticity by
which itis able to transmit the undulations of light, is also
able to act as a spring. When properly wound up, it
exerts a tension, different from the magnetic tension, by
which it draws oppositely electrified bodies together, pro-
duces effects through the length of telegraph wires, and
when of sufficient intensity, leads to the rupture and ex-
plosion called lightning.

These are some of the already discovered properties of
that which has often been called vacuum, or nothing at
all. They enable us to resolve several kinds of action at
a distance into actions between contiguous parts of a con-
tinuous substance. Whether this resolution is of the
nature of explication or complication, I must leave to the
metaphysicians.

ON LEAF-ARRANGEMENT*

ASSUMING, as generally known, the main facts of

Leaf-arrangement—the division into the whorled
and spiral types, and in the latter more especially the
establishment of the convergent series of fractions, 4, 3,
2,3,7¢> 8) 4% H, B, 85, &c., as representatives of a
corresponding series of spiral leaf-orders among plants—
we have to ask what is the meaning that lies hidden in
this law ?

Mr. Darwin has taught us to regard the different
species of plants as descended from some common
ancestor ; and therefore we must suppose that the diffe-
rent leaf-orders now existing have been derived by
different degrees of modification from some common
ancestral leaf-order.

One spiral order may be made to pass into another by
a twist of the axis that carries the leaves. This fact in-
dicates the way in which all the spiral orders may have
been derived from one original order, namely, by means
of different degrees of twist in the axis.

We naturally look to the simplest of existing leaf-
orders, the two ranked alternate order 4, as standing
nearest to the original ; for it is manifest that the orders
at the other extreme of the series, the condensed arrange-
ment of scales on fir-cones, of florets in heads of Com-
posite, of leaves in close-lying plantains, &c., are special
and highly developed instances, to meet special needs of
protection and congregation: they are, without doubt,
the latest feat of phyllotactic development ; and we may
be sure that the course of change has been from the
simple to the complex, not the reverse. This point will
be illustrated by experiment below.

But first, what are the uses of these orders?—and at
what period of the leaf’s life does the advantage of leaf-
order operate? The period must be that at which the
leaf-order is most perfect ; not therefore when the twig is
mature, with long internodes between the leaves ; but
while the twig and its leaves are yet zz the bud; for it is
in the bud (and similar crowded forms) that the leaf-order
is in perfection, undisturbed by contortions or inequalities
of growth ; but, as the bud develops into the twig, the
leaves become separated, the stem often gets a twist, the
leaf-stalks are curved and wrung to present the blades

* Abstract of paper read by Mr. Hubert Airy, M,A., M.D., before the
Royal Society, February 27, 1873.

s 7" <
Wa +

344

NATURE .

ss a
x

favourably to the light, and thus the leaf-order that was
perfect in the bud is disguised in the grown twig.

In lateral shoots of yew and box and silver fir we see
how leaves will get their stalks twisted to obtain more
favourable exposure to light ; and if general distribution
round the stem were useful to the adult leaves, we should
expect the leaves of a vertical elm-shoot (for example) to
secure such distribution by various twists of stalk and
stem ; but the leaf-blades of the elm keep their two ranks
with very great regularity. This goes to show that it is
not in the mature twig that the leaf-order is specially
advantageous. ;

In the bud, we see at once what must be the use of
leaf-order. It is for the economy of space, whereby the
bud is enabled to retire into itself and present the least
surface to outward danger and vicissitudes of temperature.
The fact that the order } does not exhibit this advantage
in any marked degree, supports the idea that this order is
the original from which all the more complex spiral orders
have been derived.

The long duration of the bud-life, as compared with the
open-air life of the leaf, gives importance to the conditions
of the former. The open-air life of the bud is twelve
months, and adding the embryo-life of the bud, we have
about a year and a half for the whole life of the bud; and
for the twelve months of its open-air life it is in a state of
siege, against which a compact arrangement of its embryo-
leaves.within must be of great value. But the open-air
life of the unfolded leaves is (except in evergreens) not
more than six months. ;

That the order } would under different degrees of con-
traction (with twist) assume successively the various spiral
orders that exist in nature, in the order of their com-
plexity, 4, 2, 2, 2, &c., may be shown by the following
experiment :—

Take a number of spheres (say oak-galls) to represent
embryo-leaves, and attach them in two rows in alternate
order (3) along opposite sides of a stretched india-rubber
band. Give the band a slight twist, to determine the
direction of twist in the subsequent contraction, and then
relax tension. The two rows of spheres will roll up with
a strong twist into a tight complex order, which, if the
spheres are attached in close contact with the axis, will
be nearly the order 4, with three steep spirals. If the
spheres are set a little away from the axis, the order be-
comes condensed into (nearly) 2, with great precision and
stability. And it appears that further contraction, with
increased distance of the spheres from the axis, will
necessarily produce the orders (nearly) 2, 355, s, &c., in
succession, and that these successive orders represent
successive #axima of stability in the process of change
from the simple to the complex.

It also appears that the necessary sequence of these
successive steps of condensation, thus determined by the
geometry of the case, does necessarily exclude the non-
existent orders 4, 7, 4, 4), &c.

Numbering the spheres from o upwards, it appears that,
under contrattion, the following numbers are brought
successively into contact with o, alternately with right
and left :—1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, &c. None
of them stands vertically above o while in contact with
it, but a little to the right or a little to the left, and so
far the results of this experiment fall short of the perfect
fractions 3, 2, 3, 3°s, &c.; but in this very failure the
results of the experiment are more closely in agreement
with nature than are those perfect fractions themselves,
for those fractions give the angular divergence only in
round numbers (so to speak), and lose account of the
little more or the little less which makes all the difference
between a vertical rank and a spiral. In_ the large
majority of spiral-leaved plants, one has to be content
with “2 nearly” or “2 nearly,” and it is difficult to find a

specimen in which the fraction represents the order
exactly,

The geometrical relations of the members of the
above series I, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, &c., are as simple as their
numerical relations.

Analysis of the order seen in the head of the sun-
flower, and other examples, by consideration of their
several sets of spirals, presents striking agreement
with the above synthetical process. In the sunflower,
a marginal seed taken as 0 is found to be in contact with
the 34th, the 55th, and the 89th (counted in order of
growth), and even with the 144th,, if there is not con-
tact with the 34th. The dandelion, with a lower degree
of condensation, has o in contact with the 13th, the
21st, and the 34th in large specimens. The house-leek in
its leaf-order has o in contact with the 5th, 8th, and 13th.
The apple-bud has oin contact with the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th;
and thus we see that in nature the very same series of
numbers is found to have contact-relation with o, which
we have already seen possessing that relation in the ex-
perimental condensation of the order }.

Difference of leaf-order in closely-allied species (e.g.
Plantago major and P. Coronopus) is found in close
relation to their different habits and needs.

The prevalence of the order } in marine Age, and in
Graminea, a \ow-developed gregarious group, and its sin-
gular freedom from individual variation in that group and
in elm, beech, &c., support the view that this order is the
original of the spiral orders. :

In many plants we find actual transition from the order
4, to an order more complex, as, for instance, Spanish chest-
nut, laurels, nut, ivy,—and these instances agree in pre-
senting the complex order in the buds that occupy the
most exposed situations, while they retain the simple } in
the less exposed lateral buds. Several kinds of aloe have
the order } in their. basal leaves and a higher order in the
remainder. A species of cactus often contains a complete
epitome of phyllotaxy in a single plant or even ina single
shoot.

Shoots of acacia often present a zigzag disposition of
their leaves, on either side of the branch, which seems un-
intelligible except as a distortion of an original two-ranked
order.

The prevalent two-ranked arrangement of rootlets or
roots seems to be a survival underground of an order which
originally prevailed through the whole plant, root, stem,
and branch.

In the whole Monocotyledonous class, the first leaves in
the seed have the order }. In the Dicotyledonous class
the first leaves in the seed have the simplest order of the
whorled type.

As the spiral orders have probably been derived
from a two-ranked alternate arrangement, so the
whorled orders have probably been derived from a two-
ranked collateral (two abreast) arrangement. This is
illustrated by an experiment similar to the former, and it
is seen that successive parallel horizontal pairs of spheres
are compelled under contraction to take position at right
angles to one another, exactly in the well-known crucial or
decussate order. These whorls of two contain potentially
whorls of three and four, as is seen in variations of the
same plant, but the experiment does not show the change.

The reason of the non-survival of the (supposed) two-
ranked cod/ateral order lies in its manifest instability, for
under lateral pressure it would assume the alternate, and
under vertical the crucial order. ;

The bud presents in its shape a state of equilibrium
between a force of contraction, a force of constriction, and
a force of growth.

To sum up, we are led to suppose that the orignal of all
existing leaf-orders was a two-ranked arrangement, some-
what irregular, admitting of two regular modifications, the
alternate and the collateral; and that the alternate has
given rise to all the spiral orders, and the collateral to all
the whorled orders, by means of advantageous condensa-
tion in the course of ages,

{ Mar. 3 1873 is

— as a

ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
Vv.

OAS YO analysis, then, teaches us this great fact,
J that solids and liquids give out continuous spectra, and
that vapours and gases give out discontinuous spectra ; that
is to say, that we get bright lines in different parts of the
Spectrum, instead of having an unbroken light all over the
spectrum. I might vary this statement by stating broadly
that the radiation or giving out of light by solids and
liquids is a general one, and that the radiation or giving
out of light by gases and vapours, instead of being
general, is in the main a selective one.
' The tubes, to which reference has already been made,
put us then in complete possession of a point which has
already been arrived at by two different lines of investi-
gation. A few years ago Dr. Frankland, in investigating
the spectrum of hydrogen, which, as you know, accord-
ing to the statement I have just made, ought to give a dis-
continuous spectrum, discovered that, when observing the
spectrum under very great pressure, he got a white
light, and a continuous spectrum. Afterwards Dr. An-
drews, another fellow of the Royal Society, who was
working at the theory of vapours and the theory of liquids
from a perfectly different stand-point, and who never
thought of using a spectroscope at all, arrived at the
conclusion that it was quite possible that vapours might
be so condensed in almost every case, that by crushing
them together, so to speak, you might really arrive ata
liquid form of the vapour which you moat choose to
investigate. I hope you will not think that these high
physical investigations are not practical enough. Let me
remind you that we do not know what they may lead to.
Not only did Dr. Frankland determine that very dense
gases and very dense vapours gave continuous spectra,
but in another research, in which I have had the honour
of being associated with him, we have shown that the
spectrum of a vapour or of a gas does very much more
than tell us merely what the gas or vapour experimented
upon is; it in fact tells us something of the physical
condition of that gas or vapour, that is to say, whether
it is very rare or whether it is very closely packed
together—whether it exists under a low or a high
pressure,
tigation which has not only an immense application in
every chemical experiment with which the spectroscope
has to do, but it has its story to tell and its aid to give
concerning every star that shines in the heavens. We
may state generally that, beginning with any one element
in its most rarefied condition, and then following its
spectrum as the molecules come nearer together, so as at
last to reach the solid form, we shall find that spectrum
become more complicated as this approach takes place,
until at last a vivid continuous spectrum is reached.
Spectrum analysis, then, if it merely differentiated
between gases, vapours, solids, and liquids, and between
gases and vapours in different states of pressure, would
really be a new chemistry altogether ; and I have no doubt
that the time is not very far distant when, not only in the
chemist’s laboratory, but in a great many applications of
the physical sciences, the spectroscope will be considered
as necessary, and will be almost as much used, as a che-
mical balance, and the sooner that time comes the better.
But not only are we able to differentiate between
different bodies, but the most minute quantities of sub-
Stances can be determined by this method of research.
The thing seems so impossible, that you may, some of
ou, feel inclined to doubt my assertion when I tell you,
bor instance, that Kirchhoff and Bunsen have calculated
that the 18-millionth part of a grain can be determined
by the spectroscope in the case of sodium ; that is to say,
if in anything which I choose to examine by means of my
spectroscope the quantity of sodium present amounts only

Very fortunately for us, this is an inves |

NA TURE 345

to the 18-millionth of a grain, the spectroscope is perfect] =
competent to take up that minute quantity, and bring i,
out into daylight, so as to be detected with certaintye
This reaction of sodium is so delicate, that if we examin
any flame, burning in air, we almost invariably find sodium
in it, for every particle of dust is impregnated with a
sodium salt, probably sodic chloride. This is not to be
wondered at, as two-thirds of the earth’s surface is
covered by sea, which contains a considerable amount of
sodium salts, and the fine spray, which is continually
caused by the dashing of the waves, evaporates and
leaves minute specks of salt which are carried over
the whole land, and make themselves visible in our
spectroscopes. Take another instance. Lithium is a
substance the knowledge of the existence of which as
a common element we owe entirely to the spectroscope;
the 6-millionth part of a grain of this can be detected.
If we examine anything for lithium, and do not get
the characteristic red line, we know that not even the
6-millionth of a grain is present. Strontium, again, can be
discovered if only a millionth part of a grain is present.
So much for the great power of spectrum analysis in its
physical applications, and its dealing with minute quanti-
ties of the elements which we know already, and this of
itself would be of enormous importance.

But the spectroscope does not stop here; it discovers
the known elements under conditions where detection
seemed almost impossible, and in which the old chemistry
was powerless to helpus. Letus take, again, for instance,
lithium. Lithium was only known formerly to exist in
four minerals ; it is now known, thanks to the spectro-
scope, to exist almost everywhere. If we were to take
the ash of a cigar and introduce it into a colourless gas
flame and examine the colouration with the spectroscope,
we should get a spectrum of lithium ; and if we analysed
in the same way the ash of milk, or the ash of blood, or
of grapes, tea, sugar, &c., we should also find it. Dr.
Miller has shown that, in the Wheal Clifford mine
8co lb. of this salt are given every 24 hours, though
before the advent of spectrum analysis no lithium was
known to exist there. It has also been found in meteoric
stones, in the water of the Atlantic, &c. Surely this is
an application of very great importance.

Another extremely important point about spectro-
scopic analysis is that, although we may have to analyse
a complicated mixture of substances, the spectroscope is
perfectly competent to deal with them. The characteris-
tic lines for each element must stand out and be visible
whether the substance be simple or complex. Thus, for
instance, if we mix together some sodium and lithium,
and place some of the mixture in a flame, we shall see
nothing but the brilliant yellow colour due to sodium, the
crimson flame of the lithium being entirely hidden, A
moment’s examination with the spectroscope, however, is
sufficient to show us that both lithium and sodium are,
without the slightest doubt, present in the flame ; for both
the yellow and red lines stand out as distinctly as they
did when the simple salts were experimented with. The
presence of lithium, indeed, may be detected, even if it
be mixed with ten thousand times its bulk of sodium
compounds. ‘ ;

But, further, spectrum analysis is not satisfied with
showing us sources of known elements. It discovers new
elements altogether. In 1860, Bunsen happened to be
examining with a spectroscope the result of one of
his analyses of the waters of a spring near Diirk-
heim, and he saw some lines which he had never
seen before, although he had very carefully mapped
the spectra of the known elements. Bunsen, as you
know, is a very resolute chemist, and what he did
was this. Having faith in his instrument, he evaporated
no less than forty-four tons of the water of this spring,
and out of these forty-four tons he got about two hundred
grains of what turned out to be a new metal, which he

346

called Czesium. Rubidium was the next metal which was
discovered in this way. Take another instance, the dis-
covery of thallium by Mr. Crookes. Mr. Crookes was

working with a seleniferous deposit from the Hartz
mountains, when, by the aid of the spectroscope, he dis-
covered this metal, which, I am informed, is now exten-
sively used in the manufacture of fireworks.

The spec-

Fic. 27.—Side view of Star Spectroscope, showing the arrangement by
which the light from a spark is thrown into the instrument by means
of the reflecting prism ¢, by a mirror F.

trum of this metal is extremely distinct and beautiful,
and you will understand why it has been named thallium,
from the Greek word for a twig, on account of the beauti-
ful green colour of the single line ordinarily visible.

A fourth element has been discovered by means of the
spectroscope by two German chemists, Professors Reich
and Richter, who were experimenting on zinc blend, and
found two unknown indigo bands in the spectrum, which
they successfully traced to the existence of a small
quantity of a new metallic {element, which has been
named Indium,

You all know how important chemical analysis is in

Fic. 28.—Plan of Star Spectroscope._ 1, Eye-piece end of telescope: n, In-
terior tube, carrying A, cylindrical lense ; D, Slit of spectroscope ; G,
Collimating lens ; 4, Prisms; Q, Micrometer.

thousands of things connected with the arts, manufac-
tures, and commerce, in detecting adulteration for in-
stance, and in these matters the spectroscope gives our
chemists a power which was undreamt of a few years ago.

There is another very beautiful application of the spec-
troscope which perhaps many of you will say is of more
practical importance than those I have already brought
to your notice, You know that, in the Bessemer process

NATURE

[Mar. 6, 1873

five tons of cast iron are turned into cast steel in twenty
minutes. Now steel is only cast iron minus some carbon.
It is clear, therefore, that the process depends upon
getting rid of the carbon. How then can the spectro-
“scope aid us in determining the time at which the carbon
is got rid of? Nothing is more easy. The heat from
the incandescent iron is so intense that the vapour of the
different substances mixed with it is visible above the
retort in which the metal is placed, and we get, so to
speak, an atmosphere of incandescent vapour surround-
ing the cast iron. When we examine these incandescent
vapours by means of a spectroscope, it is found that the
spectrum changes very considerably at different times
during the combustion of this cast iron. Now it so
happens, that the process of conversion is such a delicate
one that a mistake of ten seconds either way spoils the
whole five tons which are being operated upon. You

Tic. 29
Fic 29,—Dircct:vision Star Spectroscope. s
A, Telescope ; s, Slit; p, Prism plate; &, Observing telescope; M,
| Micrometer.

Fic. 32.
Fig. 30.—Sun Spectroscope.

| will see in a moment, therefore, that this is a case in
which any rule-of-thumb or very rough method might
now and then lead to a mistake ; but when the spectrum
of these incandescent vapours thrown out by the cast-iron
| is examined very carefully by means of a spectroscope, it
is found that at the first the spectrum of carbon is quite
visible, but at the right moment, which has been found
by practice, that spectrum disappears, the combustion
having been sufficient. All we have to do now, to ensure
the charge being properly turned out, is, therefore, by
means of the spectroscope, simply to watch certain lines
in the spectrum, and when theyshow signs of disappearance
say ‘‘ Now,” and the thing is done without any possibility
of error. This is an instance of the practical application
of the spectroscope in one direction ; now let me give
you one in another.

When Dr. Bence Jones wished to determine some

i rebar connected with chemical circulation, he em-
ployed the spectroscope with great success. Many of
_ you, at the first blush, would be inclined to say it was not
very likely that the spectroscope would help us here. If
it.were a question, for instance, of our own chemical cir-
culation, we would not relish the idea of being converted
into an incandescen vapour for the pleasure of testing a
theory. But, fortunately, there are such things as guinea-

igs, and Dr. Bence ;
; Re. by studying
the vapours of the
ashes of these ani-
mals, has arrived at
some results of ex-
treme importance.
His modus operandi
was as follows :—
_ He gave the guinea
pigs chloride of li-
_thium, and then the
question was to
find, by burning the
ashes of the diffe-
rent parts of the
guinea-pigs, —_vari-
ously removed from
the fountain of cir-
culation and from
the ordinary ducts
_ of the body, to as-
certain how long it
took lithium to get
absorbed into every-
part of the body.
The most distant
part, as far as cir-
culation goes, is the
lens of the eye. If,
then, we give a
guinea-pig chloride
of lithium, then kill
the guinea-pig, and
examine the ash of
the eye lens, say
three hours after
the lithium has been
taken into the sys-
tem, and if we find
the lithium line in
the spectrum of the
ash vapour where
no lithium was be-
fore, that is to say,
if by means of
the = spectroscope &
we see that line
which we have seen
characterises the li-
_ thium spectrum, we
now that the che-
Mmical circulation of
the body is such
as to take lithium
_ through the body
to that particular
point of the circulation in that time. In the human sub-
ject Dr. Bence Jones has hit upon a very practical method
of arriving at something like the same conclusion, by ex-
amining the spectra of the ashes of cataracts.

__ So far as I have dealt with the applications of the spec-

troscope, up to the present time, I have dealt in the main
_ With the application to chemistry and to physics, in cther
words, to the examination of light given out by terrestrial

347

substances ; but I must now, with your permission, take
you to the skies, reminding you that at present, I am
merely dealing with the giving out of light, and with
light emitted by celestial objects. We shall afterwards
have to deal with the stopping or absorption of light, by
vapours and other transparent media when the light
passes through them.

I have already referred to the special fittings that were
necessary for the
application of the
spectroscope to the

Fic. 31.—Sun Spectroscope. 4, Collimator; ¢, Observing telescope ; 4 and M, Two micrometers ;
I, 25 35 4) 516, 7, Prisms.

Fic, 32.— Sun Spectroscope arranged fer photography.

telescope, and I
think on carefully
looking at the en-
graving (Figs. 27 &
28) representing a
star spectroscope,
you will see exactly
how the spectro-
scope is applied to
a telescope. We
must now go alittle
more into details.
One class of spec-
troscopes, as ap-
plied to telescopes,
is arranged for ob-
serving the spectra
of the stars, nebule,
&c., and another
with a much greater
dispersive power for
observing the spec-
trum of the sun.

In both spectro-
scopes the arrange-
ments employed are
similar, and resem-
ble those of the
instruments that
have been already
described. A finder
on the side of the
large telescope en-
ables the image of
the star to be
brought cn the slit,
while, in the case of
the sun, its image
is received on the
slit screen, and any
part of the image
may be brought on
the slit by mere in-

Zoe
|

- om maim || \) ]
ni |

spection.
The spectroscope
is attached to

the eye-piece end
of the instrument,
ard the image for-
ed by the tele-
scope is received on
the slit plate. Ar-
rangements are
necessary in the
case of the star spectroscope for widening out the spec-
trum ; this is done by a cylindrical lens (as before ex-
plained); and for obtaining a spectrum of comparison,
this is done by reflecting into the instrument the light
emitted by an electric spark.

In the star spectroscopes, the number of prisms, and
the consequent deviation and dispersion, is smal], The
accompanying woodcuts will make their detailed con-
struction quite clear. In the case of sun spectroscopes,

348

the deviation and dispersion required are large, the devia-
tion amounting to over 300°; that is to say, the ray of
light is bent through almost a complete circle ; the light
from stars is dim, and many prisms cannot be employed
to widen out the spectrum, but in the case of the sun,
there is light sufficient to give us a bright spectrum after
it has been enormously dispersed.

Figs. 31 and 32 show a very powerful spectroscope to be
attached to the telescope for observing the spectrum of
the sun. One peculiarity of the instrument in Fig. 33 is
that the ray of light having passed once through the
lower part of the train of prisms, is received by a right-
angled prism, which totally reflects the light twice, send-
ing the ray of light back through the upper part of the
same prisms, when it is again refracted ; we thus have,
by using these prisms, the same effect as if thirteen
prisms had been employed. The ray of light enters the

Fig. 33.—Automatic arrangement for securing the minimum deviation of the
observed ray.

instrument by the lower tube, and after passing first
through the lower half of the prisms, and back through
the upper half, is received in the upper tube, and reflected
upwards for convenience of observation. These prisms
are so arranged, that whatever part of the spectrum is
being observed, they are always at the angle of minimum
deviation for this part of the spectrum, a very important
point, as if this is not attended to the spectrum loses
much of its brilliancy and sharpness. This is done either
by attaching the prisms to a spring of ebonite or gun
metal moving on a fixed point near the first prism of the
series, as in the arrangement shown, or each prism may
be attached to a radial bar acting on a central pin, as
shown in Fig. 33. J. NORMAN LOCKYER
(To be continued.)

HUNTERIAN LECTURES BY PROF. FLOWER

LECTURES IV. V. VI:

I? will not be necessary in describing the fossil remains

of mammalia to devote any time to the consideration
of the Monotremata, for thoughit might have been supposed
that these animals, the Echidna and Duck-bill, on account
of their being the lowest in the scale, would have been
largely represented in ancient times, evidence to that
effect has not been forthcoming. In the post-pliocene of
Australia, the lower end of the humerus of a large
Echidna, was found by Mr. Krefft, curator of the Museum
at Sydney, and that is apparently the only recorded
specimen from the class. With regard to marsupial
animals the case is very different, and the remains
prove that their geographical distribution formerly was
not at all what it is now, when they are confined

NATURE

. [Mar. 6, 1873

to Australia, the Austro-malay Archipelago, and South
America, The family may be classified by the teeth or by
the feet. According to the former method the Kangaroos,
Phalangers, Koalas, in which there are only two lower
incisors, without persistent pulps, form one herbivorous
group ; the Wombats a second ; and those with more than
two lower incisors, including the Bandicoots, Dasyures,
Thylacine, and Opposums, a third carnivorous section.
If the structure of the feet be taken as the main point
the tendency to the reduction of the second and third
digits places the Bandicoots with the Kangaroos, instead
of with the Dasyures, and does not otherwise modify the
arrangement. The at first sight great difference between
the molar teeth of the Thylacine and the pci can

be easily biidged over by a comparison of intermediate —

forms ; looking for instance at an upper molar in the
latter, its crushing surface presents two broad ridges,
with an intermediate depression, in which there is an
oblique groove. In the Thylacine there is a central
large, and two lateral smaller tubercles, with a band
connecting the medium with one of them. There is also
a small posterior and two very small anterior tubercles
in the cingulum. In Perameles the molar presents two
rows in a double crescent, in front of which are four
minute processes, which represent those of the cingulum
of the Thylacine, the crescents being representatives of
the big tubercles. In the Kangaroo Rats the tubercles
alone remain, and in the Kangaroo these blend to form
the ridges.

Respecting the fossil forms, those from the Purbeck —

beds have been thoroughly worked out by Prof. Owen.
With the exception of P/agzaulax they belong to the
polyprotodont division, and nearly all have more than
seven teeth of the molar series, Zyzconodon and Triacan-
thodon being the exceptions, they also being peculiar and
differing from all existing Marsupials in having four pre-
molars and three molars. There is no evidence to show
whether there was any succession of the teeth. Plagiau-
fax has been the subject of one of the most important
controversies in connection with paleontology, between
Prof. Owen and the late Dr. Falconer, the former main-
taining that it was carnivorous, eating the lizards found
with it; Dr. Falconer that it was herbivorous and allied
to Hypsiprymnus. The fact of its having only two lower
incisors, and that the molars are hypsiprymnine in form
tends to show that it must have had some relation to the
herbivorous group, and shows that at so ancient a date
ee family had already divided in the manner that we now
nd it.

The tertiary Marsupialia must next be considered. In
the Eocene gypsum of Montmartre several small skeletons
have been found, clearly referable to the Opossums, and
with a similar dentition, from which Cuvier was able to
classify them correctly and predict the existence of mar-
supial bones in the uncovered skeletons, From Auvergne
three similar ~ iocene species have been described, and
in England Mr. Charlesworth has, on undoubtedly insuffi-
cient evidence, referred a premolar to the same genus,
Dideiphys. The Yale College expedition have obtained,
among the large number of bones that they have col-
lected, some which Prof. Marsh thinks are Marsupial.
In the Pliocene there have not been any fossil remains of
this sub-class yet obtained, but many in the Quaternary
period. In the Brazilian caves Opossums have been
found in abundance, and in the Wellington Valley and
many other parts of Australia extremely interesting forms
have been obtained, which must be referred to more
fully. Prof. Owen has studied them in great detail. The
remains may be divided into two divisions ; (1), those
allied to existing genera ; and (2), those not now repre-

sented. With regard to the former it is interesting to.

observe that the Thylacine and Ursine Dasyure, now re-
stricted to Tasmania, at one time abounded on the main-
land, There are also remains of enormous Wombats and

Kangaroos, and the Kangaroo-rats were well represented.
Of the genera now unrepresented Difrotodon was one of
the largest ; it was the size of the biggest existing Rhino-
ceros ; only one species is known. Excepting the skull
the bones are not well known, the feet and several other
parts not having been obtained. There was a strong de-
scending process from the zygoma. The dental formula

is represented thus : i. 3. C =m. 4 The middle an-

terior incisors and those of the lower jaw closely resemble
those of the Rodentia on a large scale; they grew from
persistent pulps. The upper lateral incisors were small
and had closed roots. Between them and the molars
there was a gap. The molars were double crested, with
four roots in the upper and two in the lower. Its denti-
tion allies it with the Kangaroo, but from the bones that
are known it is probable that its proportions were more
that of the Wombat, the femur being longer than the
tibia, and of the same length as the humerus. The femur
was singularly compressed. Another genus, Vofotherium,
was still more extraordinary; it was first supposed to have
no lower incisors, but this was subsequently proved to be
incorrect. Mr. Macleay, after Prof. Owen’s description
of the genus from lower jaws only, obtained upper jaws
of an animal, called by him Zygomaturus. Prof. Owen
stated, and apparently with very good reason, that this
was nothing but the upper part of the skull of his /Vofo-
therium. Inthis genus the zygoma is enormous in all
directions and at the extreme anterior root has a descend-

ing process, Its dental formula is i. 3. aoe. m, = re-
oO

sembling Diprotodon, except that the incisors in upper
and lower jaws are all rooted. Three species have been
described, and no bones of the body have been found.
In the museum of the College there is an astragalus, very
Wombat-like, and also an atlas which agree well in size
with what would have been expected in such an animal,
which for other reasons was probably intermediate be-
tween the Kangaroos and Wombats.

Thylacoles is the last of these extinct marsupials ;
none of the bones, except of the head, have been
found ; the zygoma and the angle of the lower jaw are still
unknown. As far as can be determined, it apparently ap-
proaches nearesttothe koala, The teethare quite peculiarto
I 3 I
a be = We
The incisors in both jaws are much as in the pha-
langers, the median being large and with closed roots.
Then follow two small lateral teeth in the upper jaw, be-
hind and z#zernal to which is an almost hidden canine,
partly covered posteriorly by two small premolars. The
characteristic tooth, an enormous elongated and flattened
last premolar comes next. This peculiar tooth is evi-
dently that which replaces the only one lost in this class
of animals, and which is always large, particularly in the
kangaroo-rats, Internal to the posterior border of this
tooth the minute true molar stands, just as in the cats. In
_ the lower jaw two rudimentary teeth are sometimes pre-
sent, followed by the peculiar large premolar, and that by
two small molars. The muzzle was blunter than in most

existing diprotodonts. The stunting of the molars is
correlative with the great development of the extraordinary
premolar undoubtedly. Prof. Gervais has taken a cast of
the interior of the skull, and considers that the brain ap-
proaches the wombat most nearly. Prof. Owen originated
and still strongly supports the idea that Z/y/acoles “was
one of the fellest and most destructive of predatory
beasts.” Mr. Krefft, of Sydney, was the first to call his
opinion in question, and he gave a conjectural restoration
of the then unknown anterior part of the skull and incisor
teeth, which subsequent discoveries have in great measure
confirmed. No doubt its nearest alliances are with the
phalangers and kangaroos, which are neither of them
carnivorous, In the carnivorous marsupials, as in the

Ean e
the genus; the dental formula is re Cc.

i) pay oes ees Eee RCT ee ee eee ee A
Pete +% cs § : y ; . >
Mar. 6, 1873) NATURE | 349

cats, the canines are large and the incisors small. It is
probable that the uniqueness of the dentition indicates a
peculiar diet, perhaps some form of food, of a vegetable
nature, which has disappeared, as has its consumer. Claws
have been found, probably of this animal; they closely
resemble those of the phalangers.

NOTES

Dr. Desus has been appointed Professor of Chemistry at the
new Naval College.

Ir is rumoured that Prof. James Thomson of Belfast wil
succeed to the Chair of Engineering at Glasgow University?
vacant by the death of Prof. Macquorn Rankine.

Sir Joun Luszock will, to-night, at half-past eight, lay
before the Society of Antiquaries the results of his researches
during a tour last autumn respecting the site of Troy.

ACCORDING to a Berlin telegram, another coal-field of appa-
rently gigantic dimensions has been discovered in Central Asia—
the Chodshent district, near Sir Darya.

THE Zimes understands that an intense magneto-electric light
and an exceedingly powerful gaslight will shortly be exhibited
machine moved by steam power, which a high authority in this
simultaneously on the north and west sides of the upper part of the
Westminster Clock Tower. Thecurrentin the former willbe gene-
rated by a comparatively novel and remarkable magneto-electric
country pronounces to be a decided step in advance of every
otl er machine of the kind. The latter is in operation at various
lighthouses on the Irish coast, and may in favourable weather be
seen at the distance of twenty-five miles. The exhibitors have
proposed that the trial shall be made at their own cost, except
in very trifling particulars.

WE learn with regret that Mr. J. Glaisher, F.R.S., has re-
signed the secretaryship of the Meteorological Society, an office
which he has held continuously (except during his presidency)
from the foundation of the society, of which he was one of the
earliest promoters, in 1850.

THE Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge has appointed Prof.
Tait, of Edinburgh University, Rede Lecturer for the ensuing
year. Prof. Tait will deliver his lecture in the Easter term.

AN influential committee has been formed at Cambridge of
members of the University and others for the purpose of having
a portrait of Prof. Cayley painted and presented to Trinity Col-
lege. A considerable portion of the sum required has been
already promised. The portrait, which is being painted by Mr.
Lowes Dickenson, is of the same size as that of Sir William
Thomson, by the same artist, that has been recently placed
in. the Combination Room of St. Peter’s College. The
movement is supported by all members of the University,
irrespective of college, and other admirers of Prof. Cayley’s
mathematical discoveries; the only reason for the presen-
tation of the portrait to Trinity (the professor’s own)
College being that there is no public building in the
University appropriate for the reception of portraits of dis-
tinguished members ofthe University. Everyone will be pleased
at the compliment which will thus be paid to the most illustrious
English mathematician of the age. Subscriptions may be sent
to the treasurer, William Walton, Esq., Trinity Hall.

Ar the Annual Meeting of the Geological Society on Febru-
ary 21, the Wollaston Gold Medal was awarded to Sir Philip
de Malpas Grey-Egerton, Bart., F.R.S.; the balance of the pro-
ceeds of the Wollaston Donation Fund to Mr. J. W. Judd,
F.G.S.; the Murchison Medal_to Mr. William Davies, of the
British Museum; and the balance of the Murchison Fund to Prof,

' Oswald Heer of Zitich,

350

WE learn that the University of St. Andrews has conferred
the degree of LL.D. on Mr. E. B. Tylor, author of “ Primitive
Culture.”

THE Royal Commission for Scientific Education and the Ad-
vancement of Science still continue their sittings.

At the general monthly meeting of the Royal Institution this
week at which Prof. Tyndall was present for the first time since
his return from America, a resolution was unanimously adopted
congratulating the Professor upon his safe arrival in England,
expressing satisfaction that the people of the United States had
shared in the advantages of his teaching, cordially welcoming
him on his return to his own scientific home, and wishing him
continued health and prosperity. Prof. Tyndall was also thanked
for his generous gift to the Institution of the splendid and
extensive apparatus employed by him in his lect ures in America,
and congratulated on the liberal spirit, and the love of science,
which has led him to appropriate the profits of his lectures in
the United States to the establishment of a fund to assist the
scientific studies of young Americans in Europe.

Dr. PETERMANN has received news from Africa that Mikluchs
Maclay, the Russian Traveller who was believed to be dead, is
alive and well in New Guinea.

PHYSICAL science in America has experienced a great loss in
the death, in the sixty-seventh year of his age, of Prof James
Henry Coffin, of Lafayette College, this sad event taking place
on the 6th of February. Prof. Coffin was a native of Massa-
chusetts, and for a time a professor in Williams College, where
he planned the construction of Greylock Observatory on Saddle
Mountain. He became a member of the faculty of Lafayette
College in 1846, where he has since filled the chair of mathe-
matics and astronomy. Prof. Coffin is best known from his
treatise on the ‘‘ Winds of the Northern Hemisphere,” published
by the Smithsonian Institution in 1851. At the time of his death
he was engaged in a second edition of this work, brought down
to the present day, and extended so as to embrace the entire
globe. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
It is quite a curious coincidence that Captain Maury and Prof.
Coffin, who have given so much attention to the subjects of
atmospheric currents, should have died within a week of each
other, and at the same age.

WHEN is the foundation-stone of our grand new Natural
History Museum to be laid? Js Government waiting for the
advent of fine weather in order that the ceremony may be as
auspicious ‘and imposing as possible? We can hardly believe
the current gossip that the fiscal authorities of the country have
quietly retired the thousands said to. have been voted for the
purpose, in order that a saving might be effected in their ex-
penditure, and a handsome surplus be vaunted of in the forth-
coming budget. Meanwhile see what our young, energetic, long-
headed cousins on theother side are doing. Anew Natural History
Museum is about to be erected in New York 800 feet
long by 600 wide, which will be the largest building in
America. 100,000/, was voted last winter by the legislature to
commence it, and 200 men are already blasting for its founda-
tions. It is eventually to cost 2,000,000/. sterling, and fifteen
years will be occupied in its construction. This great building
is to cover fifteen acres of ground, and is to be situated on
Montallan Square, facing Eighth Avenue and Central Park.
The front portion is to be finished directly, and the back portion
is to be finished from time to time as needed, and as appropria-
tions are made for it. The material is to be granite, The
building is to be four stories high, with students’ rooms in the
upper story, and rooms and shelves for specimens illustrating |
natural history, zoology, botany, and mineralogy, on the ground

on’

NATURE

eee

a blag rear + an Bid ew! Aan ae “SE; 3
x eee = . 4 beet i=

floors. The architecture of the building is to be a kind of

French Renaissance, similar to the Luxembourg or the buildings

around Fontainebleau. :

A MAGNIFICENT present of Peruvian skulls has lately been
received by the Anthropological Institute from Consul Hutchin-
son of Callao. This highly instructiwe series consists of 150
specimens dug out--not gathered from the surface—of the old
aboriginal burying grounds of Pasamayo and of Ancon, 20 and
30 miles north, and from Cerso del Oro about 100 miles south
of Callao. Twenty-four of these were taken by the Consul
himself from the Huacas of Ancon, and are probably those of
Chinchas or perhaps Aymaras. We recommend all anthropo-
logists to take the opportunity now afforded for a few days, of
visiting the collection which may be seen daily from 12 to 4at
the rooms of the Institute. It is expected that the President
(Prof. Busk) and Dr. Barnard Davis will each contribute notes
on the more remarkable of the skulls at the meeting to be held
on the 18th inst.

Pror. VAN DER SUNDE BAKHUYZEN has been appointed to
the directorship of the Leyden Observatory, the head-quarters of
Dutch astronomy, as successor to the late Prof. Kaiser, whose
death we noticed in NATURE, vol. vi. p. 354. Prof. Bakhuyzen
was a pupil of Kaiser’s.

WE hope shortly to give a brief notice of some recent works
on the Echinoderms, but in the meanwhile it may be well to
mention that the following important contributions to our
knowledge of this group have within the last few weeks been
published. (1) Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology at Harvard College. No. vii.—Revision of
the Echini; parts 1 arid 2 with forty-nine plates. Part 1
contains Introduction, Bibliography, Nomenclature, Chrono-
logical List, Synonymy, Geographical Distribution; Part 2
contains Echini of the eastern coast of the United States.
(2) ‘* Ophiuridarum novarum vel minus cognitarum descriptiones
non nullz,” by Dr. C. Liitken. In this there is a most inter-
esting chapter on spontaneous division in star-fishes. (3) On
the Ophiuroids collected by Dr. Goés in the Josephine Expe-
dition, with a Conspectus generum Ophiodermatidarum, by
A. Ljungman. (4) A modest catalogue of the Echinodermata of
New Zealand, with diagnoses of the species, by Captai™ F yw.
Hutton. The first memoir in this list will mark an ea
study of the Echini.

Pror. Hyatt, of Cambridge, Mass., by means of sections of
the central spirals of Ammonites and Goniatites, has been able
to obtain some valuable results on the subject of the Embry-
ology of Fossil Cephalopods. He finds that the shell in its first
stage is represented by a globular sac, which is not retained in
Nautilus. Into this sac opens the first whorl of the shell, and
the others are coiled round it. Prof, Hyatt has endeavoured to
prove that the series of forms, so well known as depending on
the amount of coiling or uncoiling of an elongated cone, is
epitomised in the life of the individual Nautilus or Ammonite,
the young being at first uncoiled, and the different degrees of
coiling up finding a permanent expression in the genera of
Ammonitide.

ORNITHOLOGISTs will be glad to hear that a new Indian
ornithological journal entitled Svray Feathers, has just been
started by Mr. Allen Hume, and published at Calcutta. The
introductory number contains the first of a series of articles by
the Editor, on the birds of Sindh, which will be welcomed by
many. It also includes the first draught of a ‘‘ Conspectus of
the Avifauna of India and its dependencies,” now in course of
publication.

THE discovery of the African money cowrie (Cypreamoneta)
in the barrow graves of Pomerania, in 1868, has had the effect of
exciting much speculation among archzologists, as to the mode

(Mar. 6, 1873 bs

eee

|

Mar, 6, 1873]

in which they could have been introduced into the country,
Some twenty-seven of them were found in an earthen vase
mixed with earth and sand, each one being notched so as to
permit its being arranged with others upona string. Wagner
is of the opinion that these shells must have been brought by
the Pheenicians for the purpose of bartering with the people for
amber. A closely allied species (C. pantherina) was found in
graves in Swabia, which could not in any way have been
associated with the Phcenicians. Jeitteles also mentions the
occurrence, among certain prehistoric objects found near
Olmiitz, of a coral from the Indian Ocean, found very rarely in
the Mediterranean.

Mr. Epwarp A, BLYDEN has lately presented to Governor
Hennessy, of Sierra Leone, a report of his mission to Falaba,
in Africa, early in the year 1872. His route carried him through
a considerable portion of the less-known region of Eastern
Africa, and much information was derived, which it is proposed
to embody hereafter in a detailed work,

oot mS

THE report of Major Powell of his survey along the Colorado
of the West, during the year 1872, has just been printed by the
U.S. Congress, and embraces as its most striking feature an
account of a remarkable series of folds and faults in the earth’s
strata, of the highest interest to the geologist, Numerous prac-
tical results of value are recorded, especially the discovery of
coal, salt, and metals. Very large collections of special ethno-
logical interest were gathered. An appropriation of 20,000 dols.
is asked for by the Major to continue the work during the current
year.

A BILL is now before Congress providing an appropriation of
29,000 dols., or as much thereof as may be necessary, for the
purpose of having printed, at the government printing office,
one thousand copies of the ‘‘ Descriptive Anatomical Catalogue
of the Army Medical Museum.”

Mr. Joun Murr, in the Overland Monthly, announces the
existence of actual glaciers in the Merced group of Californian
mountains, and remarks that the snow banks of Mounts Lyell
and M‘Clure, of the Yosemite region, are true glaciers as
shown by the forward movement of stakes planted by him across
the bank. The central stakes were found to move forty inches
in forty-six days, while the surroundings exhibit all the peculiari-
ties of glaciers in the form of moraines, &c. The Mount
M‘Clure glacier is about half a mile in length, and of the same
breadth in the broadest part, and the Mount Lyell glacier is
about a mile long.

A BILL has passed one branch of the Legislature of
Michigan establishing a commission of fisheries, and appropriat-
ing 10,000 dols. for two years for purposes connected with the
increase of food fishes in the State.

In the Australian Mechanic for December, a proposal is
mooted for the formation of an association in the southern con-
tinent, similar to our own British Association.

WE learn from the same journal, that a society is in course
of formation in Victoria, on the basis of the London Society
of Arts.

On Feb. 9 there was a shock of earthquake at Antioch.

On February 10 there were earthquake shocks felt at
Durazzo in Turkey, and the 11th at Kavalla in Macubria, and
on the 12th at Jajat also in Turkey ; these were serious in their
consequences. .

On Feb. 14 there was an earthquake at Sour (Tyre), Akka
(St. John d’Acre) and Jerusalem. On the same day there was
a hot stifling wind on the same coast, at Beiroot, which made
breathing difficult. As the Imperial Meteorological Observatory
at Pera, Constantinople, is now constituted under M. Coumbary,

NATURE

35!

with the aid of widespread telegraphs, we shall get better
records of the earthquakes over the large districts of the Turkish
empire. Hitherto our information chiefly depended on the
chance intelligence obtained by M. Charles Ritter, of the Ponts
et Chaussées, and transmitted to Paris.

In the Calcutta Englishman “ A Bengalee”’ calls in question
Mr. Darwin’s statement that Bengalees shrug their shoulders.
He says he remembers having seen several of his countrymen,
who had adopted English ideas and habits, shrug their shoulders,
but never has he observed it in any unsophisticated Bengalee.
The remonstrance shows how widely the study of Mr. Darwin’s
works is disseminated.

A NEW Octopus has been added to the Brighton Aquarium,
in room of the one whose unfortunate end we recently chro-
nicled.

-WE learn from Zes Mondes that under the superintendence ot
M. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the sad havoc made during the
late war upon the Paris Fardin d’ Acclimatation has been nearly
repaired, The collection of animals now numbers 6,148 head,
valued at 158,370 francs ; very nearly 5,000 animals have been
added during 1872. The number of visitors during the past
year has been 238,000.

A PRELIMINARY meeting of skilled workmen was held on
March 1, at the offices of the Working Men’s Club and Institute
Union, at which it was decided to form a Trades Guild of learn-
ing, with a view of enabling skilled workmen to acquire a know-
ledge of history, political economy, technical education, litera-
ture, science and art.

WE learn from the Fournal of Botany that Dr. Erast of
Caracas has been named by the Government of Venezuela to fill
the chair of botany in the University of Caracas, where Natural
History has hitherto never been taught. He is likewise com-
missioned with the foundation and management of a small
botanic garden and the correspondent botanic museum. For
the garden he will have the two large yards of the University
building, both together 1,300 square metres large, which will
give about 800 square metres available ground for planting.

A CATALOGUE is printed by M. Rodembourg, head-gardener,
and M. E. Morren, director of the botanic garden belonging to the
University of Liége, of upwards of 200 species of the interesting
order Bromeliacee cultivated in it,—an evidence of the zeal with
which scientific botany is pursued in some quarters on the
Continent.

WE see from the Ceylon, Odserver that that paper has been
attempting to runa ‘‘pigeon express” between Galle and Co-
lombo, and would very likely have succeeded, had not a blood-
thirsty civet-cat wriggled herself between the narrow bars (13 in.
apart) of the dovecot, and killed off five of the finest pigeons in
training ; in every case it had cut the jugular vein and sucked
the blood. The Odserver hopes, however, that ere many weeks
other pigeons, now in training, will be regularly bringing from
Galle to Colombo the budgets of news, written and printed on
thin paper for the special purpose.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week include a Rose hill Parrakeet (Platycercus eximius)
and a Crested Ground Parrakeet (Ca/opsitta nove-hollandie)
from Australia, presented by Mr. Griffiths Smith. A Crested
Screamer (Chauna chavaria) from Buenos Ayres, presented by
Mrs. Wilson. Two Black-eared Marmosets (/efale penicillata)
from Brazil, presented by Mrs. Bischoffsheim. A White-
throated Capuchin (Cebus ypoleucus) from the U.S. of
Colombia ; a2 Puma (72/is concolor) from Cartagena ; an Ocelot
Felis pardalis) from Savanilla ; and a Prince Alkert’s Curassow
(Crax Alberti) from Cartagena, purchased,

352

NATURE

[ Mar. e) 1873

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION IN GERMANY

PROF. HAECKEL, of the University of Jena, may be re-
garded as the most eminent living representative of the doc-
trine of evolution in Germany. He has wona name for himself
during the last ten years as the author of several remarkable
works in various sections of Natural History ; specially should
be mentioned his monograph on the Radio/aria (Berlin, 1862),
which is, according to Huxley, one of the most solid and impor-
tant contributions to zoology that have appeared for a long time.
We owe also to him a monograph on the Monads (Journal de
Jena pour -la Médecine, &c., 1868), the simplest of known
organisms, and another on the Geryonide or Hydromeduse
(Leipzig, 1865); a history of the development of the S/phono-
phore, a work crowned by the Academy of Utrecht (1869) ;
a paper on the Sarcode bodies of the RArzopoda (in the Four nal de
Zoologie Scientifique, Leipzig, 1865); ‘‘ Considerations on the
Division of Labour in Nature and among Men” (in the collec-
tion of scientific treatises of Virchow and Holzendorff, 1869) ;
and an essay on the ‘‘ Origin and the Genealogical Tree of the
Human Race” (in the same collection, 1868 ; 2nd edition, 1870).
There has just appeared a monograph on the Calcareous
Sponges (See NATuRE, vol. vii. p. 279), on which the
author has been engaged for five years, But his principal work
is undoubtedly his ‘‘ Morphology of Organisms,” in which he
has condensed the result of all his researches, and unfolded his
views on Nature as a whole, its history, its constitution, and its
development : it is a learned treatise on natural philosophy, in
which the author has adopted out and out the system of
Darwin. Indeed, on more than one point he goes much
farther than his master, and does not shrink from any of
the extreme consequences of principles which are simply stated
by the English philosopher : it may with truth be said that he is
more Darwinian than Darwin himself. He aims, in fact, at
filling up the chasm which separates the organic and inorganic
kingdoms, and is inclined to endow with life everything that has
being, down to crystals and the smallest molecule of matter.
Haeckel, with his comprehensive and philosophic mind, has
more than once applied the theory of evolution to certain moral
phenomena, and notably to politics, while Darwin has always
shown considerable reserve in this direction. With respect, also,
to the simian origin of man, he is much more explicit and pre-
cise than the English naturalist. In short, as he does not con-
fine himself simply to the exposition of theories and principles,
as he seeks to recover the marks of development in the particular
genealogy of animal and vegetable organisms, he is compelled to
c mmit himself to a great number of hypotheses, whose boldness
it is impossible to deny. We do not speak thus in the way of
reproach ; we are none of those who think that science can live
on experiment alone ; hypothesis has always preceded experi-
ment, and has seemed to incite and throw light upon it; it is
the torch of induction, and without it the human mind would be
doomed to sterility. Goethe has truly said that bad hypotheses
a-e better than none at all. All that we ought to insist on is,
tiat a hypothesis be abandoned the moment it is found to con-
t-adict certain facts, or when thejsame facts are more satisfactorily
explained by a new hypothesis. One hypothesis may be better
taan another in three points—(1) when it accounts for a greater
number of facts ; (2) when it explains them by a smaller number
of causes ; and (3) when it makes use only of known causes, and
involves a smaller number of accessory hypotheses. This is why
Darwinism is preferable to supematural hypotheses; it only
applies to the whole round of natural phenomena causes which
undoubtedly explain particular facts—natural selection, adapta-
tion, and heredity.

Haeckel has with justice observed that if the doctrine of evolu-
tion has not yet been universally adopted, it ought to be attri-
buted to the want of philosophic culture on the part of the
great majority of contemporary naturalists ; and this reproach is
specially deserved by France, where Darwinism has hitherto
been much less understood thanin England and Germany. ‘‘ The
numerous errors of speculative philosophy during the first thirty
years of our century have brought such discredit on philosophy
as a whole among the advocates of the exact and empirical
method, that the latter at present labour under the strange de-
lusion that the edifice of the natural sciences can be built up by
means of facts alone without philosophic connection,—with

* Translated from an article by M. Léon Dumont in La Réwue Scienti-
“ique for January 25, 1873.

simple notions unenlightened by any general conception. If a
purely speculative work undisturbed by the indispensable con-
ditions of empirical facts is a chimerical edifice whose inanity is
exposed by the first experiment, on the other hand, a purely em-
pirical doctrine, composed exclusively of facts, is only a formless
heap, unworthy of the name of structure. Rough facts are not
the only materials ; philosophic thought alone can rear them
into a science. From this absence of the power of philoso-
phising among naturalists proceed those gross mistakes in the
elements of logic, that incapacity to draw the simplest conclusions,
which are too clearly seen at the present day in all branches of
the natural sciences, but particularly in zoology and botany.” *

Haeckel has given a véswméof his theories as a whole
in a series of lectures delivered at Jena in the Winter of 1867-68,
These lectures have been re-published under the title of ‘* Natural
History of Creation” (Berlin, 1868 ; 2nd ed. 1870), in a volume
which has already gone through several editions. What follows
is an analytical exposition of the most important parts of this
work. The three sections which immediately follow contain the
substance of the 12th, 13th, rqth, and 15th lectures, which
form a division of Haeckel’s work under the title of ‘‘ Principal
Characteristics and Fundamental Laws of the theory of Evolu-
tion.” Haeckel discusses those facts of Embryology, Palzon-
tology, and Chorology, or the geographical distribution of living
beings, which are calculated to throw light upon the science of
the development of species.

Lmbryology

It is astonishing how much ignorance even now prevails upon
the embryonic development of man and animals generally.
Just as the originator of the theory of evolution—Lamarck—had
to wait half a century before Darwin came to rescue his doctrine
from oblivion, and impart to it new life, so Wolff’s theory of
Epigenesis, published in 1759, remained almost unknown till
1803, when there appeared Oken’s ‘* History of the develop.
ment of the Intestinal Canal.” It was only then that the study
of Ontogenesis began to spread, and soon there appeared the
classic researches of Pander (1817), and Baer (1819), The
latter especially, in a book which marks an epoch (‘‘ History of
the Development of Animals”), has established the most impor-
tant facts of the embryology of the vertebrates with so much~™
intelligence and philosophic depth, that his doctrines have
become the indispensable basis for the study of that group of
animals to which men belong.

At the outset of his existence, man, like every other
animal organism, is only an egg, a simple little cell, whose
diameter is only one-fourth of a millimetre at the most. It
differs from the primordial cellule of the other mammalia only
in its chemical constitution and the molecular composition of the
albuminous matter of which the egg essentially consists. And
yet these differences cannot be directly perceived by any means
at our disposal ; but we are compelled by indirect conclusions
to suppose their existence as the prime cause of the difference in
individuals, The human egg encloses all the essential clemenis
of a simple organic cellule: a protoplasm which bears the name
of witellus, and a nucleus or germinal vesicle. This nucleus is a
small sphere itself enclosing another nucleus much smaller still,
the sucleolus ; exteriorly the protoplasm is enveloped by a mem-
brane which is knowa by the name of zona pellucida. The eggs
of many of the lower animals, as the greater part of the medusa,
are on the contrary naked cells, which do’ not possess this
envelope.

As soon as the egg of the mammal is completely developed,
it leaves the ovary and descends, by the narrow cenal of the
oviduct, into the uterus, where, after fecundation, it becomes an
embryo. This transformation is thus brought about :—the
original cellule becomes divided into two cellules ; on the pri-
mitive nucleolus are formed tivo new specks, and the nucleus
becomes separated into two vesicles, each of which takes with
it half of the protoplasm. The result of this process is that in
the heart of the vitelline membrane, which alone is not divided,
two cellules are found in juxtaposition, differing from the original
only in being unenyeloped, Each of these new cellules is in
its turn divided into two others, so as to form four, which in
the same way become eight, these eight, sixteen, and so on ; these
successive segmentations producing an agglomeration of cellules,
in outward appearance resembling a mulberry. The further deve-
lopment consists in these cells assuming the shape of a sac (vesicuda
blastodermica), in the interior of which a Jiquid collects ; shortly,
on a point of the wall which is composed of these cells

* General Morphology, I. 63 ; II. 447.

see

a

.

| Mar. 6, 1873]

is produced a disc-like coagulation; their number rapidly
increases, and this particular condensation becomes the embryo
strictly so called, while the remaimder of the blastoderm
serves only for its nourishment. The embryo soon begins
to broaden into the form ofa biscuit. Three leaves or layers of
cellules can be distinguished, superposed like envelopes upon
each other, and each having its particular place in the construc-
tion of the living being ; from the exterior leaf is formed the
epidermis and the central parts of the nervous system, the spinal
marrow and the brain ; from the central layer is formed the in-
terior membrane which lines the digestive canal from the mouth
to the anus, with all the glands that are attached to it (the lungs,
the liver, the salivary glands, &c.) ; the intermediate layer is the
source of all the other organs.

The processes by which the three layers of cellules give birth
to the most complicated organs can all be reduced—(1) To new
segmentations, and consequently to an increase in the number of
the cells ; (2) To the division of labour or the differentiation of
these cellules ; (3) To the combination of these cellules, diffe-
rently developed. The cellules which comprise a living orga-
nism may thus be compared to the citizens of a state, some of
whom have one set of functions to perform, others another ;
the division of labour, and the organic perfection which results
from it, enables the state to accomplish certain undertakings
which would be impossible to isolated individuals, Every living
organism composed of many cellules resembles a sort of republic
capable of accomplishing certain organic functions, which could
not be discharged by a single cell, an ameéa, or a monocellular
plant. No rational mind would seek to explain by superhuman
intervention the public weal which accrues to political society,
from the harmony of particular actions ; so also in the organism,
all the adaptations to ends ought to be regarded as the natural
_ and necessary consequence of co-operation, of the differentiation

_ and the perfection of the cellules, and not as the intentional work
of a supernatural will.

Until the brain begins to show itself distinctly, it is scarcely
possible to recognise any difference between the embryos of the
different vertebrata, or at least of the three superior classes—
reptiles, birds, and mammals. Why, then, should any one now
refuse to admit the most important consequence of the theory of
evolution, according to which men have descended from simious
or even inferior mammals? Are the phenomena of the develop-
ment of the individual man, the earliest characteristics of which
are given above, less marvellous? Is it not in the highest degree
astonishing that all the vertebrate animals, belonging to the most
diverse classes—fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds, and mammals
-—cannot, in the earliest stages of their embryonic development,
be distinguished from each other, and that even at a much later
stage, when reptiles and birds are distinctly separated from
mammalia, man and the dog are still almost identical? The
development of the individual (ov¢ogevests) is as difficult to ex-
plain as that of the species (Phy/ogenesis). It may be even said
_ that it is still more so, seeing that it has an infinitely shorter time
_ in which to be accomplished. The former is nothing more than
a compact reproduction of the latter, and Haeckel rightly finds
in this parallelism the most incontestible proof in favour of the
theory of evolution. Man and the superior vertebrata reproduce
in the earlier phases of their development conditions which last
through the life of the lower orders of fishes ; they then pass into
_ forms which are characteristic of the amphibia ; the marks of the
mammalia appear only at a later stage, and even here are dis-
covered a succession of degrees which correspond to the charac-
ters of different species or families. It is the same order in
which the palzontological history of the earth shows us the suc-
cessive production of the different animal forms—first the fishes,
then the amphibia, next the inferior mammals, and last the
superior mammals.

Side by side with these two orders of evolution there is a
third parallel with them: it is that which is found particu-
larly expounded in the works of Cuvier, Goethe, Meckel,
Johannes Miiller, Gegenbaur, Huxley, and forms the subject of
comparative anatomy. This science seeks to determine what is
common to the forms of different species, and studiés living
beings from the point of view of the scale of perfection. In
this respect also we find that fishes, amphibia, and the inferior
mammals stand in the same relation to man as from the stand-
point of embryonic evolution and of palzontology. Now, this
triple parallelism of individual development, of palzeontological
development, and of systematic development, is completely
explained by the theory of transformation, by the laws of

NATURE

353

heredity and adaptation, while no opponent of the theory of
evolution has ever been able to account for it in a natural and
philosophic manner. Haeckel concludes from this that we
shall be compelled to admit Lamarck’s theory of evolution, if we
are not led to accept Darwin’s theory of selection.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDON

Royal Society, Feb. 20.—‘‘On the Anatomy of the Land
Planarians of Ceylon.” By H.N. Moseley, M.A., Exeter Col-
lege, Oxford. :

Two new species of Land Planarians from Ceylon are described
as belonging to the genus Jifadivm (Stimpson), 2. Ceres, the
other to that of Ryzchodemus, R. Thwaitesit.

With regard to the habits of Bipalium, the most interesting
facts noted are that these animals use a thread of their body-
slime for suspension in air, as aquatic Planarians were ob-
served to do for their suspension in water by Sir J. Dalyell, and
the cellar-slug does for its suspension in air. The anatomy of
the Planarians was studied by means of vertical and longitudinal
sections from hardened specimens. The skin in Bifalium and
Rynchodemus closely conforms to the Planarian type, but is more
perfectly differentiated histologically than in aquatic species, and
approaches that of the leech in the distribution, colour, and
structure of its pigment, and especially in the arrangement of the
glandular system. The superficial and deep glandular systems of
the leech are both here represented. In 2. Ceres peculiar glan-
dular structures exist, which may foreshadow the segmental
organs of Annelids, it being remembered that these segmental
organs are solid in an early stage of development. Rod-like
bodies are present in abundance, though, singularly enough, Max
Schultze failed to find any in Geof/ana. These rod-like bodies
are probably homologous with the nail-like bodies of Nemer-
tines ; and it is possible that the setze of Annelids are modifica-
tions of them.

The muscular arrangement in 2ipalium, which is very complex,
throws great light on the homologies between the muscular layers
of Zurbellaria and those of other Vermes. In Sifalium there
isan external circular muscular coat, which even presents the
same imbricated structure which is found in it in leeches and other
worms. In Dendrocalum lacteum there is also an external circu-
lar coat. In cases where a distinct external circular muscular
coatis absent, it is represented by a thick membrane, which is
very probably contractile. All Turbellarians are built on the
same essential type, as regards muscular arrangement, as are
other worms. ‘The general muscular arrangements in the bodies
of the Bifalium and Rynchodemus haye become much modified
from those of flat Planarians by the pinching together and con-
densation of the body, but they are nevertheless referable to the
same type.

The digestive tract consists of three tubes, one anterior, two
posterior, as in other Planarians, and as in the embryo leech
before the formation of the anus. Characteristic of land Plana-
rians, and consequent on the condensation of the body, is the
absence of all diverticulze from the inner aspects of the two pos-
terior digestive tubes. The close approximation of the intestinal
diverticula in Bipalium and Rhynchodemus, and the reduction
of the intervening tissue to a mere membranous septum, is very
striking, and seems to foreshadow the condition of things in
Annelids. The great difference in the form of the mouth in
Rhynchodemus and Bipalium is also remarkable, considering the
many points in which these forms are closely allied.

A pair of large water-vascular trunks, or, as they are here
termed, primitive vascular trunks, are conspicuous objects in
transverse sections of the bodies of Bipaliam and Rhynchodemus.
A peculiar network of connective tissue is characteristic of these
vascular canals on section, and is shown to present exactly
similar features in Leftoplana tremellaris, Dendrocelum lacteum,
and Bothriocephalus latus. The close agreement in the relative
position of the oviducts to the vascular canals in Dendrocalum
and our land Planarians is very remarkable. The nerves and
ganglia of Planarians lie within the primitive vascular system, as
do the corresponding structures within the primitive body-cayity
of the leech. ;

A small marine Planarian was found to contain hemoglobin.
In Aifalium there are a series of separate testes disposed in
pairs, asin the leech. In Rhynchodemus the testicular cavities,

354

r sely packed, and follow no such definite arrange-
ee Hi ae peers are ‘simple sacs in both Bipalium and Rhyn-
chodemus, and are placed very far forwards in the head, a
long distance from the uterus. In Bipalium, short branches
given off from the posterior positions of the oviduct are the rudi-
ments of a ramified ovary, such as exists in Dendrocelum lac-
teum. The organs described as nervous ganglia by Blanchard
in Polycladus are almost certainly its testes and ovaries, and
therefore the arrangement of these bodies in Polycladus is the

hat in Bipalium. ;
a The cheat 5 ster is ill defined, but appears to consist of a
network of fibres ee ganglion-cells, which lies within the
imitive vascular canals.
eco eye-spots are presented in Bigalium, most of them
being grouped in certain regions in the head, but some few being
found all over the upper surface of the body, even down to the
tail. In MRhynchodemus two eyes only are present. All grada-
tions would appear to exist between the simple unicellular eye-
spot of Bipalinm and the more complex eye of Leptoplana or
Geodesmus, where the lens is split up into a series of rod-like
bodies, forming apparently a stage towards the compound eyes

iculata. é pe 1
‘i Jone tae the general anatomy of ipalium, it is impos-
sible to help being struck by the many points of resemblance
between this animal anda leech. Mr. Herbert Spencer has, in
his ‘‘ Principles of Biology,” placed a gulf between Planarians
and leeches by denoting the former as secondary, the latter as
tertiary aggregates, so called because consisting of a series of
secondary aggregates formed one behind the other by a process
of budding. Itis obvious, however, that a single lecch is directly
comparable to a single Bipalium, The successive pairs of testes,
the position of the intromittent generative organs, the septa of
the digestive tract, and most of all, the pair of posterior czca,
are evidently homologous in the two animals. Further, were
leeches really tertiary aggregates, the faet would surely come out
in their development, or at least some indication of the mode of
their genesis would survive in the development of some annelid.
Such, however, is not the case. — The young worm or leech is at
first unsegmented, like a Planarian, and the traces of segmenta-
tion appear subsequently in it, just as do the protovertebrz in
vertebrates which Mr. Spencer calls secondary aggregates. If
Mr. Spencer’s hypothesis was correct, we should expect to find
at least some Annelid developing its segments in the egg as a
series of buds. It is not, of course, here meant to be concluded
that Annelids are not sometimes in a condition of tertiary
aggregation, as ats certainly is when in a budding condition,
but that ordinarily they are secondary and not tertiary aggre-
gates, and if so, then so also are Arthropoda. :

“Qn a new Locality of Amblygonite, and on Montebrasite, a
new hydrated Aluminium and Lithium Phosphate.” By M.
Des Cloizeaux.

Geological Society, Feb. 5, Warington W. Smyth, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair. The following communication was
read :—‘*On the Oolites of Northamptonshire.—Part II.
By Samuel Sharp, F.G.S. In the first part of this memoir the
succession of beds in the neighbourhood of Northampton was
shown to be as follows :—

Clay
White Limestone
Clay with Ferruginous Band...
(‘‘ Upper Estuarine ”) ...
Line of Unconformity.
Sand with Plant Bed............
(* Lower Estuarine”) ...
Variable Beds.........sc00--20+ 0+
Tronstone Beds .......sssseseeee
Upper Lias Clay.

The Great Oolite limestone of this section has been con-
founded, even up to the present time, with a limestone (frequently
Oolitic) which occurs between Kettering and Stamford, is pre-
valent about the latter town, extends through Rutland and Lin-
colnshire (where it attains a thickness exceeding 200 feet) and
into Yorkshire, which limestone has been distinguished by Mr,
Judd as the ‘‘ Lincolnshire limestone.” The object of the author
was to show that these two limestones were distinct, and that
while the former was of the Great Oolite period, the latter as
certainly belonged to the Inferior Oolite ; and in citing evidence
in proof of this position upon stratigraphical and palzeontological
grounds, he gave a general account of the geology of the northern

ment.

Great Oolite.

Northampton

Gand Inferior Oolite.
anc

NATURE —

division of Northamptonshire, illustrating his description by the
exhibition of numerous fossils gathered from the various beds
and localities referred to. Between Northampton and Kettering,
the Great Oolite limestone is the surface rock ; and intersecting
valleys upon that line, and the escarpment of the Ise valley, a
mile east of Kettering, exhibic this s€quence of beds :—

Great Oolite Limestone.

Upper Estuarine Clays.

Inferior Oolite ... Lower Estuarine Beds ) Northampton
33 ... Ferruginous Beds ...... Sand.
Upper Lias......... Clay.

And this section, with the successive superaddition of Great
Oolite, Clay, Cornbrash, Kelloway Rock, and Oxford Clay, is
continued due east across the country to the Valley of the Nene,
and on into Huntingdonshire. Upon the same Ise escarpment,
about a mile north-east of Kettering, the thin end of the wedge
of the Lincolnshire limestone is seen to come in; and this
sequence, for the first time, is presented :—

Great Oolite ......

Limestone.

Upper Estuarine Clays.

LINCOLNSHIRE LIMESTONE (very thin).
Lower Estuarine Beds ) Northampton
Ferruginous Beds .....) .Sand,

Clay.

The same sequence, with the occasional superaddition of the
Great Oolite Clay, was shown to be repeated upon the western
escarpment of the Ise, at Glendon, Barford Bridge, near Rock-

” 9900 teens

Upper Ties. tact

‘ingham at Weekly, and at Geddington (the Lincolnshire lime-

stone increasing in thickness at every advance), and to occur
over and over again upon innumerable escarpments in the
counties of Northampton, Rutland, Lincoln, and York, offering
unmistakeable and incontrovertible evidence of the true strati-
graphical position of the Lincolnshire limestone.

February 21.—Annual General Meeting. His Grace the Duke
of Argyll, K.T., F.R.S., president, in the chair. The Secretary
read the Reports of the Council, and of the Library and Museum
Committee. The general position of the Society was described
as satisfactory, and the number of Fellows is said to have
essentially increased.

In presenting the Wollaston Gold Medal to Sir Philip de
Malpas Grey-Egerton, Bart, F.R.S., F.G.S., the president
spoke as follows :—‘ Sir Philip Egerton,—I consider myself
fortunate in being the organ of the Geological Society in pre-
senting you with the Wollaston Medal, which has been awarded
to you by the Council for the present year. The eminent ser-
vices which you have rendered to geology during a period now
extending over forty years have long been familiar to scientific
men, and have given you more than a European reputation.
These services have been so great and so universally recognised,
that the only difficulty I now have is not in assigning grounds
for the vote which I have the pleasure of announcing, but in ex-
plaining why it has been so long delayed. That delay has been
occasioned, I believe, solely by the fact that you have yourself
been so long an honoured member of the Council whose duty it
is to consider the claims of geologists for the honours of this
Society ; and whatever influence you have had in that body has
doubtless been exerted in favour of others to the exclusion of
yourself. It is at least some compensation for the loss which
the Council sustains in your absence that it is now able to accord
a recognition which has long been due. The many papers
which you have contributed to this Society from 1833 down to
the present time are a sufficient indication of the wide range of
your observations. But the special attention you have bestowed
and the light you have thrown on the structure and affinities o}
fossil fishes and reptiles, have been of the highest value, and
have formed in the aggregate a most important contribution to
our knowledge of the history of organic life. I have the highest
pleasure in now handing to you the Wollaston Medal.” 3

Sir Philip Egerton, in reply, said :—‘* My Lord President,
I know not whether it is owing to the poverty of the English
language or to my unskilfulness in use of it, but Iam quite at a
loss for words adequate to express my appreciation of the great
and unexpected honour conferred upon me by the award of the
Wollaston Medal, and for appropriate terms to convey to
your Grace my acknowledgments of the kind, but too
flattering terms you have used in communicating the decision of
the Council; and my embarrassment is increased by the con-
sciousness that, in comparison with those illustrious names
which already adorn the Wollaston roll, I am quite unworthy

[ Mar. 6, 1873

|
:
:
.

=—e- ey

] Mar. 6, 1873]

of this great distinction. I cannot presume to think that the
humble contributions I have been enabled to make to geological
knowledge (and indeed to but a limited branch of it) can have
been weighed in the balance against the labours of many others
on both sides of the Atlantic, whose lives have been devoted to
geological research, but who have not yet attained the distinc-
tion awarded to me to-day. In comparison with these my
claims are quite insignificant. I must therefore look elsewhere
to discem the motive which has influenced the Council
in selecting my name on the present occasion in pre-
ference to others whose scientific claims are far greater than
my own, and I think I am right in assigning it to a desire
on their part to recognise, encourage, and occasionally
reward the labours of those who although their lot in life
has been cast in a sphere entailing many paramount duties
which ought not to be neglected, nevertheless devote their
- leisure time to the promotion of scientific research rather than
waste it in frivolous and unproductive amusements. In this
_ sense I interpret the mind of the Council in awarding me this
medal, and in this sense, as also as a stimulus and incentive to
persevere in the cause of that science in which I take so deep an
interest, and from the study of which I have derived so much
intellectual enjoyment, I can, without arrogance, most gratefully
accept it. May I be permitted to add, that if anything could
enhance the feelings of gratification I experience in receiving
this, the J/ue ribbon of geology, it is that it is presented by a
President who, although occupying the highest social rank, and
called by our gracious Sovereign to fill the highest offices of
State, entailing most onerous duties and grave responsibilities,
has nevertheless devoted himself to the study of scientific pro-
blems, and has inscribed for himself a name on the tablets of
scientific literature, indelible so long as the Reign of Law shall
continue to exist.”

The President then presented the balance of the proceeds of
the Wollaston Donation-Fund to Mr. J. W. Judd, F.G.S., and
addressed him as follows :—‘‘ Mr. Judd,—I have much pleasure
in delivering to you the award of the Council of this Society in
- recognition of your valuable researches in the Neocomian and
Jurassic rocks of England, researches which you are now extend-
ing with such marked success to the Secondary and Paleozoic
rocks of Scotland. I rejoice to know that you are to carry to
an investigation of the West coast of Scotland the experience
and knowledge you have shown in your recent account of the
Secondary rocks of the East coast. The scattered and broken
_ remains of the Oolites in the Hebrides constitute a most inte-
resting field of investigation ; and a detailed examination of them
conducted by you cannot fail to cast important light on many
geological problems of the highest interest to our science.”

Mr. Judd made the following reply :—‘‘ My Lord President,—
_ The recollection of an occasion like the present may well be
cherished by a student of science as an incentive to exertion
second only to the enthusiasm of research itself. Having learned
to look to this Society, and never in vain, for the encouragement
_ of sympathy and the guidance of criticism, it is with especial
gratification that I receive this mark of confidence at the hands
of my teachers and fellow-workers. When I think of the origin
and traditions of this bequest—the objects contemplated by its
illustrious founder, the distinguished geologists who have been
its former recipients, and the important researches to which it
has been made contributory—I am deeply impressed by the trust
_ which you have reposedin me. It is my hope that by earnest.

Jabour I may be able to testify that my feelings of gratitude are
_ not evanescent, nor my sense of responsibility light, in connec-
tion with the great honour which you have this day done me.”

The President then presented the Murchison Medal to Mr.
William Davies, of the British Museum, and addressed him as
follows :—‘‘ Mr. Davies,—I have much pleasure in delivering
to you the Murchison Medal, which has been awarded to you by
_ the Council of this Society in recognition of the services you
_haye rendered to Palzontology, in the skill and knowledge you

have displayed in the reconstruction of extinct forms of life. I
have the more pleasure in giving this medal, as I believe you
_will have the greater pleasure in receiving it, from the fact that
it is the first award made under and in fulfilment of the will of
_ the great geologist and excellent man whose loss we have all
had so lately to deplore. I trust it may long serve to stimulate
others to such services as you have rendered, and which have
appeared to the Council of this Society to make you a worthy
recipient of the First Murchison Medal.”
_ Mr. Davies in reply said :—‘‘My Lord Duke, I desire to

NATURE

355

return my most sincere thanks to your Grace as President, and
to the Council of this Society, for the honour they have con-
ferred upon me in awarding me the Murchison medal. It is
extremely gratifying to find that the humble services I have
rendered to Palzontological science have been so kindly appre-
ciated and deemed worthy of this high recognition. The pleasure
is greatly enhanced by the fact that I have never considered my
scientific work of sufficient importance to deserve any recog-
nition—the acquisition of scientific knowledge and the happiness
of communicating it to others having, in my own case, been its
own reward. I shall now feel it to be my duty as well as my
ambition to render myself more worthy of the distinction you
have this day conferred upon me—one which has also an especial
significance to a-servant of that great National Institution for
which Sir Roderick Murchison so long and beneficially acted as
a Trustee.”

The President then delivered to Prof. Ansted, F.R.S., For.
Sec., for transmission to Prof. Oswald Heer, of Ziirich, the
balance of the Murchison Fund, and spoke as follows :—‘‘Mr,
Secretary,—The labours of Prof. Heer in fossil botany and ento«
mology have this year been recognised by this Council in the
vote of the Murchison Fund. No branch of Palzontology
requires more minute research, more careful comparison,
more circumspect conclusions—and there are none, I may
add, which, when so conducted, are richer in suggestions
on the history of geological change. The fragmentary
character which generally belongs to terrestrial and especially
to botanical remains, places the study of them under special
difficulties, difficulties which have been met with special skill by
Prof. Heer. The remains of the Miocene flora are connected
with some of the most perplexing problems of-our science, and
the light which has been thrown upon them by Prof. Heer more
than deserves the recognition which I have now the pleasure of
delivering into your hands for trnnsmission to that distinguished
man. This is the second mark of recognition which this Society
has given to Prof. Heer, the Wollaston Donation Fund having
been voted to him in 1862.”

Prof. Ansted having suggested that Sir Charles Lyell, as a
particular friend of Prof. Heer’s, might very appropriately speak
in his name, Sir Charles Lyell in reply referred briefly to the
nature of Prof. Heer’s work, and said that he was sure that
gentleman would appreciate highly this renewed expression of the
interest taken by the Geolozical Society in his pursuits. Sir
Charles Lyell remarked further, that he was particularly gratified
that this award had been made at the present time, as Prof.
Heer was well advanced in years and in an exceedingly infirm
state of health, so that perhaps another opportunity of showing
him respect and sympathy might not occur.

The President then read his Anniversary Address, in which
he discussed the phenomena of denudation, referring especially
to the influence of subterranean and other movements of the
crust of the earth upon the denudation of its surface, and dis-
puting the greatness of the denuding effects of glacial action.
The Address was prefaced by biographical notices of deceased
Fellows, including Prof. Sedgwick, Dr. Kelaart, Mr. Augustus
Smith, Mr. N. Beardmore, and Prof. Pictet—The Ballot for
the Council and Officers was taken, and the following were duly
elected for the ensuing year :—President : the Duke of Argyll,
K.T., F.R.S.; Vice-Presidents: Prof. P. Martin Duncan,
F.R.S. ; R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S. ; Joseph Prestwich,
F.R.S.; Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. Secretaries :
John Evans, F.R.S.; David Forbes, F.R.S. Foreign Secre-
tary: Warington W. Smyth, F.R.S, Treasurer: J. Gwyn
Jeffreys, F.R.S. Council: Prof. D. T. Ansted, F.R.S.; the
Duke of Argyll; W. Carruthers, F.R.S. ; Prof. P. M. Duncan,
F.R.S. ; Sir. P. de M. G. Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.; R.
Etheridge, F.R.S. ; J. Evans, F.R.S.; J. Wickham Flower ;
D. Forbes, F.R.S.; Capt. Douglas Galton C.B., F.R.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S. ; J. Whitaker Hulke, F.R.S.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S. ; Sic Charles Lyell, Bart., F.R.S.
C. J. A. Meyer; J. Carrick Moore, F.R.S.; J. Prestwich,
F.R.S.; Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S.; R. H. Scott, F.R.S. ;
W. W. Smyth, F.R.S.; Prof. J. Tennant, F.C.S.; W.
Whitaker ; Rev. T. Wiltshire, M.A., F.L.S.

wee ewe

Meteorological Society, Feb. 19.—Dr.J.W.Tripe, president,
in the chair. The following papers were read:—‘‘A de-
scription of an electrical self-registering Anemometer and
rain-gauge,” by the Rev. F. W. Stow, M.A. The general
principle on which the registering apparatus is constructed is

356

that of the Morse telegraph instrument as worked in America,
The tape is drawn bya clock at the uniform rate of 6 inches
per hour. As it passes over a grooved«brass roller, holes are
punched in it by a sharp steel point, drawn down by an electro-
magnet whenever the electric circuit is completed, and drawn
back by a spiral spring when the contact is broken. There are
two grooves in the roller and two electro-magnets, one of which
is worked by the anemometer, and the other by the rain-gauge.
Thus, when both magnets are in operation, two parallel rows
of holes are punched in the tape.—‘* On the Madras Cyclone of
May 2, 1871,” by Captain H. Toynbee, F.R.A.S. After giving
extracts from several logs containing data taken during the time of
the hurricane, and observations taken at the Madras Observa-
tory ; the author says it seems fair to conclude that the centre of
this cyclone passed to the W. and probably to the N. W. between
the parallels of 10° and 13° N. ; thatits route was probably
much interfered with by the high land to the W. and S.W. of
Madras ; but that it caused very disturbed weather on the west
coast of India. The paper concludes with some practical
suggestions as to how ships might more safely ride out a gale.—
**On the character of the storm of August 21 and 23, 1868, over
the British Isles,” by Captain T. O. Watson.

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Feb. 17.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dent, in the chair. A decree of the President of the Republic
authorising the election of M. Janssen to the Academy was
read, and M. Janssen admitted. M. Faye read the termination
of his answer to Fathers Secchi and Tacchini ; it was devoted to
the refutation of Secchi’s statement that spots were solar erup-
tions and the proof that they were down-rushes caused by
cyclones.—M. A. Trecul read apaper on the carpellary theory
as regards Martynia fragrans.—M, A. de Caligny contributed
a further paper on hydraulic engineering, &c.—Colonel H.
Levret sent a note on the determination of geographical position
on any elipsoid, and M. Boutin anote on the presence of nitre
in Amarantus Blitum ; the dried plant contains 11°68 parts per
cent. by weight of potassic nitrate.—M. T. Tissandier presented
a description of some meteorological observations made ina
balloon.—M. L, Hugo sent a note on two antique dodecahe-
dra in the Louvre, and M. Brachet two microscope lenses made
of spinelle ruby; he believes that these will act better than
the portion of the object-glass which is usually made of crown
glass. A letter from P. Tacchini witha drawing of the remarkable
appearance of Jupiter during January was received.—M. J. Bour-
get sent a paper on the mathematical theory of Pinaud’s experi-
ments on the sounds produced by heated tubes.—M. Wurtz
presented a note from Dr. L. C, de Coppet on the recent
communications of MM. Gernez and Vander Mensbrugghe on
super-saturated solutions.—M. Bussy communicated a note from
M. Lefranc on atractylic acid; this acid occurs in Af¢ractylis
gummifera L. —MM. Schiitzenberger and Risler sent a paper on
the oxidising power of blood.—The eighth note of M. P. Bert
on experimental researches on the effect of changes of barometric
pressure on life, was received—M. Laboulbéne communicated
a note on the cause of the elevation of central tempera-
ture in cases of acute pleurisy, &c.—M. E. Riviere sent a
note on the pre-historic station of Cape Roux.—From M. Cham-
pouillon a note on certain imperfections in the official report on
recruiting in France was received.—M. Guerin sent a note on
silkworm disease; he finds that both healthy and unhealthy
moths lay sound eggs.

Feb. 24.—M. de Quatrefages, president, in the chair.—M.
Pasteur read a note on M. Comalia’s report on silkworm cultiva-
tion. M. Pasteur believes that his system of preserving the
healthy eggs will produce good results,.—M. Dumas reported on
Mr. Fayrer’s book on Indian poison snakes.—M. J. Raulin pre-
sented a paper on the silkworm disease, and M. Hugo a note on
a necklace of polyhedric beads in the Louvre. M. Ed. Weyer a
note on left-handed curves of the sixth order. M. de Rebaucour
on the cyclic systems, MM. Troost and Hautefeuille on the
“*solution ” of gases in cast and wrought iron and in steel. The
authors believe that the gases given offin the ‘‘ boiling” of iron
are due to decompositions in the iron itself—M. Ch. Violette
sent a note on the compound of sugar with potassic chloride,
and M. Grimaux one on the solidifying points of solutions of
acetic anhydride in water.—M. Bidaud sent a note on the flame
reaction of boric anhydride, He finds it to be excessively deli-
cate, with a coal-gas bunsen flame.—M. L. Ranvier sent a paper
on the regeneration of cut nerves. - MM. D. Tommasi and G,

NATURE

| Mar. 6, 1873

Quesneville on the action of zinc on acetylic chloride ; M. G.
Perry, notes on the third ray in triple refracting crystals and on
the variability of the co-efficient of elasticity and dispersion.

_
DIARY :

THURSDAY, Marcu 6.

Royat Society, at 8.30.—On the Vapour Density of Potassium: J. Dewar

sect Dittmarr.—On New Sources of Ethyl and Methyl Aniline: J.
piller.

Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—On the Troad: Sir John Lubbock.

Linngan Society, at 8.—On the Perigynium of Carex: G. Bentham.

CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—On the Action of Hydrechloric Acid on Codeine :
Dr. C. R. A. Wright.—New Process of Mercury Estimation, with some
Observations on Mercury Salts: P. Hannay.—On a Method of Estimating
Nitric Acid : T. E. Thorpe —Note on the Action of Acetates upon Solu-
oats a Pine Salts, with Remarks on the Solubility of Plumbic Chloride :
I. Field.

Roya InstTiTuTION, at 3.—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.

Rutherford.
FRIDAY, Marcu 7.
Roya InstITuTION, at 3.-—On the Temperature of the Sun and the Work
of Sunlight: James Dewar.
Gerotocists’ Association, at 8 —On the Geology of Brighton: James
Howell.—On some Fossils from the Margate Chalk: W. Wetherell.
Roya. CoLLecE oF SuRGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals; Prof. Flower.

SATURDAY, Marcu 8. >.
Roya InstiTuTION, at 3.—On the Philosophy of the Pure Sciences: Prof.

W. K. Clifford.
SUNDAY, Marcu 9.
Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—The Education of Women;

Fawcett.
MONDAY, Marcu to.
Roya CoLiece or SuRGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.
Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 4.—Physical Geography: Prof. Duncan.
Royat GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8 30.—Notes of a Journey in Southern
Formosa: J. Thomson.
Cantor LecTurEs, at 8.—On the Energy of Light, with especial reference
to the Measurement and Utilisation of it; Rev. Arthur Rigg.

TUESDAY, Marcu 11. ¥
Puotocrapuic Society, at 8.—On the Development of Negatives and
‘Transparencies : Col. Stuart Wortley.—On the Photographic Operations
for observing the coming Transit of Venus: Lord Lindsay.
Royvat INsTITUTION, at 3.—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.

Rutherford,
WEDNESDAY, Marcu 12.

Society or Arts, at 8.—Ou Signalling at Sea, with speclal reference to
Signals of Distress : Capt. Colomb. =

GEOLOGICAL Society, at §.—On the Sotfatarajand some Sulphur-deposits at
Kalamaki, near Corinth; Prof. Ansted.—On the Origin of Clay-ironstone ;
J. Lucas.—Note in vindication of Leptophlaum rhombicum and Lepido-
dendron gaspianum: Principal Dawson.—Synopsis of the younger forma-
tions of New Zealand: Captain F W. Hutton

ARCHAZOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, at 8.

Lonpvon InstiTuTION, at 7.—Fresco and Siliceous Painting ; Prof. Barff.

Roya CoLieGE oF SuRGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.

Mrs,

BOOKS RECEIVED

Encuisu.—The Student’s Manual of Comparative Anatomy and Guide to
Dissection, Part 1, Mammalia: G. H. Morrell, M.A—The Romance of
Astronomy: R. K. Miller (Macmillan).—Colymbia (Triibner).—A Course
of Qualitative Chemical Analysis: W. G. Valentin (Churchill).—£xalted
States of the Nervous System. 3rd Edition: R. H. Collyer (Renshaw).—
The Story of the Earth and Man: J. W. Dawson (Hodder and Stoughton).

Foreicn.—Einleitung in die Theoretische Physik : V. Von Lang (Williams
and Norgate).

CONTENTS PAGE
Harvestinc Ants AND TrAp-Door Sripers. By AtFreD R.
Watrace, LS. 2 2. 58s oe 3 8s 8
Tue SEpuLCHRAL MoNUMENTS OF CORNWALL . « «. « « « «© + 337
Our Book SHELF. . > 6) 10,0 + © © © + \s)) 9 eee eee
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :-—-
Excernal Perception in Horses.—Rev. Canon KINGSLEY . . + . 340
External Perception in Dogs.—HybDg CLARKE .. .. . « . 340
Mr. Wallace on Instinct.—W, R. Nicott. . « .» « . + + « = 340
Effect of Light on the Electric Conductivity of Selenium.—Harry
Napier Draper; M. L. SALE, R.E.. . . « - « «© « « =» 340
The Zodiacal Light —Maxwett Hatt; T. W. BACKHOUSE . . 340
The Meteoric Shower.—MAxwELL HALL. . . - - « 6 « + 342
Maupertius on the Survival of the Fittest.—Prof. W. STANLEY
Jevons, F.R.S. . Site ee oe ss ss
“Diathermanous” or ‘‘ Transfervent.”—W. G. Apams, F.R.S. . 341
Flight of Projectiles—A Query.—RopertT REID. . . . . « « 340
On Action AT A Distance. By Prof. Clerk Maxwe tt, F.R.S, 34t
On Lear-ARRANGEMENT. By Dr. HuBert Atry . 343

5 is. een
On THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS, V. By J. NoRMAN

Lockyer, F.R.S. (With Tilustrations.) . . . . + « 6 « 5 © 345
HunrTeriaAn LEcTuRES BY ProF. FLOWER F.R.S.. . . « « + « » 348
NOTES.) «co ta co 0 BD ele eS ou) oh ane
Tue Tueory ofr EvotuTionIN GERMANY. . .« oe. ise, oe
SoclETIES AND ACADEMIES «+ + + + te hae oy ee aes
BOOxs RECEIVED, = © lpia © (6 eee oe) eee Ee
DDYARV <6 0 cia 6 Qe OSB Te, ce 6c) a) na

ee

7 at. ey 4 on?

THURSDAY, MARCH 133, 1873

HERBERT SPENCER’S PSYCHOLOGY *

The Principles of Psychology. By Herbert Spencer.
Second edition. (Williams and Norgate.)
Ue
O the healthy scientific mind the fine-spun arguments
and the wonderful logical achievements of metaphy-
sicians are at once so bewildering and so distasteful
that men of science can scarcely be got to listen even to
those who would undertake to show that the arguments
are but cobwebs, the logic but jingle, and the seeming
profundity little more than a jumble of incongruous ideas
shrouded in a mist of words. Hence, it is hardly known
that one of the two living thinkers who in philosophy
stand head and shoulders above all their contemporaries,
has put forth all his strength in a grand effort to demon-
strate the baselessness, the inconsistency, the unreality of
all anti-realistic metaphysics. The disciples of Berkeley
and Hume, skilful in argument, and generally armed with
a psychology superior to that of their antagonists, have
hitherto gained easy victories over the hosts of theo-
logians, who, confident in the truth of their cause, have
stood forward, as one might say, unarmed and with naked
breast, to fight for the reality of mind and matter. So
easily and so invariably have the sceptics and idealists
remained masters of the field against all-comers that they
have agreed among themselves to regard realism as an
exploded superstition “altogether unworthy of the name
of philosophy” (Prof. Bain). But the end is not yet.
They will have once more to look to their weapons. In
Mr. Spencer realism has for the first time found a
champion that can do it justice. Nothing behind the
acutest idealist in subtlety and force of intellect, he brings
to bear on the great metaphysical question of the reality
_ of an external world a psychology as much superior to
that of the idealists, as their mental science was superior
to that of the divines they so easily vanquished.

Of course we shall not attempt to sketch the argument
that occupies nineteen chapters of Mr. Spencer’s volume ;
which has for its groundwork his whole system of psy-
chology, and on the issue of which he considers that his

entire philosophy is at stake ; for, in his own words,
‘ should the idealist be right, the doctrine of evolution is
_adream.” It may, however, not be altogether profitless
to dip into this elaborate argument at one or two places.
“The argument of the Realist,” says Mr. Spencer,
“habitually fails from not having as a fulcrum some
_ universally-admitted truth which the Idealist also has to
admit.” This necessary fulcrum, he alleges, is to be
_ found in the Universal Postulate, which is, that we must
accept as true that of which the negation cannot be re-
presented in thought. But, it would almost seem no
more easy to obtain universal assent to the doctrine, that
the ultimate appeal must be to the inconceivableness of
the negation of a proposition, than to establish the truth
of realism by argument without the aid of such a fulcrum.
At least, Mr. Mill and Mr. Spencer have been battling
over this question for twenty years, without coming much
nearer agreement than at the beginning. But though
, * Continued from p, 300.
No, 176—VoL, vil.

NATURE 357

they may have done little towards their mutual instruc-
tion, many students of philosophy must have profited
greatly from what they agree in describing as their
“amicable controversy.” And in venturing briefly to
review the discussion, our justification must be that we do
so as a disciple, who studies with reverence the works of
both these imperial intellects. We shall first endeavour
to outline in as few words as possible what appears to us
an important part of Mr. Spencer’s argument, leaving his
full meaning to become apparent when we proceed to
notice some of Mr, Mill’s strictures thereon. Propositions,
says Mr. Spencer, “ are the ultimate components of know-
ledge. The simplest intuition equally with the most complex
rational judgment, has the same fundamental structure: it
is the tacit or overt assertion that something is or is not of a
certain nature—belongs or does not belong to a certain
class—has or has not a certain attribute.” ‘ Propositions,
then, constitute the common denomination to which all
systems of belief, simple or complex, have to be reduced
before we can scientifically test them.” But propositions
are of many kinds ; some are relatively simple, some are
highly complex. ‘There are some propositions which
tacitly assert little more than they avowedly assert ; while
there are other propositions in which what is tacitly
asserted immensely exceeds in amount what is avowedly
asserted.” Accordingly, to “compare conclusions with
scientific rigour, we must not only resolve arguments into
their constituent propositions, but must resolve each com-
plex proposition into the simple propositions composing
it.” When intelligence is thus resolved into its simplest
elements, it is found that there are cognitions of which
the terms cannot be separated. Such cognitions we
necessarily accept. To ascertain that the predicate of a
cognition invariably exists along with its subject, all we
can do is to make a deliberate and persistent effort to
conceive the negation of the proposition, and having done
this, ‘‘to assert the inconceivableness of its negation, is
at the same time to assert the psychological necessity we
are under of thinking it, and to give our logical justifica-
tion for holding it to be unquestionable.” Further, as it
is only by the aid of cognitions of this class, and for the
trustworthiness of which no higher warrant can be given,
that propositions are linked together so as to form what
we call proof or disproof, since “logic is simply a systema-
tisation of the process by which we indirectly obtain this
warrant for beliefs that do not directly possess it,” it must
follow that an attempt to invalidate a cognition of this
class by a process of reasoning must somewhat resemble
the mechanical absurdity of trying to lift the chair on
which one sits. Now, the belief that a universe exists
apart from and independently of our states of conscious-
ness, is, according to Mr. Spencer, a cognition possessing
this quality of highest certainty. When a man looks at
a book without speculating, “he feels that the sole content
of his consciousness is the book considereJ as an external
reality, ... he feels that do what he will he cannot
reverse this act; ... while he continues looking at the
book, his belief in it as an external reality possesses the
highest validity. It has the direct guarantee of the Uni-
versal Postulate.”

Against this Mr. Mill has argued that the proposed
warrant of the truth of propositions cannot be accepted,
if for no other reason, because we know as a matter of

x

358

NATURE

[Mar. 13, 1873

history that some propositions the negation of which was
at one time inconceivable are now known to be false.
His examples are—that in sunrise and sunset, it is the
sun that moves; that gravitation cannot act through
space absolutely void ; and that there cannot exist anti-
podes—men sticking on by their feet to the under side of
the earth. For the truth of each of these propositions
Mr. Mill thinks that our forefathers had the warrant of
what Mr. Spencer calls the Universal Postulate. “To this
criticism of Mr. Mill,” says Mr. Spencer, referring to the
first and last of these propositions, “my reply is that the
propositions erroneously accepted because they seemed
to withstand the test, were complex propositions to which
the test is inapplicable.” Unfortunately, in his anxiety
to ‘leave no possibility of misapprehension,” Mr.
Spencer mentioned, among other things, that we cannot
by simple comparison of two states of consciousness
know that the square of the hypothenuse of a right-
angled triangle equals the sum of the squares of the
other two sides. The strange result has been that Mr.
Mill has, we cannot help thinking, fallen into a complete
misapprehension of his meaning. In the eighth edition
of his Logic, Mr. Mill has had the opportunity of reply-
ing to Mr. Spencer’s argument as it stands in the volu me
before us. He there says: “It is but just to give Mr.
Spencer’s doctrine the benefit of the limitation he claims—
viz. that it is only applicable to propositions which are
assented to on simple inspection, without any intervening
media of proof. . . . But in all the three cases which I
have just cited (those mentioned), the inconceivability
seems to be apprehended directly ; no train of argument
is needed, as in the case of the square of the hypo-
thenuse, to obtain the verdict of consciousness on the
point.” We submit that the quality of being “ assented
to on simple inspection, without any intervening media of
proof” is not the distinguishing characteristic of what
Mr, Spencer calls a simple proposition. The propositions
that can be properly brought to the test of the inconceiv-
ableness of their negation are not such as are assented to
on simple inspection, but such as “ are not further decom-
posable.” Until this misconception on the part of Mr.
Mill furnished conclusive evidence to the contrary, we
were inclined to think that here, as elsewhere, Mr,
Spencer had been needlessly tedious in stating and re-
stating, illustrating and re-illustrating hismeaning. That
after all Mr. Mill should have so completely missed the
true nature of his distinction of propositions into simple
and complex is very remarkable. Had not Mr. Spencer
declared that the propositions in dispute were examples
of what he considered complex propositions? There is
no intervening media of proof when we automatically
interpret our sensations of sight into such a cognition as
—“There is an old man.” Yet this is one of the proposi-
tions tediously analysed by Mr. Spencer, “to show dis-
tinctly the number of propositions included in an ordinary
proposition which appears simple. Again, “On a cold
winter’s night a gas-light seen through the window of a
cab, or a light in a shop looked at through a pane that
has been much rubbed, is surrounded by a halo. Who-
ever examines will see that this halo is caused by
scratches on the glass, the curves of which are arcs of
circles having the light for their centre. The proposition
which expresses the result of his observation, and seems

to assert no more than the result of his observation, is
that on the part of the glass through which he looks the
scratches produced by rubbing are arranged concentri-
cally with the light.” Included ip this apparently simple
proposition, however, is this other—“ that there does not
exist on the same spot scratches otherwise arranged,
immeasurably exceeding in number the concentric
scratches.” The truth is that “the scratches on any part
of the glass have no concentric arrangement at all, but
run in countless directions with multitudinous curva-
tures.” The propositions in question obviously belong to
this class. In the assertion, the sun moves from east to
west, there is included the other proposition—the earth
does not revolve on its axis from west to east. We
scarcely think that Mr. Mill will assert that any human
being ever found it impossible to conceive, in Mr. Spencer’s
sense, that a sphere should so revolve. Thus far, then,
we are bound to say that Mr. Spencer’s argument remains
intact.

With regard to gravitation we cannot do better than
quote the note in which Mr. Mill replies to Mr. Spencer
on this point :—

“In one of the three cases, Mr. Spencer, to my no
small surprise, thinks that the belief of mankind ‘ cannot
be rightly said to have undergone’ the change I allege.
Mr. Spencer still thinks we are unable to conceive gravi-
tation acting through empty space. ‘If an astronomer
vowed that he could conceive gravitative force as exercised
through space absolutely void, my private opinion would
be that he mistook the nature of conception. Conception
implies representation. Here the elements of the repre-
sentation are the two bodies and an agency by which
either effects the other. To conceive this agency is to
represent it in some terms derived from our experiences—
that is from our sensation. As this agency gives us no
sensations, we are obliged (if we try to conceive it) to use
symbols idealised from our sensations—imponderable
units forming a medium.’ If Mr. Spencer means that the
action of gravitation gives us no sensations, the assertion
is one than which I have not seen, in the writings of
philosophers, many more startling. What other sensa-
tion do we need than the sensation of one body moving
towards another? ‘The elements of the representation
are not two bodies and an ‘ agency,’ but two bodies and
an effect ; viz. the fact of their approaching one another.
If we are able to conceive a vacuum, is there any diffi-
culty in conceiving a body falling to the earth through
itt

We are compelled to say that Mr. Mill could not have
been much more surprised at Mr. Spencer’s statement
than we are at his answer. What was it that Newton
could not conceive, but which, Mr. Mill says, we have no
difficulty in conceiving? Was “Newton incapable of
forming a mental representation of “one body moving
towards another ?”—an experience that in common with
everybody else, he had hundreds of times every day of
his life. No. To put it in plain rough language, he was
unable to conceive how one body could move another
without in some way pushing or pulling at it. Hence,
when he tried to represent in thought the action of the
sun upon the earth he found it necessary to imagine a
medium—an unbroken line of physical connection be-
tween the two bodies. Have we got beyond Newton in
this respect? or is it not rather, as Mr. Spencer says,
that our scientific men have simply “ given up attempting
to conceive how gravitation results.” Nay, are there not

ar. 13, 1873] |

at the present moment some indications that before long
scientific men may return to this very problem ?

Let us now advance a step. Whenit is found that we
cannot conceive the negation of a proposition—that the
subject and predicate cannot be separated in thought ;
“then, indeed,” says Mr. Mill, “the inability to sepa-
rate the two ideas proves their inseparable conjunction,
here and now, in the mind which has failed in the
attempt: but this inseparability in thought does
not prove a corresponding inseparability in fact ;
Nor even in the thoughts of other people, or of the
same person in a possible future.” No matter for
the present, how we come by our cognitions, this is
surely admitting what Mr. Spencer calls the psychological
necessity of thinking the proposition, In the next place,
we must confess that we have never been able intelligibly
to translate into the language of idealism those anti-
realistic arguments that appeal to “fact” and to the
experiences of “other people.” But, whatever may be
meant by fact, and whatever may have a place in the
minds of other people, it must for ever remain nothing
to those in whose consciousness it can be neither pre-
sented nor represented. Our science of numbers is not
likely to be disturbed because it can be written in words
that, perhaps in some inaccessible corner of the uni-
verse, or in some mind of a different make from the
human, twice two makes five. We have already exa-
mined the examples given by Mr. Mill of propositions
that have, as he thinks, passed from the condition of
being inconceivable to that of being both conceivable and
believed, and therefore we do not think it necessary to
discuss the probability of any really simple and incon-
ceivable proposition becoming conceivable in the mind
of the ‘same person in a possible future.”

We must pass to the next step in the argument as
sketched above. Does reasoning rest on the postulate?
Wecannot help thinking with regret that Mr. Mill has not
felt it necessary to put forth his full strength on this point ;
and we are by no means sure that we have grasped his
full meaning. His words are :—“To say that when I
apprehend that Ais B and that B is C, I cannot conceive
that A is not C, is to my mind merely to say that I am
compelled to believethat Ais C. If toconceive be taken
in its proper meaning, viz., to form a mental representa-
tion, I may be able to conceive A as not being C. After
assenting with full understanding to the Copernican proof
that it is the earth, and not the sun, that moves, I not only
can conceive, or represent to myself, sunset as a motion
of the sun, but almost everyone finds this conception of
sunset easier to form than that which they nevertheless
know to bz the true one.” This, as we understand it;
seems open to the reply that, had sunset, considered as a
motion of the sun, been inconceivable to begin with, no
argument would have been needed to disprove it. Having
followed the Copernican proof, we cease to believe that
the sun moves, we remain, however, still able to conceive
its doing so ; for though we cannot help believing that of
which we cannot conceive the negation, it does not follow
that we are unable to conceive the negation of everything
that argument has compelled us to believe. But, whether
by following a sound argument we are or are not rendered
incapable of conceiving the reverse of the conclusion, has,

NATURE

359
ee eee
ing rests or does not rest on the postulate. To invalidate
Mr, Spencer's argument by the method he has adopted,
Mr. Mill would require to be able to represent in thought,
not the sun moving through the heavens, in spite of the
Copernican proof to the contrary but that at any step in
the argument the conclusion need not follow from the
premises. If he could do this he might still be convinced
by argument, but we do not see how he must necessarily
be so. Mr. Spencer’s contention is that reasoning rests
on the postulate, not because a valid argument makes the
reverse of the conclusion inconceivable, but because the
axioms of logic have no higher warrant.

Want of space forbids us entering further into the con-
troversy. For the same reason we are unable to enter upon
the inquiry whether we can properly be said to believe that
of which we cannot form a mental representation, Mr.
Spencer’s opinion is that we cannot, and accordingly
“that anti-realelistic beliefs have never been held at all,
They are but ghosts of beliefs, haunting those mazes of
verbal propositions in which metaphysicians habitually
lose themselves. Berkeley: was not an idealist ; he never
succeeded in expelling the consciousness of an external
reality, as we saw when analysing his language and his
reasonings. Hume did not in the least doubt the existence
of matter or of mind; he simply persuaded himself that
certain arguments ought to make him doubt. Nor was
Kant a Kantist: that space and time are nothing more
than subjective forms was with him, as it has been and
will be with every other, a verbally-intelligible proposition,
but a proposition that can never be rendered into thought,
and can never therefore be believed.”

Douc.as A, SPALDING

GEIKIE’S PRIMER OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Physical Geography. By Prof. Geikie.
Series. (Macmillan.)

ie must not be supposed that this is the Physical Geo-

graphy which we have been expecting from Prof.
Geikie. It is a little book of 110 pages, truly a primer,
and only makes us more eager to get a larger work.

The primer is written in a vivacious style ; the style
of aman really interested in what he is talking to his
readers about ; aud in all respects suitably written for its
purpose. It would be a little too patronising if it were
intended for any but the very young, who like being
taken into the confidence of the writer, and spoken to
as young friends. Itis to be hoped that a larger work
may be equally vivacious and vigorous without this
characteristic, which is, to repeat, not a fault in the
primer, but would bea serious fault in the larger work
intended for older boys and readers generally. Itis a
fault that pervades Kingsley’s scientific books: it is a
small annoyance at first, but finally “aggravates” one
beyond all endurance. Moreover, the book is well illus-
trated with new, good, and unconventional woodcuts, and
is thoroughly well-arranged and printed.

Now for its contents. After its introduction, which is
in fact on “ eyes and no eyes,” we have the shape of the
earth, day and night, the air, wind, vapour, dew, mist,
rain, snow ; the circulation of water on the land, springs,
hard and soft water, atmospheric denudation (in shorter

Science Primer

in reality, nothing to do with the question whether reason- | words than these), brooks, rivers, snow-fields, glaciers ;

360

then the sea, stratification, coral ; and lastly earthquakes
and volcanoes.

Now this is just right. Physical Geography ought to
contain the dynamics of geology, and not be a mere
description of the physical condition of the globe. A
description of the plateaus and primary mountain chains,
and secondary mountain chains, and plains and river
systems of all the countries in the world, and distribution
of birds, beasts, and fishes, used to be what was called phy-
sical geography: and init the dynamical element, all idea
of change and progress was almost entirely left out. All this
description constitutes geographical knowledge, but is of
the nature of information pure and simple, and has abso-
lutely no value in education except as an exercise in
memory, and as a basis for reasoning, supposing that this
reasoning is ever superposed. But what Prof. Geikie gives
us is the very life and soul of geological science, observa-
tion on what the natural forces around us are doing, infor-
mation as to what they are doing of the like kind elsewhere,
and reasoning on the effect of these forces. It is a book
which will at once rouse the curiosity of a child, and
train it as far as it goes in sound scientific method.

It is admirably adapted to be a reading book in
elementary schools, and it is much to be hoped that
it will be largely used. But for this purpose a cheaper

edition ought to be published, J. M. W.
OUR BOOK SHELF
Exalted States of the Nervous System. By R. H.

Collyer, M.D. (H. Renshaw.)

Ir can only be with a feeling of regret that anyone can see
so many pages, nearly 150, occupied with matter and
arguments most of which had much better have been re-
tained only among the oral traditions of the author’s ac-
quaintances, for by publishing them he lays himself open
to the severe criticisms of a non-appreciating scientific
public. That Dr. Collyer was among the first to propose
and employ anzesthetics, we will not question, but he
cannot expect to increase the number of his supporters by
the publication of such a work as the above, in which his
want of knowledge of the first principles of scientific
method and physiological fact is rendered too clear, An
instance or two will suffice to indicate the manner in
which the subject is treated. Speaking of chloral, he
says—“ It is administered by the stomach. ... It seems
that the action is immediate on the brain, through the
eighth pair of nerves.” Thisis very different from the ex-
planation of the discoverer of that substance, and quite
contrary to any explanation of value that has been since
proposed. The physiological dogma on which the author
bases many of his arguments is that “the lungs at every
respiration send vital electricity to the brain, which has
been thus assimilated to subserve the purposes of life.”
In a newspaper account of the relative chances of the
Oxford and Cambridge crews for 1871, the author finds
sufficient to justify the following valuable generalisation :—
“thus endurance does not belong to mere size.” We think
these quotations sufficient.

The Botanists Pocket-book: containing in a tabulated
form the chief characteristics of British plants. By
W.R. Hayward. (Bell and Daldy, 1872.)

A BOOK of modest pretensions, and not without its value.
Asarule there is no class of scientific literature to be
more carefully avoided than that which professes to com-
press the whole of the elements of a science into a small
portable volume; nowhere is the master’s hand more
urgently required than in the compilation of text-books,

NATURE

| Mar. 13, 1873

Mr. Hayward we do not recollect to have met with before
as a botanical writer ; this little book, however, evidences
great care in its preparation, and the author is careful not
to claim for it too high a place, Its object is to “afford
information to the tyro, and also to refresh the memory of
the more advanced botanist who, by examining on the
spot any doubtful plant, may be saved the trouble of
carrying home specimens of little value ; it is not intended
as a book for the study, nor as a rival to the many excel-
lent and complete manuals of our leading botanists ; but
to be accepted for what it is, viz., ‘A Botanist’s Pocket-
book.’” This purpose it may well serve ; occupying not
much over 200 pages of thin paper in limp cloth binding,
it will be no great burden to the pocket or knapsack, and
may frequently be usefully resorted to by a young botanist
on the tramp, leaving more careful study till he gets
home. A. W. B.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Perception in the Lower Animals

As several persons seem interested in Mr, Wallace’s suggestion
that animals find their way home by recognising the odour of the
places which they have passed whilst shut up, you may perhaps
think the following little fact worth giving. Many years ago I
was on a mail-coach, and as soon as we came to a public-house,
the coachman pulled up for the fraction of a second. He did so
when we came to a second public-house, and I then asked him
the reason, He pointed to the off-hand wheeler, and said that
she had been long completely blind, and she would stop at every
place on the road at which she had before stopped. He had
found by experience that less time was wasted by pulling up
his team than by trying to drive her past the place, for
she was contented with a momentary stop. After this I
watched her, and it was evident that ‘she knew exactly,
before the coachman began to pull up the other horses, every
public-house on the road, for she had at some time stopped at
all, I think there can be little doubt that this mare recognised
all these houses by her sense of smell. With respect to cats, so
many cases have been recorded of their returning from a con-
siderable distance to their homes, after having been carried away

Se SC Re: ee

bd

shut up in baskets, that I can hardly disbelieve them, though —

these stories are disbelieved by some persons. Now, as far as I
have observed, cats do not possess a very acute sense of smell,
and they seem to discover their prey by eyesight and by hearing.
This leads me to mention another trifling fact: I sent a riding-
horse by railway from Kent vi@ Yarmouth, to Freshwater Bay,
in the Isle of Wight. On the first day that I rode eastward, my
horse, when I turned to go home, was very unwilling to return to-
wardshisstable, and he several timesturned round. This led me to
make repeated trials, and every time that I slackened the reins,
he turned sharply round and began to trot to the eastward by a
little north, which was nearly in the direction of his home in
Kent. I had ridden this horse daily for several years, and he
had never before behaved in this manner. My impression was
that he somehow knew the direction whence he had been brought.
I should state that the last stage from Yarmouth to Fresh-
water is almost due south, and along this road he had been
ridden by my groom ; but he never once showed any wish to
return in this direction, I had purchased this horse several years
before from a gentleman in my own neighbourhood, who had
possessed him for a considerable time. Nevertheless it is possible,
though far from probable, that the horse may have been born in
the Isle of Wight. Even if we grant to animals a sense of the
points of the compass, of which there is no evidence, how can
we account, for instance, for the turtles which formerly congre-
gated in multitudes, only at one season of the year, on the shores
of the Isle of Ascension, finding their way to that speck of land
in the midst of the great Atlantic Ocean ?
CHARLES DARWIN

The Sense of Smell in Animals

THE hypothesis put forward by Mr. Wallace in NATURE of
the 2oth ult., to explain the power possessed by some animals of

a
;

—

as

Mar. 13, 1873] |

finding their way back to their homes after having been con-
veyed from them in such a way as to preclude the possibility of
their seeing the road by which they travelled, contains, I think,
the solution of a hitherto perplexing problem. To ascribe this
power, as is usual, to instinct in the customary sense of the term,
is to give what Mr. Bain calls ‘‘an illusory explanation of re-
peating the fact in different language,” and it is manifestly im-
possible to ascribe it to instinct, as that term is understood in
the evolution theory of mind. I am glad to see a psychologist
like Prof. Robertson giving in his adhesion to Mr. Wallace’s
view. But while in the main accepting it, and arguing forcibly
in its favour, Prof Robertson hesitates to affirm that it affords an
explanation of the whole of the facts in question. _Is this failure,
if failure there be, inherent in the explanation itself, or does it
lie in our imperfect knowledge of the facts to be explained?
That there are difficulties cannot be denied. For example, it is
difficult, to say the least, for the human mind to form the con-
ception of a sense of smell, so acute, so objective, and furnishing
sensations so strongly persistent in the ideal, as to enable an
animal by its means alone, to retrace unerringly long and devious
roads travelled over but once, and under circumstances rendering
impossible the co-ordination of sights and smells habitual to the
animal. In such cases smell must be a much closer second, if
second at all, to sight, than touch is in man, No blindfolded
man could perform a like feat by means of unaided touch, nor,
do I think, could a blind man, though with the blind this sense
becomes, by the cultivation it receives through a hard necessity,
greatly more acute than it is in normal cases. But difficulties
like these are such, I believe, only because of our very limited
acquaintance with the psychology of the lower animals. One
of the chief desiderata in mental science is, it seems to me, such
a psychology, based upon principles generalised according to
strict inductive methods, from a body of numerous, varied, well-
authenticated, and scientifically made observations of the
domestic and other animals. A work of this kind we have not,
but, I believe, the lines upon which it should be constructed are
already laid down in Mr. Spencer's truly great work, the
‘* Principles of Psychology.” When this branch of psychological
science has been brought into something like parallelism with
human psychology, difficulties, such as I have hinted at, will, I
venture to say, be effectually removed, and Mr. Wallace’s ex-
planation will, as he claims for it, ‘‘cover all the well-authenti-
cated cases of this kind.”

In the extended scope claimed for this hypothesis by Prof.
Robertson; viz., as explanatory of the nature of external per-
ception in dogs, there appears to be a difficulty raised. The
most refined and deep-penetrating psychological analysis, of both
the empiristic and evolution schools, have incontestably estab-
lished that our mature visual presentations are but symbols of
the earlier and really genetic presentations acquired through
touch combined with muscular feeling. Granting, as seems un-
deniable, that smell in dogs holds, in many respects, a place
analogous to that of touch in man, would the earliest and the
genetic presentations of externality in these animals be those
furnished by smell, with or without the aid of muscular feeling ?

Before concluding my letter, I should like to offer a remark
upon the supposed exper imentum crucis of Mr, Wallace’s hypo-
thesis, suggested by Mr. Bennett. The smell of stale fish would
undoubtedly interfere with and overpower ordinary smells in the
human organ. But is it not an anthropomorphical fallacy to
assume, as Mr. Bennett appears to do, that such would be the
result in the case of acat? From the almost purely subjective
and comparatively undeveloped sense of smell possessed by man,
there appears to me to be no conclusive argument to the highly
objective and extremely acute sense of smell possessed by certain
animals. We are not warranted from our own experience in in-
ferring of a sense, quantitatively, if not qualitatively, so very
different, that one powerful sensation must necessarily exclude
fainter sensations of a like order. Normally, vivid sensations of
a particular order do tend to exclude with more or less complete-
ness fainter like sensations. But the animal, in the circumstances
in which it is placed, is as Mr. Wallace shows, in an abnormal
condition. Its attention is concentrated on the unfamiliar succes-
sion of smells it is encountering, and under such a stimulus these
ordinarily fainter sensations may not unreasonably be supposed
to become unwontedly vivid, and capable of powerfully affecting
the animal’s consciousness, despite the resistance of what under
common circumstances would prove an effectual obstacle to their
conscious presentation. A complete experimentum crucis would
Tequire that the animal shoul :, during the whole journey, be

“NATURE

361

entirely smell-muffled, and Mr. Bennett’s expedient could not,
I think, be relied upon to produce this effect.

Camberwell, March 3 W. H. BREwer

External Perception in Dogs

THE following somewhat remarkable instance of a dog finding
its way back was told me by the owner, who lived 20 or 25
miles up (and on the left bank of) the river Canuma, in Brazil ;
a small river just east of the river Madeira. He took the dog
by boat down the river Canuma and up the Madeira to Borba, a
small town on the right bank of the latter river; a distance of
70 or 80 miles round ; and left the dog there. The dog ran
away from Borba and made its way back to its former home on
the river Canuma. More exactly, it was making its way back,
for my informant being out in the wood some little way inland,
and S.W. of his cottage, fell in with it. It was in bad ~condi-
tion, having been some weeks—the exact time could not be
ascertained—in working its way back through the forest, and of
course had lived by hunting. I cannot give with any exactness
the distance overland from Borba: perhaps it is less than 25
miles ; and in this respect the return is not remarkable. It
seems to me that the dog during its journey by water must have
had a constant perception of the bearing of its old home ; and
on the other hand that it made its way back not by any blind
instinct but by trial and error and by recognition of the cha-
racter of the forest. F. R. G. S.

Sight in Dogs

I THINK Mr. Kingsley rather underrates the exercise of the
organs of vision by the dog when, in comparing it with the horse,
he writes,—‘‘ The dog, who has smelt everything, but looked at
very little.” Now it is true that the dog does not look about
him when on his travels, in the popular sense, by turning his
head about, but close observation shows the eyeball in constant
movement, taking in everything in front and on both sides,
although, to all appearance, with his head close to the ground,
his whole attention is concentrated on the reception of external
impressions through his nose. This 1s particularly noticeable in
the terrier, which, on meeting you, however intently he may
seem to be engaged in smelling, gives a quick glance at your face
without moving his head, or apparently lessening the attention
he is paying to something else with his nose. Note, also, how
quickly a dog going down wind sees another a long distance off.

The horse not only sees and smells acutely but also frequently
touches any object with his upper lip. :

In reference to the quotation from ‘ Boswell’s Life of John-
son,” given by Mr. Nicoll, I may mention that it is well known
to huntsmen that horses are very prone to kick if led near the
hounds when a fox is being broken up, the explanation always
given being that it is the smell of blood which irritates them.

Faringdon, March 9 J. Hopkins WALTERS

Selenium

VITREOUS selenium may be considered a non-conductor of
electricity. It is only when in a crystalline condition that it be-
comes a conductor.

A bar now in my possession, 2°25 x ‘5 x’05 inches, tested
with an electromotive force of #;th of a Daniell’s cell, gives a
deflection of 140 divisions on the scale of an ordinary astatic
mirror galvanometer. The same deflection produced under the
same conditions through a known resistance, shows the resist-
ance of the selenium to be 360,000 ohms, By the well-known
Bridge system the resistance of the same plate of selenium is
359,500 ohms, the two different tests thus confirming each
other.

I have to leave this evening for Valentia to report on the
electrical condition of the Anglo-American Company’s cable, or
would write you more fully on the effect of light on the con-
ductibility of selenium.

If selenium be expesed to the direct rays of the sun, it gra-
dually becomes crystalline. May not the explanation of the
phenomenon be found in this fact ?

All the bars I have experimented upon have been supplied by
Mr. H. Bassett, No. 215, Hampstead Road.

WILLOUGHBY SMITH

Wharf Road, City Road, March 11

362

NATURE

| Mar. 13, 1873

| Se ee

Brighton Aquarium

I ADDRESSED a letter some weeks ago to the chairman of the
Brighton Aquarium Company, in which, amongst other matters,
I suggested that a stand with a few microscopes exhibited there-
in, which had been offered by a London maker, would be a
source of great additional attraction, without being any expense
to the company.

T also suggested that it might very likely be the nucleus of a
school of marine zoology, if for a separate subscription the
directors could set aside a room to be used by students, who
might form themselves into a kind of club, and work with their
miscroscopes and tanks.in quiet. The nearness to London of
the Brighton Aquarium might, I remarked, prove the induce-
ment to many non-residents to join ; whilst a library, and a few
demonstrations, would give increased means of gaining in-
formation.

I think, sir, that the importance of my suggestions warrants
my requesting you to make them public, since other aquaria
might also take the matter up, without damage to the Brighton
Company, in the success of which I take the warmest interest.

MARSHALL HALL

New University Club, March 7

General Travelling Notes

I petirve F.G. S. P. would find some of the information he
wishes, in a small pamphlet which is to be obtained at the Royal
Geographical Society, 1, Savile Row, price 1s. There is also
an excellent little work (very portable) which has been recently
published by some Fellows of the Anthropological Institute for
the use of travellers, which would be found useful ; price Is.

J. RAE

New Guinea

Tur Academy for July 15, 1872, contains a note on New
Guinea, from Petermann’s Mittheilungen in which there are
two slight mistakes. Perhaps you will allow me to correct them
in your journal.

It is said, ‘‘ The London Missionary Society founded a number
of stations on the south-eastern peninsula” in 1871, and that
these stations were ‘‘in charge of educated natives of the Tongan
Archipelago.” .

The stations founded by the agents of the London Missionary
Society in 1871 were not on the large island of New Guinea,
but on the small islands of Erub, Tauan, and Saibai in Torres
Straits. The Society’s vessel has, however, sailed this year with
a staff of English and Polynesian missionaries on board, who
hope to be able to occupy stations on New Guinea itself.

The “educated natives” placed as pioneers in the first settle-
ments are not ‘‘ natives of the Tongan Archipelago,” but of the
Loyalty Islands near to New Caledonia, and they belong to the
black Polynesian, or Papuan race. The Tongan Islands are
entirely under the care of the Wesleyan Missionary Society.

The missionaries who touched at New Guinea in 1871 believe
they saw people similar to the brown Polynesians as well as_the
black frizzly haired Papuans proper.
both races of Polynesians have been sent to New Guinea this
year. h S. J. WHITMEE

‘Samoa, Noy. 6, 1872

Flight of Projectiles

Your correspondent, “Robert Reid,” asks for an impossi-
bility. There is no impossibility in calculating the theoretical
deflection in the flight of a bullet due to a theoretical wind
pressure, but the formula could not be ‘‘simple.” However,
Mr. Reid need not be distressed, for it is difficult to conceive
any intellectual occupation which would be a more complete
waste of ingenuity. Let us consider the real conditions of the
problem.

Mr. Reid has not stated them with completeness. It is not
sufficient to know the time of flight of the bullet, its size, and
weight, the theoretical pressure of the wind, and the angle at
which that pressure is exerted. It would be necessary, also, to
know the angle at which the rifle is fired, the initial velocity of
the bullet, and the space travelied over in its flight. It is obvious
at once that the vertical line of flight, if I may be permitted the
expression, is not a straight line, but a curve, rapidly accele-
rating towards the end. If we assume certain arbitrary theo-
retical figures for initial. velocity and strength of wind, there
would be no great difficulty in calculating the curve, but it would

Hence, evangelists from |

be a purely imaginary curve, and an utterly useless and deluding
calculation. Let us consider the disturbing elements. First,
the powder. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to get two
charges of precisely and absolutely the same strength. Then the
state of foulness would vary. Then the pressure of the wind
would always vary in a distance of 500, or 1,000, or 1,500 yards,
and ina flight of several seconds ; even its very direction would
vary at different points in the line of flight, unless in the case
of a perfectly open exposed plain.

To all soldiers tempted to indulge in calculations of this na-
ture I would venture to say that there is nothing so likely to
mislead.
thing. If what professes to be science cannot be carried out in
practice, it is not true science but bastard science, or pedantry,
and the unpractical pedant is even more mischievous in war than
the so-called ‘* practical man” in matters of civil life. .

Army and Navy Club, March 10 W. Hope

Glacial Action

In Nature of vol. vii. p. 241, you say, ‘‘Dr. Dawson
thinks that the fiords on coasts, like the deep lateral yalleys of
mountains, are evidences of the action of waves, rather than that
ofice. No glacialist, as far as we know, holds the extravagant
belief that fiords have been cut out by ice. They are undoubt-
edly submerged valleys, and were hollowed out by streams and
other atmospheric influences in ages long anterior to the glacial
epoch.’

A true fiord, like those of Norway, Scotland, and, we may
add, the west of Ireland, is nothing but a mountain val-
ley sufficiently depressed for the sea to enter it. Iam nota
practical geologist, but I have read what appeared to be strong
arguments in favour of the belief that the valleys of the Alps
have been hollowed out by glaciers. I do not see how any one
who sees the quantity of mud that glacier streams bring down,
can doubt the great power of glaciers as excavating agents ; and
the argument is strengthened by the vast moraines, thousands of
feet below the present lower limit of the glaciers, and now oyer-
grown with trees, which are to be observed throughout the Alps.

If mountain valleys have not been, in at least a great propor-
tion of cases, excavated by glaciers, how are we to account for
the fact that fiords and mountain lakes are almost, if not quite,
confined to the higher latitudes? This is especially observable
on the west coast of America, which is remarkably unbroken
from Vancouver’s Island to Chiloe, but broken into fiords from
Vancouver's Island northward, and from Chiloe southward.

This observation throws no light on the very different ques-
tion of the origin of great lowland lakes like those of North
America and Africa. JosErH JOHN MuRPHY

Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim

The Feeding Habits of the Belted Kingfisher

On page 48 of Mr. Darwin’s ‘‘ Expression of the Emotions,” I
find the assertion, ‘* Kingfishers when they catch a fish always beat
it untilit is killed.” We have, in New Jersey, one species of king-
fisher, the Cele alcyon, which is exceedingly abundant for about
seven months of the year. For several years I have observed
them carefully, both feeding and breeding about the banks of
Crossweeksen Creek, and I feel certain that I am correct in
saying that I have never seen a kingfisher take its food otherwise
than by swallowing it whole, while yet upon the wing. The fish
having been swallowed, or at least, having disappeared, the
kingfisher will then alight upon the branch of a tree, and will
then, frequently, stretch out its neck, and go through a ‘* gulpin
motion,” as though the fish was not entirely in the bird’s
stomach, or perhaps was only in the zsophagus. In the thou-
sands of instances that I have witnessed, of these birds catchii
small fish, I never once saw a fish taken from the water, ani
killed, before being devoured.

So far as my recollection serves me, in the large majority
of instances, the kingfisher, after darting into the water and
securing a small cyprinoid, will emerge from the stream, uttering
its shrill cacophonous scream, as if rejoicing over the delicate
morsel it had captured and not scolding at its ill-success, as
has been thought ; for we have frequently shot them as they rose
from the water, and zzzvaviab/y found a fish, still alive, in the
stomach or cesophagus. Indeed, I cannot see how this eharac-
teristic cry of the kingfisher could be accomplished with a fish

struggling in its beak. When the fish, fromits size or other —

cause, is retained in the cesophagus until the bird alights, the
moyements of the bird, to effect the swallowing, are very

Science and practice should be one and the same |

«

¥ a a
ee cas A. Ad ’
_ Mar. 13, 1873]
similar to those of a pigeon while feeding her young. The neck
shortens and swells; the feathers are ruffled and the wings
slightly open and shut, two or three times.

So far as my observations of the Ceryle alcyon extend, Mr.
Darwin’s remarks will not apply to that kingfisher.

Cuas. C. ABBOTT

Trenton, New Jersey, Jan. 14

A PETRIFIED FOREST IN THE LIBYAN
DESERT

el the western horizon of the Libyan Desert, as
viewed from the summit of the Great Pyramid of
Ghizeh, a conical hill stands in solitary grandeur, far re-
moved from the route of desert travellers. This has long
been supposed to be the ruins of a pyramid, yet nowhere
is it recorded to have been visited by any but the Bedouin
tribes who pass within a few miles of it, on the old cara-
van route tothe Faioom. It is enumerated by Lepsius as
one of the Pyramids of Egypt, and in a recent work on
the Great Pyramid* it is called Dr. Leider’s Pyramid,
“until a better name be found for it,” merely from its
having been pointed out to the author by the late Dr.
Leider of Cairo, who, however, had never visited it.

The following narrative of a visit to the eminence by
Mr. Waynman Dixon, engineer, and Dr. Grant of Cairo,
and of their discovery of a very remarkable petrified
forest near its base, whose gigantic trees lie scattered
about the desert in profusion, has been communicated to
us by the former gentleman :—

Leaving the pyramids behind and lighted by the clear
silvery moonlight, we set out into the desert by the cara-
van route to the Faioom, leading up a solitary valley, in
the rocks of which are-cut ancient Egyptian tanks and
mummy-pits. Presently we turn off from the regular
track and take our way into the unfrequented desert,
steering straight westward for the distant pyramidal hill.
The sand of the desert is here hard and compact, and
travelling easy, indeed, with the exception of one or two
places where the sand is soft and heavy, a wheeled
carriage might drive all the way, and to most travellers
would be much preferable to camel or even donkey
riding.

After many hours hard riding, we at last reach the top
of a slight eminence, and across the wide valley in front
of us is the place of our destination.

These long valleys, or “wadys,” have much of interest
about them; throughout may be seen the dry water-
courses where the rare rain-showers carry down the sand
into the bed, and leave all the little hills and eminences
covered with flints as big as potatoes and with surfaces so
brightly polished as to give the desert a silvery look by
moonlight, or by day to cause the appearance of rippled
water where they reflect the sunlight. The zoology and
botany, too, of the desert are very interesting. There are
numbers of the little “ jerboa,” a species of rat, with long
hind legs and long tail with a tuft of hairat its end, which
hops about like a kangaroo. Nowand then may be seen
a gazelle or two scampering off at the unusual sight of a
caravan. A few small birds get a precarious existence,
and in the sky an eagle or vulture sometimes wings its
way. The insects are few, and the herbage is extremely
scant, and itis a marvel what the animals live on. There
are here and there in the water-courses small tufts of
camel-thorn—a little shrub not unlike a whin, another
with a coral-like growth, and now and then a handful of a
tough wiry sort of grass, but what these again subsist on
it is hard to say, for there is not a shower more than once
or twice a year, and for nine months there is no dew while
the heat of the sand at midday in summer is over 100
degrees,

Arrived at our destination before daybreak, we dis-

* “Life and Work at the Great Pyramid,” by Prof, Piazzi Smyth, F.R.S.

NATURE

363

mount from our camels, and while the Bedouins are un-
loading the baggage, we hasten as fast as our legs, stiff
with camel riding, will permit, up the heaps of sand and
flints to the summit of the so-called Pyramid, to find on
attaining-it that it is but the conical end of a prism-
shaped hill, stretching westward, and standing boldly out
of the desert plain.

Near the top the rock crops out, and appears to be a
species of friable sandstone fretted by the weather into
curious shapes ; but the actual summit is covered with
flints and sand, and, what strikes one as being very
strange, many fragments of petrified wood.

- Taking a general survey from this quoin of vantage, we
choose the best spot to the north of the hill to pitch our
camp, exposed to the slight north wind which blows in-
cessantly here, and descending its steep sides, at the
bottom are surprised to find near the chosen spot three
large stone trees lying prostrate on the sand. The largest
is 51 ft. in length and 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter at its widest
end, and 2 ft. at its smallest ; they are branching exoge-
nous trees, apparently a species of pine, and the one
before us has the fork of a large branch very complete.

Wandering on up the wady to the north of the hill,
named by us “ Kém el Khashob”—the hill of wood—we
find the whole desert littered with fragments of petrified
wood, from twigs the size of one’s finger to pieces of large
branches or trunks of trees ;.and on the flank of the hill
to the north are hundreds of immense trees, lying half
buried in the sand, some 7o ft. long, and in many in-
stances with part of the bark still attached. All of them
are exogenous trees—no single instance of a palm could
we discover—and from the absence of roots it may be pre-
sumed have been drifted here by the sea. The stratum is
apparently sandstone, overlying the limestone of the Nile
valley; there are also here and there patches of a dark cho-
colate-coloured friable mineral with specks of green which
looked like copper, but proved on subsequent analysis to
be carbonate of iron; beds of what the Arabs call
“ Gyps” or gypsum, and nodules of an intensely hard black
granulated looking stone—not unlike emery stone. The
whole geological character suggesting the—possibly delu-
sive—suspicion of the existence of coal under the surface.

Having carefully surveyed this neighbourhood we again
climbed the ‘ Kém el Khashob,” taking instruments to
measure its height and determine its position ; the former
of which we found to be 752 ft. above the Nile level at
Cairo, 602 ft. above the north-east socket of the Great
Pyramid, and consequently about 140 ft. higher than its
sumysnit.

Having secured one or two sketches of the hill, and the
sun being now near setting, we “fold up our tents like the
Arabs and silently steal away.” Mounting our camels
again, and taking a slightly different route on our return,
we pass some ancient solitary well-tombs away in the
desert, but without mark or hieroglyphic inscription on
them. All the way we notice fragments of petrified wood,
and near to the pyramids extensive beds of oyster shells.
This forest may almost be said to be a continuation—
doubtless going much farther westward than we pene-
trated—of the well-known petrified forest in the Abbasieh
Desert to the east of Cairo, which extends a long way in
the direction of Suez, but is inferior both in extent and in
the size and perfectness of the trees to that of the newly-
discovered forest. The formation of the land here would
lead to the supposition that it has been the ancient coast
line, and that the trees drifted to where they are now feund,
and were then left in the briny waters of an evaporating
sea or salt lake ; and as the fibre of the wood decayed
slowly away, the ace of each cell has been filled up by
the crystallising silica held in solution in the water.

Since the discovery of this forest it has been visited by
many Europeans in Cairo, and English travellers,
and to geologists especially it is well worthy of a
visit. It may easily be reached from the Great Pyramid

364

either by donkey, camel, or horse, and is distant under
three hours from it—a journey which in the winter may
with comfort be accomplished in one day from Cairo.
Indeed, if his Highness, the Khedive, who has done so
much for the comfort of travellers in making a magnificent
road to the pyramids, were to extend it for some half mile
farther through the tract of soft sand, carriages could
easily drive all the way to the Kém el Khashob. The
locality is now well known to the Pyramid Arabs, and
most able and intelligent guides will be found in Ali
Dobree, Omar, or others of this Bedouin tribe.

HUNTERIAN LECTURES BY PROF. FLOWER
LectTuREsS VII. VIII. IX.

HE family Edentata includes the Bradypodide, Dasy-

podidzs Myrmecophagidz, Manidz, and Orycteropo-
didz, the first three being from the new world and the last
two from the old. Considering them shortly, the Brady-
podide are leaf-eaters ; they have five molars above and
four below, no other teeth being present, each tooth isa
cylindroid column with a persistent pulp, and is sur-
rounded externally by a harder layer, which causes the
free surface to become cupped during wear. There is a
peculiar descending process from the incomplete zygoma.
The number of the vertebre is great, their spinous and
other processes are but little developed as the back is not
much employed in supporting the body. There are
extra articular surfaces on the lumbar vertebrz of the
three-toed sloth, not found in the two-toed species.
The clavicles are sometimes rudimentary, never com-
plete. A bony arch joins the acromial process of
the scapula to the coracoid, and the distal end of
the clavicle in Bradypus is attached to the latter,
a peculiarity which has been explained by Mr.
Parker. The supra-spinous notch is converted into
a foramen by a bony arch running over it, and
there is a supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus of
Cholopus only. Considerable rotation of the radius is
possible ; the hand is peculiarly modified, the fingers
being bound together. It is generally stated that the
trapezium is anchylosed to the scaphoid, which is very
long, but that such is not the case is proved by the exami-
nation of the young animal ; the trapezium, in fact, anchy-
loses with the first metacarpal bone. In Cholopus the
second and third toes are only present. The ilia are
broad, the femur short and with no ligamentum teres ;
some peculiar small bones are found round the knee.
The tibia and fibula are firmly united, but not anchylosed ;
both genera have three toes on the hind foot. The
inner surface of the fibular maleolus sends inwards
a conical process, which acts as the pivot in which the
externally cupped astragalus is hinged, and thus allows
of a great range of movement of the foot. The peculiar-
ities in the number of the cervical vertebrz are well
known, no similar abnormalities are found in the fossil
genera.

The other Edentata are not purely vegetable feeders ;
they eat ants and other animal food. In the Dasy-
podidze the teeth are numerous, and the cervical verte-
brze tend to anchylose together. As in the whole family
the sternal ribs are ossified. The degree of development
of the carapace is indicated by the size of the vertebral
processes, and an extra series of articulations, as in the
ant-eater and sloth, occurs in the lumbar region. In Myr-
mecophaga there are no teeth; the hind feet are quite
normal, the front very peculiar, possessing five toes, and
claws on the middle three. In the Old World forms,
Manis and Orycteropus, there is no extra interlocking of
the lumbar region, and in the former no teeth. Oryctero-
pus possesses teeth, each of which may be said to bea
compound tooth, each element of which has a persistent

pulp.

NATURE

Hitherto no true sloths have been found fossil in South
America ; they were then represented by the Gravigrada,
which are so termed in contra-distinction to the Tardi-
grada; they abound in the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, and
are found as far north as the United States. Mesatherium
was the first of these large animals discovered, and the
original skeleton, obtained in 1789, is now at Madrid.
Since then several entire skeletons have been obtained, of
which two very fine specimens are to be seen at the
Museums of Turinand Milan. Those of the College and of
the British Museum are partly from casts. Leidy has
placed the North American animal in a distinct species
(MW. mirabile), on account of its geographical distribution,
but he is unable to detect any osteological peculiarities,
The only teeth in this animal are five molars with per-
sistent pulps above, and four below on each side, as in
Bradypus ; and they form a continuous series. Each
tooth has a double transverse ridge, the hollow of which
fits the ridges in the opposite jaw. These ridges do not
disappear as the animal gets old, but are permanent on
account of the dentine not being uniform in density, the
middle being softer than the sides, and therefore wearing
away more readily. The teeth in the middle of the
series are the largest. The skull is small considering the
size of the animal, and the brain-case remarkably so.
The brain itself, as known from a cast of the interior of
the cranium by Prof. Gervais, closely resembles that of
the sloths. The skull is very much elongated, the
anterior condyloid foramina being large, it is probable that
the tongue was so also. The palate was extremely
narrow, and the premaxillary portion extensive. An
enormous bony process descended from the zygoma which
is also a peculiarity of the other members of the same
family. The ramus of the lower jaw was immensely high.
In the megatherium only is the molar portion of the
mandible of unusual depth,and this is to hold the con-
tinually growing teeth. There are seven cervical, sixteen
dorsal, three lumbar, five sacral, and eighteen caudal
vertebree ; the lumbars, as in Myrmecophaga and Brady-
pus, possess interlocking processes ; the whole column
resembles that of the former of those animals more than
the latter. The tail was strongly developed, and chevron
bones existed on the neural surfaces of the caudal ver-
tebrze. As several scutes were found with the bones of
Megatherium, and as the different processes of the ver-
tebrze were strong, it was at one time supposed that this
animal possessed a shield, but there is no doubt that the
scutes were those of Glyptodon, and the vertebre do not
resemble those of the Armadillo. The sternum was com-
posed of seven pieces, and the clavicles large and well
developed, being the only examples of these bones, which
are bigger than those of man. As in the sloths, the
acromion joined the coracoid, and the supraspinous fora-
men was strongly bridged over. In its distal limb sez-
ments the animal was peculiar. There was no supracon-
dyloid foramen to the humerus ; the radius and ulna were
free ; all the bones of the carpus were represented ; the
pollex was lost, and the other digits were present ; the
fourth and fifth metacarpals were elongated, the proximal
phalanges very short, and the distal of the index, middle,
and ring fingers constructed to carry huge claws, which
differed from those of the cats in being flexed instead of

extended when they were not in use, upon which depends ~

the difference in the shape of their articular surfaces. The
second and third phalanges of the middle finger were an-
chylosed, and a phalanx was’ missing in the fifth finger,
which did not carry a nail. The pelvis presented the
peculiarities of the sloths, and was very large. The femur
had a small pit for the insertion of the ligamentum teres.
The tibia and fibula were anchylesed at both ends. All
the leg bones were massive. The foot was very peculiar,
the animal must have rested on its outer edge. The os
calcis was very large, with the calcarcaneal process going
nearly as far backwards as the toes forwards. The

[ Mar. 13, 1873,

Sie ee go
- Mar. 13, 1873]

ankle, as in Megalonyx and the other allies of Megathe-
rium, was not pivoted as in the sloths, but the inner ma-
leolus was quite cut away and replaced by a slightly con-
cave articular surface looking downwards and a little
inwards, which was continuous with that of the lower
ends of the tibia, aridge intervening. The superior surface
of the astragalus was consequently of a peculiar form,
possessing a longitudinal median groove. The first and
second digits of the foot were missing, and a claw was
present only on the third, in which the middle and distal
phalanges were anchylosed ; there were two phalanges on
the fourth toe, and only one was present on the fifth.
As to its habits, there is no doubt that Megatherium was
not a burrower as supposed by Pander, nor arboreal as
suggested by Lund, but that Prof. Owen’s hypothesis is
correct in which he considers that it was terrestrial, feed-
ing on trees, which it uprooted or broke boughs off.

Mylodon possessed the same number of teeth as its
allies and the sloths, but the anterior pair in the upper
jaw were separated by a considerable interval from those
behind. All the teeth were more or less cylindrical and
had persistent pulps ; the worn surfaces were cupped and
not ridged, because the dentine was softest in the cen-
tre ; the fourth lower molar was elongated and grooved.
Several species of this genus have been found, one only in
North America. Gervais has divided off some with more
separated anterior molars into a new genus, but Burmeister
does not think this justifiable. The College of Surgeons

sesses a very good skeleton, almost perfect, obtained
in 1841. The skull was very slothlike, the fore part being
truncated and the nasal fossae open. There was a large
descending process of the zygoma and an ascending one ;
the bony arch was complete. There was no enlargement
of the molar region in the lower jaw like that of Mega-
therium. Air cavities existed all round the brain-case, as
in the elephant, but to a less degree The vertebrae were
C. 7, D. 16, L. 3, S. 7, and Caud. 21. The lumbar ver-
tebrz were anchylosed together to the last dorsal and to
the sacrum. The tail was long and powerful ; the limbs
much like those of Megatherium, but differed in the radius
and ulna being separate, as were the tibia and fibula. In
the fore-foot Mylodon had the five digits, with claws.
on the first three, The ankle was as in Megatherium ;
the hallux only was missing, and the fourth and fifth toes
did not carry claws. :

Scelidotherium was smaller and altogether lighter built
than those mentioned above ; the teeth were equidistant
and elongated from before backwards as was the head.
The rest of the skeleton much resembled Mylodon, but
the lumbar vertebrae were not anchylosed.

Megalonyx was a North American form, Prof. Leidy
has described it fully. There was a great gap between
the anterior tooth, which was large and much like a
canine, and the other molars, whose number were the
same as in the sloths. The animal had longer and
slenderer limbs than those described above and therefore
more nearly approached the sloths.

{In last week’s report of these lectures, Thy/acoleo is
misprinted Z/y/acoles, and the animal is stated to have
32 instead of 2 molar teeth in the lower jaw.]

FAUNA OF THE NEW ENGLAND COAST

peor. VERRILL, in discussing the collections made
by the parties of the United States Commis-
sioner of Fish and Fisheries upon the Coast Survey steamer
Bache during her cruise off the coast of New England, in
the summer of 1872, sums up by stating that they repre-
sent six distinct faunas and sub-faunas as follows :—

(1) The surtace fauna outside of the banks, and, at
certain times, even extending over their outer slopes.
This is essentially the same as the fauna prevailing over
the entire surface of the central parts of the Atlantic

NATURE

. 365

Ocean, and shows very clearly the direct effects of the
Gulf Stream.

(2) The surface fauna inside of the Banks, which is
decidedly northern in character, very similar to that of
the Bay of Fundy. The contrast between the two shows
that the Gulf Stream is almost entirely turned aside by
the Banks, and has comparatively little effect upon the
fauna between them and the coast.

(3) The fauna of the St. George’s Bank: itself. This is
decidedly boreal in character, and essentially identical
with that of the Bay of Fundy at corresponding depths,
on similar bottoms, and in regions swept by strong
currents. The fauna of the south-western part, however,
is less boreal than that of the north-western.

(4) The fauna of the Le Have Banks, and off Halifax.
This, even at the moderate depth of twenty fathoms, is
decidedly more arctic in character than that of the St.
George’s or the Bay of Fundy at similar or even greater
depths.

(5) Between the St. George’s and Le Have Banks and
the coast there is a great region of cold and comparatively
deep water—in places more than 100 fathoms in depth—
with a bottom of mud and fine sand, and communicating
with the great ocean-basin by a channel between the
St. George’s and Le Have banks, which is comparatively
narrow and, in some places, at least 150 fathoms deep.
This partially inclosed region has, physically and zoo-
logically, the essential features of a gulf, and may be
called the St. George’s Gulf. The deeper waters of the
Bay of Fundy are directly continuous with those of this
area. The fauna of this Gulf and of its outlet is pecu-
liarly rich in species new to the American coast, and nearly
identical with that of the deeper waters of the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, arid agrees very closely with that found on
muddy bottoms, and at similar depths, on the coasts of
Greenland, Finmark, and Norway.

Healso presents additional generalisations as follows :—

(6) The deepest dredging, in 430 fathoms, was outside
of the St. George’s Banks, on the slope of the actual
continental border, and within the limits of the true
Atlantic “basin.” The fauna there is especially rich and
varied, decidedly northern in character, and agrees
closely with that of similar localities and depths on the
European side. The animals were mostly such as
inhabit bottoms swept by strong currents in the Bay
of Fundy. :

(7) Everywhere over the banks, and especially on the
southern slopes, the difference between the bottom and
surface amounts to from 15° to 20, or even more; the
surface temperature being usually from 60° to 72°. The
temperature of the air was very near that of the water,
generally one or two degrees higher.

(8) Nosuch contrast of temperature was found inside ot
the Banks in the St. George’s Gulf or the Bay of Fundy ;
the difference seldom being more than ten degrees, and
often, especially in the Bay of Fundy, less than five.
The surface temperature at corresponding dates in the
Bay of Fundy were 48° to 53°, showing an average
difference of about 20° for the surface temperature in the
two regions, while the average bottom temperatures do
not appear to differ materially. :

(9) The high surface temperature of the Banks is
evidently due chiefly to the direct influence of the Gulf
Stream.

(10) The very low surface temperature of the Bay of
Fundy is largely due to its geographical position, and the
absence of any appreciable influence from the Gulf
Stream, but it is no doubt intensified by the powerful
tides, which are constantly mixing the cold bottom water
with that of the surface.

The facts hitherto observed do not seem to warrant
the assumption that an “arctic current,” properly so-
called, as distinguished from the tidal currents, enters the
St. George’s Gulf or the Bay of Fundy. ‘The action of

366

the tidal currents in bringing up the cold bottom waters
of the ocean is perhaps a cause sufficient to produce
most of the coldness of the water in this region.

ON DINOCERAS MIRABILIS (MARSH)

AX: SHORT time ago we gave a note respecting one of

the recently-discovered gigantic fossil mammals
from the Eocene of Wyoming in the region of the Rocky
Mountains; the accompanying woodcut, copied from a.
paper by Prof. Marsh, on this extraordinary extinct
animal, named by him Dinoceras mirabilis, will further
assist in making its peculiarities easily understood.

The animal must have been nearly as large as the
elephant, to which its limb-bones were very similar. The
only teeth it possessed in the upper jaw, were a pair of
well-developed canine tusks, and six pairs of small molars,
whose crowns were formed of two transverse ridges,
separated externally, but meeting at their inner extremi-

Dixoceras MrraBitis

ties. The frontal region of the skull was concave, on
account of the lateral projection upwards of a bony ridge
or crest on each side, which posteriorly developed into a
large osseous process that may have been a horn core
but perhaps was only covered with thick skin, and acted
like the fibrous pads on the cheeks of the wart-hog, to
shield the thinner skull from direct blows. Behind these
the crest extended back beyond the level of the occipital
condyles. The maxillaries each bore a conical process,
which in a profile view is evidently seen to be directly
above the root of the canine tusk, and supported it ; it
probably carried ahorn. At the anterior extremities of
the nasals were also two smaller horn cores. The horns
must have been of a character very different from those
in the rhinoceros, in which animal, however long they
may be, they are only supported on a roughened surface
of bone; if they resembled those of the cavicora ungu-
lata, from analogy we must suppose that they were small,
for in those animals there is a close relation between the
size of the core and thut of the horn which it carried.
There were no postorbital processes to the frontal
bones. The zygoma was completedin front by the malar,
the lachrymal was large, and formed the anterior border

NATURE

> a Ia es.

Aa eae eet

[ Mar. 13, 1873

of the orbit; its foramen was exserted. The infraorbital
foramen must have been behind the zygomatic ridge, as
it does not appear in any of the drawings. The premax-
illaries did not carry teeth; they sent forward two
branches, which partially enclosed the sides of the ex-
ternal nares ; the upper branch «joined the nasal, and
the lower, as in the Ruminants, continued free, and pro-
bably carried a pad. Prof. Marsh gives no illustration
of the mandible, and only remarks of it that “the lower
jaw was slender and the tusks small.” The limbs were
short, the fore limbs shorter than those behind. The
radius did not cross the ulna so obliquely as in the ele-
phant. In the head of the femur there was not any pit
for the insertion of the round ligament. The great tro-
chanter was flattened and recurved ; the third trochanter
was absent. The tail was short and slender. The ribs
had rudimentary uncinate processes.

Prof. Marsh feels justified in placing Dinoceras in an
order Dinocerata, distinct from the Proboscidia, on
account of the absence of upper incisors ; the presence of
canines and horns; the absence of large cranial air
cavities ; the malar forming the anterior portion of the
zygoma ; the absence of a proboscis, which could not
have been necessary in an animal that could easily touch
the ground with its nose, and other less important
differences.

This Dinoceras of Marsh is the Zodasileus of Cope and
the Uintatherium of Leidy. The shortness of the pub-
lished descriptions prevents.us saying more about it at
present. a

THE TROGLODYTES OF THE VEZERE*
Ill.

Our Troglodytes of the latest epoch had, in fishing, an-
other resource unknown to their predecessors. Their
different stations contain a-large number of fish bones ;
but it is remarkable that all these fish were salmon. Now
the salmon in these days neither frequent the Véztre
nor the part of Dordogne where that river joins the sea.
At some leagues below the confluence, not far from La-
linde, in the centre of Dordogne, there is a bank of rocks,
which, at high water, forms a rapid, and at low water a
regular fall, called, The Leap of the Gratusse. The salmon
do not pass this boundary, and, as it did not stop them
at the epoch of the Troglodytes, we must conclude that,
since that time, the level of the Dordogne has fallen, either
by hollowing out its bed so as to lay bare the bank of rocks,
or by losing part of its volume of water. We are led to
believe that the fishermen of that time did not use nets,
for with a net could be caught fish of all sizes. We thus
understand why they could only catch large fish, and why
they chose, among these, the kind they preferred. Had
they any fishing boats? We have as yet found no
proof of such. And besides, the Véztre is sufficiently
enclosed for the large fish to swim along the banks within
reach of the harpoons. .

The harpoon of our Troglodytes was a small dart of deer-
horn, very similar to the large barbed arrows, except that
it was only barbed on one side. A little notch at the
base enabled the fisherman to secure the cord which he
held in his hand (sez above, Fig. 10). The barbs are in-
tended to secure the fish which it has struck. Why are
these barbs all placed on the same side? Is it to dimi-
nish the width of the dart and make it more penetrating ?
This I cannot venture to affirm.

* Continued from p. 325

+ One of my colleagues of the French Association, M. Lecoq de Bois-
beaudrau, who did me the honour of being present at this lecture, communi-
cated, the following day, to the Section of Anthropology, a very interesting
note on the mode of action of theunilateral barbs of the harpoon. While the
harpoon is traversing the air, these barbs cannot make it deviate sensibly ;
but directly it enters the water, the unequal resistance it meets there must
necessarily change its direction. Itseems, then, that the fisherman who

aims straight ought the most frequently to miss his aim. But M. Lecoq
de Boisbeaudrau reminds us of the well-kaown experiment of the straight

ee eee ee hae
Cae ae 3 ;

Mar.. 13, 1873]

After fishing and hunting, they returned to the cave for
their meals. ‘

In the whole extent of the floor of the caves, at every
level, the stratum which encloses broken bones contains
likewise an enormous amount of particles of coal. This
mixture is so universal, so uniform, that it is difficult to

NATURE

367

believe that the Troglodytes only made fires for warming
themselves. They must have lit their fires every day,
and in all seasons ; and hence it is more probable that
they used them for cooking their food.

We do not know how they produced fire, whether they
drew it from flint or from wood heated from friction.

Fic. 13.—Bone harpoon of the Terra del Fuegans.

Neither do we know how they cooked their food. They
had no earthenware, and could not boil their meat on
the fire. They did not roast it, for hardly a solitary cal-
cined bone has been found, and thenit has evidently been
accidentally reduced to this state. Perhaps they boiled
it in wooden vessels, in which water can be brought to
the boiling point by putting into it pebbles made red hot in
the fire. But it seems to me more probable that they
cooked it under the ashes, as many uncivilised nations do
to this day.

BECKET,

Fic, 17. Fics. 15, 16.

Figs. 15 and 16.—Needles.

Fic. 18.

- Fic. 14.

Fig. 14 —The marrow spoon.

with a single hole (reduced a third).
Esquimaux (reduced a fourth).

z The Troglodytes, after their meals, left the bones.spread
about the floors of their caves. In a warm climate, these
remnants would have exhaled an insufferable odour, but

_ stick which appzars broken when plunged obliquely in the water. In con-
Sequence of the refraction of the rays of light, the image of the fish is dis-
placed, and in aiming straight at that image, one would miss one’s aim.
_ Here, then, are two causes oferror. Now it is clear that, if they act in-
versely, they may compensate each other; and M. Lecoq de Boisbeaudrau
demonstrates that when the unilateral barb is turned upwards, it brings back
‘the harpoon towards the object ‘I'hi; arrangement inthe harpoon would
then be intended to rectify the aim, and this would credit our Troglodytes
with a great power of observation
The inhabitants of Terra del Fuego “still use a harpoonjwith unilateral
barbs (see Fig. 13).

= Fig. 17. —Hunting tablet.
Fig. 20.—Baton of command with four holes (reduced a third).

They enjoyed the brains of animals and the marrow in
the long bones, for all the heads are broken, and all the
medullary bones (to the exclusion of all others) are metho-
dically divided. The marrow in bones is a dish relished
by all savage nations. They break the long bone in a
particular manner, and the chief sucks the marrow first. _
Our Troglodytes had little flint maces with cuneiform
edge ; these were a kind of hatchet for breaking the
bones. There is, besides, another utensil in deer-horn,
which was probablyused for extracting the marrow (Fig. 14)

Bechendel,

Fic, 20,

Fig. 19.—Baton ot command
Fig. 21.—The pogamagan of the

Fic. 19.
Fig. 13.—Account tablet.

Fic, 2t.

we must not forget that the temperature was then lower
than it is now, and we must likewise confess that cleanli-
ness was not the predominant feature of the men of those
days. ;

Thanks to this uncleanly habit, the floor of their caves
furnishes us with complete information as to their food.
The flesh of the reindeer was their principal nourish-
ment ; they ate besides horses, aurochs, several kinds of
oxen, chamois, wild goats, and even some carnivora ;
their predecessors did the same; but these had fish in
addition, and the improvement in their bows and arrows
' enabled them to bring down game on the wing. Among

368

the remains of their repasts are found a variety of
birds.

Among these innumerable debris of bones, there is not
a single fragment of a human bone. Our good Troglo-
dytes were, therefore, not anthropophagi. They must
have fought occasionally to defend or enlarge their hunt-
ing territory ; nevertheless, their equipment was more that
of huntsmen than of warriors.

In reviewing their panoply, it is evident that the most
dangerous weapons, those which could be available in a
hand-to-hand fight, are the most rare, and we remain con-
vinced that they were a pacific race.

It might be concluded that they wore no clothing, be-
cause all the men represented by their artists are com-
pletely naked ; but that proves absolutely nothing. Do
we not know that the Greeks often represented their gods
and their heroes in a state of nudity?

In the Troglodyte caves have been found all the requi-
sites for needlework. They had needles of bone and of
deer-horn, Some were only piercers, like a shoemaker’s
awl, others were provided with an eye for holding the
thread (see Figs, 15 and 16). There were some very fine
ones. A small needle case has been found, made of a
bird’s bone, which could contain a number of them. They
are supposed to have been obtained from the metacarpus
of a horse, on which several longitudinal and parallel in-
cisions, with a fine saw, have extracted little, narrow, even
spiculee of long bones, The work was not complete ; but
it is evident that these slender spiculz could only be
destined for making needles, The threads used in sewing
were doubtless of different kinds. Did they use vegetable
fibre or fine lashes of leather? It is possible and even
probable. What is nearly certain is that our Troglodytes
made threads or at least strings with the substance of
tendons.

I do not know whether the Troglodytes utilised thus
the nerves of the reindeer, but they carefully detached
the long tendons with a certain little blow which pro-
duced on the surface of the bone a superficial abrasion of
a very regular shape. This abrasion, always the same,
has been found on different bones, but the spots where it
exists have this in common, that they mark the place of
along tendon. It is, therefore, the proof of a methodical
operation, which was doubtless practised before giving
the meat to the cook, and which was probably destined
to prepare threads for sewing,

Sewing is a proof of clothing, and not of that primitive
clothing which consists of the skin of some animal thrown
over the shoulders, but of a more complete dress, formed
by the joining of several skins. The abundance of needles
and piercers, and of scrapers which helped to prepare the
skins, proves that the use of clothing must have been
general, They also wore ornaments, which perhaps served
as marks of distinction. These were necklaces or brace-
lets, formed of shells perforated and threaded.

Most savage nations have the habit of painting and
tattooing themselves ; we have no right to despise them
on this account, for tattooing is still held in honour in the
popular classes of the most civilised countries, and it is
even hinted that ladies in the upper circles have not quite
forgotten the art of pencilling. We must not then wonder
at finding similar fashions among the Troglodytes. Their
caves contain numerous fragments of the red stone which
we call ved ochre ; the stripes frequently found on these
fragments prove that they have been scraped. They
therefore prepared a red colour, which was in constant
use, and which probably served to ornament the body
with pictures.

I have already said that Troglodytes were not nomads.
Some individuals may doubtless have undertaken voyages,
but the entire tribe never went far from their caves. It
was then by means of barter or commerce that certain
foreign articles were imported. The numerous perforated
shells of which the necklaces and bracelets were composed,

NATURE

[Mar. 13, 1873

were all foreign to the locality. Most of them belonged
to the species Zz¢éorina littorea, and came from the shores
of the Atlantic, where they are still very abundant. They
were brought quite fresh, for they had their natural
colours, which are preserved to this day in the floors of
the caves, Other shells pierced in like manner with one
hole, belong to five extinct species only to be found in
Jaluns, and which date from the Miocene epoch. They
are quite discoloured and broken into molecules ; and the
traces of rolling which they sometimes present, prove
that they were fossils long before they were extracted
from their tertiary beds to ornament man. Now the
Jaluns which contain these five species are not found in
the region of the Vézére. The nearest are those of
Touraine, and it was from thence, in all probability, that
our Troglodytes imported this toilet necessary. There
have been likewise found in three stations, and principally
at Upper Laugerie, little pieces of rock crystal ; this sub-
stance must have come from the Pyrenees, the Alps, or

Fic, 22.—Combat of Reindeer.

the mountains of Auvergne. The foreign relations of the
Troglodytes were therefore rather extensive.

Had they any religious faith? Nothing has been found
in their habitations which could refer to any religious
worship. But they wore talismans or amulets. These
were a Canine or incisive tooth of wolf, reindeer, ox, or
horse. A hole, carefully bored at one extremity of the
tooth, served for passing the string by which it was sus-
pended.

At the same epoch, but in a different spot, certain
funereal rites were observed. They placed the dead in a
cave, whose narrow opening was closed by a flag-stone.
In front of this stone was a little esplanade on which the
afflicted relatives consoled themselves with feasting.
This kind of consolation has been perpetuated from age
to age, and it has not yet disappeared from among us.

At present we know of but one burying ground of the
Troglodytes of the Vézére ; it is that of Cromagnon. It
is under a shelter and not in a cave; by the side of the
corpses were placed carved flints and ornaments in shells,
but there is no trace of a stone door,

=

_ The society of the Troglodytes was numerous, and
hierarchically organised. There were several orders
of dignitaries. The proofs of this organisation are to
be found in the three stations of the last epoch—-
the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie,- and the Madelaine. They
are large pieces of deer-horn, carved artistically, and de-
signated in general terms under the name of “ batons of
command.” These batons are numerous. Here are
several, and you can see that they have a uniform type.
Their whole surface is richly adorned with various draw-
ings, representing animals or hunting scenes. They are
less thick than wide, and the care that has been taken to
diminish the thickness proves that they sought lightness
rather than solidity. Then, again, the greater number,
though not all, are pierced with large round holes, varying
in number from one to four (see Figs. 19 and 20). The
purpose of these very curious objects is still a disputed
point, but most probably they were used as insignia.
They indicate the sceptre, borne among the ancients, not
only by the king, but by the chiefs of a less elevated
rank. The dignity of marshal is to this day characterised
by a baton. The batons of command are too numerous
to allow of their being considered a sign of royalty. They
are only signs of hierarchical distinction, The holes in-
dicate the grade. ;

This superposition of grades or ranks, a sure sign of a
numerous society, might doubtless be utilised in times
of war, but it is very probable that it referred primarily to
the appointment of hunting expeditions, for the chase was
the essential element of public prosperity, and it was
necessary to organise it systematically in order to secure
food for the community. ;

Thanks to the organisation and administration of which
we recognise the proofs, the society of Troglodytes, though
numerous, lived in comfort. Food was sufficiently abun-
dant to enable them to choose the best pieces, and reject
those of an inferior quality. Thus, they despised the feet
of animals, which nevertheless contain, in the bones and
tendons, a remarkable quantity of alimentary matter. The
destruction of dangerous animals had given security ; the
_ improvement in hunting had given abundance. It was
no longer necessary for the entire tribe to devote their
whole time, energy, and intelligence to the urgent neces-
sities of daily life. They could rest occasionally. They
could have leisure hours, and leisure, joined to intelli-
gence, produces the arts.

(To be continued.)

NOTES

THE names of fifty-three candidates which, in pursuance of
‘the Statute, were read out at the meeting on Thursday last, is a
proof that the desire to enter the Royal Society does not abate.
Out of this large number the Council will, in April, select fifteen
whom they will recommend for election ; and the names of these
will, as usual, be made known at the meeting of the Society on
the first Thursday in May. The selection ought not to be diffi-
cult, notwithstanding that in perusing the names we mark not a
few instances of misplaced ambition, and indications that an
obvious misunderstanding as to the qualification for membership
exists on the part of the candidates. It must not be forgotten
that the Royal Society is of a kind of superior College of Sur-
geons or Physicians or Preceptors ; in fact, that something higher
even than the art of healing or teaching must be looked for, namely,
research, and the enlargement of the boundaries of knowledge. As
in the majority of cases non-election is inevitable, it isas well that
the number should be large : disappointment is, thereby, reduced
toa minimum. But here is the list, and our readers may judge
for themselves. The election day is fixed for June 12.
W. Aitken, M.D. ; Sir Alexander Armstrong, K.C.B., M.D. ;
_ R. Stawell Ball, LL.D.; Rev. A. Barry, D,D., D.C.L.;

rex naa SS). a Sa zi ; =
Mar. 13, 1873] NATURE 466

E. Middleton Barry, R.A. ; J. Beddoe, B.A., M.D. ; I. Low-
thian Bell; G. Bishop, F.R.A.S.; F. J. Bramwell, C.E. ;
W. Lawry Buller, Sc.D. ; Capt. E. Kilwick Calver, R.N. ;
A. Carte, M.A.. M.D.; W. Chimmo, Commander R.N. ;
H. Davies, M.D. ; Henry Dircks; R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.A.S. ;
J. Fayrer, M.D.; P. Le Neve Foster M.A.; T. Minchin
Goodeve, M.A. ; L. D. Brodie Gordon, C.E.; Lt.-Col. J. A.
Grant, C.B.; J. Eliot Howard; Rey. A. Hume, LL.D. ;
Edmund C. Johnson, F.R.C.S.; Lord Lindsay, F.R.A.S.;
Clements R. Markham, C.B. ; W. Mayes, Staff-Commander
R.N.; E. J. Mills, D.Sc.; R. Stirling Newall, F.R.A.S.;
G. E. Paget, M.D., D.C.L. ; F. Polkinghorne Pascoe, F.L.S.;
O. Pemberton, M.R.C.S. ; Rev. S. J. Perry; J. A. Phillips,
F.G.S.; W. O. Priestley, M.D.; C. B. Radcliffe, M,D.;
A. Rattray, M.D., R.N.; E. J. Reed, C.B.; W. Chandler
Roberts, F.C.S.; G. W. Royston-Pigott, M.A., M.D.;
W. Westcott Rundell; Osbert Salvin, M.A. ; Major-General
Hi. Y. Darracott Scott, R.E., C.B. ; J. Spiller, F.C.S. ; Hon.
J. W. Strutt ; G. J. Symons, F.M.S. ; Sir Henry Thompson,
F.R.C.S. ; E. T. Truman, M.R.C.S. ; F. H. Wenham ; Capt.
C. W. Wilson, R.N. ; H. Woodward, F.G.S.; Lieut.-Col.
A. H. P. Stuart Wortley; J. Young, F.C.S.

M. BERTHELOT, the eminent chemist, has been elected a
member of the French Academy.

THE reports of the Hunterian Lectures which appear in
NATURE are not written by Prof. Flower.

THE Belgian Academy announces the following as subjects
for prizes to be awarded in 1874:—1. To perfect in some im-
portant point, either in its principles or its applications, the
theory of the functions of an imaginary variable. 2. A com-
plete discussion of the temperature of space, based upon experi-
ments, observations, and the calculus, stating the grounds for
the choice made between the various temperatures which have
been attributed to it. 3. A complete study, theoretic and, if
necessary, experimental of the specific absolute heat of simple
and compound bodies. 4. New experiments upon uric acid and
its derivatives, principally in relation to their chemical structure
and their synthesis. 5. (a.) A succinct critical résumé of existing
observations of the Aucedinee. (b.) The exact determination
—applied to only a single species—of the part which is due, first,
to the essential nature of the vegetable (its specific energy), and
next to the external conditions of its development. (c.) A posi-
tive proof, or a satisfactory disproof, of the statement that the
fungi of fermentation in certain circumstances, can be transformed
into fungi of a higher class, 6. A paper on the Plutonic
rocks, or those that are considered such, of Belgium and the
French Ardennes, especially in relation to their composition.
The prizes for Nos. 1, 4, and 5 will be a gold medal of the
value of 600 francs ; for No. 6, one of the value of 800 francs ;
and for No. 3, a medal worth 1,009 francs. The manuscripts,
which may be in either French, Flemish, or Latin, must be sent
to M. Ad. Quetelet, perpetual secretary, before August 1, 1874.

WE understand that Mr. F. J. M. Page, B.Sc., Assoc. R.S.M.,
F.C.S., has been appointed chemical assistant to the Brown
Institution, under Dr. Burdon Sanderson. It is with much
pleasure that we announce this, as it argues well for the attention
which will be paid to physiological chemistry, a subject which
of late years has received comparatively little attention in
England.

AN examination for a Natural Science Scholarship for 60/,
per annum will be held at Gonville and Caius College, Cam-
bridge, on April 3 and 4, The subjects :—chemistry and experi-
mental physics, zoology with comparative anatomy and physic-
logy, botany with vegetable anatomy and physiology. The
Scholarship is tenable for two years, but the tenure may be
prolonged for another year if the Scholar sufficiently distin zuish

379

NATURE

himself in the annual College examinations. No person will be
eligible who has commenced residence in the University, and
the successful candidate will be required to enter his name at the
College forthwith, and begin residence in October next. For
further particulars apply to Dr. Drosier, Gonville and Caius
College.

WE have received from the Science and Art Department a
thick pamphlet containing the prospectus of Sir Joseph Whit-
worth’s Scholarships for mechanical science. These Scholar-
ships are of the value of 100/. a year, and are tenable for three
years, and the competition is open to all Her Majesty’s subjects,
at home, in India, and in the Colonies, who have not completed
their 26th year, though we see that after the next examination
(May 1873) the limit of age will be 22 years, Ten Scholarships
will be competed for this year, at examinations which will be
partly in practical workmanship, and partly in theoretical sub-
jects. Those who desire detailed information, should procure a
copy of the very full prospectus.

THE examiners for the Burdett-Coutts Scholarship, Prof.
Phillips, Prof. Odling, and Mr, E. Chapman, M.A., have
recommended to the trustees for election, Mr. Edward Clemin-
shaw, Postmaster of Merton College. The Scholarship was
founded by Miss Burdett Coutts for the promotion of the study of
geology and of natural science as bearing on geology. The
Scholarship is tenable for two years. Mr. Cleminshaw was placed
in the first class by the examiners in the Natural Science School
in December last. He received his Scientific training in the
Applied Sciences department of King’s College, London.

Mr. J. J. Tayzor, of Giggleswick Grammar School, has
been elected to the Junior Studentship in Natural Science at
Christ Church, Oxford. This studentship is of the annual
value of 100/. Mr. Taylor’s scientific training has been under
the direction of Dr. W. Marshall Watts, the Science Master
of the School.

WE understand that Mr. Osbert Salvin, F.Z.S., is about to
return to his old collecting quarters in Guatemala for a short
period. Mr. Salvin’s valuable contributions to the fauna and
flora of Central America are well known, but we trust that he
willstill be able to add to his former discoveries, extensive as
they have already been.

Tue Russian Government has determined to send a scientific
expedition with the military force to Khiva. It will leave in
the course of the present month.

WE have received a copy of the syllabus of a course of lec-
tures on botany to be delivered in the Royal College of Science,
Stephen’s Green, Dublin, by Prof. W. R. McNab. It differs
from most other similar courses of lectures in its arrangement,
being closely modelled after Sachs’s *f Lehrbuch.” Commencing
at once with the morphology of the cell, it proceeds then to the
morphology of tissues and the external morphology of plants ;
then to the special morpholagy of the various groups of Thallo-
phytes, Characeze, Muscinex, Vascular Cryptogams, and Phane-
rogams ; and finally to physiology. Though, perhaps, erring on
the side of two great minuteness for a short course of lectures, it
is admirable in its comprehensiveness‘and scientific arrangement.

Dr. Davip Moors, the Director of the Botanic Garden of
the Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin, has made a successful
attempt to propagate the well-known parasite of the South of
Europe, Zovanthus europeus, on oak-trees in the gardens.
This has frequently been attempted previously by horticulturists
in this country and in Ireland, and Dr. Moore deserves great
credit for the energy and perseverance with which he has
carried his efforts to a successful issue. The common mistletoe,
which is not a native of Ireland, has also been successfully
introduced by Dr. Moore and others into that country, and is

= ee
a

now rapidly spreading; and in the Botanic Gardens Zatirea

squamaria and two species of Ovobanche have also been per- |

manently established, and six species of Cuscut¢a or dodder more
transitorily.

Two fine plants, both from Moreton Bay, are at present ob-
jects of interest at Kew. The tree of Araucaria Bidwilli, in
the temperate house, has produced cones for the first time in
Europe. It was one of the two original plants brought to this -
country in 1842 by Mr. Bidwill, the other having been purchased
for 100 guineas by the Duke of Northumberland, The Kew
tree is about 26 ft. high, and its branches cover a circumference
of about 60 ft. The seeds are very important articles of food to the
aboriginal inhabitants, and the property of the tribes in indivi-
dual trees of the Bunya-bunya isthe only possession they have,
and is the commencement of a communal system amongst them.
Dendrobium Hillii is the principal feature in the orchid house.
The large mass in flower has as many as twenty pale yellow
racemes, some being as much as 2 ft. m length.

THE Report of the Ashmolean Society for 1872 shows that a
little more life has been infused into that society during the past
year, though we think there is still considerable room for im-
provement, and hope that next year’s report will be able to
speak of a considerably greater amount of work of permanent
value having been done. During the year 1872 the Society has

held four General Meetings, at which the following communica- —

tions have been received :—A paper ‘f On House Temperatures,”
by Prof. Phillips; a note ‘‘On the Meteors of April 19,
1872,” by Mr. Lucas ; a paper ‘‘On the Breaks of Continuity
in the Mean Daily Temperature in the months of April and
May,” by the Radcliffe Observer ; a paper ‘‘On the Sulphur
Compounds in Coal Gas, and the means of removing them,” by
Mr. A. G. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. ; a paper ‘‘ On the Flint-
implement-bearing beds of St. Acheul,” by Mr. James Parker ;
a paper by Mr. Heathcote Wyndham “ On the Recent Eruption
of Vesuvius,” illustrated by oil paintings of sketches made by the
author on the spot. hat

steamer, and a man in many ways remarkable, died at Edin-
burgh on the 8th inst., in the 5oth year of his age,

THE new strip of garden belonging to the Zoological Society —

on the north side of the Regent’s Canal, is now being put into
order. The bridge over the canal is already finished, and the
new lodge opposite Primrose Hill only wants the entrance
gates and turnstiles to make it complete. We understand that
it will be open to the public on Easter Monday. ,

WE see froma leader in the Vew York Tribune of February 26,
that the astounding number of almost 200,000 copies of the three
cent reprint of Prof. Tyndall’s lectures on light has already been
sold, and that orders are still pouring in for them from all parts
of the States. The Zridune also publishes a large number of
letters from people throughout the States asking the letters to
be sent them, and justly praising the enterprise of the paper in
so energetically and wisely meeting a wide popular want. It
reminds one of the demands occasionally seen on this side of the
water for the last sensation novel or the latest news of the most
recent poisoning case. Such a wide-spread taste for Zieh?
literature of the stamp purveyed by the 7yiéwne to its multitu-
dinous readers, is a healthy sign, and bodes well for the future
of the country among whose people it exists, ‘

WE have received a copy of a letter from Prof. Hayden,
United States geologist, to his Government, asking a further ap-

propriation of 100,000 dols. for the purpose of continuing the —

geological survey of the territories of the United States during
the approaching season, His request is at once granted. For
the coming season, the field of labour of the survey is to be

| (Mar. 13, 1873

Mr. R. W. THomson, C.E., the inventor of the road —

i

:

.

transferred to the eastern portion of the Rocky Mountain Range,
in Colorado, and New Mexico.

_ GENERAL BANKs has introduced into the U. S. House of
Representatives a resolution instructing the Secretary of the
Navy to make an examination and survey of that section of the
American isthmus which lies between Valencia Point and the
Changenola River, on the Atlantic side, and the Boca Chica, the
Rio Pedrigal, and the upper part of Golfo Dolce, on the Pacific
side. This is to include an examination of the intervening
country, of the two cordilleras, and exploration of the courses of
the rivers from their outlets to their sources, within the above
limits, for the purpose of ascertaining the possibility of such a
connection as may be feasible for the const of an inter-
oceanic canal.

Miss HANNAH BRAKENBURY has, among other large lega-
cies, left 12,500/. to the Owens College, Manchester, and 9,000/.
_to Durham University.

WE learn from the Zines of India that Mr. Pogson, the Go-
vernment Astronomer of Madras, has written a long letter to
the local Government, suggesting that some special arrangements
should be made for observations of the Transit of Venus in De-
cember 1874, in Northern India, independently of the Madras
Observatory. The letter has been forwarded to the Government
of India for consideration.

Les Mondes says that M. Calombel, Procureur-Général of
Missions in China, after careful inquiry, gives it as his opinion that
Shanghai is one of the most favourable spots for observing the
forthcoming transit of Venus. The climate there is somewhat
moist, but the month of December is in general very fine ; and Zes
Mondes says that without doubt Shanghai will be the scene of
M. Janssen’s ‘‘third glorious campaign.” Nankin is also a
favourable station, but the inhabitants are not yet sufficiently ac-
eustomed to strangers, and the presence there of a scientific
expedition might lead to a popular riot.

TuHE Chinese take a curious method to prevent their pigeons
from being attacked by birds of prey while circling over the
cities or moving from place to place. This consists in the
employment of small, short cylinders of bamboo, arranged
So as to form a whistle or reed pipe, in groups of three or
four, or more. These are attached to the back of the bird,
and so adjusted that as it flies through the air a very sharp sound
is produced. Varying lengths of the bamboo give variety of
tones to this instrument ; and when a large number of birds are
flying together in a single flock, as is very frequently the case,
the sound produced by them is distinctly audible for a great
distance. It is said that rapacious birds are effectively repelled
by this precaution, so that the pigeons make their flights with
perfect safety from one point to another. Varnish is used for
coating these bamboo whistles to protect them from moisture
This practice is said to have been in vogue among the Chinese
for a great many years.

THE temperature of February of this year has shown some
very curious peculiarities, and a marked contrast to that of the
earlier part of the winter, as may be seen from Mr. Glaisher’s
tables of observations at Blackheath, published weekly in the
Gardener's Chronicle. While, during the whole of the three
preceding months there were only twelve frosty nights, with the
temperature of the twenty-four hours almost uniformly above the
average of the last filty years, the thermometer fell below the
freezing point in eighteen nights in February, and the tem-
perature was below the average on every day except two, the
‘total depression for the month being 4°°3 Fahr. The records
very few winters will show so high a minimum as 25°'0
-Fahr., the lowest temperature of the past winter at Blackheath,
which occurred on February 24 and 25, the thermometer falling

rs

. NATURE

| Malayan bear (U7sus malayanus),

371

below 30°'0 on only seventeen nights during the whole winter.
Since March 2 the temperature has been again uniformly above
the mean.

A VERY important extension of the work of the U.S. signal-
office, as far as its system of weather telegraphy is concerned, is
about to go into operation. It is proposed to call the post-offices
of the country into requisition as intermediate agents for dissemi-
nating weather intelligence, for which purpose the territory east
of the Mississippi has been divided into districts of about two
hundred miles in extent each way, and each having a point of
distribution near its centre, to which the ‘‘ probabilities” will be
telegraphed from Washington, and from which two copies of
the report are to be sent to all post offices within the district
which can be reached by mail as early as six o’clock p.m. each
day. It is well known that country post-offices are the centres of
intelligence to rural districts, and in order to afford the farmers
in the community, especially, an opportunity of profiting by this
information, postmasters receiving these despatches are to place
a copy as soon as furnished in a conspicuous situation, where the
public can see and read it.

Apropos of the correspondence going on in our columns on
‘* Inherited Instinct,” we take the following from the ZLvening
Standard of March 8, though it would have been more satisfac-
tory had the Standard named its authority for the statement :—
During a recent gale the brig Blue Jacket, of West Hartlepool,
from Rouen to Shields, was abandoned off Flamborough Head.
The crew were taken off, but a cat was left on board. This cat
had been given as a kitten to the captain twelve months ago by
a lady named Mowbray, living at West Hartlepool, and had
never been ashore since that time. On Wednesday last the cat
made its appearance at Mrs. Mowbray’s house, having swum
ashore from the wreck, and travelled thence on foot. It was in
a very emaciated condition.

Dr. EtsNer, of Berlin, has found that iron is volatilisable at
a temperature of at least 3000° centigrade. He experimented
with a small piece at this heat, and on uncovering the crucible,
distinguished small needles of crystallised iron, says Zes Mondes.

WE are glad to note that Ocean Highways has been so success-
ful that next month it is to be considerably increased in bulk, as
also in price, the size of the page being at the same time, wisely,
we think, somewhat reduced. It is to be hereafter published
by Messrs. Triibner.

Tue Japanese Government proposes to have an institution for
the study of practical engineering, and have instructed their
agents to procure a set of machinery and tools similar in all
respects to that which the Crystal Palace Company last autumn
constructed, for the purposes of their admirable school for
practical engineering, under the supervision of Prof. Wilson, as
Principal.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week include a puff adder (Vipera arietans), a horse-shoe
snake (Zamenis hippocrepis), and a lacertive snake (Cwlofeltis
Jacertina) from Morocco, presented by Sir John Drummond-
Hay, K.C.B. ; a Rose Hill parakeet (Platycercus eximius), from
N.S. Wales, presented by Mrs. Hewett; two Moorish tortoises
(Zestudo mauritanica), and three Spanish terrapins (Clemmys
leprosa), from Algeria, presented by Mr. E. C. Taylor; a
crested porcupine (Ayrtrix cristatc), born in the gardens; a
deposited; a pig-tailed
monkey (Afacacus nemestrinus), fcom Java; a white-cheeked
monkey (Cidus Junatus), from Brazil; a talapoin monkey
(Cercopithecus talapoin), and a pluto monkey (C. f/uéo), from
West Africa ; a Bonelli’s eagle (Aguila bonellii), from Morocco ;
two canary finches (Sevinus canarius), from the Canary Islands ;
and an Iceland falcon (Fa/co islandus) ; all purchased.

NATURE

4

4

~ (Mar. 13, 1873

372

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Tut American Naturalist for February, among others, con-
tains an article by Dr. Gill on ‘*The Limits of the Class of
Fishes,” in which he endeavours to modify their generally ac-
cepted classification by dividing them up into two classes and
three sub-classes, of equal significance with the reptiles and
birds. The names he proposes are (1) Pisces; (2) Marsipo-
branchii ; and (3) Leptocardii, which sufficiently indicate the
genera he includes in eachclass. Such an amount of division we
think excessive, and it would undoubtedly necessitate the re-
moval of the crocodiles from the reptilia, among other changes.
Mr. A. S. Packard gives an account of one of the beaks of a
cuttle-fish, probably Architeuthis dux, which is four and a half
inches long ; he also describes other colossal specimens. There
is a paper by Prof. Jordan on the colours of vegetation, one by
Dr. Abbott on the habits of certain crawfish, and another by
Dr. Foster on the pottery of the mound-builders, which is fully
illustrated.

THE Munich Zeitschrift fiir Biologie, Bd. 8, Heft 4, contains
the following papers of purely medical interest : on the occurrence
of enteric fever in the Bavarian army, by Dr. Port, with charts
of the mortality in the different barracks and of the amount of
subsoil water ; On the present state of the cholera problem, by
Prof. von Pettenkofer ; and on the processes of decomposition
which result from venesection, by Dr. J. Bauer,

Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig, New
Series, vol. 3, Part I. The first paper in this publication of
the Danzig Society is a contribution to primitive German history
by Dr. Lissaicer of Danzig, being a very careful and elaborate
monograph on some skulls found at Meisterswalde and Krissau,
a short distance from Danzig. The paper is accompanied by
some capitally executed photographs of the skulls. The next
paper is also a contribution to the history of the early inhabitants
of Pomerania, being a description by Herr Kasiski of the nu-
merous and varied contents of some of the ancient graves which
abound in the district around the village of Persanzig, on the
river Persante, a short distance west of Neustettin. The dis-
trict abounds with material for the archzologist. The paper is
accompanied with numerous illustrations of the contents of the
graves. The next paper is a long one by Dr. C. J. H. Lampe,
of Danzig, on the Movement of Water in pipes, accompanied by
some calculations as to the pressure and speed of the water in
the pipes by which Danzig is now supplied with water from a
considerable distance. This paper is also illustrated, as is also
the last one, which is the fifth part of A. Menge’s Catalogue
of Prussian Spiders.

Der Zoologische Garten (Frankfurt a, M.), January 1873, con-
tains an excellent article, with maps in illustration, of the
geographical distribution of the Birds of Paradise, with
which are included Zfimachus and Ptiloris. There is also
an article by Dr. H. Dorner on the tongue of the Ka-ka
Parrot (Vestor meridionalis), in which he shows clearly that
in structure it presents none of the characters of the 7yicho-
glossine, and in other points his results quite agree with those
read before the Zoological Society of London in June last, al-
though he, following Dr. Finsch, does not feel disposed to remove
this parrot from among those with trichoglossal tongues, because
of a supposed similarity in their beaks, which we find it difficult
to appreciate, the Ka-ka’s being black and ribbed, whilst
that of Lorius is smooth and with an orange tint. There is
not the least doubt that, now it has been doubly demonstrated
that their tongues are not similarly constructed, there is not any
good reason for associating the Nestors with the Lories.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Royal Society, March 6.—‘‘On the Vapour-density of
potassium.”—Preliminary notice. By James Dewar and William
Dittmar,

The results of their observations conclusively show that the
density of potassium-vapour, asproduced in the process described,
cannot exceed 45 times that of hydrogen, and that therefore the
molecule of potassium consists of ¢wo atoms (Ky).

‘*On New Sources of Ethyl- and Methyl-Aniline.” By John
Spiller, F.C.S,

**Ona new genus of Amphipod Crustaceans. By Rudolph
von Willemoes-Suhm, Ph,D., Naturalist to the Challenger ex-
ploring expedition.

In lat. 35° 47’, long. 8° 23’, off Cape St. Vincent, the traw
was sent down toa depth of 1090 fathoms on the 28th of Januaryl
and brought up among other very, interesting things a larg,
transparent Amphipod with enormous facetted eyes. The animale
evidently hitherto unknown, will be the type of a new genus,
having the following characters :-—

THAUMOPS, nov. gen.

Caput oblongum, inflatum, oculis maximis superiorem capitis
partem tegentibus. Segmenta thoracica 6, abdominalia 5.
Antennarum in feminis par unum, maxillarum par unum,
pedum paria duo minima maxillarum locum tenentia.
Mandibulz nullz. Pedes thoracici 5, abdominales 3 in
quoque latere. Appendices caudales 4. Gangliorum pecto-
ralium paria 5, abdominalium 3.

T. pellucida, n. sp.
Corpus longitudine 14 mm,, latitudine 21 mm., pellucidum,

It could not be made out whether 7: fe//ucida inhabits the
deep sea, or whether it is, like Phronima, a pelagic animal,
having been caught by the trawl only as the latter came up from
the depth.

Geological Society, February 26.—Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair.—The following communications
were read :—‘‘ On the Jurassic Rocks of Skye and Raasay,” by —
Dr. James Bryce. In this paper the author described numerous
sections of Jurassic rocks exposed chiefly in the sea-cliffs of Skye
and Raasay, indicating the presence in those islands of a com-
plete series of beds ascending from the Lower Lias to the middle
of the Middle Oolite. He noticed the occurrence in these sec-
tions of fossils belonging to the zones of A mionites angulatus and
A. Bucklandi in the Lower Lias, to the zones of A. Yamesoni, A.
capricornus, A. margaritatus, and A, spinatus in the Middle
Lias, of Upper Lias fossils, including Ammonites communis,
Jalcifer, heterophyllus, and bifrons and of others indicating beds
belonging to the Inferior Oolite and Cornbrash, and to the Ox-
ford Clay. The Loch Staffin beds were described as an
estuarine series, nearly approaching the Oxford Clay in geo-
logical age, and including a bed almost entirely made up of
shells of Ostrea hebridica, The whole series of Jurassic rocks
in these islands reposes on the Toridon sandstone of Cam-
brian age; and the author discussed the question whether or
not the intervening beds have ever existed in this locality, and
came to the conclusion that they probably existed, and have been
swept away by denudation. He remarked further upon the
resemblance in lithological characters of the beds described with
the corresponding deposits elsewhere in Britain, The traprocks
intruded between the Jurassic deposits he regarded as of
post-oolitic date.—'* Observations on the more remarkable
Boulders of the North-West of England and the Welsh
Borders,” by Mr. D. Mackintosh. In this paper the author
described the situation and indicated the probable origin of
many of-the more striking known boulders in Westmoreland,
Cumberland, Lancashire, Cheshire, and on the borders of Wales.
The northern boulders seem to have orignated chiefly from Wast-
dale Crag, Criffel, Ennerdale, and Eskdale ; those of Cheshire
chiefly from the Lake District and South of Scotland ; and many
of those on the Welsh borders from the mountains of Wales.
Many of the boulders noticed by the author exhibit glacial strize.
The author also especially referred to the occurrence of boulders
at high levels.

Linnean Society, March 6.—Mr. Bentham made some ob-
servations on the homology ofthe perigynium or utricle of the
female flowers of Carex and Uncinia, with a view to calling to
the disputed points in question the attention of botanists used
to microscopical investigation, who may have the opportunity of
examining living specimens in the earliest stages of flowering.
Two principal explanations of the homology of the perigynium
of Carex have been given. Brown, relying upon its being com-
posed of two squamee, considered that it represents a perianth, —
and Payer and Schleiden have adopted the same view, after an
examination of its appearance at a very early stage. Kunth, on
the contrary, believed it to be formed of a single scale, and to
be an ordinary glume subtending the female flower on a secon
dary axis, of which the seta of many species of Carex, and of

Mar. 13, 1873|
all the species of Uncinia, is the continuation. If the perigy-
nium is really formed of a single scale, Kunth’s view is very
plausible, but the two keels or principal nerves, which in most
species end in two points or lobes, are strong evidences of its
double nature. Kunth explains that circumstance by the sup-
pression of the central nerve or keel owing to pressure, of which,
however, there is no appearance in any speciesexamined. Payer
states also positively that the two are distinct at an early stage,
and unite asthey grow up ; but implicit reliance is not always to
be placed upon his having always clearly seen the minute micro-
scopic and obscure protuberances he delineates. Schleiden de-
lineates the two parts of the perigynium and the seta as forming
three parts of one whole ; but his drawing is not to be depended
upon, as he places them in a wrong position with relation to the
axis and the subtending glume. Kunth confirms his views by a
comparison with the palea and occasional seta of Graminez, but
here the position of the two parts in the two orders is by no
means homologous. Independently of the relation to the other
parts of the flower, the seta or prolonged axis in Graminez is
_ outside the palez, in Carex inside the perigynium, A stronger
confirmation is taken from two South African species of Schce-
noxiphium (not generically distinct from Carex) in which the seta
occasionally bears a spikeof maleflowers. This spikeappears to be
sterile, and may be acase of prolification, but requires further inves-
tigation. Ifit bea normal spike, we must conclude the perigynium
or subtending glume to be formed of one scale ; for two opposite
scales at the base of an alternate inflorescence is a derangement
of the ordinary course of change from the alternative vegetative
organs to the opposite or whorled floral organs, which is be-
lieved to have no example at least in Monocotyledons. If the
perigynium is formed of two scales they must belong to the floral
whorls, They are not subtending bracts analogous to the two
free bracts of Diplacrum, or the united ones of Hoppia, for in
both those cases the female flowers are terminal without any other
subtending glume, and in Carex the female flower is lateral, and
the perigynium is within one outer subtending glume. That
they are two out of three parts of a real perianth is rendered
improbable by their great development in one sex in an order
where it is in all other genera suppressed or rudimentary, and
without any trace of it in the other sex. The only remaining
supposition is that the perigynium and seta represent the stamens
of the male flowers, and are therefore in fact staminodia. The
position with relation to the axis and subtending glume is the
same, and although they are very different in form and texture,
that difference is much diminished in U/ncinia longifolia where
the dilated filaments of the males assume the aspect nearly of
_ the perigynium of the females. The lobes of the perigynium in
Carex subulata, and occasionally in some Unciniz, have the look
of the seta of Uncinia, and in one instance that seta bore a per-
fect anther. Brown confirmed his view of the perianth-nature
of the perigynium bya specimen of Carex acuta with stamens
within the perigynium. An examination of beautiful specimens
of this form of Carex acuta, gathered by Mr. Spruce in Yorkshire,
shows, from the position and structure of the stamens bearing
perigynia, that they are altered female flowers in which more or
less imperfect stamens replace the carpellary leaves of which the
pistil is formed. If this homology of the perigynium with the
andreecium of the male flower is thought plausible, it is still
doubtful, and the doubt can only be solved by a careful repetition
_ of Payer’s observations, and a repeated study of the anomalies
of Schoenoxiphium, and of those species of Carex in which the
seta is variously developed, many of the forms delineated in the
late Dr. Booth’s splendid illustrations of the genus requiring a
special study on the specimens themselves.

Zoological Society, March 4.—Mr. John Gould, F.R.S.,
V.P., in the chair—Mr. Edwin Ward exhibited the original
leg-bones of Dinornis maximus, from Glenmark Swamp, near
Christchurch, New Zealand, described by Prof. Owen in the
Society’s ‘‘ Transactions,” belonging to Col. Michael.—A com-
_ munication was read from the Rev. O. P. Cambridge on the
spiders of St. Helena, founded on the collections made in. that
island by’Mr. Melliss. The total number of known spiders of
St. Helena was stated to be forty, of which eleven were now
described for the first time, The species were mostly European
in form.—A communication was read from Dr. John Anderson,
F.Z.S., Curator of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, on the species
and dentition of the Southern Asiatic Shrews, preliminary to a
oo monograph of the group.—A communication was read
rom Mr. M. R. Butler, being the description of a remarkable
new species of butterfly, of the genus Zwnaécia, from Penang.—

NATURE

373

Messrs. P. L, Sclater and O, Salvin read a paper on the birds of
Eastern Peru, with notes on the habits of the birds by Mr. E.
Bartlett. The total number of species hitherto recorded as met
with in the district was stated to be 473, of which 108 were un-
known elsewhere.—A communication was read from Surgeon-
Major Francis Day on some new or imperfectly known fishes of
India.—A communication was read from Mr. G. E. Dobson,
M.B., on secondary sexual characters in the [Chiroptera. Mr.
Dobson pointed out that, contrary to what Mr. Darwin had
believed to be the case, special structural characters existed in
the males of species of the genera Phyllorhina Taphozous, and
other genera of bats.

Anthropological Institute, Feb. 18.—Prof. Busk, F. R.S.,
president, in the chair, Sir John Lubbock, Bart. exhibited two
heads of Macas Indians, and contributed a note of the mode of
their preparation. Mr. W. Topley read a paper ‘‘On the
Relation of Parish Boundaries in the south-east of England to
Great Physical Features, particularly to the Chalk Escarpment.”

March [4,—Prof. Busk, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—A
paper was read by Dr. A. Campbell ‘* On the Looshais,” a people
inhabiting the hill district of Chittagong. They are fairer in com-
plexion than the people of the plains, and their features resemble
those of the Malays rather than the Tartar-like people of Mum-
pore. They have no distinction of caste; marriage is a civil
contract, dissolvable at the will of both husband and wife. The
men live by hunting, whilst the women are engaged in household
work.—Sir Duncan Gibb read a paper on “ Stone Implements
and Pottery from Canada.” After describing a collection of
arrow and spear heads, some hatchets, and pottery collected by
himself in various parts of Canada, he considered the first two as
the most ancient implements found in that country, for reasons
which he gave, and placed the period of their use at about 200
B.C., although he saw no reason why they might not have been
employed 4,000 years ago.—Mr. Hodder M. Westropp con-
tributed a short paper on ‘‘ The Ventnor Flints,” descriptive of
fragments of flint and other stone, bearing resemblances to the
true arrow-heads and implements of ancient manufacture ; and it
was shown that the specimens exhibited were wanting in the bulb
of percussion and the chipping at the edge which characterised
the genuine articles—The President described an Australian
skeleton from the Murray River, which had been sent to the
museum of the institute by Dr. Robert Peel, of Adelaide. It
was announced that further committees had been appointed for
Physical Characters of Mankind; Priscan Archeology; and
Descriptive Ethnography.

Chemical Society, March 6.—Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S., vice-
president, in the chair. The following communications were
read: ‘*On the action of hydrochloric acid on codeine,” by
Dr. C. R. A. Wright, being a continuation in the codeine series
of the author’s former researches on morphine, ‘‘ On new pro-
cesses for mercury estimation with some observations on mercury
salts,” by J. B. Hannay. ‘‘On a method of estimating nitric
acid,” by T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.E., the process depending on
the ease with which nitric acid is converted into ammonia by
the copper-zinc couple of Messrs. Gladstone and Tribe. ‘* Note
on a reaction of the acetates upon lead salts with remarks on
the solubility of lead chloride,” by F. Field, F.R.S. ‘‘ Ob-
servations on the nature of the black deposit in the copper-zinc
couple,” by J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. and A. Tribe, F.C.S.
**On an air-bath of constant temperature between 100° and
200° C.,” by Dr. H. Sprengel. This consists of a bath similar
to the ordinary chemical hot-water oven but made of sheet-lead
and filled with dilute sulphuric acid of such a strength as to boil
at the desired temperature.

Entomological Society, Feb. 17.—Prof. Westwood,
president, in the chair.—Mr. Bond exhibited bred specimens of
Acronycta tridens and A. Psi, showing the differences between
the two species. —Mr. Miiller exhibited some spiral cases of a
species of Psyche, and also the egg-case of a species of Mantis,
both sent from Calcutta by Mr. James Rothney.—Prof. West-
wood exhibited two dipterous larvee preserved in spirits, dis-
charged by a woman in a clot of phlegm, which were probably
larvae of Psi/a ros@, swallowed with raw carrots. After they had
been immersed in spirits for three or four days he took them out
for examination, and was surprised to find that they were still
alive. He also showed drawings of vine-stems, with ex-
crescences caused by a beetle (Oszorhynchus).—Mr. H. W
Bates read a paper on the geodephagous beetles of Japan, col-

374

lected by Mr. George Lewis.—Mr, Miiller read a list of entomo-
logical works and papers, no notice of which was to be found in
Dr. Hagen’s “Bibliotheca Entomologica.”—Mr, F. Smith read
some remarks by Prof. Siebold, on the salivary organs of the
honey-bee. ‘ ‘ ;

March 3.—Prof. Westwood, president, in the chair. Mr.
Vaughan exhibited a box containing about 200 specimens of Japa-
nese Lepidoptera collected by Mr. Henry Pryer, near Yokohama.
__Mr. T. Smith exhibited insects bearing a remarkableresemblance
to each other, although belonging to different orders. Zuglossa
dimudiata, a bee, had a striking resemblance to a species of the
Dipterous Genus Asi/ws from South America. Also Abispa
splendida, one of the Vespide, resembled an insect of the Dip-
terous genus Laf/rvia ; both from N, Holland. Also a bee of
the genus Megachile resembled an Asilus, The two last-
mentioned resembled each other, not only in general appearance,
but the Asus was also furnished on the under side with a pollen
brush, in the same manner as in Megachile, although it was not
apparent for what purpose the insect required it. The president
remarked that when he was at Ancona he observed several
insects of the genus Osmiaand Megachile extracting pollen from
black poppies, and on the sandy shore he noticed the same
insects collecting the sand. He therefore concluded that the
pollen brushes were used, not only for collecting the pollen, but
also for carrying the grains of sand to their nests. It was
probable, therefore, that the Asilide that were furnished with
brushes might use them for a similar purpose. Mr. Champion
exhibited Lagous brevis, taken in this country for the first time
by Dr. Power.—Mr. Miiller directed attention to an article in
the Petites Nouvelles explaining a method of obtaining silk
from cocoons which had been eaten through by the insects—and
that the silk so obtained from the damaged cocoons was equal
in quality to that obtained from the perfect cocoons.

Royal Horticultural Society, March 5.—Scientific Com-
mittee.—J. D. Hooker, M_D., C.B., F.R.S., in the chair, A
note was read from Dr. Boswell Syme on the intra-palear fertilisa-
tion of wheat. He found that the anthers are empty when they
are extended, and that the stigmas are never extended beyond
the pales at all—Mr. A. W. Bennett read an abstract of a paper
by Hildebrand, on the same subject.—The Rev. M. T. Berkeley
exhibited specimens of a fungus, Cladosporium herbarum, from
the inner surface of the shell of a boiled egg.—General Meeting.
__W. Wilson Saunders, F.R.S., in the chair. Prof. Thiselton
Dyer made some remarks on a cone of Araucaria Bidwilli from
the tree in the temperate house at Kew, on specimens of Dendro-
bium Hillii and Clematis indivisa, a fine species from New Zea-
land, and also. on Amorphophallus Rivieri, a remarkable Aroid
with inflorescence, shown by Mr. Bull. It had been introduced
by the French into the Jardin d’Essai at Algiers, from Cochin
China.

Royal Microscopical Society, March 5.—Chas. Brooke,
F.R.S., president, in the chair. Mr. E. J. Gayer contributed
some further notes on the micro-spectroscope and microscope, in
continuation of his paper upon the same subject, read at the
December meeting of the Society —A paper by Dr. Maddox, on
a minute plant found in an incrustation of carbonate of lime,
was also read to the meeting, and was illustrated by drawings
and prepared specimens exhibited under the microscope, by Mr.
Reeves.—The secretary stated, with reference to some crystals
shown at the previous meeting, obtained from the condensed
vapour of coke, that they had been examined by Mr. Bell, and
found to consist chiefly of protosulphate of iron.—A new metal-
lic chimney for microscope lamps was introduced by Mr, Wen-
ham, its merits being explained by the secretary, and discussed
by the meeting.
‘ CAMBRIDGE

Philosophical Society, Feb. 3.—Professor Humphry,
president, in the chair. It was decided to admit as associates
residents in Cambridge and the neighbourhood, not being
graduates. Associates to be elected for a period of three
years, and if not then graduates to be eligible for re-election.
The president in an eloquent address dwelt upon the loss which
the Society had sustained by the death of Prof. Sedgwick, its
founder and ever-ardent supporter. The following communica-
tions were made by Prof. Clerk Maxwell: ‘On the proof of
the equations of motion of a connected system,” and ‘‘On-a
problem in the calculus of variations in which the solution is dis-
continuous.”

Feb, 17.—The following communications were made by Mr.

NATURE

SS. eee) ee =

Se Ee eee st ee fa ees

[Mar. 13, 1873

Paley ‘* On the name Odusseus signifying ‘setting sun,’ and the
Odyssey as a solar myth.” This showed that the name was
most probably connected with dvéuevos jAtos (setting sun) and
that the details of the Odyssey were easily interpreted as a solar
myth, describing the journey of the sun to the west and his
retum after many struggles and atlventures to his ever-young
bride in the east, Penelope the spinstress, 7.e. the cloud-weaver.—
“* On the identity of the modern Hindu with the ancient Greek
ship.” A model of the former (Bengalee) was exhibited and the
close coincidence in build, rig, and tackling was pointed out ;
and several difficulties in the allusions of classic authors to the
parts of a ship were thus explained.

MANCHESTER

Literary and Philosophical Society, Feb. 18.—E. W
Binney, F’.R.S., vice-president, in the chair. Dr, Joule, F.R.S., —
gave some further account of the improvements he had made in
his air-exhausting apparatus (See NATURE, vol. vii. p. 296).
‘‘Notes on a supposed Glacial Action in the Deposition of
Hematite Iron Ores inthe Furness District,” by William Brock-
bank, F.G.S. The hematite iron ore deposits in the Furness dis-
trict are of two very different varieties—(1) Thos e filling hollows
in the limestone, covered only by the post tertiary gravels
and clays, and (2) Those occurring in the carboniferous lime-
stone in veins, and large irregular cavities or ‘* pockets.” —
The superficial deposits (1) are more especially the subject of |
the present communication, as they afford, in the writer’s
opinion, undoubted evidence of glacial action, and of the mode
in which the iron ore has been transported by its agency.
‘*The Results of the Settle Cave Exploration,” by W. B
Dawkins, F.R.S. Since the results of the exploration of
the Settle Caves were brought before the British Association at
Liverpool, in 1870, considerable progress has been made in the ©
further investigation of the remarkable contents of the Victoria
Cavern. Up to that time our researches had revealed, perhaps, —
the most remarkable collection of enamelled jewellery which had —
ever been discovered in one spot, along with broken bones of
animals and the implements of everyday life, which afforded a
pointed contrast to the culture implied by the workmanship of
the articles of luxury. The Roman coins, and the style of work-
manship of the implements, pointed out that the cave was occu-
pied during the troublous times when the Roman Empire was
being dismembered by the invading barbarians, and when —
Britain, stripped of the Roman legions, was falling a prey either
to the Picts and Scots on the one hand, or to the Jutes, Angles,
and Saxons on the other. If we stretch the limits of the occupa-
tion to the latest, they cannot be held to extend nearer to our
own times than the Northumbrian conquest of Elmet (or king-
dom of Leeds and Bradford) by Eadwine, in the year A.D,
616, that was preceded in 607 by the march of Aithelfrith on
Chester, and the great battle near that Roman fort, celebrated in
song for the defeat of the British and the slaying of the monks of
Bangor. At that time the Northumbrian arms were first seen
on the shores of the Irish Channel, and the fragment of Roman
Britain—which had extended on the western part of our island,
from the estuary of the Severn uninterruptedly, through Derby-
shire and Lancashire into Cumb erland—was divided, never again
to be united. The Roman civilisation, which had up to that
time been maintained in that district, disappeared, and was re- —
placed by the civilisation which we know as English. The
traces, therefore, of Romano-Celtic ornaments and implements
from the Victoria Cave must be assigned to the period before the
English conquest, before the Northumbrians conquered West
Yorkshire and Mid-Lancashire. Underneath the stratum
containing the Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh articles, at
the entrance of the cave, there was a thickness of about
six feet of angular stones, and at the bottom of this
a bone harpoon or fish-spear, a bone bead, and a few
broken bones of bear, red deer, and a small short-horned ox
prove that in still earlier times the cave had been inhabited by
man. A few flint flakes probably imply that these remains are
to be referred rather to the Neolithic age than to that of Bronze.
Below this was a layer of stiff clay, into which the committee
sank two shafts, respectively of twelve and twenty-five feet deep,
without arriving at the bottom. They have, however, at last
penetrated it, and have broken into an ossiferous bed, full of the
remains of extinct animals, similar to those which have been
discovered at Kirkdale and elsewhere; consisting of the cave-
bear, cave hyzena, woolly rhinoceros,’mammoth, bison, reindeer,
and horse, The bottom has not been reached, and the area ex-
posed is so small that it is impossible to say whether man was —

es

Mar. 13, 1873}
_ living im the cave at this time or not. The clay immediately
_ above it is considered, both by Mr. Boyd Dawkins and Mr.
Tiddeman, to be of glacial origin, and in that case this cave is
the only one in Great Britain which has offered clear proof that
this group of animals was living in the country before the glacial
age. It may be that the remains of man may be discovered
here, as in the caves of Wookey Hole, Kent’s Hole, and
Brixham ; but this problem can only be solved by an explora-
tion on a larger scale, which the committee hope to be able to
carry on by the aid of further subscriptions, and which the
British Association has thought sufficiently important to aid by a
grant of 50/. The problem which they are attempting to solve,
is not merely of local interest, but, one which is worthy of the
aid of all who care for the advancement of knowledge. ‘‘ The
explorations of the Victoria Cave,” writes Mr. Tiddeman,
“ carry with them more than common interest, from the proba-
bility of making out in this district the relation of the older cave
mammals (and perhaps of man) to the Glacial period. The
complete absence of this fauna from the river gravels and other
Post-Glacial deposits of this district, taken with the former ex-
istence of a great development of ice over the northern counties,
renders it highly probable that the latter was the agent which
removed their remains from all parts of the country to which it
had access, leaving them only in sheltered caves. In this cave
we find, above the beds containing the older fauna, a deposit of
laminated clay of great thickness, differing so much from the
cave-earth above and below it as to point to distinct physical
conditions for its origin. Clay in all respects similar, but con-
taining scratched stones, has been found intercalated with true
glacial beds in the neighbourhood, thus rendering the glacial
origin of that in the cave also highly probable. Moreover, at
the back of a great thickness of talus at the entrance glaciated
boulders have been found, resting on the edges of the beds of
lower cave-earth containing the older mammals, All points
considered, there is strong cumulative evidence pointing to the
formation of the lower cave-earth at times at any rate prior to
the close of the Glacial period and probably earlier. It is to be
hoped that further investigations may settle these and other
most important questions,” The objects found in the Victoria
Caye will not be removed from the county, but will be placed
in a museum attached to the Grammar School at Giggleswick.

Dusan

Royal Irish Academy, Jan. 13.—The Rev. Prof. Jellett,
president, in the chair. Mr. B. O’Looney read a paper on the
contents of the Book of Leinster.—Mr. W. H. Bailey, F.G.S.,
read a paper on a new species of Labyrinthodont Amphibian
from Jarrow Colliery, Co. of Kilkenny. This species the author
said was, he believed, identical with the species referred to in
Messrs. Huxley and Perceval Wright’s paper on fossil vertebrata
from County Kilkenny, as being ‘“‘a iarge amphibian, closely
allied to, if not identical with, the Av‘hracosaurus of the Scotch
coalfield,” and of which he had been shown some very fine
_ specimens in the British Museum. He proposed to call this
species A. edgit.

Jan. 27.—Rev. Prof. Jellett, president, in the chair.
E. Perceval Wright read a report on Hyalonema mirabilis.

Feb. 24.—Lord Talbot de Malahide, vice-president, in the
chair. The Rev. Prof. Jellett, president, read a paper on sugar-
beet grown in Ireland in 1872, in which he stated that, having
frequently heard it said that Ireland was not a country in which
the beetroot could be successfully cultivated, he had been led to
make several experiments on the subject. The results in 1871,
which was a dry and sunny year, and those he had obtained in
1872, which was one of the wettest and coldest, presented very
little difference. He had been furnished last year from the
Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, with four specimens of sugar-
beet, in the growth of one of which the manure used was com-
mon salt ; in the second case, sulphate of potash ; in the third
case no manure was used ; and in the fourth instance, sulphate
of ammonia. He had by optical experiment determined with
accuracy that in the first case there was a yield of 79°99 per cent.
of water and 12°72 per cent. of sugar; in the second, 80°27 of
water and 13°18 of sugar ; in the third, 80°60 water and 12°42
sugar ; and in the last, 80°52 water and 11°85 sugar. The ave-
rage of these was 80°34 per cent. of water and 12°54 per cent. of
sugar. The amount of sugar thus found to be contained in the
Trish-grown beet was quite equal to that in beet grown in Ger-
many, Belgium, and France, and proved Ireland to be a country
in which sugar-beet might be cultivated with advantage,

Prof.

Sos, ee Se
i ee

NATURE

375

EpINBURGH

Scottish Meteorological Society, Jan. 30, half-yearly
meeting.—Mr. Milne Holme in the chair.—Mr. Buchan
made a statement with reference to the remarkable weather
which has prevailed in this country during the past year.
The specialty of that year’s weather was, he said, its rain-

The mean rainfall for sixteen years of the whole of Scot-
land, as indicated by the average of 55 stations, was 39, I-5th in.
The year 1857 was a dry year, its rainfall being 8 in. less than
the mean ; 1858 fell below the mean by 5 in, ; 1861 was 6 in.
above the mean; but the rainfall of last year ran up to 15 in.
above the mean, the average rainfall of the whole of Scotland
during that year being 54 in. This rainfall was 38 per cent.
above the mean, and there was nothing approaching it in any
of the previous sixteen years. This enormous rainfall was very
unequally distributed over the country. He had constructed a
map of Scotland based upon the returns from 200 stations, In
this map a blue line passing round the north of the Shetland
Islands, cutting off the north-west fringe of Caithness and Suther-
land, and then bending down southward, but returning north-
ward again so as to pass round the north of the Hebrides, cut
off a part of Scotland within which there was last year less rain
than usual. Between this and another line which stretched from
Shetland, took in part of Orkney, curved down round Islay, and
took off a part of the Hebrides, was included a portion of the
country where the rainfall did not amount to 25 per cent. above
the average. Then suppose a line beginning about Peterhead,
curving round so as to include Elgin, and following very closely
the east watershed of Scotland, all places to the east of that line
were found to have had at least half more rain than usual. Fur-
ther, the country about Aberdeen and a good part of East
Lothian and Berwickshire had an excess above the average to the
extent of 75 percent. Not only so, but taking some of the in-
dividual stations, it appeared that Culross, the highest the society
had, stood 93 per cent. above the average ; Thurston, near Dun-
bar, 88 per cent. above the average of thirty-two years ; Jed-
burgh, 84 per cent. above the average ; and other places fully 80
percent. above the average. These figures showed a very remark-
able distribution of the rainfall for the last year ; he thought the
records of meteorology had nothing like it. In Castle Gordon,
Banffshire, the rainfall of last year was 53 in. above any rainfall
in the previous ninety years. At Edinburgh there were sixty
years’ observations to go back upon, and last year’s rai ex-
ceeded to the extent of over 4 in. any recorded within that
period. With reference to the distribution of rain over the year,
the fall in January was greatly in excess of the average, and it
only fell below the average in April, every other month showing
an excess. On the east side of Scotland, taken as a whole, every
month of last year was above the average—an unprecedented
fact, he thought, in Scottish meteorology. In the west of Scot-
land, one month was decidedly under the average, and another
month stood at the average, every other month being above the
average. June was a very wet month in the west. August was
a drier month. September appeared rather wet, but that was
due to the greater rainfall in the south, for to the north of Islay
the rainfall of that month was very much under the average. As
to temperature, for the first four months it was above the ave-
rage ; in May and September very much under the average ; June
about the average ; July above the average, and so on; so that
in this respect the year was not on the whole a very bad one.
With regard to barometric pressure, he had worked out the mean
of 55 stations, and it appeared that for every month, except July
and August, the pressure of Scotland was under the average.
Northerly, north-easterly, easterly, south-easterly, and south-
erly winds were above the average ; and the distribution of rain
was the representative of that fact, a great proportion of the
rain that feli having been brought by easterly winds. The

_atmospheric pressure in Iceland was above the average in

every month except January, and during the whole year
the pressure in that island was much higher than with us. In
the north of Norway the pressure was still higher than in Ice-
land, and showed a more irregular curve. Following out this
point in other parts of Europe, it appeared that in England the
pressure was under the average; in Guernsey it was under the
average each month, and a similar state of matters prevailedtin
Ireland, France, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. On he
other hand, in Iceland, the northern part of Norway and Sweden,
in Russia, at Constantinople, at Athens, at Moscow, in the north
of Africa, and in Spain, pressure was above the average, and the
rainfall for the year less than the average. So far as the facts

379

NATURE

| Mar. 13, 1873

went it did not seem to him that the rainfall of the whole
globe daring last year was larger than usual. In the West
Indies it was a very dry year up to the beginning of November.
In the United States, at least till the end of September, it
was drier than usual, and in the north of Europe much drier
than usual. In short it seemed that the rainfall of the year in-
stead of being more evenly distributed, as usually happened, had
been more concentrated in Scotland, England, France, Italy,
south of Norway, Germany, and Austria,

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, March 3.—M. de Quatrefages,
president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—
**On the Elliptical Oscillation of Solar Cyclones,” by M. Faye.
The paper dealt mainly with the mathematical nature of the
spots, and the author gave a table in which he showed the exact
resemblance which can be traced between the solar and terrestrial

cyclones,—“ On the Action of the Electric Current ona Mixture of |

equal volumes of Methene and Carbonic Anhydride,” by MM. P.
and A. Thenard, The authors find that the silent discharge, when
allowed to act on the above mixture, produces a clear, limpid
fluid, but that the spark causes an expansion of the gases some-
times accompanied by a deposit of carbon. No analysis of the
liquid was given.—‘‘ On the Nature and Origin of the Solar
Spots,” a letter from Father Secchi, who believes that, even
admitting M. Faye’s cyclones, yet the cause of these must be
sought in eruptions. He asserts that he did not say, as M. Faye
supposed, that the spots zveve eruptions, but that they were f7o-
duced by eruptions—The Academy then proceeded to elect a
member of the physical section in the place of the late M.
Duhamel. M. Berthelot obtained 33 votes, M. Desains 23, and
M. Le Roux 4. M. Berthelot was accordingly elected.—A
report on a memoir by M. Kretz on the elasticity of moving
machines was read.—A paper on the botanical geography of
Morocco, by M. F. Cosson, followed; and next came a paper
on geodetic oper.tions, by Col. H. Levret, and one on the
simultaneity of barometric variations in the high latitudes of
either hemisphere, by M. J. A. Broun—M. B. Renault pre-
sented a paper on the fructification and on the structure of the
stems of dnnularia and Sphenophyllum,—M. Chasles presented
a paper on the trajectories of the points of a straight motion in
space, by M. A. Mannheim, and a note on double curves of the
sixth order, by M. Ed. Weyer.—M. L. Joulin sent a paper on
saline decomposition, a paper relating to the part played by the
water used to dissolve a body, when that body is precipitated
by means’ of another.—MM. Troost and Hautefeuille sent
2 second instalment of their paper on the solution of
gases in molten cast-iron, They find that a highly sili-
cious iron scarcely dissolves any hydrogen.—M. Gernez pre-
sented another paper on the action of films on svper-
saturated solutions.—M. Pasteur presented a paper by M.
j. Chautard, on the modification of the chlorophyll absorption
spectrum, produced by the action of alkalics, The alkalies

cause the appearance ofa second band in the red.—MM. Houzeau |

and Renard presented a paper on the use of concentrated ozone
in investigations in organic chemistry, and on ‘‘ ozobenzine,”
The latter is a gelatinous body produced together with formic

and acetic acids by the action of ozone on pure benzine.—Mr, |

T. L. Phipson sent a note on Anthracenamine.—M. Wurtz pre-
sented a second note on the derivatives of Tetrachloride of
naphthaline, by M. Grimaux.—This was followed by M. P. Bert’s
ninth note on the effects of changes of barometric pressure on life.
MM. P, Fischer and de Tolin sent a note on the bathymetric
exploration of the fosse at Cape Breton, and M. J. Jullien a note
on the respiration of the Psammodroma.

DIARY

THURSDAY, Marcu 13.

Roya Society, at 8.30.—Note on Supersaturated Saline Solutions: C.
‘Yomlinson.—Visible Direction: Dr. Jago.

SocteTy or ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Excavations in the Troad ; Dr. Schlie-
mann.

Lonpon Matitematicat Society, at 8.—On an Extension of the term
<lrea toaclosed curve of double curvature or Skew Polygon: R. B.
Hayward.—On the Evaluation of a class of Definite Integrals involving
Circular Functions in the Numerator, and powers of the Variable only in
the Denominator : J. W. L. Glaisher.— Note on Normals and the Surface
of Centres of an Algebraical Surface: S. Roberts.

Rovat Institution, at 3,—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.
Rutherford.

1

FRIDAY, Marcu 14.

Se INSTITUTION, at 9.—Coral Reefs and their Architects: Prof.
Allman.
ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 8,
QuexketrT Cvvs, at 8.
Roya COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.
g ~

SATURDAY, Magcu 15.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 3.—On the Philosophy of the Pure Sciences: Prof.
W. K. Clifford.
SUNDAY, Marcu 16.

Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—The Education of Women:
Fawcett.

Mrs,

MONDAY, Marcu 17.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.

ASIATIC SOCIETY, at 3.

Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 4.—Physical Geography: Prof. Duncan.
Roya CoLLeGe oF SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.

TUESDAY, Marcu 18.

STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 7.45-

ANTHROPOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—On “‘ Theories regarding Intellect and
Instinct,” and ‘*The Concurrent Contemporaneous Progress of Renovation
and Waste: George Harris. :

Zootocicat Socigty, at 8 30 —On some Marine Mollusca from Madeira,
including a new genus of the JZuricide. Communicated by Mr. Gwyn
Jeffreys: R. B. Watson.—On a specimen of Acanthias vulgaris and
a species of Gadeus, probably new, taken off Flinder’s Island, Bass’ Straits :
Dr. John Denis Macdonald —Note on the Gazelles of India and Persia,
with description of a new species (Gazella_fuscifrons): W. T. Blanford.

Royat INsTITUTION, at 3.—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.
Rutherford.

WEDNESDAY, Marcu 19.

Society or Arts, at 8.—Oun certain improvements in the Manufacture of
Printing Types: J. R. Johnson.

METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.—On some results of Meteorological Tele-
graphy: R. H. Scott.—On the Barometric Depressions of Jan. 24, 1872:
Wm. Marriott.

Roya CoLieGE or SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.

Lonpon INsTiTuTION, at 7.—Travers Course (Lecture I).

THURSDAY, Marcu 20.

Royat Institution, at 3 —The Chemistry of Coal and its Products: A. V.
Harcourt.

CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—On Iron and Steel: C. W. Siemens.

LinnEAn Society, at 8.—On the “ Take-all” Corn Disease of Australia :
Dr. Miicke.

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Encuisu.— Report of the Marlborough Natural History Society. fanaa
of the Iron and Steel Institute, No. 4 —Quarterly Journal of the Meteoro-
logical Society.

AmerIcAN.— Annual Report of the Survey of the Northern and North-
Eastern Lakes: C. B. Comstock (Washington).—Moyable Torpedoes : Capt.
Ericsson.—On a new Sub-Class of Fossil Birds.—On the Gigantic Fossil
Mammals of the order Dinocerata: Prof. O.C. Marsh.

ForeiGNn.—Introduction a I'Eiude de Ja Nutrition des Plantes, &c.: E.
Morren.—Report of the Proceedings of the Meteorological Conference at
Leipzig, 1873.—Cosmos, No. 1.

CONTENTS PAGE
Hervert Spencer's Psycuotocy. By Doucras A. SPALDING . . 357
Geikie’s PuysicAL GEOGRAPBY. . . . . « oe 8s, eae naan
Our Boox SHELF. . ©. 6 2 6 es 6 © ee es 8 ow ls ss GOO
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR:--
Perception in the Lower Animals——Cuartes Darwin, F.R.S. . 360
‘The Sense of Smell in Animals —W. H. Brewer . © Ak eG
External Perception in Dogs. . « - « + « « «© « « « » » 3OEr
Sight in Dogs —J..H, WALTERS . . . + © « s » sue en enor
Selenium.—WILLOUGHBY SMITH . . « . « « «© &© © « = = 3OK
Brighton Aquarium. MarsHALL HALL...» ++ + « + 362
General Travelling Notes —J. Raz . oe CURA TEM eee
New Guinea.—S. J. WHITMEE. . . 2. © 6 « © 6 © = = © 908
Flight of Projectiles.—W. Hope . . . 2. « + soap) sos wee
Glacial Action.—J. J. Murrny, F.G.S... . . . «. +» » « « 362
The Feeding Habits of the Belted Kingfisher.—Prof. Cuas. C.
ABBOTT .. ey Sa eer
A PETRIFIED Forest 1N THE LipyAN Desert. By W. Dixon . . 365
Pror. FLower’s HUNTERIAN LECTURES. . ». « +» « + » © « © 304
FAUNA OF THE New ENGLAND COAST . .. . +. - «. « « « = JOS
On Dinoceras Mirasicis (MArRsH). (With Illustrations.) _. . . 366
THE TROGLODYTES OF THE VEZERE (With J//ustrations), 11. By Paut
BROCA. 2.5 6. os 6 SAR ers! couse, =) oe | naires
Noves®. 2 5° 3... 7 PME
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS . . Ga es 6 os es . Aare Biri
SocizTi#s AND ACADEMIES 2 © « + «© « + + 6 © « «apse, B7a
PAMPHLETS RECKIVED . Sinus te fo fe we s+ 6) lat aoe) ee
BUIARY'. jeuids olue dey, ofa Si, vs 6 aso 0) 6) num) ReaD

PW MEM mT teh gk

NATURE

377

THURSDAY, MARCH 20, 1873

PERCEPTION AND INSTINCT IN THE LOWER
ANIMALS

A ea correspondence in these columns, called forth by
the letters of Mr. Darwinand Dr. Huggins (NATURE,
Feb. 13), may be counted among the many indications of
the growing interest in psychology ; while at the same time
it furnishes evidence of how far our knowledge of mind is
behind most of the other sciences. Of the important points
in the valuable letters of Mr. Darwin and Dr. Huggins we
shall speak presently. But let us remark first on the
minor and distinct question raised by Mr. Wallace. He
says : “ The power many animals possess to find their way
back over a road they have travelled blindfolded (shut up
in a basket inside a coach, for example), has generally
been considered to be an undoubted case of true instinct.
But it seems to me that an animal so circumstanced will
have its attention necessarily active, owing to its desire to
get out of its confinement, and that by means of its most
acute, and only available sense, it will take note of the
successive odours of the way, which will leave on its mind
a series of images as distinct and prominent as those
we should receive by the sense of sight. The recur-
rence of these odours in their proper inverse order—every
house, ditch, field, and village having its own well-marked
individuality—would make it an easy matter for the ani-
mal in question to follow the identical route back, how-
ever many turnings and cross-roads it may have followed.”
The objections to this hypothesis, to which Prof. Robert-
son has given his adhesion, are very serious. Let the
scent of the dog be ever so acute, it is in many ways ill
suited for supplying the kind of guidance required. A
hound on the track of a hare has to follow a stream of the
same scent. The association here is between the hare
and the smell of the hare. Are not the associations of
smell all of this kind? Is there any evidence that either
_ in man or beast one smell ever coheres to another so as
_ to render possible a memory of odours apart from the ob-
_ jects that give them forth? We are not very certain about
the facts which the theory is put forward to explain; they
are, however, better authenticated than is the fundamental
assumpticn involved in the explanation. But, for the sake of
argument, let us grant that a dog shut up in a basket can,
as the result of a simple experience, link together several
_ thousand smells in an unbroken series ; say, the stink of
a dung-hill is associated with the odour of sweet hay, this
with the scent of a flock of sheep passed on the road, this
again with the smell of a railway station to the right, and
‘so on during a journey ofsixty or seventy miles. If it be
solely by the aid of this memory of smells that the dog is
to return to the place whence it was taken, it must needs
_ make haste back. It will be too late if the sheep have
changed their position on the road. Especially is it
necessary that it should get home while the wind still
continues to blow in the same direction, otherwise its land-
marks will be all in confusion. One other difficulty :
suppose the dog to have got into the fragrance of the
_hay-field, which is perhaps forty acres in extent, how is
it to find the dung-hill at the north-west corner? particu-
larly if the wind be blowing the wrong way. Is it to
scour round the ill-defined outskirts of the perfume until it
No, 177—VOL, vu.

4

comes on the ill smell of the dung-hill? If we try to
conceive in terms of vision (we can make nothing of it
from our experiences of smell) such a memory of smells
as the dog is supposed capable of acquiring, we must
represent to ourselves the sensations of being carried
through a series of differently coloured mists, which, while
they prevent us from seeing objects, blend and shade into ~
one another. Insucha case, though we might remember
that the red came after the yellow, how, having got into
the red, should we know in what direction the yellow
might be found? These are among the difficulties that
have not, it appears to us, been sufficiently considered by
Mr. Wallace and Prof. Robertson.

But what are the facts to be explained? Such home-
journeys of dogs as might, bya stretch of imagination, or
perhaps more correctly, want of imagination, seem to be
accounted for by the smell-hypothesis, rest only on a
rather loose kind of evidence, which can be adduced
quite as abundantly in support of performances to which
this explanation can be in no way applicable. In return-
ing home do dogs “follow the identical route” by which
they were taken away? There is no evidence even of the
second-hand, loose, hearsay description, that this ever
happened in a single instance.* The general impression,
on the contrary, is that they despise the windings of
rivers, turnpikes, and railways, and make for their des-
tination by the most direct route. For example, and to
add one more to the thousands of stories, we may men-
tion that since we sat down to write we have received a
letter from a gentleman telling us that about fifty years
ago his paternal grandfather, living at Quorn, near Derby,
sent two hounds by coach to his maternal grandfather
living at Liverpool. Two or three days after their arrival
they absconded together ; inquiries were set on foot, and
it is said they were seen swimming the Mersey at a point
a little above Liverpool, where the river is of great width.
They could be traced no farther, but after some time they
made their appearance at Quorn, “foot-sore and in bad
condition.” Again, sheep, pigeons, and other animals that
have not the miraculous scent of the dog, are believed on
as good authority to find their way home through strange
regions and from equally long distances.

Alluding to this class of alleged facts, Mr. Spalding, in
the February number of Macmillan’s Magazine, ventured
to favour the view that through all the turnings and
windings of a long journey the creatures somehow retain
a perception of the direction of the place from which they
were taken, and he further ventured to think that a hint ofa
similar faculty is to be found in some men. In this con-
nection the facts with regard to savages would be most
valuable. What Mr. Darwin calls the “trifling fact,”
communicated in his letter of last week, namely that his
horse, which had been sent from Kent, véé Yarmouth, to
Freshwater Bay, in the Isle of Wight, on the first day
that Mr. Darwin rode him eastward, was very unwilling
to return towards his stable, that every time Mr. Darwin
slackened the reins “ he turned sharply round and began
to trot to the eastward by a little north, which was nearly
in the direction of his home in Kent ;” this observation,
together with the circumstance that with the fact before
his eyes, Mr. Darwin’s “impression was that he somehow
knew the direction whence he had been brought,” appears

* See letter of “J. T.” p. 384. We have other letters to follow.
x

378

to us very important indeed. In the present state of our
knowledge of the subject a few such “trifling facts” are
worth more than many volumes of ingenious speculation.

We come now to the more weighty question which
formed the subject of Mr, Darwin’s first letter. Is it
probable that instincts have any other origin than trans-
mission by inheritance of acquisitions resulting from what
we call individual experience? We are here at the very
outside edge of human knowledge, in a region where no
prudent person would venture to speak with confidence.
Indeed the mode of origin recognised in the question still
appears a “wild theory” to such respectable representa-
tives of educated opinion as the Spectator. Had it been
our good fortune to know as matter of certain history that
the well-marked instinctive antipathy towards butchers of
the dog King and his descendants was originally produced
by ill-treatment, we should have had evidence of the most
positive and direct kind, that sometimes at least instincts
do originate in this way. There seems no hope of getting
such evidence in this particular ease ; and indeed it may
well be that the instinct in question is much more ancient
than Mr. Darwin seems inclined to suppose. It is however
to be hoped that before long some lover of animals will try
his hand at actually producing a newinstinct. But while
Mr. Darwin regards it as probable that most instincts are
examples of inherited experience, he thinks it “almost
certain that many of the most wonderful instincts have
been acquired independently of habit, through the pre-
servation of useful variations of pre-existing instincts,
Other instincts may have arisen suddenly in an indi-
vidual, and then been transmitted to its offspring, inde-
pendently both of selection and serviceable experience,
though subsequently strengthened by habit. The tum-
bler-pigeon is a case in point, for no one would have
thought of teaching a pigeon to turn head over heels in
the air; and until some bird exhibited a tendency in this
direction, there could have been no selection.” The
authority of Mr. Spencer may be adduced in support of
Mr. Darwin’s position. He speaks of “the natural selec-
tion of zwcidenta/ variations,” and of feelings that cannot
be referred to “the inherited effects of experiences.”
Nevertheless, let us look closely at this matter. Will
Mr. Darwin’s view bear to be stated in such a way as to
express more than the fact that in a great many instances
we cannot conceive how the instincts originated? Will
it bear to be put in this form: that it is almost certain
that many of the most wonderful instincts had their
origin in useful variations or sudden conjunctions of psy-
chical states of such a character as could not by possi-
bility have any relation to the experiences either of the
individual itself or of its ancestry? Anything short of
this will, it seems to us, scarcely amount to the conten-
tion that instincts have a mode of origin distinct from
experience and heredity, That some other factor
of unknown power may work along with experience
and heredity in producing instincts, we are not in a
position to deny. But still less are we in a position
to say that there is such a factor, or what that factor
is, or to admit that it ever operates independently of ex-
perience and heredity. We do not know how the
tumbling of the tumbler pigeon began. But suppose we
were certain that we had witnessed the very first per-
formance of this kind, and saw that it arose suddenly and

NATURE

without any assignable cause: What then? How did the
tumbling begin? To call it an incidental variation is but a
way—and, because to some minds it looks like an explana-
tion, a bad way—of stating our ignorance. But could we say
so much as that it was in no way connected with expéri-
ence and heredity? We think fot. This tumbling is a
fancy instinct, an outlet for the overflowing activity of a

creature whose wants are all provided for without any

exertion On its part. And if we had before us the evolt-
tional history of the pigeon we might be able to point to
some long obsolete instinct or useful action and say,
behold, when on the wing, the superabundant energy of
the creature has burst along the old long disused but not
obliterated tracks, and see the strange result,

This is the direction in which we think it would not
be unscientific to look for an explanation, should we
ever have any such facts to explain. A similar line of
remark might be followed with respect to what Mr. Darwin
calls useful variations of pre-existing instincts, The
question is, whence these variations? Further, just in
proportion as these variations are slight, must it be diffi-
cult to say that they are not connected with experience
with the experience of the individual. In pursuing this
inquiry we should doubtless come on the question, What
is meant by experience? Everybody, it may be said,
surely knows that. Perhaps. It is, we think, probable
that the discovery might be made that we have not very
clear and well-defined ideas as to the exact nature, extent,
and limits of what we call individual experience. OF
course we cannot now enter on such an inquiry.
SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS OF CORNWALL*

II. '
Nenia Cornubie. A descriptive essay, illustrative of the

Sepulchres and Funereal Customs of the early Inhabi-

tants of Cornwall. By W. Copeland Borlase, B.A.,

F.S.A. (London: Longmans; Truro: Netherton, 1872.)
M R. BORLASE, assisted by a party of friends, early in

1872, opened two barrows on the summit of one of
the most commanding elevations in the district, about a
quarter of a mile east of Trevelgue or Trevelga Cliff Castle,
near St. Columb Minor. The most westerly is 250 ft. in
circumference, 11 ft. high at the centre, and its greatest
axis, having an east and west direction, is 10oft. At a
depth of 2 or 3 ft. fromthe surface, the entire substratum,
to the amount of several hundred cart-loads, was burnt
earth, as red and almost as fine as brickdust.
and towards the eastern side was a cairn of stones about
12 ft. in diameter, and 4 ft. high, Many of them had been
brought from the neighbouring beach, and were blackened
by fire. Under this lay a large spar stone, such as does
not occur in the district, singularly flat for a stone of the
kind, measuring 10°5 X 5°4 X 1°75 ft., on a level with the
surrounding country, and covering a chamber 6'16 ft. long
from N.W. to S.E, 2°5ft. broad, and 2°75 ft. deep. Its
sides were formed of four slate stones, 7 or 8 in. thick, and
set on edge, on each of which the covering stone rested.

The floor seemed to have been paved with slates, but —

they had been displaced, and portions of an unusually

thick human skull were found below them.
The eastern or more conspicuous barrow was 80 ft. in
diameter, 13 ft. high, and had a depression of 1°5 ft. at
* Continued from p. 337-

‘[Mar. 20, 1873 wy

Beneath it

Eee n at
20, 1873]

the summit. Immediately under the turf was a bed of
stones, 3 ft. deep, and lying on a stratum of hard clay
brought from a neighbouring valley, It contained a
few human bones and ashes without any protection,
and was 5 ft. deep. Under this was a second layer of
stones, 3 ft. deep; and lower still an immense slate
Stone on a level with the natural soil, and covering a
vault measuring 5'17 ft. long from N.W. to S.E., 2°8 ft.
broad, and 2°25 ft. deep. The bottom was a pavement
6 in. deep, on which lay a human skeleton on its left side.
The head was at the north-east corner nearly a foot from
the end wall; the legs were bent at the knees, the arms
stretched out so that the hands must have, at least,
nearly touched the knees, and the body was contracted
into a length of 4 feet.
Mr. Borlase holds that the Menhirs, or “ Long Stones,”
of which there are many in various parts of the county,
were sometiines tombstones merely, Sometimes memo-
rials of important events, and that they ranged from a
romote antiquity far down into modern times.
In the hope of throwing some light on their origin the
author recently exainined the ground immediately around
‘ther. The Pridden Stone, close td the farm-house of
Pridden, in the parish of Buryan, near Penzance, is an
extremely rude mass of granite, 11°5 ft. above the ground,
neatly 20 ft. in girth where broadest, and tapering to-
wards the top. Below the natural level of the ground, a
shallow pit, covered with a flat stone a foot in diameter,
contained a few splinters of human bones, charred wood,
and a layer of burt brownish mould, the whole not suffi-
cient to fill a quart pot. :
On the farm of Tresvennech; in the parish of Paul, near
Penzance, stands a granite menhir on the summit of
elevated ground 11°5 ft. above the surface, and 4 ft.
below. Though unhewn it is tolerably square at the
angles, symmetrical, and perfectly upright. In 1840, a
farmer, Working near it, accidentally struck his~ tool
against a horizontal flat stone 18 if. square, beneath
which was a pit cut out of the clay soil, having its sides un-
protected, and containing an urn 19°4 in, high, and 14°3 in.
wide at the mouth. It stood mouth upwards, and con-
tained the larger fragments of the calcined bones, and a
molar tooth, of a human body ; whilst the smaller pieces,
together with Wood ashes, were scattered throughout the
pit. The uri was hand-made, and consisted of yellow
clay found in the Vicinity. Its interior was hard and
"black, but the exterior was not well baked. The handles
Were remarkably large and neatly put on, but differed in
shape and size. A smaller urn, 5°5 in, high and 4 in.
wide at the mouth, found 18 inches from the former, was
also standing on its base, but without protection of any
. Sort. It was filled with snuff-coloured powder.
_ The Sepulchral Mounds, or Barrows of Cornwall,
whether of earth or stones, range from 15 to roo ft. in
diameter, and from 2 to 25 ft. in height. They resolve
themselves into Céne, Boil, Bell, Flat, and Ring bar-
rows, but there is no instance of the Long, Druid, Egg, or
Twin form, z @. two surrounded by the same trench. The
author recognises two pretty well-defined varieties of Ring-
barrow :—i. Where the stones stand o# end, at some
distance from each other, and enclose only a piece of
vevel ground. 2, Where the stones are set 0% edge (rarely
‘on end) contiguous to each other, and enclose either a

7

NATURE

379

large rock, a few small mounds, or an area of uneven
ground. i“

Ofthe first kind, there aré four distinct exaiiples within
a circuit of eight miles in the Hundred of Penwith. Mf. Bor-
lase is of opinion that all circles of evect stones owé their
origin to the same design which attained its perfectién in
Stonehenge, and that the only question remaining is how far
they can be regarded as sepulchral in their origin oF Use.
He remarks that whatever may have been their origin,
history and tradition seem to point rather to a civil than
areligious se of them, ahd in confirmation quotes the -
“Tliad” (xviii, 503), a passage thus translated by Mr.
Wright :—

‘“ Heralds the people checked. Elders meanwhile
On polished stones in sacred circle sate.’’

The Ring Barrows of the second variety range from
Io to rooft. in diameter. The author has little doubt
that they were originally sepulchral, and that they are
cairns or barrows in an incomplete or demolished state,

At Trigganeris, in the parish of Sancreed, on thé top
of a hill, are two erect stones 17 ft. apart in a direction
from N.N.W. to S.S.E., 7°3 ft. and oft. high respectively,
Nearly midway between them, but entirely on one side of
a line joining their centres, a grave, 6 ft. long in an almost
east and west direction, 3:25 broad, and about 5 ft. deep, was
found cut with much precision in the natural clay. It
contained nothing but the disturbed fine subsoil of the
neighbourhood.

In 1818, a grave 8 ft. long, 3'5 broad, and 3 high, was
found under a pile of stones 30 yards in diameter, near
the “ Cheesewring,” in the parish of Linkinghorn, in
East Cornwall. The bottom was one long flat stone ;
each side consisted of three stones, each end of one, and
it had a cover of a single stone. Within it lay the re-
mains of a human skeleton extended, having near the
breast an earthen pot, containing, according to the work-
man who found it, a golden cup. The vessels were
covered and protected with a flat stone 16 inches square,
which leaned diagonally over them against the west wall
of the grave. In this grave the following relics were also
found, but subsequently lost :—a small piece of orna-
mental earthenware, a bronze spear head to in, long, a
metallic rivet, as is supposed, and a few glass beads.
The gold cup has been preserved, and is 3°75 in. high,
3°375 in. in diameter at the mouth, 2°5 ounces in weight,
and its bullion value is 10/7, It is perhaps worthy of
remark that before the discovery of the cup there Was a
tradition in the neighbourhood of a “ golden boat” having
been dug up in a stone cairn near the Cheesewring.

It does not appear necessary to attach a nautical
meaning to the word deat, for, unless we are in error,
vessels for containing melted butter, sauce, &c., were
formerly termed Jva/s in Cornwall, as well as elsewhere.

Before quitting this cup it may be as well to add that
we have elsewhere seen 1837 mentioned as the date of
the discovery, instead of 1818, as given by Mr. Borlase.

Well-authenticated instances of inhumation are stated
by the author to be extremely rare in Cornwall, and
amongst these only two or three examples of the ex-
tended position actually occur, whilst only one of
the contracted position can really be cited. He in-
clines to the opinion that the British copied the practite
of cremation at 4 period not earlier than that of their con-

380

tact with the Romans; and thinks that a very doubtful
answer must be given to the question, “ Have there been
found in Cornwall any interments which can with some
certainty be said to have preceded the practice of crema-
tion?”

Mr. Borlase entirely dissents from the opinion that
articles interred with the deceased had reference to any
view of utility in the next world, or, in other words, that
they are the result of a matured belief in a future state ;
but guards himself from being supposed to assert that
such a belief was non-existent in the days of the barrows.

The large sepulchral urns are of two kinds. 1. Vase-
shaped vessels from 10 to 20 inches high, ribbed round
the upper part, sometimes ornamented with small inden-
tations, but never with the chevron pattern. 2. Barrel-
shaped vessels from 8 to 13'5 inches high, invariably orna-
mented with the chevron pattern.

Vessels differing from the foregoing in size only, and
ranging from 4°5 to 6 inches in height, are very frequently
found in Cornish barrows, and sometimes in close proxi-
mity to the large ones.

Mr, Borlase has compiled, from county historie s, papers
read to various societies, manuscripts of older antiquaries
—especially Dr. Borlase—and his own note-book, a de-
tailed account of explorations and discoveries in the
Cornish tumuli, made at different periods, from Norden’s
account in 1584, of “an auntient buriall at Withiell,” to
his own researches at Pradannack in November 1871.
It may be doubted whether any part of his inte-
resting volume exceeds this in value; and we indulge
the hope that others—not antiquaries only—may fol-
low his example, and collect and record the researches
that have been made in the departments to which
they specially devote themselves, in the counties in
which they reside. We should greatly like to linger
over this chapter, but both time and space forbid us to
do more—and this we do most cordially—than congratu-
late the author on the successes which have attended his
explorations.

He devotes his last chapter to “ The Age of the Monu-
ments,” and thinks that his discoveries justify the conclu-
sion that some, at least, of the most typical of the inter-
ments might b2 brought within historic times, and
assigned to the early centuries of the Christian era.

The facts which seem chiefly to delight him are those
he discovered in 1863, on Morvah Hill, and of which
he gives, as “most worthy,” the following “second
notice”; —

“Here was an instance of an interment in a cairn,
where the body had been burnt on a central natural work
surrounded by the usual ring of stones, the ashes placed
in an urn of the usual chevron pattern, accompanied by
the usual limpet and flint, protected by the usual Kist-
Vaen, and finally covered in by the usual pile of stones,
The whole arrangement, in short, being one of the most
typical examples of the generality of barrows opened in
the district. But here, in the very Kist itself, what
should appear but late Roman coins of the third century !
What is the most natural inference, then? That the
coins must be thrown out of the question, because of the
flint chip? or the whole structure referred at once to the
Stone Age, thousands of years B.C., because it is encircled
by large stones, or because the pottery is rude, and its
ornamentation not curvilinear? Is it not rather the only
fair course to admit at once that this interment, although

NATURE

eet ;
“

(Mar. 20, 1873

possessing every characteristic of the so-called Stone
Age, was placed here not earlier than the third century,
A.D., that is, at the time when the coin was struck ?” (pp.

263-4).

Being ignorant, perhaps, of some of the facts of the case,
we do not presume to say that the author has not correctly
interpreted his case, but as he seems resolved to ignore
the question of secondary interments, which have un-
doubtedly taken place in many instances, and for aught
that appears, may have occurred at Morvah, we hold
non proven to be at present the only safe verdict,

We cannot take leave of Mr. Borlase’s work without
thanking him for the numerous well-executed illustrations
with which it is enriched, and congratulating the pub-
lisher on the manner in which it has been got up.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous ‘
communications. ] : :

New Experiments on Abiogenesis

HAvIinG occupied myself for some time past with an experi- |
mental study of abiogenesis, I have followed with much interest
the controversies on that question in recent numbers of NATURE,
and beg leave therefore to state to the readers of this journal the
results of my experiments, which form in my opinion a not un-
important contribution to the solution of the interesting pro-
blem. Fae

I fully agree with Prof. Burdon Sanderson in the confirmation
of Dr. Bastian’s statements regarding the well-known turnip-and- j
cheese experiments. A turnip decoction of the specific gravity ;
I ‘O1I—1 ‘016, filtered and boiled with cheese (0'25—0'5 grm. to
50 c.c.), filtered again and neutralised, then boiled for 10 minutes
and hermetically sealed, is after 2—3 days’ exposure to a tempe-
rature of 30° C. swarming with Bacterium termo. It is how-
ever to be remarked that a too great concentration of the solu-
tion hinders the evolution of the Bacteria; the volume of the
liquid employed should therefore not be too small, otherwise the
boiling for 10 minutes will render the solution too much concen-
trated. Perhaps the negative results recorded by some experi-
menters are to be explained in this way. :

Both turnip-decoction and cheese are a mish-mash of substances
for a great part ill-defined and imperfectly known. It would be
desirable to substitute for these materials some other mixture of
better defined ingredients.

Instead of cheese can be used peptone (0°2 grm. to 50 c.c.)
with the same result. The peptone is obtained by digestion
of egg-albumen with artificial gastric juice, subsequently isolated ;
and purified by repeated precipitation with alcohol.

In searching for a substitute for the turnip-decoction .
I found it available not to use the hermetically sealed
vessels, but to experiment with free admittance of air. The
recent explorations of Cohn, Burdon Sanderson, and Rind-
fleisch have shown that the germs of Bacteria are but sparingly «
present in common air, but notwithstanding it is a matter of
course that in these experiments no other but perfectly filtered
air can be admitted. After many trials the following mode of
experiment was finally adopted.

I prepared a solution of the mineral salts, that are according
to Cohn indispensable to the nutrition of Bacteria, viz. I grm,
potassium nitrate, I grm, magnesium sulphate, 0°2 grm. calcium
phosphate to 500 c.c. distilled water. (This mixture does not
quite agree with the solution employed by Cohn, For various
reasons, which will be stated elsewhere in a more extensive
report of my experiments, I preferred this modification.) In
100 c.c. of this liquid were dissolved 2°5 grms. grape-sugar and
0'4grm. peptone. About 50 c.c. of this solution was poured
into a glass flask holding about 10ooc.c. The mouth of this
flask was beforehand polished flat, and a layer of hot molten
asphalt laid on the flat brim, The liquid in the flask was then
boiled for ten minutes over an ordinary Argand burner. The
excessive frothing of the boiling liquid is easily prevented
using a small flame, and carefully regulating it when the froth is
on the point of coming up, yet without allowing the liquid to

381

: The ten minutes are reckoned from the moment
the liquid begins to bubble freely.
The remarks of Dr. W. Roberts (NATURE, Feb. 20, p. 302) do

cease boiling.

therefore not apply to these experiments. Moreover, I observed
i ie the temperature in the mouth of the flask, and found
it always to be between 95° and 100°C. Therefore no part of
the flask escaped the full effect of the germ-destroying heat.

While the boiling continued, a heated piece of unglazed flat
earthenware tile was then pressed on the mouth of the flask ;
the solidified asphalt melted, and the piece of tile adhered, after
cooling, firmly to the mouth of the flask. No air could then
penetrate to the interior, except through the pores of the closing
tile. The tile was 7 millimetres thick.

The previous heating of the tile is necessary, not only for
melting the asphalt, but also for destroying the germs which
possibly may adhere to the tile itself. This heating is effected
ina Bunsen’s burner, and raises the temperature of the tile to such
an extent that a tuft of cotton-wool is scorched brown when
pressed against it. The tile should not be too hot when it comes
on the asphalt, lest the fumes arising from the decomposition of
the asphalt should spread to the interior of the flask, and hinder
the production of Bacteria.

The flasks prepared in this way were then exposed in a water
bath to a temperature of 39—35° C. After two or three days the
liquid was very turbid, very often a thick pellicle appeared on
the surface, and flocky masses were swimming in the solution.
The closing tile was then removed by melting the asphalt, and
the microscopic examination showed myriads of Bacterium termo
in lively motion, while the pellicle and the flocky masses con-
sisted also of these organisms. A/icrococcus crepusculum and Vibrio
serpens were often present, but 3. termo predominated. (The
Bacteria were determined after Cohn’s classification. ‘‘ Beitrige
zur Biologie der Pflanzen, II.”)

The experiment conducted in this way yields always a positive
result. Now three things are possible :-~

1. The materials employed originally contained germs of Bac-
teria, which have simply developed themselves.

2. During the experiment germs have penetrated into the in-
terior of the flasks.

3. The Bacteria have originated de ovo in the liquid.

The first explanation is not admissible. For control-solutions
treated exactly in the same manner, but composed in other
proportions, remained under the same conditions perfectly free
from Bacteria. These solutions were—

a. 100 c.c. of the above-named salt solution + I grm. am-
monium-tartrate + I grm. grape-sugar.

6, 100 c. c. of the salt-solution + I grm. ammonium-tartrate
+ o'2grm. peptone.

Both these liquids are eminently suited to the nutrition and
growth of Bacteria. That they nevertheless remained pure from
these organisms proves that zove of the materials employed con-
tained germs capable of resisting for ten minutes a temperature of
100° C.

The second explanation is equally inadmissible. To prove
this directly 1 grm. ammonium-tartrate was dissolved in 100
c.c. of the salt solution. This liquid was equally divided in
two flasks, A and B. To A was added a trace of air-dust, col-
lected in a little room where putrefying liquids were often stand-
ing, and then the flask was closed with a piece of tile in the above-
described manner. B was boiled and closed as usual ; but on
the upper surface of the closing tile a considerable quantity of
the same dust was loosely strewn. After twenty-four hours A
becomes turbid, and swarms on the third day with Bacteria ; B is
on the eighth day still perfectly clear, and is then no longer exa-
mined. ‘The conclusion is obvious: no germs of Bacteria do
pass through the pores of the tile.

_ The only remaining explanation, is, in my opinion, this :
under the above-described circumstances, Bacteria can arise
without pre-existing germs. Not in any single case have I seen
any other organisms than Bacteria—never fungi.

A certain concentration of the liquid is an important desidera-
tum in these experiments. A specific gravity of about 1'o12 is
the most favourable. Greater dilution is a hindrance as well as
greater concentration—at least when the above-named materials
are employed. It is, however, not absolutely necessary to employ
grape-sugar for raising the specific gravity up to 1012. Common
salt can do this just as well. Thus the following mixture is equally
sufficient for generating Bacteria :—100 c.c, of the above-named
salt solution, 2 grm, common salt, 0'2 grm. grape-sugar, 0°4 grm,
peptone, ie :

The first thing to be done now is to substitute for the

grape-sugar and the peptone less complicated bodies. My ex-
periments have been continued with this purpose.
This brief abstract may suffice for the moment. Shortly a

more detailed communication and discussion will appear in one
of the special journals. D. Huizinca,

Professor of Physiology at the University of Groningen

Groningen, March 15

The Janssen-Lockyer Method

SINCE my letter which appeared in NATURE of February 20
there has been a letter from Dr. Huggins (also in NATURE,
February 27, p. 320), and I see that Mr. Richard A. Proctor has
likewise published a letter in the Zvgdish Mechartic of March 7.

With respect to the former of these communications I have but
one remark to make. I was ignorant that the domestic bereave-
ment to which Dr. Huggins alludes occurred at the time when
the eclipse reports from India reached this country. This cir-
cumstance undoubtedly explains why Dr. Huggins did not
sooner make the observation ajluded to ; and had I known the
coincidence in point of time between these two events I should
not have made the remark to which he refers.

Mr. Proctor’s letter certainly surprises me, especially as
coming from one who holds a prominent official position in the
chief astronomical society of this country.

1. In the first place I cannot understand what Mr. Proctor
means when he says with allusion to the question proposed by
Mr. Lockyer in his preliminary paper of 1866—‘‘I have always
judged from the form of the query that, as he now mentions, Dr.
Stewart had suggested its wording.” If Mr. Proctor will refer
to my letter in NATURE of February 20 he will find it stated
that I advised Mr. Lockyer to introduce his views in the shape
of a question, which he accordingly did. The wording was Mr.
Lockyer’s own, being the result of his own cogitations on the
subject, and all that I did-was to suggest the putting of it in the
form of a question.

2. Nor can I understand what Mr. Proctor means when he
says— ‘‘ I can admit very readily that Mr. Lockyer clearly recog-
nised the principle of the method for spectroscopically studying
the prominences when he asked the query. I do not indeed see
how any person at all familiar with spectroscopic analysis could
have failed to do so, after reading Dr. Huggins’ account of his
observations of T Coronz.”

When Mr. Lockyer suggested the application of the spectre-
scope to the sun’s red flames he knew, no doubt, and made use
of his knowledze, that in white solar light the spectrum is scat-
tered, while in light from incandescent gases it is not ; but his in-
formation on these points was not surely derived from Mr,
Huggins. Was not Newton the first to show that a slit of white
light is dispersed by refraction into a broad band or ribbon?
I do not know whether Newton ever clearly enunciated that in
consequence of this dispersion the ribbon was less luminous than
the slit. Perhaps he thought that this was sufficiently under-
stood, but at any rate he who after Newton first made this an-
nouncement cannot be said to have made a very startling dis-
covery. I have the highest respect for the brilliant discoveries
of Dr. Huggins, but I am quite sure that he does not claim as
one of these the statement that ‘‘when the feeble light of a
nebula is dispersed into a spectrum consisting of light of all re-
frangibilities, the spectrum is extremely faint.”

In like manner the man of science who first showed that incan-
descent gases give out only afew spectral lines made a great dis-
covery ; while he who after this discovery first announced that
such light will not be weakened by dispersion can hardly be said
to have made a discovery at all.

Now these two discoveries of two different kinds of spectra
have been most prolific. Swan has used them; Kirchhoff has
used them in certain experiments of his in which the conditions
were probably very similar to those in T Corone, and after
Kirchhoff, Huggins, and after Huggins, Lockyer. Each of these
and many more have applied those well-known principles in many
ways, none of the observers claiming the principles, but each
one claiming his own application, being at the same time per-
fectly willing to acknowledge his neighbour’s just claims. For
instance, Dr. Huggins says—‘‘ To Mr. Lockyer is due the first
publication of the idea of the possibility of applying the spectro-
scope to observe the red flames in sunshine.” Now this is pre-
cisely the state of the case, and I need not say anything more.

3. Then as to the advice to Mr, Lockyer to put his suggestion
in the shape of a query, it ought to be remarked that it was a

td

382

NATURE

preliminary paper, and that Mr. Lockyer intended to follow up
and did follow up his suggestion with the requisite obseryations.
But at that time neither Mr. Lockyer nor myself knew to what
extent the spectroscope would throw light upon these red flames.
What service I did wasin stating my opinion that those red
flames were probably gases, while the suggestion as to how to
detect them was due to Mr. Lockyer. - Had the red flames
proved to be solid particles, the spectroscope would have afforded
only meagre negative evidence of their existence.

Our ignorance on this point suggested to us the propriety of a
query. It was only in this respect that the query was ambiguous,
that is to say there was no doubt that the method suggested by Mr.
Lockyer would throw a great deal of light upon the red flames
if they proved to be gaseous, but the only doubt in our minds
was whether or not they were gaseous.

4. I have tried as well as I can in justice to both of us, to
remember and reproduce what took place in the conversation
in 1866 between Mr. Lockyer and myself, and to show the
reasons for the form in which Mr. Lockyer’s suggestion was put.
Probably Mr. Huggins announced it afterwards in a more com-
plete form, and probably it has since been announced in a yet
~ more clear and complete form, if this be possible. For we know’
that as a rule discoverers and inventors have no great power of
expression, and if the prize is to be given for the clearest
possible utterance of a truth, it will be very seldom won by the
discoverer, but will very frequently be obtained by the popular
writer. Neyertheless I fail to see that Mr. Lockyer’s original
query was at all ambiguous in the sense that Mr, Proctor
suggests. How, I should like to know (adopting the words of
the query), could the spectroscope afford us evidence of the
existence of the ‘‘ red flames at other times than those of a total
eclipse, unless by dispersing the reflected light.”

5. Mr. Proctor asks, To what end are we to inquire whether
Mr. Lockyer would or would not have detected the lines without
the information derived from the eclipse observations? As far
as I can understand the question I quite agree with Mr. Proctor.
I do not think the inquiry ought ever to have been made.
When, however, it was suggested that Mr. Lockyer derived aid
from the Indian observations it was surely allowable for him
to deny the iniputation.

6. I have sometimes thought that discussions too frequently
arise from the attempt to compare together the labours of
different men, when all that is necessary is a statement of facts
and dates. It isa matter of fact that the Indian observers at
a particular date and under particular circumstances, made
certain observations and derived certain results. It is likewise a
matter of fact that Mr. Lockyer, ata date slightly later and
under ceriain other circumstances, made observations of another
kind, from which he also derived certain results. Different
minds are differently constituted ; one will think more of the
Indian observations, another of those of Mr. Lockyer. But
why should the two be compared together, unless some good
object is to be gained by the comparison?

7. Now I cannot see why Mr. Proctor in his letter should
have made the comparison at all, but since he has done so, I
must be allowed to object to his method of makingit. ‘‘ Surely,”
he says, ‘‘on this matter we must assign Mr. Lockyer only the
credit arising from the fact that, possessing an instrument which
made the work child’s play, he saw the lines by the method de-
scribed by Huggins nine months before in detail, and depending
on a principle which Huggins had stated fully two years and nine
monchs before.’ I have already endeavoured to dispose of
the latter part of the statement, and indeed Mr. Huggins has dis-
posed of it himself; but with regard to the first part of it, I
conceive that the possession of an instrument which made the
work child’s play, forms one element of the credit due to Mr.
Lockyer. At first his instrument was defective and unable todo
what he wished, but his conviction that something was to be
made out of the sun, if examined by a powerful spectroscope,
was so strong, that after much delay on the part of the optici.n
employed, and sundry other discouragements, he at last pro-
cured {or himself an instrument with which he saw the red
flames at the very first trial.

8. I should not have alluded to the concluding paragraphs of
Mr. Proctor’s letter were it not written by one who holds a high
official position in the Royal Astronomical Society. To my
mind it is most deplorable that the secretary of this society
should conceive himself at liberty to make in a public journal
unsupported statements reflecting discreditably upon a distin-
guished member of that society. It is bad enough when two

private men of science abuse each other, but it is not to be tole-
rated when a hizh official of a society of standing descends into
the arena. If he insists upon doing so it is surely not unreason-
able to request that he will in the first place divest himself of his
robes of office.

For my own part [ have thoughtythat Mr. Lockyer has
attached only too much importance to the little help I gave him
when we conversed together in 1866.

BALFouR STEWART

Mr, Mallet’s Theary of Volcanic Energy
WILL you allow me to make a few remarks upon Mr. David
Forbes's critique, which has but just now met my eye, though
published in NATURE of February 6 last, upon my translation
of Prof. Palmieri’s ‘‘ Incendio Vesuviano,” and more especially

“upon that gentleman’s animadversions upon my views as to ‘f the

true nature and origin of volcanic heat and energy,” a brief and
incomplete account of which I have given in the ‘f introductory
sketch” prefaced by me to that translation. '

Mr. Forbes commences (p. 260) with an important error as to
a matter of fact, by referring to ‘* Mr. Mallet’s Dynamical Theory
of Volcanic Energy,” as published in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society for 1872.

My paper as above was read in abstract only in June last to
the Royal Society, and being reserved for probable publication
in the Phil, Trans., nothing but the most meagre and incomplete
abstract has appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Society.

I have given a somewhat fuller, but still most mcomplete, ac-
count of itin my ‘f introductory sketch” above referred to, My
paper, and the full statement of my views, with the proofs which
give them validity, have thus as yet never been published at all,
nor even verbally stated publicly, the paper beiag still—afcer
eight months, I regret to say —in the hands of the referees.

When published—as the paper in some form will no doubt be
—Mr. Forbes will find that fis objections—so far as I can gather
anything tangible from their statementin Narure—have been
anticipated, and I believe completely answered, in my paper,
along with others, better founded, because based on fact, which,
as it appears to me, Mr. Forbes’s objections are not.

Mr. Forbes uses ‘‘ theory” and ‘‘ hypothesis” as though quite
the same (p. 260). My hypothesis is simply undeniable, being no
more than that our globe is a terr-aqueous planet subject to secular
refrigeration; and upon that hypothesis I have built up my
theory, that the evolution of volcanic heat is a necessary result,
upon acknowledged physical lawsof such refrigeration; and that
from such heat so evolyed—as the Z7?mum mobile—come in
train all the other recognised volcanic phenomena: chemical,
as in the fusion and combination of the constituents of rocks
into definite and indefinite compounds, decomposition of many
solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies ; mechanical in the elevation
and throwing out at volcanic vents of all or any of these: water,
air, and the chemical elements known to exist in the crust of our.
earth being the only conditions needed, in addition to heat, to
account for all that we know as to volcanic phenomena, as now
active in our planet, .

I claim to have been the first to apply ** measure, number,
and weight ” to volcanic theory ; and when men of science gene-
rally shall have had access to my statements, I trust it will be
admitted that I have not shrunk from rigidly testing by caleula-
tion the adequacy of the source I assign for volcanic heat, nor
ofthe mechanism through which its subsequent effects are pro-
duced, as seen in volcanic phenomena. Iam at the disadvan-
tage that I cannot expect to cumber your pages by reference to
those proofs—they are the less necessary here, however—inas-
much as my reviewer, though affecting to discredit the adeq
of the origin I assign for the ‘‘ quantity of heat requisite to melt
up such vast volumes of rock matter as are known to proceed
from volcanoes,” does not present a single argument against it,
and, in fact, appears unwillingly to admit it. He however pro-
ceeds to object generally to my views by the following state-
ments. They are so vague and inconsecutive that, as fer as
possible, I shall endeavour to condease them in his own words :
—*‘ Admitting that the conversion of the mechanical /orce into
heat is sufficient to effect the melting part of the operation, there
remains the greater difficulty of explaining the chemical and
mineralogical features which characterise volcanic phenomena.
For although mechanical force is admitted to be convertible into
its equivalent heat, which in turn may ‘cause’ chemical action, still
no such forces, alone or in combination, can transmute one

f2>e4 .

chemical element into another, or give rise to products having
at all times a definite chemical and mineralogical constitution,

out of the incongruous materials likely to be met with” in the
crust of our globe.
* Our knowledge of the mineral characters of that crust does

_ not admit the supposition that the substance of the rocks occur-

ring in so many different parts of the world could in all or
in any but solitary in-tances when fused by mere heat afford
products identical with those of known volcanoes.

*€Volcanic products, no matter from what part of the world

~ derived, are identical in chemical or mineralogical constitution ;

a result which indicates that they must be derived from some one
common source, and not mere local accidents, as Mr, Mallet’s
hypothesis would require us to assume.

“For these and other reasons [none of which are suggested]
itdoes not seem probable that this Ayfothesis will receive the
adherence of either chemist, mineralogist, or geologist.” The
italics are mine.

Now I cannot help remarking that Mr. Forbes shows his
very slender acquaintance with the yast subject he so
jejunely disposes of, by the very language he employs ; force
cannot be converted into heat, equivalent or otherwise ; work,
z.é. pressure producing motion, is transformable into heat, and
every other known form of energy. But passing this as well as
the reiterated confusion between hypothesis and theory, I ask, is
it a fact as stated, that volcanic products whencesoever derived,
in time and in space over the whole globe, are zdentical in chemical
or mineralogical constitution. I affirm unhesitatingly that it is
not a fact, and I appeal for confirmation of my denial to
every authoritative work on the subject, and to every well-
informed mineralogical chemist.

Are the ancient basalts and trachytes identical with the modern
ones, or with each other in different localities? Are the modern
lavas of extinct or active volcanoes all over the world, or even
at closely adjacent places, all identical? Are the highly liquid
lavas of Otaheite, producing ‘‘ Pele’s hair,” the same with the
terrane lavas of Etna? Are the trachytes of Auvergne—the
Pierre de Volvie so well known to French engineers, the same as
those of Pozzuoli and of the Rhine? Are the products of the
same volcanic basin ever identical—say the pumices and ob-
sidians of Pouza, Ischia, and Lipari—with the innumerable
varieties of lava of the same localities, and of the phlegrzan
fields and of Sicily? Are even the lavas of the same cone and
during the same eruption always identical? Palmieri in the very
report Mr. Forbes reviews, says (p. 105), ‘‘ The guadttative analysis
of the (Vesuvian) lavas always presents the same elements,” with
certain exceptions ; ‘‘but with respect to guan#ifative analysis,
two specimens of the same lava have their constituents in
different proportion.” Nay more, are eyen the crystallised
minerals of definite chemical constitution, as segregated from
the lava pastes or glasses, zd@entical all over the world, or even
for any one cone, or often for any one eruption? No, there is
just that general similarity in the constitution of volcanic pro-
ducts that we should expect to result from the heating more or
less, or the fusion together of the “incongruous” beds, siliceous,
aluminous, magnesian, calcarious, mixed more or less with
metallic oxides, or other compounds, and often with carbon,
boron, and other elements all variously superposed or mixed,
which constitute the known crust of our globe, along with most
probably the materials of crystalline or other rocks below, the
nature of which we can but guess at. There is just the same
general similarity that is seen in the slags of all metallurgic

furnaces, which fuse very similar materials to the volcano, but -
- with a preponderance of some metal also.

Are the slags of
the same iron blast furnace édentical even for any two tappings,
though the working and charge is apparently the same? No,
and for very obvious reasons. Are even the crystallised minerals
that segregate from these slags, from the same furnace assumed,
worked in the same way, always identical?

If Mr. Forbes will study Von Waltershausen’s early and able
work on Lavas, one scarcely known in this country, Zirkel’s
**Petrographie,” Senft’s “Kristallmischen Felsgemengtheile,”
and above all Blum’s ‘* Hancbuch der Lithologie,” amongst many
others he will soon see how very baseless is the supposed fact on

which he so confidently relies for his objection to my origin of

a

volcanic heat.

But let us for a moment assume that it were a fact that all the
volcanic products all over the world, and for all geologic periods,
were ‘‘identical in chemical and mineralogical constitution,”
how would that form any releyant objections to the thermo-

Ss NATURE

383

dynamic origination which I have assigned to volcanic heat,
Or how would it help the old notion of a very thin crust and
a universal molten ocean beneath, or the exploded one, that
chemical action produces the heat, and the heat produces the
chemical action.

Whatever be the origin assigned to the heat, it is within or
below the heterogeneous solid crust of ro to 40 miles thick,
which we are acquainted with. More or less of that hetero-
geneous crust must be melted up, along with the material assumed
everywhere the same of the molten ocean coming up through it
from beneath.

It is proveable on merely hydrostatic grounds that the mass of
such a molten ocean, if of materials such as are found in onr
earth’s crust, could nut be everywhere and in all latitudes identi-
cal in construction ; but were it so, it must get contaminated and
modified in passing through and melting the ‘‘ incongruous”
‘ducts of the crust bringing it to the surface.

On the other hand absolute identity everywhere in the volcanic
products, did it exist, could prove nothing in favour of a uni-
versal ocean of ready-made lava as the source or origin of volcanic
heat ; but only that whatever might be the origin of that heat it
was so circumstanced as toact on materials every where the same,
and that these reached our surface without any action or mixture
with the ‘‘ incongruous ” crust through which the molien matter
came. There is just the same room for ‘local accident” in
one case as in the other. A reviewer should at least be sure of
his facts before he brings them into hostile array.

But again, what are the grounds for the assumption that
according to my views, volcanic products of whatever sort
are ‘‘the result of fusion by mere heat.” I point out a true
cosmical and thermo-dynamic origin for the heat itself, but
under the actual conditions of volcanic foci and ducts, chemical
actions must take place, as a consequence of the heat, and to-
gether vary the results of the reactions of aJl the materials pre-
sent in fusibility, in aggregation, in their solid, liquid, or gaseous
states, in their molecular conditions and in their chemical and
crystallogenic combinations. This objection as littleapplies to
anything I have written, as the irrelevant suggestion, that the
transformation of energy ‘‘ cannot transmute one chemical ele-
ment into another.”

I believe this disposes of whatever is tangible or worth remark
in Mr. Forbes’ strictures.

He ends, however, in a manner unusual I should think for an
unbiassed reviewer, by uttering a sweeping prophecy, ‘‘ for the
reasons given [and above repeated], and others not brought
forward, it is not probable that this hypothesis [z.e, my theory of
volcanic energy] will receive the adherence of either chemist,
mineralogist, or geologist.”” Prophecies, especially as to matters
of science, are dangerous things, and the prophets would do well
to rule by Swift’s advice, as to utterances of another class, and
never record one that can be falsified within a short time. It so
happens that I am able already to explode Mr. Forbes’s. Writing
to me under date of Dec. 24 last (1872), Dr. Haughton, Professor
of Geology of the University of Dublin, says—‘‘I gave two lec-
tures during the Jast term (Michaelmas) which were attended by
many of the fellows, in which I developed your theory of volcanoes
and gave you full credit. The whole system hangs well together
and must make progress.” Prof. Dana (in noticing this same
book which Mr. Forbes so uncompromisingly condemns), as
editor of the American Fournal of Science, for the month of
February, 1873, at p. 151, says: ‘* His paper is the most im-
portant contribution to this department of geological dynamics
that has ever been brought forward, and the work above-men-
tioned [z.e. Trans, of Palmieri] is by his share of it more than
doubled in value.’ In a letter to me, Feb. 11, 1873, Prof. Dana
says: ‘* Your views throw great light on a hitherto mysterious
department of geological science, and I have no doubt that they
will speedily gain general acceptance.”

I could add like expressions from some others, Now both
Haughton and Dana are at once chemists, mineralogists, and
geologists. They are both, also, sound physicists and mathema-
ticians. So this prophecy is already falsified, and Iam consoled
with the notion that my theory of the nature and origin of yol-
canic energy may survive the unreseryed condemnation to which
Mr. Forbes has sentenced it, on the grounds that I have above
examined, and without his ever having had access to the paper
itself criticised by him. I might refute, too, some criticism on
the book itself, which I cannot avoid calling unfair, and also not
founded on fact. It is not true, for example, that the first forty-
six pages of my introductory sketch “are but an abstract of my

384

previously published investigations into the theory of earth-
quakes” (p. 260). The reviewer may not have been able or not
taken the trouble to distinguish the old from the new; but as a
fact, the greater part of those forty-six pages is of matter never

' before published.

So aiso it is scarcely candid to object that “no reference
is found to any of the Continental men of science who have done
so much for terrestrial vulcanicity,’’ which is contrary to the fact,
for I have referred by name or by their labours to the few who
have in any way advanced our knowledge as to the nature and
origin of volcanic heat, without noticing that within that scope only
was I by space obliged to confine myself, as stated in pp. 48, 49,
54,76, &c. ; the phenomena occurring at volcanic vents, which have
chiefly engaged the attention of Continental and all other vol-
canic authors being avowedly outside my limits, and, I might add,
but too often of secondary importance.

The nomenclature generally of my ‘ Translation of Palmieri”
is said to be objectionable, because such terms as sulphide of
potass and terrochloride of ammonia are encountered. I have
looked through the pages since without being able to discover
these dreadful terms. However Iam ready to take the reviewer's
word that such a slip in proof correcting may be found in some
place, and I humbly bow to such microscopic, profound, and
valuable criticism, though, as stated, the conclusion is a good
deal wider than its premises. RopertT MALLET

Enmore, The Grove, S.W., March 5

Effect of Resistance in modifying Spectra

In a review of M. Guillemin’s work ‘‘The Forces of
Nature” which appeared in last week’s Asheneum, the fol-
lowing reference, by M. Guillemin, to the experiments of
M. Mitscherlich is quoted : ‘* Suivant ce physicien il arrive que la
presence de certaines substances dans une flame a pour effet
d’empecher de se produire les spectres des autres substances,
d'enteindre leurs raies principales.” The English editor adds
that the effect ‘‘ may probably be explained by the observations
of Frankland and Lockyer.”

In relation to this subject of the extinction of the bands of one
metal by another, you will perhaps permit me to quotea paragraph
from one of the lectures which I have recently had the honour of
delivering in the United States. The ares of thallium and silver
had just been compared, and their similarity of colour po'nted
out. The power of prismatic analysis to show that, notwith-
standing the apparent identity of colour, the arcs really belonged
to two different metals, was then demonstrated. The metals
were afterwards subjected /ogeter to the action of the Vol-
taic current, and it was sbown that the band of thallium fell mid-
way between the two bands of silver. Hence the similarity of
colour. ‘The lecture then proceeds thus :-—

“But you observe here another interesting fact. The thallium
band is at first far brighter than the silver bands ; indeed the
latter have wonderfully degenerated since the bit of thallium was

ut in. The reason of this is worth knowing. It is the resistance
offered to the passage of the electric current from carbon to
carbon that calls forth the heating power of the current. If the
resistance were materially lessened, the heat would be materially
lessened ; and if a// resistance were abolished there would be no
heat at all. Now thallium is a much more fusible and vaporis-
able metal than silver, and its presence facilitates the passage of
the current to such a degree as to render it almost incompetent
to vaporise the more retractory silver, But the thallium is gra-
dually consumed ; its vapour diminishes, the resistance conse-
quently rises, until finally the silver bands are rendered as bril-
liint as at first.”

In the spectra of mixed substances derived from the electric
spar the action here referred to must come frequently into play.

| Ant See ae Me
pat fens 1" cl
Le eae eT

NATURE

If neither the fact, nor its proposed explanation, be new, I would

thank you to commit this documeat to your waste-paper

basket. Joun TyNDALL
Royal Institution, March 1873

Perception in the Lower Animals

THE theory of taking olfactory notes by the way, as suggested
by Mr. Wallace in explanation of the faculty possessed by ani-
mals of finding their way home, seems to meet with general
acceptance amongst your correspondents ; yet it totally fails to
account for those instances in which the animal finds its way
back by quite a different route to that by which it was taken away,

(Mar. 20, 1

A good example is given by “F. R. G. S.,” in the last num-
ber of NaTurRE; the anecdote of his riding-horse, by Mr.
Darwin, also seems to illustrate this point. In an article on the
‘Consciousness of Dogs,” in the Quarterly Review, of last
October, the following remarkable instance, amongst others, is
mentioned on indisputable authority. A hound ‘ was sent by
Charles Cobbe, Esq., from Newbridge} county Dublin, to Moy-
nalty, county Meath, and thence, long afterwards, conveyed to
Dublin. The hound broke loose in Dublin, and the same morn-
ing made his way back to his old kennel at Newbridge, thus
completing the third side of a triangle by a road he had never
travelled in his life.”

Nowas Mr. Wallace’s theory does not explain these and similar
instances, it clearly cannot be received as a solution of the question.
Moreover, not only does the faculty exist in other animals not
remarkable for their sense of smell, but we find it in cases where
this sense has nothing to do with it. Take, for example,
the direct homeward flight of the carrier pigeon. Under the
same head may be brought the migrations of birds and fishes, and
the habits of the turtle, as mentioned by Mr. Darwin.

The writer in the Quarterly suggests a sense of the magnetic
currents of the earth—a sort of internal mariner’s compass in
fact. But it is difficult to see how this could have helped the
dog to find its way from Dublin to Newbridge, for instance,
unless it was also able to consult a map so as to ascertain the
relative position of the two places.

It seems then that the problem still remains unsolved. Either
we must extend almost indefinitely the range of smell and sight ;
or, we must suppose the existence of some peculiar sense of the
nature of which we are ignorant, which enables its possessor to
retain, as F. R. G. S. expresses it, ‘fa constant perception of
the bearing of its old home.” a,

Bath, March 17

POSSESSION ISLES

AS the idea of occupying Possession Islands as a

station for observing the Transit of Venus has
been lately propounded, I have been requested to com-
municate to NATURE the results as to its climate, which we
have obtained in this office from the logs of H.M.S.
Erebus and Terror, which we are now re-discussing with
a view to publication.

Possession Isles are in lat. 71° 56’ S., long. 171° 7 E.
H.M.S. Erebus and Terror were within lat. 70° to 724° S.,
and long. 170° to 175° E. from rothto 17th January, 1841.
During these eight days the mean height of the barometer
was 29°143, mean temperature of the air 29°’7, and of the
sea 30°'5 ; the wind was variable, but chiefly from S. and

SSW., force 6; the weather was clear ten times, cloudy -

twenty times, overcast eighteen times, from forty-eight
double sets of four-hourly observations, while snow. was
noted nine times, and squally weather ten times.

The ships were within the same area on 2oth and 21st
February, 1841 ; and, during these two days, the mean
height of the barometer was 28°920 inches, mean tempe-
rature of the air 23°°5, of the sea 30"1 ; wind WSW. to
SE., force 9 to 5 ; the weather was cloudy and overcast.

In addition I am permitted to enclose a letter from Dr.
Hooker, which he kindly sent me in reply to my inquiries
as to his reminiscences of his visit to these inhospitable
regions, and which he has allowed me to publish.

Meteorological Office ROBERT H, Scorr

Letter from Dr. Hooker

Possession Island, or rather Possession vock, is in a
very inaccessible position. The chance of landing a well-
equipped party upon it when reached, and the proszect of
its subsequent removal by ships, if landed on, is very
small. In any case I feel little uncertainty as to what
would be the fate of a party left there for the winter, and
the prospect of their seeing the transit would be abso-
lutely 227,

To reach it we “took the pack” January 3, 1841, and
had not penetrated it till the 9th, aided at last bya furious
gale. We then discovered South Victoria, and traced its
coast from lat. 703° to lat. 78°, without finding a spot
where it was possible to approach the shore, During the

ars

it

ES —— a ee

ie wate

OE ee

— —_ ee oo

__ twenty-two days that we spent off that continent, we never
effected a landing but twice, «nd then, with the greatest
difficulty, on two small volcanic islets, without a particle
of vegetation on them, of which one was Possession
Island (Jan. 13), @ mere rock. The ship was hove to two
miles off ; with the greatest risk a landing was effected, ona
beach of large loose stones and stranded masses of ice. It
was no sooner done than the recall flag was hoisted in the
ships, which were reached just as a terrific fog came on,
{plewed by a gale of wind; ten minutes more and all
ands in the boats would have been lost, for the currents
ran like sluices between the land, islets, and icebergs. So
much for Possession Island. (Read Ross’s account of the
_ landing, i. 188, and especially the paragraph at p. 190.)
Take a glance at. the meteorological registers in Ross’s
voyage for the month of January 1841, which was passed
between S. lat. 66°32’ and 78°. The mean temperature
was 29"02, max. 415, min. 195. It snowed on sixteen
days ; overcast, squally and misty was the usual weather,
blue sky was rarely seen over more than a quarter of the
- heavens for a yery few hours of the day, and for many
days not seen at all. a fe

in March between lat. 77° and 693°, the mean tempe-
rature was 24°'28, max. 34°, min. 13°. Sky as in January.

In the following year our vessel went to the same seas.
We “took the pack” December 17, and after being all
but wrecked, penetrated it after fifty-six days of ares
peril, and proceeded to 78° S., never once seeing land.
During that January within 66° 32’, and 67° 21’ the mean
temperature was 30°46, max. 405, min. 24°. It snowed
on eventeen days, and we hardly ever saw blue sky.

In February between lat. 67° 18’ and 78° 12’, the mean
temperature was 26°68, max. 35°, min. 16°°5, and it snowed
on twenty days. Blue sky was seen only on thirteen
days. In 1842 the weather was worse than ever. In
that year we fried to get south in the meridian a little
east of Cape Horn, but never got beyond lat. 713°, and
then not till March 6th, having left the Falklands on the
18th December. In January of that year (1842) we were
between lat. 63°58’, and 64°44’. The mean temperature
was 30°°9, max. 45°, min.23°°5. It snowed on sixteen days
—sky as before.

February— between lat. 61° 37’ and 66° 01’, The mean
‘temperature was 30°50, max. 35°°5, min. 27°°5. It snowed
on twenty-four days out of the twenty-eight! Blue sky
was seen only on seven days, and this on six days over
one-eighth of the sky, and on the 7th over one-fourth.

With such a midsummer climate I leave you to guess
the position of a party in lat. 72°, cag ed up through a
winter on a rock a few yards long, covered with snow.
During the third year’s cruise to the southward, Captain
Crozier ever once went to his cot, and we passed day
and night with our hearts at the top of our throats.

The act is, there is no summer or clear weather to be
had; except by the rarest chance. For days and days
we worked by Dead Reckoning alone. Storm, wind, and
snow, are the prevalent summer phenomena. Still some
seasons are not so bad as others, and Weddell got to
743 in an open sea in the meridian where we barely
reached 66°. (Signed) J. D. HOOKER
Royal Gardens, Kew, March 6

The following is the account of the landing alluded to
by Dr. Hooker ; —
“We found the shores of the mainland completely covered with
ice projecting into the sea, and the heavy surf along its edge
forbade any attempt to land upon it; a strong tide carried us
rapidly along between this ice-bound coast and the islands
amongst heavy masses of ice, so that our situation was, for some
time most critical ; for all the exertions our people could use
were insufficient to stem the tide. But taking the advantage
of a natrow opening that appeared in the ice, the boats were
pushed through it, and we got into an eddy under the lee of the
pacaest of the islands, and landed on a beach of large loose stones
stranded masses ofice, . . The island is composed

.

entirely of igneous rocks, and only accessible on its western
side. We saw not the smallest appearance of vegetation, but
inconceivable myriads of penguins completely and densely
covered the whole surface of the island, along the ledges of the
precipices, and even to the summits of the hills, attacking us
vigorously as. we waded through their ranks, which, together
with their loud coarse notes, and the insupportable stench from
the deep bed of guano, which had been forming for ages, made
us glad to get away again, after having loaded our boats with
geological specimens and penguins. Owing to the heavy surf
on the beach, we could not tell whether the water was ebbing or
flowing ; but there was a strong tide running to the south, be-
tween Possession Island and the mainland, and the Zervor had
some difficulty to avoid being carried by it against the land-ice.
Future navigators should therefore be on their guard in approach-
ing the coast at this place.”

EARTHQUAKE WAVES

HE self-registering tide-gauges maintained by the
United States Coast Survey at different points on
the sea coast frequently exhibit, superimposed upon the
tidal fluctuation, a succession of long waves, the origin of
which is ascribed to distant earthquakes. In two notable
instances, viz. the earthquake of Simoda in 1854, and
that of Arica in 1868, the great ocean waves caused by
the disturbance were distinctly registered in that way by
the tide-gauges on the Pacific coast, and have been made
use of for estimating the average depth along the lines of
transmission. (See Coast Survey Reports for 1855, 1862,
and 1869.) “
Similar fluctuations were registered on the morning of
November 17, 1872, shortly after local midnight, on the
tide-gauge at North Haven, on the Fox Island, in Penob-
scot Bay, Maine. The fluctuations continued from mid-
night until nearly six o’clock in the morning, at somewhat
irregular intervals of about seventeen minutes from crest
to crest, with an average vertical range of nine inches, the
greatest wave being at three o’clock, with a height of
twenty inches. oe
No corresponding earthquake phenomena have come
to the knowledge of the Coast Survey Office, and it is
probable that if such was the case, the shock occurred
somewhere under the Atlantic Ocean,

THE CHALLENGER EXPEDITION

M.S. Challenger cast off from the jetty at Ports-
; mouth at 11.30 A.M. on December 21, with a low
barometer. A strong south-westerly breeze was blowing,
and the drum up; so that, especially in a season like the
present, the prospect was not promising for the first few
weeks of her voyage round the world.

The result justified thedrum, and for a week we were
knocking about the mouth of the Channel, and the Bay
of Biscay, making slow progress southwards. It was
perhaps as well to get a good shaking at first. It showed
at once where there was a screw loose, and gave a chance
to tighten it up. A sharp cyclone which caught the ship
on her way from Sheerness to Portsmouth had already
tested pretty fully the stowing of the apparatus, and
although the Cha//enger rolls considerably when she is
put to it (over 35°), not a single instrument shifted, and
not a glass was broken, either in the zoological work-
room, or in the chemical laboratory. Just before we got
to Lisbon the weather improved a little, and we got some
soundings and took one or two trial hauls with the dredge.

After leaving Lisbon on January 12 the wind was again
fresh, but between Lisbon and Gibraltar we made some
important experiments, and found, among other things,
that we could work easily and successfully with the
common trawl down to 600 fathoms. I am now writing
about 100 miles north of Madeira, and since leaving
Gibraltar the weather, though at first breezy, has been on

386

NATURE

ee Ee a Se es Le, 7

the whole fine. We have taken several successful navigative
sounds at great depths, and we have trawled successfully
at 2,125 fathoms, and recovered many interesting animal
forms, several of them new to science, and others of
extreme rarity and beauty. Still we must regard our work
up to the present time as only tentative. The weather
has been against us. It is altogether a new experiment
to dredge from so large a ship, and it seems to present
some special difficulties, or at all events to require some
management. The weight of the ship is so great that
there can be no “give and take” between it and the
dredge, such as we have in the case of a smaller vessel.
If there is any way on, the impulse to the dredge is
irresistible, and seems to tend to jerk it off the ground.
This difficulty can no doubt be met, but the only way of
meeting it appears to be by using a length of rope greatly
in excess of the depth—and having weights. A single
dredging operation may thus occupy a great length of

\j

Il

time, but in compensation we have the greater size an

efficiency of this dredge. The few trials which we have
alr: ady made have beenall in the direction of improvement,
and I have little doubt that under Captain Nares’ skilful
management what little difficulty is still felt will shortly
disappear. ad

As I hope to contribute to NATURE from time to time
a series of articles giving the results of our voyage, it may
be well to commence by giving a sketch of the general
scope of our operations, and the means and appliances at
our disposal.

The Challenger isa spare-decked corvette of 2,000 tons
displacement. This particular build gives her an immense
advantage for her present purposes, as she has all theaccom-
modation of a frigate, with the handiness and draught of
water of a corvette. Sixteen of the eighteen 68-pounders
which form the armament of the C/ad/enger have been
removed, and the main-deck is almost entirely set aside

LW
i WA Nass
MWS

amily
! UA

|

| Area cot

ee

HE =i
UU Wun =

i

fh

i

TINE

TD

LABORATORY OF THE

for the scientific work. The after-cabin is divided
into two by a bulk-head, and the two little rooms |
thus formed—still gay with mirrors, and pictures, and |
new chintz, and bright with home faces—are allotted
to Captain Nares and myself. The fore cabin, a hand- |
some room, 30ft. long by about 12 ft. wide, into which |
these private cabins open, the captain and I use as
a sitting room, the port-end with its writing-table and |
work-table, and its book-cases packed with old home |
favourites, being appropriated to my use and that of my
secretary Mr. Wild ; while the captain has arrangements
at the starboard end of the same kind. Two sets of
cabins have been specially built on the after-part of the
main-deck for this difficult part of the scientific work.
On the port side a commodious zoological work-room is
occupied by the naturalist of the civilian staff, while the
chart room corresponds with it on the opposite side.

Towards the middle of the main-deck on the port side

“

CHALLENGER”

there is a dark room and a working room, for the photo-
grapher, and on the starboard side Mr. Buchanan has his
chemical and physical laboratory.

Nearly the whole of the fore-part of the main-deck is
occupied by the dredging and sounding gear, Mr, Siemens’s
photometric and thermometric apparatus, and the more
cumbrous of our machines, such as the hydraulic pump,
the aquarium, and other very valuable articles, of which
a detailed description will be given hereafter.

I feel justified in going even so far as to say that the
arrangements for scientific work in the Challenger leave
little or nothing to be wished for. Captain Nares and his
officers not only do everything which care and skill can
accomplish to further our objects, but, having naturally a
certain advantage over the civilians in rough weather,
they keep us up to the mark by the lively interest which
they take in the success of our operations. There is a
common mess in a large ward-room on the lower deck,

[Mar. 20, 1873

Mar, 20, 1873] NATURE 387

through which the dredge rope passes. This arrange-
ment appears to answer better than the old one of dredg-
ing from a derrick.

For the first two or three hauls in very deep water off
the coast of Portugal, the dredge came up filled with the

and the civilians have to heartily thank the naval men
for the frank courtesy with which they have received
them into their fellowship.

Dredging and sounding are carried on from the main-

yard, Astrong pennant is attached by a hook to the ¢
cap, and then bya tackle to the end of this yard. A | usual “ Atlantic ooze,” tenacious and uniform throughout,

compound arrangement of fifty-five of “ Hodges’ accumu- | and the work of hours in sifting gave the very smallest
Jators” is hung to the pennant, and beneath it a block | possible result. Wewere extremely anxious to get some

iY
i)
}
i}
1
1

NARESIA CYATHUS

| the larger invertebrata, several fishes. Two of these
larly of the distribution of the higher groups ; and after | belonged to the genus M/acrourus, and another of large
various suggestions for modifications of the dredge it was | size was unknown to us, approaching in many respects
proposed to try the ordinary trawl. We had a compact | the genus MZwgi/. All the fishes were in a peculiar con-
trawl with a 15 ft. beam on board, and we sent it down | dition from the expansion of the air contained in their
off Cape St. Vincent at a depth of 600 fathoms. The ex- | bodies. On their relief from the extreme pressure, their

eyes especially had a singular appearance, protruding like

periment looked hazardous, but to our great satisfaction s
this trawl came up all right, and contained, with many of | great globes from their heads,

idea of the general character of the fauna, and particu-

388

NATURE

After this first attempt we tried the trawl several times
at depths of 1,090, 1,525, and finally 2,125 fathoms, and
always with success.

Several fishes, most of them allied to AZacrourus, were
added to the list. Several decomposed crustaceans, and
among the lower crustaceans at 1,090 fathoms, a gigantic
amphipod, of the family Hyperina, allied to Phronima.
The eyes of this creature are very remarkable, extending
in two great facettio lobes over the whole of the anterior
part of the cephalo thorax, like the eyes of Aeg/ina among
Trilobites. This crystacean, which is three and a half
inches in length, makes a splendid drawing, and re-
minds one of the old Burypiends is in Bigtese ‘of descrip-

Willemoes Suhm. .

tion at the hands of Dr. von
faut catches
t

Mollusca are very scarce in deep water, an
have hitherto been chiefly in seep. to such ings as the
species of Wucula, Leaa, Verticordia, &c., familiar through
the deep dredgings of the Porcupine. Among the mol-
luscoids a haul in 1,525 fathoms gave us a lovely thing,
a bryozoan forming, out ranches closely resembling
those of Accromarchis ueriting, a graceful cup, the
bases of the branches HET | ‘a transparent stem
between two and three inches at e the barrel of a
quill, or the stem of a claret glass, is genus, which
presents a general character iatally ifferent from any-
thing hitherto known among recent Bryozoa, I me n tf»
dedicate to Captain Nares, a8 an early recognition of the
confidence and esteem which he has already fully gained
from the scientific staff. Varesea cyathus certainly recalls,
in a most singular way, the Can bran Diclyouema, a
form which I had, however, Wherea been inclined to
refer to the Hydrozoa, Rigas ; en:

The Echinoderms have yielded some exceedingly ipte-
resting species to the trawl ; amon ee several examples
of the beautiful little aha ich one specimen was
taken by Count Pourtales, in the Straits of Florida, and
described by Alexander Agassig under the name of
Salenia varispina, It is undoubtedly a true Sa/enia,
and to an advocate of the doctrine of the ‘continuity of
the chalk,” it is pleasant to see in the flesh this little
beauty, which has hitherto been reckoned among the lost
tribes. oer ; oF,

Among the star-fishes ty, ies of the genus Hy-
menastes have occurred, st the ophiurids are well re-
presented chiefly by large examples of several species of
the genus Ophiomusium. ==

All the hauls of the trawl, down to 2,125 fathoms,
have yielded many specimens of a singular Holothurid,
of which a description will shortly be published by Mr.
Moseley. The animal is of a yich violet colour. Like
Psolus, it has a distinct ambu: ing surface, with a cen-
tral double line of water-feet. e body cavity is small,
but the perisom is represented by an enormously thick
layer of jelly, which rises on ejther side of the middle
line cf the back into a series of F winded LOBES, each per-
forated for the passage of an ulacral tube and cor-

responding therefore with ‘guna foot. The

upper pair of vessels of the trivium send out series of

leaf-like sacs, richly loade t, which fringe
on either side the leads ator, ae , and appear .
Fespiration.

chiefly concerned in the ‘up $
€ occurred frequently,

Sea-peas and G rgoniae
always remarkable sty their ant phosphorescence.
jon to this beau-

Captain Maclear is giving s
tiful phenomenon. ~A Mopsea, which shone very bril-
liantly, gave a spectrum extending from the green well
on into the red, while Umdelludaria gave a very restricted
spectrum sharply included between the lines 6 and D of
this wonderfully rare sea-pea. We took with the trawl a
very fine specimen, with a stem 3 ft. long, at a depth of
2,115 fathoms off Cape St. Vincent.

As usual in deep-sea work sponges preponderated, and
the order has added several novelties, chiefly referable
to the ventriculite group, the Hexactinellide,

Some fine new species of Afphrocallistes came up A

along the coast of Portugal, and off st. Vincent ; wi

th

many spicules and more or less mutilated examples of —
Hyalonema, two or three speciés in fair condition of a~

species of Luflectel/a, with spicules which I cannot dis-

tinguish from those of LAuphadelles aspergillum —the. :
The form of
the two sponges is the same, but our own specimens are

Venus flower-basket of the Philippines.

quite soft, the spicules not fused into a continuous siliceous
network,
The physical and

1emical observations will be fully
detailed hereafter. © te tem a Ir
y

atures off the Coast of
-ortugal corresponded very c Hass y with those taken in

he Porcupine in 1870, and the Shearwater in 1871, below

the first 100 fathoms through which at this seasonthe tem-

perature is nearly uniform. WYvILLE THOMSON

PROF, FLOWERS HUNTERIAN LECTURES
LECTURES x. XI. XII, :

siderably frat
former hye o ‘ly been 9 Wined
they have pesn studied By Ey

it
having the teeth compressed from before backwards,
instead of laierally. hs ‘Tatter class includes a well-

and perhaps more tha
graph is in course of
genus, andthe mate $ at

1839 Prof.

e€ specimen now in

phorus. All RnaNn aaeelee bate eight molars above, and |

straight, piel parall
a

ew fr
fore long id a slightly
each side, whence
much as in the Arm
caused the central harder.
what gridiron shape, | vbich was sometimes much elabo-
rated. The front of the skull was much truncated, and a
strong ossified septum was often present. Burmeister
thinks that the- animal possessed a trunk. The brain
was proportionately very small, the olfactory lobes and
cerebellum preponderating. Much of the skull was
occupied by air cells and the molar roots. The descending

zygomatic process was very large, to give origin to the ©

masseter muscle ; it isabsent or nearly so in the Arma-
dillos ; it may differ in character from that of the Mega-
therium, probably arising from the maxillaries, as it was

wen was among the ~

Bi

4

perforated at its base by the infraorbital foramen. The
vertebral column was most peculiar. Ofthe seven cervical
_vertebrze the first and sixth only were free, then came the
“trivertebral bone” of Prof. Huxley, formed of the
last cervical and first two dorsals; this was hinged
ginglymoidly by the transverse processes on the next
mass, which Was composed of the rest of the dorsal
vertebra. The lumbar vertebrze were anchylosed to-
gether, but not to the last (the 13th) dorsal. The centra
of the vertebrae were only represented by a thin bony
plate which helped to form the tube for the spinal cord.
Prof. Huxley thinks that the joint in the dorsal region
was connected with the respiratory process, Burmeister
considers that it enabled the animal to retract its head.
The pelvis was much as in the Armadillo ; the ilia were
perpendicular. The symphysis pubis was slender, and is
but infrequently preserved. The scapula possessed the
characteristics of the class; the humerus had a supra-
condyloid foramen, and the radius and ulna were not
anchylosed, The ungual phalanges were all hoof-like. As
in the armadillos and seals, the 4th metarcarpal bone
articulated with the cuneiform as well as with the unci-
form, and the 5th with the latter only; the pollex was
absent. There was no third trochanter to the femur ;
the astragalus was normal ; and there were four or five
toes to the hind foot.

Of the other extinct Edentata there are none closely
allied to the Ant-eaters, Ant-bears, or Pangolins. In
the Upper Miocene of Darmstadt an ungual phalanx has
been found, which like those of Manis is longitudinally
_ split ; it has been named Zacrotherium by Lartet. Teeth
_ have been found since, much like those of Dasypus, so it
could not have been a Manis. At Pikerme similar
remains have been found, which have been named as
parts of Ancylotherium. These animals must form a
_ separate division of the Edentata.

The Ungulata are the next great group to be consi-
dered. In their teeth they all tend to the typical formula

4m, a 44. The milk teeth are always

a. Spe oT
i. : c. > p.m.
_ functional and generally remain until the animal is nearly
fully grown. The limbs are formed for simple support
_and progression, and there is no trace of clavicles.
Except in the camels, the hoof encloses the ungual phalanx.
Leaving Hyrax out of consideration it may be stated that
the pollex and hallux are always absent. The class is
found in all the world but the Australian region ; they
have not been found fossil in strata below the tertiaries,
_ but in the oldest of them. They are absolutely divisible
into two sub-classes from characters indicated by, but not
entirely dependent on the structure of the feet. This
division was indicated by Cuvier, but developed by Owen
and H.N. Turner, Jun. Owen introduced the terms
_ Perissodactylata and Artiodactylata by which these sub-
classes are best known. In the Perzssodactylata the
middle toe is symmetrical, and there is typically one toe
on each side of that, except in the Tapir and an early
fossil Rhinoceros, Acerotherium. The astragalus has a
single large anterior facet, entirely or mainly for articu-
lation with the naviculare. There is a third trochanter to
the femur, and there are never less than twenty dorso-
lumbar vertebrz. The nasal bones expand posteriorly,
and there is an osseous alisphenoid canal, as pointed out
by Mr. Turner. In the Artiodacty/ata the axis of each of
the feet is between the middle and fourth toe, and there is
one toe outside each of these, but in the Peccary one is
absent in the hind foot. The astragalus supports both
the navicular and cuboid bones on nearly equal-sized
facets. here is no third trochanter to the femur, and
_ there are always nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebrae. There
is no alisphenoid canal; the palate is completed by bone
‘opposite the posterior molars. All these characters, espe-
cially when taken in connection with the teeth, make it
easy, from a few fragments of the skeleton, to identify the

sub-class to which fossil members of the class belong. In
the Perissodactylata the persistent premolars and the
molars are very much alike, being all double, but in the
Artiodactylata the premolars are single, and therefore they
do not form a uniform series with the molars; there is
a third lobe to the last lower molar, except in an antelope,
Neotragus Saltiana, as lately proved by Sir V. Brooke.

The earliest of the Perissodactylata are the Lophiodon-
tide, from the lower Eocene. They are rather more
generalised than the existing forms, as would be expected
on the evolution hypothesis. The premolars are simpler
than those behind. Coryfhodon, the oldest, is known by
its teeth, of which it possessed the typical forty-four, and
a femur with a third trochanter. Its molars had two
ridges with conical apices, whence Owen gave it its name,
from a specimen dredged off Harwich. The feet are not
known unfortunately.

Lophiodon itself is only known by its teeth and frag-
ments of the skeleton ; the upper part of the skull has not
yet been found. It is a genus of the early and middle

Eocene only. Its dental formula was i. 3 (eS “pam, 3 m,>

3 See 38

The molars are representatives of the type which runs
through the whole class. In the upper jaw each tooth
presented an outer wall, which developed into two well-
formed cusps ; running back from this were two trans-
verse ridges, an anterior and a posterior, as they are
termed. The anterior transverse ridge springs from in ©
front of the anterior cusp, the posterior from in front
of the one behind ; these ridges, each by their curv-
ing backwards, enclose a space named the anterior and
posterior sinuses. The posterior transverse ridge is ab-
sent in the premolars, The lower molars are simpler.
The premolars were reduced in a manner which charac-
terised the genus, the hinder part being cut away.
Lophiodon is mainly found in the lacustrine deposits of
the south of France ; there were several species, varying
in size from a full-grown Indian rhinoceros to that of a
hare. Leidy, from the deposits of Nebraska, found a
tooth exactly resembling those of this genus; he has
named it Z. occidentalis, but acknowledges the insufficiency
of the evidence on which it is founded.

The next animals to be considered were about the size
of the hare. Pachynolophus differed from Lophiodon in
having seven pre-molars and molars in the upper jaw
instead of six ; the number in the lower jaw is not quite
so certain, some having apparently six and others seven.
The ridges of the teeth were less considerable and more
broken into tubercles. In the London clay, near Herne
Bay, a skull was found, named by Prof. Owen Hyra-
cothertum, Mr. H. N. Turner was the first to point out
that this animal was one of the Perissodactylata, and not
as Prof. Owen at first supposed, allied to the Suidz, The
teeth very closely resembled those of Pachynolophus, each
transverse ridge developing intoa median smaller tubercle
and a posterior larger one ; the pre-molars were also con-
siderably smaller than those behind. From the resemblance
of the teeth it is evident that the French genus Pachynolo-
phus and the English Hyracotherium must be considered
to be one. Péiolophus is the name of a genus given by
Owen to a specimen obtained from the London clay off
Harwich, together with a humerus, femur, and three meta-
tarsals. The forty-four teeth were present. There is no
reason to suppose that this genus is different from Hyra-
cotherium, the shape of the teeth and the size being
identical ; Prof. Owen himself states the possibility of their
identity. The fact of there having been three metatarsals
or metacarpals as they may be, found together, is a col-
lateral one in favour of the animal having been Perisso-
dactylate. From the above remarks it is evident that the
names Pachynolophus and Pliolophus must be sunk in
favour of Hyracotherium, as must also Lophiotherium, a
name given by Gervais to an Upper Eocene specimen,
known only by the mandible,

390

At the same time lived another small animal, A/zolophus,
known only from a fragment now at York. It differs from
most ungulates in having only a single inner cusp to the
molars, so causing it to resemble a typical pre-molar,

Another form, Micrecherus erinaceus, is very aberrant,
and its position is doubtful.

TESTIMONIAL TO DR. BENCE FONES

We regret very much to hear that Dr. Bence Jones
has been compelled on account of his health to
resign the office of Secretary to the Royal Institution, a
post which he has filled for so many years with equal
honour to himself and advantage to the Institution.

His conviction of the value of original research, and of
the special vocation of the Royal Institution to continue
diligent in promoting it, was with him an unceasing
stimulus to exertion. His attention to every detail left
nothing neglected in the performance of his duties. His
own scientific attainments have been of signal effect
in maintaining respect for the Institution, and in pro-
curing the co-operation of eminent men in the laboratories
and lecture theatre. His love of the place and its
memories has been shown by the pains he took to collect
its early annals ; including in this work an account of the
discoveries of Young and Davy, and by his becoming the
historian of Faraday.

The services of Dr. Bence Jones have been given under
the pressure of important professional engagements, and
latterly under the additional difficulties of failing health ;
and until now, when he has been reluctantly compelled
to resign, he has never relaxed in the active prosecution
of his honourable task.

We trust with the managers, however, that the aid of
Dr. Bence Jones may not be altogether lost to the Insti-
tution ; but that he will still afford to it the benefit of his
counsels and experience. It is hoped that he may in
future occupy a seat at the Board of Management ; and
further, that he will remain associated with the Institu-
tion by doing it the favour of accepting the position of
Honorary Assistant-Secretary.

It has very naturally been proposed to present Dr.
Bence Jones with atestimonial to be raised by subscrip-
tion, and we feel confident that to so worthy a purpose
there will be no lack of willing contributors. Individual
subscriptions are limited to 3/. 3s. as a maximum.

It has been ascertained that the form of testimonial
most agreeable to Dr. Bence Jones would be a bust of
himself to be placed in the Royal Institution. Subscrip-

“tions to this testimonial may be paid either at the Royal

Institution, or to “The Dr. Bence Jones Testimonial
Account,” at Messrs. Drummonds, the bankers, Charing
Cross, who are authorised to receive the same.

CAPTAIN M. F. MAURY

MATTHEW FONTAINE MAURY, whose death,
on Feb. 1, we recently recorded, was of French
descent, and was born in Spottsylvania County, Virginia,
Jan. 24, 1806. While still a child, his parents, who weré
in moderate circumstances, removed to Tennessee,
where young Maury was sent to school. In 1825, when
nineteen years old, he entered the service of the United
States as midshipman, circumnavigating the globe in
the Vincennes, during a cruise of four years. During this
cruise Maury began his well-known “Treatise on Navi-
gation,” which was finished some years afterwards, and
was for a long time used as a text-book in the U.S. navy.
In 1836 he was made lieutenant and was gazetted astro-
nomer to an exploring expedition,
In 1839, while travelling on professional duty, Lieut.
Maury met with an accident which resulted in permanent

‘NATURE

lameness and unfitted him for active service afloat. What —
appeared then as a great misfortune to the lieutenant re- 9

Pr,

<

[Aar. 20, 1873

ae

Sates

sulted indirectly in an increase of his fame, and in the
performance of services of high value to science and
humanity. The lame lieutenant was placed in charge of

the Dépot of Charts and Instrunfents, out of which have _

grown the Naval Observatory and the Hydrographic —
Office of the United States. He laboured assiduously —
from the first day of his appointment to organise this —
dépot more efficiently than formerly.
he succeeded is well known. :

While sailing around the globe in the Vincennes, —
Maury made many observations as to the winds and cur-

rents. These he continued in his subsequent cruises. —

When he became superintendent of the Hydrographic —
Office he determined to do something towards eluci- —
dating the intricate subject of ocean meteorology, The
beginnings of this great undertaking were small.
Maury obtained at first copies of such log-books as he
or his friends could command. He noted the direc-
tion of the wind, the currents, &c., on the maps which he

nas

How completely

a

had prepared. As the information came in, districts were _

filled up and places pointed out for investigation. In
1842 the system had taken such consistency in his own
mind that the lieutenant communicated to the U.S. Naval
Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography a plan for supply-
ing model log-books to the commanders of vessels in the
naval and. merchant marine service.
are so arranged that a systematic series of observations
might be registered. The plan succeeded so well that in
eight or nine years he had thus collected a sufficient num-
ber of logs to make 200 manuscript volumes averaging
each about 2,500 days’ observations each: These materials
were digested by a board of officers appointed for that
purpose, and the more immediate result of their labours
was to show the necessity for combined action on the
part of the maritime nations in regard to ocean meteoro-
logy.

i order that his labours might lead to some practical
result, Maury wrought zealously to bring abouta meeting —
of meteorologists belonging to all maritime nations; this —
led to the conference which met at Brussels in 1853, at
which England, France, Russia, Portugal, Belgium, Hol-
land, Denmark, Norway and Sweden were represented,

These log-books —

and which produced the greatest benefit to navigation, —

as well as indirectly to meteorology. One of its most
eminent and practical results was the establishment in
London of the Meteorological Department of the Board
of Trade. It recommended a model log-book for all
vessels, in which a brief and uniform register of the prin-
cipal meteorological phenomena are entered. The British
Admiralty, the Royal Society, and the British Association —
entered heartily into Maury’s plans, and aided him in

every possible way ; though we are ashamed to say that

England is almost the only civilised country in the world
that did not confer on this great benefactor of humanity
some mark of honour; other countries loaded him with

well-deserved tributes of admiration and gratitude for his

services.

At the outbreak of the American civil war in 1861
Maury threw in his lot with the South, and did much to
strengthen its maritime defences and enable it to hold out
for so long as it did. He afterwards retired to England,
where he lived for many years, and where he was pre-
sented with a handsome testimonial raised by subscrip-—
tion, he having lost nearly his all through his attachment —
to the unfortunate South. Having offered his services to
the ill-fated Maximilian, of Mexico, the latter appointed —
him Imperial Commissioner of Emigration ; and after the
fall of that short-lived empire, Maury returned to the
United States, taking up his residence in Virginia, where —
he lived until his death, on February 1 last. During his

later years he devoted his time and efforts to urging his

fellow-citizens of the south to leave politics alone and

ly themselves energetically to the development of the
icultural resources of their country.

In 1856-appeared the first edition of Maury’s “ Physical
Geography of the Sea,” which ran through many editions
inthe United States, was republished in England, and
translated into several European languages. In this
work he embodied the results of his researches on winds
and currents, and propounded his well-known theory
of the Gulf-Stream. Although it has been shown
that this theory will not hold water, it does not
‘in the least detract from the high and enduring
value of the services he rendered to navigation and to
meteorology. There is no doubt that to him is due the
honour of having first shown how the latter could be
raised to the dignity and the certainty of a science,
though, forsooth, it is yet far enough from deserving to
be called an exact one. But Maury was essentially a
practical man in the best sense of the term; all his
labours from beginning to end had for their one great
aim, to render navigation more secure and more econo-
‘mical ; and in the accomplishment of this aim he was
eminently successful. The saving in time, in money, and
in lifeto Britain alone which has resulted from Maury’s
labours it would be very difficult to calculate; through
him have the characteristics of almost every mile of that
part of the ocean over which the commerce of the world is
carried, become as well known as any district which has
been mapped by the Ordnance Survey. Dr. Neumayer,
than whom no one is better entitled to pronounce judg-
ment on such a subject, in his recent pamphlet on the
Exploration of the South Polar Regions, in opposition to
some ill-informed detractors of Maury’s fame, speaks of
him in the very highest terms ; and though we hesitate to
class him, as a recent writer has done, with Newton,
he will certainly, and deservedly, occupy a niche in the
temple of fame as a benefactor of bumanity and a
‘promoter of scientific knowledge, to which not many
men eyer attain.

NOTES

THE Duke of Devonshire, Chancellor of the University of
Cambridge, has consented to preside at the meeting of the friends
of the late Prof. Sedgwick, which is to be held in the Senate
House at Cambridge, on Tuesday, March 25, at two o’clock, to
consider what steps shall be taken to raise a memorial to the late
professor. Many men of eminence are expected to attend. It
is rumoured that the memorial is likely to take the appropriate
form of a new geological museum at Cambridge.

WE are sorry to record the death of the interesting wasp
referred to by Sir John Lubbock in his address at last year’s
“meeting of the British Association. It slept away as it were
on Feb, 20 last, first the head dying, then the thorax, and then
the abdomen, It has been deposited in the British Museum.

_ In order that local inspectors of weights and measures may
more conveniently and accurately compare all commercial mea-
Sures containing subdivisions of the imperial yard, with verified
copies of the official standard measures of Jength, which have

en legalised under the provisions of the Standards Act, 1866,
Her Majesty’s Order in Council of March 24, 1871, a model
a new subdivided standard yard, attached toa simple, in-
enious, and comparatively inexpensive comparing apparatus,
s been constructed by Messrs. Troughton and Simms, under
‘ irection of the Warden of the Standards. This comparing
apparatus has been expressly designed as one that may be used
y local inspectors of weights and measures for comparing ordi-
Mary commercial measures of length, and it may now be inspected
at the Standards Department.

WE have received a short paper by Mr. Lewis M. Rutherfurd
on the stability of the collodion film. Urged by the statements

391

of Mr. Paschen, in the ‘‘Astronomische Nachrichten” in
April last, Mr. Rutherfurd determined to subject the ques-
tion between dry and wet process to a thorough examina-
tion, and made a number of measures, proving conclusively
the superiority of the former to the latter. This con-
clusion is of great importance in connection with the ap-
proaching Transit of Venus. In all casés save two the
distance was greater between the lines when the plate was
dry than when wet, the mean excess of the nine measures
is Rey. 00017, which is 53,45, of an inch; it reaches in
no case z/y5 Of an inch. This result is no doubt due to the
cooling of the glass plate, by the evaporation which takes
place the moment the wet plate is taken from the plate-holder
and exposed to the air under the micrometer. This excess of
distance (Rey. 0’001r7), would be caused by an increase of tem-
perature for the dry glass of about 4°F. This consideration re-
veals a source of error inthe use of wet plates which he had not
before considered, since the same evaporation takes place no
doubt during the long exposures given to star plates; the amount
will vary according to the hygrometric state of the atmo-
sphere, and may be met by reading wet and dry bulb ther-
mometers. Mr. Rutherfurd’s objection to the method used
by Mr. Paschen, is that instead of being confined to an investi-
gation of what happens to the collodion film between the moment
of exposure wet and the moment of measurement when dry, it
is a comparison of the actual state of the plate when dry with
what it ought to have been had all the adjustments, manipula-
tions, and instruments been perfect.

AN exhibition for proficiency in natural science will be offered
for competition at King's College, Cambridge, on April 22 and
following days. Its value is 80/. a year for three years. It is
open to all British subjects under 20 years of age who bring a
satisfactory certificate of good character. The examination will
be in chemistry, physics, and physiology, with elementary papers
in classics and mathematics. Avypplications should be sent to the
tutor before Easter-day, April 13.

WE mentioned some months ago that Vice-Chancellor Bacon
had decided against the validity of the late Mr. Yates’s bequest
to University College of endowments for the chairs of Geology
and Mineralogy, and of Archeology, on the ground that the
testator had never fulfilled his expressed intention of framing a
code of rules and regulations for the manner in which the ap-
pointments to the professorships should be filled up. We are
glad to see that the Lord Chancellor has, on appeal, reversed the
decision of the Vice-Chancellor, so that the College will derive
the benefits from the will designed by the testator.

A COMMITTEE has been formed among the members of the
Berlin Geographical Society, and a plan has been drawn up in
conjunction with the other geographical societies of Germany,
for the completion from the west coast of Africa of the dis-
coveries commenced by Dr. Livingstone from the East, The
Committee propose that the expedition should start from the
West Coast south of the Equator. The funds for the proper
equipment and maintenance of the expedition are already partly
provided,

Tue Edinburgh Botanical Society has decided to offer trien-
nially a prize of ten guineas, as an encouragement for practical
research. The subject for competition is to be announced by
the council at the commencement of each triennial period, and
the successful competitor must have been a student who has
attended the botanical class at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edin-
burgh, during atleast one of the preceding three years, and who
has gained honours at the class examinations.

THE mode in which the Fertilisation of Grasses, and espe-
cially of Cereals, is effected—a question of no small importance
from an agricultural point of view—has recently been the subject
of a series of observations by Delpino in Italy, and Hildebrand

392

in Germany ; and the latter has published the result of his investi-
gations in the “ Mouatsberichte” of the Berlin Academy, Both
these acute observers are at issue with previous writers who
maintained that the flowers of cereals, and especially of wheat,
were self-fertilised in the unopened flowers, and consequently that
the process could not be influenced by the wind. Hildebrand
asserts, on the other hand, that impregnation takes place while
the flower is open, and while the stigma is in a condition for
the access of foreign pollen, that is, from other flowers. The
opening of the flower of wheat, however, is completed in such
a very short space of time that in a wheat-field there is probably
never more than one in 400 of the flowers open at the same
‘time. The contrivances by which in this case, as well as in
other grasses, cross-fertilisation is at least rendered possible, are
described in detail in the paper. In barley, on the other hand,
the majority of the flowers never open, and self-fertilisation is
the only condition possible. Delpino states, however, that there
are in an ear of barley a very small number of flowers, differently
constructed from the rest, in which cross-fertilisation is possible,
In the oat the process is stated to vary according to the weather ;
in fine warm weather the flowers open freely, and cross-fertili-
sation is favoured ; in cold wet weather they remain closed, and
self-fertilisation is inevitabie In rye, fertilisation from the
pollen of other flowers is provided for. The agent in the dissemi-
nation of the pollen is scarcely ever insects, almost invariably the
wind, to which end both stigma and pollen-grains are specially
adapted.

WE regret to say that last week we were led to state that
Mr. Cleminshaw, recently elected to the Burdett Coutts Scholar-
ship, received his scientific training in the Applied Science depart-
ment of that College. We are requested to say that this is
incorrect, as Mr. Cleminshaw was only a few months at King’s
College, where he did not study geology at all, while he was for
several years at Kugby, to which school really belongs the credit
of having trained so successful a student : moreover, Mr. Clemin-
shaw is, we believe, the third Burdett Coutts’ scholar from
Rugby within a few years. It is a pity that any school should
require to make haste to claim possession of an honour which is
not justly its due.

A LIVING specimen of the extremely rare Liberian Hippopo-
tamus (Chevropsts liberiensis), from Scarcies River, just north of
Sierra Leone, arrived at Liverpool last week, but it unfortunately
died on Friday, almost as soon as it reached its destination,
Dublin. This second true hippopotamus was first described in
1844 by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, in the Journal of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of that city. Prof. Leidy, in1850,
showei that its peculiarities rendered its differences from //if/o-
fotamus more than specific, and in 1852 gave it the generic
name by which it is now known. The full-sized animal is said
to be no larger than a heifer, and the specimen under conside-
ration, which was at least seven weeks old, weighed only 23|bs.,
whereas the one born in London last November weighed just
upon roo lbs. shortly after birth. But the chief peculiarities of
the genus Cherofsis are found in the teeth, as there are only
two lower incisors instead of four, and the anterior premolars
remain functional throughout the life of the animal, instead of
being lost as is the case in Hippopotamus. In addition to these
points in which Cherofsis is peculiar, it may be mentioned that
the top of the head is convex instead of concave, the central
upper incisors are slightly smaller than the outer, instead of
larger, and the premaxillary bones are less developed than in
Hippopotamus, from a young one of which, as M. A. Milne-
Edwards remarks, it would be difficult to distinguish it exter-
nally.

FRoM a memorandum affixed to the last part of Messrs.
Sharpe and Dresser’s “Birds of Europe,” we learn that the

_ NATURE

‘ ge ae
“[Mar. 20, 1
latter gentleman has removed his entire collection of birds to
No. 6, Tenterden Street, Hanover Square, where the work will —
in future be published, and- which will henceforth be the head-
quarters of the British Ornithologists’ Union, as Messrs. Salvin
and Godman have likewise removed their valuable collection of

American birds to the same quarters, and Lord Lilford as well
as Capt. Shelley have done the same with theirs. .

A CHROME mine has been discovered at Chanli, in the pro-
vince of Larissa, Turkey in Europe, It is said to be rich,

ON January 31, four shocks of earthquake were felt at Kara
Hissar (query which) in Asia Minor, The shocks, of which
the first two were rather violent, were repeated at intervals of
twenty minutes. In the next afternoon, February 1, eleven —
more shocks were felt, which, though very sharp, only brought
down three old abandoned houses. On Saturday, February 17,
slight shocks of earthquake were felt in the island of Mitylene ;
the first at 1 a.M., and the second at 5.20 P.M. The oscillation —
was from west to east.—An earthquake that occurred on Dec. 29
last, at night, nearly destroyed the large town of San Vicente,
in San Salvador, Central America. The upper half of the
parish church fell, and many lives were lost.—At Bimlipatam, in
India, a shock of earthquake was felt on January 25.—An earth-
quake is reported to have been felt at Peshawar, on Feb. 12.
Its shock lasted for one minute.

ACCORDING to the Times of Jndia, a phenomenon occurred in
several parts of the province of Kattywar, on Feb. 12, which
gladdened the eyes of the English residents, and excited as-
tonishment in the natives. On that day the ground was
whitened by a hailstorm, a phenomenon unprecedented in the
experience of the natives, hundreds of whom are reported to
have set about gathering the hailstones as they fell, in order to
turn them into ‘the best of confectionaries.”

THE collector of South Canara has brought to the notice of
Government that the young shoots of the bamboo contain a
bitter principle, which might be useful as a febrifuge.

TuHeE Council of the Society of Arts will proceed to consider
the award of the Albert medal early in May next. This medal
was instituted to reward ‘‘ distinguished merit in promoting arts,
manufactures, or commerce,” and was awarded last year to Mr.
Henry Bessemer. The members of the Society are invited to
forward to the Secretary, on or before April 12, the names of.
such men of high distinction as they may think worthy of this
honour,

Tue late Mr. George A. Clark, thread manufacturer, of
Paisley, has left 20,000/. to Glasgow University for the establish-
ment of four bursaries to be held by the successful competitors
for four years, and to be so arranged that one bursary will be |
competed for each year. We hope the interests: of science will
not be forgotten in this matter. :

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week comprise a Condor Vulture (Sarcorhamphus gryphus) —
from S. America, presented by Lieut. L. C. Strachey, R.N.; a —
Lapland Bunting (Centrophanes lapponica), presented by Mr. F. i
Bond ; a Mantell’s Apteryx (Afteryx mantelli); an Amherst }
Pheasant (Zhaumelia amherstia) from China, and a Tamandua
Ant-eater (Zamandua tetradactyla) from S. America, deposited ;
two Swainson’s Lorikeets (Zrichoglossus nove-hollandia) from 4
Australia; two Red-eared Bulbuls (Pycnonotus jocosus) from
India ; two Cardinal Grosbeaks (Cardinalis virginianus) from
N. America; a Long-tailed Glossy Starling (Zamprotornis |
@neus) from W. Africa; a Pantherine Toad (Bufo pantherinus)
from Tunis; some Natterjack Toads (Bufo calamita) from
Africa; a Bearded Lizard (Amphibolurus barbatus) from
Australia; five Banded Sea Horses (Hippocampus ramulosus) —
from France, and some Anemonies, all purchased, 15 ;

THE BIRTH OF CHEMISTRY
VIII.

eneral Character of Alchemy and the Alchemists.—The Pretiosa
Margarita Novella.—An Alchemistical Allegory. —Alchemical
Symbols— Paracelsus, —Libavius.

‘ wrt manner of men were the Alchemists? How did they
preserve, cultivate, and transmit the wonderful delusions of
their creed? We have endeavoured in a former article to show
that the idea of transmutation arose from the old Greek idea of
the conversion of one element into another ; and the belief in
the possibility of transmutation once admitted, the pursuit of the
alchemist would naturally follow in a mystical and credulous
age. As to the men themselves, their character was twofold ;
for there was your alchemist proper, your true enthusiast, your
ardent, persevering worker, who believed heart and soul that
gold could be made, and that by long search or close study of
‘the works of his predecessors, he could find the Philosopher’s
stone ; and there was your knavish alchemist, a man who had
‘wits enough to perceive that the search was futile, and impudence
enough to dupe more credulous people than himself, and wheedle
heir fortunes out of them on pretence of returning it tenfold in
the shape of a recipe for converting lead into gold. These last
we may dismiss at once. They abounded during the Middle Ages,
and found easy dupes, whom they deceived by the most shallow
tricks, as by placing a piece of gold in the crucible of transmuta-
tion together with volatile substances, and after many processes
and much heating, they would show the little button of metal
which had all along been present.
__ Of the true alchemist we have many pictures, The alchemist,
the astrologer, the mystic, the wizard, were men of the same
stamp. They often practised the same arts side by side. The
‘same habit and attitude of thought belonged to one and to all,
and became all equally well. Take the dreamy, maudlin, semi-
maniacal Althotas, who has been described so well by Dumas :—
“An old man, with grey eyes, a hooked nose, and trembling
‘but busyhands. He was half-buried in a great chair, and turned
with his right hand the leaves of a parchment manuscript.”
Note also his intense abstraction, his forgetfulness of the hour, the
day, the year, the age, the country; his absolute and intense
selfishness, and absorption, the concentration of the whole powers
of his soul upon his one object. Or let us look at Victor Hugo’s
Archidiacre de St. Josas, in his search for the unseen, the
unknown, and the altogether uncanny ; the bitterness of his soul,
his passionate musings, his conjurations and invocations in an
unknown tongue ; his own self, that wonderful mixture of theo-
logian, scholar, mystic, perhaps not much unlike the divine
'S. Thomas Aquinas himself. Listen to his musings: ‘‘ Yes, so
Manon said, and Zoroaster taught :—the sun is born of fire, the
moon of the sun ; fire is the soul of the universe ; its elementary
particles are diffused and in constant flow throughout the world,
by an infinite number of channels. At the points where these
currents cross each other in the heavens they produce light, at
their points of intersection they produce gold. Light !—gold !
‘the same thing; fire in its concrete state. . . .. What! this
light that bathes my hand is gold? The first the particles
dilated according to a certain law, the second the same particles
condensed according to another law! . . . For some time, said
he, with a bitter smile, I have failed in all my experiments ;
one idea possesses me, and scorches my brain like a seal of fire.
T have not so much as been able to discover the secret of Cassio-
dorus, whose lamp burned without wick or oil—a thing simple
enough in itself.” If we peep into Dom Clande’s cell, we are
introduced to a typical alchemist’s laboratory—a gloomy, dimly-
lighted place, full of strange vessels, and es, and melting
pots, spheres, and portions of skeletons hanging from the ceiling ;
the floor littered with stone bottles, pans, charcoal, aludels, and
alembics, great parchment books covered with hieroglyphics ;
the bellows with its motto Spira, Spera; the hour-glass, the astro-
labe, and over all cobwebs, and dust, and ashes. The walls covered
with various aphorisms of the brotherhood ; legendsand memorials
in many tongues ; passages from the Smaragdine Table of Hermes
Trismegistus;tjand looming out from all in greatcapitals, ANATKH.
Yet once again, look at Faust, as depicted by Rembrandt, or
Teniers, unknown alchemist, if you wish for an alchemical
interior.
__ But the hard-working and enthusiastic alchemist did not always
follow the ideal of the novelist and artist ; he often degenerated
into a ‘‘dirty, soaking fellow,” who lost what little learning he
ever had by concentrating his mind on the one dominant topic,

=_——e

393

until it excluded every other idea and aspiration ; then the pur-
suit became all absorbing, and the disciple of the arta mere
drivelling monomaniac.

We will now look at one of the books which were cherished
by the alchemists. Here is a little vellum-covered A/dus: date
1546. Paracelsus had been dead five years, and Cornelius

Fic. 14.—Allegorical representation of transmutation.

Agrippa, twelve years; Dr. Dee and Oswald Crollius were
flourishing ; Van Helmont and a host of known alchemists were
unborn. Our little volume, full of quaint musings of a bygone
age, has outlived them all, and yet it never drank of the
elixir vite, although it pretended to‘teach others how to make
it, and the philosopher’s stone into the bargain. Pretiosa
Margarita Novella de Thesauro, ac pretiosissima Philosophorum
Lapide is the title; published with the sanction of Paul
III. Pontifex Maximus, whose successor, be it remembered,
established the Zudex Expurgatorius, and might possibly have
prohibited the Precious Pearl of alchemy. The title-page goes
on to tell us that it contains the methods of the “ divine art,” as
given by Amaldus de Villa Nova, Raymond Lulli, Albertus
Magnus, Michael Scotus, and others, now first collected together
by Janus Lacinius. The vellum cover is well thumbed, and in
one place worn through, perhaps by contact with a hot iron on
an alchemist’s furnace-table, or by much use. There are no MS.
notes, but on the title-page is the autograph of Sir C. Koby,
or Hoby, and a favourite maxim, the first word of which alone—
Fato—is legible. The date of the writing is perhaps 1580-90.
Some initial letters of the text have been plainly illuminated in

Fic. 15.—Allegorical representation of transmutation.

red, by a loving hand; they were copied from a bible printed

at Lyons in 1326. i
As to the contents we have firstly an opening address by

Janus Lacinius, then certain definitions of form, matter, element,

colour, &c. Next, symbolic representations of the generation of
the metals, and after this a woodcut representing the transmuta-

394

tion of the elements according to the dogmas of Aristotle.*
After this we find the whole course of transmutation set for
pictorially and allegorically, as under. A king (see Fig. 14)
crowned with a diadem, sits on high, holding a sceptre in his
hand. His son, together with his five servants, beseech him on
bended knees, to divide his kingdom between them. To this
the king answers nothing. Whereupon the son at the instigation
of the servants, kills the king and collects his blood. He then
digs a pit into which he places the dead body, but at the same
time falls in himself, and is prevented from getting out by some
external agency. Then the bodies of both father and son putrefy
in the pit. Afterwards their bones are removed, and divided
into nine parts, and an angel is sent to collect them, The
servants now pray that the king may be restored to them, and
an angel vivifies the bones. Then the king rises from his tomb,
having become all spirit, altogether heavenly and powerful to
make his servants kings. Finally he gives them each a golden
crown, and makes them kings (Fig. 15).

It is difficult to follow this from beginning to end, but there
can be no doubt that the king signifies gold, his son, mercury,
and his five servants the five remaining metals then known, viz.
iron, copper, lead, tin, and silver. They pray to have the
kingdom divided amongst them, that is to be converted into
gold ; the son kills the father, viz. the mercury forms an amal-
gam with gold. The other operations allude to various solu-
tions, ignitions, and other chemical processes. The pit is a
furnace ; putrefaction means reaction or mutual alteration of
parts, At last the philosopher’s stone is found, the gold, after
these varied changes becomes able to transmute the other metals
into its own substance. At the end some rugged hexameters
and pentameters warn the fraudulent, the avaricious, and the
sacrilegious man that he is not to put his hands to the work, but
to leave it for the wise and the righteous, and the man who is
able rightly to know the causes of things.

After this allegory we have some remarks concerning the
treasure and the Philosopher’s Stone, and the secret of all
secrets, and the gilt of God. This is followed by a number of
arguments against alchemy, and of course overwhelming argu-
ments in favour of it. Among those who are quoted as alche-
mists are Plato, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Democritus, Aristotle,
Morienus, Empedocles, and then, with a delighiful disregard of
age Or country, we read, “ Abohaby, Abinceni, Homerus,
Ptolemzus, Virgilius, Ovidius.” Then digressions on the diff-
culties of the art, the unity of the art, the art natural and divine ;
a slight history of the art, in which it is traced back to Adam,
although Enoch and Hermes Trismegistus are mentioned as pos-
sible founders. A treatise to prove that this art is more certain
than other sciences ; on the errors of operation ; on the principles
of the metals ; on sulphur ; on the nature of gold and silver ; and
many general remarks on all alchemical subjects. These are the
teachings which the Pretiosa Margarita Novella pours at the feet
of the wise among mankind, by the aid of Paulus Manutius,
bearing his father’s name of Aldus, and by the grace of the
Venetian Senate.

Many attempts were made by the alchemists to explain the
origin of the metals ; some regarded them as natural compounds
of sulphur and mercury, others affirmed that the action of the
sun acting upon and within the earth produced them, and that
gold was in truth condensed sunbeams ; many believed that
metals grew like vegetables, indeed it was customary to close
mines from time to time to allow them to grow again. Basil
Valentine, as we have Seen, regarded them as condensations of a
‘«mere vapour into a certain water,” by which latter we suspect

he meant mercury. Perhaps the most absurd account of the |

origin of certain things is given by Paracelsus in his treatise,
“De Natura Rerum,” in the following words, which will show
also how utterly nonsensical and unintelligible alchemical lan-
guage could be, and for that matter very generally was. “* The
life of metals,” he writes, ‘‘ is a secret fatness; ... of salts,
the spirit of aquafortis; . . . of pearls, their splendour;.. .
of marcasites and antimony, a tinging metalline spirit; ...
of arsenics, a mineral and coagulated poison . . . The life of all
men is nothing else but an astral balsam, a balsamic impression,
and a celestial invisible fire, an included air and a tinging spirit
of salt. I cannot name it more plainly, although it is set out by
many names.”

The peculiarly secret and mystical language which the alche-
mists adopted was intended to prevent the vulgar from acquiring
the results of their long-continued labours. Their language pur-

* See the first of these Articles,

ported to be intelligible to the true adept ; but as a rule the al

chemists of one age gave various interpretations to one and the
same secret communicated by their predecessors, Long
recipes for the preparation of the Philosopher’s Stone exist, —
which the authors have generously (as they tell us) given

bro. 9.4, y. ce
A. 2. ye W. FL

Fic. 16,—Symbols of Lead from Italian MS. of the seventeenth cent =

to the world, after much labour, for the benefit of their fellow
men. The obscurity of the science was increased by the
multiplication of symbols; the presence of which in ae a
clearly points to its connection with astrology and the sister
sciences. In time alchemical symbols multiplied almost as much
as astrological symbols. In an Italian MS. of the eatly part of
the seventeenth century which we have before us, mercury is
represented by 22 distinct symbols, and 33 names, many of ich
are of distinctly Arabic origin :—such as Chaibach, Azach,
Jhumech, Caiban, Lead is represented by the symbols in
Fig. 16, and in addition to its ordinary alchemical fr
called Okamar, Syrates, Malochim, and others. The designat mn
of substances as ‘‘the green lion,” ‘‘the flying eagle,” ‘the
serpent,” ‘* the black crow,” and so on, also led to considerable
confusion. Both names and symbols were used in a somewhat
arbitrary fashion. ,
It is somewhat strange to think that alchemy should have once ©
received the serious attention of the legislature in this country.
In 1404 the making of gold and silver was forbidden by Act of —
Parliament. It was imagined that an alchemist might succeed
in his pursuit, and would then become too powerful for the State.
Fifty years later Henry VI. granted several patents to People
who thought they had discovered the philosopher’s stone 5 and

HERMESTRISME,|ADEAR ALEXANDRE

oifins, Agiptius. w \nus.PreceptorMorient.

eFORMIL
Alchyniftice.

ultimately a commission of ten learned men was appointed by
the King to determine if the transmutation of metals into fold
Were a possibility. We must now leave the subject of Ly.
Those who desire to study it More deeply will find a great
thass Of matter in the Bid/iotheca Chemica Curiosa of Mangetus ;

they will take our advice, they will not waste much time
udying the history and progress of a futile and false art.
With Paracelsus (b. 1493, d. 1541), a somewhat new phase of
_the science of chemistry appeared. By pointing out the value of
chemistry as an adjunct to medicine, he caused a number of
_ persons to turn their attention to the subject, and to endeavour
to ascertain the properties of various compounds. Thus he
helped to withdraw men from the pursuit of alchemy, by assert-
ing that the knowledge of the composition of bodies, which had
“necessarily been forwarded by alchemy, was of importance
to the human race, for the better prevention and curing of
their ills. In the way of discovery or research, Paracelsus
did little. He mentions zinc and bismuth, and associates
them with metallic bodies, and he makes considerable use
of several compounds of mercury, and of sal ammoniac.
Paracelsus compares the alchemist of his day with the physi-
_ cian, and speaks of the former in the following terms :-—‘‘ For
they are not given to idleness, nor go in a proud habit, or plush
and velvet garments, often showing their rings upon their
_ fingers, or wearing swords with silver hilts by their sides, or fine
and gay gloves upon their hands, but diligently follow their
_ labours, sweating whole days and nights by their furnaces.
They do not spend their time abroad for recreation, but take
delight in their laboratory. They wear leather garments with a
_ pouch, and an apron wherewith they wipe their hands. They
put their fingers amongst coals, into clay, and filth, not into gold
rings. They are sooty and black like smiths and colliers, and
_ do not pride themselves upon clean and beautiful faces.”
_ Among the Paracelsians we find Oswald Crollius, who men-
-tions chloride of silver under the long-retained name of Juna
cornea, or horn-silyer, from its peculiar horny appearance and
ae after fusion. He was also acquainted with fulminating
gold.
2 The name of Andrew Libavius (died 1616) deserves men-
tion, because he sought to free chemistry from the mazes of
alchemy and mysticism in which it was involved. In this he to
some extent succeeded ; and he appears also to have been a
patient worker in the field of the science which he did so much
to promote. He discovered the perchloride of tin which is even
now called fuming liquor of Libavius ; he also proved that the
acid (sulphuric acid) procured by distilling alum and sulphate of
iron, is the same as that prepared by burning sulphur with salt-
petre. Libavius was great at the making of artificial gems, and
_ was able to imitate almost any precious stone by colouring glass
with various metallic oxides. G. F, RoDWELL

r ee ee — eee
5 SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Zoologist continues Dr. J. E. Gray’s catalogue of the
whales and dolphins inhabiting or incidentally visiting the seas
_ Surrounding the British Isles.—The Rev. A. C. Smith gives the
_ results of the observations of Dr. Rey, of Halle, on the colour-
"ing of cuckoos’ eggs, which are in favour of Dr. Baldamus
‘theory.—From notes by Mr. J. Sclater and Mr. J. Gatcombe,
from Castle Eden and Plymouth, we find that the glaucous gull
has been obtained in both places, and the winds have driven
ashore several other sea-birds, petrels, &c.

_ THe Monthly Microscopical Yournal commences with the ex-
cellent address of the president of the Microscopical Society, the
perusal of which, from the enthusiasm exhibited, will convince

"sceptics that there isa fund of enjoyment in science equal to that

“paper on the development of the skull in the thrushes.—The
Rev. S. L. Brackey has a paper on reduced apertures in immer-
‘sion objectives, a subject on which Mr. R. B. Tolles and Mr.
FP. H. Wenham have a correspondence.—There is a short and
“severe review of Dr. Bastian’s ‘* Beginnings of Life.”—Mr. S.
Vellshas a paper on the structure of Lepodiscus Argus, and
G. W. Royston-Pigott one on spurious appearances in micro-
Scopic research.—Captain T. H. Lang gives a short abstract of
Prof. Smith’s ‘* Conspectus of the Diatomacez,” which has ap-
eared in the Zers. .

_ PETERMANN’s JZittheilungen (19 Band, 1873, ii). The first
‘paper is another contribution to the literature of North Polar
Exploration by J. Sporer, in which he shows the importance to
‘Science and humanity of records of exploration. One of the
‘maps in this number shows the route4 followed by two Russians,
wlinowand Matusowski, in their politico-commercial expedition

NATURE

in other mental occupations—Mr. Parker also contributes a |

Pot
ais iat

‘i
7 > a.

395

of 1870, in Western Mongolia. Herr Fricke, a German merchant
who has extensive connections both in East and West Africa,
writes, giving several interesting details concerning the state of
trade with the interior of South Africa, both from the east and
west coast, showing that European connections with the interior
extend much further than is indicated in our geographies and
maps.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Royal Society, March 13.—‘‘ Note on Supersaturated Saline
Solutions.” By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S.

‘Visible Direction : being an Elementary Contribution to the
Study of Monocular and Binocular Vision,” By James Jago,
M.D. Oxon., A.B. Cantab., F.R.S.

Anthropological Society, March 11.—At this, the first
meeting of this Society, the rules proposed by the Organising
Committee were adopted, subject to confirmation at the first
Annual General Meeting; and the following officers were
elected :—President—Dr. R. S. Charnock, F.S.A. Vice-Presi-
dents—Capt. k. F. Burton, F.R.G.S., and C. Staniland Wake.
Treasurer—Joseph Kaines. Council—Dr. J. Beddoe, H. B.
Churchill, Dr. Barnard Davis, F.R.S, John Fraser, Dr. G.
Harcourt, Dr. Sinclair Holden, Dr. T. Inman, Dr. Kelburne
King, Dr. J. Barr Mitchell, and T. Walton. Hon. Sec.—A. L.
Lewis. Hon. For. Sec.—Dr. Carter Blake. This Society has
been founded in consequence of a difference of opinion among
the members of the Anthropological Institute, and a letter from
Capt. Burton, the well-known traveller, heartily supporting the
new organisation, was read.

Geologists’ Association, March 7.—Henry Woodward,
F.G.S., &c., president, in the chair.—‘*On the Geology of
Brighton,” by Mr. James Howell. Surface indications did
not, he believed, afford evidence that the northern portion
of the Downs had been submerged since its upheaval, His-
torical documents, submerged forests, and the shallowness of
the sea’s bottom, afforded abundant proof of the great encroach-
ment of the sea along this part of the coast of Sussex during the
historic period. The site of Old Brighton was stated to be sea-
ward between East and West Streets, and not, as Lyell states,
where the chain-pier now stands ; and the coast line at the period
when the Brighton Valley was an estuary of the sea and a river,
was very different from what it is now. The geological
formations at Brighton were stated to be six, viz. silt in
the valley, brick-earth of Hove, the Elephant-bed, Temple-
field deposit, plastic clay of Furze Hill, and the upper chalk.
The present paper embraced Mr. Howell’s observations of the
first three. In the lower portion of the silt and the coombe
rock beneath it, are embedded immense numbers of water-rolled
sandstones, similar to the sarsenstones distributed over the
surface of the downs ; but whether of Wealden or Tertiary
origin is unknown. The brick-earth is a later formation than
the elephant-bed upon which it everywhere rests, though the
fossiliferous remains embedded in it are the same, viz., those of
the mammoth, horse, red-deer, whale, and shell, of an: Arctic
type. If,as Mr. Godwin Austen tells us, brick-earth is the wash
of a terrestrial surface, how are we to account for the marine
| remains embedded in it? The pebbles of Palzozoic rocks,
found in the old sea-beach under the elephant-bed, were stated
to have come from France, when that country was united to
Britain, having travelled along a beach once extending from
Brighton to Calvados. The observations of Mr. Howell, of
how pebbles and pieces of rock travel along a coast, aided by
sea-weed to which they may be attached, supp.rted this opinion.
The author in conclusion opposed the opinion entertained by
the geological section of the British Association during their
visit to the Kemp Town section of the elephant-bed, that this
remarkable deposit was formed by ice-action, and adduced the
fact that the materials composing it are all water-rolled as cor-
roborating the opinions of Webster, Mantell, and Lyell,

DUBLIN

Royal Geological Society, Jan. $.—Professor Macalister,
president, in the chair.—The Rey. Dr. Haughton, F R.S., read
a paper on Stirm’s Fertiliser, from New Hampden, U.S.—
Rev. Maxwell Close read some Notes on the High Level
| Gravels near Dublin.

Feb. 12.—This was the annual meeting. The outgoing
president, Professor Macalister, delivered the annual

eee paren oe Py She
Lee e” her ne

o> *

396

selecting for the theme of his discourse, the subject of Micro-
petrography—a subject in which a vast amount of work remains to
be done—one, it is feared, not so much known as it deserves to
be, and much misunderstood. Workers are needed to follow up
the lines of research of Rosenbusch, Lasault, and Fuchs, who
are working out the correlation of petrography and petrology,
the structure in regard to the position of the rock mass. Asan
an appendix to his address, Prof, Macalister gives an im-
portant bibliography of the subject of Microgeology. Prof. E.
Hull, F.R.S., was elected President for the ensuing session,

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, March 10o.—M. de Quatrefages,
president, ‘in the chair.—M. Berthelot took his seat as a
member of the Academy. ‘The following papers were read :—
On Father Secchi’s new hypothesis by M, Faye. The author
replied to the Rev. Father's late note by proving that he had
first stated that the solar spots were craters of eruption, and
next that they were not eruptions, but were caused by them
being in fact the erupted matter cooled by its passage above the
chromosphere, the faculz being the centres of eruption.—M.
Faye showed this to be incompatible with the observed facts,
the spots being surrounded with faculze, whereas, according to
Secchi’s last theory, they ought to surround facule.—On the
circulation of solar hydrogen, with an answer to some remarks by
M. Tacchini, by M. Faye, treated of the spot phenomena ; the
author thinks that hydrogen is drawn down by the cyclones and
returns to the surface around them. He also suggested that D,
would probably be found to belong to a very rarified hydro-
carbon of the acetylene series.—On the density of the vapour of
phosphoric chloride, by M. Wurtz, who found that when precau-
tions were taken, to prevent dissociation, the normal two volumes
was occupied, experiment giving 7°226, and theory requiring
7°217.—On the springs of the Seine basin by M. Belgrand.—
Researches on the action of the tympanic chord on the circula-
tion in the tongue, by M. A. Vulpian.—On the industrial pro-
duction of cold by the detention of permanent gases and of air in
particular, by M. Armengaud.—On the production of silent
electric discharges and on their mode of action, by M. Boillot.—
Experiments on putrefaction, &¢., by M. Laujorrois.—On the assi-
milability of phosphates, by M. H. Joulie.—A note on the unity
of force and of matter, by Madame C, Royer.—On the theory of
solar spots, by M. Tacchini, was an answer to M. Faye. The
author contends that the hydrogen carried down by the cyclones
ought to return up their axes, and not around them ; and as this
is not the case, he thinks that his criticisms remain unrebutted.
—A paper on the trajectories of points, &c., by M. Mannheim.—
On benzylated naphthalin, by M. Ch. Frotté, The body in
question is produced by the action of benzylic chloride on naph-
thalin in the presence of powdered zinc.--On a combination of
urea with acetylic chloride, by M. D. Tommasi. An atom of
hydrogen in urea is replaced by the acetyl compound.—On the
composition of guanos, &c., by M. A, Baudrimont,—On asphyxia
and on the causes of the respiratory movements in fishes,
by MM. Grchant and Picard.—On the influence of am-
monia in manufactories where mercury is employed, by
M. J. Meyer. The author asserts that he has succeeded
in stopping all the terrible effects of mercurial poison-
ing in the silvering rooms of the Saint Gobain glass works by
watering the floors every evening with half a litre of commercial
ammonia. He states that since 1868 he has not had a single
workman attacked.—On the saccharine matter of mushrooms,
by M. A. Miintz—On the normal microzymes of milk as the
cause of the coagulation and alcoholic, acetic, and lactic fermen-
tations of that liquid, by M. A. Béchamp.—On the quaternary
fossils collected by M, Célert at Louverne (Mayenne), by M. A.
Gaudry.—On the existence of man in Alsace during the glacial
epoch, by M. Ch. Grad.—On the movements of the atmo-
sphere as regards the prediction of weather, by M. de Tastes.
—On the use of vermouth, by M. E. Decaisne. The author
thioks that the use of this liquid as a drink ought to be
abandoned.

DIARY
THURSDAY, Marcu 20.

Royat Society, at 8.30.—On the Distribution of Vertebrata in Relation to
the Theory of Evolution: Dr. J, D. Macdonald.—On the Temperature at
which Bacteria, Vibriones, and their supposed Germs are killed when im-
mersed in Fluids or Exposed to Heatin a Moist State: Dr. Bastian.—
ue N ew ‘Theorems on the Motion of a Body about a Fixed Point: E. J.

outh.

Socinry or ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—On the Hunnebedden of Drenthe in
the Netherlands ; Miscellaneous Antiquities: Governor Gregory.

NATURE ~

. ae . my
x n ee Pe oa a?

. - . ° - aie we a
(Mar. 20, 1873

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 4. Lf em

Linnean Society, at 8.—On the “‘ Take-all” Corn Disease of Australia:
Dr. Miicke. P

Cuemicat Society, at 8.—On Iron and Steel: C. W. Siemens.
Royat InstTiTuTIon, at 3 —The Chemistry of Coal and its Products: A. V,

Harcourt,
FRIDAY, Marcu 2r. -
Roya INnsTITUTION, at 9.—On the Mythology of India: E. D. Lyon,
OLp CHANGE Microscopicat Society, at 6.30.—Annual Meeting.
Roya. CoLLeGE OF SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals; Prof. Flower.
QuexetrT CuUvs, at 8.—Conversazione.

SATURDAY,EMARCH 22.
Royat InsTITUTION, at 3.—Darwin’s Philosophy of Language: Max —

Miiller,
SUNDAY, Marcu 23.

Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—The Theory of Stringed Musical In-
struments: W. H. Stone.

MONDAY, Marcu 24.
GroGRAPHICAL SociETY, at 8.30.—Notes on Khiva, and Routes leading to
that country: Major-Gen Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B., President.
Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 4.—Fungoid Organisms: Prof. Thisclton Dyer,
Roya CoLiece or SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals; Prof. Flower.

TUESDAY, Marcu 25. J
Roya INsTITUTION, at 3.—Forces and Motions of the Body: Prof.

Rutherford.,
WEDNESDAY, Marcu 26,

Roya CoLLece oF SURGEONS, at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof, Flower.

Lonpon InstiTuTION, at 7.—Courts of Special Commercial Jurisdiction ;
N. H. Paterson.

Society or ArTs, at 8.—Oun the Edible Starches of Commerce: P. L.
Simmonds.

GroLocIcaL Society, at 8.—Synopsis of the Younger Formations of New
Zealand: Capt. F. W. Hutton.—On the Tree-ferns of the Coal-measures
and their Relations to other living and fossil forms; W. Carruthers.—Notes
on the Geology of Kazirin, Persia: A. H. Schindler,

ARCHAZOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, at 8.

Royat Society or LITERATURE, at 8.30.—The Rhodian Law, and its con- —
nection with the Laws of Medizval Europe: W. S. W. Vaux.

Socisty or TELEGRAPH ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—On a new method of testing
short lengths of highly Insulated Wire: Prof. Fleeming Jenkin.—On some
points in connection with the India Government Telegraphs; W. E,

Ayrton.
THURSDAY, Marcu 27. 4
Royat InstTiTuTION, at 3.—Coal and its Products: A. V. Harcourt.
Roya Sociery, at 8.30, »
Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30

BOOKS RECEIVED

EncutsH.—A Manual of Metallurgy: G. H. Makins (Ellis & White),—
The Atmosphere, Ed. by J. Glaisher (Sampson & Low)—The University
Oars: Dr. J. E. Morgan (Macmillan).—Chaureau’s Comparative Anatom:
of the Domesticated Animals. 2nd edit. Translated by G. Fleming(Churchill).
The Scientific Bases of Faith: J. J. Murphy (Macmillan).—Mensuration:
D. Munn (Chambers).—Essay on the Physiology of the Eye: S. H. Salom
S. H. Salom).—The Year Book of Facts, 1873: J. Timbs Coco

team in the Engine; its Heat and its Work: P. Kauffer (Blackie)—Re-
sults of Meteorological Observations made in the Royal Observatory, Cape
of Good Hope: Sir Thos. Maclear (Solomon).—Chemistry for Schools ; an
Introduction to the Practical Study of Chemistry. 2nd edit : C. H. Gill
(Stanford).—Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory; Brunton-Foster,
Klien, and Sanderson.

Amertcan.—One Law in Nature: Capt. H. M, Lazelle (D. V. Nostrand,
New York).

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

AMERICAN.—United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Pt. x.
Report on.—Condition of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New Eng-
land in 1871-2; S. F. Baird.—On the Glacial and Champlain Eras in New
England: J. Dann.—Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, —
Philadelphia.

-
CONTENTS PAGE

PERCEPTION AND INSTINCT IN THE LOWER ANIMALS « « «+ «© + «© 377
SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS OF CoRNWALL, II... . « . «© © + « «© 378
Letrrers To THE EpIToR:—
New Experiments on Abiogenesis.—Prof. D, HuIzINGA. . . . 380
The Janssen-Lockyer Method.—Prof. BALFoUR STEWART, F.R.S. 384
Mr. Mallet’s Theory of Volcanic Energy.— Rosert MALLET, F.R.S 382 —
Effect of Resistance in Modifying Spectra.—Prof. TYNDALL, F.R,S 384

Perception in the Lower Animals . . . . ... + + « + + + 384
Possession Istes. By R. H. Scott and Dr. Hooker, C.B., F.R.S._ 384
Earthquake Waves . ¢ iis > 5 Jo sites 0 les! =
THE CHALLENGER ExpEpITION (With Illustrations.) By Prof. vs

Wyvitie Tuomson, F.R.S., Director of the Scientific Staff of the

Challenger Expedition, Sis) s 2 + + + = 5 «= = & allen
Pror. FLower’s HuUNTERIAN LECTURES. . . . + « © + « + «© 388
‘TEsTIMONIAL TO Dr. BENCE JONES . owiehe te, =: | ee.
Caprain M. F. Maury semen ns 5 «© ol os
NOTES 2 o's. 0s CUMREe Se) nee sa al ce
Tue BirtH or Cuemistry, VIII. By G. F Ropwe tt, F.C.S. (Weth

Tlisstrasions.) % . siineis’) <he ss ‘«. sc fojminhteie nam
MCIENTIFIC SERIALS... csMADB le fs 2 0s 6 =. 8) elastase
SocreTIEs AND ACADEMIES + + ¢ «© - + s+ ss « @ ee » 305
Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED... «5 ws ee es + 398
DRARY 5-96 wi) 2 os) CEREREIE w) oe eee

en ate nt eee

THURSDAY, MARCH 27, 1873

UNIVERSITY OARS
Ts

WE have, not without motive, adopted the title of

Dr. Morgan’s book,*—so opportunely timed in
its issue by its University publishers—as the heading for
some considerations connected with the coming river
“Derby ;” for we propose to pass in review the leading
features of the Hygienic value of these contests,
which are claiming and receiving from year to year a
growing importance, into which the book itself is an
exhaustive inquiry.

Many a strong hand will tremble as it lifts this book
for the first time, and many an eye will glisten with
pleasure or grow dim with regret as it scans its lists
and tables and reads the revelations made therein. For
what do they tell—and tell too with a rare fulness and
circumstantiality ? All particulars as to the health, past
and present, of the Oarsmen of both Universities who have
rowed in the annual matches during the last forty years ;
that is, from the time of their organisation up to the last
race rowed before the author began collecting the mate-
rials for his book. Year by year the crews are formed
and the races rowed. Year by year the races pass and
are forgotten, and the crews disappear and are wo? for-
gotten, although they may pass away from our sight.
What has become of the old Oarsmen, the friends and
favourites of other days? Are they “doing duty” in
peaceful country parishes, or in crowded cities at home?
or have they venturously gone forth to new lands to seek
for more genial employments than the old one yields?
What are they doing now? how fares it with them? and
above all, have they suffered in heart or brain, in nerve
or lung, from their old practice at the oar? The ample
lists in Dr. Morgan’s book, his owa ably written pages,
and the liberal extracts from his correspondents’
answers to his queries—his correspondents being
the oarsmen themselves and his queries being with
sole reference to their health and bodily condition—
tell us all: tell us where they are, what they
are doing, what they did when with us and how they
did it; and, in their own language, tell with charac-
teristic frankness, and in words which we can still
recognise as their old modes of expression, what they
think and believe for or against their old favourite
pastime. All write cheerily, and all to a man almost
speak with prideful remembrance of their work at the oar,
and the good they have derived from it. From Bengal
writes McQueen :—“‘I am nowa stout man, weighing
fifteen stone, but able to be in the saddle all day
without fatigue, or if necessary walk my ten or fifteen
miles without any distress.” We wonder if he still possess
the same hand-power that he hadin his youth? He had
simply the strongest hand and wrist we have ever known,
and never did we place our own palm in his without
setting our teeth close, and subjecting the member when
set free'to a gentle manipulation, to restore circulation
and revive feeling in its flattened digits. His was the
true Herculean build. Nind writes from Queensland on

* “University Oars.” By John Ed. Morgan, M.A, Oxon, F.R.C.P.
(Macmillan, 1873.)

No. 178—Vot., vit.

‘cae Sale

NATURE

Pt See teak ~

397

“Since taking my degree in 1855 my constitution has
been put to the test in many climates, for I have lived in
Canada, on the west coast of America, and in Australia, and
I can safely aver that I never have in trying circumstances
found a failure of ‘physical power; and that when hard
pressed by fatigue and want of food, the recollection of
the endurance developed by rowing and other athletics

gave me fresh spirit and encouragement.” And yet
Nind was not naturally a powerful man. His frame
was the very antithesis to that of McQueen. Those who

remember him as he first came to the University will
recall his exquisitely moulded features, almost feminine in
their softness and sweetness of expression. Schneider
writes from New Zealand :—“I may state that so far as I
am concerned, I am able to discover no particular
symptoms either good, bad, or indifferent specially attri-
butable to rowing. .... I now come to what I believe to
be the chief if not the only real danger attendant upon
Boat-Racing, and that is the violent strain upon the action
of the heart caused by rowing a rapid stroke and exerting
every energy to maintain the same to the end of the race.”

Who among us could argue the matter more wisely ?
These are bright and pleasant pictures, but like all other
pictures, they have their dark side. In the lists of Oars-
men certain names are printed in italics—not many, thank
God !—a small percentage only. These are they who
have rowed out their life-race ; who have for ever passed
out from their period of training and of trial. They rise
before our mind’s eye as we first knew them. Brewster’s
magnificent form towering half a head above his stalwart
shipmates. Men are all wise after the events ; and we
hear now of those who always doubted his real strength
and stamina, and point to his untimely end as evidence ot
their own penetration. “ Invalided from his regiment,
caught cold by returning wet from a Brighton Volunteer
Review: died from its effects.” Polehampton, the chival-
rous, the gentle, the brave! ‘“ Decorated while at college
with the Royal Humane Society’s Medal for saving a
companion from drowning at his own imminent peril.
Shot through the body at Lucknow—and died of
cholera when attending to his comrades stricken
by the same malady.” The very career he would
have marked out for himself, had it been left to
his hand to trace it! Hughes, the accomplished, the
frank, the manly—the very nature that, speaking in our
love and in our pride, we emphatically style the beau-
ideal of an English gentleman—“ died last year of inflam-
mation of the lungs.” Here our personal reminiscences
of old oarsmen must cease.

For many along year strange tales of the risks and
dangers of rowing, or rather of boat-racing, have had a
floating existence in the Universities, and gaining strength
and circumstantiality by time and repetition, have ex-
tended to wider circles. While the old tales lived and
held their own, other and more startling legends sprang
up, and also grew into importance, legends so alarming,
and related with such circumstantial detail, that the most
sceptical began to think that “there must be something
in it.” Whole crews, it was stated, had been swept off in
a few brief years by their terrible struggles and efforts
at the oar. This feeling of uneasiness, if not of absolute
alarm, attained a sort of climax a few years ago by the
letters of an eminent surgeon, published in the Z7mes.

Z

308

For reasons which seemed to his professional judgment
sufficient, he took the side of the alarmists, and pro-
nounced an opinion, strongly expressed, against boat-
racing as now practised. These letters were answered
with more or less ability by votaries of the oar, men then
actively engaged in rowing, or who had recently been so.
The controversy lasted for some time, and at last rather
died ott, or was allowed to drop, than brought to any
satisfactory conclusion by the arguments or proofs ad-
vanced on either side. By the opponents of boat-racing
the case was opened rather unguardedly by statements
requiring a stronger array of facts than could be brought
to support them when the call for proofs was made ; by
its defenders was met by the somewhat blunt rejoinder,
“ You don’t know anything about it ; you never lifted an oar
in your life.” The former forgetting that there is nothing
so difficult to overcome as enthusiasm, esprit de corps, and,
perhaps, prejudice ; the latter forgetting that the effects
of certain modes of exertion on certain organs and tissues
of the human body may be sagely divined by a skilful
and experienced physician or surgeon, without his ever
having in his own person practically undergone such
exertion.

As we have said, the argument dropped rather than was
brought to any satisfactory conclusion, and if each side
did not claim the victory, each stoutly denied that the
other had won. Unto this day do we hear alarms sounded
with reference to these races, again does paterfamilias
feel nervous qualms at the intelligence that his son has
betaken himself to the river. Again do non-rowing men
console themselves for the want of river distinctions by
the thought of their exemption from its risks and Jiabili-
ties, and again do rowing men enjoy the ec/a¢ of having
greatly dared for the reputation of their Colleges and Uni-
versity, with the secret conviction and comfort that the
dangers they have run have been very slight indeed.

It was to close this open question for ever, and settle
once for all this standing dispute which has many scien-
tific aspects of great interest, that Dr. Morgan under-
took the present work, recognising evidently to the full
the standpoint selected by the disputants in the contro-
versy, the one, their practical knowledge as experi-
enced oarsmen, the other, his theoretical knowledge as
a scientific surgeon; for, as the author informs us, his
qualifications for the task are twofold :—

“As a physician to a large hospital, I have necessarily
enjoyed large opportunities of gaining an insight into the
laws which regulate our health, while my rowing experi-
ence began at Shrewsbury (where I spent many a pleasant
hour on the Severn), and was matured at University Col-
lege, Oxford, where I was for three years Captain of the
John +, a boat which has often played a prominent part
in the struggles on the Isis, and which has served as the
training school for no fewer than ten of the crews which
during the last thirty years have won the University Fours.”

These qualifications certainly seem adequate to the
task, and the plan pursued by Dr. Morgan also seems the
best possible, albeit entailing enormous labour on, and
demanding vast patience from, him. This plan was
simply to institute a strict and exhaustive search after all
the men who have rowed in these inter- University contests ;

to track them, as it were, to whatever part of the world |

they may have gone: this done, to get their own written

NATURE

| [Mar. 27, 1873 -

testimony, if alive, and that of their friends, if dead, as
to whether the part they played in these contests entailed
any after evil results upon their constitutions and frames,
and (if any) their nature and extent.

Considering that more than forty years have elapsed
since the commencement of these friendly contests, and
that between the years 1829-1869 twenty-six races have
been rowed, giving for the crews of both Universities, and
allowing for men who have rowed in more than one race,
the gross number of 294 men, the task was a formidable
one; but, we must add, has been as ably conducted to its
conclusion as it was resolutely undertaken. The author ~
has ascertained that out of these 294 men 245 are still
living—39 having died: the time of their death and the
ailment of which they died are carefully given by the
author, and to this point we will return. He next tabu-
lates the following results elicited by his inquiries :—

Benefited by rowing 2 115 c-
Uninjured a - 162
Injured a Fe 4 17

The denefits derived are somewhat vaguely stated, as
indeed was to be expected when almost the only benefits
that could be reasonably derived from such pursuits would
be of a general nature; such as increase of strength and
stamina, increase of energy to undertake, increase of
power to undergo, physical exertion ; increase of fortitude
to encounter and to submit to trials and privations and
disappointments. A goodly list of benefits when criti-
cally examined. The uninjured are those who in their
replies to the author’s queries state wegativz/y the
results of rowing upon their constitutions and ‘rames ;
or, in the author’s language, who merely say in general
terms “that they never felt any inconvenience from row-
ing ;” while the zzjured are they who state with less or
more distinctness that their exertions proved harmful,

We must confess that this last item in the bill, the 17
injured, is at first sight a little startling, and so it must,
we think, have appeared to the author, for he very carefully
and minutely examines the cases so recorded, and some,
we think, successfully dismisses as unreal ; while others,
we fear it must be candidly avowed, must remain as dond

fide instances of injury. But is this a matter to be won-

dered at when the number of men who had been so
engaged is taken into consideration? Is there any other
pastime or pursuit in which grown men can take part,
such as draws forth at the same time their bodily power
and keenest emulations, which will yield a smaller per-
centage of evil? Would the hunting-field, would the
foot-ball field, or even the cricket-field, if closely scruti-
nised ?

The author tells us that during his inquiries on this
subject he has written over two thousand letters. We
can well believe it, knowing how unwilling many men are
to reply to personal inquiries, and specially so when the
inquirer asks after personal ailments. He has not however
done himself justice in not giving us in his book a speci-
men of his letters addressed to his scattered correspon-
dents ; for in all cases of dispute, and contested evidence,
it is always a matter of objection if the question as put
indicates or leads up to the sort of answer desired ; and
when, as has been already said, scepticism on one side
and esprit de corfs on the other so strongly prevails,
doubts may be entertained of the accuracy of some of

the statements made in the correspondents’ replies. But
we think that it will be admitted that as a whole those
replies are eminently satisfactory.

A circumstance quite noteworthy, however, strikes the
reader who scrutinises the lists as tabulated recording the
instances of zujred, and we would be glad to hear some
explanation or interpretation of what at present seems
inexplicable. Thus out of the first six races only three
men are recorded as injured, while out of the next four
races nine men are so recorded, five being mentioned in
one race—that of 1845—and two more in the race
of the following year. Again occurs a period of compara-
tive immunity from injury, only one case being instanced
in the next seven races. Once more is the order changed,
for in the following four races four men are recorded as
injured, while in the five remaining races of the series no
injury whatever seems to have been sustained. The author
does not seem to have instituted any inquiry on this
point, yet surely it is one worth investigation, seeing that
it is this very matter of liability to injury which is the
sole subject of dispute, to settle which is the avowed
object of his book. Was this injury-rate affected by the
mode of training of the crews, the physical calibre or
age of the individual men composing them, by the seve-
rity of the contest itself, or by the character of the season
when the men trained and rowed? J
ARCHIBALD MACLAREN

THOMSON & TAIT’S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY

Elements of Natural Philosophy. By Professors Sir W.
Thomson and P. G. Tait. Clarendon Press Series.
(Macmillan and Co., 1873.)
PeU RAL Philosophy, which is the good old
English name for what is now called Physical
Science, has been long taught in two very different ways.
One method is to begin by giving the student a thorough
training in pure mathematics, so that when dynamical re-
lations are afterwards presented to him in the form of
mathematical equations, he at once appreciates the lan-
guage, if not the ideas, of the new subject. The progress
of science, according to this method, consists in bringing
the different branches of science in succession under the
power of the calculus. When this has been done for
any particular science, it becomes in the estimation of the
mathematician like an Alpine peak which has been scaled,
retaining little to reward original explorers, though per-
haps still of some use, as furnishing occupation to profes-
sional guides. ;
The other method of diffusing physical science is to
render the senses familiar with physical phenomena, and
the ear with the language of science, till the student be-
comes at length able both to perform and to describe ex-
periments of his own. The investigator of this type is in
no danger of having no more worlds to conquer, for he
can always go back to his former measurements, and
carry them forward to another place of decimals.
Each of these types of men of science is of service in
the great work of subduing the earth to our use, but
neither of them can fully accomplish the still greater
work of strengthening their reason and developing new
powers of thought. The pure mathematician endeavours
to transfer the actual effort of thought from the natural

NATURE

399
= ee
phenomena to the symbols of his equations, and the
pure experimentalist is apt to spend so much of his
mental energy on matters of detail and calculation, that
he has hardly any left for the higher forms of thought.
Both of them are allowing themselves to acquire an un-
fruitful familiarity with the facts of nature, without taking
advantage of the opportunity of awakening those powers
of thought which each fresh revelation of nature is fitted
to call forth.

There is, however, a third method of cultivating physical
science, in which each department in turn is regarded,
not merely as a collection of facts to be co-ordinated by
means of the formulz laid up in store by the pure mathe-
maticians, but as itself a new mathesis by which new ideas
may be developed.

Every science must have its fundamental ideas—modes
of thought by which the process of our minds is brought
into the most complete’ harmony with the process of na-
ture—and these ideas have not attained their most perfect
form as long as they are clothed with the imagery, not of
the phenomena of the science itself, but of the machinery
with which mathematicians have been accustomed to
work problems about pure quantities.

Poinsot has pointed out several of his dynamical inves-
tigations as instances of the advantage of keeping before
the mind the things themselves rather than arbitrary
symbols of them ; and the mastery which Gauss displayed
over every subject which he handled is, as he said himself,
due to the fact that he never allowed himself to make a
single step, without forming a distinct idea of the result of
that step.

The book before us shows that the Professors of Natural
Philosophy at Glasgow and Edinburgh have adopted this
third method of diffusing physical science. It appears from
their preface that it has been since 1863 a text-book in
their classes, and that it is designed for use in schools and
in the junior classes in Universities. The book is there-
fore primarily intended for studeats whose mathematical.
training has not been carried beyond the most elementary
stage,

The matter of the book however bears but small re-
semblance to that of the treatises usually put into the
hands of such students. We are very soon introduced to
the combination of harmonic motions, toirratational strains,
to Hamilton’s characteristic function, &c., and in every
case the reasoning is conducted by means of dynamical
ideas, and not by making use of the analysis of pure
quantity.

The student, if he has the opportunity of continuing
his mathematical studies, may do so with greater relish
when he is able to see in the mathematical equations
the symbols of ideas which have been already presented
to his mind in the more vivid colouring of dynamical
phenomena. The differential calculus, for example, is at
once recognised as the method of reasoning applicable to
quantities in a state of continuous change. This is
Newton’s conception of Fluxions, and all attempts to
banish the ideas of time and motion from the mind must
fail, since continuity cannot be conceived by us except
by following in imagination the course of a point which
continues to exist while it moves in space.

The arrangement of the book differs from that which
has hitherto been adopted in text-books, It has been

409
usual to begin with those parts of the subject in which the
idea of change, though implicitly involved in the very
conception of force, is not explicitly developed so as to
bring into view the different configurations successively
assumed by the system. For this reason, the first place has
generally been assigned to the doctrine of the equili-
brium of forces and the equivalence of systems of forces.
The science of pure statics, as thus set forth, is con-
versant with the relations of forces and of systems of
forces to each other, and takes no account of the nature
of the material systems to which they may be applied, or
whether these systems are at rest or in motion. The
concrete illustrations usually given relate to systems of
forces in equilibrium, acting on bodies at rest, but the
equilibrium of the forces is established by reasoning
which has nothing to do with the nature of the body, or
with its being at rest.

The practical reason for beginning with statics seems
to be that the student is not supposed capable of fol-
lowing the changes of configuration which take place in
moving systems. He is expected, however, to be able to
follow trains of reasoning about forces, the idea of which
can never be acquired apart from that of motion, and which
can only be thought of apart from motion by a process of
abstraction.

Profs. Thomson and Tait, on the contrary, begin with
kinematics, the science of mere motion considered apart
from the nature of the moving body and the cau-es which
produce its motion. This science differs from geometry
only by the explicit introduction of the idea of time as a
measurable quantity. (The idea of time as a mere
sequence of ideas is as necessary ia geometry as in every
other department of thought.) Hence kinematics, as
involving the smallest number of fundamental ideas, has a
metaphysical precedence over statics, which involves the
idea of force, which in its turn implies the idea of matter
as well as that of motion.

In kinematics, the conception of displacement comes
before that of velocity, which is the rate of displacement.
And here we cannot but regret that the authors, one of
whom at least is an ardent disciple of Hamilton, have
not at once pointed out that every displacement is a
vector, and taken the opportunity of explaining the addi-
tion of vectors as a process, which, applied primarily to
displacements, is equally applicable to velocities, or the
rates of change of displacement, and to accelerations, or
the rates of change of velocities. For it is only in this
way that the method of Newton, to which we are glad to
see that our authors have reverted, can be fully under-
stood, and the “parallelogram of forces” deduced from
the “ parallelogram of velocities.” Another conception of
Hamilton’s, however, that of the hodograph, is early in-
troduced and empleyed with great effect, The funda-
mental idea of the hodograph is the same as that of
vectors in general. The velocity of a body, being a
vector, is defined by its magnitude and direction, so that
velocities may be represented by straight lines, and these
straight lines may be moved parallel to themselves into
whatever position is most suitable for exhibiting their
geometrical relations, as for instance in the hodegraph
they are all drawn from one point. The same idea is
made use of in the theorems of the “triangle” and the
“polygon” of forces, and in the more general method of

NATURE

“ diagrams of stress,” in which the lines which represent
the stresses are drawn, not in the positions in which they
actually exist, but in those positions which most fully ex-
hibit their geometrical relations. We are sorry that a
certain amount of slight is thrown on these methods in
§ 411, where a different proposition is called the ¢vue
triangle of forces.

It is when a writer proceeds to set forth the first prin-
ciple of dynamics that his true character as a sound
thinker or otherwise becomes conspicuous. And here
we are glad to see that the authors follaw Newton, whose
Leges Mottis, more perhaps than any other part of his
great work, exhibit the unimproveable completeness of
that mind without a flaw.

We would particularly recommend to writers on philo-
sophy, first to deduce from the best philosophical data at
their command a definition of equal intervals of time, and
then to turn to § 212, where such a definition is given as a
logical conversion of Newton’s First Law.

But it is in the exposition of the Third Law, which
affirms that the actions between bodies are mutual, that
our authors have brought to light a doctrine, which,
though clearly stated by Newton, remained unknown to
generations of students and commentators, and even
when acknowledged by the whole scientific world was
not known to be contained in a paragraph of the Principia
till it was pointed out by our authors in an article on
“Energy” in Good Words, October 1862,

Our limits forbid us from following the authors as they
carry the student through the theories of varying action,
kinetic force, electric images, and elastic solids. We can
only express our sympathy with the efforts of men, tho-
roughly conversant with all that mathematicians have
achieved, to divest scientific truths of that symbolic
language in which the mathematicians have left them,
and to clothe them in words, developed by legitimate
methods from our mother tongue, but rendered precise
by clear definitions, and familiar by well-rounded state-
ments.

Mathematicians may flatter themselves that they
possess new ideas which mere human language is as
yet unable to’express. Let them make the effort to ex-
press these ideas in appropriate words without the aid of
symbols, and if they succeed they will not only lay us
laymen under a lasting obligation, but, we venture to say,
they will find themselves very much enlightened during
the process, and will even be doubtful whether the ideas
as expressed in symbols:had ever quite found their by
out of the equations into their minds.

TYNDALL’S FORMS OF WATER

The forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice, and
Glaciers. By John Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. (London:
H. S, King & Co.)

\ HATEVER comes from Dr. Tyndall’s pen is sure to

be vivid and clear. The present little volume forms
no exception to this rule. Itseems to have been composed
partly in the form of popular lectures and partly
as a sort of journal of a visit last year to the author’s
favourite holiday haunts among the Swiss glaciers. Very
readable, it nevertheless betrays this composite origin, and
wears more the aspect of a piece of book-making than

(Mar. 27, 1873

a

Se ee

i

1873|

probably its author himself could have wished. A wrong
impression of the subject is created by the title, which
though singularly happy in itself does not fairly describe
the contents of the book. Such a title suggests an accu-
rate and luminous discussion of the phenomena of evapo-
ration and condensation, the growth and movements and
disappearances of mists and clouds, the formation and
distribution of rain and the laws regulating the rainfall
over the globe, the meaning of frost, the birth and history
of hail and snow, the circulation of water over the land
with the ways and workings of brook, stream, and river,
from mountain-peak to sea-shore, the architecture and
the functions of snow-fields, glaciers, and icebergs—in
short a kind of scientific poem, dedicated to the glory of
that grand old element—water. Dr. Tyndall could write
such a poem better than most men, and indeed it was
with the expectation that he had attempted it that we
opened this last volume of his. Out of the 192 pages 28
are devoted to clouds, rains, rivers, waves of light and
heat, oceanic distillation and mountain condensers. The
rest treat wholly of ice. So that if we may judge by the
relative space devoted to the different forms of water, ice
must be six times more important than ail the rest put
together. A less ambitious title, such as its author could
readily suggest, descriptive of the fact that the book is a
record of work, intellectual and corporeal, among the
Swiss glaciers, would prevent the feeling of disappoint-
ment with which many a reader has no doubt come to
the last page.

Dr. Tyndall did not intend, we suppose, that his book
should be regarded in any other light than as a popular
exposition of his subject, and would probably disclaim
any place for it as a contribution of new facts and reason-
ings to our knowledge of glaciers. His narratives of last
year’s climbings and observations read very much like
those of older ones with which he has already made us
familiar. They are pleasantly written, and will convey to
a reader, who has never seen a glacier, a picturesque
notion of what he has missed. But surely it was not
necessary to rake up again the Forbes-Rendu controversy,
nor to renew the claims of Agassiz and Guyot. Wecould
have wished, too, that while alluding to Mr. Mathews
and other recent observers on ice-structure the writer
had taken some notice of the attack upon his own theory
by Canon Mosely and Mr. Croll.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Die Anwendung Des Spectralapparate von Dr. K.
Vierordt. (Tiibingen : H. Laupp, 1873.)

Dr. VIERORDT has been endeavouring to found a quanti-
tative spectrum analysis for bodies giving an absorption
spectrum.
-divided horizontally into two parts; one of these is ad-
justed to a certain width ; the solution whose absorption
is to be examined is placed opposite this, and in front of
the other half is placed another solution of the same body
but of a different strength, and the slit is then narrowed
or widened as the solution is stronger or weaker until the
absorption is the same in both halves of the spectrum.
The width of the latter slit is then read off. By using
a number of solutions of strengths varying decimally from
the weakest possible to the strongest through which light
will pass, curves are obtained and a solution of unknown

NATURE

His method consists in the use of a slit |

401

value ascertained, The solutions to be examined are, of -
of course, kept at a constant thickness, As the relation
between the concentration of the solution and its coeffi-
cient of the absorption of light only remains constant
within certain limits, solutions of the necessary dilution
have to be employed and unknown solutions must be
diluted to this point: the value is then found by calcu-
lation. ‘

Tables for calculations of various kinds required are
given, and the memoir is illustrated with lithographs of
the working details of the divided slit. A number of
specimen curves are also given. The memoir is well
worthy the attention of all who have to estimate the ©
strength of colouring matter.

EETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Existence of Man in the Miocene

I HAVE received a letter from Mr. Edmund Calvert, in which
he informs me that his brother, Mr, Frank Calvert, has recently
discovered, near the Dardanelles, what he regards as conclusive
evidence of the existence of man during the Miocene period.
Mr. Calvert had previously sent me some drawings of bones and
shells from the strata in question, which Mr. Busk and Mr.
Gwyn Jeffreys were good enough to examine forme. He has
now met with a fragment of a bone, probably belonging either
to the Dinotherium or a Mastodon, oa the convex side of which
is engraved a representation of a horned quadruped, ‘* with
arched neck, lozenge-shaped chest, long body, straight fore legs,
and broad feet.” There are also, he says, traces of seven or
eight other figures, which, however, are nearly obliterated. He
informs me that in the same stratum he has also found a flint
flake, and several bones broken as if for the extraction of
marrow. ;

This discovery would not only prove the existence of man in
Miocene times, but of man who had already made some pro-
gress, at least, in art. Mr. Calvert assures me that he feels no
doubt whatever as to the geological age of the stratum from
which these specimens were obtained.

Of course I am not in a position myself to express any opinion
on the subject; but I am sure that the statements of so compe-
tent an observer as Mr. Calvert will interest your readers.

High Elms, March 23 Joun Lusbock

Adaptation to External Conditions
THE curious modification of adaptation to external conditions

| in the case of the Sa/amandra atra, which I have more than

once brought under the notice of naturalists, but which I myself
first noticed under the direction of Prof. von Siebold, has been
cited by Mr. Darwin (‘* Origin of Species,” 4th Ed. p. 534) in
confirmation of his views. I revert to it now for the sake of its
illustration of a new and striking observation, which has excited
the incredulity of several eminent naturalists in France—an in-
credulity, we may suppose, founded on their ignorance of the
previous observation. ‘The fact to which I called attention was
this : The ordinary salamanier, or Newt, is born in the watcr
as a tadpole, and in the water it completes its metamorphosis,
But the Sa/awandra atra, living high up in the mountains, with
no pools in which to pass its tadpole existence, is born on the
land, a completely formed animal ; that is to say it passes
through the tadpole stage while still within its mother’s body.
I have taken it from the gravid female in this tadpole state, and
placed it in water, wherein it swam as if that were its natal ele-
ment.

In the Revie Scientifique, No. 37, there has just appeared a
brief account of some observations made by M. Baray at Guade-
loupe, from which it appears that the frogs, having in that vol-
canic island no marshes nor pools suitable for the early tadpoles,

strength can then be interpolated in the curve and its | have adapted themselves to these conditions by passing through

402

all the tadpole stages of metamorphosis while still in the egg.
All these stages have been observed by M. Baray ; and whoever
is familiar with the evolution of the ordinary tadpole before it
quits the egg, will see that M. Baray has observed only a modi-
fied form of the well-known process. The Guadeloupe frog is
born as a frog, not as a tadpole ; and this, paradoxical as it may
seem to some naturalists who cannot dismiss traditional concep-
tions, is even less remarkable than the case of the Sa/amandra
atra, because it is only an extension of the period of incubation,
whereas with the salamander it is the substitution of viviparity
for oviparity. How the presence of water leads to an accelera-
tion of the birth, or the absence of water leads to its retarda-
tion, is an interesting point for investigation ; whether retarded
or accelerated, the finally-acquired structure is the same.
The Priory, March 22 GroRGE Henry LEWEs

Anticipations of Natural Philosophy,
MAUPERTUIS

Havin lately had occasion to examine the works of Mau-
pertuis I, like Prof. Jevons, was struck by meeting with antici-
patory glimpses of the modern theory of Natural Selection. The
passage, given almost word for word by Lord Bolingbroke in the
quotation made by Prof. Jevons, occurs somewhat incidentally
in two parts of Maupertuis’ writings ; in the memoir alluded to
(*‘Les Loix du Mouvement et du Repos, deduites d’un principe
métaphysique”) ; and in the ‘‘Essay de Cosmologie,” into
which the memoir-was expanded five years later (1751). In both
these works Maupertuis is chiefly concerned with establishing
his well-known metaphysico-mechanical principle of ‘‘ The Least
Action ” (‘‘La moindre Quantité d’Action”) ; and with deducing
therefrom proof of the existence of God. But the doctrine of
«© The Survival of the Fittest” is more clearly discernible, and
more than incidentally referred to, in his small physiological
treatise, ‘‘ Venus physique” (Euvres, tome ii. ed. 1756). The
whole of this work is not wanting in interest, but as bearing
specially on the subject in question, I would mention the third,
fifth, and last chapters of the second part. Chapter III. is en-
titled ‘‘ Production de nouvelles especes.” In it the most pro-
nounced passage is perhaps the following: ‘Mais la sage
Nature, par le dégoiit qu'elle a inspiré pour ces defauts, n’a pas
voulu qu’ils se perpetuassent ; chaque pére, chaque mére fait de
son mieux pour les éteindre ; les beautés sont plus siirement
héréditaires ; la taille, et la jambe, que nous admirons, sont
Vouvrage de plusieurs générations, ot l’on s’est appliqué a les
former.”’ Chapter V., called an ‘‘ Essay d’explication des
phénoménes précédents,” is an attempt to explain the physio-
logical processes at work in the preservation of the best types,
and in the production of new forms. On the efficacy of these
processes the author says: ‘‘ L’expérience pourroit, peut-étre,
éclaircir ce point ; si l’on essayoit pendant longtemps de mutiler
quelques animaux de génération en generation, peut-¢tre verroit-
on les parties rétranchées, diminuer peu a peu; peut-étre
verroit-on les 4 la fin s’anéantir.” The last chapter contains a
summary of the whole work, and a number of “ Doutes et Ques-
tions,” propounded by the author. In one of these he asks,
“ Cet instinct des animaux, qui leur fait rechercher ce qui leur
convient, et fuir ce qui leur nuit, n’appartient-il point aux plus
petites parties dont l’animal est formé?” In another question
Maupertuis puts forward a bold hypothesis as to the influence
which the decomposed material of the dead animal organism
might exercise upon plants, and through them upon the structure
and character of the living organism. a

In his Systéme de la Nature also (Ciuvres, tom. ii. ed. 1756),
Maupertuis combats the special creation theory of the origin of
species, and advocates a doctrine, which may be called Natural
Selection, the selective principle being placed in the ultimate
elements of both organic and inorganic substances, of which
elements ‘‘la perception est une propriété essentielle,” and which
‘‘doués d’intelligence s’arrangent et s’unissent pour remplir les
vues du Créateur.” f

Such are a few of the glimpses to be met with in the French
philosopher, of the modern doctrine of Darwin and Spencer.
Similar ones may not improbably be found elsewhere, but such
“ resultless tendencies,” as the course of events has proved them
to be, can in no degree detract from the merit and originality of
those who have made of Natural Selection a well-substantiated
and homogeneous theory. W. H. BREWER

Grace’s Road, Camberwell, March ro

NATURE

[Mar. 27, 1873

EMPEDOCLES ~

On reading Prof. W. Stanley Jevons’ interesting letter in
this week’s NATURE, I referred to my note-book, and found the
following quotation, under the title of ‘‘ Natural Selection,”
which shows that the opinion of Maupertuis is at least as old as
Empedocles.—‘‘ Cette derniere opinion sert 4 expliquer les idées
d’Empeédocle sur la production des animaux par des causes acci-
dentelles. L’attraction et la répulsion des ¢lémens donnérent
naissance dans les commencemens et par le seul effet du hasard,
a des tétes sans cou, a des jambes sans corps, 4 des animaux
moitié bceufs et moitié hommes, en un mot, a une foule de
monstrés semblances. Parmi tous ces étres, les uns étaient con-
struits de maniére qu’ils semblaient étres doués de l’'intelligence :
ceux-la conservérent Ja vie, et propagérent leur espéce, mais
ceux auxquels l’organe de la vie manquait, retombérent dans le
chaos, d’ou ils étaient'sortis.” (“Histoire de la Medécine,” par
Kurt Sprengel, vol. i. p. 249.) Sprengel gives the following
references :—Aristotle, Physic. Lib. ii., c. 4, p. 465., c. 8, p. 470.
Owing to my distance from a public library I have not hitherto
had an opportanity of referring to Aristotle ; but as Prof. Jevons
is more favourably circumstanced, I hope he will consult the
original, and if he finds anything which throws further light upon
this interesting question, that he will report it to your readers.

Although, as Prof. Jevons remarks, the introduction of the notion
of chance is erroneous, the speculation shows how thoroughly the
Greek Atomists had banished from their explanations of pheno-
mena all reference to first and final causes, anticipating in this
respect the modern conception of science. I cannot deny myself
the pleasure of quoting the weighty judgment of Bacon upon
this point :--‘‘ And therefore the natural philosophies of De-
mocritus and others,” says Bacon, ‘‘ who allow no God or mind
in the frame of things, but attribute the structure of the universe
to infinite essays and trials of nature, or what they call fate or
fortune, and assigned the causes of particular things to the ne-
cessity of matter without any intermixture of final causes, seem,
so far as we can judge from the remains of their philosophy,
much more solid, and to have gone deeper into nature, with
regard to physical causes, than the philosophy of Aristotle or
Plato; and this only because they never meddled with final

causes, which the others were perpetually inculcating.” (Ad-
vancement of Learning, Book iii. chap. iv.)
Waterfoot, March 8 James Ross

ARISTOTLE

Ir is interesting, as Mr. Jevons says, to observe such traces as
are to be found in history of theories more or less anticipating
the principle of natural selection. But if the instance he cites
from Maupertuis fairly represents the last century in this matter,
it is chiefly of interest as showing what a little way it is possible
to travel on certain roads in twenty-two centuries : for Aristotle
discusses the same theory in his ‘‘ Physics” (ii. 8), and appears to
attribute it to Empedocles. ‘‘It may be a question,” he says,
‘* whether physiological@effects which seem to be due to final
causes are not really accidental. An organism survived, we
may suppose, if it happened to be asa whole constituted in a
suitable manner ; that is, ina manner in which it would have
been constituted by design ; organisms otherwise constituted
perished and perish still, like the Bouyer dvipémrpwpa of Em-
pedocles.” Now, except that his monsters are certainly not
quite so monstrous, I do not see that the ‘‘Flattener of the
Earth” gets beyond that. At any rate he lags behind Lucre- .
tius, who adopts the same theory of ‘‘ discriminative destruc-
tion” (v. 837-877), but applies it, as Mr. Munro points out (on
line $55), not merely to monsters but to ‘‘ regularly organised
creatures,” either not so gifted as to protect themselves or not
so valuable as to be protected by man.

This is, as far as it goes, a theory of natural selection. It is
a theory of the survival of the fit, absolutely; but not being
a theory of the preponderant survival of the fitter, and not
taking adequate account of inheritance, it is not a theory
of evolution. Indeed, though Lucretius recognised a constant
change in the conditioning circumstances, and therefore in the
organisms conditioned (828-836), it was to account for the
stability of species that he called in natural selection and not to
give a clue to the laws of their variation. That is the direction
in which there must have been most room for progress ; and
traces of such progress may be to be found. Has Mr. Jevons
tried Gassendi ? C. J. Monro

Hadley, Middlesex

——————

Mar. 27, 1873]

Fossil Cryptogams *

T Do not propose at present to controvert in deiail all the posi-
tions taken up by my friend Prof. McNab in his brief com-
Munication to your pages on ‘Fossil Cryptogams” (vol. vii.
p. 267), because the time has not yet arrived for doing so.
Much more detailed information respecting the subject which
yet awaits publication must be had befure it can be discussed
in a satisfactory manner. I merely wish to avoid: leaving
the impression, by my silence, that I either admit his supposed
facts or accept his infer-nces. When his paper, to which he
refers, was read in Edinburgh, specimens of sections of Calamites
of various ages were sent down by me for the purpose of being
exhibited to the Botanical Society. This was done by Prof.
Dickson, who at the same time expressed his preference for my
views over those of Dr. McNab, as is stated in the officially
published notice of the meeting in question. Since then I have
received a kind letter from Dr. Balfour, who has carefully
examined the specimens referred to, and who also expresses a
similar conviction. I think that I have unmistakeable proof of
the circumferential growth of Calamites, which Dr. Macnab
denies, in specimens of large size, andin which the exozenous
zone is of great thickness.

Prof. McNab speaks of “the moist nature of the soil in which
the Calamites must have grown,” as probably causing a different
mode of growth in them, to that ‘circumferential? one which
he admits has probably taken place in Lepidodendra, Sigillarize,
and Dictyoxylons ;-but I beg to suggest that we have no reasons for
thinking otherwise than that these plants grew side by side, and
under precisely the same physical conditions, hence the ‘‘ moist
soil” of my friend is an assumption. This close association of
Calamites with Sigillarize was demonstrated and commented upon
by Mr. Binney many years ago. Dr. McNab further separates
Lepidodendron from Sigillaria and Stigmaria, placing them in
different groups. When he receives my third memoir ia the
Philosophical Transactions (which is printed but not yet circu-
lated), he will see how utterly this plan of procedure is opposed
to the facts. I contend that Sigillarie are virtually Lepido-
dendra, and that Stigmaria is equally the root of both. As to
the location of my old, but now abandoned genus, Dictyoxylon,
the more I study it the less I feel competent to fix its true place
amongst the Cryptogams. But notwithstanding Dr. McNab’s
idea as to its coniferous affinities, I venture to affirm, froma pro-
longed study of a cabinet full of specimens, that its woody axis
is not one bit more exogenous than those of Calamites and of
matured Lepidodendra. The fact is that whatever the vessels of
these various exogenous woody zones signify, they must stand or
fall together. They are either all ligneous or they are all cortical.
I think that my forthcoming illustrations of the dark-structures
amongst the Burntisland Lepidodendra, as well as of our Lanca-
shire specimens, will show that all the elements which Dr. McNab
finds in Lycopodium Chamzcyparissus arepresent, in their proper
places, the schlerenchyma of the hypoderm being especially well
represented, yet it is precisely this hypoderm with which Dr.
McNab believes my exogenous layer to correspond, There is
one if not two distinct layers of cortical parenchyma between
this schlerenchymatous layer and my ligneous zone, which latter
is so magnificently represented in these plants.

The intimate structure of these latier layers, whether we re-
gard the forms and arrangements of the entire woody wedges or
that of their component tissues, is so identical in the two cases of
Calamites and Lepidodendra, that an active imagination alone
can make the one axial and ligneous, and the other cortical.
Dr. McNab draws a distinction between vessels representing
(*‘feebly ”) the fibro-vascular bundles of the living Equisetums,
in the Calamites, and the more external portions of each woody
wedge, which he regards as representing the hypodermal
schlerenchyma of Mettenius. I unhesitatingly avow that there
is no ground whatever for this arbitrary separation. He is
putting asunder things which-have been joined together from the
beginning of time. The tissues in question are as identical in
their structure as they are uninterruptedly coutinuous in their
arrangement, S

Whils: I am thus opposed to Dr. McNab both on questions of
fact and of inference, I feel obliged to him for calling my
attention to this possible explanation of the facts, even though
after a careful study of his views I fecl constrained to reject
them so far as the interpretation of Calamites are concerned.
On the questions relating to Meristem growths, we are much

~* We regret that the insertion of this letter has

been so long delayed in
consequence of the great pressure upon our space,

NATURE
"SiS a ||| «(oe Jat Seance eee

403

nearer to mutual agreement, and I accept thankfully his admis-
son of the coniferous affinities of Dictyoxylon, not because I
am prepared to recognise any specially close coniferous relation-
ships, bat because Dr. McNab’s idea necessirily involves an
admission of the existence of exogenous features in these plants ;
yet I contend that the Dictyoxylons are neither more coniferous
nor more exogenvus than most of the other Cryptogamic
carboniferous stems which exhibit equally strong proofs of
a similar exogenous growth; But I again repeat that we
shall not be in a positioa to grapple philosophically with
these problems until all the results of my pro'onged researches
are publisied. This is being accomplished as rapidly as my
limited leisure admits of. When completed, T shall be quite
prepared to enter, if necessary, and in a friendly spirit, upon the
entire controversy. W. C. WILLIAMSON
Owens College :

Leaf Arrangement

AFTER reading Dr. Airy’s paper on Phyllotaxis (NaTuRE,
vol. vii. p. 343), I cannot see that we are at all nearer than
before, any satisfactory explanation as to the inherent cause of
it. Let the question be put thus:—If we can conceive, as all
will admit, the possibility of leaves being scattered anyhow along
a branch, why are they not so, but in some strictly mathematical
order? Any disturbance in that order is usually so slight and
trivial (due apparently in part to the comical nature of the axis,
and unequal growth or slight twists; and which thereby cause
certain leaves to assume slightly wrong positions), that it does
not destroy the fact that they absolutely are arranged, and can be
represented, mathematically.

Ia my paper on the angular divergences of the Jerusalem
artichoke (Linnean Trans. vol. xxvi. p. 647), I pointed out that
two questions might represent all that is required to be solved.
(t) That if a leat be selected as No. 1, then No. 2 lies within
a certain arc, viz. :—120°—180° from No. 1, for the ordinary
series of fractions, and which it does not transgress—why is this ?
(2) If we allow that arc—why does the second leaf not assume
any spot, but is rigidly confined to a certain angular distance
from the first ?

I cannot think with Dr. Airy that ‘the way in which all the
spiral orders may have been derived from one original order
[was] by means of different degrees of twist in the axis,”
For if we take a piece of round elastic as he describes, with balls
fixed according to some spiral arrangement—say 2—then the
successive balls will lie at an angular distance of 144°; and if
No. 1 be fixed and we twist the indiarubber at No. 2, we may
cause it to make a complet rotation if we choose.

If, now, his idea of ‘‘twist” be admitted as a vera causa of
phyllotaxis, we may ask, what causes the twist to be just so
much and no more as to make No. 2 pass through 9° (the
angular divergence of $ being 135), so as to pass into the next 4
arrangement? To say that som2 such point is a ** position of
maximum stability” seems to me to give a fictitious importance
to the idea of twist, for the expression conveys no really ex-
planatory meaning at all.

Again, to admit that it does not accurately hit the right place,
and is in consequence more like Nature, is equally delusive, for
Nature is quite accurate enough to be represented mathe-
matically, whereas the positions taken up by the balls
must be arbitrary, or at least in proportion to the twist
given by the hand —a perfectly arbitrary force ? Moreover he
appears to overlook the fact that if an axis becomes twisted the
fibres will be twisted also, but they are not so ; the elastic band
he adopts would, if it were a pliant shoot, contort the vessels and
wood fibres, a condition not obtaining in nature.

Nor can Lagree with him in deducing all the members of the
series from 4, My experience leads me to infer they are derived
from offosite leaves, such as one finds in the cotyledons. In
the Jerusalem artichoke opposite leaves are frequently succeeded
by ¢3 and this is obtained by the pair of leaves, next above
the strictly opposite pair, converging to one side, the next pair
do so still more, when it will be found that the 2 arrangement
will be henceforth established ; the internodes having become
more and more developed at the same time.

I strongly suspect the original arrangement to have been
whorled and quincuncial. This is at least very abundant, if not
universal, in coal plants. The whorls may have subsequently
become reduced to fours, threes, and twos or decussate. We
see this tendency to symmetrical reduction in many existing
plants, ¢.2, stamens and carpels of Crucifere ; Circea as coms

404

NATURE

[ Mar. 27, : 1873

pared with 22g/odium ; the stamens of Geranium: as compared
with Zyodium. Where the reduction has been unsymmetrical,
T suspect it has been due to insect adaptation ; as in di-dynamous
stamens.

As soon as decussate leaves are secured, then we possess the
basis for all ordinary leaf-arrangements.

Dr. Airy alludes to non-existing orders, 4, 2, 4, 74, but in
the Jerusalem artichoke the secondary series 4, 1, 2, ;%:, 39s, occurs
frequently, and arises from the breaking up of ‘‘ tricussate ”
whorls inan exactly similar manner to the primary series, 4, 4,
2, &c., arising out of opposite leaves. On the other hand spirals do
not easily, if ever, return to whorls.
curiously the above is executed in the Jerusalem artichoke, he
will see that there is evidently some power at work in the plant
which, as it were, compels the spiral to form, and to form
mathematically, will be convinced, Iam sure, that a ‘‘ twist”
is very far from being the cause—there being none whatever in
the cases mentioned above ; and further, when whorls break up,
the leaves are at first quite irregular, but they gradually ‘‘ right
themselves,” acquire the proper angular divergence, and then
foim some member of the spiral arrangements to perfection.

GrEorRGE HENSLOW
Flight of Projectiles

In reply to the letter of ‘*‘ W. Hope,” in NarurE of March
13, I request permission to state that by a szfle formula, I
meant one that would be easily understood. I did not intend
the word simple to be taken strictly in its mathematical sense.

It is easy for Mr. Hope to employ symbols to represent the
initial velocity, angle of elevation, or any other additional par-
ticular he may consider necessary fur the solution of my problem.

No one possessing the most elementary knowledge of the
theory of projectiles can be ignorant of the disturbing elements
to which your correspondent refers, or of others to which he
makes no allusion. But these cannot be accurately estiruated,
and, therefore, must necessarily be neglected in a theoretical in-
vestigation. I do not anticipate that they will be found to
vitiate the results of theory to the extent Mr. Hope supposes.

In the practical application of the formula for which I have
asked, the numerical values of the general symbols, would be
the sean of carefully conducted experiments. Thus the trifling
variations arising from slight differences in the charge, the
amount of fouling, or other causes, would be reduced to a mini-
mum. The variations in the force and d'rection of the wind
would often neutralise each other. For these reasons I cannot
agree with Mr. Hope in thinking that the calculation would be
-either ‘‘useless or deluding,” on the contrary I believe it would
be valuable as indicating a mean deflection, about which the
experimental deflections wouid be found to group themselves.

Of one thing I am certain, that it would enable us to bring
home to the soldier the great effect of wind in deflecting the
bullet, and perhaps it might assist us in dispelling the notion of
absurdity which is inseparably associated in his mind with the
effort to hit something by aiming at nothing. In accomplishing
this one of the greatest obstacles to the development of skill in
rifle-shooting would be removed. ,

If Mr. Hope will kindly supply me with the formula which I
have asked for, I can assure him that however lightly he may
appreciate the resulis of his labours, by me, at Jeast, they will be
valued, and, I venture to hope, made practically useful. Surely
he cannot be in earnest in denouncing all theory which approxi-
mates to, but does not exactly accord with practice, as ‘‘ bastard
science, or pedantry.” If this dictum be sound, I can only say
it would be easy to show that a great deal of the science of our
day, gunnery science in particular, is spurious.

General Didion, a high authority, did not consider my problem
unworthy of investigation. In the Cours Llementaire De Balis-
tigue, he has given a solution which I regret is rather too com-
plicated for my purpose. I should imagine that he would be the
last person to expect his theory to afford more than a rough
approximation to the results of practice. Hence I conclude that
in publishing his calculation for the benefit of the French army,

he could have had no conception that his science was ‘‘ bastard
science, or pedantry,” and must have been unconscious what a
**mischievous unpractical pedant” he was.
Rosert Rep, Sergeant-Major

School of Musketry, Hythe, March 17

Deep Sea Soundings near the Equator
THE following extract from a letter of the captain of the

If any one will notice how |

school-ship AZercury, occupied at present in taking deep-sea
soundings under the orders of the Board of Commissioners of
Public Charities and Correction of New York, has been sent to
me by General Bowen, of that Board, who takes much interest
in the subject. It will doubtless be gratifying to many of your
readers :—

** Our Casella-Miller deep-sea thermometer worked admirably.
This beautiful instrument steod the test at a depth of 2,040
fathoms, two miles north of the Equator, in longitude 22° 16’
W., when it indicated a temperature of 35° F. ; at 1,000 fathoms
38°; at 400 fathoms 41°; at 300 fathoms 44°; at the surface
81°; in the air 80°.

‘©On our track from the Canary Islands to Rio we found the
temperatures at uniform depths to vary about 2°. Our speci-
mens of the bo'tom from the volcanic; region differ in every
respect from those obtained in other farts of the ocean.”

Joun Wm. DRAPER

University, New York, March 6

SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST
HE doctrine of the “survival of the fittest” must be
strangely understood in some quarters. The
American papers report Prof. Agassiz as having expressed
himself in this wise at a recent meeting of the Massa-
chusetts State Board of Agriculture, of which he is a
member :—“I do not know how animals originated ; a
brilliant imagination that of Darwin; a very necessary
faculty in the scientist. The sense I know too well to
misquote him, Hasty generalising of observation is
Darwin all over. Natural selection is out of generation.
Natural necessity, what is it? Do we find that only the
strong beget families? Observe plants at the foot of the
White mountains, where are large trees, and so up to
the summit, where they are mere shrubs. The weak may
and do survive as well as the strong. Ignorance lies at
the base of the discussion.”

Probably no one naturalist, however eminent, can be
expected to know everything, or even all simple things.
Can it be possible that Prof. Agassiz supposes (as
his argument seems to require) that the dwarf trees
in question grow and survive near the top of the moun-
tain, zolwithstanding they are not the fittest, rather than
because they are the fittest, for the conditions? And does ©
he conceive the doctrine of natural selection to be founded
upon some idea of an abstract fitness, irrespective of the
conditions, and not upon the survival of the fittest under
and in consequence of the conditions? Surely the argu-
ment brought against the doctrineis a good illustration
in its favour, only an extremely simple and elementary one.

We never could quite comprehend why Prof. Agassiz
should give himself so heartily and persistently to the
work of demolishing the doctrine of the derivation of
species, in all its forms, considering how large and
honourable a part he has himself taken in laying the
foundation upon which the medern doctrine has been
built. Of these foundations none is stronger than the
capital one, generally supposed to be established by him,
that the succession of species in time corresponds mainly
with that in systematic rank, and is also somehow
paralleled in the development of each individual of the
higher ranks. Sothat, in view of his continued but un-
successful efforts to drive the incoming doctrine out of
the land, we could imagine him addressing his own im-
portant discoveries in the words used by Balak to Balaam ;
—‘“ What hast thou done unto me? I took thee to curse
mine enemies, and behoid, thou hast blessed them alto-
gether.”

SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION.—SECOND
QUARTERLY REPORT
A FRESH survey of the Lower Wealden beds in eastern

Sussex by the officers of the Geological Survey De-
partment has quite recently been made. The whole dis-

fee 42, a eS
{

| Mar. 27, 1873]

and Drew, and it has been decided to sub-divide the strata
hitherto known as the Ashburnham beds into two divi-
sions.

The upper portion, consisting of the mottled clays
and shales, will henceforth be called the Fairlight beds,
while the lower portion, consisting of shelly limestone in-
termixed with calcareous shale and gyfsum, will retain
their old title ; unless (as is confidently anticipated) they
will be found to represent the Purbeck strata, in which
case they will be known as the Sussex Purbecks. In
reference to our own immediate object, this recent survey
has established beyond doubt that the site of the boring is
by far the best that the county of Sussex presents for the
purpose.

Quite unexpectedly, on January 28, at a depth of 131
feet, a stratified mass of pure white crystalline gypsum
(statuary alabaster) was reached. This proved to be over

CARDEN

‘ILVI DUNAGNIONVEY FHL OL FSO7I
ASHLS WIFHTIM FJNIN

NIGN1I7, FHL WO SNIASO FINVLSIGO LYOHS VL

G

:

in the mind of the treasurer. The amount required for
machinery, sheddings, &c., has more than doubled the
- original estimate. Coals, tools, and labour, are each dear,
‘and likely to remain so. The difficulty of access will
greatly add to the original estimate of expenses. A large
portion of our promised aid is given on conditions which
render it unavailable at present.
‘If 200/. could be raised shortly, it would enable the
Finance Committee to authorise the call of the second
1,000/.; and till this is done we are approaching insol-
vency. If each existing subscriber would kindly undertake
to bring the matter under the notice of some neighbour
or friend, we should not only soon raise all we want
at present, but be relieved from anxiety for the ultimate
prosecution of the enterprise.

We have nothing to do with the commercial value of
our present or future discoveries ; this will be freely given
to those who can utilise it. We can only ask for aid

“ wwnes| asresccad

BLO-R OFTHE EN STE.

The question of Finance begins to excite some anxiety |

NATURE nee

trict has been recently visited by Messrs. Bristow, Topley, | 4 feet in thickness ; it was succeeded by 10 feet of gyp-

seous marl ; then by 3 feet more of alabaster. Afterwards,
we passed through 15 feet of gypsum (more or less im-
pure) varied by seams of crystals of selenite. This dis-
covery has been most opportune. No such accumulation
of gypsum was ever met with in Sussex before ; and it is
some consolation to know thatour labour has not been
all labour in vain: gypsum is a material which is com-
mercially valuable.

Geologists may therefore inquire, “Where are we
now?” The reply is given with caution, and under cor-
rection (as the shale seems singularly free from fossils),
but as blocks of gypsum are found in the lower strata of
the Purbeck series, we assume we are near the base of
that formation, and may with some reasonable confidence
expect to be able to announce before another quarter is
over that we are through these problematical beds, and
into the Portland series or some subjacent formation.

INORGANIC |
4 CHEMISTRY
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j PUARMACO: | as |
LOGICAL “ i
LASORATORY x |
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Plan of Physiological Laboratories, Berlin

from those who will “give, hoping for nothing again,’
except scientific discovery. :

THE NEW PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES
AT BERLIN *

ik HE building of the new laboratory will begin on April r.

The plans are almost ready, and a most glorious
place it will be, undoubtedly the finest physiological
laboratory as well as the largest which was ever dreamt
of. Besides the large theatre, and every possible accom-
modation for the lectures, it will contain rooms for collec-
tions, for a library, a smaller class-room, apartments for
three assistants, lodgings for the servant and his family,
&c. Then, there are five distinct laboratories most
scientifically connected ; (1) for physiological chemistry ;
(2) for physical physiology ; (3) for vivisections ; (4) for

* Extract from a letter communicated to us by Dr, Bence Jones.

406

microscopical and embryological investigations. To this
laboratory is added a complete aquarium, in which it is
hoped to be able to keep all sorts of marine and fresh-
water creatures. (5) The private laboratory is organised

NATURE

ALDEBARAN. a ; e

[Mar. 27, 1873

so as to afford opportunities for every kind of physio-

logical inquiry, so that future professors will feel at home

in it, whatever may be their peculiar branch of physio-

logical research, Then, of course, there are dark
.

0 z

ioe ae: (ae 7 ae : 7 =
CC ee
ee iam rake ny t. { I ! i |

Ag Ba SnPb NBi Sn

Ag Be sult

wa ENG Si fullgeer

D

I

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Nv

UNG

ee
i | |
iy

be Su Da

Fic, 34—.Spectra of Aldebaran and , Orionis.

chambers looking to the south for optical experiments,
rooms for a’respiration apparatus, and all sorts of stables,
an aviary, a ranarium for the summer, and one for the
winter, &c. There is to be a dwelling-house close by,
in fact so connected with the laboratory that from
the study a lobby and a flight of stairs lead to
the private laboratory. The House has been de-
signed entirely according to the English fashion, and
wonderful to say, hitherto has not yet met with serious
opposition from the architects and the authorities.
On the same premises there will be (1) Helmholtz’s
laboratory and dwelling-house ; (2) a laboratory for in-
organic chemistry; (3) one for pharmacology, under
Leibreich. The accompanying sketch will give an idea
of the whole. It covers an area of 4} acres. The
style of building is to be magnificent, much more so than

Fic. 35- Fic. 36. _.
Fig 35.—Ring Nebula in Lyra, with its spectrum. Fig. 35.— Planetary
Nebula in Aquarius, with its spectrum.

is desirable, because the costliness of the establishment
increases the responsibility ; but now that they are at it,
they do not care for ever so many hundred thousands of
dollars. All around the buildings, there will be an area,
after the English plan, in order to mitigate the tremor
occasioned by vehicles. In the Neue Wilhelmstrasse
and the hitherto very nasty lane called Schlachtgasse
there remains an open space facing the streets, so that
the gardens intervening between the two great masses
of building get as much light and air as is possible in the
town. After all we are not so exclusively military as it
may seem at a distance, and some of the French millions
find their way into a scientific channel.

(Huggins and Miller.)

ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS

VI.

ie the first place, then, what does the spectroscope tell

us with regard to the radiation from the sun and the
stars? And here I ask you to neglect and banish from
your minds for a time any idea of those dark lines in the
solar spectrum that I drew your attention to on a former
occasion,

merely to take the fact that our sun, but for the dark
lines, would give us a continuous spectrum. The spec-

trum of the stars is very much like the spectrum of
In Fig. 34 is seen a representation of the

the sun.

spectra of two stars, a Orionis and Aldebaran, mapped
with the minutest care by Dr. Miller and Mr, Huggins.

Fic. 37.—Spectrum of the Nebula.—1, 2, 3, lines observed. Above, the
solar spectrum is shown fromé to¥ ; below, the bright lines of magnesium,
nitrogen, barium, and hydrogen, in the corresponding part of the spectrum,

In both cases we should have a continuous spectrum but
for the presence of the dark lines. I think you will see
in a moment what I am driving at. Suppose the sun or
stars composed of only sodium vapour, for instance, it is
clear that their light analysed by the prism would give us
no great indication of a continuous spectrum, we should
merely get one bright line in the orange. But neglect
the dark lines for a moment: dealing merely with the
continuous spectrum of the sun and star, it shows that we
have a something, whether it be solid or liquid, or whether
it be a dense gas or a vapour, competent to give us a con-
tinuous spectrum. So we are justified in assuming that
sunlight and starlight proceed from the incandescence of

I hope I shall be able to explain them satis- —
factorily to you afterwards, but for the present I wish you

a ——— ee ee

Mar. 27, 1873]

a solid, a liquid or a dense gas or vapour. Again, suppose
that instead of looking at the sun or the stars we observe
the moon, as Fraiinhofer did, as has been ‘before stated,
what will happen? We get a second edition of sunlight,
in exactly the same way as we should get a second edition
of the sunlight in the case of a reflection of it from a
mirror; and therefore, if proof of such a thing were
needed, the spectroscope is perfectly competent to show
us that the moon gives us sunlight second-hand. The same
in the main with Jupiter, Venus, Mars, and the other
planets. If we study them and observe the dark lines we
find that the lines which we observe are generally the same
as those which we find in the spectrum of the sun. There
are other points to which I shall have to draw your attention
on a future occasion, but on the whole, the teaching of
the spectroscope is, that all those planets are lit up by
sunlight as we know them to be.

But we have not yet exhausted the wonders of the
celestial field ; we have dealt merely with the sun and
moon, the stars and planets. What about the nebulz,
those strange weird things, dimly shining in the depths
of space, both to the eye and in the telescope obviously

General view.

Head and envelopes
F:c. 38.—Views of Donati's Comet,

and distinctly different from anything in the shape of the
sun or stars? The appearance of these peculiar bodies
is sufficient to show us that we have here something very
different from the sun or moon. What is it? You all
know as well as I do that ever since nebulx were dis-
covered mankind have wondered at them, and wanted to
know what they were ; and you are alsoaware that it was
not settled and could not be settled before the advent of
the spectroscope, but that it could be settled in five
minutes after that event. Mr. Huggins, who first ob-
served the spectrum of a nebula, found that, instead of
the continuous spectrum with which you are familiar in
the case of the sun and the stars—always asking you to
neglect the Fraiinhofer lines, which I shall explain after-
wards—the light which he got from the nebula consisted
merely of three lines. He was exceedingly astonished,
so much so that he thought the instrument might be out
of order. However, it became perfectly clear to him in
a very short time that there was no mistake at all, and that
all that the light which came from the nebula could
do was to give him these three faint lines. No doubt you
have anticipated my explanation. The nebulz are com-
posed of tenuous gases or vapours. After what I have
said about the way in which the spectroscope at once
picks out the difference between a solid or liquid, and a

NATURE

vaporous or a gaseous body, you will see at once that

407

these three bright lines indicate that the nebulz, instead
of being composed of solid, liquid, or densely gaseous
bodies—instead of being like the sun or stars—are really
composed of rare gases or vapours. Mr. Huggins
was enabled, in fact, to determine the gas in one
instance, for one of the lines he found was coincident
with one of the principal lines in the spectrum of hy-
drogen one of the other lines possibly being due to
nitrogen. And now comes another extremely important
point, showing the importance of studying the most
minute changes in gaseous spectra, for Mr. Huggins,
who knew the spectrum of hydrogen and the spectrum of
nitrogen well, and who knew how extremely complicated
those spectra are at times, was much astonished at finding
only one line of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, and
attempted to account for the singleness of the lines, first,
by assuming a condition of the gas different from anything

Spectrum of Winnecke’s
4, Spectrum of Carbon in

a

a
o
7
“
i=}
s
2
3
3
a
rat
oe
S)
=
°
5
z-
o
v
2.
A

(Huggins.)

a 2 3 4

we meet with in our laboratories, and again by assuming
an absorbing medium in space, But after Dr. Frankland
and myself had made some observations on the spectra
of hydrogen and nitrogen, we found it was perfectly easy
to obtain, and sometimes when one did not want it, a
spectrum of hydrogen or of nitrogen giving only one line,
or nearly so ; so that by comparing the conditions which
were necessary to obtain these conditions in our tubes
with the conditions of the nebulz, it was quite possible
to make at all events a rough guess at what is the con-
stitution of the nebulz, so far as pressure or molecular
separation goes. We find, for instance, this single line of
hydrogen, and a nearly single line of nitrogen, when the
pressure is so slight that you would say that the tube
really contained nothing at all, and when, moreover, the
temperature is comparatively low. Now, not only is this
a fact, which we are quite prepared to assert, merely on
the evidence rendered us by these tubes, but I think you
will acknowledge that it is entirely in accordance with
everything we know astronomically on this subject.

For the next application of the spectroscope in this
direction, let us take a comet. The appearance of a

408

comet is probably well known to many, who will recollect
the form of Donati’s comet. Although, as you know, that
comet appeared only about ten years ago, unfortunately
it came too early for us to learnanything about it by
means of the spectroscope, We have, first of all, an
extremely bright nucleus ; then a kind of semilune of
greater brilliancy than the rest of the head , then what is
called the coma, and the tail. The question which the
spectroscope had to put to the comet was—of what is the
nucleus composed, and of whatis the tail composed. Prof.
Donati, and Mr. Huggins especially, to whom we owe so
much for his work in this direction, has made some ob-
servations ontwo small comets—Iam sorry they were not
larger—with considerable success. He found that in the
comets he examined, the head gave out a light which very
strongly indeed resembled the spectrum of carbon vapour.
The spectrum of carbon taken with the spark in olive oil
and in olefiant gas differs slightly; the spectrum as
obtained from the latter consists of three bands or waves
of light, which commence tolerably bright and sharply on
the red side, and become gradually fainter towards the
more refrangible side. These bands are severally situated
in the beginning of the green, in the true green, and in
the blue portions of the spectrum. Mr. Huggins has also
observed the spectrum of Encke’s comet,and has confirmed
the result that he previously obtained, viz., that the spec-
trum of the comet is identical with the spectrum of carbon,
as taken in ahydrocarbon. I should like to draw your
attention, if there were time, to the way in which these
spectra of the carbon spark taken in oil and in olefiant gas,
differ.

I have not yet completed all I have to say on the
subject of radiation. If, as we have already seen, we take
a tube containing incandescent hydrogen and passa
series of intense electric sparks through it, we see that it
gives out a red light, which may remind you of some
other specimens of radiation which is supplied us by the
skies. I allude to the red prominences which are seen
around the sun, not in ordinary times, but when the sun
is eclipsed. This representation gives you a good idea
of what really is seen when the sun is eclipsed, when
we have as it were a black sun instead of a bright one,
which is really nothing, but the body of the moon.
Around this we have a ring of light, which is called the
corona, and here and there in this corona we have what
are called red flames and red prominences. These red
prominences have also on closer observation been found
to be only local aggregations or heapings up of a red
layer which surrounds the outer edge of the sun. Here,
then, it was quite possible that if the newly invented
spectroscope were set to question these things, we should
see at once whether they were solid or liquid, or whether
they were gaseous or vaporous. If we got a continuous
spectrum from these red things, we should know that they
were solid, or liquid, or densely gaseous. If, on the
contrary, we got a bright line spectrum we should know
we were dealing with a gasor vapour. You also see that,
as the light is red, the chances were that they were not
solid or liquid, and then you further see that if the things
do consist of a light which does give us lines, a deter-
mination of the exact position of the lines, and a com-
parison of these positions with those of hydrogen,
sodium, magnesium, barium, or anything else, would
teach us what these things were.

J. NORMAN LOCKYER

PROF. FLOWERS HUNTERIAN LECTURES
LECTURES XIII. XIV. XV.
[A PIRIDA:, The geographical distribution of the exist-
ing members of this small order is very peculiar, they
being confined tothe Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and most
of South America. Lund has found their remains in the
Post-pleistocene caves of Brazil; they have also been

NATURE

obtained in abundance from similar deposits in North —
America, and these can hardly be distinguished from those
at present existing ; in China likewise Pleistocene Tapir’s —

-welldeveloped ; 7. dairdi is

_mouth, in the Isle of Wight, and in Hampshire. S

¥

[Mar. ay, 1873

teeth have been found. In Europe during the same time ~
they do not seem to have existed, although Elephants
and Rhinoceroses were abundant. In the Pliocene and
Miocene, Tapirs are not unfrequently met with at Ep
sheim, Auvergne, and elsewhere ; perhaps they originated
in Europe, and thence spread east into Asia, and on to
America. Respecting their anatomical peculiarities, the
teeth are forty-two in number, the anterior lower premolar —
being absent ; the molars and premolars are much alike, —
forming a uniform series ; the incisors are smaller than
the canines, they have a small cingulum. The molars ©
are a modification of those of Lophiodon, the transverse —
ridges are very prominent, and the cusp of the cingulum ~
is less developed. The lower possess two simple trans-
verse ridges, as in Lophiodon, but the last in the series
wants the extra back lobe. The anterior nares are very
open and the orbit is incomplete behind. There are four
toes on the front foot, and three behind; the radius and
ulna as well as the tibia and fibia are quite separate and
eculiarin that the meseth- —
moid cartilage is well ossified, and the maxillaries are
specially developed upwards to support it.

‘To

The Paleotheride occur in the Upper Eocene only,
they were first found at Montmartre and worked out by
Cuvier ; since that time they have been obtained from
many parts of France, the Bembridge clay, near Yar-

genera have been separated off, and about a dozen species, —
from the size of a small rhinoceros downwards. In ~
general aspect they must have been tapir-like. The
maxilla curved downwards in front as in the tapirs ; the —
orbital and temporal fossze were also united, and there ~
were large anterior osseous nares ; the feet were much
like those of the tapir, though they were more specialis
in wanting the fifth toe to the manus. The typical forty-—
four teeth were present ; the incisors were more uniform
than in the tapirs; the first pre-molar was rather rud
mentary, the others formed a uniform series with t
molars, which were wider than from before backwa
much pressed together, and with short crowns. They
be shown to have been developed on the type of Lophi-
odon, the outer wall bulging inwards, opposite the outer
cusps, instead of outwards, giving the earliest indication
of the lunate type of tooth; the transverse ridges were —
normal, and the internal cusps were slightly cut off from
them, turning backwards as the rudiments of the posterior
semilunes. The lower teeth presented a peculiarity here
first noticed, each being formed by a double crescent,
quite different from those of the tapir. The last lower —
molar had a third crescent behind as in Lophiodon and ~
the Artiodactylata, but, different from the latter, in the
corresponding milk tooth not presenting it. Padaplo-
theriumt was a smaller and earlier genus described by
Owen from Hordle. In the upper jaw the first premolar —
was missing, and the corresponding lower one soon lost; —
the others were comparatively simple. The remains are —
very abundant, the feet were as in Palzotherium. Gervais —
has given the name Propal@otherium to a few teeth of
another early form, intermediate between Lophiodon and
Paleotherium. <Aychitherium was an American form
closely allied to the strictly European Palzotheride,
Rhinocerotide are at present found in Africa and South ~
Asia only ; they belong to three types, the African two-—
horned, non-scutellated ; the Asiatic two-horned, and the
Asiatic single-horned. The extinct members were nu-—
merous ; four species existed in England. They did not —
appear before the Miocene epoch ; many are found in
America, but not above the Pliocene period. The exist-
ing genera have peculiarities in their incisor dentition ;
these teeth are quite absent in the African, and two above ~
as well as below in the Indian species ; when they are

fst

Mar. 27, 1873]

present the outer upper and the inner lower are rudimen-
_ tary. The canines are absent in all ; the full complement
of molars are present, of similar character, and degene-
rating at either end ; they are formed on the Lophiodon
type; the outer wall is very strong and oblique, with the
cusps but little developed and the cingulum large be-
hind ; the posterior transverse ridge sends forward a pro-
* cess from near its middle, which in one fossil species
(R. tichorhinus) is met by another from the anterior wall
to form a circular foramen behind the anterior fossa. The
_ lower molars agree with those of Palzotherium, being
formed of a double crescent, in which the posterior cornu
of the front lunule is partially overlapped by the anterior
cornu of the hind one; no third crescent is found on the
last molar ; three toes are present on all the limbs. They
have not been found fossil in the Eocene strata, conse-
quently the American species are among the earliest.
Leidy has named an allied genus of small size Hyracodon.
Its teeth resembled rhinoceros, but the anterior premolars
were retained ; the peculiar cvs on the posterior trans-
verse ridge was wanting, and the proportions of the in-
cisors were reversed. [here are several extinct species
of the genus Rhinoceros. Acevotherium possessed the
same number of teeth as the Asiatic genera, but the nasal
bones were small, slender, and smooth above, so they
could scarcely have carried a horn ; it is a Miocene form
only ; a fifth rudimentary toe was present. Except 2.
pleuroceros, which had two laterally-placed tubercles on
the nasal bones, all the other species had them median.
They may be divided by their incisors, as are the recent
genera, some having them rudimentary, others not. All
the European specimers had two horns, with or without
functional incisors, ‘Ihe English species, which are not
peculiar, are from Pliocene and Pleistocene formations ;
in 2. leptorhinus the nasal septum was not ossified ; in
others it was much so, as in #. “ichorhinus, a species
which has been fourd preserved by ice in the river Vilni,
a branch of the Lena, in Siberia; it possessed a hairy
coat and the peculiar pit in the molars mentioned
above.

From Port St. Julian, in Patagonia, Mr. Darwin first
obtzined bones of the peculiar genus Macrauchenia,
which has not been found out of South America, and only
in the Pleistocene deposits there. Prof. Huxley has
proved the existence of a second smaller species from
some fraginents out of a copper mine in Bolivia. Owen
showed in his, the first description of the animal, that the
vertebrae were peculiar, and agreed with those of the
Camels in having the vertebral artery threading a bony
canal inside the spinal column, instead of through the
bases of the transverse processes. It may be remarked
that Myrmecophaga exhibits a similar conformation.
But these vertebra in Macrauchenia are further peculiar
in having both ends of the centra quite flat instead of
their being opisthoccelous, as in the allied forms. M.
Bravard, who was killed in the earthquake at Mendoza,
left excellent drawings of the skull and other parts of this
animal, which Prof. Burmeister has since published.
From them we learn that the skull was not unhorselike ;
the orbital ring was complete ; the palate was not fully
ossified between the posterior molars (the camels present
the same peculiarity, though Artiodactylate) ; the nasal
bones were extremely reduced, so that the anterior nares
were directly above the posterior, and the lower jaw had
the angle prolonged. Burmeister thinks, and with good
reason, that the animal possessed a fair-sized trunk.
There were twenty-four dorso-lumbar vertebrae, of which
seventeen were dorsal. The radius and ulna, as well as
the tibia and fibula, were fused throughout. The femur
possessed an extremely small third trochanter ; and there
were three toes to each limb. The astragalus was strongly
Perissodactylate, no cuboid facet being present. Our
knowledge of the teeth is somewhat deficient, as they are
_ always preserved in a much worn state. The typical

4

Peart Oe. ok ae eee er

WA LORE

409

forty-four were present ; the incisors were equine, and the
canines of the same size; the back molars were the
bigger and the anterior premolars comparatively simple.
The lower molars formed double crescents, as in Palzo-
therium.

In tracing back the descent of the Eguide, the Palzeo-
therium d’Orleans of Cuvier has been shown to be gene-
rically diferent, and has been ca'led Anchitherium ; it is
also found in Nebraska. These were small horse-like
animals with teeth much as in Palzotherium, forty-four in
number ; the first premolars were very small, and no pit
was present in the incisors ; the outer wall of each molar
was also concave opposite the cusps; the lower molars
formed double crescents, and the last possessed the extra
lobe. The ulna and fibula were fused with the radius and
tibia respectively ; the astragalus had some of the ob-
liqueness of that of the horse, which it resembled in
many other points. But there were three toes on the
limbs, the lateral ones being less strong than the median.
A peculiar antorbital fossa was present.

The horse must be described before the affinities of its
close allies can be realised. In it the incisors possess the
well-known pit ; the canines are rudimentary in the mare;
the premolars resemble the molars, and the crowns are
very long and deeply embedded, with a concave crescent
opposite the tubercles on the outer wall and the anterior
internal tubercle insulated at first; otherwise they are
typical. The depressions are very deep and are filled up
by cementum, to form a solid mass. The lower molars
are slightly complicated double crescents. The ulna and
fibula are not free. H/ipparion had very horse-like teeth.
Itis a later Miocene form, and is common in the New and
Old World. It possessed the antorbital pit, as in Anchi-
therium, but was otherwise very equine. The canines
were present in both sexes of equal size, and the anterior
internal tubercle of the molars was completely insulated.
The median of the three digits alone was functional.
Merychippus, a Pliocene form, recognised by Leidy from
some teeth, seems to have been an intermediate form
between these and Anchitherium. Fossil true horses
abound in America as well as the Old World ; they since
became extinct in the former locality. They are found in
the Pleistocene nearly everywhere ; their earliest remains
are from the Sevalik Hills.

With these animals the description of the fossil Peris-
sodactylata terminates.

PERCEPTION IN THE LOWER ANIMALS

oS on this interesting subject still continue to
pour in upon us in so great abundance that limited
space compels us to select merely the facts contained in
each. The best service we can at present render to the
unravelling of the, we think, yet unsolved problem is
simply to accumulate facts; no doubt a satisfactory ex-
planation will by-and-by be arrived at. First we must
give place to Prof. Croom Robertson, who thus writes as
to the theory broached in his former letter :—

In my former letter I made no pretension to explain all the
wonderful feats reported of dogs or other animals, but only
argued, in the wake of Mr. Wallace, that it had never been
sufficiently considered what help in finding their way dogs might
have from smell alone. Be the help what it may in the parti-
cular cases, I thought it clear that, if in their common experi-
ence smell does not somehow supply to dogs the defect of touch,
they are, as far as we can see, badly fitted out, by comparison
with men, for making their way through the world. And, even
after your article of last week, I must still in their interest hope
that the notion of a continuous world of smells is not an impos-
sible one,

If the external world were the same to dogs that it is to men—
a complex of interwoven touches and sights in space, and only in
addition dogs had more frequent and varied experiences of smell,
the dying away or shifting of some in a particular train of odouis
would doubtless, as the writer of the article urges, put a dog out

410

when reduced to work its way back along such a train. But my
point is, that a dog will regularly think of all things, stationary
or moving, by their smell, where we think of them by their
touch as handled, and this upon the simple ground of fact that a
dog has no hands ; in which case the continuity of a road will
as litt!e 'o the doz as to us depend upon the standing-still of
flocks of sheep or any other passing objects. It is true that our ex-
perience dees nor enable us easily to fancy what sort of world
this of the dog’s wil be, but at the worst we need not conceive it,
with the writer, upon the analogy of a succession of coloured
mists. Do we, even with our intermittent smell, find it so im-
possible to refer the ditfused odour of a dung-hill to a particular
source? Or, to take a fair parallel case, if a sound is diffused so
that it may be heard anywhere throughout a great hall, do we
therefore suppose it to be everywhere and not to emerge from a
definite spot? To the psychologist the strictly tactile properties
of objects are themselves but sensations, which we are deter-
mined to project away from us in a certain definite order—as it
happens, a very sharply defined order. With different means of
projection and different sensations to project, how should the
dog not have its own different world—the best it can devise out
of its exprriences ?

Such reference to the fact of a dog’s organs of sense being
what they obviously are, ought not to be discounted as mere
speculation, but perhaps that must be borne with. Facts of the
other sort—reports, more or less authentic, of the feats of parti-
cular dogs—when made a ground for ascribing to the species
pretersatural powers of divination, merely because the facts are
not explicable under the conditions of human experience, are
beset with their own difficulty. Dogs do not always find their
way back, even from the next street. Let all that side of the
matter be thought of, before we suppose some unerring instinct
to account for the remarkable enough feats of some that cannot
be denied, Of course no train of evanescent smells can guide a
dog back upon a road from which they have died away ; as little, or
sill less, can the succession of particular smells, however con-
stant, lesd a dog night upon a line that he has never travelled
over nefore. But that dogs, while they have no such touch as
ours, €o constanly ue ther sense of smell to guide them, can-
no: be eoubted ; and the result to them must be such a very
differ-n’ world ot experience from ours, though developed under
common laws of acquisition, that we have no means of deciding
what is impossible to be done by some dogs through mere expe-
rience,

One of your correspondents, Mr, Brewer, had good remarks
in this sense the other week. One point he raised besides upon
which I would add a word. The point was whether for the dog
smells would enter, instead of touches, into that fundamental
experience of an external world, of which visual sensations are
but marks or symbols. I should imagine that they would enter
into its experience of modes of extension, by us acquired chiefly
through the moving hand. But into the experience of modes of
res'stance, the general tactile sensibility diffused over the surface
of the body would enter for the dog as well as for us.

Mr. George Henry Lewes appends to his letter on p. 4or1
of this week’s NATURE, the following contribution to this
subject :—

Gratiolet, in his work on the ‘Nervous System,”
mentions that a dog of his was always thrown into convulsions of

/ NATURE

terror by the scent of a small piece of wolf’s skin, which was so
old that it was worn toa shred. In my room there is a perfectly
unworn wolfskin made ino a rug, and on this my bulldog was
accustomed luxuriously to stretch himself, without any but plea-
surable emotions. Now this may have been due either to bis
impe fect snee of smell, or, what is more probable, to his not
hiving inherited any terror from ancestors more likely to attack
than to be afraid of a wolf,

Mr. Laughton, of the Royal Naval Colleze, Greenwich,
sends us a valuable letter, from which we extract the
following :—

A passage in Sir Bartle Frere’s paper on Cutch (Journal
of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xl. p. 186), seems
to bear on this subject which has been interesting the
readers of Nature for some weeks past. He says :—‘‘ As |
elsewhere in the plain country of Sind, and here more con- |
spicuously, owing to the absence of any prominent natural |
features or marked tracts, the best guides sem to depend entirely
on a kind of instinct—they will generaily indicate the exact |

bearing of a distant point which is not in sight quite as accurately
as a common compass would give it to one who knew the true —
bearing. They affect no mysterious knowledge, but are generally
quite unable to give any reason fortheir conclusion, which seems_
the result of an instinct—like that of dogs and horses and other
animals—unerring, but not founded.on any process of reasoning,
which others can trace or follow.”
[ incline strongly to the solution put forward by the writer —
in the Quarterly (see letter in last number). If to this we
add the consideration that dogs certainly can and do interchange
ideas, and may therefore question other dogs as to the general
direction in which they wish to go, the two together seem to offer —
a reasonable though hypothetical explanation of the very curious
facts referred to. ‘A

Mr. George R. Jebb, of Shrublands, Chester, writing on
March 18, says— ; “

Last Thursday I sent my terrier dog (Tartar) by train from —
Chester to Shrewsbury by Great Western Railway (ze. by way
of Wrexham and Ruabon), I myself went by the North Western —
line via Broxton and Whi'church; the distance by the former road —
is 42 miles, by the latier 38: the two railways diverge from each —
other for some 20 miles from Chester, and are then 16 miles —
apart ; they afterwards converge and join at Shrewsbury. Tartar
was sent from Shrewsbury to Broxton station, which is 10 miles
from Chester, by the 2.55 train. I had previously arranged with
the station-master to keep the dog for five or ten minutes after the
departure of the train, and then to set him at liberty on the public —
road. The train arrived at Broxton at four o’clock. Tartar hung |
about the station till nearly 5. 30, perhaps longer, as he was not seen —
starting off. He was at home at Chester at nine ; he was not at —
alldistressed. It is probable, I think, that he came back pretty
divect. It is certain he came across ten miles of country, the
greatest part of which he had never traversed before. It is also
certain he did not return 7/@ Shrewsbury, as there was not time. —
He had never been at Br »xton before.

Does not this experiment seem to prove that dogs—some at
least—possess the wonderful power (the nature of which is at —
present unknown) of arriving at the knowledge of the direction —
of their home when they have been taken from it long distances
by circuitous routes? And if so, is it not more probable that a —
dog when lost usually makes use of this power to guide himself —
home by the shortest practicable road, than that he finds his way
back ‘‘ by means of the odours he took note of” on the outward
journey? How do pigeons find their way home? A railway con- —
tractor told me he has a pony which he uses chiefly for drawing a —
light ‘‘lorry” upon a tramway nowin course of construction. There
are on this tramway some loops or passing places for waggons at
intervals of a mile or so. These points are dangerous if passed
too quickly. The contractor drives the pony himself often ata —
very fast rate. The pony will on the darkest nights suddenly
pul up at the dangerous points without the slightest check from
the driver, who otherwise would be obliged to proceed with the
greatest caution. Does the pony know his whereabouts by the
sense of smell, hearing, or touch? Probably, I should say, by
all three acting in unison.

The Rev. O. Fisher, of Harlton, writes :—

On a bright day when I have} flowers in my window, bees
frequently precipitate themselves against the window-panes,
evidently desirous of reaching the plants. This is easily ex-
plained by the sense of sight ; but the rtmarkable thing is that
they do the same when the blind is drawn down, so that they
cannot see the flowers, and it seems impossible that they should
smell them while the window is shut. Can it be that that all- —
pervading ather, which brings ligit to our eyes, and is also
believed to convey the magnetic and electric forces through media
impervious to light, may act in a manner other than luminiferous
towards some animals, and produce ‘‘action at a distance” upon
their organs?

A Scotch correspondent, R. C., who has givenus his full
name and address, sends us the following interesting
facts :—

A few years ago a sheep, one of a flock, belonging to Mr.
Miller, flesher, Beith, Ayrshire, gave birth to three lambs;
thinking that three were too heavy for the mother to su kle,
he gave one toa firmer, who lived three quarters of a mile
from the field where the sheep lambed. This one was taken
away from the mother when barely a day old, aud carried
to the farmer’s, where it was shut up in a close house.—

4 . : ria

* : Pt

i" » U aN 4
3 s Brn: °

ier ae * ~ TP’, ‘

Brees y

Two days afier it found its way out, the door having been
left open, and immediately made off for the field from which it
had been taken. The writer met it near the field walking (it

‘ing chosen rightly between two branches into which the road
diverges between the field and the farm-house) on the grass on the
ide of the road : the farmer, an old man, was in pursuit, and called
pon the writer to turn it back, which he did, but not without some
difficulty, as it crossed from side to side, and made efforts to
pass on, with all the tactics of an old animal, while it was barely
three days old, and had been barely one when it was brought from
the field. —I have the following from a well-authenticated source.
A farmer in Bogside, Beith, of the name of Fleming, was looking
out of his window one summer’s morning, about three o’clock,
when he saw a fox crossing a field before it, carryinga large duck
hat he had captured. On coming to a stone dyke about four
feet high, on the side of the field, Reynard made an effort to leap

er it with his prey, but failed, and fell back into the field. After
making three attempts with the same result, he sat down and
wed the dyke for a few minutes; after apparently satisfying
himself, he caught the duck by the head, and standing up against
the dyke with his fore paws, as high as he could reach, he placed
he bill of the duck in a crevice in the wall ; then springing
ipon the top, he reached down, and pulling up the duck dropped
upon the other side, leaped down, and picking it up, went
on his way. If this is not reason, it is nearly akin to it.

_ We conclude with the following instances sent us by
Mr. G. J. Romanes, of Cornwall Terrace, Regent's Park :—

_A Colley dog accompanied his master witha flock of sheep
down the Caledonian Canal, and between Ovan and Greenock
suffered much from sea-sickness. Several months afterwards a
imilar journey was undertsken by the same dog and man with
another flock of sheep. Upon quitting the wharf at Oban, the
dog, remembering that this was the point at which his troubles
began on the former occasion, jumped ashore, leaving his master
vith the sheep on board the steamer. Upon landing at Greenock
he man was surprised to find his dog upon the quay awaiting
s arrival—the animal having run by land from one whart to
the other, over ground which he had never before traversed.
The distance between Oban and Greenock is fifty miles in a
traight line, but as this passes over high mountains as well
s through a lake and two arms of the sea, it is not likely to have
been the route taken, :

_ My authority for this account is a, leading clergyman in
Glasgow, who would, no doubt, be willing to give his name to
ny one desiring it.

The second instance, in its bearing upon Mr. Wallace’s theory,
is even more conclusive. Another dog of the same kind sailed
ith his master from Wick to Berwick, where he was lost. Ten
(?) days afterwards he appeared at his home in Satherlandshire,
footsore and exhausied, having, it must seem, run nearly the
entire length, of Scorland. I am indebted for this information
9a medical army-officer and well-known C.B. who had heard
t from the owner of the dog. As my friend is at present in
-health, I am unable co refresh my memory as to the number
bf days occupied by the dog’s return journey, but I think it is
orrectly stated.

NOTES

_ THE meeting to which we alluded last week in connection with
memorial to the late Prof. Sedgwick, was held on Tuesday,
nd was attended by a large number of scientific and uni-
ersity friends of the late eminent geoiogist. Resolutions were
assed that a geological museum be erected, to be called the
edgwick Museum, and that a bust of the professor should be
aced in it. A Cambridge and a London Committee were ap-
Sinted. The Prince of Wales wrote that the object of the
leeting would have his warm support, from the feeling of respect
€ entertained for the late professor.

Some efforts are now being made gradually to give the same
imulus to the higher education of women as of men, The
fational Union for Improving the Education of Women has
fered seven scholarships of 25/. each, tenable for one year, for
petition throughout the United Kingdom, the competitors
) be young women over sixteen years of age. The scholarships

NATURE

41f
will be awarded at the local examinations held during the present
year by the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh,
and Trinity College, Dublin, the Science and Art Department,
the Society of Arts, and the College of Preceptors.

THE examiners for the Cambridge Natural Sciences Tripos
for 1872 have represented to the Board of Natural Science

‘Studies that they are of opinion that the time has now come

when an increase in the number of examiners is urgently re-
quired. The amount of physics now included in the subjects of
examination is so large as to make it impossible to treat the
examination in this subject any longer as an appendage to the
examination in chemistry. The subjects of comparative anatomy,
zoology, and physiology are also too wide to be undertaken as a
general rule by one examiner. An increase in the number of
examiners to seven would make it much more often possible to
secure a real examination of the answers by two examiners,
which is unquestionably desirable. The Board therefore recom-
mend that in Regulation 1o for the Natural Sciences Tripos, for
the words ‘‘two examiners” the words ‘three examiners” be
substituted, and for the words ‘third examiner” the words
‘fourth examiner” be substituted, and for the words “ five
examiners” the words ‘‘seven examiners” be substituted. They
recommend further that, in order to ensure the regular rotation
of examiners, five examiners be nominated by the Board in the
present year, of whom one shall be nominated to hold office
for one year only.

Mr. ARTHUR MILMAN, son of the late Dean of St. Paul’s,
has been appointed Assistant-Registrar to the University of
London, in the room of Dr. Hirst.

Iris understood that Mr. Fowler, of Lincoln College, Oxford,
author of the two works on Deductive and Inductive Logic, will
be a candidate for the Professorship of Logic, vacant by the
recent death of Prof. Wall. The appointment is made by Con-
vocation.

Tue late Mr. Julius Brenchley, whose death a month ago
has been a great loss to scientific collectors, as well as to
the town of Maidstone, left as the results of his voyage
in the South Pacific, the last of his most extensive travels, the
manuscript together with the. plates which illustrate it already
drawn, of a work which he fully intended to have had printed,
on the natural history of those regions. It is to be hoped
that some means will be taken to insure their publication.

IT is satisfactory to find that that the new ‘‘ Spanish Society
of Natural History ” is continuing its career undisturbed by the
political troubles around it, The third part of its Annals bear-
ing date March 5, 1873, has reached this country, and is quite
up to the mark of the parts which have preceded it. It con-
tains the conclusion of Vilanova’s paper on ‘‘ the Pre-historic in
Spain ;” a catalogue, by Gundlach, of the mamifera of Cuba ; a
paper by Sharp, des ribing a new species of Spanish Coleoptera,
and conteining the descriptions of several new biind beetles from
the caves of the mountains of the Asturias ; a paper, by Colmeiro,
on the elevations attained by cultivated plants in Ecuador ; also
a long and careful paper by Colmeiro, on the Leguminosz of
Spain and Portugal. This part completes the first volume, and
contains index, and list of the members of the Society. On in-
specting the latter it appears that only two of our countrymen
have joined the Society. This fact has, we believe, been a con-
siderable disap} ointment to the iounders of the Society, who
hoped it would meet with a liberal support in this country. We
hope that when the existence of t)e Society and the merit of its
publications become more widely known, it will receive the
recognition it deserves,

432

Tue brothers Godeffroy, large merchants of Hamburg, through
the instrumentality of several collectors in the Pacific Islands,
have accumulated a large number of specimens of marine and
other animals, many of great rarity. They have lately placed
their material in the hands of naturalists who interest themselves
in the different departments, and their results are being published
in the Yournal des Muscum Godefroy, a quarto work, the first
part of which, excellently illustrated, has just appeared.

Pror. Max MULLER delivered his first lecture on Mr. Darwin’s
Philosophy of Language at the Royal Institution last Saturday ;
the other two will be given on Saturday next and Saturday
week, From the syllabus which is before us, these lectures are
likely to be of high value, and to throw much light on the subject
under discussion, and in general on the place of man with re-
ference ‘to the lower animals. No doubt the lectures will be
given to the world in a more permanent form after their delivery
at the Royal Institution.

Tue Rev. Mr. Moyle, lately sentenced to penal servitude, is
not, as stated in the newspapers, a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Tue Geologists’ Association have arranged the following visits
for March and April :—Thursday, Marca 27—Visit to the
British Muszum, at 3 P.M., to inspect those portions of the
Botanical Collection interesting to geologists. Thursday, April 3
—Visit to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, at 3 P.M.,

in the Museum of the College. Easter Monday and Tuesday,
April 14 and 15—Excursion to Banbury, Oxfordshire, assembling

at the Red Lion Hotel, Benbury at 12.30 P.M.gjMonday, A;ril2r |

--Visit to the Museum of Practical Geology, at 8 p.m. under the
guidance of Mr. Etheridge, to inspect the Palontological
Collections exhibited in the Galleries of the Museum. Saturday,
April 26—Excursion to Charlton from Charing Cross by the
2.52 P.M. North Kent.

Tue second annual meeting of the Glasgow Society of Field
Naturalists was held on the evening of- Tuesday the 18th inst.,
Mr, J. Allan, vice-president, in the chair, ‘The report read by
the Secretary showed that a considerable amount of work had
been done during the year. Twelve excursions were held to
places of interest in the neighbourhocd, The papers read were
numerous, varied, and interesting, and a large number of speci-
mens were exhibited. The branches to which more particular

“attention was given were Lotany, entomology, and marine
zoology.

THE largest catalogue of stars that has ever been published in
America is now about to appear from the United States Naval
Observatory at Washington. This work, as we learn from a
yecent communication of Prof, Yarnall, will embody all the
valuable observations ma‘e since the foundation of the observa-
tory, in 1842, with the meridian ins:ruments, consisting of the
work of the well-known astronomers, Coffin, Hubbard, Ferguson,
Newcomb, Hall, Harkness, and Yarnall. Over fifteen years of
labour haye been devoted to it Ly Prof. Yarnall and his assistants,
and he has himself made nearly one half of the observations.
The catalogue will be based on over eighty thousand observations
of more than ten thousand stars, many of them being quite faint,
and in extreme southern latitudes, such as have never, or rarely,
hitherto been observed.

By the publication of a supplementary number, containing
the proposed corrections of plates already issued, the important
work of Mr. William H. Edwards upon the bu.terfl.es of North
America, completes its first volume. No American work of the
kind has ever been printed containing in its pages so satisfactory
illustrations of the various species, new and old, as this of
Mr. Edwards. The volume, as finished, embraces fifty plates,
each containing several figures, representing all the varieties of
each species.

NATURE

F : | propriated for t I f a suitable buildi
to inspect the Hunteiian and Zoological Collections preserved | propristed for thespurchase\of a euiteblebyita

[ Mar. 27, 1873

At the annual meeting of the Royal Irish Academy, he'd on |
Saturday evening, the 15th inst., the Cunningham Gold Medal
was presented to Sir William Robert Wilde, Knt., M.D., ia
recognition of his valuable services in the compilation of the
Museum catalogue, and in the arrangement of the Museum.

Tue American Palestine Explorition Society has reached
Syria, under the command of Lieut. Steever, United States
Cavalry, accompanied by Prof. Paine, formerly of Robert Col
lege, Constantinople, and by other persons, and at last advices
was fitting out at Beyrout, with a view ot taking the field early
in March. An arrangement has been made with the British
Palestine Exploration Society by which the whole country east
of the Jordan, and embracing the old territories of Moab, Gilead,
and Bashan, are to be relinquished exclusively to the American
society, and it is expected that, abounding as it does with ancient
ruins and excavations, objects of much interest will be brought
to light.

AmonG other biils lately presented to Congress is one for the
establishment of a National Photographic Institute, which pro
vides for the establishment of such an organisation in Phila-
delphia, where the entire theory and practice of the photographic
art are to be taught by competent professors, under the direction
of the National Photographic Association of the United State s.
The bill also provides that the sum of 30,000 dollars shall be

but that the institution shall be selfsupperiirg, and only such)
fees shall be pa.d by the students as shall meet the actual
expenses.

WE have received a couple of Salem (Massachusetts) pap
containing detailed accounts of the celebration on March 5 o
the 25th anniversary of the Essex Institute of that city. This
institute, mainly scientific in its aims, can trace its origin unde
various forms to about the middle of the last century, and unde:
its present name-was constituted by the union in 1848 of t
Essex Historical and the Essex County Natural History Societies,
Prof. O. C. Marsh, of Yale College, who was present, spok
of the good work which the institution has done in diffusin;
scientific knowledge and encouraging other societies; he also |
acknowledged that it was at the hands of this institution th !
he acquired his first taste for scientific investigation,

\
i
:
{

'

Mr. PARTRIDGE, for many years Professor of Anatomy to he:
Royal Academy, died on Tuesday, 25th inst. ‘

The following telegram from Mr. Cowie, Shanghai, date
March 25, 44 5™, has been received by Mr. J. R. Hind:
‘© Your predicted circular black spot on sun, seen here distinctl}
at 9 morning, 24th.” This of course refers to the possible transi
over the sun’s disc of an intra-Mercurial planet, and although i
is very unlikely that Mr. Cowie’s is a genuine find, the mere fact
that he should put himself to the trouble and expense of send
such a telegram all the way from Shanghai, is an encouragin
sign of the increasing and wide-spread interest taken in science,

_ AN International Congress is to meet in Vienna on August 4
to discuss the question of Patent Rights. The Congress, wh
was suggested by President G.ant, will consist of scientific men,
manufacturers, political economists, and skilled workmen. Each
Government will be represented by a special delegate, ;

THE Practical Magazine has now reached its third number,
and so far has carried out satisfactorily the promise of its ‘pro-
spectus ; its main aim being to carry out a careful and systematic
survey of the Industrial Activities of America, Germany, and
France, in order to present at the earliest possible mo: ent
such information as is likely to be useful to British practical men,
We believe there was a place in Britain for such a journal, and if
the Practical Magazine continues as it has begun, we have no
doubt it will satisfactorily fill this place. In get-up, papei

printing, illustrations,[&c., it is one of the handsomest journa :

}

5

we have seen, and we hope it will have many readers both among
industrial employers and employ¢es. 4
Two attempts have recently been made from Norway to reach
Spitzbergen in the middle of winter, for the purpose of taking
‘additional supplies to the storehouse at Eisfiord, erected and
"fitted with all necessaries last summer, as we noted some months
‘ago, for the purpose of sheltering the exploring expeditions
which are endeavouring to penetrate polewards to the norch of
Europe. The steamer Albert left Tromsoe on November 20,
and reached about 77° under the meridian of Greenwich, when,
‘on account of the great danger from the ice, not to mention the
“unbroken twilight, and the improbability of reaching the goal,
it wasdetermined to putback. One result of the voyage is the
observation that the temperature of the sea at that season is
several degrees higher than that of the air. In spite of the
failure of the A/bert, the sailing-vessel /sdjiirn left Tromsoe on
December 24, with the same object in view, and came within
‘sight of Bear Island on January 7, which, however, it was found
impossible to reach. After one or two attempts in other direc-
“tions, the Z:djan was compelled to put about, more from the
difficulty of managing the frozen sails than from the danger from
“ice and the inconvenience of perpetual darkness. Notwith-
standing these two failures, we learn from Les Mondes that M.
Rosenthal, of Bremen, has fitted out his steamer Groénland for
another attempt. M. Rosenthal has already lent his vessels to
the service of science, and we hope this third attempt may be more
successful than the previous ones, though it seems hopeless.
AN advanced sheet sent us of Petermann’s Mittheilungen con-
tains an article on King Karl Land, the island which lies to the
east of Spitzbergen. English geographers identify this island
with Wiche Land discovered by the Englishman Edge, in 1617,
while Prof. Mohn, the writer of the article referred to, claims it
for the Norwegian discoveries of 1872, and names it King Karl
Land, after King Karl XV., of Norway and Sweden. Dr. Peter-
mawvn maintains that Wiche Land has no existence, as the posi-
tion given to it until recently in the maps was considerably south
of King Karl Land, where there is nothing but water. Dr.
Petermann in a note to us suggests that if the English Admiralty
or any private English expedition should explore and survey it
" thoroughly, there might be no objection to naming it afresh.
_ The naming of any geographical discovery is not of very great
importance, but it seems to us that the discovery of the island
really belongs to Edge ; all that can be said against it is that
- either he or subsequent geographers misplaced the island by a
few degrees. On the same ground the credit of many early dis-
coveries might be taken away from those to whom it is justly
_ attributed.
Ir is said that an American aéronaut, Prof. Donaldson, in-
ends this summer to cross the Atlantic to Ireland in a large
‘balloon. The machine will weigh about 2,000 Ib, will contain
268,000 ft. of gas, with two reservoirs to provide against leakage,
and an electrical arrangement for light. The professor calculates
to accomplish his trip in from 17 hours to two days and a half,
and intends, if the experiment proves successful, to establish a
palloon mail and passenger line round the world,

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week included a short-toed eagle (Circaétus brachydactylus),
and two Algerian tortoises ( 7éstado mauritanica), from Morocco,
presented by Capt. Perry ; a white-faced tree-duck, (Dendrocygna
_ viduata), and a Capoeira partridge (Odontophorus dentatus), from
Brazil, and a crocodile from Sumatra, deposited ; a Great
kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), and a vulpine phalanger (Pia-
langista vulpina), born in the gardens ; three red-breasted
cardinals (Paroaria culculata) from South America, and a
‘western ground parrakeet (Geopsitéacus occidentalis) from South
~ Australia, purchased. Only one specimen of the last mentioned

extremely rare bird has been previously alive in the gardens.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES .
LONDON

Royal Society, March 20.—‘‘On the Temperature at which
Bacteria, Vibriones, and their Supposed Germs are killed when
immersed in Fluids or exposed to Heat in a Moist State.” By
H. Charlton Bastian, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological
Anatomy in University College, London.

For more reasons than one, we may, perhaps, now look
back with advantage upon the friendly controversy carried
on rather more than a century ago between the learned
and generous Abbé Spallanzani and our no less distinguished
countryman Turberville Needham. Writing concerning his
own relation to Needham, the Abbé said*:—‘‘I wish to
deserve his esteem whilst combating his opinion;” and,
in accordance with this sentiment, we find him treating his
adversary’s views with great respect, and at the same time repu-
diating much of the empty and idle criticism in which so many
of Needham’s contemporaries indulged with regard to his work.
This criticism Spallanzani says :—‘‘ Without looking into de-
tails, contented itself by throwing doubt upon some of the facts,
and by explaining after its own fashion others whose possibility
it was willing to admit.” He moreover warmly reprobated the
ignorant and disrespectful statements made by an anonymous
writer who had shown himself little worthy of being heard upon
the subjects in dispute. Spallanzani on this occasion very wisely
said { :—‘‘ When it is a question concerning observations and
experiments, it is necessary to have repeated them with much
circumspection before venturing to pronounce that they are
doubtful or untrustworthy. He who will allow himself to
speak of them with contempt, and who can only attempt to
refute them with writings composed by the glimmer derived
from a treacherous lamp, will not find himself in a condition
to retain the esteem of learned men.” The anonymous writer
(in his ‘LettresA un Americain”), to whom Spallanzani referred,
had gone so far as to doubt the statements of Needham as to the
constant appearance of organisms in infusions which had been
previously boiled, and also intimated that even if they were to
be found, it was only because they had been enabled to resist
the destructive influence of the boiling fluid. This latter asser-
tion was emphatically denicd by Spallanzani—his denial being
based upon a most extensive series of experiments with eggs in
great variety and with seeds of all degrees of hardness. These
were all found to be killed by a very short contact with boiling
water. Srallanzani had thoroughly satisfied himself that even
very thick-coated seeds could not resist this destructive agent,
whilst he thought that the idea entertained by some, of the eggs
of the lowest infusoria being protected from the injurious in-
fluence of the boiling water by reason of their extreme minute-
ness, was a supposition so improbable as scarcely to deserve
serious consideration. Such a notion was, he thought, wholly
opposed to what was known concerning the transmission of heat.
Whilst, therefore, the opinion of those who believe that eggs
have the power of resisting the destructive influence of boiling
water could be wholly refuted, Spallanzani thought it by no
means followed that the infusoria, which always after a very
short time appeared in boiling infusions, had arisen independ-
ently of the existence of eggs. The infusions being freely ex-
posed to the air, it was very possible that this air had intro-
duced eggs into the fluids, which by their development had given
birth to the infusoria. §

After the lapse of a century it has at last been clearly shown
that this supposition of aérial contamination advanced by Spal-
lanzani (warrantable and natural as it was at the time) is one
which, in the great majority of cases, is devoid of all founda-
tion in fact, so far as concerns the organisms essentially associated
with processes of putrefaction, viz., Bacteria and Vibriones.
The means of proving this statement, based upon independent

observations made by Prof. Burdon Sanderson and myself, were
recently submitted to ‘the consideration of the Royal Society. |
Before the reading of this communication I was under the im-
Découvertes Microscopiques et la

* * “Nouvelles Recherches sur les
i London and Paris, 1769, vol. i. p- 69-

Génération des Corps Organisés, &c.

+ Loc. cit. p. 9.

t Loc. cit. p. 114. anit

§ A few pages further on this view is thus shortly expressed. :—“* Il est
évident que toutes les tentatives faites avec le feu, peuvent bien servir a
prouver que les animaux microscopiques ne naissent point des ceufs que l’on
supposit exister dans les infusions avant qu’on leur fit sentir le feu: mais
cela n’empéche, pas qu’ils n’aient pti étre formes de ceux qui auront été
portes dans les vases aprés Vébullition.”

|| See Proceedings of Royal Society, No. 141, 1873) Ps 1296

414

pression that almost every one of those who had taken part in
controversies which had been carried on both here and abroad
concerning the Origin of Life, were prepared to admit, as Spal-
lanzani had done, that the eggs or germs of such organisms as
appear in infusions were unable to survive when the infusions
containing them were raised to the temperature at which water
boils. This impression was produced in part by the explicit
statements onthe subject that had been made by very many
biologists, and also in part by a comparatively recent and
authoritative confirmation which this view as to the destructive
effects of boiling infusions upon acteria had received. Little
more than two years ago Prof. Huxley, as president of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, recorded
experiments in his Inaugural Address which were obviously
based upon this belief as a starting-point. And subsequently,
in ove of the Sectional Meetings, after referring to some of my
experiments, and to the fact that all unmistakeably vital move-
ments ceased after Bacteria had been boiled, Prof. Huxley
added : *—“ I cannot be certain about other persons, but I am
of opinion that observers who have supposed they have found
Bacteria surviving after boiling have made the mistake which
I should have done at one time, and, in fact, have confused the
Brownian movements with ¢rue /iving movements.” Prof.
Huxley does not now (in reference to the experiments cited in
my last communication) suggest that the organisms found in the
infusions were dead and had been there before the fluids were
boiled : he expresses doubts concerning that which he seems
formerly to have regarded as established, and, with much
caution, wishes for evidence confirmatory of his own, to show
that the germs of Bacteria and Vibriones are killed in a boiling
infusion of hay or turnip, as they have been proved to be in
**Pasteur’s Solution” and in solutions containing ammonic
tartrate and sodic phosphate

With the view of removing this last source of doubt more
effectually, and also of refuting the unwarrantable + conclusions
of M. Pasteur, to the effect that the germs of Bacteria and
Vib; iones are not killed in neutral or slightly alkaline fluids at a
temperature of 212° F., I almost immediately after the reading
of my last communication commenced a fresh series of experi-
ments. é

Nearly two years ago, in my ‘Modes of Origin of Lowest
Organisms,” I brought forward evidence to show that Bacteria,
Vibriones, and their supposed germs, are killed at a temperature
of 140° F. (60° C.) in neutral or very faintly acid solutions con-
taining ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate, and also evidence
tending to show that these living units were killed in neutral
infusions of hay and in acid infusions of turnip at the same tem-
perature. ;

The crucial evidence adduced concerning the degree of heat
destructive to Bacteria, Vibriones, and their germs, in the saline
solution was of this nature. The solution had beén shown to be
incapable of engendering Bacteria and Vibriones(underall ordinary
conditions) after it had been boiled, although it still continued
capable of supporting the life and encouraging the rapid multi-
plication of any of these organisms which were purposely added
toit. Some of this boiled solution, therefore, was introduced
into flasks previously washed with boiling water ; and when the
fluids had sufficiently cooled, that of each flask was inoculated
with living Bacteria and Vibriones—in the proportion of one
drop of a fluid quite turbid with these organisms to one fluid
ounce of the clear saline solution. { These mixtures containing
an abundance of living organisms were then heated to various
temperatures, ranging from 122° F. (50° C) to 167° F. (75° C.),
and it was invariably found that those which had been heated
to 122° or 131° became quite turbid in about two days, whilst
those which had been raised to 140° F. or upwards as invariably
remained clear and unaltered. The turbidity in the first series
having been ascertained to be due to the enormous multiplication
of Bacteria and Vibriones, and it being a well-established fact
that such organisms when undoubtedly living always rapidly
multipiy in these fluids, the conclusion seemed almost inevitable
that the organisms and their germs must have been killed in the
flasks which were briefly subjected to the temperature of 140° F,
How else are we to account for the fact that these fluids re-

* See Report in Quart. Journ. of Microscop. Science, Oct. 1870.

+ Reasons for this opinion have been fully set forth in ‘‘ The Beginnings
of Life,’ p. vol. i. 374 e¢.seg. ; or the discriminating reader may at once
find my justification forthis expression by reading pp. 58-66 of M. Pasteur’s
memoir in Ann de Chim. et de Physique, 1862. : ,

Tt Fuller details concerning these experiments may be found in the little
work already mentioned at pp. 51-56, and alsoin “The Beginnings of Life,”
vol. i., pp 325-332,

mained quite unaltered although living organisms were added to :

them in the same proportion as they had been to those less-
heated fluids which had so rapidly become turbid? Even if
there does remain the mere possibility that the organisms and

their supposed germs had not actually been killed, they were —

certainly so far damaged as to be unable to manifest any vital
characteristics. The heat had, at all events, deprived them of
their powers of growth and multiplication, and these gone, so.
little of what we are accustomed fo call ‘‘life” could remain,
that practically they might well be considered as dead. And, as
T shall subsequently show, the production of this potential death

by the temperature of 140° F, enables us to draw just the same __|
conclusions from other experiments, as if such a temperature had —

produced a demonstrably actual death. Seeing also that these
saline solutions were inoculated with a fluid in which Bacteria

and Viériones were multiplying rapidly, we had a right to infer _

that they were multiplying in their accustomed manner, ‘as
much by the known method of fission, as by any unknown and
assumed method of reproduction.” So that, as I at the time
said,* ‘‘ These experiments seem to show, therefore, that even if
Bacteria do multiply by means of invisible gemmules, as well as
by the known process of fission, such invisible particles possess —
no higher power of resisting the destructive influence of heat
than the parent Bacteria themselves possess.”

This is, in fact, by far the most satisfactory kind of evidence
that can be produced concerning the powers of resisting heat
enjoyed by Sacteria and Vibriones, because it also meets the
hypothesis as to their possible multiplication by invisible gem-
mules possessed of a greater power of resisting heat, and because
no mere inspection by the miscroscope of dead Aacteria can
entitle us positively to affirm that they are dead, even though all
characteristically vital or ‘‘true living” movements may be absent.

Facts of a very similar nature were mentioned in-the same
work, strongly tending to show that Bacteria and Vibriones are
also killed at the same temperature in other fluids, such as infu-
sions of hay or turnip. ‘These facts were referred to in the fol-
lowing statement + :—“* Thus, if on the same slip, though under
different covering-glasses, specimens of a hay-infusion turbid
with #acteria are mounted, (a) without being heated, (4) after
the fluid has been raised to 122° F. for ten minutes, and (c) after
the fluid has been heated to 140° F. for ten minutes, it will be
found that in the course of a few days the Bacteria under a and
é have notably increased in quantity, while those under c do not
become more numerous, however long the slide is kept. Facts
of the same kind are observable if a turnip-infusion containing —
living Bacteria is experimented with ; and the phenomena are in
no way different if a solution of ammonic tartrate and sodic —
phosphate (containing Bacteria) be employed instead of one of
these vegetable infusions. The multiplication of the Bacteria
beneath the covering-glass, when it occurs, is soon rendered
obvious even to the naked eye by the increasing cloudiness of the

film.” (Zo be continued.)

Geological Society, March 12.—Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair. The following communications were
read:—1. Note on some Brachiopoda collected by Mr. Judd
from the Jurassic deposits of the East Coast of Scotland, by
Thomas Davidson, F,R.S. In this note the author stated that
four species of Brachiopoda collected by Mr. Judd were espe-
cially worthy of notice, two of them being quire new, and two
new to Britain. Three of them were obtained from the equiya-
lent of the Kimmeridge clay, which was the more remarkable as
the Brachiopoda of that formation are comparatively few. The
new species described were Rhynchonelle Sutherlandi and Tere-
bratula Foassi, derived, with Terebratula humeralis Rém., from
the Upper Oolite of Garty in Sutherland ; the fourth species is
Terebratula bisuffarcinata Schlot., from the Lower Calcareous
Grit of Bramberry Hill. 2. On Solfataras and deposits of
Sulphur at Kalamaki, near the Isthmus of Corinth, by Prof. D.
T. Ansted, F.R.S. After noticing the traces of volcanic aetion
east of the Pindus chain, the author described the Solfataras and
sulphur-deposits of the neighbourhood of Kalamaki as furnishing
indications that there is even now a real though subdued yoleanie
energy in this part of Europe. 3. On the origin of clay-iron-
stone, by Mr. J. Lucas, F.G.S. The author commenced by
giving a general view of the varieties, chemical composition, and _
mode of occurrence of clay-ironstone, and suggested that the’
formation of all the bedded varieties may be explained by the

* “ Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms,” 1871, p. fo,
+ Loc. cit, p. 60.

upposition that they originated in peaty or non-peaty lagoons
cen alluvial he of the deltas’ of athe Cleeccns for-
‘mations, which wou'd present semi-terrestrial conditions, that
is to say, a surface exposed to the air but subject to be covered
‘by floods. 4. Note in vindication of Leptophlaum rhom-

um and Lepidodendron gaspianum, by Principal Dawson.
LL.D, F.R.S. This note sccompanied some photographs of
the remains of plants referred to, and was in opposition to the
identification of these remains with the ZLefidodendron nothum
‘Unger, as proposed by Mr. Carruthers in his Appendix to Mr.
-Daintree’s paper on the Geology of Queensland.

Zoological Society, March 18, 1873.—The Viscount Walden,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—A communication was read
from Mr. R. B. Watson on some marine mollusca from Madeira,
including a new genus of the AZuricidie, proposed to be cailed
Chascax and a new Rissoina, and embracing descriptions of the
whole of the Aissow of the group of islands. —A communication
was read from Dr. J. D. Macdonald, F.R.S., on a specimen of
Acanthias vulgaris and a species of Ga/eus, probably new to
‘science, taken off Flinder’s Island, Bass’ Straits. —Mr. W. T.
Blandford read a paper on the Gazelles of India and Persia.
This contained the description of a new species, Gazella fuscifrons,
founded on a single specimen obtained by the author in 1872,
near the edge of the desert of Scistan.—A communication was
read fiom Dr. J. S. Bowerbank, F.R.S., contaming the fifth
‘a of a series of memoirs entitled Contributions to a General
_ History of the Spongiadze.— A communication was read from Mr.
Gerard Krefit, C.M.Z.S., containing the description of a new
species of crocodile from Queensland, proposed to be called
| Crocodilus johnsoni.—Mr. Edward Bartlett exhibited and gave
the description of a new moth belonging to the family Saturniide,
which had been obtained in the interior of Madagascar by Mr.
_ T. Waters, and which was proposed to be calied 7rofaa
madagascariensts,

Mathematical Society, March 13.—Dr. Hirst, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—Prof. Greenhill, of Cooper’s Hill Col-
lege, was elected a member.—Mr. R. B. Hayward read a paper
on an extension of the term avea to any closed circuit in space.
In the sense in which the writer employed the term, area 1s no
longer a mere magnitude or a magnitude affected only with the
positive or negative sign, but a magnitude affected with direc-
tion; in other words it is a vector, not simplya sca/ar. The
paper concluded with a few illustrations of tve use of this ex-
tension of the term area,—Other communications were, on the
evaluation of a class of definite integrals involving circular func-
tions in the numerator and powers of the variable only in the
denominator, by Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher ; note on norma's and
the surface of centres of an algebraical surface, by Mr. 5. Roberts,
V.P. ; and a proof of the proposition that a number which di-
vides the product of two numbers and is prime to one of them
will divide the other, by Mr. M. Jenkins (Hon. Sec.).—Notice
was taken in NATURE (August 1, 1872) of the formation of a
mathematical society in Paris on the plan of the similar societies
of London, Moscow and Berlin. This society having for-
warded the first number of its ‘* Bulletin,” it was agreed to ex-
change publications. 3

Chemical Society, March 20, Dr. Frankland, F.R.S., pre-
sident, in the chair.—Mr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., delivered a
lecture “ On Iron and Steel.”
his former discourse delivered beiore the Society in 18638, and
describing the various experiments he had made to obtain malle-
able iron direct from the ore, gave an account of the process by
which he had suceeeded in completely atraining that onject. Lt
consists essentially in fusing the ore hy means of the most in-
tense heat in a revolving furnace, and then adding the requisite
amount of carbonaceous matter to reduce the iron to the metallic
state. The mallzable iron thus precipitated in the mojten mass
becomes aggregated into balls by the revolution of the furnace,
and can then be easily removed. It is free from sulphur, phos-
phorus, and other impurities, and dissolves readily in a bath of
molten cast iron, producing steel of a quality equal to that made
from the best Swedish bar iron.

Anthropological Institute, March 18. —Prof. Busk, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair, A paper was read hy Mr. George
Harris, F.S.A., on theories regarding intellect and instinct,
with an attempt to deduce a satisfactory conclusion therefrom.
The author, after taking a general survey of the opinions on this
subject, citing those of Aristotle, Plato, Descartes, Hob’ es,
_Locke, and several other writers, including some modern authori-
ties, proceeded to compare them one with another, and to con-

—

ee

415

sider how far certain apparently irreconcileable differences might
be considered compatible. The great perfection of the sensitive
system in animals he considered to be the main cause of the
unerring dexterity with which they engage in various operaticns
connected with their career. And although they differ essentially
from man as regards his capacity for abstract studics, it appears
difficult to deny to them the possession of an immaterial being
of some kind. High authorities, both among philosophers and
divines, have attributed to them a future state o! existence. Mr.
Haris also read a paper on the concurrent contemporaneous pro-
gress of renovation and waste in animated frames, and the eatent to
which such operaions are controllable by artificial means. Tie
wriier took a general view of the opinions of tios- woo have
treated on this subject, more especially the older authorities, eting
Galen, Willis, Buffon, Hunter, and Smellie, and refirnmg also
to recent articles on the subject in Avaser’s Magazin’ aud the

Edinburgh Review. We adverted to the ascertsined ‘act of the
progress of renoystion and waste in ali animated frames, as also

to the circums'ance that certain of these operations were known
to be controllable. He anzlysed the princinie of waste and
decay in different bodies, and ref-rred to ossification of the bones
and deterioration of the blood as contributing to thos= conditions.
As medical science advances these matters might be more per-
fectly understood. He recommended experiments of vatious
kinds as to the nature of substances, and their effect on bodies
animate as well as inanimate, and with regard to animals and
plants as well as man.

Royal Horticultural Society, March 19.—Scientific Com-
mittee, Dr. J. D. Hooker, C.B., in the chair. Prof. Thiselton
Dyer called at'ention to the discovery by Fankhauser of the pro-
thollial stage of Lycofodium. It appears to be aimost identical
with that of the Ophioglossez, and consequently a.tocether dif-
ferent from that of Se/aginel/a. It was remarkable that tie curs
boniferous Lefidostrobus and Triplosforites differed as regaids
their spores in precisely the same way as /ycofoutum ani Sela-
ginella. Tf the nature of the germination ia the two later must
be held to imply systematic diversiry, analogy woulki equally
imply it in the case of the two former. But the pa allilism
would, under these circumstances, be exiremey difficult to
understand.—General Meeting, W. Wilson Saun lers, F.R.S.,
in the chair. The Rev. M. J. Berk Jey commented on the fine
collection of Cycadeacee exhibited by Mr. Buil, a well-fruiced
pot-plant of the Loquat (Zriobotrya japonica), and Epizendrum
erubescens—a Guatemalan orchid rarely seen in flower, which
was exhibited by Mr. C. Leach.

Entomological Society, March 17.—Prof. »Westwood,
presisent, in the chair.—M. mest Olivier was balloted for and
elected a foreign member. —The president exhibited a very rare
species of Paussus trom Abyssinia. —Mr. Smith exhibited a box
of ants sent from Calcutta by Mr. G. A. J. Kothney, collected
principally in the Botavic Gardens. There were masy new
Species amongst them, a complete series of which was to be re-
served for the national collection. —Mr. Cole exhibited two boxes
of Bombycide from Natal.—Mir. Bates reid a paper on some
species of geodephagous coleoptera trom China.—Mr. Mii’er
made some remarks on a beetle (Aveocerus coffee) which had
been imported into Basle with some coffce roin Java, and that

5 , the inseet had since become naiurslised and might be ound in
The lecturer, after adveriing to |

any quantity there. Mr. Miiller also remarked on a cargo of
ground nuts which arrived in London direct ‘rom Sierra Leone,

; the kernels of which were destroyed by myriads of the Jarvee and

perfect insects of the Zyibolium ferrugincum, accompanied by
the Jarvee and perfect insects of a species of RAisaphagus preying
on the former—Mr. Dunning read some turther noies ou Aérepos
pulsatoria, with reference to Dr. Hagen and Mr. W. A. Lewis.
-Mr. Bates put some questions to the meeiing, suggested to hm
by Mr. Darwin, with a view to eliciting information as to sexu 1
differences in certain insects, viz., whether any cases had been
noticed of sexual differences in the oc Jlated spots with which ~
certain insects, as the Bomdbycide, were furnished, and also as
to sexual differences amongst the Bufresiide. A conversation
ensued during which Mr. Jenner Weir statet that Sadvrus hyfer-
anthus bad more oceliated spots in the Jemale than in the male ;
and Mr. Butler mentioned that Drusi/us had double ocelli in one
sex. It was also stated that Mr. Saunders had detected sexual
differences among the Auprestide.

MANCHESTER
Literary and Philosophical Society, March 4.—Dr.J. P. Joule

in the chair.—Mr,. Baxendell read the following communication

16

4
from Mr. S. Broughton :—It appears there is some dcubt as to
the existence of ball discharge in thunderstorms. At the request
of Mr. Baxendell I communicate an observation of such, seen
during the approach of a storm, in 1854 or 1855, when walking
from Altrincham to Timperley. Ovr the edge of a cloud near
the east horizon a flash of lightning was seen, and a ball affa-
rently the size of one from a Roman candle shot upwards through
an arc of 20° or 30°. _I cannot say that it went to another cloud,
but that would most likely be so, as my attention was taken up
watching the progress of the electric ball.—E. W. Binney, V.P.,
F.R.S., said that shortly after the meeting of the Society on
January 21, when he exhibited the singular fossil plants, which
were quite new to him at the time, which he thought would
have to be placed in a new genus, he had received excellent
transverse and longitudinal sections of similar specimens from
Professor Renault of Cluny, which were if possible in a more
beautiful state of preservation than those found in the carbo-
niferous strata of Lancashire. On February 4, Prof. W. C.
Williamson, F.R.S., stated that these specimens were the
branches or stems of the well-known genus Asterophyllites. Now
the French professor states that he had described this fossil plant
in a memoir read before the Academy in 1870, and that in his
opinion it belonged to Sphenophyllum. I am not in possession of
the facts from which the two learned professors came to such
different conclusions, but I am inclined to consider the singular
little stem as belonging to a new genus until the leaves of Spheno-
phyllum ox Asterophyllites are found attached to it. When this
comes to pass of course there can be no doubt on the matter, —
The.President said that he had made another observation of the
position of the freezing poin’ in the thermometer used in making
the observations recorded in the Proceedings for April 16, 1867,
and February 22, 1870. The gradual rise of the zero during
twenty-nine years was shown by a diagram, the ordinates repre-
senting divisions etched on the glass stem, each corresponding to
thy of adegree Fahrenheit.—Mr, William H. Johnson, B.Sc.,
read a paper ‘‘ Ou the Influence of Acids on Iron and Steel,” in
which he showed the general effects of acid; its effects on the
weight ; on the breaking strain and elongation ; effect of pyro-
ligneous acid ; effects of acids on copper and brass ; and of zinc
on iron,

Paris

Academy of Sciences, March 17, M. de Quatrefages, pre-
sident, in the chair.—The following papers were read: On the
theory of the movement of Jupiter, by M. Le Verrier.—The
transit of Venus—method for obtaining the moment of contact
by photography, by M. Janssen. ‘The author suggests the
use of a photographic plate cut in the form of a disc, and made
to revolve. By this means a number of photographs can be
obtained with very minute intervals of time between each expo-
sure.—On the heat produced by the mixture of the hydracids
with water and on the molecular volumes of their solutions, by
M. Berthelot. The acids experimented on were the hydrochloric,
hydrobromic, and hydriodic, ‘The author decides that these
acids and their compounds give rise to similar amounts of mole-
cular work,—On new applications of the principles of the navi-
gation sluice to oscillating columns of liquid, by M. A. de
Caligny.—On a shock of earthquake observed at Florence on
March 12, 1873, by M. de Tchihatchef. The shock was observed
at gh. 5m. p.m., it did not last more than half a second, and its
direction was S.E. to N.W., bar. 725mm.—M. Secchi presented
his memoir “On the Distribution of the Prominences on the
Solar Disc, and on the study of the Spots,’—On barometic
changes and their connection with magnetic variations, by M. J. A.
Broun.—New experiments on singing flames, by M. I’. Kastner.
—Observations on the theory of solar cyclones, by M. E. Vicaire.
The author raised several objections to M. Faye’s theory
of the sun, and promised to explain his own hypothesis shortly ;
this, he said, was simply that of Wilson —On ‘‘ Spectrometry ;”
Spectronatrometry, by MM. P. Champion, H. Pellet, and M.

. Grenier. ‘The authors described an instrument for the spectro-
scopic estimation of minvte quantities of sodium, ‘The principle
depended on the comparisen of a sodium flame in which a
known quantity of sodium was being heated with the flame
coloured by the substance the sodium in which it was required
‘9 know. The apparatus described was somewhat complicated,
ut the principle upon which it worked was the use of a gradu-
ated compensating wedge of coloured glass. M. Janssen made
some observations on the proeess.—Obseryations on M. Gernez’s
recent note on the crystallisation of supersaturated solutions, by
M. Ch. Violette—On the methods of increasing the length of

bones and stopping their growth, by M. Ollier. On the ana-
tomy of Conatula rosacea, by M. Edm. Perrier. Ona deposit |
of fossil mammiferze near Lapsista, Macedon, by M. Gorceix.
«© On polyhedric concamerations,”,by M. G. Perry.

DIARY

THURSDAY, Marcu 27.

Royvat Socrety, at 8.30.—The Radiation of Heat fron the Moon, the Law
of its Absorption by our Atmosphere, ard of its Variation in Amount with ©
her Phases (Backerian Lecture): Earl of Rosse.

SoctetTy of ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Election of Fellows.

Roya Inst: TuTION, at 3.—Coal and its Products; A. V. Harcourt.

FRIDAY, Marcu 28.
Roya INsTITuTION, at 9.—Force and Energy: Prof. Clifford,
Quekert Cvuvsp, at 8.
Roya CoLLece OF SURGEONS,

SATURDAY, Marcu 29. a
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 3.—Darwin’s Philosophy of Language: Prof. Max 5

Miller.
MONDAY, Marcu 31.
Lonpon INsTITUTION, at 4.—Fungoid Organisms: Prof, Thisclton Dyer.

TUESDAY, Aprrit tr.

Royat Inst1TuTION, at 3.—Forces and Motions of ‘the Body: Prof.
Rutherford. * iF

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SocieTy, at 8.—Notes on the Collection ‘of Peruvian
Skulls and Pottery lately received from Consu! Hutchinson: Prof, Busk
and Dr, Barnard Davis.—On the Natives of Vancouver's Island: Richard
King.—Ona Human Skull from Birkdale, Southport: T. M. Reade.

Society oF BipiicaAL ARCHZOLOGY, at 8.30.

Zootocicat Sociery, at 8.30.—On the Brain and a portion of the nervous
system of Pediculus capitis: Dr. J. S, Bowerbank.—Notes on the genera
of Turtles (Ofacofodes) and especially on their skeleton and skulls: Dr.
J. E. Gray—Descriptions of thres new species of Flying Squirrels: Dr. _
A. Giinther. ‘

ASIATIC SOCIETY, at 3.

at 4.—Extinct Mammals: Prof. Flower.

WEDNESDAY, Aprit 2.

Society or Arts, at 8.—Ou Economy of Fuel for domestic purposes:
Capt. Douglas Galton, C.B. M

Lonpon InstiTuTION, at 7.—Courts of Special Commercial Jurisdiction :
N. H. Paterson

Roya Mickoscoricat Society, at 8.—On a new Cadlidina with the result
of experiments on the desiccation of Rotifers: H. Davis.—On the Deve-
lopment of the Sturgeon’s facial arches: W. K. Parker.

THURSDAY, Aprrit 3-

Cuemicat Society, at 8.—A way of exactly determining the specific gravity
of Liquids; Dr. H. Sprengel—On Cymene from various sources: Dr. —
C. R. A. Wright —Researches on the action of the Copper-zinc couple
organic bodies, If — On the iodides of Amyl and Methyl: J. H. Gladst
and A. Tribe.—Contributions from the Laboratory of the London Institu-
tution, No. XI.—Action of the acid chlorides on Nitrates and Nitrites:
Dr. H. G. Armstrong. .

Linnean Society, at 8.—On new Indian Fishes: Surgeon-Major F. Day.
—On the Fungi of Ceylon: Rev. M. J. Berkeley and C. E. Broome,

Royat InstiTUTION, at 3 —Coal and its Products: A. V. Harcourt. —

BOOKS RECEIVED

Encuisu.—Celestial Objects for Common Telescope. 3rd edit.: Rev.
T. W. Webb (Longmans).—Elementary Treatise on Wave Theory of Light.
3rd edit. : H. Lloyd (Longmans).—The Childhood of the World: E.
(Macmillan).

CONTENTS

University OArs. By ArcuipALD MacLaren .
‘THOMSON AND Tatt’s NATURAL PHILOsorHy . «
TYNDALL’s Forms OF WATER < 2 s = ss 5
Ove Book SHELF. capes aes ee

LETTERS To THE EpttoR:--
Existence of Man in the Miocene—Sir Jonn Lunpock,
M.P., F.R S.

Th rt
oe ee
ee ee

Adaptation 1o External Conditions —G. H, Lewes Pig eon
Anticipaticns of Natural Philosophy, —W. H. Brewer , Dr. James
Ross; C. J. Monro. . ost ot 2 ee
Fossil Cryptogams.—Prof. W. C. Witttamson, F.R.S, . .
Leaf Arrangement.—Rey. Grorcr Henstow, F.LS.. . .-
___ Flight of Projectiles.—Serg -Major Ropert Reip . . . -
SURVIVAL OF THE FITZESEO ese iss ee
Sus-WEALDEN ExpLoraATION. .- Uigetis Ew” acs, ee
Tue New PuysiococicaL Lasoratories, Bertin.— Dr.
Jones, F.RS (With Plan). . . . + > Aare >.
On THE SpecTROScope AND ITS AppLications, VI, By J.
Lockyer, F.R.S. (With Illustrations) . . . « » «
Pror. Flower’s HUNTERIAN LECTURES. . . . + « +
PERCEPTION IN THE LoWER ANIMALS. «. . .
WOTRs:.. 2. + + aeeeen) tee go hy pre, bea!
SOCrETIEs AND ACADRMEBSEaeN sss (6. WO Jett
DIARY. 54 6. - a -

Norman
.
.
.

EE

THURSDAY, APRIL 3, 1873.

ORIGIN OF CERTAIN INSTINCTS

APHe writer of the interesting article in NATURE

of March 20 doubts whether my belief “that many
of the most wonderful instincts have been acquired, inde-
pendently of habit, through the preservation of useful
variations of pre existing instincts,” means more than
“that in a great many instances we cannot conceive how
the instincts originated.” This in one sense is perfectly
true, but what I wished to bring prominently forward was
simply that in certain cases instincts had not been ac-
quired through the experience of their utility, with con-
tinued practice during successive generations, I had in my
mind the case of neuter insects, which never leave off-
spring to inherit the teachings of experience, and which
are themselves the offspring of parents which possess
quite different instincts. The Hive-bee is the best known
instance, as neither the queen nor the drones construct
cells, secrete wax, collect honey, &c. If this had been
the sole case, it might have been maintained that the
queens, like the fertile females of humble-bees, had in
former ages worked like the present neuters, and had
thus gradually acquired these instincts; and that they
had ever afterwards transmitted them to their sterile off-
spring, though they themselves no longer practised such
instincts. But there are several species of Hive-bees
(Apis) of which the sterile workers have somewhat diffe-
rent habits and instincts, as shown by their combs.
There are also many species of ants, the fertile females
of which are believed not themselves to work, but to be
served by the neuters, which capture and drag them to
their nests ; and the instincts of the neuters in the diffe-
rent species of the same genus are often different. All
who believe in the principle of evolution will admit that
with social insects the closely allied species of the same
genus are descended from a single parent-form ; and yet
the sterile workers of the several species have somehow
acquired different instincts. This case appeared to me
so remarkable that I discussed it at some length in my
“ Origin of Species ;” but I do not expect that anyone who
has less faith in natural selection than I have, will admit
the explanation there given. Although he may explain
in some other way, or leave unexplained, the development
of the wondrous instincts possessed by the various sterile
workers, he will, I think, be compelled to admit that they
cannot have been acquired by the experience of one gene-
ration having been transmitted to a succeeding one. I
should indeed be glad if anyone could show that there was
some fallacy in this reasoning. It may beadded that the
possession of highly complex instincts, though not de-
rived through conscious experience, does not at all pre-
clude insects bringing into play their individual Sagacity

‘in modifying their work under new or peculiar circum-

stances ; but such sagacity, as far as inheritance is con-
cerned, as well as their instincts, can be modified or
injured only by advantage being taken of variation in the
minute brain of their parents, probably of their mothers.
The acquirement or development of certain reflex
actions, in which muscles that cannot be influenced by

the will are acted on, isa somewhat analogous case to that

No, 179—VOL. vit.

| NATURE

417

of the above class of instincts, as I have shown in my re-
cently published book on Expression ; for consciousness,
on which the sense of utility depends, cannot have come
into play in the case of actions effected by involuntary
muscles. The beautifully adapted movements of the iris,
when the retina is stimulated by too much or too little
light, is a case in point.

The writer of the article in referring to my words
“the preservation of useful variations of pre-existing
instincts” adds “ the question is, whence these variations?”
Nothing is more to be desired in natural history than
that some one should be able to answer such a query,
But as far as our present subject is concerned, the
writer probably will admit that a multitude of variations
have arisen, for instance in colour and in the character
of the hair, feathers, horns, &c., which are quite inde-
pendent of habit and of use in previous generations.
It seems far from wonderful, considering the com-
plex conditions to which the whole organisation is ex-
posed during the successive stages of its development
from the germ, that every part should be liable to occa-
sional modifications : the wonder indeed is that any two
individuals of the same species are at all closely alike.
If this be admitted, why should not the brain, as well as
all other parts of the body, sometimes vary in a slight
degree, independently of useful experience and habit ?
Those physiologists, and there are many, who believe
that a new mental characteristic cannot be transmitted
to the child except through some modification of that
material sub-stratum which proceeds from the parents,
and from which the brain of the child is ultimately deve-
loped, will not doubt that any cause which affects its
development may, and often will, modify the transmitted
mental characters. With species in a state of nature such
modifications or variations would commonly lead to the
partial or complete loss of an instinct, orto its perver-
sion ; and the individual would suffer. But if under the
then existing conditions any such mental variation was
serviceable, it would be preserved and fixed, and would
ultimately become common to all the members of the
species.

The writer of the article also takes up the case of the
tumbling of the pigeon, which habit, if seen in a wild

| bird, would certainly have been called instinctive ; more

especially if, as has been asserted, it aids these
birds in escaping from hawks. He suggests that
it “is a fancy instinct, an outlet for the overflowing
activity of a creature whose wants are all provided
for without any exertion on its part;” but even on
this supposition there must have been some physical
cause which induced the first tumbler to spend its over-
flowing activity in a manner untike that of any other bird
in the world. The behaviour of the ground-tumbler or
Lotan of India, renders it highly probable that in this
sub-breed the tumbling is due to some affection of the
brain, which has been transmitted from before the year
1600 to the present day. It is necessary gently to shake
these birds, or in the case of the Kalmi Lotan, to touch
them on the neck with a wand, in order to make them
begin rolling over backwards on the ground. This
they continue to do with extraordinary rapidity, until they
are utterly exhausted, or even, as some say, until they
die, unless they are taken up, held in the hands, and
AA

43 re i ha ,

ae

a ages ged Shi ergs S5-

We te “e
a 8 Phan

418

NATURE Bs

[April 3, 1873

soothed ; and then they recover. Itis well-known that cer-
tain lesions of the br iin, or internal parasites, cause animals
to turnincessantly round and round, either to the right or
left, sometimes accompanied by a Dawn movement :

and I have just read, through the kindness of Dr, Brunton,

the account given by Mr. W. J. Moore (/udian Medical |

Gazette, Jan. and Feb 1873) of the somewhat analogous
result which followed from pricking the base of the brain
of a pigeon with a needle. Birds thus treated roll over
backwards in convulsions, in exactly the same manner as
do the ground-tumblers ; and the same effect is produced
by giving them hydrocyanic acid with strychnine. One
pigeon which had its brain thus pricked recovered per-
fectly, but continued ever afterwards to perform summer-
saults like a tumbler, though not belonging to any
tumbling breed. The movement appears to be of the
nature of a recurrent spasm or convulsion which throws
the bird backwards, as in tetanus; it then recovers its
balance, and is again thrown backwards. Whether this
tendency originated from some accidental injury, or, as
seems more probable, from some morbid affection of the
brain, cannot be told ; but at the present time the affec-
tion can hardly be called morbid in the case of common
tumblers, as these birds are perfectly healthy and seem to
enjoy performing their feats, or, as an old writer expresses
it, “showing like footballs in the air”? The habit appa-
rently can be controlled to a certain extent by the will.
But what more particularly concerns us is that it is strictly
inherited. Young birds reared in an aviary which have
never seen a pigeon tumble, take to it when first let
free. The habit also varies much in degree in different
individuals and in different sub-breeds; and it can be
greatly augmented by continued selection, as seen in the
house-tumblers, which can hardly rise more than a foot
or two above the ground without going head over heels in
the air. Fuller details on tumbler-pigeons, may be found
in my “Variation of Animals under Domestication,”
vol. i. pp. 150, 209.

In conclusion, from the case of neuter insects, of cer-
tain reflex actions, and of movements such as those of the
tumbler-pigeon, it seems to me in the highest degree
probable that many instincts have originated ‘rom modi-
fications or variations in the brain, which we in our
ignorance most improperly call spontaneous or acci-
dental ; such variations having led, independently of ex-
perience and of habit, to changes in pre-existing instincts,
or to quite new instincts, and these proving of service to
the species, have been preserved and fixed, being, how-
ever, often strengthened or improved by subsequent
habit.

With regard to the question of the means by which
animals find their way home from a long distance, a striking
account, in relation to mah, will be found in the English
translation of the Expedition to North Siberia; by Von
Wrangel: He there describes the wonderful manner in
which the natives kept a true course towards a particular
spot; whilst passing for a long distance through hum-
motky ice; with incessant changes of direction; and with
no guide in the heavens or on the frozen sea: He states
(but I quote only from mémory of many years standing)
that he, an experienced surveyor; arid using 2 compass,
failed to do that which these savages easily effected.
Yet no one will suppose that they possessed any special

sense which is quite absent in us. We must bear in
mind that neither a compass, nor the north star, nor any
other such sign, suffices to guide a man to a particular
spot through an intricate country, or throuzh hummocky
ice, when many deviations from. a straight course are
inevitable, unless the deviations are allowed for, or a sort
of “dead reckoning” is kept. All men are able to do this
in a greater or less degree, and the natives of Siberia
apparently to a wonderful extent, though probably in an
unconscious manner. This is effected chiefly, no doubt,
by eyesight, but partly, perhaps, by the sense of muscular
movement, in the same manner as a man with his eyes
blinded can proceed (and some men much better than
others) for a short distance in a nearly straight line, or
turn at right angles, or back again. The manner in
which the sense of direction is sometimes suddenly dis-
arranged in very old and feeble persons, and the feeling of |
strong distress which, as I know, has been experienced by i
persons when they bave suddenly found out that they have
been proceeding in a wholly unexpected and wrong direc- |
tion, leads to the suspicion that some part of the brainis
specialised for the function of direction. Whether animals
may not possess the faculty of keeping a dead reckoning
of their course in a much more perfect degree than can
man ; or whether this faculty may not come into play on
the commencement of a journey when an animal is shut
up in a basket, I will not attempt to discuss, as I have on
sufficient data.

I am tempted to add one other case, but here again I
am forced to quote from memory, as I have not my books
at hand. Audubon kept a pinioned wild goose in confine-
ment, and when the period of migration arrived, it became
extremely restless, like all other migratory birds under
similar circumstances ; and at last it escaped. The poor
creature then immediately began its long journey on
foot, but its sense of direction seemed to have been per-
verted, for instead of travelling due southward, it proceeded
in exactly the wrong direction, dite northward.

CHARLES DARWIN

j

UNIVERSITY OARS
IL.
Ver resume our remarks at the point at which we left
off last week, zz. the uncomfortable one of the
killed and wounded in the great annual battles on the
Thames.

Of the 294 men who rowed in the 26 races taking place
between the years 1829 and 1869 (both inclusive), 39 men
have died, or rather we should say 40, for one other
death has occurred, apparently since the introductory
portion of the work was written, and the tables inthe
appendix were compiled, and we are assured on the
authority of elaborate statistics and the logic of averages,
that, in comparison with other portions of the civil com-
munity, this is a very moderate death-rate. Of the dis-
eases which have carried off in youth or early manhood *
these 40 men, we will only instance one kind, as being thé
only one with which boat-racing ¢an presumably be con
hecied, nainely constimption, “ and other diseases of thé
chest :” to thesé perhaps may be added “Heart affee-
tions.” Of the former there are 9, of the latter 3, in all i2.

We are assured, again, that this percentage is a mode-

| April 3, 1873) >

rate one, that these ailments are still more exacting, not
only with other portions of the “civil community,” but
also with the seamen of the Royal Navy, and with the
men who fill the ranks of the army, and notably so of the
Guards ; it being notorious that men of tall stature are
more liable to be attacked by, and less able to resist, |
diseases of this nature than men of more compact build.
But here we must confess that this portion of the book
does not leave upon our minds quite so comfortable an
impression as we could desire. It is felt throughout that
the parties compared have little in commoa in the essen-
tials that make such comparisons valuable. True the
University Oars as a rule are tall, above the average
height even of men in their own rank of life ; but they are
“ picked” men—picked for strength as well as stature—
picked for physical power already proved—whose whole
life from infancy up to manhood has been one varied
series of all that art, nature, and science could bring to
bear favourably upon their growth and development.
While on the other side do we not find the reverse of
these conditions prevailing ? does not the author himself,
elsewhere, describe with painful emphasis the wretched
forms, stunted frames, unhealthy occupations and debas-
ing habits of a large portion of the “ civil community ;”
and is it not notorious that soldiers in regiments where
heizht of stature is the chief requisite, were probably
throughout their growing time subject to privations in
food and clothing and housing, which coupled with rapid
growth, and their surroundings after enlistment, presented
the very conditions most favourable to the development
of the diseases in question ? ;

While expressing an opinion of qualified satisfaction
with the comparisons instituted, we can in no way question
the accuracy of the figures given ; but we must record our
feeling, which we believe will be one generally felt, that
such evidence fails in accomplishing the purpose for
which it was advanced.

We have stated our belief that, could the truth be
ascertained, as many or more injuries would be found to
have occurred in the same space of time (a similar number
of men having been so engaged) in hunting, at foot-ball,
or at cricket ; probably too as many of these injuries
would have proved fatal. But in stating this we are
brought face to face with the fact that, in all instances of
hurt or of injury so sustained, they would arise from
accidents. But this is not the case with the injuries
which spring from Boat-racing ; here, be they trifling or
be they severe, be they few or be they many, they seem
to be the natural outcome of the exercise itself ;
not a hurt, in a sense in which we commonly use that
word, of bruise, or break, or strain, and to which
we may apply support or remedy, but an unknown
evil, unfelt, unsuspected, at the time, but to which
existence has been given—to be developed in after-life,
when we least suspect it, and are least able to cope with
its advances. Now the question which presents itself
here to us, and must present itself to any one who Cares
for the continuation of this favourite exercise and yet would
free it from this grave drawback—is this: Are these
injuries, these evils inevitable? Yes, we answer, at
once, and without reservation or qualification, to two
- points of misconception only is hurt or injury in these
contests to be attributed: correct these and this exercise

NATURE

.

419

will stand out at once, relieved from all let or hindrance,
free, freer than any other, because it is exempted from
the acczdents that lie in the path of others. Correct these,
and the tripartite list which Dr. Morgan has supplied of
benefited, uninjured, and injured, would be transformed
into one uniform list of the first-mentioned only, for every
one would be benefited who pursued this pastime.

In the contest which took place on the Thames last week
the points which would probably strike an ordinary spec-
tator most forcibly would be these :—first, the length of
the course (four and a quarter miles), and second, the short=
ness of the time in which the boats covered the distance
(not quite 20 minutes), and he would probably think that the
first was too long, and if he did not actually think that
the second was too short (for who admits that a race can
be run or rowed too quickly ?), he would marvel all the same
at its performance, and wonder how men coxz/d propel
a boat over such a long course in sucha short space of
time. Whether the course could be shortened with
advantage, and yet sufficiently test the crews, we will not
here discuss, although we think it is open to discussion ;
and how it is possible to propel a boat over it in the
above-mentioned time, is only to be explained by one
means, 7.¢., by a critical examination of the boat itself,
and, let us add, a glance at its crew.
will see eight as fine young men as he probably ever saw
in his life before; in the former he will see a machine
bearing no resemblance to anything he ever saw afloat,
either on river, lake, or sea, or possessing in shape, or
size, or bulk, or weight, any of the proportions which other
boats possess: so slim for its leng h, so straight, so
sharp ! constructed at all points to cleave the water like
a knife-blade! fitted out at all points to save every frac-
tion of weight in rowing or steering gear, to utilise and
concentrate every ounce of propelling power exerted by
the oarsmen from stroke to bow.

Now although the perception of this may to some
extent explain the extraordinary rapidity of the race, it
will not remove from the spectator’s mind the idea of its
severity. To him it will still appear that the work will
have been tremendous, and he is right: the work was
tremendous, though not perhaps in the manner or of the
kind which he imagines, or of what is commonly under-
stood when the word wor? is used.

“Tn rowing, as in some other exercises, where the volun-
tary muscles of the trunk and of the upper limbs are
engaged, the breath is “held” in the lungs during the
muscular effort, in order to keep the chest distended, or
firm, or as it is technically called, “ fixed,” that these
muscles may have firm and unyielding points of attach-
ment during the contractile efforts—fixed fulcra for their
levers; and when this is prolonged or repeated over
any considerable space of time, it becomes a highly
disturbing influence to respiration, and doubly so if the
exercise be one which greatly augments the respiratory
requirement ; for the act of fixing the chest is accom-
plished by retaining the chest at its point of expansion,
when in the natural order of respiration it would be
collapsing. And while in ordinary effortless breathing,
or in exercises where the lower limbs are solely or chiefly
employed, such as walking or running, the inspiration and
expiration follow each other in uninterrupted succession—
each occupying about the same space of time as the other,

In the latter he

rte s

420

and the two constituting the entire process—in rowing,
both these acts are hurried over during that time in which
the muscles are relaxed, 7.2, towards the close of the
stroke, and on the rapid forward dart of the body pre-
paratory to another ; when the breath is again held and
the chest fixed during the muscular effort. Now in j
ordinary breathing the rate is, to a full-statured man,
from 16 to 20 inspirations per minute, while the racing
pace is 40 per minute, or more, and we have seen that
the breathing is regulated by the stroke, a breath for each,
and these are at 40 aminute! But we have also seen
that although there is a breath for every stroke, still the
double process of inspiration and expiration does not
occupy the whole of even this brief space of time, being
accomplished during the momentary muscular relaxation
towards the end of the stroke and the forward reach of
the body preparatory to another, greatly augmenting the
rate at which this double process is performed.” Truly
the spectator was right in thinking a boat-race to be
tremendous work, for so it is, as regards heart and lungs,
at any rate.

And now with reference to the second aspect of boat-
racing, its demancs upon the muscular energies of the
body, the aspect which probably the spectator had in

NATURE

view when impressed by the probable amount of “work”
of the race. Now will he be relieved or will he be disap-
pointed to learn that the work to be done, the muscular
exertion to be undergone, is very slight indeed,—certainly
not more than, ifso much as, was undergone by any one of
the thousands who ran the distance shouting on the banks.
Perhaps his examination of the boat and boating gear has
prepared him for some such revelation, perhaps it has
not, but we can assure him that its accuracy has been
proved, not only by our own long personal observations
of its mode of action and consequent results upon the
frames of the men themselves, but by practical and
theoretic tests of the most searching kind, instituted by
men of unquestionable ability for the office, and of un-
questionable freedom from prejudice or bias.

We have doubted whether this would bea relief or a dis-
appointment to theordinary spectator ; nor have our doubts
been restricted to him. Others whose practical know-
ledge of the art and exercise of rowing is great have also
found it embarrassing how to receive this announcement.
For ourselves, we regard it as an evil, although not one
without aremedy. But not only is the muscular effort alto-
gether disproportionate to that of the organs of circula-
tion and respiration, but inadequate in its amount to de-
velop and sustain to their full capacity the frames of the
men engaged therein, when rowing is practised for
exclusive exercise: it is found that this muscular exer-
tion, inadequate as it is, is also very irregularly and
partially divided, very unequally distributed among the
several portions of the body. Thus, we quote again from
our former source :—

“A little examination will prove, I think, what at first
may not have been surmised, that the legs have the
largest share of the work in rowing, for while all other
parts employed, back, loins, and arms, act somewhat in
detail and in succession, the legs act continuously
throughout the stroke, and the individual efforts of each,
and the concentrated efforts of all the other parts of the
body employed are transmitted through them to the point

of resistance—the stretcher. . , . . It will be found also |

that the stroke is nearly finished before the contractile —

efforts of the arms are in any degree engaged, namely,

when the trunk reaches the vertical line, and they are

called in to finish the stroke, and to turn and run out the
oar on the forward reach of the body preparatory to
another.
tion of the back, more to the loins’and hips, and most of
all to the legs; but it gives little to the arms, and that
chiefly to the fore-arm, and least of all to the chest.”

At this point Dr. Morgan’s views and our own do not

run quite parallel, but the divergence is not so great as

‘at first sight may appear, and almost seems the ex-

pression of the impatience of the Oarsman at anything
which might be construed as a hint that rowing
had a fault or a defect of any kind whatever, than the
decision of the Physician on a question which he had
considered. It may be a loss sometimes, perhaps, to
have tore qualifications than one for judging or writing
on a given subject. Thus we recognise the physician
when he admits the importance of the development of
the chest by muscular exertion, admits that in so doing
we do not merely increase its muscular coverings, but
actually expand the walls of the thoracic cavity, giving
ample space for the organs contained therein to perform
their all-important functions, nay, that these organs them-
selves are endowed with increased bulk, vigour, and power
by the same means : but here the oarsman crops up, and
he contends that all these good things are to be obtained
by practice at the oar, for that rowing does give this in-
valuable muscular exertion to the chest. Again, we re-
cognise the physician, acknowledging the substantiated
facts of physiological inquiry when he admits that the
chest receives its muscular action through the arms ; but
again the oarsman contends that in rowing the arms da
have energetic work to perform adequate to this task ;
nay, that in his own experience, when captain of his
college boat, “he has seen the biceps expand and the
forearm increase in girth ;” the latter probably, but the
former—well, they must have rowed in very bad style to
cause this development! But scarcely is this avowal
made when some doubt as to the propriety of the admis-
sion seems to be felt, and the subject is disposed of by
the following remark. ‘This is an inquiry which I do
not mean to inflict upon my readers. It is of more in-
terest to the student of anatomy than to the general
public,” probably this is the case, possibly it is not of
great interest to either, but how about the rower? It is
with him we are now concerned, and we opine it is to him
of very great importance indeed.

While we are engaged in fault-finding we will go as far
as the paragraph following that from which we have just
quoted, and in which we find the same kind of partial
reasoning. He proceeds to say :—

“Let us then consider in what way the chest is affected
by bodily labour, when the muscles are called into
activity, whether in rowing, or running, or in such a
course of gymnastics as is now wisely required for young
recruits. We find that, in the first place, the parts more
especially exercised acquire additional bulk, grow both
larger and stronger ; and secondly, we observe that the
circumference of the chest is increased, it becomes wider
and deeper. I have looked over numerous statistics so
tabulated as to show the physical value of gymnastic
Instruction, and these tables all agree in showing that

there is under such circumstances a coincident develop-
ment both of muscle and of chest.”

Rowing thus gives employment to a large por-_

NATURE

421

No doubt “the statistics so tabulated” give the results
which the author has seen, for are not such statistics, after
_ being inspected by the medical officers of the army,
regularly forwarded to the Adjutant-General of the forces
for his information? but what has this to do with boat-
racing or running? These three exercises are as
different in character and as different in their de-
mands upon the physical energies of the human body
in their practice, and in the results of their practice,
as it is possible to conceive ; and who that had in-
vestigated these three modes of muscular exertion would
thus run them together for the purpose of showing their
value or the results of their practice on the development
of the chest? If the development of the chest is mainly
due to the muscular exertions of the arms, how can run-
ning develop it, unless a man run upon “all fours?” When
organising this “course of gymnastic instruction for
recruits,” we held ever before us a principle precisely the
opposite to that :

maps and illustrations. By Elisée Reclus. Translated
by the late B. B. Woodward, M.A., and edited by
Henry Woodward, British Museum (Chapman and Hall

1871 and 1873.)

| ie is at length beginning to be acknowledged on all
hands that no system of education can be pro-
nounced perfect without a recognised position being as-
signed to the study of science. It cannot, of course, be
supposed that in the ordinary curriculum, say of a uni-
versity education, the various subjects of scientific study
can obtain that exclusive attention which is required, in
order to master them ; but it is of the highest importance
that, by the introduction and use of suitable text-books,
the mind of the youthful and ardent lover of Nature in
her various phases should be directed and prepared for
entering upon those more minute studies and exhaustive
researches in reference to particular subjects in the wide
field of scienti-

I

which regulates

fic inquiry, by

either good which alone he
running or row- can hope to
ing. In these, force Nature

sameness of ac-
tion, from the
start till the
close of the ex-
ercise, prevails;
in the gymnas-
tic course it is
variety, the
course embrac-
ing several

to disclose her
secrets.

Such a text-
book we have
in the work

now before us
—for these four
volumes really
form one entire
work—a most

hundreds of ex-
ercises, requir-
ing different
degrees of ef-
ort, executed at
different rates
of speed, em-
ploying every
portion of the
frame, and not-
ably the upper limbs and trunk of the body—exercises
all tested and proved to accomplish given results, on
thousands of men, and over many years of careful ob-
servation, long before they were embodied by us in our
military system. These three exercises shou'd be esti-
mated each by itself, and allowed to stand on its own
feet. No real or permanent advantage can accrue to
any of them by being thus lumped together, the more
especially as they are in their nature so dissimilar.
ARCHIBALD MACLAREN

Fic,

THE EARTH

The Earth: a Descriptive History of the Phenomena of
the Life of the Globe. 2 vols., with numerous maps and
illustrations.

Zhe Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life. Being the Second
Series of a Descriptive History of the Phenomena
of the Life of the Globe. 2 vols., with numerous

t.- The Pyramid Mountain

admirable trar-
slation of a
treatise on the
earth and its
phenomena by
the eminent
French savant,
M. Elisée Re-
clus, the result
of more than
fifteen years’ careful study, travel, and research. The
translation is by the late Mr. Bb. B. Woodward, the
Queen’s librarian at Windsor Castle, and edited since
his death by his brother, Mr. Henry Woodward, of
the British Museum. Notwithstanding the editor’s
apology, the work suffers but little from its appear-
ance in an English dress; in fact, the translation
has been carried out with such remarkable success,
that it possesses all the merits of an original English
work. The constitution and phenomena of the planet
in which we live are subjects of the deepest interest
and importance to us all, and, to the earnest and
thoughtful seeker after knowledge, present marvels ona
scale of grandeur and magnitude far beyond the compre-
hension of the mere superficial observer. As M. Reclus
says :—

“True enough that the earth is nothing but an almost
impalpable grain of dust to the vision of the astronomer
scanning the nebulz in the field of his telescope, but it is,

422

NATURE

ae tae ee

ps

[April 3, 1873

(SS

nevertheless, quite as much worthy of study as any
other of the heavenly bodies. If it does not possess
magnitude of dimensions, it presents an infinite variety
in all its details. Whole generations, living one after the
other upon its face, might pass their lives in studying its
phenomena, without comprehending all their full beauty.
There is not even any special science, having for its aim
some portion of the terrestrial surface, or some particular
series of its products, which does not present to our
savans an inexhaustible field of inquiry.” 3

The two first volumes of the work, to which alone we
must at present confine our attention, consist of four main
divisions—(t) on the earth as a planet, (2) on the land,
(3) on the circulation of water, and (4) on subterranean
forces. The first division treats of the form, structure, and
motion of the earth, explaining with great lucidity the
different theories respecting its formation.

M. Reclus then proceeds to give an outline of the
geological history of the earth as exhibited by the strati-
fication of rocks. In places where the strata have re-
mained undisturbed by the action of the sleepless forces
ever at work upon the earth’s crust, it is possible to see
the strata in their regular order of succession, giving, as
it were, an abstract of the earth’s geological history.
Probably the most remarkable instance in point is to be
found in the “ Pyramid Mountain,” the sketch of which
is taken from the famous “ Pacific Railroad Report.”

The second division treats of the form and distribution
of the continents, and points out the wonderful harmony
and analogy which prevail in the configuration of conti-
nents and oceans, the arrangement and peculiarities of
mountain ranges, the origin of valleys, ravines, gorges,
and other depressions of the earth’s surface. The ques-
tion of the origin of mountains and valleys is still,
generally speaking, an open one amongst geologists ; but,
nevertheless, with regard to valleys and ravines, one can
in many cases distinctly perceive that their formation is
due to the ceaseless action of water through countless
ages, mountain torrents cutting their way even through
vast mountain chains. Nothing can convey a more
impressive idea of the tremendous power of water as a
natural agent, than the wonderful cafions of Mexico,
Texas, and the Rocky Mountains, where the torrent may
be seen rushinz along through the incision it has cut out
for itself in the hard rock at a depth of several thousand
feet between perpendicular walls. The greatest of these
cafions, that of the Colorado, is 298 miles in length, and
its sides rise perpendicularly to a height of 5,000 or 6,000
feet. Valleys at their commencement usually assume the
form of amphitheatres in a degree more or less marked,
The most regular in form are to be seen in the Central
Pyrenees. ‘The most remarkable, on account of their
vast dimensions and the snow-clad terraces which surround
them, are the ow/es (boilers) of Garvarnie, Estaubé, and
Troumouse, which the slow action of centuries has hol-
lowed out in the calcareous sides of the mountains of
Marboré. Undulating tracts of pasture-land furrowed
by torrents, prodigious walls rising to 1,500 or even 2,000
or 3,009 feet in almost perpendicular height, gigantic
steps on which whole nations might find room to sit,
cascades which either spread out over the precipice and
float away in a diaphanous veil of mist, or rush down into
the valley like an avalanche ; the high summits, glittering
with unstained snow, which rear their heads high above

the wall of cliffs, as if to look over the inclosure—all these
features we find combined far in the recesses of these.
solitary mountains, so as to render the Pyrenean amphi-
theatre one of the grandest fab/eaux in Europe.” In the
third division, on the circulation of water, the author
discusses at considerable length the phenomenon of snow-
fall on mountain heights, the successive stages through
which the snow-field passes into the glacier form, the
structure and phenomena of glaciers, subjects towards
the elucidation of which Prof. Tyndall has made such
valuable contributions. The cause of the intersec-
tion of crevasses in glaciers is fully explained. A
marginal crevasse, as is well known, first appears in a
direction tending up the stream of the glacier ; it is then
carried round by the current until it inclines in a down-
stream direction, and is then intersected by another
crevasse opening like the first in an up-stream direction.
The process is repeated until the numerous intersecting —

crevasses form a complete labyrinth.
After several very interesting chapters upon the subject
A Ni

RNY
\ \\tt

NIH

Fic. 2.—Plan and section of the volcano of Rangitoto.—a Declivities of tuff ;

4 Cone of lava : ¢ Pyramid of Scoriz. Roy
of springs in their different varieties, the remainder of
this division is devoted to the discussion of lakes and
rivers, and here we find the fact carefully explained and
illustrated that the hydrographical systems in different
parts of the world exhibit the same relative harmony and
order as the forms of the continents, The chapters ex-
plaining the process of the formation of deltas, by what
are aptly termed “ working rivers” (/leuves travailleurs),
are especially worthy of attention, and will be found to
contain a collection of maps and diagrams in illustra-
tion of this branch of the subject.

The last division, on subterranean forces, contains some
of the most interesting chapters of the whole work, being
devoted to the consideration of the most mysterious and
appalling of terrestrial phenomena, namely, volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes. Science has not yet suc-
ceeded in establishing any definite theory respecting the
origin of volcanic eruptions, although most valuable con-

3 ’

April 3, 1873)

_ tributions have been made to this branch of scientific
_ Study by Prof. Palmieri, who so courageously stuck to his
observatory on Mount Vesuvius throughout the whole of
the tremendous eruption of 1872. The symmetrical form
of the craters of many volcanoes is very remarkable, in
some instances the outline of the cone and crater being
absolutely perfect in its symmetry, as in the case of the
volcano of Rangitoto, of which a plan and section here
reproduced is given in the work.

Our space forbids our entering more fully at present into
the merits of these interesting volumes. G. L. B.G,

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Dana on Corals
A Reply To THE Criticism or Mr. DuncAN

IN a criticism of Prof. Dana’s work on Corals and Coral
Islands, printed in a recent number of NATURE (vol. yii. p. 119),
Mr. Duncan has seen fit to mention my name and certain of my
views adopted by Dana in a somewhat discourteous manner. I
therefore beg leave to reply, as briefly as possible, to some of his
strictures, which are both erroneous and unjust.

Concerning the general character and plan of Dana’s book it
is not my intention to say anything, for those are matters which
chiefly concern the author and publisher. It is to be presumed
that they know, quite as well as any critic, the kind of book
demanced by the public—at least by the American public—and
experience every day shows the errors of critics in this respect.
Certainly few authors have had more extensive and successful ex-
perience in writing strictly scientific books for the public than
Prof. Dana.

Mr. Duncan criticises the introduction of brief notices and
descriptions of ‘‘animals which are not corals, and which in no
way affect or produce coral reefs or islands,” evidently alluding
to the Actiniz, Hydroids, and. Bryozoa; for he says, “ all the
notices and descriptions of the Actinize and Hydroidea might have
been omitted, as they only confuse the subject.” Surely Mr.
Duncan ought to know, and if he does, should not ignore the
fact, that Millepora, and the allied genera, are true Hydroids,
and at the same time form large and abundant corals, which con-
tribute very largely to the formation of coral reefs and islands
both in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Moreover, this im-
portant fact is stated by Dana on page 104 of his book, and its
discovery is correctly attributed to Avassiz, while the animals are
illustrated by a cut copied from his figures. It should be added
that this discovery, made twenty five years ago, has recently been
confirmed by Pourtales (‘‘ Deep Sea Corals,” p. 56, 1871).
That many of the ancient fossil corals were of the same nature
scarcely admits of doubt, although the writer has elsewhere
shown that this was not the case with all the so-called ‘‘ Tubu-
lata.” Why, then, should this important class of corals be
omitted from such a work? As for the Actinice, their relation-
ship to the ordinary stony corals is so close, both in external ap-
pearance and internal anatomy, that no general work on corals
could be considered at all complete without an account of them.
Their physiology is also much better known than that of the coral
animals, Moreover, they are the only near relatives of the true
corals that the majority of the readers of the book will ever see
alive. .

The Bryozoa are also quite entitled to the page and a half
allowed them in this book, for that they do contribute something
to the existing coral-reefs can be easily demonstrated. One species
of escharella, abundant on the eastern coast of the United States,
forms solid coral-like masses often two or three inches in dia-
meter, which accumulate in large quantities over w de areas, and,
under fayourable circumstances, would form limestones of con-
siderable thickness, Some of the coral-reef species grow still
larger and occur in profusion. In the Palgeozoic coral-seas and
reefs the Bryozoa were of still greater importance, and s me of
the so-called “ true corals” of tho-e times evidently belonged to
this group in addition to those usually referred to ic. ‘The stony
Algz also, are by no means to be ignored in treating of coral
reefs, and the half page devoted to them might well have been
extended rather than omitted. Darwin, Agassiz, Major Hunt,

NATURE

423

and others besides Dana, have recognised their agency in furnish-

ing calcareous matter to the reef limestones, Fine specimens of
such limesiones, composed aimost entirely of their remains, may
be seen in many Am-rican museums.

Mr. Duncan, in criticising Dana for adopting the classification
which he believes most natural, makes this remark : ‘* The intro-
duction of American novelties to the exclusion of well-recognised
European classifications, is neither right nor scientifically cor-
rect.” Are we to infer from this that “ American noveltics ” are
less valuable than French or English ones, providing they be equally

true to nature? Or does our critic prefer European error to Ame-

rican truth? Certainly no one has contributed more, in the way
of original investigations and discoveries, to a true classification of
the corals than Dana himself, in his great work on the Zodphytes
of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, which was far in advance of
any work on this subject that had been written in Europe up to
that time (1846). In some respects his classification was far
more natural than that proposed afterwards by Edwards and
Haime, Unfortunately at that period most of the corals and
polyps in European museums had not been described or figured
by European writers in a manner accurate enough to make their
identification possible, or even, in many cases, to show their
generic and family characters. That Edwards and Haime,
having access to those collections, and having the benefit of
Dana’s great work, should have been able to make corrections
and improvements was natural. Nor was it less natural that,
after the publication of the more accurate descriptions and
figures in their works, an American, having these and all the
other works.at hand, with constant access to the original types
of Dana, to the unrivalled collections of corals brought together
by Agassiz,and to all the other collections in the United States
(by no means few or smali) should, after devoting a large part of
his time for twelve years to the special study of corals, have
been able to make still other corrections and improvements,
even in opposition to the views of certain European writers,
But several European authors have also made numerous changes
in the system of Edwards and Haime, and are likely to make
many more, Certainly the time has not yet come when we can
consider the classification of corals permanently fixed.

Whether the “novelties” to which he refers be ‘* scientifically
correct” is quite another question, and one that must be settled
in the scientific way, by the evidence of facts observed, and not
by denunciations, nor by dogmatic assertions. In selecting
examples of the supposed inaccuracies of my views, as adopted
by Dana, Mr. Duncan cites the ‘‘Oculina tribe,” which the
writer has established to include not only the Oculinide, but
several other families, referred by Edwards and Haime to the
Astrzeidz and elsewhere. He says—‘‘ The admission of Orbi-
cella, which is really tne old Astrae of Lamarck (not of 1801),
and of Caryophyllia into this well-differentiated tribe, is simply
absurd, for they possess structural characters sufficiently diverse
as to place them in different families.” As a matter of fact, the
writer has placed these same corals in different famelies in several
papers published during the past five years, and this is the view
adopted by Dana; so the argument quoted becomes ‘simply
absurd.’’ Again, he says that ‘* Astrangia was well differentiated
long before Prof. Verrill was heard of,” and adds that Conrad
Lonsdale and ‘the distinguished French Zodphytologists
consolidated the genus, which has nothing in common with the
Oculinidz.”” What he means by ‘‘ consolidated” in this connec-
tion, it is difficult to tell, for all that Conrad and Lonsdale did
was to describe very poorly, under the name of “ Astrze,” two
or three fossil species, which Edwards and Haime afterwards
referred coubtfully to Astrangia. The genus itself was first
pointed out by Dana in 1846, and named Pleiadia, as stated in
his book, page 68 ; but it was not at that time strictly defined,
for there were no spccies in the collections of the Exploring Ex-
pedition ; consequently tne name Astrangia, proposed two years
later, has been universally adopted. Dana's oriyinal specimens,
with the MS. names placed upon them in 1845, stil exist in
our collections. But what my own age or reputation in the year
1848 has to do with the matter 1s not obvious. I trust thateven
then I was old enough to have seen the absurdities of such a
criti.ism as that under discussion. That I hive, since that time,
carefully studied sixteen species of that geuus and described a
large number of new ones, while only three were known to
Edwards and Haime, is true. That ] have shown the close re-
lationship between this genus and Clad cora and Oculinais equally
ue, and I presume that had Mr, Duncan enjoyed as goou op-
portunities as I have had for studying this and all the related

424

NATURE

genera he wou!ld long 2g» have arrived at the same conclusions.
it is certain that the soit parts of Astrangia, Cladocora, Oculina,
and Orbicella are almost identical in all essential points of struc-
ture and form, as anyone may see by examining the published
figures of the animals of these genera, though the living animals
resemble one another much more closely than do the figures.
Moreover there are species of Astrangia that bud Jaterally and
grow up into branched forms not unlike Oculina, while the
species of the latter are always encrusting while young, and
have marginal buds, like the typical Astrangie, and some
Oculinze remain permanently nearly in this condition.

Nor do the internal structure of the corals afford any marked
and constant characters for their separation. The Ccenenchyma
is often nearly wanting in Oculinide, though usually charac-
teristic, and it is sometimes present in Astrangize, even present-
ing the radiating surface lines so characteristic of Oculina. In
fact it often requires very careful study to determine whether cer-
tain specimens belong to Oculina and Astrangia. Such are the
genera that have ‘‘ nothing in common.” The relations between
Caryophyllia and Astrangia, through Paracyathus, Phyllangia,
&c., are sufficiently obvious, and as I have fully discussed all
these relations elsewhere (Trans. Conn. Acad. I. pp. 512 to 540,
1869), it is unnecessary to say more upon this point. P

What Mr. Duncan means by saying that Caryophyllia
Smithii was first discovered by the Porcupine Expedition in
the European seas, is not evident, if he means the well-known
species which has passed under that name in all English works,
and which Dana illustrates by a figure copied from Gosse’s
Actinologia Britannica” (which is the only figure that Mr. Dun-
can specially criticises). He also finds fault with Dana for say-
ing that Caryophyllia cyathus is “widely distributed over the
bottom of the Atlantic, even as far north as the British isles,”
and tells us that “those unrecognised workers have shown that
it is not Caryophyllia cyathus but C. clavus which has the
great horizontal range,” referring of course to the *‘ workers i
who had described the corals of the Forcupine expedition. But
in Mr. Duncan’s paper on those corals (Proc. Royal Soc., 1870,
p. 289) he united both those species, together with C. Syithit
ani C. dorealis, as mere varieties of one species, and makes a
long argument to sustain that view, and concludes thus: “I
have placed the species borealis in the first place, and regard the
old species C. clavus, C. Smithii, and C. cyathus as varieties of
it.’’ Dana’s statement was doubtless based on Mr. Duncan’s
assertions, in the paper quoted, that C. cyathus and C, clavus
are identical, and the subsequent discovery of C. clavus in the
Straits of Florida by Pourtales. The error, therefore, if such it
be, belongs wholly to Mr. Duncan, and his remark that
‘shad Dana waited a little longer he would have had
the opportunity of quoting correctly,” was, to say the
least, quite uncalled for, and unbecoming to him. But the
peculiar injustice of the critic is, perhaps, best seen in
his studied omission of any credit to Dana for his extensive
original observations and investigations upon the structure and
formation of coral reefs and islands, and his intimations that
the facts and theories are mostly borrowed. Thus he says,
‘* The chapters on the structure of coral reefs and islands add
little to the knowledge which Darwin and Jukes and Hochsteth
have given us; but Dana’s great powers of illustration enable
him to reproduce the details with which we are so familiar—
thanks to these authors—in very engaging forms.” Dana has
given Darwin full credit and well-merited praise, both in the
preface and in many places in the body of the work, for his
accurate observations of facts and discovery of the true mode of
formation of coral islands ; but he also states the well-known
fact that his own observations had been made and his report
written, in 1842, before the publication of Mr. Darwin’s work.
The report of Mr. Jukes was published still later(1847). Dana’s
ob ervations were, therefore, wholly original, and relate mostly
to regions not visited either by Darwin or Jukes. The clapters
upon this subject are, as they purport to be, mainly a reprint of
Dana’s original report, with such additions from other and later
sources as seemed necessary to make the work complete, all of
which are credited to their original authors. In the preface the
author says, ‘‘ The observations forming the basis of the work

were made in the course of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition
around the world, during the four years from 1838 to 1842.”
Had Mr. Duncan taken the trouble to examine the original re-
port, he would have found there the true source of most of the
facts narrated. The figures of corals were also mostly copied
from those in the atlas of his report on zoophytes, which were
originally drawn by Dana himself from Nature, so that it is not

strange that ‘some of them are very correct representations of —

Nature.” When the figures are not original, their source has
invariably been given. The charge that Dana does not give
due credit to others is simply ridiculous, and in no case more so
than when he is accused of treating the works of Edwards and
Haime with ‘‘supreme contempt, inasmuch as he rarely gives
them credit for their good work,” for,in the list (p. 379) of the
species of corals described in his great work on Zoophytes, pre-
pared at his urgent request by the writer, he has adopted, with-
out hesitation, all the numerons rectifications made by them, as
well as those made by the writer and others. A considerable
number of corrections also appear in that list for the first time,
and it must, therefore, be quoted as the original authority for such
changes. Nothing less than the complete absence of personal
vanity and pride, and entire devotion to the advancement of
scientific truth, for which Prof. Dana is so justly distinguished,
could have induced him to have published such a list in this

book, No doubt instances may have occurred in which he has J

unintentionally overlooked writings of more or less importance,
If so, he will doubtless make amends in the next edition, The
authority for well-known facts is not always given, because such
references would uselessly encumber the book. In other cases,
where to mention would be only to condemn, such references
have been intentionally omitted when they would have served
no useful purpose. Such was the case in respect to the various
erroneous European classifications, which were not adopted.
Such was also the case when, in describing the extensive coral
réefs of Brazil, so wellexplored by Prof. Hartt, and which were
shown by the writer to consist of corals related to and partly
identical with those of the West Indies, he does not refer to Mr.
Dunean’s assertion (Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. xxiv. p. 30) that
‘the Orinoco drains a vast tertiary region, and shuts in the
coral-life of the Caribbean on the south ;” and that ‘‘the Florida
reefs consist of few species,” when more than forty-five species
had even then been recorded from them, or more than he ad-
mits for any existing reefs. Other statements and theories con-
cerning the recent and fossil corals of the West Indies, in the
same paper, have become equally absurd, in consequence of the
recent discoveries of Pourtales, and needed no exposure. His
assertion that the isthmus of Panama was deeply submerged
during the Miocene, and again forcibly urged in his criticism of
Dana, may rest on no better foundation than the other assertions
just quoted from the same paper, notwithstanding the careless
way in which he misquotes, as to place of publication, and mis-
represents, as to the contents, a brief article in opposition to that
view by the writer. We still Jook in vain for such proofs as
would be afforded by elevated coral reefs having relations to
those of the West Indies, but situated on the Pacific side, or
even upon the higher parts of the isthmus. The well-known
existence of elevated coral reefs in the East Indies and Polynesia,
and their presence in the West Indies, known long before Mr,
Duncan began to write his valuable papers, proves nothing of
the sort. Whatever relations do exist between the fossil corals
of the East and West Indies can be easily explained in other
ways. We think it singular that while certain geologists find it
necessary to force the Gulf-stream across the isthmus during the
warm Miocene, others find it quite as important to turn it out of
the Atlantic, across the isthmus, during the glacial period. Both
assumptions seem equally gratuitous, and may be opposed by
numerous facts. A. E. VERRILL

Animal Instincts

ALLOW me to add two or three facts to the interesting store
supplied by your correspondents.

Some years ago a dog was sent to me at Taunton from Honi-
ton, distant seventeen miles. It was conveyed in a closed
hamper and in a covered cart. It escaped from my stable on
the evening of its arrival, and at 11 o'clock on the following
morning it was at its home again. The route lay over a ridge of
steep hills.

Mr. Robert Fox, of Falmouth, so well known to the scientific
world, is my authority for the following :—The fishermen of
Falmouth catch their crabs off the Lizard rocks, and they are
brought into the harbour at Falmouth alive and impounded in a
box for sale, and the shells are branded with marks by which
every man knows his own fish. The place where the box is sunk
is four miles from the entrance to the harbour, and that is above

seven miles from the place where they are caught. One ofthese

boxes was broken ; the branded crabs escaped, and two or three
days afterwards they were again caught by the fishermen at the

April 3, 1873]

Lizard rocks. They had been carried to Falmouth in a boat.
To regain their home they had first to find their way to the
mouth of the harbour, and when there, how did they know
whether to steer to the right or to the left, and to travel seven
miles to their native rocks ?

Another, of which the drover is my informant. Large flocks
of sheep are driven weekly from the Welsh hills to the London
market. Some time since two escaped in the dark and were
supposed to have been stolen. About a fortnight afterwards the
two stray sheep reappeared on the Welsh n ow stains, whence
they had been brought. They had found their way through a
journey of at least 100 miles. My informant learned from some
of the turnpike-gate keep-rs on the road that, when opening
ie gate at night toa traveller, two sheep had been seen to rush
through.

The nightingale returns from Greece, not merely to the same
country, but to the same field and the self-same bush. The
swallow takes possession of the same nest.

Epwarp W. Cox, Serjeant-at-law

Carlton Club, March 31

*
<4 ia ’
rote

The Sociability of Cats

Ir may prove of interest to naturalists to record the following
curious instance of the social habits of cats :—

I once had two she ca's that were upon very intimate terms
with each other, always together, and never appeared to have
quarrelled. At one time, one of them being about to add an
increase to their number, the other very kindly nursed it, and
~ even performed the function of a midwife, and actually attended
to the necesary offices that are in ordinary cases attended to by
the parent of the progeny. Feeling some interest in curiosities of
natural history, I carefully watched my pets, and can therefore
youch for the truthfulness of this extraordinary manifestation of
feline sociability.

I may here mention that, as regards the teachableness of cats,
I once saw at the house of an intimate friend a fine, large tabby
tom-cat put through a drill which would perhaps outvie similar
exhibitions of the genus omc. He was told to ‘‘stand up,”
**shoulder arms,” ‘‘ present arms,” and ‘‘ stand at ease,” which,
by observing the hands of the master, he would most obediently
do, and with a promptness that was astounding. Another cat
was told “‘to beg,” which it at once did by jumping on toa
Windsor chair, and performed some curious twistings and
rollings that were continued until the morsel of meat was
awarded. I have recently introduced a fine kitten to the com-
pany of two cats I have had for years. For a long time a
deadly feeling of enmity was maintained against the stranger;
but now, after a period of three months, the two older cats will
not lap their morning’s milk until the kitten is in their company ;
if absent, they actually retire, and refuse to take their meal.

Red Lion Street, March 26 J. JEREMIAH

Manitoba Observatory

HAVING seen in vol. vii. p. 289 of NATURE a statement to
the effect that the American Government had established an
observatory at Fort Garry, Manitoba, I have to inform you
that the so-called observatory is a telegraph reporting station
maintained by the Dominion of Canada. Its tri-daily reports,
however, in common with those from several other Canadian
telegraph stations in correspondence with Toronto, are always
placed at the disposal of the Washington weather office.

‘ G. T. Kincston
Magnetic Observatory, Toronto, Canada, March 11

ST. THOMAS CHARTERHOUSE TEACHERS’
SCIENCE CLASSES

Por to the introduction of Mr. Lowe's revised code,

elementary science teaching was always to be found
in the curriculum of our best primary schools. The pro-
perties of water, the constituents of some of the chemical
elements, the first principles of mechanics and the like,
were taught with much pleasure by the masters of the
schools above alluded to. ‘“ Payment by results” on the
three R’s threw cold water upon this class of intellectual
teaching, and it has only been revived recently through
agitation emanating from enlightened educators, Teachers
of late years too have had their studies very much
limited by the low requirements of the Education

NATURE

department, and hence many young teachers were
launched out into the teacher’s profession unable them-
selves to impart instruction formerly given in our
schools. Teachers have long been clamorous for having
the standard of education raised in their schools, and
have therefore hailed with great satisfaction the act
of the Science and Art Department whereby additional
grants are given to any pupils or adults or juveniles who
could, after receiving a certain number of lessons from a
qualified teacher, pass an examination on the subject-
matter of these lectures. Teachers, however, before they
are permitted to give these lectures to pupils, are required
to pass an advanced examination on the subjects they
propose to teach. To enable teachers to pass these
tests, the St. Thomas Charterhouse Teachers’ Classes were
inaugurated in October last. The idea was organised by
Mr. C. Smith, one of the teachers and organising secre-
taries, and was carried out under the auspices of the Rev.
J. Rodgers, M.A. To the credit of our primary teachers
it ought to be added that they have since the promul-
gation of the idea worked most heartily to bring it to
this desired consummation. Profs. Huxley, Ansted, Car-
ruthers, Sir John Bennett, and several other scientific
men joined the committee for carrying out the classes.
From every part of London masters and mistresses of
our elementary schools gladly joined the Science School.
Over 230 teachers were initiated, and it is hoped that
most of the teachers will qualify themselves in the coming
May examination to be able to teach the science subjects
they have studied in these classes. Thus from this
nucleus it is thought that next year we shall have science
classes in connection with nearly every school (elementary)
in the metropolis; and undoubtedly in a year or two
more the inculcation of elementary general science know-
ledge will be almost universal.

Science teaching in the hands of a skilful instructor is
always popular with young people, and as elementary
teachers are eminently successful as collective teachers of
the young, who could be better entrusted with imparting
instruction which so brightens the intellect as these
educators? The chief subjects taken this year at this
science school are chemistry, mathematics, acoustics,
light and heat, magnetism and electricity, botany (sys-
tematic and economic), geology, physiology, plane
and solid geometry ; but next year the promoters of the
scheme hope to have classes in all the twenty-five subjects
recognised by the Science Department of the Government.
Most of the present students of the classes go in vigor-
ously for physiology, physical geography, and acoustics,
light and heat, a great many for chemistry. The teacher
of chemistry, Mr. Spratling, has got up a first-rate labora-
tory for chemical experiments. Mr. Payne, teacher of
magnetism and electricity, has all the approved auxiliaries
for performing experiments connected with this sub-
ject. Next year the biology students will have every
facility afforded them for microscopical practice. Mr.
Simpson, who has done at least as much as any other
person in London to train science teachers, is engaged as
the special lecturer on Biology.

During the present session several of our leading scien-
tific men have given a professional lecture to stimulate
the teachers in their studies. Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Jarvis,
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Carruthers, Mr. Tylor, Rev. W.
Panckridge, Prof. Skertchley amongst the number. All
the ordinary leciures are given by elementary teachers
who have qualified themselves to teach, Two of the
students, Mr. Bird and Mr. Powell, who have spent some
of their leisure moments in making observations in bota-
nical science, render much valuable aid to their fellow
students in furnishing examples to illustrate the lessons
given in botany. The students generally are pursuing
their studies with great avidity, and as was observed at
the Devon Social Society Gathering, by Mr. C. Clarke
the importance of these classes cannot be over-estimated

426
TROGLODYTES OF THE VEZERE*
IV.
Iv .—Arts among the Troglodytes

9 HE men of the reindeer age cultivated drawing, chisel-

ling, and even sculpture. We must admit that they
had, like ourselves, many inferior artists ; but among a
large number of coarse attempts, such ‘as our “street

Fic. 23.— Sculptured pointed handle, representing an elongated reindeer.

arabs” chalk on the walls, there are some really remarkable
ones, which denote at the same time a clever hand and
an eye practised in the observation of nature.

Drawing, with this people, evidently preceded sculpture.
Tke figures in relief are much more rare among them
than those that are carved, and likewise much less per-
fect. The latter are common at the Eyzies and Lower
Laugerie, but they abound more especially at the Made-
laine, where they are also much more correct. These
drawings are all carved. Most of them ornament the

Fic. 26

Fic 24.
Bones of the old man of Cromagnon. Fig. 24 —Shin-bone. Fig. 25.—

Fic. 25.

Fiattened tibia. Fig. 26 —Femur: profile view.

surface of different objects in deer horn, such as batons

of command, handles of poignards ; but some are en-

graved on pieces of stone, ivory, or deer horn, which

were not intended for any other use, and which were pre-
* Continued from p 369

NATURE

mee

pared purposely to receive the work of the artist. (See
Figs. 12 and 22.)

Nearly all these drawings represent natural objects.
Some, however, are merely simpie ornate lines, forming
zigzag festoons, and more or less elegant curves.

Fic. 27.—Skull of the woman of Cromagnon: profile. The woynd ia

the frontal bone is shown,

Three little roses carved on a handle in deer-horn,
seem to represent a polypetalous flower. All the other
drawings are representations of animals.

The most numerous are those of the reindeer, then
those of the horse: the ox and the aurochs are less com-
mon, These different animals are easily distinguished ;
their ways, their movements are sometimes reproduced
with much elegance and accuracy ; often they are isolated,
dispersed in apparent disorder and in numbers over the
whole surface of an object ; then again they form groups,

they are seen fighting together (see Fig. 22), or fleeing from _

.man.
Of all these drawings, the most important and also the
most rare, for it is at present unique, is that which repre-
sents the mammoth, and of which I have already spoken.
Drawings of fish are pretty common. With one excep-

Fic. 29,—Skull of the old man of Cromagnon : profile..

tion, which represents an eel or a lamprey (if it is not a
serpent), they have a shape which, though not very cha-
racteristic, may be intended for a salmon. Y
The Troglodytes, sometimes so clever in delineating
animals, were very inferior artists of the “human form

[April 3, 1873

a

‘senting a grotesque profile.

Wisc. en; ae : 3

divine ;” they very rarely studied it. Only onestudy of a
head has been found; it is a very small drawing, repre-
Two other drawings, pretty
much alike, represent the forearm terminating in a hand

with four fingers, the thumb being hidden. I have already

told you that the pieces of sculpture are much more rare
than thedrawings. There are not more than half a dozen,
and they all come from Lower Laugerie. One of them,
belonging to the Marquis de Vibraye, represents a woman,

another represents a reindeer (see Fig, 23).

V.—Race

To complete the study of this interesting people, I
should now like to be able to characterise the race to which
they belonged. The human bones that have been col-
lected up to the present time are not, unfortunately,
sufficiently numerous to satisfy our curiosity. However
they suffice to prove that this race was very different
from the succeeding ones, and to prove above all how
much the learned anthropologist Retzius and his disciples
were deceived, ia stating that all the population of Western
Europe, before the comparatively recent epoch of the
Indo-European emigrations, belonged to the type of shart
heads or brachycephats.

;
jae
Wt

ntl i

il
i |

Fic. 31.
Fig. 28,—Skull of the wom in of Cromagnon

The tibias, instead of being triangular and prismatic
like our own, are flattened like those of the gorilla (see
Fig. 24. The upper part of the cubitus, very powerful and
arched, supports a very small sigmoidal cavity, and its
characteristics again recall the shape of the gorilla. But
the conformation of the femur differs radically from that
of the monkey tribe. The femur of anthropomorphal
monkeys is flattened from front to back—that is to say,
much wider than it is thick, and it does not present, on its
posterior surface, that longitudinal elevation which in man
is called the rough dine. In the existing human races, the
thickness of the femur is in general rather greater than
its width, but the difference is inconsiderable. At Cro-
magnon this bone is much thicker than it is wide (see Fig.
25). The rough line, enormously developed, is no longer
a simple elevation ; it is a regular bony column, thick
and projecting, which considerably augments the solidity
of the bone and the extent of the muscular insertions. In
this respect, therefore, the Cromagnon race differs much
more from the Simian type than do the existing races.
The skeletons of these robust Troglodytes bear the traces
of their deeds of violence. One of the femurs of the old
man presents, towards the lower extremity, a cavity such

NATURE

Fic. 23,

ront view. Fig. 30.—Sku!l of the oll man of Cromagnon: front view. Fig. 3r. —Skull of the old
man of Cromagnon, Norma verticalis

427

M. Elie Massenat discovered, some months ago, at
Lower Laugerie, the skeleton of a man who appears to
have been buried in a landslip. But the anatomical de-
scription of this precious skeleton has not yet been pub-
lished ; and I regret it the more, that it is the only dis-
covered remains of the Trozlodytes of the latest epoch.

The skulls and bones, of which I show you the models,
belong toa much earlier date. They were found in the
ancient burying ground of the station of Cromagnon, of
which the geological, paleontological, and archzolozical
characters have been ascertained with the greatest nicety
by M. Louis Lartet. This sepulchre, henceforth cele-
brated, contained the remains of at least five people.
But only three skulls, two male and one female, were
sufficiently well preserved to make useful studies. One of
the men had attained a great age ; the other man and the
woman were adults ; neir them laya young child. Their
stature was very lofty, and far superior to our own. The
length of the femur of the old man indicated a heig“1t of
more than 180m. The volume of the bones, the ex-
tent and roushness of the surfaces of muscular insertion,
the extraordinary development of the branch of the jaw-
bone, where the masticatory muscles are inseited, prove
an athletic constitution.

|

NN
a ag

WTS

(>
SSSE__Awy

Fic. 30.

as is sometimes produced by our musket balls. It is
evidently the result of an old wound. It was evidently a
human hand, armed with a flint weapon, which produced .
a long penetrating wound on the skull of the woman.
The width of the opening shows that the weapon must
have reached the brain. ‘This inglorious murder of a
woman does not shed lustre on the people of Cromagnon.
The study of their industry has already proved that their
social status was not above that of other savage nations.
An examination of their skulls confirms this notion,
With them, the sutures of the anterior region of the
cranium are very simple, while those of the posterior
region are rather complicated ; besides which the former
have a manifest tendency to close long before the latter.
These two characteristics are observable in people and
in individuals who live principally an animal life. The
Cromagnon Troglodytes were then savages. But these
savages were intelligent, and open to improvement ; side
by side with the proofs of inferiority I have just given, we
find among them sure signs of a powerful cerebral organi-
sation. The skulls are large. Their diameters, their
curves, their capacity, attain, and even surpass, our
medium skulls of the present day, Their form is very

428

elongated. The alveolar process of the old man is
oblique, but the upper part of the face is vertical, and the
facial angle is very open. The forehead is wide, by no
means receding, but describing a fine curve ; the ampli-
tude of the frontal tuberosities denotes a large develop-
ment of the anterior cerebral lobes, which are the seat of
the most noble intellectual faculties. If the Cromagnon
Troglodytes are still savages, it is because their surround-
ing conditions have not permitted them to emerge from
barbarism; but they are not doomed to a perpetual
savage state. The development and conformation of their
brain testify to their capability for improvement. When
the favourable opportunity arrives, they will be able to
progress towards civilisation. These rough hunters of
the mammoth, the lion, and the bear, are just what ought
to be the ancestors of the artists of the Madelaine.

I have just glanced over the principal facts in the
history of the Troglodytes of the Véztre. For want of
time, I have been obliged to shorten several and omit a
number more. I hope, nevertheless, that you have been
able to follow with me from Moustier to Cromagnon, from
Cromagnon to Upper Laugerie and Gorge d’Enfer, and
from thence finally to the three stations of the Eyzies,
Lower Laugerie, and the Madelaine; the progressive evo-
lution of an intelligent race, wi.ich advanced step by step,
from the most savage state to the very threshold of civili-
sation. The Troglodytes of the latest epoch had, so to
speak, but one step to take in order to found a real civili-
sation, for their society was organised, and they possessed
arts and industry, which are the two great levers of
progress.

This people have, nevertheless, disappeared, without
leaving a single trace in the traditions of man. They did
not die off by degrees, after having passed through a
period of decadence. No, they perished without transition,
rapidly, perhaps suddenly. and with them the torch of the
arts was suddenly extinguished. Then began a dark
period, a sort of middle ages, the duration of which is
unknown. The chain of time becomes broken, and when
we seize it again, we find, in the place of the reindeer
hunters, a new society, a new industry, a new race. They
are beginning to understand agriculture, they have some
domestic animals, they are raising megalithic monuments,
they have hatchets of polished flint. It is the dawn of a
new day; but they have lost every remembrance of the
arts. Sculpture, drawing, ornamentation, have alike dis-
appeared, and we must descend to the later period of
polished stone to find, here and there, on the slabs of
some very rare monuments, a few ornamental lines which
have absolutely nothing in common with the remarkable
productions of art among the Troglodytes, The extinction
of the Troglodytes was so complete and so sudden that it
has given rise to the hypothesis of an inundation ; but
against this geology protests, and, to explain the pheno-
menon, we need only refer to the influence of man him-
se'f. Our peaceable reindeer-hunters, with their gentle
manners, their light weapons, which were not adapted for
fighting, were not calculated to resist the invasion of
barbarians, and their growing civilisation succumbed at
the first shock, when powerful conquerors, better armed
for war, and al eady provided perhaps with the polished
hatchet, came to invade their valleys. It was then seen,
as it has often since been proved, that might conquers
right.

PROF, FLOWERS HUNTERIAN LECTURES
LEcTuRES XVI, XVII. XVIII.

A RTIODACTYLATA. The peculiarities of the

skeleton in these animals have been already pointed
out ; it may be added as a constant special character,
that the lower end of the fibula articulates with the cal-
caneum as well as with the astragalus ; the premolars are

NATURE

[April 3, 1853

also simpler than the molars, and there is an extra lobe —
to the last milk molar. The number of existing species
is very great ; they tend to divaricate in two directions, —
one culminating in the Pigs, and the other in the Cavi-
corn Ruminants, The Hippopotamus and Chevrotain at
first sight do not look much alike, *but the links between
the two are very complete. The existing species are the
most differentiated members of the order. Of the Suzna,
the Pigs are very exceptional among existing mammalia
in retaining the typical number of forty-four teeth,
Gymunura, an insectivorous animal, alone resembling them
in this point ; however there are spaces between some of
them, so they do not form a regular series. The upper
canines are very peculiar in being directed upwards
instead of downwards, and in the Babirussa, where they
pierce the upper lip, this is carried to an extreme. The
molars are tuberculated, the tubercles being four in
number in the Peccary, but much more numerous, espe-
cially in the last molars of Ss, where the extra ones
represent the third lobe of the same teeth in the Rumi-
nants. In a fossil pig from Pikermé the canines were
similarly developed in both sexes, so the sexual differen-
tiation must have been of later origin. In the Wart-hogs
the incisors are rudimentary, and la‘e in life the only
molars persisting are the enormous columnar last molars ;
the great size of the canines is well known.

In the true Rvminantia there are no upper incisors,
and the canines are but rarely developed. In the lower
jaw there are eight teeth in a row along the front of the
mouth, the two lateral can be proved to be canines, because
in older types they are found of a different shape from the
six true incisors. The anterior premolar is never developed.
Kowalevsky has recently given the names Bunodont and
Selenodont to thenon-ruminating and ruminating members
of this class, on account of ‘the differences exhibited by
their molar teeth, those jn the latter presenting the ridges
as a double crescent instead of in tubercles. The temporal
bone and its surroundings give excellent characters whereby
to separate these sub-Classes ; the shape of the glenoid
cayity and the direction of the external auditory meatus
differing considerably in them. There is also no lateral
no{ch in the palate of the pigs like those in the Ruminants.
The Cervidee and Cavicorn Ruminants also have the
odontoid process of the axis peculiarly spout-shaped,
whilst in the pigs it forms a simple peg, much as in man.
It does not seem to have been remarked before that in
this respect the TZyagudide differ from the typical
Ruminants, and resemble the pigs, the odontoid in them
being a peg. With regard to the feet of Sms, Dr.
Kowalevsky has made some importantobservations, having
shown that the approximated sides of the two median
metacarpals, which are the largest, send in towards one
another processes which interlock, and that the shape of
their distal articular surfaces causes them to be pressed
together when the foot is to the ground. In the pigs the
fibula is separate and complete, but in the Ruminants it
is represented only by a small piece of bone outside the
ankle ; a rudiment is sometimes present above. That
the deer approach the original type more than do the
antelopes is evident from the facts that the upper canines
are sometimes present, the crowns of the molars are —
shorter, and the lateral toes are present, beimg best deve- ©
loped on the fore-limb. The 7vagudid@ are less differen-
tiared in having the anterior mctacarpals free and the
fibula entire, though slender ; the canines are wel: deve-
Joped in the male at least, and the glenoid cavity is as
like that of the pig as of the deer. Lcoty/es approaches
the ruminants from the other side, the metatarsals uniting
to form a canon bone, and the fovt alvogether closely re-
sembiing that of Hyomoschus, though an outer toe is lost
in the former. The camels are developed in a ditferent
direction, approaching the more generalised type. :

Artiodactylates appear first in the middle Eocene, and
therefore do not go so far back as the Perissodactylata.

i a ;
Anoplotherium is from the upper Eocene of France and

England only ; there are two or three species. Though
so early a form, it was much specialised, and its pecu-
liarities have not been retained in more modern nor exist-
ing forms. It was about the size of the ass. The teeth
formed an unbroken series, and, as in man, they were
uniform in height. The upper molars were much as in
Palzotherium, and the lower were a modification of the
same type. Nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebre were pre-
sent ; the tail was very long, with large chevron bones,
which are not found in other Ungulata, and from which
Cuvier somewhat rashly inferred that the animal was
aquatic. The odontoid process of the axis was simple.
In the feet there were only two toes before and behind ;
the metacarpals were quite separate. In one species
there were four toes in front and three behind. £/o-
thertum or Entelodon is another form from the lowest
Miocene. It has been found in the middle of France and
in the Mauvaises Terres of Dakotah. Its skull was elon-
gated and somewhat pig-like, but the orbit was completed
behind by bone. In size it approached the tapir. The
teeth were somewhat carnivorous, the canines being long
and bear-like, and the premolars trenchant ; the forty-
four teeth were present ; the posterior molars were com-
paratively small, and the last one in the lower jaw had
scarcely a rudiment of a third lobe. As in Anoplotherium
there were only two toes on each foot, and the meta-
carpals and metatarsals were free.

Of the Suid@ many fossil species are known ; the first
appear in the upper Miocene of Eppelsheim and Pikermé,
those in the latter locality much resembling the existing
forms, the teeth only being less differentiated. There are
no fossil true pigs in America. In the earlier and middle
Miocene of Germany and France close allies are found
in abundance, with the teeth simpler, only four tubercles
being present, and the last molar not being excessively
developed. One of these, Amphicherus, had very long
canines pointing downwards in the upper jaw. Hyothe-
rium conprises Pal@ocherus and Cherotherium, the
latter a small animal described by Leidy. There is a
perfect transition between Palzeochcerus and the fossil
true pigs. Going further back it is doubtful how the line
of descent continues. Acertherulum of Gervais may have
had some relation to it. The American peccaries are
peculiar in having only three premolars ; in the fore-foot
the outer toe is much reduced, and in the hind foot it is
lost ; a canon bone is formed by the metatarsals. Fossil
peccaries have been found by Lund in Pleistocene caves
of the United States, and in the American Miocene,
scattered teeth of pig-like animals are not uncommonly
met with.

Of recent hippopotamuses there are two species which
have been further separated into different genera by Leidy,
Cheropsis being the smaller and more pig-like ; in it also
the teeth are not so complicated, and it has two fewer
lower incisors. In both genera the molars are very
characteristic, being raised in four cusps, each of which
in the little worn tooth is trefoiled on the surface ; as the
tooth gets more used these run together to form ultimately
a single insula, undulated at the borders. In the Pleisto-
cene caves and gravels of England, France, Germany,
and elsewhere, remains of Hippopotamus amphibius are
numerous, some are larger than existing individuals, but
they do not otherwise differ. In Sicily a smaller species
is found in enormous numbers. There are no hippopota-
muses in the Miocene nor in the lower Pliocene. In
Madagascar a smaller species used to abound. Dr.
Falconer, in the Sevalik Hills, found remains of true
hippopotamus with four incisors, but most from that
region belonged to a distinct form in which all the six
were present, and which has been named Hexaprotodon.
There is no complete bridge between these animals and
the pigs, and none have occurred in America.

Dr. W, Kowalevsky has drawn attention to an in-

“NATURE

420
teresting point in the construction of the limbs of the
different members of this class. He has shown that
there are two methods by which the extremities may be
supported on the carpus and tarsus respectively. In one,
the zzadapiive, the digits as they reduce in number, still
are only supported by the carpals which originally
articulated with them in the pendactylate foot. In the
adaptive method, as the digits reduce, they enlarge their
bases of attachment on the carpus, and so geta firmer
support. This latter condition is found in all existing
Artiodactylates except Hippopotamus.

Of the Se/enodonts one of the earliest known is Chero-
potamus from the upper Eocene of Montmartre ; it was
about the size of a pig, with the molars characteristic,
presenting five tubercles, three in the anterior row, and
two behind. Axthracotherium had similar molars, its
limbs are unknown. Hyopfotamus though but little known,
was once very abundant ; the species varied in size from
that of a large rat to that of Axthracotherium ; it is only
found in the Eocene and early Miocene of Europe and
North America. The molars were formed on the same
principle as those in Chceropotamus, but they were more
drawn out ; the lower formed double crescents with an in-
ternal tubercle well developed; the typical forty-four
teeth were present. Most had four toes, and feet very
pig-like. Kowalevsky found some at Hordle with only
two, and he has named these Dip/opus. Between Hyopo-
tamus and Anthracotherium there are many intermediate
forms, Xzphodon with two toes, Dichobune and Cainothe-
rium, this last had forty-fourteeth, forming a continuous row,
and three toes on the feet. Dzchodon was a genus,
named by Owen from some teeth, of which it possessed
the full number, andthe molars formed double crescents.
From this we pass by easy transitions to the Zragudide,
which have nothing to do with the Musk-deer, as is so
frequently stated. They are at present confined to South
Africa, South India, and the adjoining large islands.
Hyomoschus, the African genus, has survived almost un-
changed from the early Miocene period. TZragu/as is
not known fossil.

An American group here comes in to filla gap. Oveo-
don, an animal about the size of a sheep, found in the
early Miocene, is said by Leidy to be quite intermediate
between the deer and the peccaries. It had forty-four
teeth, its palate more closely resembled that of the deer,
and the upper molars formed, as in them, double cres-
cents. The canon bone was not consolidated, and there
were apparently four toes. They closely resemble Di-
chodon. Leidy divides them into three genera, Agvio-
cherus, Merychyus, and Oreodon. The first of these
approaches Choeropotamus, and the crowns of the teeth
were very short. Ge/ocus, described by Kowalevsky, is
the earliest known form in which the metacarpals coa-
lesced to form a canon bone; it occurs in the Eocene and
the earlier Miocene. Those from the former have the
metacarpals always free, but in the Miocene they anchy-
losed in the adult animal, and in higher strata they are
fully coalesced. Dremotherium was a form which closely
approached the deer. Cervus proper is first represented
in the upper Miocene. In the earliest forms the antlers
were very small and simple, closely resembling those of the
Muntjac, and having long pedicles ; the canines were also
developed. All the Cervidze adhere to the old type in
having short crowns and well-marked necks to their
molars. The Giraffes (Camelopardide) are first known
from Pikermé and the Sevalik Hills; the molar teeth
more closely approached those of the deer than any other
animals. He/adotherium: is not far removed from them ;
it was of large size and had no horns. Stvathertum was
the largest of the extinct Artiodactylates. Its bones were
bovine in character; the metacarpals and metatarsals
coalesced to form a canon-bone, and there were only two
toes on each foot ; four horns were present, in pairs, appa-
rently cavicorn and yet branched,

’ College.

430

Antelopes and Deer coexisted in the Miocene era, but
most of the former are Pleistocene in date. The crowns
of the molars are prolonged in all the cavicornia. The
Camels are not directly allied to the other forms; they
retain an upper incisor; their molars are in double
lunules, and of considerable length. Their geographical
distribution is very peculiar, they being confined to North
Africa, Arabia, and South America. Dr. Falconer has
found their remains in the Sevalik Hills, and Leidy has
done the same in North America, naming one of his
genera Procamelus, and another earlier one Poébro-
therium.

This ends the description of the Artiodactylata, and ter-
minates the course of lectures,

AN ENGINEERING COLLEGE IN FAPAN

i We gate Japanese Government, as represented by the
ambassadors who visited this country last summer
and autumn, have resolved upon taking example by our
western civilisation, and establishing a college in the city
of Yeddo for affording instruction in civil and mechanical
engineering to the youth of Japan, as a strong desire has
arisen in that country to make an effort to develop the
great natural resources which it is known to possess. Our
advice and practical assistance in the establishment of the
college have been called into requisition, owing to the
ambassadors having observed during their sojourn amongst
us, how intimately our eminent industrial status as a nation
is dependent upon the attention which we devote to the
cultivation of those sciences which are involved in the
mining, metallurgical, engineering, and many manu-
facturing industries, and in bringing the forces of nature
under the influence of man.

The general scheme of the instruction has been de-
vised by one of our eminent engineers, a gentleman
whose experience of Continental and British systems
of instruction is very extensive and varied, and judging
from the appointment already made, it is evident

te . ts
hae é

NATURE

that the professorial equipment of the college will
devolve upon this country. The principal of the college,
who is also to be the professor of engineering and mecha-
nics, is Mr. Henry Dyer, M.A, B.Sc., who studied at the
University of Glasgow, under the late Prof. J. M. Rankine,
Sir William Thomson, and their colleagues. Mr, Dyer
was a Whitworth Scholar, and his career hitherto has
been one of great and well deserved success. He is well
qualified to act as principal of the Yeddo Engineering

Prof. Dyer is to be assisted in his duties in the
Japanese College of Engineers by professors of mathe-
Matics, natural philosophy, chemistry, geology, and
mineralogy, and by teachers of English, &c. At least
two important appointments have been made, namely, to
the professorship of mathematics and to the professorship
of natural philosophy. The former has been conferred
on Mr, D. H. Marshall, at present assistant to Prof.
P. G. Tait in Edinburgh University ; and the latter is to
be filled by Mr, W. E. Ayrton, formerly of University
College, London, and the University of Glasgow. The
last-named gentleman has already been employed in the
East Indian telegraphic service, and he is at present
assistant-engineer in connection with the manufacture
of the Great Western Telegraph Cable under Sir William
Thomson and Prof. Fleeming Jenkin.

In connection with this Engineering College there are
several other points of importance that may be stated.
It is intended to institute a geological survey of Japan,
and not improbably the active superintendence of that
work will devolve upon the gentleman who may ultimately
be appointed to the professorship of geology and mine-
ralogy. As an important adjunct to the College, there
will be erected a technical workshop, fitted with steam-
engine, machine tools, and all the necessary appliances |

[April 3,

ah

mm, i “a ;
sip ; :
er OEa
1873
rE 8S Se mE %
for familiarising the young Japanese engineers with the
principles of construction, &c. There will also be a
technological museum for the illustration of the progres-
sive stages of various industrial processes from the raw
materials to the finished products.

NOTES

LETTERS, dated St. Thomas, appear in the 7¥mes and Daily
News from correspondents on board the Challenger, where the
vessel arrived on March 16. The voyage from Teneriffe had
occupied 30 days. The usual programme was to furl sails early
in the morning of every alternate day, put the ship under steam,
obtain a sounding-haul of the dredge and serial temperatures at
every 100 fathoms from the surface down to 1,500 fathoms, then
at dusk sail was again made. The sounding line and dredge —
have been kept constantly going. The former showed that a
pretty level bottom runs off from the African coast, deepening
gradually to a depth of 3,125 fathoms at about one-third of the
way across to the West Indies. If the Alps, Mont Blane and
all, were submerged at this spot, there would still be half a mile
of water above them. Five hundred miles farther west there
is a comparatively shallow part, a little less than two miles in
depth. The water then deepens again to three miles, which
continues close over to the West Indies. At the deepest spots
both on the east and west side of the Atlantic, the dredge brought
up a quantity of darkred clay, which contained justsufficient animal
life to prove that life exists at all depths. No difficulty was expe-
rienced in obtaining these deep-sea dredgings, and it was merely a
question of patience, each haul occupying twelve hours. In
depths over two miles little has been found, but that little was
totally new. One of the lions of the cruise is a new species of
lobster perfectly transparent. Not content with obtaining animals
with eyes so fully developed that the body may said to be an
appendage, a new crustacean has now dredged up, in which the
body has cut itself clear of the eyes altogether, and the animal
is totally blind. It has no eyes, or even the trace of an eye. To
make up for its deficiency nature has supplied it with the most
beautifully developed, delicate lady-like claws, if one may use
the term, it is possible to conceive. Nearer the West Indies,
in a depth of only half a mile, some similar creatures were
brought up, and here the claws, longer than the body, are
armed throughout with a multitude of spike-like teeth, looking
more like a crocodile’s jaw than anything else. At a short dis-
tance from Teneriffe, in a depth of a mile and a half, a rich and
extremely interesting haul of sponges and coral was obtained,
but the latter was unfortuately dead. It is a white species, as
large and heavy as the pink coral of the Mediterranean. There
are great hopes of obtaining a specimen alive. The nature of
the bottom brought up and the way the trawl and dredge fre-
quently catch in being dragged along prove, undoubtedly, that the
bottom of the sea, even at great depths, is not so smooth and
free from rocks as has hitherto been supposed. A conclusion
drawn from this fact is that a considerable movement of the
water at the bottom must be going on. The Chad/enger will
remain at New York until the 25th jof April, and at Bermuda
until the mail arriving on the 8th of May, after which she will
sail for Madeira, carrying another section line across the
Atlantic.

WE have learnt with pleasure that it is contemplated to

| present a testimonial to Dr. Murie, in recognition of his numer_

ous additions to our knowledge in the field of Biology. From a list
before us we learn that Dr. Maurie is the author of seventy-five
separate works, large and small, mostly connected with zoology.
An opinion having been expressed that it might not be in-
appropriate to present Dr. Murie with a substantial recognition —
of the services which he has rendered to science by his numerous

memoirs printed in the Proceedings and Transactions of the
Zoological Society and other scientific journals, the following
gentlemen have already acquiescced in that opinion, and
state their belief that Dr. Murie’s career has been a most
meritorious one, very beneficial to science, and highly honour-
able to himself. The Viscount Walden, F,R.S., President of
the Zoological Society of London, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart.,
Charles Darwin, F.R.S., Joseph D. Hooker, C.B., F.R.S.,
Allen Thomson, M.D, F.R.S., G. M. Peary, M.D.,
F.R.S., James Ghsser F.R.S., W. Sharpey, M.D., F.R.S.,
Wm. rarer M.B., J. Lockhart Chee Moar ks, WB,
Parker, F.R.S., John Young, M.D., F.R. SE, F.GS., oe
Busk, F.R.S, St. George Mivart, F.R.S., Frank Buckland,
F.Z.S., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, William Aitken, M.D.,
J. Bell Pettigrew, M.D., F.R.S. Prof. Turner, of the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and Dr. Bell Pettigrew, of the Royal
College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, have consented to receive
subscriptions with a view to furthering the above object. In-
tending subscribers should communicate with either of these
gentlemen.

AT the close of thee winter session of the Class of Physiology
in Edinburgh University last Friday, Dr. J. G. McKendrick,
F.R.C. P.E., was presented with an address signed by upwards
of 400 present and former students of the class, Dr. McKendrick
has for the last four years held the office of Demonstrator of Prac-
tical Physiology under Prof. J. Hughes Bennett, and during that
period the classes in Practical Physiology have increased, from
small beginnings, till more than 400 students have been enrolled
in a single session. During the last two sessions Dr. McKen-
drick has conducted the entire work connected with the Chair,
in the absence of Prof. Bennett from ill health,

THE government of New South Wales have generously
granted 1,000/. for the purpose of observing the transit of Venus,
and Mr. Russell is taking active measures to provide three
stations in that colony with all the requisites for observing the
transit, and obtaining at the same time photographs of the
planet’s position. The three stations will be at Sydney, at Eden,
near the south-eastern point of N.S.W., and the third station
on the Blue mountains, about fifty miles west from Sydney,
Both stations are on telegraph lines, which will be used to cde-
termine their longitude. The mountain station has been chosen
to avoid, if possible, any chance of cloudy weather, and in the
hope that atmospheric difficulties generally will be less,

WE hear with great regret of the death of Dr. Torrey, which
took place from pneumonia on March ro. Since the decease of
Prof. Darlington ke had been the Nestor of American botanists.
Torreya, a genus of Taxacea of N. America and N.E. Asia,
was named after him. He was a foreign member of the Linnean
Society.

THE following has been sent us by a correspondent of M.
Riedel :—‘‘ The Russian man-of-war Tsanvina, Commodore
Michel Comancy, is steaming from Ternate to Papua the 28th
of November past in search of the missed Russian naturalist, M.
Micluha Maclay.—T. G. F. RizpeL, C.M.Z.S.—Gorontalo,

North Celebes, December 30, 187 2.”

THE Royal Irish Academy has sanctioned the following grants
out of the funds entrusted to it by Parliament for assisting scien-
tific research :—5o/. to W. H. Bailey for additional explorations
at Kiltorcan for fossil plants; 40/7. to G. H. Kinahan, to
as-ist him in microscopical examinations into the structure of
rocks ; and 30/. to Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, M.D.., for researches in
yegetable physiology.

WE are informed that the Hippopotamus, born a short time
ago in the Zoological Gardens at Amsterdam, and which gave

“NATURE

431

some promise of surviving, has, like most fof its predecessors,
died ; so the young ‘Guy ” in Regent’s Park, which is doing
as well as can be wished, is the only living specimen born and
bred in Europe.

PrRoF. BRUNNoOW, the Astronomer Royal for Ireland, has just
issued a second part of his astronomical observations and re-
searches made at Dunsink, the observatory of Trinity College,
Dublin. This part contains—New Determination of the Parallax
of the Star Groombridge, 1830; Further Investigation of the
Parallax of 615 Draconis ; Determination of the Parallax of 85
Pegasi ; Determination of the Parallax of the * Bradley, 3077 ;
Further Investigations on the Parallax of a Lyre ; Observations
of 1830 Groombridge and * (2) ; Observations of 1830 Groom-
bridge, and * (4) ; Observations of 615 Draconis and * (9'5) pre-
ceding ; Observations of 85 Pegasi; Observations of Bradley
3077 and * (10) following ; and Observations of a Lyre and *
(10) following.

THE preliminary report of the U.S. explorations and surveys
during the year 1871, in Nevada and Arizona, conducted by
Lieut. George M. Wheeler, of the engineer corps, has lately
been published in quarto form by the government printer. It
contains an account of the plan of the survey, as initiated by
Lieut. Wheeler in 1870, and which he has successively continued
during the year 1872. The work accomplished during 1871
embraces, among other results, the mapping out of various
mining districts, and the determination of the areas, direction,
and condition of the lodes. The topographical features of the
great Colorado plateau have been developed over the region ex-
tending from St. George, in Utah, to the White Mountains near
the border line of Arizona and New Mexico, and much infor-
mation has been gathered as to the geology of this plateau, and
of numerous inclosed and interior basins in Nevada. The ex-
ploration of the Colorado has determined the absolute limit
beyond which a party of exainination will not be likely to ascend
that river. It has been ascertained that a railroad can cross
the Colorado and the mouth of the Virgin River, that it can be
carried by easy grades, and that the Colorado can be crossed
by a north and south line near the foot of the Grand Cajion.

THE Institution of Naval Architects commences its session
for 1873 to-day. The meetings will be held as follows in the
hall of the Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi :—On Thurs-
day, April 3, morning at 12, and evening at 7 o’clock; on
Friday, April 4, morning at 12, and evening at 7 o’clock; and
on Saturday, April 5, morning at 12 0’clock only. The Right
Hon. Sir J. S. Pakington, Bart., M.P., G.C.B., D.C.L., presi-
dent, will occupy the chair. Judging from the programme of
proceedings, this year’s meeting ought to be full of interest, and
may be productive of important practical results.

THE first report (for 1872) of Governor N. P. Langford,
superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park, has just
made its appearance, and contains an account of what has been
done during the year to protect and preserve this interesting
region for the benefit of future visitors. We are informed that
new natural wonders are continually discovered, and that the
number of geysers, hot springs, &c., is aimost countless. The
Park was visited during 1872, in connection with the expedition
of Prof. Hayden, and new routes determined, by which access
will be much easier than heretofore. At present the only mode
of approach is by means of saddle and pack trains, and Governor
Langford suggests the propriety of constructing several waggon-
roads for the convenience of the public. When improvements
are made it is thought that extensive settlements will spring up
in that region, supported in part by the trayel of tourists, and
partly by the exportation of lumber made from yaluable timber
in the district. No mines appear to have been detected, nor
is there any prospect of them.

NN ee a ee

We have received from the U.S. Enginéer Office a well-
constructed skeleton map prepared by Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler,
Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, covering that part of the
United States west of the rooth meridian, and exhibiting the
relations that exist between lines and areas of explorations and
surveys conducted under the auspices of the War Department in
that region. It is of interest as showing, in an approximately
detailed manner, the routes of government surveys over the large
area embraced. <

AN excellent opportunity for obtaining a valuable collection of
minerals and fossils is furnished by the offer for sale in the U.S.
of the celebrated Troost Cabinet, which, indeed, almost belongs
to a former generation, having been packed away since the death
of its collector at Nashville, Tennessee, a period of over twenty
years. It was brought together at a time when rare and choice
minerals were more easily obtained than at pressent, by Dr.
Troost, who was at the time state geologist of Tennessee, and
succeeded in making up one of the finest series of minerals in
this country. The collection is at present in charge of Professor
J. B. Lindley, of Nashville, to whom communications on the
subject are to be addressed.

THE Syndicate recently appointed by the University of Cam-
bridge to inquire into the scheme for establishing a county
college at Cambridge have issued their report. While favour-
able to the scheme generally, they are net prepared to recom-
mend that any special title should at present be offered by the
University to students in the manner proposed, or that the Uni-
versity should prescribe rules for the admission of students into
the proposed college. ‘They recommend that a general approval
be given to the proposed scheme. His Grace the Duke of
Devonshire has consented to name the trustees.

THE Marquis of Westminster, K.G., presided at a meeting
at Chester on Saturday, in furtherance of a scheme for uniting
under one roof the City Library and Reading Room, the Society
of Arts, the Architectural and Archzeological Socicty, the Natu-
ral Science Society, and also for establishing a local museum,
the nucleus of which is already secured to the city by a valuable
and extensive collection of geological specimens presented by
the Marquis.

‘THE foundation-stone of the new Pre-idency College, Cal-
cutta, was laid on February 27 by his Excellency the Governor.

A NEw archzological society has been started at Rajkote,
Kattywar, India, named the Sourashtra Society. Its object is
the encouragement of antiquarian research, the recording of tra-
ditional and ethnological information, and generally to add
to the knowledge of the physical, social, and philosophical con-
dition of the Province of Kattywar,

PROBABLY the oldest collection of specimens of natural history
now extant in the United States constitutes a portion of the
present cabinet of Princeton College, New Jersey. It was first
brought together by Monsieur Delacoste, a French collector and
naturalist, who flourished in New York at the beginning of the
present century, and who published in 1804 a catalogue of his
curiosities (chiefly collected in Guiana), filling a pamphlet of
about ninety pages. The collection embraces about 260 species
of birds, 63 of quadrupeds (which included both mammals and
turtles), over 50 of fishes, and other objects in proportion. This
collection is still preserved, for the greater part in good condi-
tion, at Princeton. The establishment of the Delacoste collection
does not antedate that of Peale in Philadelphia; but that long
since disappeared, partly by the scattering of the material col-
lected, and partly from its destruction by fire.

COMMANDER SELFRIDGE arrived at] Panama on January
21 last, and sailed on the 25th, on board the steamer 7uscarora,
for the coast of Darien, for the purpose of continuing the survey

| thighed Colobus (Colobus bicolor) from West Africa, purchased,

SSS ri ee

of the Darien Ship-Canal route. Work will be commenced
about latitude 6° 32’ north and be carried across the “ divide,”
following the valley of the river Bajaya, a tributary of the
Atrato, to its junction with the latter river, at a distance of about
150 miles from the Caribbean Sea.

MEssrs. BLACKWOOD AND SONS ‘have sent us a well-con-
structed North Polar Chart, by Mr. Keith Johnston. Besides
showing the latest discoveries of voyagers within the Arctic circle,
the chart indicates each of the farthest points which have as yet
been attained on the margin of the unvisited area, the great
glacier and snow fields, the average and extreme limits of the
appearance of sea ice, the northmost limits of tree growth on the
land, the depths of the Arctic waters, so far as these are known,
and the elevation of the land which surrounds them. The poli-
tical boundaries of the countries which come within the limits of
the map are also indicated.

WE have received a copy of the correspondence between. the
Royal Geographical Society and the Government with reference
to the new Arctic Expedition which Government was unsuccess-
fully petitioned to undertake. The pamphlet contains 7” exfenso
all the documents submitted to Messrs. Lowe and Goschen,
containing information of great intrinsic value.

THE earthquakes in Samos continued in March. A report
had been spread by the Smyrniotes that the statement of earth-
quakes had been invented in the island to draw the Bey back
from Constantinople.

ll i Be

On Feb 20 no less than 20 distinct shocks were felt at Afioom
Kara Hissar in Asia Minor, causing great alarm, as there was
also almost incessant moving of the earth’s surface. On the
next day the wind veered round to the north with sharp cold and
frost.

ON March 7, at 6A.M., a smart shock of earthquake was felt
at Rhodes,

Our neighbours on the other side of the Atlantic are continu-
ally sending us what they term ‘‘ Preliminary Descriptions” of
novel forms of existing or extinct animals, These consist of new
names, followed by short and very imperfect accounts of any
apparently peculiar specimens which the author has had the
good fortune to hit upon, a note being generally appended to
the effect that fuller descriptions will shortly appear in some
work now in hand. Our friends seem to forget that the form of
ability which gives rise to an illustrious name, is gained by the
employment of original method, rather than by the simple re-
cording of novel facts. We fear that the large amount of un-
digested matter thus brought forward may in the long run pro-
duce a condition of dyspepsia of the scientific mind, which will
tell hard on the more modest and painstaking workers on the
subject, by producing a generally diffused and excessive scepti-
cism as to the value of new discoveries, however promising.

THE ‘Results of Meteorological and Magnetical Observa-
tions, 1872,” taken at Stonyhurst College Observatory, show
that the meteorological work there is done with great care and
minuteness. ‘

WE would recommend to all science teachers the lecture re-
cently delivered by Mr. Joseph Payne at the College of Pre-
ceptors, on ‘‘The True Foundation of Science-Teaching,” now
published in a separate form.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include two Barbary Turtle Doves (7urlur risorius)
from Africa, presented by Mr. G. Hanney; a Yellow-footed
Rock Kangaroo (Péetrogale xanthopus), and a Prince Alfred’s
Deer (Cervus alfredi), born in the Gardens; also a White

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION INGERMANY*
’ II.

WE must now examine how the primitive organisms have
originated, or rather the single primordial organism from.

which all others have issued. Lamarck has attempted to solve
the problem by his hypothesis of archigony or primitive being.

' Darwin avoids touching this question, doubtless to leave a last
refuge for the hypothesis of a creation, and to make a final
concession to the spiritualist systems. Haeckel shows no such
caution ; he is willing neither to renounce the scientific expla-
nation of the phenomenon, nor to abandon the ground of
natural philosophy to go astray upon that of faith or poetry;
before resigning himself to the incomprehensible, he proceeds
to explain, by a mechanical hypothesis, the primordial pro-
duction of life.

He admits first, as to the origin of the earth, the system of
Laplace, of whom Kant, about 1755, was the precursor, in his
“Theory of the Heavens.” This system is in harmony with
all the phenomena at present known, and has not been found to
disagree in any single instance. Moreover, it has the advantage
of being purely mechanical, and of not requiring a resort to any
supernatural force. This theory, consequently, plays the same
part in cosmogony, and especially in geology, that the theory of
Lamarck does in biology, and especially in anthropology.
Both are founded exclusively upon efficient, and not upon
final and intelligent causes. Both fulfil the conditions of a
scientific theory, and have the same title to universal adoption,
until the time when even better hypotheses shall be discovered.
Haeckel, however, acknowledges that the theory of Kant and
Laplace has a feeble foundation upon two points which it cannot
explain—the heat to which is due the gaseous mass which
formed the primitive world, and the rotatory movement im-
pressed upon that mass. But every attempt to explain these
facts leads us inevitably to the untenable theory of an absolute
beginning.

We can no more conceive an absolute beginning for the
eternal phenomena of movement than we can imagine an absolute
end. The universe is, in the order of space and time, immense
and without limits. It is eternal and it is infinite. The great
law of the conservation of energy, which has become the basis
of all our views of nature, does not allow of any other concep-
tion. The world, so far as it is acce-sible to our knowing facul-
ties, appears to us as an uninterrupted chain of movements
which determine a continual change of forms ; each form is only
the transitory result of a sum of phenomena of motion; but
under this change of forms, force remains eternally inde-
structible.

Life could not commence before the earth had cooled suffi-
ciently to allow the water, which had hitherto been in a state of
‘vapour, to become liquefied and to be deposited on the surface ;
for all animals and all plants, all organisms in short, consist for
the most part only of water combined in a particular manner
with other materials. But how is it possible to conceive the
commencement of organic life? In answer to this question,
Haeckel examines first the relations which exist between organisms
and the inorganic kingdom, frcm the standpoint successively of
chemistry, of form, and of motion.

Chemistry teaches us that there does not enter into the mate-
rial composition of living beings, absolutely any substance,
which is not found in inanimate nature. There does not exist
any distinct organic matter. The differences which exist between
organic beings and the inorganic world cannot then have their
essential foundation in the different nature of the substances of
which they are composed, but only in the processes by which
these substances enter into combination. A greater or less
density suffices to place a chasm between two groups of bodies ;
moreover, the degree of density does not depead upon the com-
ponent elements, but solely upon the temperature: by heating
sufficiently a solid body, we can make it pass first into the
liquid, and then into the gaseous state. In contrast to these
three degrees of density of inorganic bodies, the solid, the liquid,
and the gaseous, Haeckel attributes to living beings a fourth
state of aggregation which is proper to them, is neither solid
like stone, nor liquid like water, but appears to be a mean
between the two, and consists always in a characteristic com-
bination of water with organic matter. This mixed state, which
is of the highest importance in the mechanical explanation of

_ the phenomena of life, is explained in its turn, according to

* Continued from p. 352.

- presents much fewer difficulties.

433

properties of a simple
This element has a peculiar tendency
to form with other elements, in the most diverse proportions of
number and weight, complicated and very various combinations,
Above all it enters into combination with three other elements,
oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, in order to form the indis-
pensable base of all vital phenomena, viz. albumen or protein.
Certain very simple organisms, such as the monads, are only
small masses of semi-liquid, semi-solil albumen; and it is the
same for the most part with other organisms in the earliest
Stages of their development, when they are as yet only simple
cells ; albumen then takes the name of g/asma or protoplasm,
and this plasma is now considered as the starting-point of all
vital phenomena. Thus it is not more difficult for us to give a
general explanation of life than it is to explain the physical pro-
perties of inorganic bodies. It is true that ultimate causes are
hidden from us ; but it isthe same in the inorganic world. If
we are unable to say why such a combination engenders a cell,
no more can we understand why gold crystallises into a tetra-
hedric or antimony into a hexagonal form. Thus, from a che-
mical point of view, it impossible to establish any difference
between the organic and inorganic kingdoms.

Again, with respect to Form, the simple and homogeneous
structure of crystals is opposed to the heterogeneous and compli-
cated structure of living beings ; but certain inferior organisms,
such as the monads, are formed solely of a small albuminous
mass of astructure as simple as that ofa piece ofsilex. Animals
and plants thus appear, at first sight, not to have any mathe-
matically determined form like crystals; but Haeckel has
pointed out among the Radiolaria and many other protozoa
a great number of inferior organisms, which, like crystals,
may be referred to regular geometrical forms. He has also,
in his ‘‘General Morphology” (pp. 375—574), presented an
ideal system of stereometric forms which explain both the
actual forms of inorganic crystals, and those of organic indivi-
duals. There is finally a large number of living beings com-
pletely amorphous, such as the monads, the amabe, &c., whose
shape is constantly changing, and in which it is as impossible to
recognise a determinate form as it is in the case of amorphous
inorganic beings, such as non-crystallised stones, precipitates, &c.
In respect of form, then, there is no more essential difference
between organic and inorganic beings,

Let us now consider Movement. At the present day, as the
hypothesis of a vital force is completely abandoned, it is neces-
sary, according to Haeckel, to refer all manifestations of life,
and particularly the phenomena of nutrition and reproduction,
to the properties of carbon, or at least of hydrogen. With
regard to growth, the only difference between living beings and
inorganic bodies lies in this, that the former grow in size by
intersusception, that is, by the introduction of new particles into
their interior, while the latter are enlarged by opposition, by the
external addition of new matter. The external conformation is
determined, in crystals as well as in organisms, by the laws of
adaptation ; the form and the size of the crysial depends on the
circumstances in which it is placed, on the vessel in which the
process of crystallisation goes on, on temperature, on atmospheric
pressure, on the presence or absence of foreign bodies. The
form of every crystal, as wellas the form of every organism, is
thus the result of the struggle between two factors,— an internal
plastic force proceeding from the chemical constitution of the
body, and an external plastic force the result cf the influence
of the medium. Consequently, if growth and form are processes
of life, there isno reason for refusing to attribute life to the in-
organic world, as well as to organisms.

As soon as this unity of organic and inorganic nature is fairly
established, the problem of primordial or spontaneous generation
If the attempts which up to
the present time have been made to bring about experimentally
spontaneous generation have not led to positive results, the only
inference to be drawn is, that we are as yet ignorant of the con-
ditions in which it takes place, conditions which, moreover,
we may perhaps not now be able to reproduce. It is evident
that all the matter which has become organic, would, at the
time when the earth was not sufficiently cooled, be mixed in the
atmosphere in a form of which we are ignorant. How are we
able to reproduce completely in our laboratories all the chemical,
electric, and other conditions of that primitive atmosphere ?
Meanwhile, the combinations of carbon which have already been
obtained artificially, give ground for hoping that ere long we
shall be able to reproduce the most important of all, the matter
of the A/asma or albumen.

434

But the most powerful arguments in favour of spontaneous
generation are furnished by the ~tudy of the monads, the simplest
of ail organisms, which Haeckel has made the subject of a special
monograph. Seven species of these are knowa, some of which
live in fresh water, and some in the sea, all or them consisting
of small formless masses of albuminous combinations of carbon,
and differing from each other only in their mode of reprocuction,
development, and nutrition. As these living beings do not pre-
sent any complication of diverse parts, any division of functions
or of organs, as all the phenomena of life with them proceed
in a homogeneous manner, and without determinate form, it is
very easy to conceive of their spoataneous generation. There.
is indeed one species which even at the present day appears to
be bon spontaneously, it is that which has been discovered by
Huxley, and which has been described uader the name of Bathy-
bius Havckelii. Ut inhabits the sea at depths of from 12,090 to
24,000 feet ; it covers the ground sometimes as a network of
strings of Z/asma, and sometimes in little heaps. The nucleus
of it seems to be formed by a local condensation of albuminous
matter, and the monad becomes a cell, As we have seen above
that all animals and plants have their starting-point in a cell, it
is allowable to suppose that all species are only monads gradually
modified by natural selection.

It will be seen that all the views of Haeckel are founded upon
the cellular theory as it has been formulated by Schleiden and
Schwann. Haeckel always distinguishes two elements—
cytodes and cells properly so called, reuniting these two
elements under the generic name of J/astides. Cytodes are
parcels of plasma destitute of a nucleus, while cells are plas-
tides endowed with a nucleus; each of these two species
being subdivided in its turn into two groups, according as they
are or are not enveloped by an exterior membrane. Hence
there are four forms of /lastides; (1) Naked or primitive
cytodes, like the present existing monads, the only ones which
can proceed directly from spuntaneous generation ; (2) Cytodes
with membranes (/éfocyfoda), proceeding from naked cytodes by
a coagulation of the exterior portion of the plasma ; (3) Naked
or primitive cellules by coagulation of an interior portion of the
plasma ; and (4), Membranous cells, proceeding either from
membranous c\todes by interior condensation of the nucleus, or
from naked cells by the external formation of a membrane,

There are two theories, one of which miay be adopted. Either
the monads at present known are descended by propagation
from primitive monads and have preserved the same form for
millions of years ; or, even at this present time, as was the case
in the earlier days of organisation, they owe their existence to
repeated acts of spontancous generation. The latter hypothesis
is in no respect less probable than the former.

(Zo be continued.)

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Fournal de Physique Thior-que et Appliquée, Par J-Ch.
d@’Almeida, Prof. de Physique au Lycée Corneille, Paris. We
have belure us the numbers of the “Journal de Physique
théorique et appliquée” extending over the first year of its
existence. ‘T'he object of the journal, which consists of monthly
parts of about forty pages each, is stated in the preface to the
first number (January 1872) to be the giving of a new impulse to
the study of physical science. This its authors aim at doing
“by unfolding the more recent and less known theories, by
describing the experiments upon which they rest, by indicating
the most easy means of repeating them, and by narrating the
progress which physical science makes day by day in
France and other countries.” By the execution of this project
‘they hope to interest everyone who is acquainted with the
principles of science, to enliven teaching, 10 excite the spirit of
research, and to stimulate discoveries.” The journal, which is
principally mathematical in its treatment of the subjects, differs
considerably from such a journal as the ‘‘ Pailosophical Maga-
zine.” The ofigimal articles in it are few and unimporiant.
‘There are criticisms on and reprints of articles selected from
other journals, and bearing on the subjects to which this is de-
voted ; but the distinguishing feature of the journal consists in
articles, continued geucrally throug’ several sucecssive numbers,
reproducing and elucidating important theories and inves-
tigations; which are thus presented in an easily accessivle
form. Thus the first number starts off with an_ drticle
on ‘Electrostatic measutes,” We also have @ series of
articles by M. Terquem on electuicity ahd magnetism, beginni

NATURE

“oN

é

[| April

in No. 1 with a short article stating the experiments by which it
is demonstrated that free electricity resides only in the surfaces
of conductors, and then proceeding in No. 2, and sub equent_
numbers, to reat of the various units employed in measuring
quantities of electricity and magnetism, and the relations which
exist between them. The reader will gather the character of
such articles as those to which we refex, from the following enu-
meration of the titles of a few others of those which are more
important :—‘‘ On the action of a magnet on a magnetised mole-
cule at a distance,” ‘t On the analogy between the propagation _
of heat and the distribution of electricity,” “‘ On the propagation
of permanent electric currents,” ‘‘On the employment of th
wave theory in optical calculations,” ‘On Electrodynamics an
the theory of induction” These articles do n t contain original
matter, nor for the most part do they contain matter arranged in
an original way, but they contain useful and concise expositions
of the subjects, reproducing such points as the proof of Ampére’s
theory, Ohm’s laws, the method of comparing electro-magnetic
and electro-static units, and the like. Such articles will be prin-
cipally useful to those who cannot obtain the original investiga-
tions, or who desire to avoid the labour of consulting those
manuals in which these investigations may be included. The
journal seems certainly well calculated to extend a knowledge of
and interest in the subjects with which it deals, and thus to assist
in achieving the end which it proposes to itself.

JAMES STUART

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Royal Society, March 20.—‘‘On the Temperature at which
Bacteria, Vibriones, and their Supposed Germs are killed when
immersed in Fluids or exposed to Heat in a Moist State.” By
H. Charlton Bastian, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological
Anatomy in University College, London. (Continued from
. 413.)

4 The facts just cited concerning the behaviour of thin films of
turbid infusions which had been heated to different temperatures
gave me the clue as to the proper direction of future work. It
would seem that when mounted in the manner described, such
thin films of infusion continue capable of supporting and favour-
ing the multiplication of any already existing Bacteria and Vi-
briones, although, vnder such conditicns, no new birth of living
particles appears to take place even in these fluids, The ques-
tion then arose as to whether, by subjecting larger quantities of
the same intusions to any particular seis of conditions; we
could ensure that they also should continue to manifest the same
properties. Because if so, it would be almost as easy to deter-
mine the death-point of Bacteria and Vibriones when exposed to
heat in these infusions, as it had been to determine it for the
saline solutions already mentioned,

It was pointed out by Gruithuisen early in the present century
that many infusions, otherwise very productive, ceased to be so
when they were poured into a glass vessel whilst boiling, and
when this was filled, so that the tightly-fiting stopper touched
the fluid. Having myself proyed the truth of this assertion for
hay-infusion, it seemed likely that, by having recourse to a
method of this kind, I should be able to lower the virtues of
boiled hay and turnip infusions to the level of those possessed by
the boiled saline solution with which I had previously experi-
mented—that is, to reduce them toa state in which, whilst
they appear quite unable of themselves to engender Bacteria or
Vibriones, they continue well capable of favouring the rapid mui-
tiplication of such organisms.

This was found to be the case, and I have accordingly pet-
formed upwards of one hundred experiments with inoculated
portions of these two infusivms raised to different temperatures,
The mode in which the experiments were conducted was as
follows :— ’

Infusions of hay and turnip of slightly different strengths
were employed. These infusions having been first loosely
strained through muslin, were boiled for about ten or filteen
minutes, and then whilst boiling strained through orcihary
Swedish filtering-paper into a glass beaker which had previously
been well rinsed wich boiling water. A number of glass boitles
or tubes were also prepared, which, together with their stoppers
or corks, had been bgiled in ordinary tap, water for a few
minutes,* They were taken out full of the boiling fluid; and

* The vessels eihployed have varied iA capacity from two dfathms t four
ounces ; some have been provided with glass stoppers and others with very

7

3t8y 7

a

——e————eEEeEeEeEeEEEeooe

i

-

eres

1873] —

3,

NATURE

435

the'stoppers or corks being at once inserted, the vessels and takes place and the fluids thus situated rapidly become turbid.

their contents were set aside to cool. When the filtered infusion
of hay or turnip had been rapidly cooled down to about 110° F.
(by letting the beaker containing it stand in a large basin of cold
water), it was inoculated with some of a turbid infusion of hay
swarming with active Bacteria and Vibriones--in the proportion
of one drop of the turbid fluid to each fluid ounce of the now
clear filtered infusion*, The beaker was then placed upon a
sand-bath, and its contained fluid (in which a thermometer was
immersed) gradually raised to the required temperature. The
fluid was maintained at the same temperature for five minutes by
alternately raising the beaker from and replacing it upon the
sand-bath. The bottles to be used were then one by one un-
corked, emptied, and refilled to the brim with the heated, in-
oculated fluid.t The corks or stoppers were at once very tightly
pressed down so as to leave no air between them and the surface
of the fluids. The beaker was then replaced upon the sand-
bath and the gas turned on more fully, in order that the experi-
mental fluid might be rapidly raised to a temperature 9° F. (5°
C.) higher than it had been before. A/ter five minutes’ exposure
to this temperature other bottles were filed in the same manner,
and so on for the various temperatures the influence of which it
was desired to test. .

Thus prepared, the bottles and tubes have been exposed
during the day to a temperature ranging from 65° to 75° F.
And generally one had not to wait long in order to ascertain
what the results were to be. In some cases, if the contents of
the vessels were to become turbid, this was more or less mani-
fest after an interval of forty-eight hours. In other cases, how-
ever, the turbidity manifested itself three or more days later,
and the reason of this difference will be fully discussed in a sub-
sequent communication.

For the sake of simplicity and brevity, the necessary particu-
lars concerning the 102 experiments have been embodied in the
table which will be found below. :

The experimental results here tabulated seem naturally di-
visible into three groups. Thus, when heated only to 131°
F., all the infusions became turbid within two days, just as the
inoculated saline solutions had done.t Heated to 158° F. all
the inoculated organic infusions remained clear, as had been the
case with the saline solutions in my previous experiments, when
heated to 140° F. There remains, th-refore, an intermediate
heat zone (ranging from a little below 140° to a little below
158° F.), after an exposure to which the inoculated organic
infusions are apt to become more slowly turbid, although in-
oculated saline solutions raised to the same temperatures inva-
riably remain unaltered. The full explanation of these
apparent anomalies I propose to make the subject of a future
communication to the Royal Society ; meanwhile we may quite
safely conclude that Bacteria, Vibriones, and their supposed
germs are either actually killed or else completely deprived of
their powers of multiplication afier a brief exposure to the tem-
perature of 158° F. (70° C.).

This evidence now in our possession as to the limits of ‘ vital
resistance” to heat displayed by Bacteria; Vibriones, and their
supposed germs in neutral saline solutions, and in neutral or
acid organic infusions, is most pertinent and valuable when con-
sidered in relation to that supplied by other sets of experiments
bearing upon the all-important problem of the Origin of Life.
These latter experiments alone may possibly leave doubt in many
minds ; but the more thoroughly they are considered in relation
to the evidence brought forward in this communication, the more
fully, I venture to think, will every lingering doubt as to the
proper conclusion to be arrived at be dispelled.

Thus, we now know that boiled turnip- or hay-infusions ex-
posed to ordinary air, exposed to filtered air, to calcined air, or
shut off altogether from contact with air, are more or less prone
to swarm with Bacteria and Vibriones in the course of from two
to six days. But, placed under sligh'ly different conditions such
as were employed in the inoculation experiments above quoted,
although infusions of the same nature do not undergo ‘*‘ sponta-
neous” putrefaciive changes, yet w! enliving Bacteriaand Vibriones
are added and not subsequently heated, putrefaction invariably
tightly fitting corks ; and the latter I find have answered quite as well as
the former Onthe whole I have ‘ound ‘ightly corked 1 oz. phials to be about
the most convenient vessels to employ in these inoculation exprriments.

* It was found desirable to filter the infusions a‘ter they h-d been boiled,
because the boiling generally somewhat impaired their clearness. ‘

+ At this stage, of course, very great care is needed in order to avoid all
chance of accidental contamination either with living organisms or with un-
heated fragments or particles of orzanic matter.

4 In the experiments already referred to,

|

There is therefore nothing in the conditions themselves tending
to hinder the process of putrefaction, so long as living units are
there to initiate it. Our experiments now show that as long as
the added Bacteria, Vibriones, and there supposed germs are sub-

| jected to a heat not exceeding 131° F. (55° C.), putrefaction in-

variably occurs within two days, whilst, on the contrary, whenever
they are subjected to a temperature of 158° F. (70° C.) putrefac-
tion does not occur. To what can this difference be due, except
to the fact that the previously living organisms which, when
living, always excite putrefaction, have been killed by the tempe-
rature of 158° F.? It would be of no avail to suppose that the
absence of putrefaction in these latter cases is due to the fact that
a heat of 158° F., instead of killing the organisms and their germs,
merely annuls their powers of reproduction, because in the other
series of experiments (with which these have to be compared)
where similar fluids are exposed to ordinary or purified air, or
are shut off from the influence of air altogether, the most active
putrefaction and multiplication of organisms takes place in two,
three, or four days, in spite of the much more potent heat of
212° F., to which any pre-existing germs or organisms must have
been subjected. The supposition, therefore, that the Bacteria,
Vibriiones, and their germs were not killed in our inoculation
experiments at the temperature of 158° F., but were merely de-
prived of their powers of reproduction, would be no gain to
those who desire to stave off the admission that Bacteria and
Vibrones can be proved to arise de xovo in certain cases. Let us
assume this—which is indisputably proved by these inoculation
experiments—viz. that an exposure to a temperature of 158° F.
(70° C.) for five minutes deprives Bacteria, Vibriones, and their
germs of their usual powers of growth and reproduction—that is
that it reduces them to a state of potential, if not necessarily to
one of actual death. What end would be served by such a
reservation? The impending conclusion would not be staved
off by means of it. The explanation of what occurs in the other
set of experiments, where the much more potent heat of 212° F.
is employed, still would not be possible without having recourse
to the supposition of a de ovo origination of living units, so
long as those which may have pre-existed in the flask could be
proved to have been reduced to such a state of potential death.
It would be preposterous, and contrary to the whole order of
nature, to assume that the vastly increased destructive influence
of a heat of 212° F. had restored vital properties which a
lesser amount (158° F.) of the same influence had completely
annulled.

The evidence supplied by these different series of experiments
in whichever way it is regarded, as it seems to me, absolutely
compels tbe logical reasoner to conclude that the swarms of
living organisms which so often make their appearance in boiled
infusions treated in one or other of the various modes already
proved to be either destructive or exclusive of pre-existing living
things, are the products of a new brood of ‘living particles, ” —
which, in the absence of any co-ex.sting living organisms, must
have taken origin in the fluid itself. For this mode of origin of
living units, so long spoken of and repudiated as ‘‘ spontaneous
generation,” I have proposed the new term Archebiosis.

Inoculation Experiments made with the view of ascertaining the
Temperatures at which Bacteria, Vibriones, and their Supposea
Germs are killed in Organic Infusions.

NeEuTRAL HAY INFUSION.

Temp. to Selick Nukes of Ex-| Date of Turbidity, |Results at Expira-
exposed. periments made. if any. tion of the 8th day.
oO
(ee) 24 hours Turbid,
31°F 48 hours All turbid.
5 in 48 hours
in 60 hours
140°F, 9 im 3 days All turbid.
I in days
\2in § days Three turbid.
149° F 4 (rin 8 days One clear.
158° F. 15 All clear.
167° F 4 All clear.
* 176LF
- (80°C.) § 12 All clear.

436

Acip TuRNIP INFUSION.
‘Temp. to ce lirumner of Ex-| Date of Turbidity, Results at Expira-
exposed, periments made. if any. tion of the 8th day.
% 122° F an ty oe ay See
BS | 5 in 24 hours P
faa So | 7 2in 48 hours All turbid.
\< in 40 hours
40°F. | 12 4in 3 days All turbid.
|(2in 4 days,
| |( rin 3 days
shes |)3in 5 days Seven turbid.
149" F. | aD, Iin 7 days Three clear,
2in 8 days
15S? Be | 17 os All clear.
BOZO: + 4 | All clear.
176° F. | aie es 5 ore

March 27.—‘‘ On the Radiation of Heat from the Moon, the
Law of its Absorption by our Atmosphere, and its variation in
amount with her Phases.” By the Earl of Rosse, D.C.L., F.R.S.

In this paper is given an account of a series of obser-
vations made in the Observatory of Birr Castle, in further
provecution of a shorter and less carefully conducted inves-
tigation, as regards many details, which forms the subject of
two former communications* to the Royal Society. The obser-
vations were first corrected for change of the moon’s distance
from the place of observation, and change of phase during the
continuance of each night’s work, and thus a curve, whose ordi-
nates represented the scale-readings (corrected) and whose ab-
sciss represented the corresponding altitudes, was obtained for
each night’s work, By combining all these, a single curve-and
table for reducing all the observations to the same zenith-distance
was obtained, which proved to be nearly, but not quite, the
same as that found by Professor Seidel for the light of the stars.
By employing the table thus deduced, and also reducing the heat-
determinations obtained on the various nights for change of
distance of the sun, a more accurate phase-curve was deduced,
indicating a more rapid increase of the radiant heat on approach-
ing full moon than was given by the formula previously employed,
but still not so much as Prof. Zollner’s gives for the moon’s light.

By employing Laplace’s formula for the extinction of light
in our atmosphere, the heat-effect in terms of the scale-readings
was deduced, and an approximation to the height of the atmo-
sphere attempted.

From a series of simultaneous measurements of the moon’s
heat and light at intervals during the partial eclipse of Novem-
ber 14, 1872, when clouds did not interfere, it was found that
the heat and light diminish nearly if not quite proportionally ;
ihe minimum for both occurring at or very near the middle of
the eclipse, when they were reduced to about half their amounts
before and after contact with the penumbra.

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, March 24.—M. de Quatrefages,
president, in the chair. M. Faye read a long and exhaustive
reply to M. Vicaire’s criticisms on his solar theory and attempted
revival of Wilson’s hypothesis. He answered each objection in
detail, and maintained that his position had not been affected by
M. Vicaire’s arguments.—M. Berthelot read a paper on the con-
stitution of the solutions of the hydracids, and on their inverse
yeactions. He believes that the increase of heat evolved with
increased dilution proves the existence of a number of hydrates,
and that the quantity of hydrated acid required to precipitate
certain chlorides from their solutions will throw more light on
this point.—On certain propyl new derivatives, related to
the metallic propyl compounds, by M. A. Cahours.—M. Th.
Lestibondois read a note on certain anomalous lianas.—Papers
were read on the conditions under which certain periods of the
quadratics of a curve of degrees disappear or become infinite,
hy M. Max Marie.—On a new double-image micrometer, by M.
©. Noel.—On the measurement of the chemical effect of solar
light, by M. E. Marchand.—On Phylloxera, &c., by M. L.
J’aucon,—On a new method of determining the position of the
i odal surfaces in masses of vibrating gas, by M. D. Gernez.—
On the volumetric estimation of carbonic anhydride, by M.

* Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xvii. p. 436; xix. p. ¢

1893

Houzeau. Theauthor has devised a method for the application
of volumetric analysis to the determination of CO, in agricultural
chemistry. The process consists in absorbing the gas in soda
solution containing zincic oxide, precipitating the carbonate
formed with neutral solution of baric chloride, and titrating the
free soda left with standard sulphuric acid.— Researches on tri-
chloracetic acid and the trichloracetatés, by M. A. Clermont.—
On the bursting of the skin of fruits exposed to persistent rain,
&c., by M. Joseph Boussingault. The author finds that this is
due to the diffusion of water into the fruit. Many kinds of fruit
thus absorb large quantities of water, and ultimately burst. The
author has also experimented on leaves and stalks. In every
case sugar diffused out of the fruit and leaves.—On the snow-
line, and its elevation in different parts of, the world, by M. Ch.
Grad.-—On M. Pasteur’s process for silk-worm preservation, by
M. Guisquet, was an answer to M. Guérin-Méneville, who has
denied M. Pesteur’s statements.—On the phenomena of hiberna-
tion presented by flies exposed to successive changes of heat and
cold in Russia, by M. Goubareff. Flies found perfectly torpid
became lively at + 33° Réaumur, and became again torpid when
the temperature was allowed to fall.—On an optical phenomenon
produced by the condensation of dew on grass, by M. J. Leterme.

| April 5.

' DIARY

THURSDAY, Aprrit 3.

Rovat Socrety, at 8.30.—On the Structure of Striped Muscular Fibre:
E. A. Schafer.—Note on the Synthesis of Marsh Gas, and the Electric
Decomposition of Carbonic Oxide: Sir B. C. Brodie.—On an Air Battery :
Dr, Gladstone and A. Tribe.

SocieTy or ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Greek Liturgies and Byzantine Archi-
tecture: Edwin Freshfield.

CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—A way of exactly determining the specific gravity
of Liquids; Dr. H. Sprengel—On Cymene from various sources: Dr.
C. R. A. Wright —Researches on the action of the Copper-zinc couple on
organic bodies, II — On the iodides of Amyl and Methy!: J. H. Gladstone
and A, Tribe.—Contributions from the Laboratory of the London Institu-
tution, No. XI.—Action of the acid chlorides on Nitrates and Nitrites :
Dr. H. G. Armstrong.

Linnean Society, at 8.—On new Indian Fishes: Surgeon-Major F Day.
—On the Fungi of Ceylon: Rev. M. J. Berkeley and C. E. Broome.

Roya. Institution, at 3 —Coal and its Products: A. V, Harcourt.

FRIDAY, Apri 4.

Roya InstiruTIoN, at 9.—Observations on Niagara: Prof. Tyndall.

GroLocists’ AssociaTIov, at 8 —IThe Diamond Fields of South Africz:
G. C. Cooper.—On some Fossils from the Margate Chalk: J. W.
Wethereil.

ARCHAOLOGICAL INSTITUTION, at 4.

SATURDAY, Aprit 5.
Royat InsTITuTION, at 3.—Darwin’s Philosophy of Language: Prof. Max

Miller.
SUNDAY, Apri 6.

Sunpav Lecture Society, at 4 —The Stereoscope, the Pseudoscope, and
Binocular Vision: W. B. Carpenter.

MONDAY, Apri 7.

ENTOMOLOGICAL Society, at7.

Lonpon INsTITUTION, at 4.—Elementary Botany ; Prof. Bentley.

Vicroria InsTITUTE, at 8.—Force: Prof. Kirk.

WEDNESDAY, Aprit 9.

Puotocraruic Society, at 8.

GeotocicaL Society, at 8.—Lakes of the North-eastern Alps, and their
bearing on the Glacier-erosion theory: Rev. T. G. Bonney.— Notes on
Structure in the Chalk of the Yorkshire Wolds: J. R. Mortimer.

Lonpon InstiTuTION, at 7.—Paper and Discussion.

ARCHOLOGICAL AsSOcIATION, at 8.

ASTRONOMICAL Socisty, at 8.

Socigty or TELEGRAPH ENGINEERS, at 7.30 —On a Bell Alarm for Sub-
marine Cables: Wm. F. King —On the Measurement of Battery Resist-
ance: Jas, Graves.—On the Mechanical Tests of Iron Wire: R, S. Culley.

THURSDAY, ApRIt 10.

MATHEMATICAL Society, at 8—On Systems of Porismatic Equations,
Algebraical and Trigonometrical ; Note on Epicycloids and Hypocycloids ;
Locus of point of concourse of perpendicular Tangents to a Cardioid ;
Elliptic motion under acceleration constant in direction: Prof Wolsten-
holme.—On the calculation of the Value of the theoretical unit-angle to a
great number of decimal places: Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher.

CONTENTS Pace
Oricin or CERTAIN InstTINcTS. By CHArtes Darwin, F.R.S.. . 417
University Oars, I]. By ArcHIBALD MacLAREN ... .- » + 418
Tue EARTH (W1th Illustrations.) .-« + + «+ + + ° 3, * ee

Letters To THE EpiToR:—
Dana on Corals ~Prof tA. E. VERRILL. . «+ « «© ss =
Animal Instincts. —E. W. Cox. Serjeant-at-Law .. . .

The Sociability of Cats—J. JEREMIAH « » «+ se eo
Manitoba Observatory.—G. I. KinGsTON . re

St. THomas CHARTERHOUSE TEACHERS’ SCIENCE CLASSES a,

i TROGLODYTES OF THE VEZERE (With Iélustrations),1V. By PauL _
ROCA .

Pror. Frower’s HuNTERIAN LECTURES. . . . + .~ oS Toes
An ENGINEERING COLLEGEIN JAPAN. « . 2 « 6 + 6 + «@ « + 430
Notes ee = > oO) et ec © al) gee
Tue Tueory or Evo.ution In Germany, II.. . . . > 26ers
SEIENTIFICISERIALS 5 Rees) 6s os ee SH 434
SocrgTIEs AND ACADEMIES ‘s 6 + © «© + + » « «© « « \6, uae
DIARY. ss 3 eo uw OME 0s be OO) 5h meen

EEE ——————==See le ee ee

a

—_ eee ee

437

THURSDAY, APRIL to, 1873.

INSTINCT

HE very valuable contribution to Psychology made

by Mr. Spalding in his paper on Instinct (Mac-
millan’s Magazine for February), and the letters and
article which have lately appeared in this Journal, will no
doubt stimulate research, and lead to some rational ex-
planation of what has hitherto been enveloped in a mist
of metaphysics. Mr. Spalding has not only proved him-
self an acute thinker, he has shown a rare ability in de-
vising experiments, and we may fairly expect that his
researches will mark anepoch. I am the more grateful
to him because his instructive results, though seeming to
contradict, do really furnish experimental confirmation of
the views put forth in my work, now in the press, wherein
it is argued that Instinct is /apsed Intelligence : that what
is now the fixed and fatal action of the organism, was
formerly a tentative and discriminating (consequently
intelligent) action: in a word that what is now a con-
nate tendency was formerly acquired experience.

There is great need of precise definition of terms.
What is Instinct? What is Experience? What is In-
telligence? Twenty different writers indicate twenty
different things by these terms. They do not distinguish
between Instinct and Impulse; between Experience
acquired by the individual, and Experience transmitted
from ancestors ; between Intelligence, the discernment of
Likeness and Unlikeness in feelings, and Intellect, the
discernment of Likeness and Unlikeness in symbols.
Above all they seldom make clear whether they are treat-
ing any fact from the psycho/ogica/ or from the psycho-
genetical point of view, z.c. whether they are describing
the Anatomy or the Morphology of the Mind. It is, for
instance, one thing to affirm that our perception of Space
is a perception necessarily conditioned by our organism,
and in that sense @ friovz ; another thing to affirm that
this conditioned structure is itself the evolved result of
ancestral experiences of Sight, Tuuch, and Motion, and
in that sense the perception of space is @ fosteriori, The
point of difference between the empirical and nativistic
schools may be got rid of by such a precision in the
question. The vital point will then be between the ad-
vocates of evolution and the advocates of creation.
Those who hold that the Organism is evolved, must hold
that its perceptions (and instincts) are evolved through
Experience. Those who hold that the Organism is
created, and was from the“first what we see it now, must
hold that its perceptions (and instincts) are pre-ordained,
and have no experiential origin whatever.

Having thus cleared the ground of a mass of obstruc-
tion, we may now approach the subject of Instinct. In
what sense can it be said to be dependent on Experience?
Obviously this cannot be answered till we are agreed on

‘the meaning to be assigned to the term Experience. I

have defined it the registration of Feeling. And what is
Feeling? It is reaction of the sentient Organism under
stimulus, This reaction has obviously two factors : the
structure of the organism, and the nature of the stimulus.

‘It is not every response of the organ that can be a feeling,

it is not every feeling that can be an experience. The
No, 180—VOL, vit.

secretion of a gland is a response, physiologically similar to
the response of a sensory organ ; but the former is nota
feeling, although it enters as an element into the mass of
Systemic sensation; and the response of a sensory
organ, although a feeling, will not be an experience
unless it be vevivad/e; and this revival requires that it
should be registered in the modification impressed
on the sentient structure. It is true that rigorously
speaking no body, not even an inorganic body, can be
acted on without being modified; every sunbeam that
beats against the wall a/fers the structure of that wall ;
but these minute alterations are not only inappreciable
for the most part, by any means in our power, they are
also mostly annulled by subsequent alterations. In one
sense, therefore, no impression ever excites Feeling with-
out modifying the sentient structure ; but some impres-
sions, especially when iterated, produce definite and
permanent modifications; and these are registrations
capable of revival, z.c. of the feelings registered, so that
when the organism is stimulated its reaction will be de-
termined by those past reactions, and the product will be
a feeling more or less resembling the feelings which were
formerly produced. Thus we have Feeling as the re-
action of the Organism; and the Organism itself as a
structure which has been modified by its reactions on
external stimuli. What the structure of the Organism is
at any stage determines what will be the kind of sentient
reactions it will have. Experience is the registration of
Feeling, registered in those modifications, which, because
they are modifications of structure, must have corre-
sponding activities of Feeling, and from these spring
Actions. To trace the history of these modifications or
their feelings is Morphology or Psychogeny ; to describe
their results is Anatomy or Psychology.

We cannot be in doubt then whether Instinct is or is
not dependent on Experience; we can only ask: Is a
particular action characteristic of a particular animal
Species, one that the animal has itself /earned to per-
form through the adaptation of its organs, under the
guidance of sensible impressions reviving the past im-
pressions of zfs experience; or an action inevitably
determined by the reactions of the structure inherited
from ancestors. so that sensible impressions revive
ancestral experiences registered in the modifications im-
pressed on the structure? The answer in each case can
only be approximative ; and for this reason: until the
organism has the requisite degree of development for
the performance of the actions, there can be no mani-
festation of the instincts, and there are few of the in-
stincts manifested at birth.

How, then, shall we define Instinct? How separate
the actions which are congenitally determined, from those
which are incidentally determined? Both require the
indispensable conditions of an appropriate structure and
appropriate stimuli. It is obvious that we cannot fix
upon the structure alone ; and yet the congenital tenden-
cies of that structure must be taken into account; for
we see instincts not manifested until long after many
other actions have been acquired—as in the case of the
sexual instinct. But if congenital tendencies sufficed, we
should call the flowering of plants at their normal season
when transplanted to a diferent climate, an instinct.
Many would say that an action common to an entire

BB

438

group of animals must be an instinct, since it could not
be acquired through individual experience. But how if
the conditions of acquisition are also common to the
whole group? Thus an infant certainly learns to scratch
itself; since, however it may itch, some considerable ex-
perience is necessary before it learns to localise the sen-
sation. As, however, the conditions of this acquisition

are common to all children, all learn to scratch them-

selves. Now in many animals this is an inherited acqui-
sition ; they scratch themselves from the first. Whether
the infant also inherits a structure which would develop
into one as apt as that of the animal, cannot be ascer-
tained ; all we know is that the infant’s nervous structure
is too immature at first to permit the localisation of sen-
sation. How much of the subsequent aptitude is the
result of congenital tendency, and how much of acqui-
sition through incidental experiences acting on a predis-
posed organism, cannot be estimated.*

That we require some character to distinguish the in-
stinctive from the impulsive actions, may be readily shown.
No one calls Breathing, Secretion, Excretion, &c., in-
stincts. Yet these are the actions of congenital tendencies
in the organism. ‘A hungry chick,” says Mr. Spalding,
“that never tasted food, is able on seeing a fly. or spider
for the first time, to bring into action muscles that never
were so exercised before, and to perform a series of deli-
cately adjusted movements that end in the capture of the
insect.” Every one would pronounce this a typical
case of Instinct. Now compare with it the following,
which no one would class among the instincts: A new-
born animal that has never breathed before.is able on first
feeling the stimulus of the atmosphere to bring into action a
very complicated group of muscles which never were so
exercised before, and to perform a series of delicately
adjusted movements which end in the aération and circu-
culation of the blood.

This contrast may lead us to the character sought.
Understanding that every line of demarcation in psychical
phenomena must be more or less arbitrary, and only

justified by its convenience, we may draw such a line |

between Impulse and Instinct. Impulses are the actions
which from the first were fatal, inevitable, being simply
the direct reflex of the stimulated organs. Given the
respiratory organs and the atmosphere, Respiration is the
inevitable result, Given the secretory organ and the
plasma, Secretion is the inevitable result.
choice, the action either takes place or it does not.
Instincts ave also fatal, inevitable, but they weve not
always so ; the element of choice intervenes; and although
the intelligent discrimination may be a/mos¢ entirely
lapsed, it never is wholly lapsed. The guiding sensation
is still discriminative, selective. Hence instincts vary with
varying conditions. Thus the wuétritive impulse which
when unsatisfied causes the uneasiness of desire, and
which moves the animal in search of food, is markedly
distinguishable from the zzs¢inct which selects the appro-
priate food and rejects all the rest. If an animal eats only
certain kinds of food, out of many which would be nu-
tritious, it is because these kinds have been selected by it,
or by its ancestors. Every chicken, Mr. Spalding assures
* The examples of dogs and horses finding their way home, however

marvellous, cannot be affiliated on Instinct, since it is very far from common

to the species: for one dog who finds his way home, hundreds are help-
ess when lost. :

NATURE

There is no |

5 4ee ee! Sk OR eo ee

[ AZril to, 1873

us, has to learn not to eat its own excrement, “They
made this mistake invariably, but they did not repeat it
oftener than once or twice.” He also has this remark :—
“ Chickens, as soon as they are able to walk, will follow
any moving object ; and when guided by sight alone they
seem to have no more disposition togollow a hen than to
follow a duck or a human being. Unreflecting onlookers
when they saw chickens a day old running after me, and
older ones following me miles and answering my whistle,
imagined that I must have some occult power over the
creatures, whereas I simply allowed them to follow me
from the first. There is the instinct to follow ; and, as we
have seen, their ear, prior to experience, attaches them to
the right object.”

I should rather say, “ there is the zzpulse to follow:
and the instinct to follow the mother, or a duck, or the
master who feeds them, is the selected action which
becomes rapidly an organised habit.” It is cne of the
conclusions of my work that all our involuntary and
automatic actions, were originally voluntary, and that all
instinctive actions were originally intelligent. In the
case now under consideration, the impulse to follow is a
fixed tendency ; the instinct to follow is facultative at first,
and becomes fixed by habit, but is always, even when most
firmly fixed, guided by discriminating feeling.

To conclude : where there is no alternative open to an
action it is impulsive ; where there is, or originally was, an
alternative, the action is instinctive; where there are
alternatives which may still determine the action, and the
choice is free, we call the action intelligent.

GEORGE HENRY LEWES

HANDBOOK FOR THE PHYSIOLOGICAL
. LABORATORY

Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory. By E. Klein,
M.D,; J. B. Sanderson, F.R.S.; M. Foster, F.R.S. ;
and T, L. Brunton, M.D., D.Sc. (Churchill.)

TUDENTS of chemistry have, for a long time, by
means of the works of Fresenius and others, had
the opportunity, almost unaided, of verifying for them-
selves most of the experimental results of which they
hear in lectures, and read in text-books ; and thus many
are able, before they have finished their educational
course, to obtain a thorough practical knowledge of the
science. Such has not been the case with regard to
physiology ; the subject is less advanced, and has pro-
gressed more slowly ; perhaps this is because the descrip-
tions of the methods by which the ends have been
arrived at, as given by lecturers and writers, are incom-
plete and insufficient, The work before us is the first
important attempt that has been made to put the com-
mencing physiologist in a fair position to begin original
work on the subject, by giving him the necessary direc-
tions for himself performing many of the fundamental
experiments on which the science is based. Whether
physiology in its most comprehensive sense, as under-
stood by the authors of this work in their title, is a single
branch of science which can be thus treated in its unity,
or whether it ought to be divided up and incorporated
with others already established, is a point which has not
yet been satisfactorily settled, and which the perusal of
this book may assist in proving.

April 10, 1873]

The work is in two volumes, the first, much the larger,
‘being devoted to the text, while the second contains the
drawings of the microscopical preparations described, as

-well as the instruments, diagrams, and dissections re- |
of the space, which is not coloured by silver, but

ferred to. F

_ The histological section, written by Dr. Klein, is, as a
whole, far superior to any existing work on the subject, |
which is saying a great deal, considering the large
number of treatises on the use of the microscope, in the

study of the tissues of the animal body, which have already |

appeared, The careful way in which all the many details |

NATURE

receive their due consideration, is an example to authors |
of text-books, and it is rendered evident on every page
that the author is himself thoroughly familiar personally |
with the points
he records.
Many methods
till now com-
paratively little
known and em-
ployed in this
country are
fully discussed, -
amongthemost
important of
which is that of
injecting or-
gans by the
“method of
puncture,” in-
troduced by
Ludwig, which
though it in
many cases
gives very de-
cided results,
has to be used
with caution,
as their inter-
pretation is of-
ten far from
easy and some-

439

strongly with silver, slightly with solution of chloride of
gold, and swells out in the fresh state on the addition
of water; and secondly, of a less refractive trans-
parent interstitial substance occupying the remainder

is intensely stained by chloride of gold, and dis-
appears in dilute acetic acid.” The illustrations
accompanying the descriptions are new, and on a
sufficiently large scale to render quite apparent the
minutest structural points; much may be learnt from a
simple inspection of them. We do not quite like the
introduction of so many German synonyms for many of

the terms employed, they convey but little meaning to

most English students, and though otherwise harmless,
they might be
taken to indi-
cate that our
language is
poor in me-
chanism, or
that we are
overpoweringly
indebted to our
worthy _ rela-
tions, neither
of which views
is strictly cor-
rect. A little
consideration
might have
been shown to
our microscope
makers by the
employment of
the well-known
English no-
menclature of
objectives (for
a man may be
a first-class his-
tologist and yet
not know the

times mislead- meaning of
ing. The minu- Hartnack’s No.
test. details, the Fic. 1.—Centrum tendineum of rabbit, seen from the abdominal side. Berlin blue had been introduced 10), and the
Omission of into the peritoneum by “natural injection.” 4, Straight interfascicular lymphatics between the systematic ig-
“ye fi bundles of tendon of the abdominal side ; «, lymph vessels of the pleural side, showing the valves, z .

which so oiten with corresponding dilatations. The last lymph vessels are as completely injected as the first. noring of their
marsthe results (Oc., 3: Obj., 4. Tube not drawn out.) excellent work-
are given in manship can-

many cases as well as if the teacher himself were by the
side of his pupil. The means to be employed for ob-
taining a view of the stomata of thie lymphatic system, as
they are seen on the centrum tendineum of the diaphragm,
is a case in point to which several pages are devoted,
in which also the structure of these little understood
organs is excellently entered into. The chapter on em-
* bryology is also very complete ; the paragraphs on striated
muscular fibre are as logical as they are clear, the follow-
ing being the summary :—“ From all these (the previous)
facts we learn that the substance of a muscular fibre
consists, in the first place, of oblong prisms, ¢.¢., sarcous
elements, with their axes parallel to its axes, and formed
of a material which refracts light strongly, is stained

not but produce ill-fecling ; for though they may be ex-
pensive, they have undoubtedly been the originators of
most of the greatest improvements in their branch.

Dr. Sanderson has undertaken the physiology of the
blood, together with that of the circulation, respiration,
and animal heat. The chapter on the first of these sub-
jects is excellent and thorough, nothing better could be
wanted, the author being able to keep within the region
of fact. The German elaborate verifications of the sup-
posed functions of many of the most important nerves,
are given in a very lucid and concise manner, and several
of the excellent instruments introduced by them are clearly
described, together with the principles of their action, and
the methods of employing them. But in the other more

440

NATURE

theoretical subjects, there are many statements to which
we must take exception. Most of the theories bearing
on some of the main problems in the circulation of the
blood, are at the present day in too unsettled a state to
find a place in a manual for students, because it is im-
possible in the permissible space to give the many con-
flicting results of different authors, which yet remain
unproved or unrefuted. The result is, as might be
expected, that a one-sided and individual view of the
subject is presented, and the student is taught some
things which he will have to unlearn. Most of Dr. San-
derson’s theories have already appeared, but nevertheless
some are based on principles undoubtedly unsound.
Whilst discussing the expansive movements which
occur in an artery during the different parts of the pulse
beat, and the cause of the variations in the extent of the
changes in diameter of the arteries which may be ob-
served, the following occurs :—“A moment’s considera-
tion teaches us that there are two circumstances which
must diminish the minimum pressure in the arteries, viz.,
diminution of the mean arterial pressure, and prolongation
of the period which intervenes b2tween one’expansive act
and its successor. In other words, the less frequent the

Sahin oh,

Fic. 2.—Dissection of the parts in relation with the vagus nerve of the frog
on the right side. The oesophagus is distended with a glass tube about
half-an-inch in width. The object is represented of about twice its actual
size. a, right aorta ; B, dudbus aorte: c, posterior horn of the hyoid
bone; gf, genio-hyoid muscle ; 4g, hyo-glossus muscle; /, lowest of
the three petrohoid muscles; H, ninth nerve; G, glossopharyngeal
nerve; 7, vagus; 0, larynx; s& 4 &o%, poiat to the space occupied by
the origias of the large muscle (sternohyoid) which connects the hyoid
with the sternum, as well as by the omohyoid ; both of these muscles
have been cut away.

contractions of the heart and the lower the arterial pressure,
the greater the expansion in proportion to the expa nding
force which produces it” (the italics are not ours). Dr.
Sanderson would undoubtedly thus lead us to believe
that this is a self-evident proposition, but that it is so is
far from the case. That it should be true it has to be
assum2d that the escape of blood from the peripheral
vessels between two succeeding pulse beats, depends on
the interval which elapses between them, and no attempt
is made to prove this fact, whichis not at all necessarily
correct, and against which many arguments can be
adduced. The same author also adopts a modification
of the now antiquated and decidedly insufficient oscillatory
hypothesis, to account for the dicrotic beat of the pulse,
so clearly seen in the sphygmograph trace: and in so
doing he necessarily ignores the great value of the im-
portant and very definite results obtained by Chauveau
and Lortet, by means of their hanadromograph; if he
had fully realised the easily demonstrable fact that the
second rise in the sphygmograph trace commences the

later in an artery according as it is farther from the heart,
the table on p. 228 referring to the relations of the different
elements of the pulse beat in differeat vessels could not
have appeared in its present form. As long as physio-
logists compare arteries to elastic stubes in air, they
must be led into error, for the forces which predominate in
them so situated, are very different from thos? which
prevail’ when they are surrounded by water or any
yielding substance, which an artery much more directly
resembles, as it is surrounded by, and on most sides in
contact with, tissues of a somewhat yielding nature.
There is another short sentence we must quote; in ex-
plaining the action of the auriculo-ventricular valve we
read: “The time which intervenes between the com-
mencement of the compression and the tightening of the
valve varies according to the vigour of the contractions,
the quantity of the blood contained in the ventricle, and
the previous position of the valve, must always be appre-
ciable.” Does the author really wish us to believe that
the heart, a powerful muscular pump, which he affirms
(though on very slight grounds) acts most powerfully at
the commencement of each beat, requires an appreciabl
time, by which we understand, one thit can be measured
by instruments at our command, to tighten the auriculo-

ventricular valve, against which the resistance is undoubt- ~

edly extremely small? it seems very improbable.

Fic. 3.—The marking lever for indicating graphically 01 a revolving drum
the moment at which an electric current is broken.

The chapter on animal heat contains much useful
information, but several of Senator’s results are not en-
tered into, and I.aschkewitsch’s explanation of the fall

of temperature in “varnished” rabbits, which are dis-~

cussed in detail, is not given. None of the special pre-
cautions which have to be taken in employing the mercu-
rial thermometer for physiological investigation, are
referred to; and the student will be entirely misled
respecting the principle upon which the ordinary
clinical thermometer of Phillips is constructed, the
author having muddled up with his description Hawks-
ley’s method for preventing the index running into the
bulb whilst the operator is depressing it, which is entirely
independent of, and has nothing to do with, the self-
registering power of the instrument. A similar want of
knowledge of physics is shown on the same page on which
this error occurs, for it is stated that in the thermometric
couple the degree of deflection of the galvanometer needle,
which is produced when a current results from the un-
equal heating of its ends, varies with the difference of
the temperature of the junctions, which is well known to
be incorrect.

Dr. Foster, in undertaking the “ Functions of Muscle
and Nerve,” has undoubtedly had a difficult work to per-
form, and he has introduced a very clear and simple
method of teaching the various, and in many cases, dis-

[April 10, 1873

April 10, 1873}
connected facts which relate to them.. The student will,
in this section of the work, find full directions for per-
forming most of the experiments, which will, when all
repeated, enable him to advance on a thorough and
sound foundation. Great care is taken to render evident
the phenomena of electrotonus, and the subject of tetanus
is dwelt on in detail, the following being the propositions
which are discussed and proved regarding it :—1. ‘“ Teta-
nus from an ordinary interrupted current is a continuous
contraction rapidly reaching a maximum, continuing
(within limits) in that condition so long as the current is
passing, and followed by a gradual relaxation upon the
current being cut off.” 2. “Tetanus really consists of
a series of simple muscular contractions fused together.”
The apparatus necessary for verifying these and other
points in which electricity plays a part, is described as
far as is necessary for the wants of the physiological
student, and some, as Wippe’s double key and Du Bois
Reymond’s rheocord, are figured. Several of the points
insisted on appear to be insignificant in themselves, but
they must all, in the long run, have important bearings
on future theory.

In undertaking the “ Physiological Chemistry,” Dr.
Brunton has had a somewhat easier task than the two
authors last referred to, and his work is excellent. The
results of Hoppe-Seyler, and other German chemists,
which are as convincing as they are connected, are fully
entered into, and the chemistry of digestion and excretion,
together with the method of arriving at them, are explained
at considerable length. As an instance of the manner in
which the subject is handled, the following are the propo-
sitions which are demonstrated in connection with the fact
that pepsin is not destroyed during digestion. 1. “Although
the digestive power of pepsin appears to be indefinite,
yet a limited quantity of gastric juice will not dissolve
an unlimited quantity of fibrin.” 2, “The arrest of
digestion in this experiment (the proof of the previous
proposition) is not due to the destruction of pepsin, but
to the accumulation of the products of digestion in
the liquid and to the want of acid.” 3. “A stronger acid
is required for digestion if the products of digestion are
present in quantity in the solution.” The theory of diges-
tion, together with the action of the vagus and splanchnics
on the stomach are fully discussed, and the unassuming
way in which the author states his own opinions carries
great weight with it.

We should have liked to have seen a separate chapter
on the methods to be used for rendering animals in-
sensible, together with a notice of the relative value of
different anzesthetics and the way to exhibit them ; as it is,
the subject is only incidentally mentioned in connection
with special operations. Ifthe drawings of the instruments
had been incorporated in the text they would have been
more easily referred to, and therefore more frequently

looked at ; as it is, the one volume without the other is
difficult to understand. The anatomical sketches, mostly
after Bernard, which illustrate the distribution and rela-
tions of the nerves and vessels that so frequently have
to be manipulated by operating students, adds much to
the completeness of the work, in which every effort has
evidently been made to put the student in as good a posi-
tion with regard to the subject as can be desired.

The three accompanying woodcuts are from the second

NATURE

441

volume of this work. The largest is an example of the
size and character of the excellent illustrations in Dr.
Klein’s histological section. Dr. Sanderson contributes
that illustrating the relations of the pneumogastric nerve
in the frog, and the third is one of the several electrical
instruments described by Dr, Foster,

WILSON’S INORGANIC CHEMISTRY:

Inorganic Chemistry. By the late George Wilson. M.D.,
F.R.S.E. Revised and enlarged by H. G. Madan,
M.A. (London and Edinburgh : W. and R. Chambers.)

law so many of our old friends among the best

books on chemistry, the present edition of the late
Prof. Wilson’s Inorganic Chemistry has undergone some-
what extensive alterations, and received considerable
additions, which, in the opinion of its able editor, have
been rendered necessary by the recent progress of chem-
istry. The original plan, which is that adopted in some
of our best text-books, has been adhered to, viz. of intro-
ducing the student to a knowledge of the more important
fundamental laws of chemistry, and to make him familiar
with the properties of the chief elementary substances,
and their more remarkable compounds. What is gene-
rally known by the name of chemical physics occupies
about one-fourth of the whole book. This portion is
clear and concise, and deserves the highest eulogium, It
may be perused with advantage by every chemical
student. The theory of atomicity of elements, which is
fast giving a new impression to organic chemistry, and
which by some of our most eminent chemical teachers
has of late been introduced into the domain of inorganic
chemistry also, and which promises to reconcile and
harmonise both branches of chemical science, has re-
ceived but scanty recognition at the hands of the editor,
although he professes to have brought the chemical
nomenclature (in deference to the wishes of the pub-
lisher), into accordance with the system adopted by
Profs. Frankland and Williamson.

Professor Wilson seems to have felt that physical and
chemical laws cannot be studied with advantage without
having some physical and chemical facts to work upon,
and the pupil is therefore recommended to read the first
108 pages, treating of chemical physics, with some care
before proceeding further ; but “he is not to expect to un-
derstand the introductory portion at once, but must go
back from time to time to their study, when he will find
them more and more intelligible as he grows familiar with
the properties of chemical substances,” explained in the
later pages. Is not this an admission that the plan upon
which the book is constructed is a faulty one? Is it not
time to relegate chemical physics to physics proper, es-
pecially when we have such excellent elementary text-
books as Balfour Stewart’s and others, and to treat of
chemical changes in chemical text-books? Not that we
would have it inferred that chemical changes can be
understood without a knowledge of the general properties
of matter, of heat, light, and electricity. By far the
greater number of chemical changes being dependent
upon chemical affinity, the laws of chemical combining
proportions and volume composition can very well be
explained by confining the teaching at first mainly to
chemical changes. Physical considerations, especially at

442

a time when they undergo such rapid extensions, should
form the crowning part of chemical studies, and the inter-
dependence of the two branches of science can only be
established upon a sound basis when a thorough know-
ledge of either science has been acquired.

The main portion of the book comprising the chemistry
of the non-metallic and metallic elements, arranged under
the usual headings Preparation and Properties of the
different elements and their compounds, contains much
that will highly recommend itself. The more important
compounds are dealt with in a manner which will help the
student over most of the difficulties he encounters at first,
and will enable him to lay a good foundation for more
extensive chemical studies. The classification of the
metals according to their atomicity—open to objections
as it stands—is not always reconcilable with the analytical
summaries or tests given after each group of metals, nor
are the analytical explanations always accurate. On p.
393, &.g. we notice: “ Calcic sulphate cannot produce a
precipitate in a salt of calcium, because there is more
than enough of water present to retain dissolved all the
sulphate that can possibly be formed.”

There can be little doubt that the new edition of
Wilson’s Chemistry will be welcomed by all who desire to
get a general insight into the science, and that it may be
studied with advantage in preference to many larger and
more ambitious text-books,

OUR BOOK SHELF

Verhandlungen der k, k. geologischen Reichsanstalt.
Nos. 11 to 18. (Vienna.)

THESE numbers of the Proceedings of the Geological
Society contain many useful papers, chiefly, however, of
local interest. Felix Karrer notes the occurrence of mam-
moth remains at Vienna. They were obtained during the
sinking of a well in a “diluvial” (glacial) deposit at a
depth of 9 fath. 3 ft. from the surface. Dr. Lenz also has
a short reference to a similar discovery of the teeth of a
young mammoth in a brown laminated loam near No-
wakmiihle. Dr. Stur gives an interesting account of his
own and Baron Petrino’s observations on the superficial
deposits in the basin of the Dniester in Galicia and Buko-
wina. A great accumulation of loess covers a wide area in
that district, the land shells and mammalian remains in
which enable these geologists to correlate it with the
loess of the Rhine and other regions. We observe, in No.
II, an important table showing Dr. C. E, Weis’s sys-
tematic arrangement of the carboniferous formation and
the rothliegendes formation of the Saar-Rhine district,
which is well worth the attention of English geologists.
The usual admirable literary notices, and other miscel-
laneous matter, are appended to each number of the
Proceedings.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. }

Leaf-Arrangement

THE chief part of the Rev. G. Henslow’s objections (NATURE,
vol. vii., p. 403) to my condensation-theory of leaf-arrangement
are due to a double oversight on his part. First, he has over-
looked the condition of contact among the balls which I use to
represent embryo leaves. Second, he has overlooked the funda-
punia position, that leaf-order exists for, and is determined in,
the dud,

NATURE

[April 10, 1873

The bud requires economy of space. This involves contact
among the embryo leaves ; and if we experiment with balls at-
tached (as described in my paper) in two rows alternately on
either side of a contractile axis, we shall see that when the axis
is allowed to contract with a twist, that twist is necessarily
limited by the conditions of contact which arise, and that we
cannot ‘‘cause it to make a complete rotation if we choose.”
Given the size of the balls and their distance from the axis, the
position which they will assume (under contraction with a twist)
is necessarily determined by the geometrical conditions of mutual
contact. This consideration furnishes the answer to Mr,
Henslow’s italicised query, and also to his two previous ques-
tions (1) and (2). It also gives back a ‘‘really explanatory
meaning” to my expression ‘‘#axima of stability,” for if we
have one sphere standing almost vertically on another and sup-
ported by a third and a fourth to right and left, we have therein
some statical conditions which admit of maxima and minima of
stability. The same consideration also removes the objection
that ‘‘the positions taken up by the balls must be arbitrary, or
at least in proportion to the twist given by the hand—a perfectly
arbitrary force.” The twist given by the hand in my experiment
serves only to determine the direction of the real twist ; the sub-
sequent real availing twist is insisted upon by the two ranks of
balls-in-contact as the sole condition of obedience to the contrac-

tile force of the indiarubber axis ; and this twist is limited by

the conditions of contact above described. Let the direction of
the twist be given, and there is nothing arbitrary in the
result.

The objection that ‘‘if an axis becomes twisted the fives will
be twisted also” loses force if we bear in mind that the leaf-
order is imposed upon the embryo leaves in the very earliest
stage of their bud-life ; and that the formation of fibres, taking
place at asubsequent stage, must find itself compromised by an
already existing arrangement of the embryo leaves. The elastic
band in my experiment, “if it were a pliant shoot,” would certainly
“contort the vessels and wood-fibres ;” but it was not meant to
represent a ‘‘ pliant shoot” except in its earliest embryonic bud-
stage, and that at some very remote period in the past.

I must ask Mr. Henslow to bear in mind that he has before
him only the abstract of my paper, and that necessary brevity
has left some points too bare, and has wholly suppressed others
of small importance. Among the latter is some mention of
the ‘‘secondary series” 4, 3, #, &c., which, though it may be
found in the abnormal variations exhibited by a cultivated plant
like the Jerusalem Artichoke, yet cannot be reckoned with
examples of normal leaf-order.

Let me take this opportunity of insisting again on the as-
tonishing agreement between the facts of nature and the results
which the condensation-theory leads us to expect. Taking one
member to start from as 0, we find in nature that the members in
contact with o belong to the following series, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, 34, 55, 89, 144, &c., and these are the very same members
which would necessarily be brought into contact with o under
Sucoptaive degrees of condensation with twist from an original
order 4.

I have lately met with a striking confirmation of the truth of
the condensation-theory. The simplest order of the whorled
type is that in which the leaves stand in pairs, decussate. Now
if we consider what would be the result of condensation with
twist applied to this arrangement, we can see that it would
produce a new series of orders, in which the following members
would successively come into contact with 0,—2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 26,

2, &c., and would present the phenomenon of 2, 4, 6, 10, &c.,
spirals alternately to right and left. This result is exemplified in
nature. The teazle ‘Dipsacus silvestris) has the decussate order
in its leaves ; and in its head (where we might expect to find its
leaf-order condensed) we count sixteen conspicuous spirals in
one direction and twenty-six in the other :—that is to say, we
have 0 in contact with No. 16 on one side and No. 26 on the
other. No. 42 stands higher between 16 and 26, but inclined
towards the former. No, to stands next below 26, and No. 6

next below 16. These numbers belong to the new series above ~

mentioned,

This close parallel between fact and theory appears to me to
give a value to the latter which it will not lightly lose.

March 30 HUBERT AIRY

The Hegelian Calculus

As Dr. J. H. Stirling has enjoyed the exceptional privilege of
replying contemporaneously to my paper on Hegel in the
od

April 10, 1873]

NATURE

443

current number of the Fortnightly, 1 should desire, with
your kind permission, to find in your columns the oppor-
tunity of saying without delay the single word which still
seems necessary between Dr. Stirling and myself.

Dr, Stirling now holds that the real question between him and
me is whether or not Hegel ‘‘attempted” to produce ‘“‘a
Hegelian Calculus.” And so it seems to him a virtual con-
cession of the entire case when I say that the phrase “‘ Hegelian
Calculus ” is used by mein irony. Dr. Stirling, I fear, misunder-
stands me. What Hegel has given us on the subject of the
Calculus is, strictly speaking, nonsense. But, as I have shown,
this nonsense is not mere metaphysic, but involves mathematical
absurdity. It is of course only in irony that one can dignify
the paradoxes of mathematical ignorance with the title of a
Calculus ; and if this admission satisfies Dr. Stirling, then our
controversy is at an end. W. RoBerTson SMITH

Aberdeen, April 3

Meteorology of the Future

I WIsH to call the attention of the writer of the article ‘‘ The
Meteorology of the Future,” which appeared in NATURE of
December 12, 1872, to a little work which appears to have en-
tirely escaped his notice.

In the beginning of 1871 I circulated a small book of t wenty-
four pages, containing results deduced from the observations
made at this Observatory, 1841 to 1870, I have given the
decimal and annual variations of all the meteorological elements
collected, and have pointed out their mutual interdependence.
T have also given on an enlarged scale the curves of variations of
annual mean temperature and freedom of the sun’s disc from
spots, which appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Society,
March 23, 1871.

No one acquainted with the subject would, I presume, believe
that periodical variations could exist in the temperature without
existing also in the other meteorological elements ; vapour as
measured by tension, hence barometer humidity and rainfall.

In the introduction to the work referred to, it is stated with
regard to the curve of temperature and inverse curve of solar
spots :—‘‘ There is an agreement between the curves which will
probably be regarded as too close to be the result of accident,
and which renders it probable that the two phenomena, repre-
sented by the curves, result from the actio1 of a common cause
connected with changes of mean solar energy.” And this es-
tablished with more or less probability, I pro:eeded to poiat out
(p. 17)—‘‘ That the variations of temperature are borne out by
those of tension of vapour,” and on page 22—‘‘That the cor-
tespondence between humidity and rainfall is strongly marked,”
and also that—“ The correspondence between a curve swept to
represent the variations in raiafall and the inverse curve of the
variations in mean temperature is of a marked character.”

You will perceive, therefore, that the connection between solar
spots as an indication of less solar heating power and vapour,
and rain, as well as temperature, was in the book referred to
explicitly pointed out. I may add to this note, that the rain-
fall for

1871 was 20'098 inches
1872 was 29°325 inches.

E. J. STONE
Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope

Bright Meteor

I HAVE this evening, at 7.40, seen the brightést meteor I have
ever beheld: starting from a point about half-way between
Cassiopza and the Pole star, it descended through about 20° of
arc, when it was lost sight of behind a cloud: this cloud was a
thick white opaque cloud shining brightly in the moonlight, but
the meteor behind it illuminated the sky, and made the cloud
appear for the moment dark against it.

The colour of the meteor was a decided green; its passage
was not very rapid ; it appeared far brighter than any star or
planet, and seemed to have a short tail. Not only was it a
gloriously beautiful object in itself, but it illuminated all the sky
in its neighbourhood with its greenish light. _ :

EpMuND H. VERNEY, Commander R.N.

H.M.S, Growler, off Cape Matapan, March 5

The Great Meteoric Shower of November 27, 1872

THIS interesting display was also observed in the neighbour-
hood of the small town of Santa Lucia in Venezuela (10° 12’

N., 68° 57’ W. from Paris), by Dr. A. Alamo. The first
meteors were seen at half-past 7, about 100 in 30 minutes.
Most of them followed an easterly course, some leaving a lumi-
nous track visible for several minutes. From 8 to 12 o'clock
their number was too large for counting, but after midnight the
weather got misty, and few meteors could be distinguished.
The shower, however, continued, and still in the morning some
meteors were traceable. Unfortunately Dr. Alamo cannot say
anything about the radiant point of the shower. At Caracas the
sky was densely overcast, and not even a glimpse of the spectacle
could be obtained. Dr. A. ERNST
Caracas, Feb. 21 ‘

The Antiquity of Man

Tue letter of Sic John Lubbock in your issue of March 27,
induces me to call attention to what seems to me to be an anomaly
in the state of our evidence conceraing fossil man. Sir J.
Lubbock has insisted, and with much reason, on the parallelism
between the condition of existing savage races and that of fossil
man ; but, I would ask, is there any existing savage race capable
of delineating animals in the masterly way in which the elephant
is delineated on the plate of bone figured at page 326 of
NaTuRE (February 27, 1873)? Such a life-like representation
as is here produced by a few rough scratches would not discredit
a modern artist. Unless I am under a misapprehensioa, the
best figures that living savages can produce are but uncouth
things, in which case either the parallelism between the intelli-
gence of existing savage races and of fossil man fails in one im-
portant particular, or else a suspicion arises as to the contempo-
raneity of these engraved bones with palzolithic man; and a
doubt is thrown on the supposed antiquity of the Troglodytes
to whose hands this engraving is ascribed.

We should, I think, until this discrepancy is explained, look
with still greater suspicion upon the contemporaneity of en-
graved representations of animals with so early a form as
Miocene man, or accept them as any evidence of his existence
at that epoch. :

While suggesting the above caution, I would not, however, be
understood to dissent from the probability of some form of man
having existed as far back as the Miocene period, since, eleven
years ago, I observed in the Phil. Mag. (for April, 1862, last
paragraph but one of the paper) that the views there discussed
“seemed to me to lead us to the presumption of a far greater
antiquity for our race than had hitherto been accorded to ir,
reaching perhaps far back into the Tertiary period.”

Brentwood, Essex SEARLES V. Woop, JUN.

Skeletons at Mentone

A VERY accomplished geologist, a friend of mine, is now
staying at Mentone, for the benefit of his health, and he writes
to me under the date of the 25th ult. as follows :

‘Another skeleton has just been found here in one of the
caverns. It is far less perfect than the former one. The head is
crushed and partly wanting, and a considerable portion of the
vertebral column is absent. The limbs, however, indicate a
person of larger size than the first skeleton. Oa the arms are
bracelets of shells, which are bored for stringing. The parts
found are lying in their natural position. With the skeleton are
traces of what looks like very fine iron ore. Of this substance
there is but a very small quantity, perhaps two or three table-
spoonfuls.” .

With regard to the iron ore, there have been many conjectures,
and it is extremely remarkable that about the same quantity of
a similar substance was found with the first skeleton. The more
general opinion seems to be, that this material was employed ia
some burial rite. W.

Torquay, April 1

[From a cutting from Zes Echos de Cannes sent us by W. T.,
we learn further that the head was covered by a network of
shells, and that beside the skeleton were found many implements
of bone, and even drawings of fish and swans.—Eb. ]

Instinct
Perception in Ants

THE following fact with respect to the habits of ants, which I
believe to be quite new, has been sent to me by a distinguished
geologist, Mr. J. D. Hague; and it appears well worth pub-
lishing. CHARLES DARWIN

444
On the mantelshelf of our sitting-room my wife has the habit
of keeping fresh flowers. A vase stands at each end, and near
the middle a small tumbler, usually filled with violets.

Sometime ago I noticed a file of very small red ants on the
wall above the left-hand vase, passing upward and downward
between the mantelshelf and a small hole near the ceiling, at a
point where a picture-nail had been driven. The ants, when
first observed, were not very numerous, but gradually increased
in number, until on some days the little creatures formed an
almost unbroken procession, issuing from the hole at the nail,
descending the wall, climbing the vase directly below the nail,
satisfying their desire for water or perfume, and then returning.
The other vase and tumbler were not visited at that time.

As I was just then recovering from a long illness it happened
that I was confined to the house, and spent my days in the
room where the operations of these insects attracted my
attention.

Their presence caused me some annoyance, but I knew of no
effective means of getting rid of them. For several days in
succession I frequently brushed the ants in great numbers from
the wall down to the floor; but as they were not killed the result
was that they soon formed a colony in the wall at the base of the
mantel, ascending thence to the shelf, so that before long the
vase was attacked from above and below.

One day I observed a number of ants, perhaps thirty or forty,
on the shelf at the foot of the vase. Thinking to kill them I
struck them lightly with the end of my finger, killing some and
disabling the rest. The effect of this was immediate and un-
expected. As soon as those ants that were approaching arrived
near to where their fellows lay dead and suffering, they turned
and fled with all possible haste. In half an hour the wall above
the mantelshelf was cleared of ants.

During the space of an hour or two the colony from below
continued to ascend, until reaching the lower beveled edge of the
shelf, at which point the more timid individuals, although unable
to see the vase, somehow became aware of trouble and turned
about without further investigation; while the more daring
advanced hesitatingly just to the upper edge of the shelf, where,
extending their antennz and stretching their necks, they seemed
to peep cautiously over the edge until beholding their suffering
companions, when they too turned and followed the others, ex-
pressing by their behaviour great excitement and terror. An
hour or two later the path or trail leading from the lower colony
to the vase was almost entirely free from ants.

I killed one or two ants on their path, striking them with my
finger, but leaving no visible trace. The effect of this was that
as soon as an ant ascending towards the shelf, reached the spot
where one had been killed, it gave signs immediately of great
disturbance, and returned directly at the highest speed possible.

A curious and invariable feature of their behaviour was that
when such an ant, returning in fright, met another approaching,
the two would always communicate, but each would pursue its
own way ; the second ant continuing its journey to the spot
where the first had turned about and then following that
example,

For several days after this there were no ants visible on the
wall, either above or below the shelf. Then a few ants from the
lower colony began to re-appear, but instead of visiting the vase
which had been the scene of the disaster, they avoided it alto-
gether, and following the lower front edge of the shelf to the
tumbler standing near the middle, made their attack upon that.
I repeated the same experiment here with precisely the same
result. Killing or maiming a few of the ants and leaving their
bodies about the base of the tumbler, the others on approaching,
and even before arriving at the upper surface of the shelf where
their mutilated companions were visible, gave signs of intense
emotion, some running away immediately and others advancing
to where they could survey the field, and then hastening away
precipitately.

Occasionally an ant would advance towards the tumbler until
it found itself among the dead and dying, then it seemed to lose
all self-possession, running hither and thither, making wide
circuits about the scene of the trouble, stopping at times and
elevating the antennz with a movement suggestive of wringing
them in despair, and finally taking flight.

After this another interval of several days passed during which
no ants appeared. Now, three months later, the lower colony
has been entirely abandoned. Occasionally however, especially
when fresh and fragrant violets have been placed on the shelf,
a few ‘‘ prospectors” descend from the upper nail hole, rarely,

NATURE

[April Io, 1873

almost never, approaching the vase from which they were first
driven away, but seeking to satisfy their desire at the tumbler.
To turn back these stragglers and keep them out of sight for a
number of days, sometimes for a fortnight, it is sufficient to’kill
one or two ants on the trail which they follow descending the
wall. This I have recently done as high up as I can reach—
three or four feet above the mantel, The moment this spot is
reached an ant turns abruptly and makes for home; and in a
little while there is not an ant visible on the wall. _
James D, HacGuEe
San Francisco, California, Feb, 26, 1873

Perception in Butterflies

THE interesting discussion on this subject in your columns has
hitherto been almost entirely confined to facts of extraordinary
‘perception ”” with mammalia. But in other classes of the
animal kingdom there occur instances perhaps even more as-
tonishing still, showing a power of perception which we needs
must attribute to smell, unless we are inclined to talk about
natural forces hitherto unknown, to which I should prefer saying
that we do not yet understand the matter at all.

In the valuable monthly, ‘‘Der Zoologische Garten,” v. X.
(1869) p.254, there is a paper on the sense of smell in butter-
flies, recording, among other cases, the following one.

A well-known collector, the late M. Riese of Frankfort, bred
a crippled female of Lastocampa prunt, a species very rare here:
M. Riese dwelt in a narrow and densely-peopled lane near the
centre of this city. He put the said moth before the window
with his other boxes, and soon had the pleasure to find it sur-
rounded by some males, which became the collector’s welcome
prey. Here, asthe writer fitly remarks, the performance of the
male in finding out the female was the more surprising, by the
latter being confined in the middle of the town as well as by the
rarity of the species in general.

If, as the writer adds, there can be any doubt of the males
being guided in these cases by smell, what is more to be won-
dered at, the acuteness of the males (supposed to be located in
the large comb-shaped antennz) or the enormous divisibility of
the odour emitted by the females?

I may add that similar and even more striking cases (the
females being confined within a room,-and the males appearing
outside at the windows) have been recorded by that most reliable
observer, the late Dr. von Heyden.

Though I am not prepared to follow the whole length of Mr.
Darwin’s ideas on ‘‘ Pangenesis,” yet I cannot avoid observin,
how much such facts as these seem to support the fundamen’
assumption of that ‘‘ provisional hypothesis,” namely that
organised matter is capable of a degree of divisibility
scarcely conceivable by us, yet retaining in those most minute
particles, infinitely smallerthan any which can be revealed by
our microscopes, all its specific distinctness,—the ‘ gemmulz ”
issuing from the female of a particular species reaching and
affecting the distant male, and thereby testing their particular,
specific nature. J. D, WETTERHAN

Frankfort-on-the-Maine, April §

——

Perception in Fowlsy

SEEING in NATURE many letters on the instinct of animals I
am tempted to send you an incident which fell under my notice
and which would seem to denote in domestic fowls a greater
amount of reasoning power and of intercommunication than the
lower animals are usually credited with.

Three years ago I was staying at a house in Ireland where a
good deal of poultry was kept, and a young white duck just
feathered being the only one left of a brood was allowed to
roost with a hen and a young brood of chickens under the
furnace in the back kitchen, to keep it from the rats which
infested the out-houses. One evening our attention was called
by the servants to a great commotion between the hen and the
duck, which had always before been excellent friends, and upon
close examination it was discovered that the duck was not the
hen’s usual companion, but although closely resembling it in

age and colour, was a perfect stranger, not even belonging to —

the premises at all, whilst the proper duck was found quietly
resting with the other ducks in the duck-house. The intruder
having been ejected, and the ordinary bed-fellow restored to the
hen, peace again reigned between the feathered companions;
but the singular part of the affair is, how the duck could have

re

April 10, 1873]

_ systems of pipes.

met with a stranger so nearly like herself, and induced it to take
her own nightly place in a strange house and witha strange hen.
—Was it an act of charity towards a stranger wandering in search
of anight’s lodging? or was the duckling tired of the hen’s
company, and desirous of joining the birds of her own feather, and

_so cajoled the stranger so nearly resembling herself to take her

place, believing the cheat would not be discovered ?

I commend this fact, for which I can vouch, to Mr. Darwin.

A. W. BucKLAND
Bath, March 31
Acquired Habits in Plants

ON Oct. 24 last, I found by the banks of the little river Aled,
in North Wales, a dog-violet, which, in the first place, was in
flower at that unusual season, and in the second place, growing
in a hedge, had assumed the habit of a climbing plant. Its stem
measured 24 feet in length ; it bore sixteen alternate leaves, the
flowers being axillary, or rather some axils had flowers in them,
and others had branches of leaves with flowers axillary in these.
One flower only was actually in bloom, but there were several
(five or six) seed vessels, I gathered one plant and have it still.

St. Asaph, N, Wales Wales

SCIENCE AND THE PRESS IN AMERICA
(FROM A NEW YORK CORRESPONDENT)

0 Wee visit of Prof. Tyndall has given an extraordinary
impulse to scientific affairs in this country. It took
place at a fortunate moment, just after the heat and tur-
moil of a presidential election had been transformed into
the national sorrow over the death of the defeated candi-
date ; just before the exposures of corruption, which have
since disgraced eminent public men, had begun to absorb
popular attention. It therefore happened not only that
men’s minds were not preoccupied, but that, in addition,
newspaper columns were not specially crowded. Hence
all the leading newspapers gave more space than would
have otherwise been possible, to reports of Prof. Tyndall’s
lectures. In this particular, however, one paper sur-
passed the rest, giving the lectures verbatim and with
illustrations, and afterwards reprinting them in a separate
sheet, which, as you are probably already informed,
attained a special circulation outside that of the news-
paper, of more than 200,000 copies. It is not improbable
that this enterprise on the part of the Wew York Tribune
originated in a programme for the management of that
paper laid down by the late Mr. Greeley. This was
printed in its columns the second day after the election,
when he resumed his position as editor of the paper. The
card specified among other things, first, that thereafter
the paper would be enabled to give “a wider and steadier
regard to the progress of science, industry, and the use-
ful arts.” His successors in the management of the paper
have been anxious, for obvious reasons, that it should
tread the path he had marked out for it; Tyndall’s
coming furnished the first opportunity. Other papers
have been stimulated by the popularity of scientific topics
which the success of these lectures revealed, and there
never was a time when such themes found such general
acceptance with the newspaper press.”

The first manifest benefit to science which has resulted,
is an improvement in the treatment of scientific subjects,
so far as they are editorially considered. It is not a year
since one of the New York newspapers contained an
article upon a proposition to light streets and houses by
means of hydrogen and oxygen conveyed in separate
In that article there was displayed an
ignorance of the commonest facts of chemistry that
seemed almost incredible. It teemed with the most
ludicrous absurdities. But even its rivals never perceived
the blunders—they had a fair share of their own, for the
most part, whenever they handled such topics. But of
late the writers in the New York newspapers have ex-
hibited some knowledge of such subjects; at all events,
special articles in some of the, papers betray the touches

NAT URE 445

of a professional hand, that come not with the surface
knowledge of journalism,

The second evident benefit has to-day a signal illustra-
tion. The efforts of Prof. Tyndall were particularly
directed toward impressing upon those of our citizens
who have the means for such aid, the benefit that results
to the community from the promotion of scientific inquiry
This has been also a favourite theme with Prof. Agassiz.
A few days ago a Boston correspondent of the Vew Vork
Tribune sent a description to that paper of the work that
Prof. Agassiz had undertaken at the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology ; his efforts to obtain State assistance
from the Massachusetts legislature ; his needs and diffi-
culties, and unsparing, disinterested industry ; his project
for founding a school of natural history on the coast of
Nantucket, where practical work with the dredge might
enable the students to become acquainted with marine
organisms in a condition of nature, The newspaper
commented on the correspondence, pointing out the
value of such services, of such researches. The letter
and comment interested Mr. John Anderson of this city
—a gentleman who has gained wealth as a tobacco manu-
facturer. Some years ago, finding his health suffering
from too close application to business, he selected as a
salubrious retreat an island on the New England coast.
It is one of the Elizabeth Islands, between Vineyard
Sound and Buzzard’s Bay. You will best know just
where this is, by the fact that New Bedford, the old
whaling port of Massachusetts, is on Buzzard’s Bay. He
expended about 25,000 dols. in improving Penikese Island,
and in its delicious climate he regained his health. He
refused 75,000 dols. for the island, valuing it at 100,000
dols. Last week, after reading about the aims and efforts
of Prof. Agassiz, Mr. Anderson wrote to him, offering
him Penikese Island as a gift, and saying to him that he
could there establish his Marine Naturalist’s School.

To be a little more specific—as such a munificent gift
deserves: Penikese is the most northerly of the three
western islands of the Elizabeth group. Itis of great
fertility ; it contains a good summer residence ; looks out
upon a beautiful bay, where there is good anchorage ;
has a stone dock, and springs of good water. Here is
everything that Prof. Agassiz wanted for his semi-nautical
enterprise.—Stay ! not everything. When Prof. Agassiz
first recovered from his surprise, and was thanking the
donor, he mentioned a little embarrassment. He had
made his arrangements for Nantucket, and there was a
little money expenditure involved in the change. “ Let
not that trouble you” writes Mr, Anderson, and straight-
way proffers a money-gift in addition—so,ooo dels. in
cash, “as a nucleus fora permanent endowment fund.”
And Prof. Agassiz, his heart as well as his coffers
running over, says that now his enterprise shall not be
merely a summer school, but an institution for all seasons
and all time.

The correspondence between Mr. Anderson and Prof.
Agassiz will, | am told, be furnished to the press within
a few days ; but Mr. Anderson is modest ; and does not
want much fuss about it. It is his first approach toward the
hill of science, and he had no personal acquaintance
with Agassiz whatever. The scientific sensation of to-
day’s newspapers is a story that the Natural Bridge of
Virginia is burning up. Itis told with great detail by
eye-witnesses who testify to volcanic burnings and a
sulphurous smell, to falling rocks and general danger.
Prof. Campbell, of the geological department of the
Washington and Lee University, evidently credits the
story, and attributes the phenomenon to chemical action,
induced by high water acting upon sulphurous and bitu-
minous deposits containing metallic oxides. A New York
paper decries the whole story, asserting that the fire
proceeds from tar-barrels, and that the whole display is
in the interest of hotel-keepers anxious to excite curiosity
and attract custom,

446
ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF
INSECTS
1

THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS

AS many years ago the civil and ecclesiastical au-

thorities of St. Fernando in Chili arrested a certain
M. Renous on a charge of witchcraft, because he kept
some caterpillars which turned into butterflies.* Most
persons, however, are aware that the great majority of
insects quit the egg in a state very different from that
which they ultimately assume ; and the general statement
in works on entomology has been that the life of an insect

PLATE 1

Pu. 1.t—Fic. 1, Cricket. 2, Earwig. 3,Aphis, 4, Scolytus.
(Pt. 2.—Fic. 1, Larva of Cricket. 2, Larva of Aphis.
7, Larva of Cynips.

instance the common fly, acquire their full bulk in a form
very different from that which they ultimately assume,
and pass through a period of inaction in which not only
is the whole form of the body altered, not only are legs
and wings acquired, but even the internal organs them-
selves, are almost entirely distintegrated and reformed.
It will be my object to bring these changes clearly before
you, and if possible to throw some light on the causes to
which they are due, and on the indications they afford of
the stages through which insects have been evolved.

* Darwin's “Researches into the Geol 1 Hi: f th
Countries visited by H.M.S, Beagle,” p. aa ia hae a ig

NATURE

5, Anthrax, 6, Balaninus. 7, Cynips.
3, Larva of Earwig.
8, Larva of Ant.

[April 10, 1873 -

may be divided into four periods. Thus, according to
Kirby and Spence* “The states through which insects
pass are four: the egg, the /arva, the pupa, and the —
zmago.” :

Burmeister,t again, says that, excluding certain very
rare anomalies, “ we may observe four distinct periods of
existence in every insect, namely, those of the egg, the
larva, the pupa, and the imago, or perfect insect.” In
fact, however, the various groups of insects differ very
much from one another in the metamorphoses they pass
through ; in some, as in the grasshopper for instance, the
changes consist principally in a gradual increase of size,
and in the acquisition of wings; while others, as for

PLATE 2

8, Ant. 9, Wasp (after Ormerod). *
4, Larva of Scolytus. 5, Larva of Anthrax, 6, Larva of Balaninus.
9, Larva of Wasp.

The following list gives the orders or principal grou:
into which insects may be divided. I will not indeed,
as this is not a work on the classification of insects, enter
into my own views, but have adopted the system given
by Mr. Westwood in his excellent “Introduction to the
modern Classification of Insects,” from which also, as
a standard authority, most of the figures on Plates

* Introduction to Entomology vi. p. 50.

+ Manual of Entomology, p. 30.

1 When not otherwise acknowledged, the figures on the first four plates
are principally borrowed from Mr. Whetwood’s excellent ‘ Introduction to
the Modern Classification of Insects.”

there is still much difference of opinion. It must also be
observed that Prof. Westwood omits the parasitic Ano-
plura, as well as the Thysanura and Collembola.

Orders of Insects according to Westwood.

I, HYMENOPTERA . Bees, Wasps, Ants, &c,

2. Strepsiptera . . Stylops, Zenos, &c.

3. COLEOPTERA . . Beetles,

4. Euplexoptera . . Earwigs.

5. ORTHOPTERA . . Grasshoppers, Crickets, Cock-
roaches, &c.

6. Thysanoptera. Thrips.

7. NEUROPTERA . Ephemeras, &c,

8. Trichoptera Phryganea.

g. DIPTERA. . . . Flies and Gnats,

to. Aphaniptera. . . Fleas.

11. HETEROPTERA . Bugs.

12. HOMOPTERA

i Aphis, Coccus, &c.
13. LEPIDOPTERA

Butterflies and moths.

Of these thirteen orders, the eight which I have placed
in capital letters, namely the first, third, fifth, seventh,
ninth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth, are much the most
important in the number and variety of species. The
other five are comparatively small groups. The Strepsip-
tera are minute insects, parasiticon Hymenoptera. Rossi,
by whom they were discovered, regarded them as Hymen-
opterous ; Lamarck placed them among the Diptera ; by
others they have been considered to be most closely allied
to the Coleoptera, but they are now generally treated as
an independent order.

The Euplexoptera or Earwigs are only too familiar to
most of us. Linnzeus classed them among the Coleoptera,
from which, however, they differ in their transformations.
Fabricius, Olivier,and Latreille regarded them as Orthop-
tera, but Dr. Leach, on account of the structure of their
wings, considered them as forming the type of a distinct
order, in which view he has been followed by Westwood,
Kirby, and many other entomologists.

The Thysanoptera, constituted of the Linnzan genus
Thrips, minute insects well known to gardeners, differ
from the Coleoptera in the nature of their metamorphoses,
in which they resemble the Orthoptera and Hemiptera.
The structure of the wings and mouthparts, however, are
considered to exclude them from these two orders.

The Trichoptera, or Caddis worms, offer many points
of resemblance to the Neuroptera, while in others they
approach more nearly to the Lepidoptera. According to
Westwood, the genus Phryganea “forms the connecting
link between the Neuroptera and Lepidoptera.”

The last of these small aberrant orders is that of the
Aphaniptera, constituted of the family Pulicide, In their
transformations, as in many other respects, they closely
resemble the Diptera. Strauss Durckheim indeed said
that “da puce est un diptére sans ailes.” Westwood, how-
ever, regards it as constituting a separate order.

As indicated by the names of these orders, the structure
of the wings affords extremely natural and convenient
characters, by which the various groups may be distin-
guished from one another. The mouth-parts also are
very important ; and, regarded from this point of view, the
Insecta may be divided into two series—the Mandibu-
lata and Haustellata, or mandibulate and suctorial groups,

_ between which, as I have already shown,* the Collem-
bola (Podura, Smynthurus, &c.), occupy an intermediate
position. These two series would stand as follows :—

* Linnzan Journal, vol. xi.

a - -
a ee ee

does ~~ ie (tare
Pla ha ae ea
April 10, 1873] NATURE 447
I Ae 4 ae not otherwise acknowledged, have been Mandibulata Haustellata
taken. e divides the insects into thirteen groups, with Hymenopter Lepi
reference to eight of which it may be said that there is Strepsipteta 5 Deen sae
little difference of opinion among entomologists. These Coleoptera Aphaniptera
orders are by far the most numerous, and I have placed Euplexoptera Hemiptera
them in capital letters. With reference to the other five Orthoptera Homoptera

Trichoptera ?
Thysanoptera ?

Again, and this is the most important from my present
point of view, insects have sometimes been divided into
two other series, according to the nature of the metamor-
phoses : Heteromorpha, to use the terminology of Prof.

SFL
LSS 7

CZ}

PLATE 3

2, Meloe (after Shuckard),
4, Sitaris (after Shuckard).
7, Termes. 8, Stylops(female). 9,

Pi, 3.—Fic. 1, Chloeon. 3, Calepteryx

5 bey cn (after Gervais), 6, Acilius
‘hrips.

Westwood,* “or those in which there is no resemblance
between the parent and the offspring and Homomorpha, or
those in which the larva resembles the imago, except in
the absence of wings. In the former the larva is gene-
rally worm-like and articulated in its form, of a soft and
fleshy consistence, and furnished with a mouth, and often
with six short legs attached in pairs to the three segments

* Introduction to the modern Classification of Insects, p. 17.

448

succeeding the head. In the latter, including the Orthop-
tera, Hemiptera, Homoptera, and certain Neuroptera,
the body, legs, and antennz are nearly similar in their
form to those of the perfect insect, but the wings are
wanting.” S

Hleteromorpha Homomorpha
Hymenoptera Euplexoptera
Strepsiptera Orthoptera
Coleoptera Hemiptera
Trichoptera Homoptera
Diptera Thysanoptera
Aphaniptera

Lepidoptera

Neuroptera

‘But though the Homomorphic insectsdo not passthrough
such striking changes of form as those belonging to the
other series, and are active throughout life, still it was until
within the last few years generally (though erroneously)
considered that in them, as in the Heteromorpha, the life
fellinto four distinct periods ; those of (1) the egg, (2) the
larva characterised by the absence of wings, (3) the pupa
with imperfect wings, and (4) the imago or perfect insect.

I have, however, elsewhere * shown that there are
not, as a matter of fact, four well-marked stages, and four
only, but that in many cases the process is much more
gradual.

The Hymenoptera are among the most interesting of
insects. To this order belong the gallflies, the sawflies,
the ichneumons, and above all, the ants and bees. We
are accustomed to class the Anthropoid apes next to man
in the scale of creation, but if we areto judge animals by
their works, the chimpanzee and the gorilla must cer-
tainly give place to the bee and to the ant. The larve of
the sawflies, which live on leaves, and of the Sirecidze or
long-tailed wasps, which feed on wood, are very much like
caterpillars, having three pairs of legs, and in the former
‘ case abdominal prolegs as well; but in the great majo-
rity of Hymenoptera the larve are legless, fleshy grubs
(Plate 2, Figs. 7-9) ; and the various modes by which the
females provide for or secure them a sufficient supply of
appropriate nourishment, constitutes one of the most
interesting pages of Natural History.

The pupz are inactive, and show distinctly all the
limbs of the perfect insect, encased in distinct sheaths,
and folded on the breast.

In the perfect state these insects are highly organised
and very active. The working ants and some few species
are wingless, but the great majority have four strong mem-
branous wings, a character distinguishing them at once
from the true flies, which have only one pair of wings.
The species of Hymenoptera are very numerous ; in this
country alone there are about 3,000 kinds, most of which
are very small.

The sawflies are so called because they possess at the
end of the body a curious organ, corresponding to the
sting of a wasp, but which is in the form of a fine-
toothed saw. With this instrument the female -sawfly
cuts a slit in the stem or leaf of a plant, into which she
introduces her egg.

The larva much resembles a caterpillar, both in form
and habits. To this group belongs the nigger, or black
caterpillar of the turnip, which is often in sufficient num-
bers to do much mischief. Some species of this group
make galls, but the greater number of galls are formed
by insects of another family, the Cynipidz (Plate 1,
Fig. 7). In this family the female is provided with an
organ corresponding to the saw of the sawfly, but resem-
bling a needle. With this she. stings or punctures the
surface of leaves, buds, stalks, or even roots of various
plants. In the wound thus produced she lays one or
more eggs. The effects of this proceeding, and particu-
larly of the irritating fluid which she injects into the

* Linnwan Transactions, 1863—‘‘ On the Developmentjof Chlocon,”

NATURE

[April 10, 1873

wound, is to produce a tumour or gall, within which the
egg hatches, and on which the larva, a thick fleshy grub,
(Plate 2, Fig. 7) feeds. In some species each gall con-
tains asingle larva; in others, several livetogether. The
oak supports several kinds of gallflies ; one forms the well-
known oakapple, one forms a small swelling on the leaf
resembling a currant, another produces a gall somewhat
resembling an acorn, another attacks the root ; the species
making those bullet-like galls, which are now so common,
has only existed for a few years in this country; the
beautiful little spangles so common in autumn on the
under side of oak-leaves are the work of another species,
the Cynips longipennis, When the larva is full grown, it
eats through the gall, falls to the earth, and turns into a
chrysalis. Onecurious point about this group is, that in
some of the commonest species the females alone are
known, no one yet having ever succeeded in finding a
male,

Another great group of the Hymenoptera is that of the
ichneumons ; the females lay their eggs either in or on
other insects, within the bodies of which the larvee live.
They are thick, fleshy, legless grubs, and feed on the
fatty tissues of their hosts, but do not attack the vital
organs. When full grown, they eat their way through the
skin of the insect, and turn into chrysalides. Almost
every kind of insect is subject to the attacks of these
horrid little creatures, which, however, are no doubt use-
ful in preventing the too great multiplication of insects,
and especially of caterpillars. Some species are so
minute that they even lay their eggs within those of other
insects. The larvz of these genera assume very curious
forms.

But of all Hymenoptera, the group containing the
ant, the bee, and the wasp is the most interesting. This
is especially the case with the social species, though the
solitary ones also are extremely remarkable, The solitary
bee or wasp, for instance, forms a cell generally in the
ground, places in it a sufficient amount of food, lays an
egg, and closes it up. In the case of bees, the food

consists of honey ; in that of wasps, the larva requires ~

animal food, and the mother therefore places a certain
number of insects in the cell, each species having its own
special prey, some selecting small caterpillars, some beetles,
some spiders. Cerceris bupresticida,as its name denotes,
attacks beetles belonging to the genus Buprestis. Now
if the Cerceris were to kill the beetle before placing it in
the cell, it would decay, and the young larva when hatched
would find only a mass of corruption. On the other
hand, if the beetle were buried uninjured, in its
struggles to escape it would be almost certain to de-
stroy the egg. The wasp has, however, the curious
instinct of stinging its prey just in the centre of the ner-
vous system, thus depriving it of motion, and let us hope
of suffering, but not killing it; when, therefore, the
young larva leaves the egg, it finds ready a sufficient store
of wholesome food. Other wasps, like the bees and ants,
are social, and dwell together in communities. They live
for one season, dying in autumn, except some of the
females, which hybernate, awaking in the spring and
forming new colonies, Even these, however, under ordi-
nary circumstances, never live through a second winter.
One specimen which I kept tame through last spring and
summer, lived until the end of February, but then died.
The larve of wasps are fat, fleshy, legless grubs. When they
are full grown they spin for themselves a silken covering,
within which they turn into chrysales. The oval bodies
which are so numerous in ants’ nests, and which are
generally called ants’ eggs, are really cocoons, not
eggs. Ants are very fond of the honey-dew which is
formed by the Aphides, and have been seen to tap the
Aphides with their antenna, as if to induce them to
emit some of the sweet secretion. There is a species of
Aphis, which lives on the roots of grass, and some ants
collect these into their nests, keeping them, in fact, just

——————— ee

er

‘April 10, 1873) -

as we docows. One species of red ant does no work for
itself, but makes slaves of a black kind, which then do
everything for its masters.

Ants also keep a variety of beetles and other insects in
_ their nests. That they have some reason for this seems
clear, because they readily attack any unwelcome in-
truder; but what that reasonis we do not yet know. If
these insects are to be regarded as the domestic animals
_of the ants, then we must admit that the ants possess
_ more domestic animals than we do. But on this and
many other points connected with ants we require addi-
tional information.

The Strepsiptera are a small, but very remarkable
group of insects, parasitic on bees and wasps. The
larva (Pl. 4, Fig. 8) is very minute, six-legged, and very
active ; it passes through its transformations within the
body of the bee or wasp. The male and female are very
dissimilar. The males are minute, very active, short-lived,
and excitable, with one pair of very large membranous
wings. The females (Pl. 3, Fig. 8), on the contrary, are
almost motionless, and shaped very much like a bottle ;
they never quit the body of the bee, but only thrust out
the head of the bottle between the abdominal rings of the
bee. JoHN LUBBOCK

(Zo be continued.)

COTOPAXI—THE FIRST ASCENT OF THE

GREAT VOLCANO*

‘Sa DING fifty miles below the equator,and a hundred

west of the meridian of Washington, Cotopaxi is at
once the most beautiful and the most terrible of volcanoes.
From the valley of Quito it appears like a huge truncated
cone, in altitude equal to five Vesuviuses piled upon each
other, its summit rising 4,000 ft. above the limit of per-
petual snow, its sides presenting alternate ridges and
gorges ploughed by descending floods of water, and
around the base for miles heaps of ruins—boulders 20 ft.
square, and volcanic ashes and mud 6ooft. deep. Very
seldom does Cotopaxi wake up to intense activity, for as
a tule the higher a volcano the less frequent its erup-
tions. Generally the only signs of life are the deep
rumbling thunders and a cloud of smoke lazily issuing
from the crater.

On November 27, 1872, Dr. Reiss—a German natura-
list, who, with Dr. Stubel, has been exploring the Valley
of Quito during the last forty years—set out from Mulolo
with ten peones for the south-west point of the crater.
Crossing the river Cutuche at Limpiopungo, where the
stream cuts through vast deposits of volcanic ashes, he
reached the “ Ventanillas,” a dry and sterile pampa, since
the porous earth retains no moisture. Here the ascent
of the cone began. Following the triangular ridge that
divides the deep defiles of Manzanaguaicoand Pucahuaico,
and whose apex reaches the snow limit, he crossed sub-
ordinate cerros and pampas, which are so many steps in
the grand staircase he was ascending. Vegetation now
ceased entirely, and the surface was covered with ashes
and black sand. In fact, nearly the whole occidental
slope of Cotopaxi, between 12,500 and 16,000 ft., presents
the aspect of adismal black desert. Progress was slow,
for at every step the foot sank into the sand, which in-
creased in depth with the ascent.

Suddenly a profound chasm, containing fresh, smoking
lava, was discovered on the left. This lava-stream
was the lower limit of a vast mass, which from the
valley appeared like along black line. At 2 P.M. our
traveller reached the point where the two quebradas
unite, marked by an immense pile of rocks. Here he
encamped for the night at an altitude of 15,179 feet.

An immense stream of lava came down the cone, and

* Abstract of an article by Mr. James Orton in the New York Fvening
Post, March 12, 1873.

°

NATURE.

449

near the place of encampment divided, entering the
two quebradas or ravines mentioned. The lava was still
warm, clouds of vapour rising along the whole extent of
the stream. During the afternoon the thermometer had
stood at freezing point ; but in the night it fell to twenty-
five degrees.

The next day Dr. Reiss attained all his hopes. Cropping
out of the lava stream, but mainly disposed along the
borders of it, were numerous rough stones, upon which he
advanced as on the rounds of aladder. The greatest width
of the lava current before it divided was about 3,000 ft., and
the estimated thickness 150 ft. The lava was entirely black
and warm in all its course ; its temperature being from
68° to 91°, while that of the atmosphere was 32°. This
elevated temperature explains the absence of snow on this
part of the slope. The gaseous exhalations from the
crevices seemed to be nothing more than air mixed with
vapour. This is doubtless the lava-stream which flowed ,
in 1854, and which, by melting vast quantities of snow,
caused much devastation in the valley by floods. No
fissure or accumulation of scorize indicates the source of
the lava-stream ; but the altitude of the point of depar-
ture is 18,700 feet.

At 8.45 he reached the arenal, a deep mass of fine sand
stretching upward at an angle of 40°. Over this he must
advance, difficult as it was, for on either side were im-
passable fields of snow and ice. The temperature of the
sand was 77°. Another stream of lava was discovered,
which must have flowed with great velocity, since, instead
of following the inclination of the cone, it had descended
diagonally. Only the peaks of Iliniza and Chimborazo
in the opposite Cordillera were visible ; but above the
clouds, towards the south-west, a dense mass of smoke
rose perpendicularly to a prodigious height, and then by
an east wind was carried off in a horizontal line west-
ward. This came from the furious and ever-active vol-
cano of Sangay, whose top was invisible, but whose
activity was manifested in this manner. As the clouds
shifted, the diversified valleyand its royal mountains were
spread out like a map.

It was now 10.15 A.M.; thermometer, 28°. Fumeroles
abounded, giving forth sulphurous gas. And now followed
a sheet of compact blue ice, inclined from 35° to 40° ; but
fortunately it was not smooth, but covered with myriads
of points oricicles three or four inches high. Scrambling
over this, and climbing over and between walls, some of
immense size, suddenly Dr. Reiss reached the edge of the
crater. He had reached the western part of the southern
lip. The crater presented an elliptical form, the major axis
lying north and south. The stones which were continu-
ally falling in from all sides, but especially from the west
side, rolled together as to the bottom of a funnel ; there
were no signs of a level bottom. The depth, roughly
estimated, appeared to be 1,500 ft. The side of the funnel
least inclined, and by which alone it is possible to de-
scend, is the south-west; but here are large fumeroles
sending forth dense masses of vapour charged with gas,
and having a temperature of 156°. Around these fumeroles
were masses of sulphur and a deposit of gypsum mixed
with chloride of lime, This is of great interest as being
the first instance of a chloride being found among the
products of the South American volcanoes. Humboldt
thought that the absence of hydrochloric acid was a cha-
racteristic of the New World volcanoes. The barometer
gave 19,660 ft. as the altitude, while the doctor’s trigono-
metrical observations, repeated at various times from in-
dependent bases in the valley, had given him 19,496 ft. as
the height of the north peak, and 19,427 ft. for the
southern. Both results exceed the altitude estimated by
other travellers. Humboldt made it 18,880 ft.

Dr. Reiss left the crater at 1.45 P.M., and reached his
encampment at the head of the ridge in three hours and
a half, just as a heavy snow-storm began. He says he
felt no inconvenience from the rarefaction of te air.

450

NATURE

| April 10, 1873

CAPTAIN PERRIER’S GEODETIC OPERA-
TIONS IN ALGERIA

ip idea of prolonging the French arc of meridian to

Sahara by the direct trigonometrical junction of
Spain and Algeria, an idea of undoubted scientific value,
presented itself to the mind of Captain Perrier when he
was collecting the preliminary materials for the survey of
Algeria. That survey was begun at the same time as the
conquest, in the middle of military operations.

The design was to calculate two great lines conforming
to parallels, and transversely cut by three meridians ;
quadilaterals would be thus formed, completed by triangles
of the first order. Only a linear chain was however drawn,
except in the mountainous regions where the operations
would have been attended with too many difficulties,

w

i>
nm
>
iv
™m

wa

ALGERIA

Map showing prolongaticn of Meridians trom Spain to Algeria

This chain, connected with the sea by three excellent
bases, would serve the purpose of adjusting and arranging
the detailed operations. French geodesy thus measured
an arc oflatitude cutting the Paris meridian and extending
from Morocco to Tunis, with a length of 990 kilometres.

The chain of first-order triangles may be divided into
two parts, the first from Blidah to Tunis, measured by
Captain Versigny, the other more recent measured by
Captain Perrier,

_The admirable choice of triangles, stations, and
signals is noteworthy. Those signals have been built by
the observers themselves, as there were no steeples.
The precision obtained is remarkable. In the sum of
the three angles of any triangle, the error is about 3/12
(centesimal seconds) * in M, Versigny’s operations (who
mace use of Gambey’s repeating circles); the error is

= = Ce > i
One centesimal second = 0’ "33 ordinary second,

about 3/07 in M, Perrier’s operations, who made use
of Brunner’s excellent asimuthal circles. In order to
measure the bases, the system of M. Porro, an Italian
engineer, has been employed, in preference to the old
method of Borda, and it has been followed by the best
results.

Colonel Levret proved (in 1869), by very exact calcu-
lations, that the passage by Gibraltar could be dispensed
with, and that it would be possible to communicate
between Spain and Algeria, in spite of the immense
distance between the two continents. The entire certainty
of that possibility has been proved by Captain Perrier,
who has pointed out in a precise manner the names and
positions of the visible summits and the length of the
sides of the new chain.

It was only on October 18, 1868, that he managed to
perceive the Spanish shore: he saw it from Seba Chioukh,
near the mouth of the Tafna, very distinctly and with-
out the glass. A serrated ridge was to be seen in
the distance, toward the north-west, with five promi-
nent summits. The distinctness was so perfect, that he
could discern with his naked eyes the different parts of
those mountains, those which were in the shade and
those illuminated by-the sun. He thus measured azi-
muths with the summit of the Tessala, the zenithal dis-
tances of the two highest points of the ridge, and the
zenithal distance of the horizon of the sea.

After his return to France, he compared his meastire-
ments with the survey of Spain, made by Colonel Cuello,
and concluded that he had observed the Mulahacen of
the Sierra Nevada, and the peak of Sagra of the Sierra
Sagra, the highest points of the Sierras of the Province of
Granada.

In Spain the peaks of Sagra can be seen from Mula-
hacen ; those mountains belong to the primordial geodetic
chains of the Iberic peninsula. In Africa the points of
the quadrilateral (Bem Saabia, Tessala, Filhaoussen, and
Nador) are reciprocally visible, and the three last are
situated in the primordial chain of Algeria.

With these points, Captain Perrier was enabled to form
a chain common to Europe and Africa. Leaving the
station of Seba Chioukh as superfluous, as well as
the direction of Nador-Sagra as being too close to the
horizon of the sea, he delineated that immense pentagon
formed by the five summits of Mulahacen, Sagra, Bem
Saabia, Filhaoussen, and Nador, every side and diagonal
of which, except one, are the directions that are to be
observed. He has even calculated and valued in round
numbers the length of the sides of this geodetic chain,
He has found—

Metres,

Mulahacen-Filhaoussén 273,400

rp Nador 314,500

ft Bem Saabia 272,200
Sagra-Filhaoussen . 313,300
»» Bem Saabia . 271,000

The length of the terrestrial sides are—

Metres.

Bem Saabia-Filhaoussen 109,800
45 Nador 104, 800
Mulahacen-Sagra 113,900

With those approximate numbers (and valuing at o'o8
the coefficient of refraction) he has calculated the altitudes
of the two Spanish mountains. The measures thus ob-
tained differ little from the real numbers—

Metres,
Mulahagen.. « « 3 « » @ 004
Sagrais wy 2,398

given by Colonel Cuello, and thus furnish a new veri-
fication.

As the geodetic operations are being continued with
great activity in Spain and in Algeria, we may hope that
in a few years the geodetic bases of Great Britain, of
France, Spain, and Algeria, reduced to the same unit of

April x0, 1875)

measure, can be connected by continual chains of triangles ;
and the meridian line of France already prolonged north-
‘ward to the Shetland Islands, carried out in Spain by the
officers of that country, will reach the African Continent
and extend to the Sahara, with a length of 30°.

_ France will then be able to oppose to the Russian arc
and to the one measured in Central Europe the French
arc, which, passing over plains and very high mountains,
will cross the North Sea and the Mediterranean.

There is thus considerable truth in the words of M.
Faye :—“ Let us not forget that the French, who are at
_ the present time so often reproached with their geographi-
cal ignorance, are the real creators of continental or
maritime geodesy, and that they have continually, since
Cassini to our days, published admirable geodetic papers,
which have served as models to our rivals; the truly
Iearned men abroad have always acknowledged their
value.”

The map of Algeria will be constructed on the same
plan as the map of France, to the scale of sg)gq, but
as it will be coloured, and as level curves will be substi-
tuted for hatchings, it will have considerable advantages
over the latter. M. CORNU

NOTES

THE French Société d’ encouragement have awarded to Sir
Charles Wheatstone, F.R.S., the Ampére medal for his
remarkable works in theoretic and applied physics. The
grand prize of 12,000 francs for the discovery most useful to
French industry has been awarded to M. Pasteur, for the
improvements he has introduced into the manufacture of silk,
of wines, of vinegar, and of beer. A prize of 3,000 francs has
been awarded to M. Gramme for the construction of an appa-
‘ratus giving an electric current constant in direction and in in-
tensity, whose electromotive force and conductibility are equa]
to those of an azotic acid pile of 60 or 80 elements of ordinary
size, and superior both in economy and solubility to the appa-
ratus which are at present in use.

Ar the present time there are staying in England two illus-
trious physiologists, Prof. Kolliker and Prof. Fick, the former
the renowned head of the Histological School, and the latter of
the Physiological Institute in the University of Wiirzburg.

THE University of Cambridge has accepted a fund raised
by several members of St. John’s College for the purpose of
founding a prize to be called the Adams Prize, for the best essay
on some subject of pure mathematics, astronomy, or other
branch of natural philosophy. The prize is to be given once in two
years, and to be open to the competition of all persons who
have at any time been admitted to a degree in the University.
The examiners have given notice that the subject for the prize to
be adjudged in 1875 is a Theory of the Reflection and Refraction
of Light.

By the present monthly mail a testimonial, consisting of a
silver tea and coffee service, is being sent to Dr. Kirk at Zanzi-
bar, by the Royal Geographical Society. The inscription states
that it is given in recognition of the services Dr, Kirk has ren-
dered t6 his country and to science by his generosity, intelli-
gence, and zeal in the advancement of African discovery.

Mr. A. H. Garrop, B.A., has been appointed Lecturer on
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy at the Charing Cross Hos-
pital. Mr. Garrod, we believe, intends to give a course of lec-
tures during the summer.

Ar the general monthly meeting of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, on Monday, April 7, the special thanks of the
members were returned to Dr. Warren De La Rue, for his dona-
tion of 100/. towards the expense of fitting up the new Labora-
tories,

NATURE

451

THE Report to the Board of Visitors of the Astronomer
Royal for Scotland, gives a satisfactory account of the work,
astronomical and meteorological, done at the Royal Observatory,
Edinburgh. The alterations in the observatory have been com-
pleted, and the new equatorial, referred to in NATURE some
months ago, is nearly ready for use, though we are
sorry to see that its efficient working is very likely to be
marred from want of funds. Though much needed for various
purposes, Government (with a surplus of nearly five millions !)
have absolutely refused to grant any additional aid to the Edin-
burgh Observatory. Prof. Piazzi Smyth compares his position
to that of an ‘‘unfortunate artillery officer who should have
received a big gun, of perhaps the most approved wrought iron
and steel construction in itself, but without means of moving it,
without powder and shot; and yet should be expected by the
public to be continually firing it with immense success and at all
sorts of objects throughout the whole year.”

Wirt reference to the sum of 500/. placed’ at the disposal of
the Council of the Society of Arts, through Sir William Bod-
kin, by a gentleman who does not wish his name to appear, for
promoting, by means of prizes or otherwise, economy in the use
of coal for domestic purposes, the Council have decided to offer
the following prizes :—1. For a new and improved system of
grate, suitable to existing chimneys as generally constructed,
which shall, with the least amount of coal, answer best for
warming and ventilating a room.—The Society’s Gold Medal
and Fifty Pounds. 2. For a new and improved system of grate,
suitable to existing chimneys as generally constructed, which
shall, with the least amount of coal, best answer for cooking
food, combined with warming and ventilating the room.—The
Society’s Gold Medal and Fifty Pounds. 3. For the best new
and improved system of apparatus which shall, by means of gas,
most efficiently and economically warm and ventilate a room.—
The Society’s Gold Medal and Fifty Pounds. 4. For the best
new and improved system of apparatus which shall, by means
of gas, be best adapted for cooking, combined with warming and
ventilating the room.—The Society’s Gold Medal and Fifty
Pounds. 5. For any new and improved system or arrangement
not included in the foregoing, which shall efficiently and econo-
mically meet domestic requirements. —The Society’s Gold Medal
and Fifty Pounds.

WE understand that the scientific authorities at Berlin are
preparing a manual containing the necessary information for the
requirements of the various expeditions sent out by the Imperial
Government to observe the transit of Venus. The information
given will by no means be confined to astronomical and physical
subjects, but will incorporate all the branches of natural history.
We hope our Government will follow so excellent a precedent,
and associate a certain number of naturalists along with the
astronomical observers, especially in situations where their obser-
vations are likely to prove of value.

THE forty tanks in the Brighton Aquarium, under Mr. Savile
Kent’s superintendence, are now well stocked with fishes, and
present a most interesting field of study to the Ichthyologist.
Eight of them are devoted to fresh-water fishes, and the re-
maining to the marine forms. Amongst the latter are fine
specimens of the herring, lump-sucker, grey, streaked and red
gurnets, sting-ray, balan wrasse, cook and cork-wing wrasses,
and gold-sinny. Two species of dogfish have deposited eggs in
their tanks, and the embryos are in process of development.
The most recent addition to the fresh-water fishes is a fine salmon,
presented by Mr. Berridge, Chairman of the Usk Fisheries.
The two porpoises are in excellent health, and feed well on
smelts and small whitings, The large tank, Ioo feet in length,
and containing 110,000 gallons of sea-water, gives them ample
space for their gyrations,

452

On Saturday afternoon last Professor Ansted was thrown with
so much violence from a low basket phaeton in which he and
another gentleman were driving, near Melton, that his thigh was
broken, and a severe scalp wound inflicted. After being attended
to by a doctor, he was removed to his house at Melton. Hopes
of his recovery are entertained.

On Saturday last Canon Greenwell, of Durham Cathedral,
and Professor Rolleston, of Oxford, completed a series of very
interesting excavations among the ancient barrows which exist in
the Goodmanham and Etton Wolds, near Beverley, Yorkshire.
There is a singular absence in these barrows of the imple-
ments so frequently found with ancient human remains in
many parts of the country. Not only in the present ex-
cavations, but in those formerly instituted by Lord Londes-
borough, implements usually associated with ancient inter-
ments are entirely wanting. Contrary also to the generality
of the barrows found on the wolds, which contain chiefly un-
burnt remains, in this locality they are for the most part burnt.
Although this part of the country seems to have been extensively
peopled, as these sepulchral remains betoken, there is a singular
absence of implements, whereas in the north and middle wolds
flint implements are found scattered about in all directions.
Stone axes and other rude implements are abundant in the rest
of the wold district, but they seem to have been entirely un-
known in this locality, as many persons have searched for such
remains without result.

THE Geographical Society of St. Petersburg has lately under-
taken a new exploration of Russian territory in addition to those
already carried on under its auspices. The plan consists in a
minute exploration, under the leadership of M. Tschekanowsky,
of the area between the lower affluents of the Yenisei and the
Lena, embracing the basin of the river Olenek, which represents
an important deficiency in the known portion of Eastern Siberia,
Two years will be occupied in the exploration. During the
first the expedition will descend the Lower Tunguska, and will
reach Irkutsk by the Yenisei, During the second year it ex-
pects to reach the sources of the Olenek by sledges, to descend
that river to its mouth, and then cross over to the Lena, and re-
turn by this river to Irkutsk,

THOSE who are interested in the mental advancement of women,
should refer to the March number of the American Naturalist,
in which they will find that the first article, on ‘‘ Controlling sex
in butterflies,” is written by Mrs. Mary Treat. This lady has
prosecuted her inquiries in a truly scientific spirit, and she records
her results with the greatest precision and accuracy. An out-
line of her argument will be found in our notice of the peri-
odical in which it appears.

Dr. Brown-SeEQuarn has started anew journal, the Archives
of Scientific and Practical Medicine, published at New York and
London on the 15th of each month. His sub-editor is Dr.
E, C. Seguin. This periodical will chiefly contain original
papers on subjects belonging to every branch of the medical
sciences. It will also comprise véswmdés of English and foreign
papers, reports from the author’s laboratory, and reviews of
modern works on kindred subjects. The first number for
January, which is beautifully printed, contains 100 pages, with
one plate. In it Dr. Brown-Sequard contributes a paper on
‘Effects of Injuries of Nerves,” and there are others by Dr.
Seguin, Mr. Dupuy, Dr. Sands, Dr. Mary Putnam, and several
able medical authors.

PETERMANN’S JMittheilungen thus speaks of the refusal of
Government to grant an Arctic expedition this year :—‘‘ England,
with her enormous wealth, her multitude of ships, sailors, and
facilities for equipment, but above all with her great experience,
could easily have sent out such an expedition, and with more

NATURE

lg IE eh Silla a SE
yy a er ee
4 F ares, 4
ee, Si,

[April 10, 18973

prospect of success than any other nation; but the English
Government, which appears to carry parsimony further than any
other, has refused the request, at least for this year. But it is to
be hoped that the undertaking, for which Government was also
petitioned in 1865, will at last be afloat in 1874.”

At the meeting of the French Academy last week, M. Jamin
exhibited a magnet which he had c6nstructed to carry upwards
of twenty-two times its own weight : it weighs 2 kilogrammes
and carries 45. Hitherto the greatest carrying power attained
in artificial magnets has been from four to five times their own
weight. M. Jamin has obtained this unprecedented result by
substituting for the very thick plates hitherto employed, a suffi-
cient number of very thin plates superposed on each other, and
all thoroughly magnetised. One result of this achievement will
be that the volume and weight of magneto-electric machines can
now be diminished to a very great extent.

A VERY full notion of the rapid material progress of Victoria
in almost every direction may be obtained from the Official Cata-
logue of Exhibits of the Victoria Exhibition, opened at Melbourne
in Nov., 1872, The entries number 1,682, and though there are
very few connected directly with science, it would be unjust to
form from this fact a low estimate of the progress made in scien-
tific discovery by the colony; an investigation of the entries in
the various departments shows that the principles of science
have been abundantly taken advantage of in them all. It is
gratifying to find, from the patent statistics, that every year
shows an increase in the number of inventions connected with
agriculture and manufactures, while the mining resources
of the country continue to occupy a large share of the
attention of inventors. The compiler of the catalogue
claims with justice that Victoria has contributed a considerable
amount of valuable data to various departments of science.
Appended to the catalogue is an interesting essay on ‘‘ Mining
and Mineral Statistics, with Notes on the Rock Formations of
Victoria,” by Mr. R. Brough Smyth, F.G.S., Secretary for
Mines for Victoria. A preliminary note gives some satisfactory
statistics as to the progress of the Industrial and Technological
Museum of Melbourne, which was opened in September 1870,

THE Australian Mechanic, in an article on “Science in the
South,” thinks ‘‘ there is good reason for hoping that the time
is rapidly advancing when even in Australia the enthusiasm of
science will become a wide-spread sentiment, and when a deep
and genuine interest will be taken in questions of a purely
abstract kind.” The AZechanic thinks it possible that ere long
the Australians ‘‘ may have the satisfaction of hearing a Tyndall,
a Huxley, an Owen, and their worthy fellow-labourers expound-
ing to delighted audiences in the Melbourne Atheneum, ‘ the
fairy tales of science.’ ”

TuE first number of Cosmos, the new Italian geographical
journal, is handsome and well printed, and the contents credi-
table, There is a long article on recent expeditions to New
Guinea, illustrated by a well-constructed map ; and, of course,’
another long article on African exploration, also accompanied by
a map. Another longish article is the first of a series on the
Russian possessions in Central Asia. Altogether the first
number of Cosmos is satisfactory, and we wish it a long career
and a wide circulation,

THE Italian Geographical Society, by a unanimous vote, has
conferred upon the Commendatore Negri Christoforo, who has
so long and so perseveringly promoted geographical science
among his countrymen, the title of perpetual president of the
Society.

MEssrs. CHAPMAN AND HALL have sent us an elaborately
constructed but perfectly intelligible ‘Table of British Strata,”

J
:
:

’ Fe atl 10, 1873]

A

ahr NATURE

453

showing their order of superposition and relative thickness.
Although the division into systems, series, and formations are
very detailed, the size of the chart is such, and the use of colours
is so judicious, that there is little danger of it causing perplexity
and confusion to the young student; the plan seems to us ad-
mirably clear and useful, and the table is in the highest degree
creditable to its constructor, Mr. H. W. Bristow, F.R.S.,F.G.S.,
director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. It is
intended for the use of schools, but we are sure it will be
welcomed by many geological students who have long left
school.

M. Fevix PLATEAU describes in Zes Afondes, an ingenious
process, of his own invention, for drawing on paper white lines
ona black ground—a method so frequently used for scientific
illustrations—by means of which both author and artist will be
able to judge of the effect of such an illustration before putting
‘it into the hands of the engraver. A piece of thickish paper, as
smooth as possible, a little larger than the intended illustration,
is heated, say by laying it, with proper precautions against being
injured, on the top of a stove, and a piece of bees-wax is rubbed
over it until the paper is completely covered with a thin
coating. A piece of glass, the size of the paper, is blackened
by being held over a candle, and when thoroughly cooled it is
laid on the waxed paper and rubbed firmly with the fingers, the
result being that a blackened surface is produced on the paper,
on which any design can be traced with a needle for the finer

lines, or the back of a steel-pen for the thicker ones.

A GREAT international horticultural exhibition is to be held
at the Alexandra Palace on May 24 and five following days, on
the occasion of the paiace being opened to the public.

GENERAL Comstocx’s ‘‘ Annual Report of the Survey of
the North and North-Western Lakes” of America for the year
ending June 1872, contains the results of much well-planned
and thoroughly well-performed work. A well-constructed map
illustrates the many typographical and hydrographical data.
One point we may mention is that General Comstock has come
to the conclusion, as the results of several years’ observations,
that the moon and sun undoubtedly cause tides in Lake Michi.
gan, though the rise of level is very small indeed ; the combina-
tion of the two at syzigies giving a tide somewhat less than
o'12 of a foot.

Dr. B. W. RicuHarpson, F.R.S-, has been elected by the
President and Council of the Royal Society, Croonian Lecturer
on the subject of muscular motion.

Amonc the Candidates for the professorship of Anatomy to
the Royal Academy are Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S., and
Mr. John Marshall, F.R.S.

Tue Academy understands that Mr. Moggridge, author of
‘‘ Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders,” recently reviewed
in NaTuRE, has deposited specimens of the animals and their
nests in the British Museum, and that they are exhibited in one
of the public galleries.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week include a black Cuckoo (Zndynamys sp ?) from _Mada-

-gascar, and a Seychellean Sternothere (Sternothaera subniger) from

the Seychelles, presented by Commissioner H. C. St. John ; four
Spanish Terrapins (Clemmys leprosa), and six Greek land-

tortoises (Zestudo greca) from Morocco, presented by Sir J.

Drummond Hay, K.C.B. : a Vulpine Squirrel (Sciurus vulpinus
var capistratus) from S. America, presented by Mr. G. Moore ;
a Barbary Ape (J/acacus inuus) from N. Africa, deposited by
Lord Calthorpe ; three Barbary Sheep (Ovis tragelaphus) born in
the Gardens ; a De Filippi’s Meadow Starling (Starnella defilippi)

‘from Rio de la Plata, and a Black Kite (A%/ous migrans),
~ European, purchased ; and two variegated Touracons (Schivorhis
africana) from W. Africa, received in exchange,

PREHISTORIC CULTURE OF FLAX

D®. OSWALD HEER, the eminent botanist, and one who

has devoted so much attention to the structure and history of
fossil plants, publishes an article upon flax and its culture among
the ancients, especially the prehistoric races of Europe. His me-
moir may be summarised as follows: First, flax has been cultivated
in Egypt for five thousand years, and that it was and is one of
the most generally diffused plants of that country. It occupied
a similar position in ancient Babylonia, in Palestine, and on the
Black Sea. It occurred in Greece during the prehistoric period,
and at an early date was carried into Italy, while its cultivation
in Spain was probably originated by the Phcenicians and Car-
thaginians. Second, it is also met with in the oldest Swiss
lacustrine villages, while, at the same time, no hemp nor fabrics
manufactured from wool are there to be found. This is con-
sidered a remarkable fact, since the sheep was one of the oldest
domestic animals, and was known during the stone period. The
impossibility of shearing the fleece by means of stone or bone
implements is supposed to have been the reason why woollen
fabrics were not used. It is thought probable that the skin, with
its attached wool, was probably made use of for articles of
clothing. Third, the lake dwellers probably received flax from
Southern Europe, from which section fresh seeds must have been
derived from time to time. The variety cultivated was the small,
native, narrow-leaved kind from the coast of the Mediterranean,
and not at all that now raised in Europe. It must, therefore,
have been cultivated also in Southern Europe, although Dr.
Heer could not ascertain among what people and at what age
this took place. If this could be ascertained it would be an
important point in the determination of the antiquity of the lake
dwellers. Fourth, at the time of the empire both summer flax
and winter flax were cultivated in Italy, as now, but in what
form it was grown in ancient Egypt is not determined. It is
thought probable that the narrow-leaved variety was first intro-
duced, and after that the Roman, and then the common varieties
followed. The common plant has doubtless arisen from the
cultivation of the narrow-leaved, while the Roman winter flax
and the Zizum ambiguum constitute the intermediate stages.
The original home of the cultivated flax was therefore along the
shores of the Mediterranean. The Egyptians had probably
cultivated it, and from them its use was doubtless disseminated.
It is possible that the wild variety and the winter flax were grown
elsewhere at the same time, when the cultivated variety had long
since driven them out of use in Egypt.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

In the Fournal of Botany for February Dr. Trimen describes
one of the most interesting additions recently made to the British
flora, Funcus pygm@us, a well-known European species, dis-
covered by Mr. W. H. Beeby in the already very rich locality
of Kynance Cove, Cornwall. The article is accompanied by a
good drawing. Mr. J. G. Baker gives a description of the little
known osa affennina. In geographical botany Dr. W. M.
Hind contributes a list of plants of North Cornwall. Mr. W.
Phillips’s notes on the blue reaction given by iodine in certain
fungi may furnish a useful discrimination of difficult species. In
the March number Mr. Worthington Smith gives a description,
with coloured plate, of several new Hymenomycetous fungi from
stoves ; and Mr. J. A. Lees a useful paper on the peculiarities of
plant-distribution in the neighbourhood of Leeds. Dr. H. F.
Hance has an article on the ‘‘Ch’ing Muh Hsiang” or “‘ Green
Putchuk” of the Chinese, derived from a species of Aristolochia,
the paper being illustrated by a copy of a native drawing. In
both these numbers are also a variety of selected articles, short
notes, and memoranda. We are glad to see this interesting
journal taking so increasingly useful a place among our scientific
periodicals.

Amonc the numerous articles of interest in the Scottish
Naturalist for January (commencing the 2nd volume) we may
single out especially, “ On the occurrence of the hooded seal (Cys-
tophora cristata) at St. Andrews,” by Mr. R. Walker ; a com-
mencement of an article on Scottish gall-making insects, by Mr.
P. Cameron, jun., illustrated by a beautiful coloured plate of
Nematus gallicola ; and a paper on the recent remarkable abun-
dance of Vanessa Antiopa, the ‘‘Camberwell beauty,” in this
country, by the editor, who sums up strongly in favour of the
native rather than the foreign origin of the insects captured in

454

this country last year. We have also a continuation of the
‘*Insecta Scotica,” in instalments of the Lepidoptera of Scot-
land, by Dr. Buchanan White, and the Coleoptera of Scotland,
by Dr. D, Sharp.

Tue Yournal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland,
vol. iii. part 2, N. S. (vol. xiii. part 2) contains :—Reply to the
observations in Mr. Kinahan’s paper ‘‘On the Carboniferous
Rocks of Iceland,” by Prof. Ed. Hull, F.R.S. (Abstract) ; On
Phaneropleuron Andersoni (Huxley) and Uvonemus lobatus
(Agas.), by Prof. Traquair, M.D. (plate v.) ; Additional Notes
on the fossil Flora of Iceland ; On Filicites plumiformis (Baily)
from carboniferous limestone near Wexford, by W. H. Baily
(plate vi.) ; Notes on the Carrara marble quarries, by Prof. E.
Hull; On a remarkable fault in the New Red sandstone of Rain-
hill, Lancashire ; and observations on the results determined by
the Royal Commission into the Coal Resources of Great Britain
and Ireland, by Prof. E. Hull; Sketch of the physical geology
of North Clare, by W. H. S. Westropp; On tertiary iron ore
in the County of Londonderry, by G, H. Kinahan; and Notes
on Wood wardite, by Prof. J. E, Reynolds,

THE Monthly Microscopical Fournal for April is an excellent
number, containing several valuable papers. Mr. Wenham gives
his new formula for microscope object-glasses, recently read
before the Koyal Society. Till recently high objectives have
been formed of eight lenses, a front and back triplet with a

middle doublet, consequently the rays of light are subject to 5

error arising from sixteen surfaces of glass. The author some
time ago substituted a single thick plano-conyex for the anterior
triplet, and in so doing reduced the number of reflecting surfaces
to twelve, improving the instrument so much that his system has
been generally adopted. In the new object-glass the number of
lenses is still further reduced to five, and the surfaces consequently
to ten; init the front plano-convex remains, the back triplet is
made the centre of the system, and the over corrected rays
which leave it are rendered parallel at the point of emergence bya
long focus plano-convex glass. Inthis combination therefore the
whole correction is performed bya single concave of dense flint,
and therefore two single lenses of crown, whose foci bear a definite
relation to each other. Dr. Urban Pritchard’s excellent observa-
tions ‘* On the structure and function of the Rods of the Cochlean
in man and other animals” are given 7 exlenso. Dr. E.
Hofman’s paper on ‘Hair in its microscopical and medico-
legal aspects” is translated, forming a concise summary for
the student of forensic medicine. Dr. Maddox makes ‘* Some
remarks on a minute plant found in an incrustation of car-
bonate of lime,” which he considers to be of the genus Boty-ydium,
and names 2. minulunt.

THE American Naturalist for March contains an article by
Mrs. Mary Treat, on “Controlling Sex in Butterflies.” The
authoress, as the result of an accident, observed that the larva
of Papilio asterias when underfed almost invariably developed
into male butterflies, but that when freely supplied with their
favourite diet, they almost as certainly developed into females.
She repeated these experiments on large numbers with the same
result, and has verified them on Vanessa antiopa and the moth
Dryocampa rubicunda. Mr. A. S. Packard criticises these re-
sults, and shows that the earliest indications of the sexual glands
appear when the larva is but little developed, and that they are
often fully formed when it is adult. There are papers by Profs.
Marsh and Cope on the extinct Ungulata of the Wyoming dis-
trict, in which some dates of publication are fully discussed.
Among the other papers are, Prof. Perkins on “The Flying
Squirrel ;” C, Ran, on “ Indian Netsinkers and Hammer-
stones;” and R. Ridgway, on “ The Vegetation of the Lower
Wabash Valley.”

Ocean Highways, New Series, No. 1.—The new form of this
valuable journal is a great improvement on the original unhandy
form, though we do not think the increase in bulk is very great.
This number is a particularly interesting one. The first article
is called forth by the Khiva expedition, and gives a summary of
the commercial and political history of the Caspian, and the
region to the eastward ; it is illustrated by two good maps.
“*The Great Rivers of China” is the title of a short article by
Dr. F. Porter Smith, while Mr. C, E. Austen, C.E., contributes
a useful article, accompanied by an excellent map, on ‘‘ Railways
in Asia Minor.” Mr. D, Hanbury has a short article on myrrh,
the object of which is to induce travellers to coliect data for its
botanical elucidation. Prof, Mohn describes the origin and
history of the Meteorological Institute of Christiania ; a map by

NATURE

[April 10, 1873
the same gentleman is given, illustrating the explorations by
Norwegian Captains about Spitzbergen in 1872 ; accompanying
which is a short editorial paper on Wiche’s Land, defending the
name given to it by Edge in 1617. One very interesting paper is
by Mr. T. F. Hughes, on ‘‘ Formosa and its southern Aborigines.”
“*TIn this fair island of the distant eastern seas,” he says, ‘‘ there
is still a mine of discovery and information awaiting the cunning
hand of the scholar and traveller.” Reviews, notes, reports,
correspondence, &c., complete this interesting number.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNnDON

Royal Society, April 3,—‘‘On the Structure of Muscular
Fibre,” by E. A. Shafer.

‘*Note on the Synthesis of Marsh Gas, and the Electric
Decomposition of Carbonic Oxide,” by Sir B. G. Brodie,
F.R.S.

“‘On an Air Battery,” by Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S., and
A. Tribe. .

Chemical Society, April 3.—Dr. Odling, F.R.S., &c.,
president, in the chair.—A paper on ‘‘ A method of determining
with great exactness the specific gravity of liquids,” was read by
the author, Dr. Sprengel. The instrument, consisting of a
U-sbaped glass tube terminating in capillary tubes bent at right
angles, is very delicate when proper precautions are taken. —
The second paper, entitled ‘* Researches on the action of the
copper-zinc couple on organic bodies :—No. II. on the iodides of
methyl and amyl,” by J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., and A. Tribe, isa
continuation of the authors’ researches on this subject, an accouut
of which they communicated to the Society some short time
ago.—Dr. C, R. A, Wright then read a memoir ‘On Cymene
from various sources,” in which he gives the results of his exami-
nation of cymene prepared from eight different sources, showing
them to be identical.—The last paper was by Dr. H. E. Arm-
strong, being No. XI, of ‘‘ Communications from the Laboratory
of the London Institution; action of the acid chlorides on
nitrates and nitrites—Part I> Acetic chloride.” }

Zoological Society, April r.—Mr. R. Hudson, F.R.S., vice-
president, in the chair.—A communication was read from Dr.
J. S. Bowerbank containing a description of the brain and of a
portion of the nervous system of Pediculus capitis. —A communi-
cation was read from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., containing remarks
on the genera of Turtles (O/acopodes), and especially on their
skeletons and skulls.—A second communication from Dr. Gray
contained the description of the skull of Sternothaerus.—Dr. Ai
Giinther, F.R.S., read descriptions of three new species of Fly-
ing Squirrels, proposed to be called Preromys tephromelas, from
Penang, P. preomelas, from Borneo, and Sciuroplerus pulveru-
dentus, from Penang and Malacca.—Mr. O. Salvin made some
remarks on the tail-feathers of the birds of the genus Afomotus, and
on the mode in which their peculiar form had originally arisen.

Geological Society, March 26.—His Grace the Duke of
Argyll, K.T., F.R.S., president, in the chair. The follow-
ing communications were read :—1. ‘‘ Synopsis of the younger
formations of New Zealand,” by Capt. F. W. Hutton, F.G.S.,
of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. In this paper the
author gave a summary of the Tertiary and later Secondary for-
mations of New Zealand. He stated that he had been able to
determine 375 species of true Mollusca, 12 of Brachiopoda, and
18 of Echinodermata from the Tertiaries ; and under each of the
formations which he recognises he gave the number of species
of true Mollusca found in it, indicating the number of recent
species, and of those belonging to other formations occurring in
each. He also noticed the range and distribution of the various
formations. ‘The Tertiary groups of strata distinguished by the
author are, in descending order, as follows :—I, Pleistocene.
II. Pliocene: 1, the Newer Pliocene or Whanganui group: 2,
the Older Pliocene or Lignite group. III. Miocene: 3, Upper
or Arvatere group ; 4, Lower or Kanieri group. IV. Oligocene :
5, Upper or Hawke’s Bay group ; 6, Lower or Waitewata group,
V. Eocene: 7, Upper or Ototara group; 8, Lower or Brown
Coal group. As belonging to the Mesozoic series, the author
also described beds of Danian age, under the name of the Wai-
para formation. A species of Aelemnite//a occurs in beds be-
longing to the Ototara group, and also in the Waipara formation,
Volcanic action commenced in the North Island during the de-
position of the Waitewata group, and has since been almost
continuous in the northern, western, and central parts of the

:

4

island. In the South Island the volcanic formations appear to
- belong to the later Cretaceous, Oligocene, and Miocene periods.

~~ oa? rd. fat

.

ad
a?

NATURE

455

1 10, 1873]

The volcanic rocks of the Chatham Islands belong chiefly to the
Upper Oligocene.—2, ‘‘On the Tree-ferns of the Coal-measures,
and their relations to other living and fossil forms,” by Mr.
W. Carruthers, F.R.S., F.G.S. The author pointed out that
there existed in the Coal-measures two very distinct kinds of
fern-stems, each represented by several species. The first group
had a stem-structure like that of living tree-ferns. In them the
vascular elements of the stem formed a closed cylinder round
the pith ; and the vascular bundles for the leaves were given off
from the out-turned edges of the cylinder, where, at regular
intervals, corresponding to the position of the leaves, narrow
meshes occur for this purpose. In the second group the stems
differed from the other group chiefly in having the ends of the
vascular plates, as seen in the transverse section, turned inwards,
and having the bundles of the leaves formed in a complete con-
dition in the axis of the stem.—3. ‘‘ Notes on the Geology of
Kazirtn, Persia,” by Mr. A. H. Schindler. In this paper,
which accompanied a series of specimens presented to the
Museum of the Society, the author described the section pre-
sented by the hills in the neighbourhood of Kaizirin. The
general surface was described as consisting of nearly unfossi-
liferous Post-tertiary deposits, immediately beneath which is an
unstratified marine deposit containing a great abundance of fossils,
among which are species of Ostrea, Pecten, and Cidaris (?),
Below this deposit is a succession of strata, repeated several
times in the hills, and at the bottom of the series in each case is
a bed of gypsum. The spaces between the recurrent series are
filled up with conglomerates. Beneath the gypseous series is a
formation of compact limestone, which rises to a height of about
1500 feet both north and south of the plain of Kaziriin ; its beds
dip 25°, and their strike is from N.E. te S. W.

Royal Microscopical Society, April 2.—Mr. Charles
Brooke, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—A paper was read by
Mr. Henry Davis on a new species of Ca//idina (C. vaga), the
distinctive characteristics of which were fully described and
living specimens exhibited. Mr. Davis also detailed a series of
experiments upon the dessication of rotifers, the results of which
tended to prove that although they could not be revived after
having been once actually dried up, it was quite possible for
them to survive what was generally accepted as actual dessica-
tion, and that they would resist not only a sustained tempe-
rature of 200°, but also exposure for a long period in the
exhausted receiver of an air-pump with sulphuric acid. He
pointed out and proved by experiment, that during the process
of drying the gelatinous matter which was secreted by these
rotifers contracted around them, forming an impervious envelope
and effectua'ly preserving within it sufficient moisture to sustain
life—A communication was read from Mr. Parfitt, of Exeter,
descriptive of a presumed new animal, apparently related to the
annelids.— A fine preparation of malpighian capsules from the
kidney, was exhibited and described by Mr. Stewart,

Anthropological Institute, April 1.—Prof. Busk, F:R.S.,
president, in the chair. The president read ‘Remarks ona Collec-
tion of Ancient Peruvian Skulls presented to the Anthropological
Institute, by Mr. T. J. Hutchinson, H.B.M. consul at Caliao.”
The skulls were collected by the Consul from the *‘ Huacas” near
Santos, to the north of Callao, which were considered by him to be
thoseof Chinchas, or Huancas, or perhaps of Quichmas, or Aymaras,
all of which tribes are now probably absorbed into the Cholas,
a Mestizo race ; from Ancon, from Pasamayo, about thirty miles
north of Callao, and from Cerro del Oro in the Canete Valley
—in all 156 specimens. After giving further detailed descrip-
tions on the authority of Consul Hutchinson, the author passed
to the consideration of the characters presented by the crania
exhibited. Such of the specimens as he had been able to measure
yielded the following’ results :—‘‘The mean length was about
6°25 in., and the breadth 5°6 in., giving a cephalic or latitudinal
index of ‘905, only two falling below ‘800. that estimate
were included both normally-shaped and artificially compressed
skulls. The cephalic index of the supposed normally shaped,
was ‘873, the greatest being 935, and the least 812; and of
the clearly artificially deformed, *979; the greatest being 1°32,
and the least ‘861. Those figures showed how very much the
latitudinal index was exalted by the fore and aft compression of

~ the skull. Thealtitudinal index of the normal skulls was ‘843,

that of the compressed °878. The mean capacity of the larger
and male skulls appeared to show a result of about 80 cubic in.

result indicated that the crania were of small size. —The president
communicated.a paper by Mr. J. M. Reade, ‘Ona human skull
and fragments of bones of the Red Deer found at Birk Dale,
Southport.”

Meteorological Society, March 19. —Dr. Tripe, president,
in the chair—The president informed the meeting that at the
last meeting of Council a letter was read containing Mr. Glaisher’s
resignation of the Secretaryship, and that after much considera-
tion the Council had accepted it with great regret ; that they had
then appointed Mr. Cator to the vacant office for the remainder
of the session, and elected Mr. Glaisher to the seat on the
Council thus rendered vacant, which he was glad to say Mr.
Glaisher had accepted.—The first paper read was by Mr. R. H.
Scott, F.R.S., ‘*On some results of weather telegraphy,” in
which he laid before the Society some of the special circum-
stances connected with that service. He stated that the infor-
mation received was insufficient, both in quantity and quality, to
give a complete idea of the weather, and showed how any serious
extension of the system would entail greatly increased expendi-
ture, citing the very large cost (50,000/. per annum) of the
American signal service, the most perfect in existance. He
drew attention to the frequency of telegraphic errors, and the
serious results arising therefrom. He next proceeded to discuss the
probability of our deriving benefit from additional reports from
the Azores, &c., and showed by actual investigation that such
reports would not be of immediate use to these islands in regard
of giving notice of advancing storms. The modes of conveying
warnings to ships were next mentioned, and Mr. Scott stated
his belief that ultimately Admiral Fitzroy’s drum and cones would
be adopted, though not perhaps in the significations originally
attached to them.—The other paper was by Mr. W. Marriott,
‘*On the Barometric Depression of January 24, 1872.” This
depression occurring in the early morning hours, very few
observations had been made at the time of lowest pressure ;
but from those which he had received, the depression ap-
pears to have first touched the English coast near Fal-
mouth about midnight, and to have passed along the coast to
Upwey, which was reached about 3 A.M.; it then took a
northerly course and passed near Birmingham at 6 A.M, after
which it crossed Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, and Lincolnshire,
and passed out of the Humber between 1oand 11A.M. He
stated, however, that the evidence was insufficient to prove that
this was its actual course, or whether it merely passed over
England in a N.E. by N. direction at a uniform rate of about
30 miles an hour. The lowest readings of the barometer were
28°18 in. at 4.30 A.M. at Clifton, and 28-179 in, at 5.20A.M, at
Evesham. ‘The paper concluded with a few remarks on former _
depressions.

Institution of Civil Engineers, March 25.—Mr. T. Hawks-
ley, president, in the chair—‘‘ The Mont Cenis Tunnel,” by Mr.
Thomas Sopwith, jun., M. Inst. C. E. This communication
might be considered as supplementary to a former paper read in
1864—(Min. Proc. Inst. C. E., vol. xxiii., p. 258)—and_ de-
scribed, (1) the Tunnel, as completed, with statistics obtained
either by actual observation or from the Engineers in charge, or
from official publications of the Italian Government; (2) the
principal changes which had been introduced in the works and
machinery underground and at the surface since the summer of
1863.

P MANCHESTER

Literary and Philosophical Society, March 18.—Dr. J. P.
Joule, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—‘‘ Observations on the
Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated in the Ingle-
borough Cave,” by W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. He thinks it
evident, from his researches, that the value of a layer of stalag-
mite, in fixing the high antiquity of deposits below it, is com-
paratively little. The layers, for instance, in Kent’s Hole, which
are generally believed to have demanded a considerable lapse of
time, may possibly have been formed at the rate of a quarter of
an inch per annum, and the human bones which lie buried under
the stalagmite in the cave of Bruniquel are not for that reason
to be taken to be of vast antiquity. It may be fairly concluded
that the thickness of layers of stalagmite cannot be used as an
argument in support of the remote age of the strata below, At
the rate of a quarter of an inch per annum 20 feet of stalagmite
might be formed in 1,000 years.—‘‘ On Methyl-alizarine,” and
Ethyl-alizarine,” by Edward Schunck, Ph.D,, F.R.S.—‘“‘ On
the Transition from Roman to Arabic numerals (so-called) in

equivalent to brain of about 45 oz. roughly estimated, which | England,” by the Rev. Brooke Herford,—‘‘ Notes on the Vic-

456

NATURE

toria Cave, Settle,” by William Brockbank, F.G.S. For various
reasons, he submitted, there is no ground for the theory of
glacial action as put forth by Messrs. Boyd Dawkins and
Tiddeman, but on the contrary that the filling of the Victoria
Cave was the work of long ages, by the action of running water,
and that there is no reason to suppose that the remains found in
it are older than the glacial epoch.—The President exhibited a
syphon barometer, the peculiarity of which consisted in the in-
troduction of a small quantity of sulphuric acid over the ends of
the mercurial column.—Mr, Spence, F.C.S., communicated to
the Society the result of an experiment in heating a diamond,
which will considerably modify the general impression as to that
gem being combustible only at an extremely high heat. A friend
of his had brought over a number of diamonds from the African
mines. Some of these were what is called ‘‘off colour,” not
being purely white, and he put one of these into Mr. Spence’s
hands to try some experiments for displacing the colour if prac-
ticable. ‘This diamond, the size of a small pea, was immersed
in fire-clay in a small crucible, the clay being mixed with a little
carbonate of soda and hydrate of lime; the crucible was then
placed ina muffle, and for three days and nights exposed to a
heat, which at no time was beyond a low cherry red. After
cooling, the crucible was broken, and the lump of hardened fire-
clay was carefully broken up to extract the diamond ; after two
or three fractures of the lump an impression or hole in the indu-
rated clay was discovered just at the spot where the diamond
should have been, but not a vestige of the precious stone
remained.
DUBLIN

Royal Irish Academy, March 15.—The Rey. Prof.
Jellett, B.D., president, in the chair. The annual report
of the council was read by Dr. Ingram, secretary to council.
The election of the president and members of council was
proceeded with, when the Rey. J. H. Jellett, B.D., was re-
elected President.

Royal Geological and Zoological Societies of Ireland.
A joint meeting of these societies was held on Wednesday evening,
March 12. Colonel Meadows Taylor read a paper on the coal
fields of Central India.—Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S., read a
paper on the Microscopical Structure of the Limerick Carboni-
ferous Trap Rocks.—A Geological Map of New Zealand, and a
fine recent specimen in spirits of Pentacrinus Miilleri Orst were
exhibited.

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, March 31.—M. de Quatrefages,
president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—On
the theory of the normal magnet, and on the means of indefi-
nitely increasing the force of magnets, by M. J. Jamin.—On the
carpellary theory of the Ranunculacez, by M. A. Trecul.—On
the proposed apparatus for pumping out and elevating water by
means of the action of waves on the shores of the Mediterranean,
by M. A. de Caligny. The author has suggested a means of
utilising the force of the waves for the above purposes.— New
papers on the shock of earthquake in Italy, observed on the 12th
of March, 1873, by M. P. de Tchihatchef.—The Academy then
proceeded to elect a member in the place of the late Marshal
Vaillant. After two votings, in which no candidate ob-
tained an absolute majority, a ballot was proceeded with,
when M. Cosson obtained 31 and M. de la Gournerie 30
votes, M. Cosson was then declared duly elected.—A
report on two memoirs on the silicified vegetables of the
Autun coal measures, by M. B. Regnault, was then read, and
followed by M. Roger’s fourth memoir on capillary phenomena,
which dealt with the mathematical nature of the subject.—On a
new method of optically determining the velocity of projectiles,
by M. M. Deprez. The method consists in attaching a mag-
nesium fuse to the projectile and observing its flight by means of
two telescopes. The method is an application of that used for
meteors.—The Secretary read a number of extracts from a paper
on a new classification of clouds, by M. Poey.—On certain
points in M, Faye’s theory of the solar spots, by M. Tacchini.
Father Tacchini thinks that the hydrogen carried down by
cyclones, according to M. Faye’s theory, would become so
violently heated that it would rush back with such force as to
destroy the cyclone, and also that if such a process really
occurred the gas would carry up with it metallic vapours; as
these are not generally visible in prominences, he thinks the
explanation untenable.—On the foci (/aisceaux) of circles, by M.
Ribaucour.—On the spectrum of boric anhydride, by M. Lecocq

de Boisbaudran.—On alcohol and normal acetic acid from milk
considered as products of, the functions of microzymes, by M.
A. Béchamp. ~

DIARY

THURSDAY, Aprit 10.

MATHEMATICAL Society, at 8.—On Systems of Porismatic Equations,
Algebraical and Trigonometrical ; Note 6n Epicycloids and Hypocyeloids ;
Locus of point of concourse of perpendicular Tangents to a Cardioid ;
Elliptic motion under acceleration constant in direction: Prof Wolsten-
holme.—On the calculation of the Value of the theoretical unit-angle to a
great number of decimal places: Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher.

SATURDAY, Apriv 12.
Roya Botanic Society, at 3.45-

TUESDAY, Aprit 15.
STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 7.45.

WEDNESDAY, Apri 16.

Society or ARTs, at 8.—Ou the Condensed Milk Manufacture: L. P.
Merriman.

METEOROLOGICAL Society, at 7.—On a proposed new form of Rain Gauge,
“‘The Atmospileometer;” J. J. Hall.—Discussion on the Report of the
Proceedings of the Meteorological Conference at Leipzig.

Lonpbon INSTITUTION, at 7.—Third Musical Lecture; Prof, Ella.

THURSDAY, Aprrit 17.

LinnEAn Society, at 8.—Burmese Orchidee, from the Rey. C. P. Parish:
Prof Reichenbach.—Perigynium of Carex: Prof. McNab.
CueEmicat Society, at 8.—On Heat produced by Chemical Action: Dr.
Debus, F.R.S
Numismatic Society, at 7.
ZooLocicaL Socrety, at 4.
= ——

BOOKS RECEIVED

Encuisu.—A Manual of Photography. 8th edit. : G. Dawson (Churchill).
—Electricity and Magnetism. 2vols: C. Maxwell (Macmillan).—Flies and
Fly-fishing : Capt. St. J. Dick (R. Hardwicke).—A Catalogue of the Collec-
tion of Cambrian and Silurian Fossils in the Geological Museum of the
University of Cambridge: J. W. Salter, Prof. A. Sedgwick, Prof. Morris
(University Press, Cambridge).—Fever and Cholera from a new point of
view: A. Smith (Calcutta).—Illustrated Guide to the Fish Amphibian.
Reptilian and supposed Mammalian remains of the Northumberland Car-
bonilerous Strata, with Atlas; T. P. Barkas (Hutchings).—A Journey through
the Caucasus and the interior of Persia: A. H. Mounsey (Smith and Elder).
—A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus. znd edit.: Capt. J. Wood
(Murray.)—Turning for Amateurs.—Birds of the Humber District: J.
Cordeaux (Van Voorst).—A General System of Botany, Descriptive and
Analytical: Emm, de Mout and J. Decaisne. Translated by Mrs. Hooker,
Edited by Dr. Hooker (Longmans).—The Principles of Animal Mechanics :
The Rev. S. Haughton (Longmans).—Field and Forest Rambles: A. L.
Adams (H, S. King & Co.).

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Enc.isu.—The Agricultural Returns of Great Britain for 1872,—Quarterly
Weather Report of the Meteorological Office, Pt. 2, April-June, 1872.—
A Message to the British Entomologists by the Ghost of the Rector of
Barham: E. W. Janson.—Journal of Mental Science, No, 49, April:
H. Maudsley and Thos. Clouston, M.D. (Churchil!).—The Potato Disease,
its cause and its remedy: S. Smith (Smart & Allen).—General Report on the
Operations of the great Trigometrical Survey of India during 1871-2: Major
Montgomerie, R.E., F.R.S.

ForeiGn—Anales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires, 1872-73.—Report
of the Commissioners of Fisheries of the State of New York.—Recherches
expérimentales sur l'influence que les changements dans la pression baro-
metrique exercent sur les phenomenes de la vie (8th note): M. P. Bert.

CONTENTS

Pace
InstincT. By Georce Henry Lewes . . . . 6 « + + «© « 437
HANDBOOK FOR THE PuysioLocicaL Lanoratrory (With, [llus-
PVAEONS.) «5 oi eeum es auth fat wee cee, je! 0 tah ae
Witson’s INORGANIC CHEMISTRY . » 5). 2. . « 1s «0s eee
Our Book SHerr ...5 9 a) oe a Sn ee
LetrTers TO THE EDITOR :—
Leaf-Arrangement.—Dr. HuBeRT AIRY. . . . « « « + + « 442
The Hegelian Calculus—W. RoperTson SMITH . . « « 5 « 442
Meteorology of the Future.—E. J. Srone. F.R.A.S. . ogee
Bright Meteor.—Commander Epmunp H. Verney. R.N, . . « 443
The Great Meteoric Shower of November 27, 1872.—Dr. A. ERNST 443
The Antiquity of Man.—SzarLes V. Woop, Jun. . . . . . 443
Skeletons at Menton@ia 5, + 2 as 2 0) ¢ 5) ee ee
Instinct.—CHartes Darwin, F.R.S. ; James D. Hacue: J. D.
WETTERHAN ; Ac JOBUCKLAND! » 205 0 6 so) 8) om pag
Acquired Habits in:Plants, (i.e 3 | ee a: \e- 0 coo ee
SCIENCE AND THE Press INAMERICA. . . + «© «+ . » + 6 + « 445
ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF InszscTs, I. _ By Sir JoHN
Lussock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. (W2thk [dlustrations.). . » « « « 446
Cororpaxi—TueE First ASCENT OF THE GREAT VOLCANO . . . « 449
Capt. Perrigr’s GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN ALGERIA. By M, Cornu
(With Map.) . EEN Sue (ese = ee |e Sons pine se
NoTks”~ . . . . ¢ SMMEGBDe ce) fe". |e Gar ale ee
Prenisroric CULTURE OF FLAx . . . SS ods Oly ay
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS ..\ Sees el 2.0 ge! slab ge Ea
SocreTigs AND ACADEMIES «+ ~ « Pts A 2 ae o's teyge ee
Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED . - in 5 te Perri ire Che ei)
DIARY 246.) oo. 4 I tee ete 8 ie aera eife 450

[April 10, 1873,

THURSDAY, APRIL 17, 1873

THE ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS IN THE
INDIA HOUSE

N former days the “Hon. East India Company,” in
their House in Leadenhall Street, possessed a valu-
able Museum of Natural History. Itcontained specimens
in ail branches of science from the Company’s Oriental
possessions, partly contributed by public servants who
had been attached as naturalists to missions and deputa-
tions sent out by the Indian Government, and partly by
gentlemen of the civil and military services of the
Company, as presents to the Court of Directors.

The following well-known names were amongst those
who contributed to the collection :—Dr. Francis Bucha-
nan Hamilton, Dr. Horsfield, Sir Stamford Raffles, Mr.
Wallich, Mr. Reeves, Mr. McClelland, Dr. Helfer, Mr,
T. T. Pearson, Dr. Falconer, Mr. Hodgson, Col. Sykes,
Mr. Ezra Downes, Gen. Strachey, Col. Tytler, and Dr.
Cantor. The list of contributors embraced, in fact, all
those naturalists and collectors to whom science is mostly
indebted for the knowledge we at present possess of the
Fauna of India and the adjoining countries.

Amongst collections of special importance belonging to
the East India Museum, may be noticed Dr. Horsfield’s
collections from Java, those made by Mr, Finlayson
during Crawford’s Mission to Siam, those of Col. Sykes
during his survey at the Dukhun, the entomological col-
lections made by Dr, Cantor in Chusan, and the same
naturalist’s collections from Singapore; the zoological
collections of Sir W. Snow Harris, made during his
mission to Abyssinia, and those of Commander Jones
during his survey of the Euphrates and Tigris.

In 1851 the late Dr. Horsfield, who up to the time of
his decease was Curator of the Museum, published a
catalogue of the mammalia in the collection, which, in
addition to an exact enumeration of the specimens, con-
tains many valuable notes upon the habits, range, and
other peculiarities of the species. This was followed a
few years later by a catalogue of the birds of the collec-
tion, which was prepared by Mr. F. Moore, the assistant
in the museum, under Dr. Horsfield’s superintendence.
Of the catalogue of birds two volumes were published,
the first in 1854, and the second in 1858. The third,
which was intended to have completed the work, has
never appeared. More than a thousand species, however,
are catalogued in the two first volumes, most of them
represented by several specimens.

When after the Indian mutiny the absorption of the
“ Honourable East India Company” by Her Majesty’s
Government took place, the museum of the Company was
moved to Fife House, Whitehall, as a temporary resting-
place. The natural history collections were exhibited in this
building in a very imperfect way, but it was well under-
stood that they were only deposited here pending the
construction of the new India Office, where abundance of
space for their display was promised.

The time arrived when the square-towered palace in
St. James’s Park was finished, and the various branches
of the India Office moved into it.. So far, however, from
there being any more space found for the natural history

No, 181—VoL., vit.

NATURE

457

collections it was now discovered that there was no room
for them at all. The whole of them were packed up in
boxes and placed in store, and so remain to the present
day, so that it is impossible to get at them for any avail-
able purpose even when the examination of a particular
individual specimen is specially required.

On more than one occasion in the course of scientific
work the writer has had occasion to examine some of the
specimens in the collection, but has been informed that
they could not be got at amongst the mass of packages.
Other working naturalists have met with similar replies
to their applications, and even a Russian entomologist, I
have been informed, whose principal motive in coming to
England was to examine some of the insects in the collec-
tion, had to return with his mission unaccomplished.

In 1871 the late Lieut.-Col. Sykes, having had his
attention called to the subject bya letter addressed to the
Times, asked the Under-Secretary of State for India in
the House of Commons “when the zoological collections
in the India House would be accessible to zoologists.”
The following is stated in the 7#es of March 15, 1871,

to have been the reply given by the Under-Secretary :—

“Tn reply to my honourable and gallant friend, I have
to say that the zoological collections belonging to the
Secretary of State in Council, are, to a certain extent,
even now available to men of science, who can readily
obtain admission to examine them. They examine them
however, I am sorry to say, under great difficulties, and
difficulties of which I do not see the end : for even if the
Secretary of State in Council were to erect on his property
in Charles Street, as he has sometimes been advised to
do, a building more worthy to contain the great museum *
and library which he possesses, than the garrets in which
they are now stowed away, nearly the whole available
space would be occupied by those Indian productions
which it is important to bring under the notice of the
commercial classes of this country, and pure science
would, I fear, come off very badly.”

The “ certain extent” to which, according to this reply,
the collections are “eve now available to men of science,”
may be judged of from what has been already stated. But
in fact, it was ultimately admitted by the Under-Secre-
tary, after a little pressure on the part of the questioner,
that the collections were “boxed up;” nor has any
change been made in their condition since that period.

It must, I think, be obvious to all those who have read
the statement above given that a gross wrong has been
perpetrated in the present case. When the Imperial
Government took possession of the late East India
Company’s establishment, they were manifestly bound
to perform the duties attached to it. To nail up the
whole of the natural history collections in closed cases,
and deposit them in acellar is a strange way of accepting
the officium cum onere. Itis a wrong, not only to the
labourers in science who have occasion to consult the
collections, but also to the many distinguished officers
of the late Company’s service, who contributed to form
them. The longer the present state of things continues,
the greater will the wrong become, as it is almost im-
possible to prevent the ravages of insects in the case of
specimens of natural history of any sort that are stowed
away without periodical examination.

It being, however, hopeless to expect that the India

cc

458 NATURE

re : wae.

[April 17, 1873

Office, in its present economical fit, will spend the money
necessary to build a Museum for the proper exhibition of
‘ts collections of manufactures and natural history, the
following two solutioris of the difficulty may be suggested.

(1) That an arrangement be made with the Commis-
sioners of the Exhibition of 1851 to exhibit the collections
at South Kensington, either in one of the existing build-
ings, or in one to be constructed for that purpose. The
French have an “ Exposition des Produits des Colonies”
in part of the former Palais de V'Industrie in the Champs
Elysées, and there is no reason why we should not follow
so desirable a precedent.

(2) If this cannot be effected, the whole of the collec-
tions should be transferred to the trustees of the British
Museum. It is, of course, quite certain that the trustees
could not exhibit them, looking to the crowded state of
their galleries in Great Russell Street. But at all events
they would be thus saved from risk of further deterioration,
and might be rendered accessible to working naturalists
who have occasion to consult them. Piss:

UNIVERSITY OARS*
IIL.

E have stated that in our opinion the evils of boat-

racing as now practised are traceable to two
causes, Ist to a misconception of the nature of the de-
mands which it makes on the several energies of the
body ; and 2nd, to the system of preparation, or, as it is
technically called, ¢raining, which is undertaken to enable
the body to meet these special demands upon its
energies.

In our remarks last weck we stated at some length
wherein lay the first of these misconceptions, namely, in
the nature and extent of the effort made by the muscular
system and the respiratory and circulatory system, respec-
tively, showing that while the exertion was slight, if not
actually inadequate to the requirements of the former, it
was both in amount and character severe, if not abso-
lutely dangerous, in the latter.

The origin of the first misconception, and the reason
why it should have lived so long, and should still live, we
think may be thus explained. When rowing was first
adopted by lads at schools and young men at universities
as a regular mode of exercise, and friendly matches of
speed and dexterity were organised, the boats used,
probably, were not greatly different in size, in shape, or in
other points of construction, if in any, from those at the
time in use by professional watermen; and the manner
of rowing was also, very probably, after the water-
man’s type. If this were the case then rowing
furnished abundant exercise, not only to those portions
of the rower’s frame which still receive a fair share
of employment, but to those also which are at present
virtually excluded from the task, or have a very inferior
part to play in it; for the heavy, bulky, broad and
deep boats, clumsy, unwieldy, and unskilfully arranged
oars and rowlocks, would necessitate a slow and pro-
tracted stroke, and both upper and lower limbs would
have their part to play and their work to do in drag-
ging the oar through the water. Gradually, changes
and improvements would be introduced, lessening

* Continued from p 418

the labour, heightening the art, until art and labour
in boat propulsion attained their present positions and
proportions, the former reduced to a minimum, the latter
standing eminently high: but just in proportion to the
prominence of these conditions are its merits as an exer-
cise in an inverse ratio to be estimated. There was
plenty of muscular exertion for the whole frame in lugging
along the old-fashioned boats. There was little or no
distress to heart or lungs in its protracted stroke and
deliberate pace. We frankly confess that there would be
little in the old style of boat-racing to create and sustain
the enthusiasm at present displayed in these contests ;
and we are expressing no regret at the changes that have
taken place, and no wish to return to their primitive, albeit
safe conditions: what we do wish is to let rowing remain
as it is, nay, to let it pursueits onward course of change
and improvement like all other things, but to see if the
old order of safety cannot be retained with these advance-
ments, by obtaining from other sources those properties
which recent changes have altogether eliminated or re-
duced to inefficient proportions.

To glance at the reason why the misconception regard-
ing the actual nature of a boat-race as now rowed, should
have so long existed, and should still exist, we think it
needs only to be pointed out that only quite recently
has any really critical inquiry been instituted on the sub-
ject, and when the results of this inquiry were made
known, they savoured to the oarsman like the prescribed
“nasty medicines” to the child ; ze. whatever good they
may have been calculated to effect, they were nevertheless
unpalatable, and if not actually rejected were at any rate
swallowed with dislike. But rowing men are not singular
in this respect, in claiming for their favourite exercise,
through all its changes, in all its attributes, perfection ;
they are claiming no more than all enthusiastic votaries
of a special exercise claim, and many with less excuse
and less right to an indulgent hearing than the oarsman.
“Tt gives exercise to every muscle of the body,” say they,
“No exercise whatever,” we reply, “does this.” No
single exercise gives more than employment to a portion
of the body, and to that portion sometimes a very inade-
quate share. :

The errors involved in the second misconception in a
great measure originate in the first, and their nature is
revealed, and the manner of their connection explained
as we proceed in making ourselves acquainted with it.
Thus an oarsman at a given time will be called upon to
row a race which will tax his bodily energies such as he
knows them, or believes them, to be, to the uttermost ;
the effort will be quite exceptional in its severity and he
therefore desires to prepare for it, to fortify himself for it,
by every means in his power. Now it need hardly be
said that if he is ignorant of the nature of the demands
which the effort will make upon him, he cannot rightly
prepare himself for that effort; may, he may, and
probably will, go wrong, for advice will be pressed
upon him at all hands, and here at any rate, “In
the multiplicity of counsel there is zoe¢ wisdom.” When
it is remembered that this preparation or training em-
braces the administration, or use, of all the material
agents which sustain life and give health and strength, it
will not be wondered at that mistakes have been made in
this direction, and that man should have come to speak

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April 17, 1873|

of the ordeal(/) of training as of a trial as greatif not
greater than the effort itself for which the training was
instituted. Thus one of Dr. Morgan’s correspondents who
rowed bow at Putney in 1849, Rev. D, Wauchop, Wadham
College, Oxford, and a friend of our own of long standing,
writes ; “A curious circumstance with regard to training
I would mention, and that is that one of the most sinewy
and lasting men of my friends, who had been accustomed
to rowing since he was little more than a child, and who
was a particularly steady and temperate man, and so
good an oar as to be chosen stroke for a time, never
could stand training. After a few days of it he in-
variably broke down, and therefore never rowed in a
race.”

It will therefore be easily seen how great must be the
advantages to rowing of clearing up what we have called
the first misconception, in the light of its effects upon the
health of the men engaged in it—the only light which
would justify our having entered upon the subject at such
length in the columns of a purely scientific journal.
Thus while it was imagined that rowing entailed tre-
mendous muscular’ exertions upon the oarsman, rules
as to dict, sleep, and exercise were laid down to meet
such exertions, one authority recommending men to be
in bed ten or eleven hours; for diet underdone meat
in vast quantities, and without vegetab'es—“not even
a potato ”—was prescribed, while exercise of any or all
kinds put together was cut down to less than one hour
in the twenty-four. Thus did the first misconception
sustain and prolong the existence of, if it did not give
origin to, the second.

The errors in s/eep and in det are being rapidly cleared
away. They are destined soon to be numbered among
the vagaries of the past, and in this place we may already
pronounce them undeserving of serious exposure or con-
demnation. With the other agent of health named above,
however, as affected by a want of true knowledge of the
exertion undergone in rowing, namely, exercise, the case
is different. The errors on this head are still many and
grave, and to the correction of them we must look before
we can expect to see any material improvement in the
hygienic value of rowing; it is to exercise we must look to
restore the lost equilibrium of rowing on the several sys-
tems of the body ; to exercise we must look to equalise
the partial developments of the frame now caused by
rowing as exclusive of muscular exertion ; to exercise we
must look for that increase in vigour and power and
functional capacity generally, now wanted to enable the
organs of circulation and evaporation to sustain the ex-
treme effort which they are called upon to fill during a
boat-race.

We will assume that we have established that in rowing
the chest and upper limbs receive an inadequate share of
the exercise, and therefore in accordance with the organic
law regulating material development and functional capa-
city,—that “these will be in relation to employment,”
—an advancement in these respects will be shown in
those regions, inferior to what is observable in other
parts of the body when the employment is greater.
This assumption being admitted, it will also be admitted

that any want of development or capacity experienced in

these regions—whether in the power of the muscles aiding
reSpiration, in the size or conformation of the thoracic

NATURE

459

cavity, or in the size, conformation or capacity of the
organs which they contain,—would affect, and affect in
an increasing ratio with its extent, the respiratory effort
during a boat-race,

We admit that we are somewhat at issue with Dr,
Morgan, inasmuch as he does not go with us so far as to
acknowledge this partial division of the labour, and con-
sequently of the reward to the parts engaged, in the act
of rowing ; but he does acknowledge that if it did exist,
the right way to its rectification would be to supply to the
parts found wanting, employment elsewhere and in other
form. This is nearly all that we can desire—perhaps
more than at this date we have yet a right to expect from
a devoted oarsman, jealous of his craft. His language is
emphatic and significant :—

“In examining patients for insurance companies, I
have frequently refused the lives of young persons on the
ground that their chests were narrow and shallow. In
several instances, however, these thoracic defects have
been corrected by a systematic course of gymnastic exer-
cises, justifying me at a later period in recommending
theiracceptance. At no time and in no place could every
useful variety of exercise be more advantageously carried
out than at Oxford and Cambridge; they might, for the
class by which they are frequented, serve as valuable
national gymnasia.”

Dr. Morgan might have taken a wider base for his con-
gratulations on the establishment of gymnasia than Oxford
and Cambridge; the greater number now of our “public
schools are also so provided, namely, Uppingham,
Radley, Cheltenham, Clifton, Marlborough, and Rugby.
We place them here in the order in which they
have been carried out, Rugby being our last or-
ganisation, From all these schools men are coming
up to the Universities, after having continuously, during
the most important period of their growing time, re-
ceived a course of carefully systematised bodily train-
ing, carried out in buildings specially designed for this
purpose, and conducted by teachers duly prepared, and
bearing certificates of qualification. All the youths will
bring with them not only chests “larger and deeper,”
with hearts and lungs stronger, ampler, and more vigor-
ous, but the knowledge of what a good strong, or well-
formed chest is, how it is got, and how it may be lost;
and this with the similar advantages of the Universities,
and shared in by University men, will surely in time
enable us to overcome the evil of rowing, the danger to
rowing men: for the whole question is now narrowed to
one point. Give to men who now take ro wing as exclu-
sive exercise such other exercise as will develope the
parts of the body which rowing but imperfectly employs,
namely the chest, and you at once endow with vigour
and strength the parts that are dangerously taxed in the
boat-race. We have known men standing 5 ft. gin.,
with chests measuring 32 in. only, rowing in their
college eights! And men standing over 6ft. in their
stockings, with chests measuring 35 in., rowing in the
inter-University race at Putney! To what end can these
lead? to what but danger to the men, alarm to their
friends, and injury to the name and to the interests of the
art to which they affect to be devoted. We repeat here
what we uttered years ago— “ No man of ordinary stature
and fair growth should be allowed to put hand upon an
oar in a racing boat until his chest has the minimum

460

NATURE

+“ aad 72 -S@ >

4
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[April 17, 1873

girth of 36 in. ; less will not give him space adequate to
the full and fair action of the vital organs within, in the
work upon which he would engage ; less no man of ordi-
nary stature and fair growth need pass his eighteenth
year without possessing.”

In bringing these remarks to a close, we desire heartily
to congratulate Dr. Morgan on his book, both in concep-
tion and execution, and also to congratulate University
oarsmen in having a work of this character dedicated to
investigations of the doubtful and disputed points of their
favourite exercise. If he has not succeeded in showing
that the Putney course is quite free from danger, he has
shown that it is not so perilous as it was pronounced to
be,—z.e. not the vza mada which it had been named. To
the disputants on both sides we would say with the peace-
loving innkeeper in Silas Marner, “ Ye are both right and
both wrong ; shake hands and be friends.”

ARCHIBALD MACLAREN

THE MAMMALIAN SKULL
Zur Morphologie des Stiugethier-Schddels, von Joh. Chr.

Gustav Lucae. With three lithographic plates and

eight woodcuts, (Frankfort, 1872.)
acar contribution to the anatomy of the Mammalian

skull treats chiefly of the comparative proportions
of those of Carnivora and Ruminants. After quoting Prof.
Huxley’s dictum on the importance of making longitudinal
sections of every skull in an ethnological museum, the
author justly insists upon its applicability to comparative
osteology ; and begins by a discussion on the true cranio-
facial axis. He reviews the definitions adopted by other
writers, and describes it as extending fron the anterior
margin of the 7. magnum to the F. cecum, thus including
the basi-occipital, basi-sphenoid, pre-sphenoid, and cribri-
form plate of the ethmoid bone. He regards it not as a
mere imaginary line drawn through the centres of these
links in the chain, but as the actual solid elongated mass
which they form when the surrounding parts are removed.
Hence he speaks of the upper surface of the cranio-facial
axis, or, as he,prefers to call it, the base of the skull,
turned towaran the brain, and its lower surface turned
towards the pharynx and face.

The discrepancies between the different anatomists
who have written on this subject have been chiefly due to
the different objects for which the structure of the skull
has been studied. To the morphologist, guided by a
knowledge of embryology and comparative anatomy, it
appears monstrous to include the diameter of a foramen
as part of the base of the skull, formed of a series of bones
which agree in their relations and partly in their develop-
ment with the centra of the vertebrae. On the other hand
the descriptive zoologist, and especially the ethnologist, to
whom ‘transcendental anatomy” is apt to appear harsh
and crabbed, asks fairly enough that he may be allowed
to fix upon such a base-line as shall give him the most
useful and convenient method of comparing the shape of
different skulls. And if the practical physician tries as
well as he can to ascertain the dimensions of the cranium
during life, he is obliged to content himself with the best
base-line he can get, which is probably that from the root
of the nose to the most hollow part below the occipital
protuberance.*

*See an interesting paper by Dr. Gee in the St, Bartholomew Hospital
Reports for last year.

Prof. Lucae’s object is a morphological comparison
between the skulls of man and certain other mammals,
and for this purpose we think his cranial basis is well
chosen. It agrees with the “ cranio-facial axis” adopted
by Prof. Flower in his “ Osteology of the Mammalia”
(pp. 104, 105), in the chief point in which it differs from
Huxley’s “ basi-cranial axis” (Journal of Anat. and Phys.,
Nov. 1866, p. 67, and “Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,”
p- 23), namely, by the inclusion of the mesethmoid bone,
And it differs from Prof. Cleland’s “ base-line” (Phil.
Trans., 1869, p. 122), by the exclusion of the foramen
magnum, as well as in being an actual mass of bones
instead of a line drawn for purposes of measurement.

The most important question is, whether the line ot”
bones which continues the centre of the vertebrze forward
should be considered to stop with the pre-sphenoid or no,
Having passed the basi-sphenoid, with which the noto-
chord ends, and admitted the pre-sphenoid into the
cranial axis, there seems no good reason from the deve-
lopment, the structure, or the relations of the bones, for
not including in the series the next in order. And this
must be the mesethmoid : for the claims of the vomer to
be considered the centrum of a nasal vertebra may be
put aside, because unlike the rest of the axis it is deve-
loped from membrane, because it takes no part in sup-
porting the cerebrospinal axis, and because it is not
articulated with the frontals or even with the anterior
end of the pre-sphenoid.

Having defined the cranial basis, Prof. Lucae proceeds
to compare the inclination of its four segments to each
other and to a right line joining its two ends, This line,
which in man of course will fall de/ow the base of the
skull, falls adove it in Carnivora, and more or less com-
pletely zz itin Ungulata. The differences chiefly depend
on the greater or less inclination of the brain to the
medulla oblongata, and the more or less horizontal posi-
tion of the face and hence of the olfactory nerves. Careful
measurements are given of the dimensions of the seg-
ments of the cranial axis and of the angles they make
with each other in six Carnivora and eight Ungulata.

Next follows a comparison between the vault of the
cranium and the facial bones in the wolf and antelope
(Redunca ellipsiprymna), The compact osseous struc-
ture of the former is contrasted with the more spongy
character of the latter ; and it is shown how the position
of the centre of gravity is altered by the great canine
teeth of the carnivora and the horns of ruminants, A
short section follows on the changes brought by age;
and then come measurements of the cranial angles in
various marine Carnivora, in Rodents, in the pig, barbi- -
russa, and Hyvax. The last section treats of the skulls
of monkeys and of man. Here the cranial axis, which
in the seals is somewhat concave above, in otters almost
flat, and gradually more bent in Carnivora and in Rumi-
nants, has become strongly convex above, so as to make
the cribriform plate and the foramen magnum horizontal
instead of vertical, while the length of the vault of the
skull in comparison with its base (as above defined) has
enormously increased. The remarkable twisting down of
the face under the cranium in some Ruminants (for it is
little marked in the deer tribe), which is here noticed, has
been already well described by Prof. Flower in the work
above quoted. It is a remarkable character, but certainly

_—.

April 17, 1873]

NATURE

461.

not enough to warrant us in pushing the Ruminants
between the Carnivora and the lower apes.

The woodcuts and lithographic figures of this paper are
not very clear, even with the aid of red ink to distinguish
the outline of the section of a skull from its profile, when
printed together; and there are several printers’ errors,
eg., Hydracherus for Hydrochoerus, and what is more
important, Aiztre is put for mzttlere (p. 27).

Prof. Lucae modestly compares his work to that of a
hodman, who has plenty to do when kings build their
palaces. These royal castle-builders are of course the
more or less adventurous theorists who construct their
Stammbdume by help of such anatomical details as are
here collected. All zoologists, whether, like Lamb’s
nurse, “wise and wondrous skilled in genealogies,” or
contented to work out the raw material which is always
necessary, will welcome such contributions to osteology
as the present, which forms so excellent a continuation of
the author’s previous labours on Ragenschadel, and will
hope that they may be still further extended in the same
direction. P. H. PyvEe-SMITH

SYMONDS’ RECORDS OF THE ROCKS
Records of the Rocks. Notes on the Geology, Natural
History, and Antiquities of North and South Wales,
Devon, and Cornwall. By Rev. W.S. Symonds, F.G.S.
(London : John Murray.)
R. SYMONDS is an enthusiast, and one of the best
type. In the intervals of his clerical work he is
pretty sure to be found either with his hammer among
quarries, ravines, and railway cuttings, or exploring some
crumbled ruin or mouldered encampment, or lecturing
volubly to a hill-side auditory on the rocks beneath their
feet, or showing his well-known features at the sectional
meetings of the British Association. Such have been his
favourite pursuits for some thirty years. In the present
volume he gives us jottings from the note-books which
record his doings during that long period. The book is
not a formal scientific treatise, nor does it follow any
definite geographical sub-division in the districts de-
scribed. An introductory chapter of a somewhat miscel-
laneous kind is followed by ten others devoted to the
various palzeozoic formations of Wales and the South-
west of ingland. But the writer does not confine him-
self to the geology of the various districts, he has much to
say about antiquities and natural history, and says it
pleasantly enough. Nor does he restrict his remarks to
those parts of the country mentioned in the title-paze,
for he has been away up even into the wilds of Suther-
landshire, and tells about the rocks there and the alpine
plants, and the minerals, and the old glaciers, and how
he broke a trusty rod in fishing for salmon there.. He
makes his way cheerily wherever he goes, and duly
chronicles the kindness shown to him. The perfect
honestyand candour of the writer are conspicuous through-
out. Now andthen, however, the delight with which he
has seen a fact for himself leads him to write as if nobody
had seen it before him, For instance, on p. 91, he tells
that “‘on an expedition two years ago in company with
Captain Price, I ascertained that the quartz-rock of
Queenaig with its tubes rests unconformably on Cam-
brian sandstone.” A very good observation, Mr. Symonds,
but not unknown before you and the Captain were up there-

The illustrations, which are numerous, have been largely
taken from Murchison’s “ Siluria ;” but we can specially
commend some new engravings from drawings by Sir
William Guise—admirable both for their artistic con-
ception and geological truth. ;

OUR BOOK SHELF

Varrells History of British Birds, Revised by Alfred
Newton, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the University
of Cambridge. Part V.

THE improvement which Prof. Newton’s excellent edi-
tion of Mr. Yarrell’s work is undergoing by passing
through the hands of its accomplished and assiduous
editor, is evident on every page, and the care with which
the large mass of literature on the subject of most of the
species has been studied, must be evident to all readers.
The chief features of this part are the following. The
author has entered with considerable detail into the
puzzling question of those forms or species of blue-throat,
Ruticilla suecica, R. leucocyana and R. wolf—of which
the first only can be said with certainty to have occurred
in this country. The so-called “‘ Melodious Willow Wren,”
of which two examples have been met with in the British
Isles, is shown on Mr. Dresser’s authority to be the
Icterine Warbler (Hyfolazs icterina), and its distinction
from the nearly allied Polyglot Warbler (AH. folyglotta)
is carefully pointed out, and it may be mentioned that
these two birds have only a superficial resemblance to the
true Willow-wrens, among which they have been errone-
ously placed by most British authors. The evidence as
to the occurrence of the Marsh Warbler (Acrocephalus
palustris) in England is shown to te very defective, and
the editor declines admitting it at present to our fauna.
The Aquatic Warbler (A. agwaticus) on the other hand,
seems to have been obtained some three if not four times.
The history of that very interesting species Saddler’s
Warbler (A. dusciniozdes) is fully given, more so than is
done in any other work with which we are acquainted.
It was doubtless in former days a regular, though
never avery abundant summer visitant to the eastern
counties of England, until the drainage of the meres and
fens unfitted wide districts for its habitation. The first
example of the species ever brought to the notice of
naturalists was obtained early inthe present century by
a party of Norfolk observers, includinz the late Sir
William Hooker. This specimen was in 1816 shown to
Temminck, then on a visit to London, and by him said to
be a variety of the Reed Wren, a bird from which it may
be fairly separated generically. Some years after, Sair
described it from Italian examples, and it has always had
the reputation of being a southern species. But it is to
Englishmen that we owe nearly all the information we
possess concerning it. Its nest and eggs were discovered
near Cambridge in’ 1845, three years before anything was
published about them on the Continent, and its peculiar
habits have been chiefly described by Englishmen, from
their own observation, whether in this country or abroad,
The account of this species has been written ae wovo, and
great pains has indeed been taken to bring the history of
all the other birds treated in this part (fourteen in
number) up to our present state of knowledge of them.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Cave-deposits of Borned

THE following letter from Mr. Everett to myself was accom:
panied by a plan and section of one of the caves visited by him
and partially excavated. The deposits were as follows :

462 NATURE

[April 17, 1873

> ft ins ft. an.
1. A thin layer of stalagmite. ;
2. Black impure guano i O39 tot 10

3. White clay with Potamides decollatus 1 © me TO)

Be iGuano” “seen aces) seo ses, Olea variable
5. Debris of clay and guano, with frag-
ments of limestone and stalagmite
Inabundance:..0 7... 1. sae LO, 3 0
6. Pure yellow felspathic clay AS 20:55) 5 90

7. Limestone floor.

This particular cave could not be readily worked owing to the
influx of water, but other caves exist at higher levels which
would be more promising. The expense for six months’ work,
according to Mr. Everett’s estimate, would not be more than the
mere passage-money of anyone going out from England. I may
add that Mr. Everett quite understands the proper mode of
working, having had personal communication with Mr. Pengelly
on the subject at Kent’s Cavern. He is now thoroughly familiar
with the country and the workmen to be employed, and it seems
a great pity that advantage should not be taken of his residence
in so interesting a locality, the proper exploration of which may
throw light on a variety of biological problems.
ALFRED R, WALLACE

Vou will recollect that some three years ago I came to
Sarawak with the object of making general collections of
natural history and, more particularly, of investigating the cave-
deposits of Borneo.

“From time to time I made excavations in various caves situated
in Upper Sarawak, being assisted pecuniarily by the Rajah to
a certain extent. These excavations varied in depth from 4 ft.
to 14 ft., and were made in different situations in the caves, No
remains of interest, however, were discovered beyond some teeth
of a Hystrix, and bones of man, bats, geckoes, &c., in the most
superficial deposits, and the only result worth recording was the
find of a stone axe-head in a bed of river-gravel. This celt was
forwarded to Sir C. Lyell, and such remains as were obtained
from the caves were sent to Messrs. Busk and Pengelly at inter-
vals ; but tlie latter, together with a recent tooth of Rhinoceros
and two collections of misce!l:aneous specimens, appear to have
been wrongly transhipped in Singapore, and I have never been
able to trace their whereabouts.

“ After considerable observation and experience I now wish to
state with all frankne s my belief that my work was not carried
on as it should have been, and that the non-existence of ossi-
ferous deposits in the Bornean caverns is very far from being a
proven fact. The inquiry as conducted by myself was not
thorough, and it was unsatisfactory partly because I was in
serious pecuniary difficulties myself, and partly because what I
saw of the poverty of the Government and the remarks I heard
dropped about the folly of expending money on such objects
made me very shy of taxing the Rajah’s liberality. Iwas, and
am still, persuaded that the expense of cave-working in a country
like this would have proved very much heavier than the Rajah
had any idea of, and hence I worked with inadequate support.

‘*Tn the event of those who are interested in the exploration
being desirous of having it continued, I venture to suggest that
the person chosen for the work must either possess considerable
private means or he must be employed at a regular salary ; and
further, that the work should be carried onswith sufficient funds
to render it independent of any assistance the Government here
might afford. Money is so scarce here, and public wants so
many and pressing, that assistance for purely scientific objects is
not to be expected. Coolies are not procurable now under a
wage of 2/. a month, and, owing to the rivers being the only
roads, travelling expenses are heavy. For tools, lights, gun-
powder for blasting, and such preliminary expenses, a sum of 15/.
would be sufficient ; and the monthly working expenses would
vary from 10/. to perhaps as much as 15/., according to the ac-
cessibility of the cave to be explored ; so that for working a cave
for three months a sum of 65/. would probably be required.

“* As I am now employed in the Government service, I do not
think I could undertake the woik unless a formal application
was made to the Rajah for the necessary leave of absence. Even
were leave obtained, I do not suppose that I should continue on
Government pay, and I could not afford to undertake the work
under a salary of 25/. per month. The cheapest way of conducting
the exploration would be to send out a gentleman of independent
means who would do the work for its own sake, and then only
the actual working expenses need be subscribed for. Supposing

remains were ultimately found, the item of freight would have to
be added to the working expenses.

‘*T am induced to write you this leiter from reading a note in
Natore for June 13, 1872, with regard to the Victoria caves, in
which two years of constant but seemingly fruitless work has in
the end proved successful. Trusting that another exploration
may be attempted in this far more important field, and with like
success, I remain, &c., *© A. EVERETT

*©To A. R. Wallace,

“Sarawak, February 1, 1873”

A Fact for Mr. Darwin

THE interesting fact contained in the following passage ap-
pears to me to deserve disinterment from the pages of a very
large book, a work too, which, so far as I know, has never been
translated. It occurs in the “ Expétologie Générale” (Par Duméril
et Bibron, tome vi. p. 467), and I met with it while employed
in working out a collection of reptiles, which I was engaged in
classifying. The passage is as follows :—‘‘Dans les villes
d’Egypte, on rencontre souvent des charlatans exposant a la
curiosité publique des Eryx javelots vivants auxquels, afin de
les faire passer pour des Cérastes, ils ont en le soin d’implanter,
en maniére de corne, audessus de chaque ceil, un ongle d’oiseau
ou de petit mammifére, par le méme procédé que celui qu’on
emploie dans nos fermes pour fixer deux ergots sur la créte de
certains cogs quand on les chaponne.

“« C’est d'apres des individus ayant la téte ainsi armée de deux
fausses cornes, qu’ Hasselquist a fait son Anguis cerastes. Nous
avons dans les collections du muséum des individus dont la téte
porte ainsi des ongles recourbés d’oiseau, avec leur cheville
osseuse, dont l’adhérence 4 la peau est parfaite.”

Here is a fact, not only well authenticated, but capable of
verification, demonstrating such close affinity of intimate structure
and function between animals of different classes, that the skin
appendage of one has been actually engrafted upon the skin of
the other; the claw of a bird has formed perfect union with the
skin of a snake. A good illustration of the affinity between
birds and reptiles pointed out by Prof. Huxley.

I do not notice that statement about the claw of a small
mammal being used for this purpose, because specimens illus-
tra!ing it are not referred to.

The snakes alluded to in the passage are the Eryx FYaculus
(one of the Erycidz or sand-snakes of Dr. Giinther), which is
perfectly harmless: and the Cerastes Hasselguistii, a small but
fierce and venomous viper; both inhabiting Egypt, and the
latter supposed to have been the ‘‘asp” of Cleopatra. The
Cerastes obtains its name from the so-called ‘‘ horns,” peculiar
to the males, which are developed from modified scales over the
centre of each orbit, attaining the length of about half an inch.
The Eryx is about the same size as the Cerastes, for which it is
passed off by the Egyptian snake-charmers, when manufactured
as above described, H, D, Massy

Grenada Villas, Netley, near Sou'‘hampton

The Pheenician Vademecum

Ir is gratifying to see (vol. vii. p. 351) that you express a doubt
whether the Cowrie shells in the Pomeranian barrows must
necessarily, as Wagner supposes, have been brought by the
Phoenicians. Because the earliest Greek historians introduced
the Phoenicians to us they have been employed as a universal
machinery for carrying out all kinds of operations. This theory
is in fact incompatible with our present knowledge of the dura-
tion of the human race, and, we may say, with the relative an-
tiquity of the Phcenician epoch, which can date but little beyond
the historic period. Thus we are led to neglect the evidences of
skulls, weapons, tools, monuments, and languages, which show
that there must have been communica‘ions between distant
regions long before the rise of the Phoenicians. There are
many prehistoric races which had a sufficiently wide distribution
to provide for the dissemination of such a small object 2s the
Cowrie. Among these may be named the dwarf or short races,
of which the Mincopies of the Andamans are a type; the race
now represented by the Agays of the Nile, Avkhass of Cau-
casus (Achivi), and Omagua and Guarani of Brazil; and the
Dravidian race. Populations which could distribute men over
the continents and islands of Europe, Africa, Australia, and the
Americas must have been capable of distributing cowries and
beads without Phoenician intervention. At present the Phoe-

ee ————— —— LLhlhlrlrlh hl ee

oe

April 17, 1873]

NATURE

463

nicians are blocking the road to prehistoric research, as the
Hebrews formerly did. Hype CLAkkE
32, St. George’s Square, S.W.

Earthquake Waves

THE observations at p. 385, on the operation of self-resisting
tide-gauges of the U. S. Coast Survey, in illustrating the pheno-
mena of earthquake waves, suggest the expediency of the same
means being adopted in the basin of the Mediterranean. This
could possibly, by a little correspondence and agitation, be
effected at Naples, Athens, Constantinople, and Alexandria.
The Turkish and Egyptian Governments are very likely to
listen to any representations on behalf of the cause of science.
Although the Mediterranean is considered tideless, there is a
daily fluctuation of two feet in parts of the Levant, but what is
material is that earthquake waves are known to have been mani-
fested at Smyrna,

If our Government could be induced to encourage observa-
tions at Gibraltar and Malta, we should obtain a combination of
points of contact for two allied regions.

4 HypDE CLARKE

Spectrum of Aurora

I wisH to make a correction with reference to my observations
on the spectrum of the aurora, as given by J. R. Capron on
p. 182; for he has credited them with greater accuracy than they
profess to have: I have no doubt that my line No. 5, seen at
wave-length 500 or 510, is the same as Lord Lindsay’s and
Elger’s No. 4, and probably as Procter’s. This is the more
likely, seeing that the two former placed the principal line much
nearer fhe red end than I did ; for I assumed Angstrém’s position
(5567) to be correct. This leaves but one observer of No. 5

(Barker), and possibly his line also is the same; in that case his |

No. 4 will be the same as Lord Lindsay’s No. 3.

I have seen published the following determinations of the
positions of the auroral lines, in addition to those J. R. C. has
given :—

Wave-

length.

Monro dks) Jilleny (5 se. TERR Te 035
No. 2. O. Struve ek) + ise T° 5545
ABESHEOM. is) 05 + REE ren % 5567

German North Polar expedition . zi fa) uh) SOD

Peirce (as reported by Winlock). ns Dy

REspIgny ~ s . fs ouget ce! at

RJ. Bllery. ..... ....> oe se S00

No. 3. Peirce has two lines near here—5315 and 5205 ; the latter

is probably Lord Lindsay’s ‘‘line near E,” and possibly A.
Clark, Jun.’s line also.

Wave-
length.
NoG: berce << + « «) 0) MMOs oc a. AOA:
No. 7. Peirce os ABI

Peirce also gives lines at 545 and 486.
My latest determinations from my own observations are as

follows :—
Wave-length.
606

566

- 5165
» 5015
4625

S16) > ee 4305

I have never seen a line at 532 again.

As to the continuous spectrum, it reaches from No. 2 to No.
"7, being brightest from a little beyond No. 2 to No. 6. This
part of the spectrum does not give me so much the idea of a
true ‘‘continuous spectrum broken up by dark bands,” as of a
-series of bright bands too close to be distinguished.

Sunderland T. W, BACKHOUSE

s
SAPO NH He

Spectrum of Nitrogen
‘IN a paper communicated to the Royal Society by Mr.

‘Arthur Schuster, it is stated that the line spectrum of nitrogen
“may be obtained under all pressures and temperatures if every

trace of oxygen be removed by heating sodium in the vacuum

“tube. 4

I should be glad to learn whether any of your readers have
successfully treated Mr. Schuster’s experiments,

My friend, Mr. Lee, and myself have, on several occasions,
attempted to do so, but always without success.

On heating the sodium we invariably find that an increase of
pressure takes place from the liberation of hydrogen which,
although very greatly lessened, is not entirely removed by drying
the gas with sulphuric acid. On again exhausting we obtain,
with the simple current, a spectrum of lines, not of nitrogen,
but, in every instance, those of the second so-called hydrogen
spectrum first described by Plucker, and afterwards noticed by
Wullner and Angstrém.

This spectrum disappears as soon as the Leyden jar is used,
and only the ordinary hydrogen spectrum is then visible.

The only effect which the sodium appears to produce is the
liberation of hydrogen ; for the same line spectrum can be ob-
tained by exhausting a tube filled with hydrogen, or even with
unpurified atmospheric air.

T was struck by the fact that only a few of the lines given by
Mr. Schuster in his table of wave-lengths coincide with those of
the known spectrum of nitrogen, while many of its most brilliant
lines, including that which is its chief characteristic, the double
green line (wave-length 5005-5002, Thalen) are not represented
in his spectrum.

That the line spectrum of nitrogen can be obtained at all
pressures, has been shown in a paper by Mr. Lee and myself,
which has been scnt elsewhere for publication; but that it can
be obtained at all temperatures, by which, I presume, Mr. Schus-
ter means either with or without the Leyden jar, is certainly
contrary to our experience.

Liverpool C. H. STEARN

Instinct
The Heredity of Instincts

THE following may perhaps serve as a contribution to the
question so much discussed of late concerning the transmission or
acquirement of likes and dislikes amongst the lower animals. It
is ‘an extract from a letter of a brother of mine, an officer in
India :—

“‘T have at present a little tiger-cub, about the size of a
spaniel, a most interesting pet, though it will soon be a dan-
gerous one. He made friends at once with my fox-hound
puppies, and romps with them incessantly. When he sees a
cow ora goat his real nature betrays itself, He has no fear
whatever of any dog ; but, strange to say, is thrown into a parox-
sm of terror at the sight of a kitten or a tiger-skin,.”

This hardly seems to bear out the assumption so commenly
made, that manifestations of this kind must have a history in the
experiences if not of the animal itself, at least of its ancestors.
We can hardly suppose the parents of this cub to have adopted
a frame of mind respecting the race of tigers equivalent to mis-
anthropy amongst ourselves, and the experience of cats or kittens
must be small indeed in the jungles of the Decan.

St. Asaph, N. Wales Je G.

Sense of Direction

In Mr. Darwin’s article in Nature for last week there is a
passage about ‘‘ the sense of direction being sometimes suddenly
disarranged,” that brought to my mind assertions I had frequently
heard made when travelling some years back in the wild parts of
the State of Western Virginia, It is said that even the most
experienced hunters of the forest-covered mountains in that un-
settled region are liable to a kind of seizure; that they may

| ‘lose their head” all at once, and become convinced that they

are going in quite the contrary direction to what they had in-
tended, and that no reasoning nor pointing out of landmarks by
their companions, nor observations of the position of the sun,
can overcome this feeling ; it is accompanied by great nervous-
ness and a general sense of dismay and ‘‘upset ;” the nervous-
ness comes after the seizure, and is not the cause of it. I was
present in a company of hunters when a tale of this ‘‘ getting
turned round ” was told as a good joke against one of the party
—a Nimrod of renown—the leading features of which he was
reluctantly obliged to confess to the truth of, while denying some
minor points that had been added to embellish it, as making him
more ridiculous than he was : it would take up too much of your
space to tell the particulars of the story. The feeling is described
as sometimes ceasing suddenly, and sometimes wearing away
gradually. Would it not be strange if it should appear that
there is a ‘sense of direction” other than an acquired sense of

464

direction the result of unconscious observation, and that some
animals possessed the first in a pre-eminent dezree? The won-
derful faculty hunters possess of finding their way through im-
mense mountainous tracts so thickly wooded that one cannot see
farther than a few yards at a time, may perhaps be accounted
for by this power of unconscious observation alone ; but is it so
easy to account for a sudden derangement of the sense of direc-
tion, and the peculiar distress it occasions, even when there is
no ground for alarm on the score of safety? This appears a
kind of converse of the instance Mr. Darwin gives of the case of
old persons losing their way. HENRY FORDE
The Walk, Lyme Regis, April 6

Destruction of Rare Birds: White Tom Cats

Many of our birds are now protected by law, at certain seasons
of the year. But unhappily rare visitants are mercilessly killed.
Last year a pair of Hoopoes frequented my grounds both in the
spring and autumn. It was a great pleasure to see this bird (of
which Horapollo wrote that it was worthy to be “ the sceptre of
the gods on account of its gratitude”), on the lawn, busily
searching for insects, or alighting on the surrounding trees.
Every lover of nature will sympathise with my household
and myself, in our distress that they have been shot; not even
for the miserable satisfaction of the mere collector, but far worse,
that their plumage might be stuck ona lady’s head-gear. To
shoot storks, spoonbills, bee-eaters, hoopoes, &c., which might
be regular visitants and nest here, is a very different thing from
securing chance arrivals from remote regions, which could never
be naturalised in England.

One of your correspondents wrote recently of the deafness of
white Persian tom cats. I possessed such an one for years which
was not deaf; another, in a house near me, is not deaf, and I
now have a grand fellow, a true Persian, in possession of all his
faculties. A neighbour’s pussy having walked into the house,
with characteristic Oriental hospitality he went to the larder, and
selecting a fish which he doubtless thought would be a donne
bouche for his guest, laid it before his friend, and did not himself
partake of it.

Trebah, Cornwall, March 31

C.F.

Phosphorescence in Wood

Ir some one would be good enough to give me a little infor-
mation concerning the following (to me novel) phenomenof, he
would oblige.

A heap of sticks intended for firing, lay in a corner of out
boiler-house, and among them were some round pieces of Scotch
fir (Pinus sylvestris) about 6 or 8 inches-in diameter, and 18 inches
long. These had been sawn from a pole which had lain out in
the wet, and being consequently rather damp, the cut portions
were pleced in the warm boiler-house to dry. The blocks I
speak of appeared quite sound. From the circumference of
three or four of them the bark was rmbbed off, here and there in
patches, and a few chips were broken away from the edges.
The fresh surface beneath was covered with a thin layer of the
ordinary sticky resin, which so copiously exudes from this and
other trees. When it was dark the steward happened to enter
the boiler-house, and looking towards the sticks he was surprised
to see a pale steady light emitted by some of them. At first he
thought it was the reflection of the moon which shone through
the window. Closer examination, however, proved: (1) that
the moon did not shine on the sticks at all; (2) that the sticks
were self-luminous ; (3) that it was only the Scotch fir blocks
which emitted any light ; (4) that the light was confined to the
resinous surface, exposed beneath the bark and chips; (5) that
the surface beneath the chips (that is where more than the bark
had been removed) was brightest. The steward carried the
block which appeared most brilliant to an outhouse, where it
still continued to ‘‘shine.”’ He then broke off some small loose
chips with his fingers from this block, and each separate chip
sent forth the same steady pale light. My informant states that
the phenomenon was very ‘‘curious.” Perhaps this species of
phosphorescence may not be unusual after all; but not being
well ‘‘up” in the subject, I would with your permission, sir,
merely ask is it common, and if so, how is it explained in the

“instance I mention? I may state that the steward gave me
all the information, I saw the blocks afterwards but not the

curiosity. RICHARD M. BARRINGTON
Fassaroe Bray

NATURE

[Agril 17, 1873

Indices of Journals

PUBLISHERS of periodicals, scientific or other, issue general in-
dices only after intervals of ten or twenty years.
nineteenth year the investigator of bibliography has to turn over
every volume, a fearful was'e of time, I have consulted with the
librarian of this University, and the proposal we have to make is
that the publishers should send, at least to the libraries, a duplicate
copy of the annual index of each j »urnal, or better a revised proof in
slips, to be cut up and pasted into a volume which would thus be
annually extended for nine years, and superseded in the tenth by
the general index. The addition to the expense in a library is
very trifling, and a small payment for the extra copies of the
indices would protect the publishers against loss,

Glasgow University JoHN YOUNG

THE DUTCH SOCIETY OF SCIENCES
fe following account of the history of the Dutch
Society of Sciences at Harlem has been drawn up by
the Secretary, E. H. von Baumhauer, for publication in
England. It shows the progress of science in Holland,
and the great interest taken in its advancement both in
that country and abroad, as proved by the award of so
many valuable gold medals, and by the recent establish-
ment of a central bureau for the exchange and trans-
mission of books ; all which activity is maintained without

any of the expense falling on the scientific members,

In the middle of the last century the greater part of
the aristocracy of Harlem were desirous of finding recre-
ation in physical experiments and scientific reseayches.
Along with several regents of the town they decided in
1752 to establish a self-supporting society, for the col-
lection of written essays, and the bestowal of prizes on
those of meritorious character. At the first meeting, May
21, 1752, the preacher, C. C. H. van der Aa, was appointed
secretary, and many other protectors of the sciences and
learned men in other parts of the country, were invited to
become members, amongst whom were Musschenbrock,
Gambius, Alberti, and others, so that by the end of the
year the Society was already formed of twenty-three
directors and members. The design was to include all
branches of science, and to search for everything neces-
sary for the present and future prosperity of the Republic,
both in its internal and external relations, in peace and
in war. Even communications on theological subjects
were not excluded, treated in such a manner as not to
offend Christians of any sect. The motto of the Society
was Deo et Patrie. By the help of many wealthy persons
the Society was enabled to crown several prize essays,
published in the transactions. In July 1754 the pro-
tectorate was conferred on the young hereditary governor,
William Prince of Orange.

Several very eminent native and foreign men became
members of the Society, and the first volume of the
Transactions was so favourably received that a second
edition was necessary. It was also in great part trans-
lated into German. The prize questions excited much
interest in other countries, so that several were answered
by foreigners. Since 1772 an annual programme has
been published in both Dutch and French.

After an existence of twenty-five years the Society
founded a sub-division, more specially devoted to com-
merce, agriculture, and industry, under the name of the
Commercial Branch. This was the origin of what was
afterwards called the Dutch Society for the Promotion of
Industry, which in 1877 will celebrate its centenary
festival. :

The parent institution continued in a flourishing state
until 1780; but the mournful political situation of the
country for some time after that had a most injurious
effect, so that the very name of this Society was con-
tinually changed. From 1798 it was called the Bavarian
Society. King Louis called himself perpetual President
of the Royal Society of Sciences ; but in 1820, by order of
the Emperor’s Governor, the Prince of Plaisance, the
| name of the Dutch was again adopted, and has been re-

In the ninth or _

a:

$ 6

April 17, 1873]

tained till now. William I. willingly accepted the pro-
tectorate, and his example has been followed by his
successors.

The Secretary Van der Aa, who had been the soul of
the Society from 1751 to 1794, was succeeded by the re-
nowned Physical Professor Martinus van Marum, who at
his death in 1837 was succeeded by the Professor of
Geology, T. G. S. van Breda, who took his dismissal in
1864, when the Professor of Chemistry, E. H. von Baum-
hauer, was appointed to the office.

From 1754 to 1793 the Society published thirty volumes
of Transactions, of which registers by the celebrated
T. T. Martinet were issued in 1773 and 1793. These
Transactions contain essays on all branches of science,
and also many on theology. It was principally through
the influence of Van Marum that since then a more pre-
dominating share has been taken by physical subjects,
From 1799 to 1844 a first series of 24 volumes in octavo,
and from 1841 te 1866 a second series of 25 volumes in
quarto, and 1870 a third series of “ Physical Transac-
tions” have been published by the Society. In 1802 a
volume in octavo of “ Mechanical and Mathematical
Transactions ” was published, and in 1821 and 1822 two
volumes in octavo of *‘ Philosophical Transactions.” From
1815 to 1820three volumes in octavo on literary and archzo-

logical subj and since 1851 2 volumes of * Historical
and Literary Transactions” in quarto have been pub-
lished. The second and third series of “ Physical Trans-

actions” are especially distinguished by the memoirs
written by the most eminent men in Europe, mostly illus-
trated by excellent plates. jf "

The revenue of the Society is derived from the interest
of capital, for which it is indebted to the kindness of the
directors and from the annual subscriptions of the actual
directors. It receives no pecuniary assistance whatever
from the Government.

With these means the Society endeavours to make
known to the world excellent writings on physical sub-
jects, which otherwise would be published with difficulty
on account of their special character and the costliness of
the illustrations. E

Besides supporting such works, the Society encourages
scientific researches, and since 1866 has published a journal
in the French language, edited by the Secretary, under the
title of “Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et
Naturelles,” of which already 7 volumes have appeared.
This journal is destined to make known to the world all
that is produced in the Netherlands and the Dutch pos-
sessions related to physical science. This is of great
service to the Dutch scientific men, since their researches,
being for the most part written in a lan e so little
known generally as the Dutch, would otherwise obtain
only a very partial publicity.

The Society is composed of an indefinite number of

directors, for the greater part gentlemen of wealth and } é ‘
| of which Commission the Secretary of the Society is

social importance, who pay an annual contribution of fifty
gulden (about four guineas) and manage the finances,
which, however, now are especially under the charge of
five directors living in Harlem, presided over by the pre-
sident. There are also sixty native and sixty foreign
members, who are chosen in the General Assembly, held
on the third Saturday of May, from a list of candidates
made by the directors and members. These members
pay no contribution whatever, and receive free all the
publications of the Society. This membership of the
oldest and most important Dutch society is esteemed a
great distinction by learned men. The English members
are Davidson, Davis, Kirkman, Hooker, Lyell, Owen,
Sorby, Tyndall, and Wheatstone. The president of the
Society is chosen every three years by the directors. At
the present time the office is filled by Baron F. W. van
Styrum. When a vacancy occurs in the secretary-
ship, the native members nominate six from amongst
themselves from whom the secretary is chosen by the

NATURE

465

directors. He also acts as treasurer and librarian, and is
the only paid officer, living in Harlem in the magnificent
building belonging to the Society.

The Society exchanges its publications with almost all
the foreign academies and learned institutions, and to
facilitate the interchange of books, the Secretary has
instituted a central bureau in imitation of the American ~
Smithsonian Institute.

As already named, the Society has regularly published
a list of prize questions, the meritorious answering of
which is rewarded by a gold medal of the value of about
twelve guineas, to which may be added an equal sum or
more,in money. At the present time no less than twenty
such medals and prizes are offered for an equal number
of subjects.

At the centennial festival in 1852 the Society offered a
prize of 1000 gulden for the most important work in one
of the branches of physics, which should be published
during the next four years, and a second of 2,000 gulden
for the best in four following years. In the General
Assembly of 1857 it was decided that this latter prize
should not be bestowed upon anyone, but that M. Foucault
should be informed that the Society regretted that his com-
municated discoveries had not happened in the specified
time, but would bestow on him the gold medal as a proof
of the high value placed on his researches. On the con-
trary, the first prize was doubled, on account of the diffi-
culty of deciding between two authors of transmitted
works, M. A. Decandolle of Geneva, and Herr O. Heer of
Zurich, who were both judged to be deserving of the 1,000
gulden offered to each.

In the general assembly of 1869 the Society resolved
that quite independently of the medals bestowed on
crowned prize questions, two new medals should be
established, of the intrinsic value of 500 gulden (about
40 guineas), one to bear the name and image of Huygens, -
and the other those of Boerhaave. These medals will be
bestowed alternately every two years on learned men in
the country or abroad, who shall be thought by the
Society to have made themselves particularly meritorious
during the last twenty years in a fixed subdivision of the
mathematical and physical sciences, by their researches,
discoveries, or inventions. The Huygens medal was ta
be assigned in 1870 to the branch of physics, and will be
assigned in 1874 to chemistry, in 1878 to astronomy, in
1882 to meteorology, and in 1886 to pure and applied
mathematics. :

The Boerhaave medal was to be assigned in 1872 to
geology and mineralogy, and will be assigned in 1878 to
botany, in 1880 to zoology, in 1884 to physiology, and in
1888 to anthropology ; after which the same order will be
repeated over and over again in the case of both medals,
so that one medal will be given every twenty years for
each of ten different subjects. The judgment is to take
place by a Commission to be appointed by the directors,

always to be amember. The award is to be made in the
General Assembly, in accordance with the pre-advice of
the Commission, accompanied with a particular account
of the motives which have led to the choice.

The first Huygens medal was awarded in 1870 to
Rodolph Julius Emmanuel Clausius, Professor at the
University of Bonn, as founder of the mechanical theory
of heat ; and in 1872 the first Boerhaave medal was given
to Henry Clifton Sorby of Sheffield, for having made
himself particularly meritorious by his microscopical re-
searches in connection with geology and mineralogy,
during the last twenty years. y

The portrait of Huygens was taken from a copper-plate
engraving by Edelink, and that of Boerhaave, from an
oil painting by Troost, now in the Academy at Leiden.
Independent of their size (3in, in diameter, 9 oz. troy)
both these medals are most creditable to all parties con-
cerned as fine works of art.

466

NATURE

[ Adrel 17, 1873

ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
VII.

TA SOTRER point was also very obvious to those who
are familiar with these inquiries, namely, that if these
prominences really consisted of gas, by the use ofa powerful
spectroscope it was perfectly unnecessary to wait for
eclipses at all. The reason for this will be clear on a little
consideration ; if we take a continuous or unbroken spec-
trum and apply successively a number of prisms, the
spectrum will become proportionately lengthened, and
therefore more and more feeble, and in fact we can thus
reduce} the light to any degree required ; if now, on the

a
1

hydrogen hytroge h hydrogen

ULNA A

other hand, we take a spectrum which consists only of
bright lines, say of one line in the red and another
in the blue, and as before apply successively a number
of prisms, we shall, it is true, increase the length of
the spectrum, that is the distance between the two
lines, but this will be all; the additional prisms have no
power to alter the width of the lines themselves, for we
have seen that these are simply the images of the slit,
Their light, therefore, will only be slightly enfeebled.
owing to reflection merely. Thus if we have a mixed
light to analyse, part of which comes from a source giving
out a continuous spectrum, and the rest that of a glowing
gas, although when working with a single prism no lines
may be visible on account of the brightness of the con-

|
| | |

hydrogen

p

raagnesium sod tum

Fic. 40.—Spectrum of the Sun’s Photosphere (below) and Chromosphere (above).

tinuous spectrum, yet by using say five or seven prisms
we can so dilute the continuous spectrum as to render the
bright lines of the glowing gas clearly visible. The case
of the red flames round the sun is a case in point. They
jare invisible to the naked eye and in telescopes on account
of the intensely illuminated atmosphere which also pre-
vents anything like bright lines being observed from these
red flames, until the bright continuous spectrum has been
much reduced, when this has been done the bright lines
of the spectrum, should there be any, will appear on a

ara

Cc

& Fic. 41 —C line bright in chromosphere, dark in sun.

comparatively dark background. M. Janssen, who was
sent out by the French Government to observe the
eclipse which was visible in India in 1868, Major Ten-
nant, and others, had no difficulty in recognizing in a
moment, when the sun was eclipsed, that these things
really did consist of gases or vapours, and M. Janssen, a
very careful observer, had no difficulty in determining that
the gas in question was really hydrogen gas. M., Janssen
and myself were also enabled to determine this by obser-

vations on the uneclipsed sun, by means of the new
method I have just sketched out. The accompanying
woodcut (Fig. 40) shows the spectrum which is observed
from these solar prominences. The spectrum of the pro-
minences is shown in the upper, and that of the sun in
the lower half of the engraving. This method is very
easy to understand if you bear in mind the engraving of
the spectroscope for solar work, and recollect that when
we wish to examine the regions round the sun, the light
of the sun is allowed to fall on the slit in such a way that

uP

tl

B
Fic. 42.—F liae in chromosphere, showing widening near the sun.

one half of the slit at the focus of the object glass of the
large telescope is occupied by the brilliant image of the
sun, and the other half is fishing, so to speak, around the
limb or edge of the sun, so that if there is anything
at all around the limb, the spectroscope, in the—to
the eye—unoccupied part outside the image, picks up
this something, and gives us its light sorted out into
its proper bright lines in the spectrum. This spectrum
shows that there is first a bright line, Fig. 41, in

the red, marked C, which is absolutely coincident with
a prominent dark line in the solar spectrum. Now
this is a black line which, by repeated observations, we
know corresponds in degree of refrangibility exactly
with one of the lines given out by glowing hydrozen,
when examined in one of these tubes with the electric
spark. When, therefore, we get any substance around
the sun reporting its light to us, it is perfectly obvious, I
think, that if the bright line really be coincident with this
dark line, that something is probably hydrogen. This
was one of the first lines determined by M. Janssen
in the eclipse of 1868. There is another bright line
absolutely coincident with a dark line known to corre-

spond in refrangibility with another line given out by

| DARK BAND
Wis, :

sure of these circum-solar regions which the spectroscope
has determined to be occupied by an envelope of hydro-
gen gas, mingled sometimes with other vapours, which
envelope I have termed the chromosphere. When the
pressure of the chromosphere is completely determined,
we shall be probably enabled to determine the tempera-
ture of the sun.

A line again in the violet corresponds with a dark
line in the solar spectrum, which is coincident with a
third line of glowing hydrogen which we have before
spoken about, and there is still another coincident
line. A line in the yellow of the spectrum will also
be noticed. This is one which has caused a great
deal of discussion, for it is not coincident with any
line of any known terrestrial substance. A number o!
short lines are also shown in the engraving which will be
seen to correspond to the part of the chromosphere which
is denser, for then the F line of hydrogen has become
broad where these lines are seen ; these lines show that

_ in the layers of the chromosphere nearest to the sun a

number of other substances exist, amongst which may be
mentioned magnesium, iron, and sodium, The reason
that bodies do not reach up so far from the body of the sun
is that their vapours are very much heavier than the gas
hydrogen, which is the lightest terrestrial substance known.
Such are a few of the practical applications of the spec-
troscope as applied to the radiation of light. There are
other classes of facts relating to the absorption of light,
on the consideration of which we shall now enter.

The subject with which we have just been dealing
is the radiation or giving out of light by bodies in
different states—that is to say, by solid or liquid bodies,
or gaseous or vaporous ones. We have now to deal with
the action of the prism upon light under some new con-
ditions—conditions which I purposely withheld from you
in the last lecture. Light is not only given out, or vadi-
ated, but it may be stopped or adsorbed in its passage
from the light-source to our eye, if we interpose in the
path of the beam certain more or less perfectly trans-
parent substances, be they solids, liquids, gases, or
vapours. I will recall one or two of the experiments
which have been already described in order that you

ate ee rr onl ‘elke CP oe ae Pay ™*
? J a nae . é ¥ *
April 17, 1873] NATURE 467

hydrogen in the green part of the spectrum, marked F in
the figure. This, then, is further proof in favour of hy-
drogen ; and now notice a great difference between the
shape of this line and the red line which I drew your
attention to just now. An enlarged representation of this
line is shown in Fig. 42.

You will bear in mind what I told you about the effect of
pressure in altering the spectrum of hydrogen, and that
one of the most obvious effects of increased pressure was
to increase the thickness of what is called the F line—the
line now under consideration, you will see here that the
widening of the F line, the green line of hydrogen, really
indicates a thickening due to pressure. In that way
we have been able to determine approximately the pres-

/N MAGENTA.

a

| iil

a

may see exactly how the perfectly distinct classes of
phenomena due to radiation and absorption really run
together. You will recollect that I pointed out to you
that radiation, or the giving out of light, might be con-
tinuous or might be selective, and I am anxious now to
show you that radiation is exactly equalled by absorption
in this matter; that absorption may also be continuous
or selective. We have before taken as an instance of
continuous radiation a continuous spectrum obtained by
using the electric lamp or a lime-light ; that is to say, an
example of the general radiation which you get from an
incandescent solid—the carbon points of which the poles

Fic. 44.—Method of observing the absorption of a vapour.

of the lamp are composed, or the solid lime. You will
remember that if we take the spectrum of a vapour—as,
for instance, that of strontium or thallium—we find that
the continuous spectrum is altogether changed, and that
in the place of that beautiful rainbow band, continuous
from the red end of the spectrum to the violet, we really
only get lines here and there, which are due to the se-
lective radiation, and opposed to the general radiation
which we spoke of in the continuous spectrum just now.
I might have chosen other substances besides strontium
and thallium, but I mentioned the spectra of these sub-
stances when we were considering the question of radia-

468

tion. What I have to dwell on now is, that the absorption
or sifting of light by different bodies is very like radiation
in its results—that is to say, in some cases we have an
absorption which deals equally with every part of the
spectrum, and in other cases we have absorption which
only picks out a particular part of the spectrum here and
there to act upon. But there is one important point to be
borne in mind; when dealing with absorption we must
always have a continuous spectrum toact upon. Ifwe had
a discontinuous spectrum to act upon, the thing would not
be at all soclear. Having this continuous spectrum, the
problem is, what the action of the different substances on
the light will be. Let me give you an instance of general
absorption. If we take the continuous spectrum above re-
ferred to, and interpose a piece of smoked glass, or better, a
piece of neutral-tint glass, you will find that the substance
will cut off the light and deaden the spectrum, so to speak,
throughout its whole length. This neutral-tinted glass,
then, has the faculty
evidently of keeping
back the light, red, yel-
low, blue, green, violet,
and so on; and is an
instance of general ab-
sorption. A very dense
vapour would furnish
us with another similar
instance. Now, instead
of using the neutral-tint
glass, we will introduce
a piece of coloured
glass, the action of
which, instead of being
general throughout the
spectrum, will be limit-
ed to a particular part
of it. I have now in-
terposed a piece of red
glass, which cuts off
nearly all the light ex-
cept the red; and now
I interpose a piece of
blue glass, which cuts
off everything except
the extreme violet. By
introducing both these
pieces in the beam,
the spectrum is entirely
obliterated.

In these latter cases
we have instances, not
of general, but of selec-
tive absorption, one
substance cutting off
everything but the red,
and the other cutting
off everything but the
violet. Now the fact that we can absorb any definite
part of the spectrum by properly tinted glasses provides
us with a practical application of spectrum analysis in the
manufacture of the coloured glass used for lighthouses or
signals. Further, if astronomers could find a glass of a
certain red, or a glass of a certain green colour, we should
be able to see the solar prominences every day without a
spectroscope.

The first practical application which springs out of
these phenomena of absorption is this, that as different
substances are known by the effects which they produce
on radiation, so also chemists find it perfectly easy to
detect different substances by means of their absorption ;
for instance, the absorption spectrum of nitrous fumes
can be shown by taking first our continuous spectrum,
which we must always have to start with, and intro-
ducing some nitric peroxide between the source of light

Fic. 45.—Absorption spectra of iodine and
nitrous fumes.

NATURE

| April 17, 1873

and the prism. The nitric oxide, immediately it comes in
contact with the air, produces dense red fumes, and num-

bers of fine black lines will be seen immediately crossing _

the spectrum at right angles to its length, and to a certain
extent resembling the solar spectrum with its Fraunhofer
lines. Iodine is another substance which gives a coloured
vapour, the absorption spectrumbof which is very definite
and well defined. Fig. 45, Spectrum No. 1, shows the
absorption spectrum of iodine vapour, and No. 2 that of
nitrous fumes. We are not limited to these substances ;
we will try something else—blood, for instance, about
which I shall have something more to say presently.
We shall find that the action of blood upon the light is
perfectly distinct from the action of those fumes which
we have spoken of; and instead of having typical
lines in the green and blue parts of the spectrum, we have
two very obvious lines in the more luminous part of the
spectrum. The colour of a solution of blood is not un-
like the colour of a solution of magenta ; but if, instead of
using a solution of blood, we use a solution of magenta,
we should have only a single black band. The absorp-
tion spectrum of potassic permanganate solution is an-
other beautiful instance. We have here something totally
unlike anything we had before. Instead of the two dark
bands which we saw in the case of the blood, or the single
band in the case of magenta, we have four very definite
absorption bands in the green part of the spectrum. So
that you see the means of research spectrum analysis
affords as far as regards radiation, is entirely reproduced
in the case of absorption, and it is perfectly easy, by
means of the absorption of different vapours and different
substances held in solution, to determine not only what
the absorbers really are, but to determine the presence of
an extremely small quantity. Further, by allowing the
light to pass through a greater thickness of the absorbing
substance, the absorption lines are thickened and new
regions of absorption are observed. This fact was dis-
covered by Dr. Gladstone, who used hollow prisms con-
taining the substance.
J. N. LOCKYER

(To be continued.)

PROFESSOR ZOLLNER ON THE CONNECTION
BETWEEN COMETS AND METEORS

PROEESSOR F, ZOLLNER alludes in the com-
mencement of his-paper read before the members of
the “‘Kon; Sachs., Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften” to the
epoch which Schiaparelli’s discovery of the concordance
of the orbits of some small comets with those of peri-
odically returning showers of shooting stars has made in
the astronomical world. He quotes an instance in proof
of this, namely, Biela’s Comet. On November 27, last
year, the earth was crossing the exact spot in her orbit,
which had been cut by Biela’s Comet two and a half
months before. Observers aware of the coming event
were on the alert with their instruments, but no good
results were obtained owing to the unfavourableness. of
the weather.

From these facts, he says, we must naturally conclude
that the physical constitution of these bodies is the same,
and we are strengthened in our conclusions by Schia-
parelli’s discovery of the identity of the envelopes and
tails of comets with clouds of meteors seen by reflected
sunlight, the separate elements of which only become
visible at a shorter distance.

Observations, however, with the spectroscope, con-

Te

tradict this assumption; the light given out by comets. -

is found not to correspond with that of the Sun; itisa
light peculiar to them, like that of a glowing gas.

Further on he quotes Schiaparelli’s own words to some
length, with respect to the attraction exercised by other
bodies on the matter composing the nuclei of comets,

‘ ba !

*

April 17, 1873]

NATURE

469

which is drawn from them in directions other than that of
their orbits. Schiaparelli maintains most distinctly that
the tails of comets and meteoric aggregates are not
identical.

Professor Zéllner points out that if we are not to
suppose that the physical constitution of both phenomena

is the same, there only remains their identity of origin
as an explanation of the remarkable coincidence of these

bodies in space. Pursuing this argument and accepting
its veracity, there is no reason to disbelieve the materials
of which they are formed, to be the same. Schiaparelli
supposes the nuclei of comets to consist of a solid sub-
stance, which being subject to a kind of “ weathering pro-
cess,” finally becomes broken up into separate pieces,

which are turned into a meteoric swarm by the attraction

and atmospheric resistance of a large planet. To this
effect he again quotes Schiaparelli. Further on he ex-

_ presses it as his opinion that comets and meteorites are

the remains of planets, the former being their fluid and
the latter their solid constituents. It must be left to
future observers to decide whether the apparent disappear-
ance of Biela’s comet has any connection with the rich

fall of stars observed on November 27, last year.

It is possible that the vapour left in consequence of the
gradual evaporation of a comet would condense, in the
absence of any powerful centre of attraction, into a num-
ber of separate centres, as a cloud is dissolved into rain-
drops on the increase of cold. In this way the condensed
portions of cometary vapour would present the pheno-
menon of numerous shooting stars as they penetrate the
aos atmosphere in a solid or perhaps still fluid con-

ition.

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL RESEARCHES ON THE
AQUATIC ARTICULATA*

i N NATUuRE, vol. iv. p. 245, we gave a brief notice of some
investigations M. Plateau had been making on the
above subject. Since that time he has been continuing

his researches in the same direction, and sends us an

abstract of the results so far as concerns three problems
in the life of aquatic Articulata.

I, Experiments to ascertain the length of time that
aquatic insects can remain under water without coming
to the surface to breathe.

The swimming aquatic Articulata which breathe air
come frequently to the surface to renew their supply. The
questions, How long may they with impunity remain sub-
merged? what is their power of resisting asphyxia, as
compared with that of terrestrial insects? are answered
by the following experiments. At the bottom of an open
vessel, of one litre capacity, full of ordinary fresh water,
is placed a very small vessel, containing about 200 cubic
centimetres. A piece of cotton netting so covers the
mouth of the latter, that an insect, placed in the small
vessel, is in reality in the general mass of the water, but
cannot ascend to the surface. Terrestrial insects placed
in these conditions, impelled by their specific lightness,
rise to the lower surface of the network ; the movements
of their legs soon cease, they do not appear to suffer,
and they quickly grow torpid. The Coleoptera and aquatic
Hemiptera, on the contrary, instead of submitting pas-
sively to their fate, endeavour to quit their prison, swim
rapidly about, exert themselves to come to the surface,
and keep struggling until their strength is enfeebled, and
end by lying at the bottom as if dead.

In order to recover from its state of general torpidity
an insect which has been submitted to prolonged immer-
sion, it is necessary, after having taken it out of the water,
to place it upon absorbing paper. If the time of its
immersion has not passed a certain limit, the animal
gradually recovers its energy, retaining no sensible

* By M. Felix Plateau,

trace of the experiment to which it has been submitted.
M. Plateau repeated the experiment upon many indi-
viduals and for various lengths of time, for the purpose of
discovering, in the case of each species, the limit of time
beyond which immersion caused the death of the insect.
He arrived at two curious conclusions, supported by a
great number of trials :—

1. The terrestrial Coleoptera recovered from complete
submersion continued for a very long time, in several
cases for 96 hours. 2. The aquatic swimming Coleoptera
and Hemiptera, far from presenting a greater resistance to
asphyxia by submersion than the terrestrial insects, in
most cases succumbed very much sooner.

The cause of this unexpected inferiority in the case of
the aquatic insects M. Plateau thinks is due exclusively
to their greater activity in the water, causing as a conse-
quence a more rapid loss of oxygen.

II. Influence of Cold: Effects of Freezing.

The results of M. Plateau’s experiments in this direc-
tion are that the aquatic Articulata of the latitudes of
Belgium exist for an indefinite period in water maintained
at zero (centigrade) by means of melting ice ; while they
cannot remain alive in ice for any length of time—not for
half an hour at the utmost. The latter phenomenon ap-
pears to be accounted for by the fact that the insects are
completely deprived of all power of motion, thereby
losing completely their animal heat.

III. Action of Heat.

Under this head M. Plateau tries to show the maximum
temperature of water in which fresh-water Arachnoids can
live. He finds that the highest temperature they can
endure without injury oscillates between 33°°5 and 46°2
centigrade. Comparing these results with those which
have been obtained by experimenting with animals be-
longing to other groups, M. Plateau finds that the greatest
temperature which aquatic vertebrata, articulata, and
molluscs can support probably does not exceed 46° centi-
grade.

NOTES

WE have received a communication from Dr. Rein, Director
of the Lenckenberg Society of Naturalists at Frankfort, which
amusingly illustrates the perils that accompany the honours of
the translation into a foreign language of a scientific work.
Our informant relates that the well-known publisher, M. R.
Oppenheim, of Berlin, having recently obtained the sanction of
Mr. Poulett Scrope for the publication of a German translation
of his work on ‘‘ Volcanoes,” of which a new issue lately ap-
peared in this country, confided the work of translation to
Prof. G. A. von Kléden, who accordingly performed the task.
The translation was printed, together with a preface written by
M. von Kléden himself—which preface, in the hurry of business,
and in reliance, of course, on the good faith of the translator,
the publisher forebore from examining. The volume in due
course appeared, and was circulated by the publisher ; and not
till then was it discovered that the preface aforesaid consisted of
a severe and indeed bitter critique of the work to which it was
prefixed, and of the author’s views as therein stated of the
theory of volcanic energy, and its external development in the
formation of cones and craters, &c. The explanation is that
Prof. yon Kléden happens—unluckily for the author whose work
he undertook to translate—to have been all his life an earnest
advocate and teacher of the famous ‘‘Erhebungs-Krater,” or
‘upheaval crater” theory of Humboldt and Von Buch, which
Mr. Scrope, together with Sir C. Lyell, Constant Prevost, and
other geologists have persistently opposed, and are, we believe,
generally considered to have satisfactorily refuted. Of course it is
open to Prof. von. Kléden to expound and defend his own opinion
on this subject to the fullest extent in any independent publication ;
but it does seem to be stretching the liberty of free expression on

470

scientific questions in an unprecedented manter, when a gentle-
man employed to translate a scientific work takes advantage of
the opportunity to append to the translation, in the disguise of
a preface, a pamphlet of nineteen pages containing’an elabo-
rate refutation, according to his own ideas, of the bulk of
the views contained in the work itself. Mr. Scrope, we
understand, on becoming aware of this strange conduct of
Prof. von Kléden, has endeavoured to meet the attack thus
unfairly made on his work, by circulating as widely as pos-
sible through the scientific world of Germany, a translation of
his essay on the formation of volcanic cones and craters, origi-
nally read before the Geological Society of London in February
1859, and published in the journal of the Society for that year,
a paper in which the theory of “ Erhebungs-Kratere” was
amply discussed. But even here the author appears to have
had but scant justice done to him, if it be true, as Dr. Rein
assures us, that ‘*the German of this translation is very bad |’?

AN Icelandic gentleman sends to the Scotsman an account of
the eruption of the Skaptar Jokull in Iceland, which took place
in January last, On January 9, about three o’clock A. M., there
was observed from Reykjavik a great fire in the E,N.E. The
fire shot up like lightning, displaying beautiful evolutions in
combination with the electricity above. So bright was it,
that during the dark morning hours it was thought it must be
very close to Reykjavik. But when daylight dawned, and the
mountains could be discerned, a thick and heavy column of
vapour or steam was observed far in the background, beyond all
the mountains, so that it was clear that it was far off, and,
according to the direction, it seemed most likely to be in Skaptar
Jokull, the west part of Vatna Jokull—the great waste of glaciers
in the east and south of the island. Morning and night this
grand display was visible during the gth, roth, 1th, and 12th,
and during the day the columa of steam and smoke stood high
in the sky. All agreed that the eruption must be in Skaptar
Jokull, and from various observations it was concluded that the
position of the crater ought to be between 67° 7’ and 67° 18’
deg. north lat., and 30° 45’ and 30° 55’ west long. from the
meridian of Copenhagen. In the east, near Berufjord, some
shocks were felt, and fire was seen from many farms. Ashes,
too, had fallen over the north-east coast so abundantly that
pasture fields were covered, and the farmers had to take their
sheep into the huts and feed them. In the south, however, no
earthquakes were felt, or noises heard in the earth, as far as
Markarfljol (near Eyjafjalla Jokull). Nowhere has been ob-
served any fall of ashes or dust, but all aver a bad smell was
felt, which was also the case in Reykjavik on the forenoon of
the roth. At Reykjavik the air was felt to be very close, with
a smell of sulphur and powder. No change was observed in the
sun, moon, &c. The sky was clear all these days. The direction
of the wind was from N. W.—W.S.W., and the weather fine.

Baron Lizzie is seriously ill, and on the rsth inst. there had
been a great change for the worse in his condition,

ON Tuesday, Dr. James Murie, late Prosector to the Zoolo-
gical Society, was unanimously elected by the Town Council of
Edinburgh, Professor of Anatomy and Zootomy to the Vete-
rinary College of that city, wice Professor Davidson, M.D.,
deceased.

PROF. ANSTED, whose unfortunate accident we noticed last
week, has recently received from the King of the Greeks the
brevet and insignia of the Hellenic order of the Sauveur, of
which he has been nominated an officer, in recognition of his
Services in reference to the Laurium question,

M. Loewy has been elected a member of the French Academy
of Sciences in room of the late M. Delaunay.

A COMMITTEE was formed last autumn with a view to secure

NATURE
nie a eee

| April 17, 1873.

some provision for the five children who were left unprovided for
by the untimely death of Mr. John Cargill Brough. A meeting —
of this Committee was held at the London Institution on Tues-
day last, and the report of the Honorary Secretaries showed that
the subscriptions amounted to a sum which, after deducting all —
expenses, will stand at nearly 2,000/. In this sum are included
a grant of 150/. from the Royal Bounty Fund, 200/. contributed
by members of the Savage Club, and nearly 400/. collected in ©
answer to an appeal to the Pharmaceutical Chemists. A deed
of trust of the usual character was approved by the Committee,
and trustees were appointed. Votes of thanks were passed to —
Mr. McArthur, M.P., who has. ;
Hospital, to Mr, Deputy Webster, and to Sir John Lubbock,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S., who has kindly acted as treasurer of the

fund. The secretaries stated, in concluding their report, that a

the names of the gentlemen who have acted on the Committee,
as well as the kindly expressions of sympathy which have from
time to time reached them, afford evidence of the respect and
affection in which Mr, Brough’s memory is held.

AMONG the candidates for the Professorship of Anatomy to.
the Royal Academy are Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S., and
Mr. John Marshal, F.R.S.

Dr. B. W. RICHARDSON, F.R.S., has been elected by the
President and Council of the Royal Society, Croonian Lecturer
on the subject of muscular motion. .

THE third part of the great map of Switzerland (‘Topo-
graphischer Atlas der Schweiz ”), containing the sheets Binnen-
thal, Helsenhorn, Andermatt, Six Maduna, S. Gotthard, Faido,
Olivone, Hinterrhein, Mesocco, Jungfrau, Adelboden, and
Lenk, has recently been issued at Berne. These sheets are all
on the scale of gy. Those called Andermatt and S. Gott-
hard have a special and general interest at the present time from
embracing the course of the Great St. Gotthard tunnel, and ex-
hibit in the clearest manner, by means of their contour lines,

the nature and altitudes of the overlying land. Thirty-eight
sheets are now published out of the 546 which will compose this

magnificent map,

Mr. E. L. Layarp, H.M. Consul at }Para, well known
for his zoological researches in different parts of the world,
has returned to England, resigned his consulate in that
place, and accepted the charge of the British interests in the
Fiji Islands. During the short time he has held his office in
South America, he has made a valuable collection of birds, of
which we understand an account will be given in one of the
forthcoming numbers of the Zéz5,

THE new gate to the Zoological Society’s Gardens in the
Albert Road, opposite Primrose Hill, and the new canal bridge,
opened on Easter Monday for the first time, were found very
convenient to those of the 42,320 visitors on that day who ©
arrived from the north, as they were saved the trouble of going
over the rather out-of-the-way bridges of the Regent’s Canal,
which they previously had to do. ;

WE understand that Mr. Severzow, a well-known Russian
naturalist of Moscow, is preparing a work on the zoology of the
vertebrata of Turkestan, which will be accompanied with illus-
trations of the new and interesting species which haye been the
first-fruits of the new Russian Expedition and Annexations in
that part of Asia, :

THE Lucasian Professor of Mathematics (Mr. Stokes) at Cam-
bridge, will deliver a course of lectures on hydrostatics, hydro-
dynamics, and optics, commencing Friday, April 25, and they
will be continued, with a few exceptions, on all week days except
Thursday, at the hour of x p, M., in the New Museum. Gentle-
men who wish to attend are requested to leave their names with
Messrs. Deighton, Mr, J. W. Clark will commence his osteo-

given a presentation to Christ’s —

il 17, 1873]

logical demonstrations in the Museum of Zoology and Compara-
tive Anatomy, on May 12. The Demonstrator of Comparative
Anatomy will resume his class for practical work on May 1, and
continue the same on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. Courses
of lectures on History, Languages, and the various sciences,

will be delivered at Cambridge to women during the Easter
Term. The fee for each course is one guinea, but a reduc-
tion of one-half may be obtained on application by persons

engaged in or preparing for the profession of education.
WE hear that a Natural History Society and Field Club is

about to be formed among the members of the Working Men’s
- College, Great Ormond Street. The list of classes in the Col-

lege for the term commencing April 21, announces a series of
Saturday afternoon geological excursions, under the guidance of
Mr. Logan Lobley, F.G.S. A course of lectures in Physiology
is to be begun by Mr. S. D. Darbishire, M.A., Ball. Coll. Oxf.
Mr. T. Hughes, M.P., who is now the Principal, will preside
at the meeting with which the term opens on Monday evening
next, and to which the public are admitted.

WE have received from Prof. Cope several photographs of the
cranium of theShugh horned Proboscidians of Wyoming, named
by him Zoxolophodon cornutus. This geaus differs from Dino-
ceras of Marsh, which it very closely resembles in all respects,
in having the nasal horn cores flat and horizontal, overhanging
the apices of the nasal bones. The maxillary horn cores are also
proportionately longer, and are not a continuation in direction of
the enormous canine teeth, but are turned somewhat forward.
Prof. Cope divides the short-footed Ungulates, or Proboscidians
of the North American Eocene, into two families, the Eobasi-
liidze and the Bathmodontidz, the former possessing no incisors
and no third trochanter to the femur, the latter having the fall
complement of incisors and a rudimental third femoral tro-
chanter. He further divides up the Eobasiliidz: into the genera
Loxolophodon, Eobasileus, Uintatherium, and Megaceratops,
and the Bathmodontide into Bathmodon and Metalophodon.
From a comparison of the photographs above mentioned with
Prof. Marsh’s drawing of Dinoceras mirabilis, we fail to see any
points sufficient to justify their generic separation. On pho.
tograph shows clearly that in the molar teeth the outer wall was
not present, and that the transverse ridges were fully developed,
being straight but; not parallel, meeting on the inner border
of the tooth to form a >-shaped surface.

THE Museum of Comparative Zoology, of Cambridge, U.S.,in
addition to the Bulletin of its proceedings, issues a series of
“Tilustrated Catalogues,” in small folio form. In this several
valuable papers have already appeared ; but by far the finest and
most important is one just out of press entitled “A Revision of
the Echini,” by Alexander Agassiz. This embraces an exhaustive
account of the bibliography of the subject, as well as its
synonymy, followed by detailed descriptions of the genera and
species, both as regards the external form and internal anatomy.
It is illustrated by forty-nine plates, of which seven represent the
geographical distribution of the various groups of Echini, the
remainder being devoted to representations of the species. A
very important experiment has been made in this work as to the
availability of different methods of photographic printing for
natural history work, and, we may indeed say, with complete
success. About one-third of the illustrations of species are
crayon drawings on stone, one-third are Albert-types, prepared
under the direction of Mr. E. Bierstadt, of New York, and the
remainder are Woodbury-types, executed by Mr. John Carbutt,
of Philadelphia. Nothing can exceed the perfection of finish
and detail of the plates prepared by both these methods, and we
are sure the work will mark an era in the history of scientific
publications, The expense of even an approximation to the

“accuracy of these figures, on stone or metal, would have been

enormous.

NATURE

471

THE Special Correspondent of the Daz/y News on board the
Challenger, writing from St. Thomas on the 24th ult., states that
the vessel was to proceed on her voyage that afternoon. All
the scientific staff had been busy, and a large collection of inte-
resting and beautiful objects had been mate. On the previous
Saturday morning the Chad/enger stood out to sea for the purpose
of making magnetic observations, returning in th: afternoon, and
mooring in the inner harbour in readiaess to sail the next day.
Late in the evening, however, the Cha/lenger acted the Good
Samaritan to a dilapidated ship and her crew, lying fifteen
miles off.

ProFEssoR AGASSIZ sends us part of the correspondence which
took place between himself and Mr. Anderson, the gentleman
who made the princely gift of a beautiful island and 50,000
dollars to Prof. Agassiz, referred to in the Jetter from a New
York correspondent in last week’s Nature. The whole affair
has been gone about in the most simple and modest way by
Mr. Anderson, who, in a letter to the Professor, hopes the
school to be established on Penikese Island ‘‘may be des-
tined in future ages not only to afford the required in-
struction to the youth of our own country, bat may be the
means of attracting to our shores nimerous candidates from
the Old World, who may find here, in the school to be esta-
blishe 1 by you, those means of fitting themselves for the teaching
of Natural History by Nature herself, which, by a strange over-
sight, appear to have been overlooked in the schemes (generally
so well conceived and executed) of education there.”

THE course of twenty-four lectures on Zoology, given during
the past winter by Mr. J. E. Taylor, F.G.S., in the Museum,
Ipswich, has been a great success. Every Friday night the
great hall and galleries have been crowded, the audiences in-
creasing as the lectures advanced, so that latterly upwards of
500 people have been in the habit of attending—a very satis-
factory audience for a town of the size of Ipswich.

M. FAYE has written to contradict a report in the Revue
Scientifique that he had demitted his post of President of the
Commission on the Transit of Venus, because he saw that the
necessary instruments would not be ready in time. He was com-
pelled to take this step on account of his many other public
duties, and declares that he has no doubt whatever of the suc-
cess of the French preparations.

M. BorLtot, in making some experiments with ozone, has
discovered that a litre of pure oxygen yields only 7 milligrammes
of ozone, while the sam2 quantity of air gives 37 milligrammes.
Thus, Zes Mondes says, oxygen mixed with air is in a condition
more favourable to its being converted into ozone.

AccorDING to the American Artisan, measures are pending
at Washington seeking to secure an international coinage of
silver, tor tae immediate use of nations in America and Europe,
now embracing a population of more than ene hundred and
sixty millions, and for the even‘ual use of all the civilised
countries of the world.

Mr. W. F. Denninc of Bristol sends us the following
meteorological notes. A correspondent writes him that, on No-
vember 27, 1872, he was in la itude 43° 24’ north, and longitude
13° 55’ west, when at about 54 30™ to 64 he witnessed a magni-
ficent shower of meteors, which continued without intermission
till nearly $4, Most of them were colourless, but some were
tinted with a pale bluish hue. The seeming directions were
from about N.E. by E., true, to S.W. by W., but the sky ap-
peared so full that ir was hard to tell. On April 6, at 9h 8", a
meteor nearly as bright as Venus was observed by Mr. Denning
at Bristol. Beginning of observed path=R.A. 83°, D. 43°+,
end of ditto = R.A. 56°, D. 31°+, length of path = 24°,
Duration 1°5 sec. Mr. Denning observed displays of aurora

472

NATURE

we Th ey” it ees ai et

vee Can:

Pease Wi
le Gh lis

ae

[April 17, 187 |

.

borealis on the evenings of April. 1 and 2. On April 1
it was first noticed at 84 4go™) when an intense auroral

glow pervaded the N. sky and gave an effect similar to moon- |

rise. At851™a broad streamer became visible, reaching a
height of 11°. This streamer was situated 2° N. of B Cassiopeiz,
and appeared to be connected with an auroral arch under Cassi-
opeia, running from N.W. to N. On the following evening,
April 2, the auroral light was again intense in due N.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week include a Bacha Eagle (.Spilornis bacha) from Malacca,
presented by Mr. W. Jamrach; a Madagascar Porphyrio
(Porphyrio Madagascariensis) from Madagascar, presented by
Miss Furlonger ; a Cuttle-fish (Octopus vulgaris) presented by
the Brighton Aquarium Co.; a great grey Shrike (Lanius
excubitor) presented by Mr. Hawkins; a Crested Pelican
(Pelecanus crispus) from S, Europe, presented by Dr. Doyle;
a Vulpine Phalanger (P/ialangista vulpina) ; a great Kangaroo
(Macropus giganteus) ; a yellow-footed rock kangaroo (Petrogale
xanthopus) ;and some Tibetan Wolves (Camis daniger) born in
the Gardens ; two Hunting Crows (Cissa venatoria) from India ;
a Cocoi Heron (Ardea cocot) from the W. Indies; a Broad-
banded Armadillo (Xexurus unicinctus) from Brazil ; two Rock
Whiting ; a Whiting Pout, two Lump-fish, and six Bream all
purchased.

‘THis battery is founded on a reaction, brought by the
authors before the Royal Society} last spring, in which it
was shown that if pieces of copper and silver, in contact, were
immersed in copper nitrate solution in presence of oxygen, a
deposit of cuprous oxide took place on the silver plate with a
corresponding solution of the copper plate, resulting from the
decomposition of the copper nitrate in the manner shown in the
following formulz :—
Before contact is made

mAg | O | Cu2NO, | Cu2NO, | nCu
After contact
mAg | Cu,O | Cu2NO, | Cu2NO, | (n-2)Cu

It is evident that this action is continuous until either the
copper or the oxygen is exhausted.

It was stated in that paper, that a galvanic current passed
through the solution from the copper to the silver, and also that
this was only one case of a large class of similar reactions.

The battery takes the form of a shallow circular vessel con-
taining the solution, and the plates are arranged horizontally, the
silver plate being at the surface. It will be apparent on glancing
at the above equations, that the combination of the oxygen only

takes place in the neighbourhood of the silver; hence it was
evidently desirable to increase as much as possible the proximity
of the silver plate to the air, and also the surface exposed by the
silver. This was accomplished as shown in the adjoining
sketch. The silver has the; form of a shallow tray, full of
crystals of silver, and perforated to allow the circulation of the
copper solution. The tray is arranged so that the crystals
should just rise above the surface, and being, of course, always
wet, they very much increase the absorbing surface of the liquid,

* Abstract of paper read at the Royal Society, Thursday, April 3, by

J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S., and Alfred Tribe, F.R.S.
t Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 20, p. 290.

The whole arrangement is put upon a wooden stand, and the
plates are attached to two uprights fixed in the stand.

The strength of the copper nitrate solution is 6 percent. This
gives about the maximum of effect ; a 24 percent solution gives _
only half the current; and a 30 per cent solution gives two-

thirds, A solution stronger than 6 per cent. is also apt to pro-
duce a deposit of subnitrate instead of suboxide. :

The best proportionate areas of the silver and copper-plates
was investigated in two series of experiments, in one of which
the silver remained the same, while the copper surface was
diminished by varnishing, and in the other set the copper remained
the same while the silver was diminished. The following table
gives the results in the latter case.
of a Thomson’s galyanometer :—

The deflections are those

Ss

Proportion of Surfaces. Deflection.

Copper Silver. Expt. 1 | Expt. 2. Expt, 3.
1
I 0°25 = — 7
I o'5 — — 16"0
I 0°75 — _ 21°0
I ro aoe 32° 28°90
I 1°33 4r 40° =
I 2'0 56° 54° —_—
I 4/0 96° 92° —

It thus appears that an increase in area of the silver plates
causes a proportionate increase in the current. It was also
found that heat greatly increases the activity of this cell, a cell
giving a deflection of 40 at 20° C., gave one of 250 at 50°C. ;
and the increase in the higher degrees of this range of tempe-
rature was much greater than in the lower.

From the nature of the reaction it might be expected that the
current would gradually diminish on account of the using up of
the oxygen in the neighbourhood of the silver. Such a dimi-
nution always does take place at first—agitating the liquid
ought, under these circumstances, to increase the action, It
does so, ’ :

It might also be expected that upon breaking contact for some
time, so as to allow oxygen to diffuse itself from other parts of |
the solution, the current upon again making contact would be as
strong, or nearly so, as before. This also was found to be
the case.

An experiment was made by putting a cell, with plates con-
nected by a wire, under a bell-jar full of air over mercury. It
was expected that the mercury would rise inside the jar from
absorption of the oxygen. The mercury did rise, and the
oxygen was so completely removed that a lighted taper was im-
mediately extinguished in the remaining gas. The apparatus
used in this experiment was exhibited to the Royal Society.

Comparative experiments were made with aérated and des
aérated copper nitrate slution, It was found that the amount
of action ia the latter case was little or nothing, and what small 4
action there was was clearly attributable to the difficulty of com-
pletely excluding air. |

Two experiments were made alike in all respects, except that —
in one case the cell used was filled with a solution simply de-
prived of oxygen, while the other cell was filled with a soluion
through which a current of C O, was passed for sometime. The
first was placed in the air, and gave a deflection of 110 rising to
115, but the second was placed in a vessel full of carbonic acid
gas, and gave a deflection of 20, which gradually fell to 3. H

It was proved experimentally that the cuprous oxide deposited
on the silver was compensated by an equivalent soluiion of the
copper plate. The cuprous oxide is sometimes deposited in
crystals visible to the naked eye, and shown by a lens to be __
regular octahedra, |

One cell having plates two inches in diameter was found suffis
cient to decompose such metallic salts as the nitrates of copper,
silver, and lead, platinum being used for the negative electrode,
and for the positive the same metal as existed in the salt experi-
mented on. Six cells were sufficient to decompose dilute sul-
phuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid pretty quickly, copper
electrodes being employed.

The theoretical interest of this battery lies in the fact that it
differs from all other galvanic arrangements, inasmuch as the
binary compound in solution is incapable of being decomposed

aft mail J

eee eee ee
ipril 17, 1873]

either by the positive metal alone or by the two metals in con-
_ junction, without the presence of another body ready to combine
_ with one of its elements when Jet free.

Grove’s gas battery is essentially different from this, if the

_ oxygen and hydrogen condensed on the platinum plates play the

part of the two metals ; but it closely resembles this if hydrogen
acts the part of the positive metal, and platinum that of the
negative ; the dilute sulphuric acid will then be decomposed on

account of the simultaneous presence of the oxygen which can

combine with the liberated hydrogen. Viewed in this manner,
Grove’s gas-baitery is only a special case of the reaction men-
tioned in the communication to the Royal Society, and the
formulze will be—

Before contact—

mPt|0.|H,SO,|nH
After contact—
mPt| H,O | H,S0O, | (n—2)H.'

The practical interest of this arrangement lies in the fact that
it is an approximation towards a constant air-battery. Should it
ever come into use it would, of course, not be in the form de-
scribed in this paper, but probably in a combination of copper
and zinc, with an aérated solution of zinc chloride, which has
an electro-motive force six times that of the silver-copper cell,
and three quarters that of a Daniell’s cell. Chloride of zinc is
preferable to the sulphate, as it offers less internal resistance,
and a solution of 20 per cent. is about the best conductor. A
single cell of this kind decomposes dilute sulphuric or hydro-
chloric acid, with copper electrodes,

The power is thus obtained at a minimum of expense, for the
oxygen which combines with the zinc costs nothing.

Such a battery would appear to be specially applicable to
cases where the galvanic current has to be frequently broken, as
in telegraphy, for, at each period of rest, it renews its strength
by the absorption or diffusion of more oxygen from the sur-
rounding air.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie.—The second number of this
journal for 1872 scarcely possesses the same scientific value
as former numbers. We have, first, the concluding part of
Dr. E. von Martens’ lecture, read before the Anthropological
Society of Berlin, December 1871, on the different uses of the
Conchylia. The paper is characterised by true Germanic ex-
haustiveness, but it indicates a want of appreciation on the part
of the author of the relative value of authorities, ambiguous
allusions in Longfellow’s ‘‘ Hiawatha” being adduced as evi-

_ dence, side by side with the statements of scientific travellers.

Dr. Martens passes in review every use to which shells have
been put in ancient or modern times, and in civilised or uncivi-
lised countries —Dr. Robert Hartmann continues his notice of
the remains found in the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, and
draws attention to the absence of the domestic cat from the more
ancient fauna of Europe. The most numerous animal remains
belong to the common European stag (Cervus elephas), but are
of colossal size, and so nearly akin to Cervus Canadensis as to
raise the question whether the C. e/ephas of the Swiss Lake de-
posits may not be identical with C. canadensis. No trace of rein-
deer has been discovered, although that animal was common in
Switzerland during the glacial period.

In the third number (1872) of the journal, we have an inte-
resting report of the remains of pile dwellings in the Archipelago
of North Celebes, which have been examined by the Dutch
“Assistant Resident,” J. G. F. Riedel. The paper is illus-
trated with drawings of these huts, and of the different types of
head most commonly observed among the North Celebes tribes
in the present day. It would appear that the Aborigines were
not lake-dwellers. The Toun Singals, however, who were of
foreign origin, and arrived in the country between the 12th and
13th centuries, although they at first dwelt on the strand of the
present Negeri Atep, soon left their original settlements, and
built themselves pile-huts on ‘the great Minahasa Lake, where
they were secure from the pursuit of the robber tribes of Djai-
lolo, whose incessant attacks had been the chief incentive to
their immigration. The remains of these lake-dwellings give
evidence of their solidity, for Herr Riedal found that the piles
were for the most part 3ft. in diameter, and 2o0ft. in height
above the surface of thelake ; the length of each hut was nearly

NATURE

473

7oft., and the breadth goft. Among other events the en-
forced conversion to Christianity of the Toun Singals in 1830
has separated them still more from the habits of their race, and
the memory of the older pile-dwellings seems to be fast dying
out among them.

Dr. Bastian gives us in the third number a very complete and
carefully elaborated paper on Comparative Philology. He begins
by treating of the physiological formation of speech ; and of the
widely differing groups of emotions which respectively find ex-
ression in vocals and in consonants. He passes in review the
various nations, whose original language exhibits a preponderance
of either of these distinctive characters. Among the older races
of America and Africa consonants largely predominate, while in
the Malay Polynesian dialects vocal sounds are strongly in the
ascendent. The phonetic character of a language influences its
grammatic peculiarities,

Herr Rade, who has spent eight years in endeavouring to dis-
cover among the Kaukasian tribes some fixed type of their
nation, finds from his prolonged investigation of living and dead
skulls that the mingling of races has been so continuous in these
regions, that it is impossible any longer to recognise the ‘* Kau-
kasian Race” as it was defined by Blumenbach. Herr Rade has
hitherto failed in detecting certain evidence of the existence of
Lacustrine dwellings in any of the Kaukasian lakes which he
examined,

Dr. Virchow, at a recent special meeting of the Anthropolo-
gical Society of Berlin, read an interesting paper on the results
of a series of explorations made by himself and his sons in the
course of last year in the little island of Wollin, lying off
Pomerania, in the Baltic. Wollin or Julin as the locality in
which the sea-kings or Vikingar had established their once for-
midable republican settlement of Jomsburg, has always presented
special features of interest for Northern inquirers and historians,
The early chroniclers of Northern Germany and Scandinavia
make frequent allusion to the enormous wealth and great im.
portance of the trading ports of this small island. After
ages of decay and desertion the island is again acquiring
some slight amount of recognition through the recent estab-
lishment of baths near the little town of Wollin. It is here
that Dr. Virchow and his sons found unmistakeable evi-
dences of the early existence of a large and wide-spread
population. Near the little lake of Vietzig, under a surface of
loam or clay-mud, Dr. Virchow came upon a bed of débris from
4 to 7 ft. in depth, which was entirely formed of fish and animal
bones, broken vessels, and all the ordinary adjuncts of the
Kjokkenméddinge as they have been revealed in the Lacustrine
deposits of Pomerania. At some places where the hills have
been cut, the exposed surfaces seem composed almost entirely of
the scales and bones of fishes and other animal remains. At one
spot, onthe S.E. of the present town, a burying ground was
discovered, on which 60 grave-hillocks could siill be counted.
On penetrating below the surface a heap of burnt and fractured
bones was found at a depth of 18 to 20in., but in no grave, explored
by Dr. Virchow, was any trace of urn, stones, or textile fragment
to be seen ; al:hough remains of fused bronze were met with. A
small grant of money has been made by the Society for the pur-
pose of continuing the exploration of the island, and if the work
should be placed under the direction of Dr. Virchow we may
anticipate valuable results from a more systematic investigation
of this site of the most formidable piratical republic ever founded
in Northern Europe, ?

In a paper laid before the Societé d’Anthropclogie de Paris
by M. Broca, on the Toulouse form of narrow or flat-head de-
formities, the author enters at length into the consideration of
the probable effect on the cerebral functions produced by the
ligatures, with which the peasant mothers of some parts of
south-west France still compress their children’s heads,

THE Zoologist for April, after a reprint from the American
Naturalist of Prof. N.S. Shaler’s paper, ‘* Notes on the Right
and Sperm Whales ;” and ornithological notes from Lincolnshire
and Devon, enters further into the discussion of Dr. Baldamus’
theory as regards the cuckoos’ egg. Mr. Hewitson replies
sharply to Mr. Smith’s paper in the preceding number; Mr.
G. D. Rowley opposes the theory, and thinks that ‘birds are
only too glad to sit on cuckoos’ eggs,” as they will sit on
nothing rather than not incubate. Mr. Doubleday writes to the
same effect, as does also Prof. Newton in a quotation from the
Field. Mr. Smith acknowledges that in writing his former
letter, he had not seen Prof. Newton’s article on the subject in
NATURE (vol. iii. Nov. 1869), but still maintains that British

474

NATURE

[April 17, 1873

ornithologists have not yet investigated the question “in the
systematic way, and after the excellent example of painstaking
and diligence set us by Dr. Baldamus and Dr. Rey.” The
editor, referring to a note on the Liberian Hippopotamus which
appeared in this periodical a month ago, states that the author
has made a mistake in calling it a true hippopotamus. The
context clearly shows how the term is meant, and it is an un-
doubted fact that the English name has a wider meaning than
its Latin equivalent. Chceropsis is as true a hippopotamus as
Rhinaster or Ceratorhinus are true rhinoceroses, and they are so
undoubtedly in the English acceptation of the words, so we
think Mr. Newman too ready in discovering errors.

THE Canadian Naturalist and Quarterly Fournal of Sciences
vol. vii, No, 1.—The first paper in this number is one which we
have already received in a separate form, viz. Principal Dawson’s
Address as President of the Natural History Society of Montreal.
He discusses, (1) The present aspect of inquiries as to the intro-
duction of genera and species in geological time. (2) The
growth of our knowledge of the Primordial and Laurentian
rocks and their fossils. (3) The questions relating to the so-
called glacial period. This is followed by a paper on Some
Results of the last Solar Eclipse, in which the author, Mr. G.
F. Armstrong, sums up briefly the results which have been ob-
tained from the eclipses of 1865 and succeeding years. Ina
paper on Cuba Mr. G. F. Matthew makes some contributions to
our knowledge of the natural history of that island. There is a
geological paper on Huron County, Ontario, and another on the
Mineral Region of Lake Ontario. The last paper in the journal
is the obituary notice of the late Prof. Sedgwick, which appeared
in NATURE.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDON

Geologists’ Association, April 4.— Professor Morris,
F.G.S., vice-president, in the chair.—‘*On the Diamond Fields
of South Africa,” by Mr. G. C. Cooper.—The theory of an
igneous action upon the spot at which the diamonds are now
found being the explanation required to solve the problem of
their origin was opposed by the author, who adduced facts from
his observation in support of the opposite conclusion. He did
not consider that the numerous trap dykes which characterise
the South African Diamond Fields broke through the present
surface, which, on the contrary, had been produced by the accu-
mulation of materials brought by aqueous agency subsequent to
the volcanic action which gave rise to the dykes. These mate-
rials consisted of a surface layer of red sand overlying a bed,
from five to seven feet thick, of fragments of ‘‘lime and clay
stone ;” and beneath this the diamantiferous marl or ‘* stuff” is
reached. Steatitic or magnesian matter forms a considerable
proportion of the ‘‘stuff’’ which it was contended may have
been brought from magnesian rocks at a considerable distance
by water and possibly by ice action, and deposited in the hollows
formed by the trap dykes, and that these magnesium rocks may
have been the original matrix of the diamonds,—‘‘ On some
Fossils from the Chalk of Margate,” by J. W. Wetherell. The
author had devoted some time and attention to the exploration
of the chalk in the immediate neighbourhood of Margate, and
had obtained, as a result, a large number of species of fossils, a
list of which was given, with remarks as to relative abundance.
In addition to many genera usually abundant in the Upper
Chalk, Belemintella appears to be well represented in the
Margate chalk, and ammonites are also found ; but perhaps the
most abundant fossil is the Coscinopora globularis, which varies
in size from that of a walnut to a pin’s head. Crystals of selenite
were found as well as concretions of iron pyrites, but minerals
are by no means common in the chalk of Margate.

Mathematical Society, April 10.—Dr. Hirst, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—Prof. Clifford made a few remarks
in correction of a statement he had made at the March
meeting during the discussion on Mr, Hayward’s paper
on an extension of the term area.—Mr.
then proceeded to read a paper on the calculation of the
value of the theoretical unit angle to a great number of
d-cimal places.—The following papers (in the absence of the
authors) were discussed by Messrs. Clifford, Cotterill, Merri-
field, and the president :—On systems of porismatic équations,
algebraical and trigonometrical ; Note on epicycloids and hypocy.

J. W. L. Glaisher

cloids ; Locus of point of concourse of perpendicular tangents to
a cardioid ; Elliptic motion under acceleration constant in direc-
tion; Prof. Wolstenholme, on the theory of a system of electri-
fied conductors ; On the focal lines of a refracted pencil, Prof.
J. Clerk-Maxwell,

Royal Horticultural Society, March 26.—Special general
meeting, Lord Alfred Churchill in the chair.—The business
practically consisted in the consideration of two bye-laws pro-
posed by the Council. The first, giving to all the fellows the
right of vote by proxy (hitherto restricted to ladies), was rejected,

The second, impowering the fellows to elect to vacancies on the _

Council at a general meeting other than the annual general meet-
ing, if more than half their number resign at any one time, was
carried, Great excitement and disorder was manifested through-
out the prolonged discussions,

April 2.—General Meeting, Mr. W. Saunders, F.R.S., in
the chair.—A communication was read from Mr. Cocks, on
budding vines. It was shown (1) that the extirpation of all the
buds of the budded plant gave the inserted buds a better chance
of success by removing competition, and (2) that there was no
advantage in inserting new buds in the seats of those removed.

Scientific Committee, Dr. J. D. Hooker, C.B., F.R.S., in
the chair.—Mr. Smee exhibited lemons infested with Coccus
‘imonii, which caused the green colour of the unripe fruit to
persist round the points of attachment, and injured the lemons

for preserving purposes.—The Rev. M. J. Berkeley stated that

the new potato disease described by Hallier in his “ Parasiten-
kunde,” was no doubt identical with the ‘‘ copper-web” of the
asparagus-growers of the Isle of Ely.
Rhizoctonia.—Dr. Hooker read a portion of a letter from Mr.
Woodrow, stating that a succulent composite, Vo/onia grandi=
Jiora, had a great reputation as a cure for hydrophobia in the
neighbourhood of Bombay.—Prof. Thiselton Dyer pointed out
that the seeds of the Sooly Qua were not identical with those of
Luffz acutangula ; they much more resembled those of Zufa
e@gyptiaca.

April 6.—Special general meeting, Lord Alfred Churchill in
the chair.—The following new members of Council were elected
on the proposition of Lord Strathmore.—Viscount Bury, M.P.,
Hon. R. Chetwynd, Mr. Hardcastle, M.P., Sir C. Lindsay, Mr.
W. A. Lindsay (Secretary), Sir A. Slade, Mr. Hellock, Mr, A.
Smee, Mr. H. Little, Mr. R. Warner.

Institution of Civil Engineers, April 8.—Mr. T. Hawksley,
president, in the chair. The paper read was ‘‘On the Rise
and Progress of Steam Locomotion on Common Roads,”
by Mr. John Head, Assoc. Inst, C.E., and was divided into four
parts :—1. Road locomotives for conveyance of passengers, also
locomotives for use on tramways. 2. Road locomotives for con-
veyance of goods, heavy weights, &c., also steam road rollers,
3- Locomotives for use in agricultural operations, steam plough-
ing, &c. 4. Locomotives for military purposes. -

Cambridge Philosophical Society, March 3 —Notes on
the Hippopotamus, by Mr. J. W. Clark. The author exhibited
the mounted skeleton, and some portions of the visceral ana-
tomy, of the female hippopotamus which died in the London
Zoological Gardens in January 1872, and made some remarks
on the specimens.—‘‘ On the Foraminifera and Sponges of the
Cambridge Upper Greensand,” by Mr. W. J. Sollas. The
author described the green grains abundant in the formation, and
showed that, like those in many other rocks, they were to a
large extent the casts of foraminifera. He then discussed the
formation of the so-called coprolites, and showed that in a great
number of instances these nodules were phosphatised sponges,

just as the flints of the chalk were silicified sponges, He thought

that the phosphate of lime might have been derived from the

erosion of volcanic rocks in the south of Scotland which had

been brought by a current from the north.—‘**On a Boulder in
a coal seam, South Staffordshire,” by Mr. Bonney. This boulder,
found in the black coal of the Cannock and Rugeley Colliery, a
seam nearly 3 yards thick, weighed 13 lbs. 133 oz., was about
Igin. in girth either way, and about 4} in. thick, it was of a
compact grey quartzite, apparently identical with one of the
rarities in the Bunter conglomerates of the district. He con:
sidered that the boulder, which was quite solitary, had been
brought to its present position (probably during a flood) entangled
in the roots of a tree—and discussed the bearings of its occur-
rence upon the physical geography of England in the carboni-

ferous and triassic times.

It had been described as.

a

MOG el

MANCHESTER y

iterary and Philosophical Society, April 1.—R. Angus
Smith, Ph.D., F,R.S., vice-president, in the chair. ‘* Note on
n Observation of a small black spot on the sun’s disc,” by
Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S. On Monday, March 12, 1849, our
late member Mr. G. C. Lowe and I saw a small circular black
pot cross a portion of the sun’s disc. We were trying the
mounting and adjustments of a 7in. reflector we had been
ing, and used an ink box between the eye-piece and the
plane speculum. At first we thought this small black spot
‘was upon the eye-piece, but soon found it was on the sun’s
disc, and we watched its progress across the disc for nearly
half-an-hour. The only note in my diary is the fact of the spot
ing seen—no time is mentioned, but if I remember rightly, it
yas about four o'clock in the afternoon.—Mr. Baxendell said
in a letter which Mr. Sidebotham had received from Prof.
Hamilton L. Smith, of Hobart College, Geneva, New York, the
writer suggests the use of iron or bell metal specula, coated
with nickel, for reflecting telescopes. He says, “‘I ground
and prepared a bell metal speculum, which I coated with nickel,

nd this, when polished, proved to be more reflective (at least
I thought so) than speculum metal. The two objects which I
sought were—first to have a polished surface unattackable by
sulphuretted hydrogen (this, for example, is not injured by
pane with lucifer matches), and secondly, for large specula,
doing most of the work by the turning-tool and lathe. I really
think a large, say 3 ft. mirror, coated with nickel, but cast of
iron, and finished mostly in the lathe, while it would not cost the
tenth of a similar sized speculum metal, would be almost equal
0 silvered glass of the same size, and vastly more enduring as
to polish.—Prof. Williamson, F.R.S., referring to Mr. Binney’s
remarks at the meeting of March 4, said:—Mr. Binney, after
pointing out that I had identified a certain type of stem-structure
with Asterophyllites, and that Prof. Renault had discovered the
‘same structure in Sphenophyllum, Mr. Binney proceeds to say,
**T am not in possession of the facts from which the two learned
professors came to such different conclusions, but | am inclined
_ to consider the singular little stem as belonging to a new genus
until the leaves of Sphenophyllum or Asterophyllites are found
_ attached toit. When this comes to pass of course theré can be
no doubt of the matter.” I have italicised the two important
points in the preceding quotation. In the first place I cannot
understand how Mr. Binney has overlooked my statement, made
primarily in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and repeated
in the last number of the Proceedings of your meeting of
February 4, that I /adgot a number of exquisite examples, showing
not only the nodes but vertictls of the linear leaves so charac-
teristic of the plant.” These leaves I have obtained attached to
the stems in question in at least a dozen examples. Secondly,
Mr. Binney considers that my conclusions and those of my
friend Prof. Renault are diferent, whereas they mutually sustain
each other in the strongest possible manner. E, W, Binney,
F.R.S., said that after haying heard Prof. Williamson’s remarks
his opinion expressed at the meeting of the Society on March 4
last was not altered.

GLASGOW

Geological Society, March 27.—Mr. James Thompson,
F.G.S., vice-president, in the chair.—Mr. David Robertson,
F.G.S., read some further notes on the post-tertiary fossiliferous
beds of the West of Scotland. He first alluded to the brick-
clays at Jordanhill, about a mile to the north-west of Partrick,
and 145 ft. above the present sea-level. The clay here is wrought
to a depth of from 12 to 20ft., in some places rather more.
One point of interest in examining the clays of this locality is
the position in which the shells of the common mussel (AZyéz/us
1 edulis) are found. This mollusc is commonly thought to have
_ its zone or position near the surface, and to lie above the post-
pliocene Arctic shells in the clays of the Clyde district. This

ne doubt is frequently the case, but it also occurs at greater
_ depths, and overlaid by Arctic shells. Here it is found at a
depth of 14 ft., while at'a little distance in the same field Arctic

shells occur within 6 ft. of the surface. Another feature of in-
terest in the clays of this neighbourhood is the presence of por-
tions of oak trees, some of considerable magnitude. Such
pieces of oak, it is well known, are abundant in the peat of
every district, but he was not aware of their having been pre-
viously found associated with Arctic shells in the clays of any

of the country.-Mr, Robertson then described the cuttings
of the Maryhill Gasworks and Stobcross Railway, giving par-

475

ticulars of the beds exposed, especially in the latter, where inte-
resting sections of boulder clay, gravel, sand, and laminated clay
have been laid open during the excavations now in progress.
The animal remains are sufficient to show the truly marine
character of the deposit—Mr. John Young read a paper on the
probable derivation of certain boulders found in the till near
Glasgow. He said the great majority of the boulders in the till of
the Glasgow district had evidently been derived from tracts that
lay tothe west and north-west of the city. At the same time
it was interesting to note that the ice which had travelled over
the district had not proceeded exclusively from western or north-
western sources, as the glaciated surface lately discovered at
Possil clearly proved. There the rock is striated both from a
north-west and a north-east direction; and he showed that the
mineral constituents of the till quite corresponded with and
confirmed these variations observable in the strice.

MONTREAL

Natural History Society, Jan. 27.—During the past sum-
mer Mr. J. Richardson, of the Geological Survey of Canada,
has made unusually large collections of the fossils, minerals, and
other objects of interest from Vancouver and Queen Charlotte.
Mr, A. R. C. Selwyn said that these collections establish con-
clusively the fact that the coal fields of the two islands belong
to the same geological horizon. [n each case the coal fields are
of the same age as the chalk formation of Europe and elsewhere.
Further, the coal of Queen Charlotte Island is found to be a
true anthracite, and it is the first instance on record of the occur-
rence of anthracite in formations, as newas the chalk. The coal
seams of Vancouver rest directly upon crystalline rocks, in which
limestones predominate, Mr. Richardson estimates the Comox
coal field, in Vancouver, to have an area of 300 square miles.
It is underlaid by coal seams of from 2 to 10 ft. in thickness,
which would probably yield an average of 11,840,000 tons per
square mile. The total production of this field, to a depth of
1,500 ft. from the surface, is computed to be about 3,552
millions of tons. The Nanaimo coal field has an estimated area
of go square miles, and contains three or more seams of from 3
to ro ft. in thickness. Specimens of carvings in wood and stone
made by Queen Charlotte Islanders were exhibited. These
evince considerable constructive ability, and are almost in-
variably of a grotesque character.—Mr, Billings gave a
description of the distribution of the cretaceous rocks of
North America, He then called attention to some of the
characteristic fossils of the Vancouver and Queen Charlotte
strata, and showed a series of some of the most striking speci-
mens. Among these were large ammonites, nautili, and various
marine shells, of the same genera for the most part as those
which are frequent in the European chalk formation. He re-
marked that in the present collection he had not detected any
remains of large reptiles, or any sea urchins, both of which are
common in the cretaceous rocks of other localities,

PHILADELPHIA

American Philosophical Society, September 20, 1872.—
The following papers were read by Prof. E. D. Cope—Third
account of Vertebrata from the Bridger Eocene ; notices of new
extinct Vertebrata from the upper waters of Bitter Creek, Wyo-
ming ; from the upper waters of Bitter Creek, Wyoming; ‘‘On the
existence of Dinosauria in the transition beds of Wyoming Tere
ritory.” In the last it was shown that the coal series of Bitter
Creek belonged to the cretaceous formation.—Prof. Houston
described a sensitive waterfall in Pike Co., Pennsylvania.—Prof,
Chase communicated observations on some new planetary and
stellar distances. 5

October 18.—Two papers from Prof. Cope were read, viz.: “On
anew Genus of Vertebrata from the Upper Green River Basin,”
and descriptions of new extinct reptiles from the same. The
former embraced the description of a new genus of Lemmnid@ or
allied group, having the dental formula 2— 1—2—3.

November 1.—Prof. Lesley presented a record of authentic data
respecting fourteen oil wells in West Pennsylvania. —Prof. Chase
presented a paper, ‘‘A first approximation to a normal curve
of temperature in the northern regions of the continent.”—
Aubury H. Smith described his observations on the sub-alpine
botany of the north shore of Lake Superior, and ofits absence in
the Lake Nibbegong region farther north, which he had explored
in 1872, which he believed was due to the greater coldness of the
waters of Lake Superior.—Dr. Leconte gave a hygrometric
explanation for the phenomenon, believing similar ones known

476

to him to depend on the difference between dry continental air,
and damp winds from sea coasts. .

November 15.—Mr. Gabb described the results attained in tabu-
lating Miocene fossils from Santo Domingo. He described 217
extinct and 19 living species, the latter found on both sides of
the barrier of Central America, which is capped by Miocene rocks.

December 20.—Prof. Cope read a paper on the zoologi-
cal regions of the earth, and especially those of North
America, agreeing as to the first with Drs. Sclater and
Wallace in the main, adopting the Australian, Neotropical,
Ethiopian, Neoarctic, and Palzeartic (including Palzetropical of S.
and W.), stating that all the southern continents present marked
distinguishing characters. In North America he adopted the
Pacific, Lower Californian, Sonoran, Central, Eastern, and
Austroriparian, which in the main agreed with those of Baird,
the last being the southern part of his eastern, as far north as
the isothermal of 773 F. The subdivisions were the Floridan,
Louisianian, and Texan ; those of the eastern after Allen, Caro-
linian, Alleghanian, Canadian, and Hudsonian.—Prof. O. C,
Marsh gave an account of his discoveries in the Rocky Moun-
tains since 1870, which included the first American Chiroptera,
Marsupials, low forms of Quadrumana, birds with biconcave
vertebrze, and several species of a new order, Dinocerata allied to
the Proboscidia, but with horns and canine teeth.

January 3.—Prof. P. Fraser read a paper on a hydraulic prob-
lem, near Bethlehem Penna,

CALIFORNIA

Academy of Sciences, Dec. 18, 1872. “On the Parasites
of the Cetaceans of the N.W. coast of America, with Descrip-
tions of new Forms,” by W. H. Dall, U.S. Coast Survey.
Among the parasites most widely known as infecting the
Cetacea, two classes may be recognised, viz., those which are
true parasites, deriving their subsistence from the animal upon
which they are found, such as the Pycnogonoids and Cyami,
and those which are merely sessile upon the animal, and
derive no nourishment or other benefit from it which might not
equally well be furnished by an inanimate object, such as the
various cirripedes.

E VIENNA

I. R. Geological Institute, Jan. 21.—‘‘ Fossil Remains of
Sirenoidze found in the Venetian Territory,” by Ach. Barone de
Zigno. Besides the ribs and other bones of Halitherium which
had been discovered many years ago in the upper tertiary beds
of the Venetian Alps, the author succeeded in gathering a very
rich collection of different species of Sirenoidz in the lower
tertiary beds (with Serpula spirulza) of the Monte Zuello, near
Montecchio, and in the glauconitic limestone of the basin of
Belluno. The glauconitic strata of this basin had been
taken till now for Eocene ; but fossils found therein hy Jaramelli
—as Clypeaster placenta Des., Scutella, Subrotunda Lam, &c.
—prove that they are of Miocene age.—‘* On the Eruptive
Rocks of Styria,” by R. von Drasche. The author gives an
accurate petrographical analysis of the different eruptive rocks of
Southern Styria, which by former observers had been taken for
older porphyries, but which M. Stur has proved to be of
tertiary age. They are andesites and trachytes. Some of
these rocks resemble indeed very much older porphyries, and
prove again the difficulty of discerning by mere petrographical or
chemical properties eruptive rocks of different geological age.—
A. Redlenbacher presented a memoir on the Cephalopods
ot the Gosau-strata of the Alps. Since the last publications
on this matter by Fr. von Hauer, the number of species in our
collections has more than doubled. Only eight of them are
identical with species out of non-Alpine cretaceous strata, and
they belong all to Senonian beds.

Feb. 18.—M. Tschermak gave an accurate description of the
slates, quartzites, and limestones, alonga section through the so-
called Graywacke Zone of the North-easrern Alps, in the vicinity
of Reichenau and the Semmering mountain. These rocks had
been thought to belong to the Silurian formation, but in the
opinion of M. Tschermak part of them were of a svill older age.
The study of the oldest sedimentary slates and other rocks of
the Alps, promises, he thinks, valuable information about the
genesis of the crystalline slatess—M. Fr. Foctterle *‘On the
copper and iron ores of Ferriere in the province of Piacenza, in
Italy.” The valley of the Nure, extending from Piacenza in a
south-west direction into the central part of the Appenines, in
the upper part of its course is bounded by high mountain ranges,
which consist of grey sandstones, alternating with bituminous
slates and marls, They belong to the so-called macigno (Vienna

NATURE

[April 17 1873

and Carpathian sandstone) and are probably of Eocene age. In
the highest parts of the valley, in the environs of Boli and ©
Ferriere, the macigno is traversed by numerous masses and
dykes of an eruptive rock which is partly yabbro, consisting of
large crystals of amphibol and feldspar, and partly serpentine,
These eruptive rocks are of a more recent age than the macigno,
which is very much altered by contact with them. Partly in the
eruptive rocks and partly in the incest altered macigno are to
be found masses of copper- and iron-pyrites, and of magnetic
iron ores ; they form boulders of some size, but nowhere regular
layers or veins, The mines which have been opened to gain
these ores, M. Foetterle thinks, promise no great success.—
O. Feistmantel on the relations between the carboniferous and
the Permian formations in Bohemia. In some of the Bohemian
coal-basins, ¢.g. that of Radowenz at the foot of the Riesenge-
birge, in the north-western environs of Prague, in the basin of
Pilsen, &c., two layers of coal are known, both accompanied by
vegetable remains of a pure carboniferous type ; but the strata”
between these layers contain remains of fishes, as Xenacanthus,
Acanthodes, Paleeoniscus, &c., which belong to the Permian
fauna. The author concludes that the upper coal layers of the
Bohemian coal-basins belong to the Permian formation, and the
lower only to the carboniferous formation, and that both for-
mations are most intimately allied by their identical flora.

DIARY

THURSDAY, Aprit 17.

Linnean Society, at 8.—Burmese Orchidee, from the Rev. C, P. Parish:

Prof Reichenbach.—Perigyuium of Carex: Prof. McNab. b
CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—On Heat produced by Chemical Action: Dr,

Debus, F.R.S
NuMISMATIC SOCIETY, at 7.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 4.

SUNDAY, Aprit 20.

Sunpay LecturE Sociery, at 4.—The Theory of Wind Instruments: Dr.

H. Stone,
MONDAY, Apxiv 2t.
Lonpon INnsTITUTION, at 4.—Klementary Botany: Prof. rege
GEOLUGISTS’ AssOcIATIO~, at 8 —Visit to Muscum ot Practical Geology.
TUESDAY, ApRiL 22. ;

Roya Institution, at 3 — Music of the Drama: Mr, Dannreuther.

InsTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion on Mr, Heaa’s paper
on Steam Locomotion on Co:inmon Roads —Un the Deita of the Danube,
and the Provisional Works erected at the Sulina Mouth.—Sir C. A.
Hartley.

AR REREarociaed Socigty, at 8.—Religious Beliefs of Ujibois or Santeux
Indians resident in Manitoba and at Lake Winnepeg : A. P. Reid, M.D.—
Danish as.ect of the Nomeuclature o: Cleveland; Key. J. C. Atkinson.
Rock Inscriptions in Brazil: John Whitfield.

WEDNESDAY, Aprit 23. :

Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 7.—Un some Phenomena connected with Magne
tism: W. F. Barrett.

Society or Arts, at 8.—On Silk-Worm Grain; M. Alfred Roland.

ARCHAOLOGICAL A SOCIATION, at 8. ;

SoclktTy OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Anniversary. | te!

Rovat Society oF LiveraTukE, at 8.30.—'l he Serio Comic Satirical Poetry
of the 18th and roth centuries: Sir Patrick de Colquhoun, Q.C., LL.D.

Society of TELEGRAPH ENGINEERS, at 7-30.—On the block System
Working Railways: W. H. Preece and Capt. Mallock.

THURSDAY, Aprit 24.

Roya InstiTuTION, at 3.—Light: Prof. Tyndall.

Roya SOcIETY, at 8.30.

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THURSDAY, APRIL 24, 1873

SCIENTIFIC ENDOWMENTS AND BEQUESTS

OME weeks ago we published the notice issued by
Trinity College, Cambridge, respecting a Fellow-
ship offered by that corporation for Natural Science, in
which Zoology is one of the subjects by which it may be
obtained. Candidates are required to send to the electors
“any papers which they may have published containing
original observations, or experiments, or discussions ot
scientific questions, or any similar matter in manuscript,”
and they “will be liable to be examined in the subjects of
their papers and in subjects connected with them, or in
the branch of science to which they refer.”

A fortnight ago,a New York correspondent gave us
the details of a munificent bequest made by Mr. John
Anderson, a wealthy merchant of that city, to Prof.
Agassiz, and through him to the University of Cambridge,
Massachusetts, of Penikese Island, situated about 170
miles eist by north of New York, and 12 miles south of
Boston, on the New England coast, as a station for the
study of Practical Zoology, mainly marine. Finding that
pecuniary aid was also absolutely necessary to put the
whole in working order, Mr. Anderson, with a libera-
lity almost unprecedented, put 50,000 dollars at Prof.
Agassiz’s disposal, “as a nucleus for a permanent en-
dowment fund” in the formation of his Marine Natu-
ralists’ School.

The above-cited cases are two of the most important
steps that have been taken of late to advance the
thorough study of zoology either in England or America,
but the method employed by the one to arrive at this
result is so different from that adopted by the other, that
the question may well be asked, which of the two in the
long run will produce the most satisfactory results? Is
it better, as done by Trinity College, to offer considerable
and substantial rewards to students of promise, or,as in
the case of Mr. Anderson’s gift, to simply place undoubt-
edly great facilities in the way of untried beginners on
the subject?

Notwithstanding the extreme liberality shown by Mr.
Anderson in his bequest, we cannot help feeling that
most of the previous attempts that have been made to
advance science by providing increased facilities for
work, without at the same time improving the general
prospect of a sufficient livelihood for those who devote
the whole or the most of their time to it, have met with
but little success ; and perhaps there is nothing more
disappointing to those who are anxious for the progress
' of the subject, to see the way in which establishments
excellently planned at great cost, are often almost at a
standstill for want of their most important element—.
pupls. Such a method of procedure, if numbers are
obtained, is likely but to produce an assemblage of ama-
teur students, whose work, as it must be from the lack of
sufficient stimulus to great mental effort, is poor from its
want of thoroughness, and therefore comparatively useless
in the long run, only encumbering the subject and leading
lookers-on to suppose, from the few results arrived at,
that the science is not worthy of deeper consideration.

No, 182—VOL. vit.

NATURE

477

Zoology and Biology generally have suffered much already
from such kind of work.

The tendency of all observation as to the origin and
development of the sciences which are now firmly esta-
blished, is to prove quite clearly that what was required
in each of them to give it a start, and make it continue
to advance rapidly, was that it should have a practical
bearing of some kind or another. There cannot be the
least doubt that the rapid advances which have occurred
in the study of electricity, and the large number of valu-
able discoveries and important laws that have been found
out concerning it, are but the expression of the mercan-
tile value of the telegraph system as it now exists; the
forensic and manufacturing importance of chemistry has
in great measure raised it to the important position it
now holds; and the money voted for the observations of
the transit of Venus is indirectly connected with the im-
portance of astronomical observation in facilitating navi-
gation. But it is not at all easy to show clearly that
there are any direct practical results to be arrived at from
the study of zoology ; the knowledge of the facts that
our relationship with the higher apes is more in-
timate than has been till lately supposed, and that
we must consider an Ascidian as the Noah of our
zoological pedigree, may be of interest to many as curious
results, but they do not lead to or suggest fresh methods of
action on the part of anyone, and cannot otherwise be made
profitable. Consequently other means must be em-
ployed to cause the science to progress in a manner which
does credit to the large number of new facts which are
continually being brought forward, and the method
adopted by Trinity College is one which promises the
best results. That the prospect of a Fellowship is
a strong inducement to work is undisputed, and what all
biologists would like to see, is a little more willingness on
the part of other colleges in both Universities, to give
them to deserving students of the subject. Some profess
to place natural science on the same footing as the other
University final examinations, with regard to pecuniary
rewards, but it is very seldom, scarcely ever indeed, that
we have the opportunity of recording in our columns any
elections to natural science fellowships. As lonz as
classics hold the position that they do—one maintained
only by the funds and appointments which, but from an
excessive and short-sighted conservatism, would have
been in great measure diffused in other directions long
before now, no complaint can be made of the compara-
tively non-practical bearing of zoology and comparative
anatomy; for though classics may be a good mental
training, so is the latter, and the study of the former has
certainty not a more practical bearing. :

The principle on which the election to the New Trinity
Fellowship is to be conducted, is evidently the result of
mature consideration and experience, partly no doubt
arrived at after the unsuccessful experiment in the same
direction a little more than two years ago, in which it was
made too evijent that a simple examination on the
subject could not ensure the discovery of a genuine
Zovlogist. A much more successful result may be
anticipated from the new system of election, for it is
difficult to believe that any candidate, who at the time
of election has completed sufficient good work to satisfy
the electors, can possibly, on account of its intrinsic

DD

478

LO iis ae a ie ee, eee

NATURE

[April 24, 1873

interest when he has arrived so far, give up the further
pursuit of scientific work. When the governors of any
institution can bring men up to this point, and can
then supply them with the necessary means, they may
consider that their work is finished.

CLERK-MAXWELL’S ELECTRICITY AND
MAGNETISM

A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. By James
Clerk-Maxwell, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental
Physics in the University of Cambridge. (Clarendon
Press Series, Macmillan & Co., 1873.)

N his deservedly celebrated treatise on “ Sound,” the
late Sir John Herschel felt himself justified in saying,
“Tt is vain to conceal the melancholy truth. We are fast
dropping behind. In Mathematics we have longsince drawn
the rein and given over a hopeless race.” Thanks to Her-
schel himself, and others, the reproach, if perhaps ¢/ev just,
did not long remain so. Even in pure mathematics, a sub-
ject which till lately has not been much attended to in Bri-
tain, except by a few scattered specialists, we stand at
this moment at the very least ona par with the ¢/7fe of the
enormously disproportionate remainder of the world. The
discoveries of Boole and Hamilton, of Cayley and Syl-
vester, extend into limitless regions of abstract thought,
of which they are as yet the sole explorers. In applied
mathematics no living men stand higher than Adams,
Stokes, and W. Thomson. Any one of these names
alone would assure our position in the face of the world
as regards triumphs already won in the grandest struggles
of the human intellect. But the men of the next gene-
ration—the successors of these long-proved knights—are
beginning to win their spurs, and among them there is
none of greater promise than Clerk-Maxwell. He has
already, as the first holder of the new chair of Experi-
mental Science in Cambridge, given the post a name
which requires only the stamp of antiquity to raise it
almost to the level of that of Newton. And among the
numerous services he has done to science, even taking
account of his exceedingly remarkable treatise on “ Heat,”
the present volumes must be regarded as pre-eminent.

We meet with three sharply-defined classes of writers
on scientific subjects (and the classification extends to all
such subjects, whether mathematical or not). There are,
of course, various less-defined classes, occupying inter-
mediate positions,

First, and most easily disposed of, are the men of calm,
serene, Olympian self-consciousness of power, those upon
whom argument produces no effect, and whose grandeur
cannot stoop to the degradation of experiment! ‘ These
are the @ priori reasoners, the metaphysicians, and the
Paradoxers of De Morgan. re

Then there is the large class, of comparatively modern
growth, with a certain amount of knowledge and ability,
diluted copiously with self-esteem—haunted, however, by
a dim consciousness that they are only popularly famous
—and consequently straining every nerve to keep them-
selves in the focus of the public gaze. These, also, are
usually, men of “paper” science, kid-gloved and black-
coated—with no speck but of ink.

Finally, the man of real power, though (to all seeming)
perfectly unconsci6us of it—who goes Straight to his

mark with irresistible force, but neither fuss nor hurry—
reminding one of some gigantic but noiseless “crocodile,”
or punching engine, rather than of a mere human being.

The treatise we have undertaken to review shows us,
from the very first pages, that it is the work of a typical
specimen of the third of these classes. Nothing is as-
serted without the reasons for its reception as truth being
fully supplied—there is no parade of the immense value
of even the really great steps the author has made—no
attempt at sensational writing when a difficulty has to be
met ; when necessary, there is a plain confession of igno-
rance without the too common accompaniment of a sick-
ening mock-modesty. We could easily point to whole
treatises (some of them in many volumes) still accepted
as standard works, in which there is not (throughout) a
tithe of the originality or exhaustiveness to be found in
any one of Maxwell’s chapters.

The main object of the work, besides teaching the ex-
perimental facts of electricity and magnetism, is every-
where clearly indicated—it is simply to upset completely
the notion of action at a distance. Everyone knows, or
at least ought to know, that Newton considered that no
one who was capable of reasoning at all on physical
subjects could admit such an absurdity: and that he
very vigorously expressed this opinion. The same negation

appears prominently as the guiding consideration in the

whole of Faraday’s splendid electrical researches, to
which Maxwell throughout his work expresses his great
obligations. The ordinary form of statement of Newton’s
law of gravitation seems directly to imply this action at a
distance ; ard thus it was natural that Coulomb, in stating
his experimental results as to the laws of electric and
magnetic action which he discovered, as well as Ampére
in describing those of his electro-dynamic action, should
state them in a form as nearly as possible analogous to
that commonly employed for gravitation.

The researches of Poisson, Gauss, &c., contributed to
strengthen the tendency to such modes of representing the
phenomena ; and this tendency may be said to have cul-
minated with the exceedingly remarkable theory of electric
action proposed by Weber.

All these very splendid investigations were, however,
rapidly leading philosophers away towards what we can-
not possibly admit to be even a bare representation of
the truth, It is mainly to Faraday and W. Thomson
that we owe our recall to more physically sound, and
mathematically more complex, at least, if not more beauti-
ful, representations. The analogy pointed out by Thom-
son between a stationary distribution of temperature in a
conducting solid, and a statical distribution of electric
potential in a non-conductor, showed at once how results
absolutely identical in law and in numerical relations,
could be deduced alike from the assumed distance-action
of electric particles, and from the contact-passage of heat
from element to element of the same conductor.

But we must give Maxwell’s own frank and ample
acknowledgment of his debt to these two men.

“ The general complexion of the treatise differs con-
siderably from that of several excellent electrical works,
published, most of them, in Germany, and it may appear
that scant justice is done to the speculations of several
eminent electricians and mathematicians. One reason

of this is that before I began the study of electricity I
résolved to read no mathematics on the subject till I had

1873]
first read through Faraday’s ‘Experimental Researches
on Electricity.’ I was aware that there was supposed to
be a difference between Faraday’s way of conceiving phe-
nomena and that of the mathematicians, so that neither
he nor they were satisfied with each other’s language.
Thad also the conviction that this discrepancy did not
arise from either party being wrong. I was first con-
vinced of this by Sir William Thomson, to whose advice
and assistance, as well as to his published papers, I owe
most of what I have learned on the subject.

“ As I proceeded with the study of Faraday, I perceived
that his method of conceiving the phenomena was also a
mathematical one, though not exhibited in the conven-
tional form of mathematical symbols. I also found that
these methods were capable of being expressed in the
ordinary mathematical forms, and this compared with
those of the professed mathematicians.

“ For instance, Faraday, in his mind’s eye, saw lines of
force traversing all space where the mathematicians saw

entres of force attracting at a distance: Faraday saw a
medium where they saw nothing but distance: Faraday
sought the seat of the phenomena in real actions going
on in the medium, they were satisfied that they had found
itin a power of action at a distance impressed on the
electric fluids.”

It certainly appears, at least at first sight, and in com-
parison with the excessively simple distance action, a very
formidable problem indeed to investigate the laws of the
propagation of electric or magnetic disturbance in a
medium. And Maxwell did not soon, or easily, arrive at
the solution he now gives us. It is well-nigh twenty
years since he first gave to the Cambridge Philosophical
Society his paper on Faraday’s Lines of Force, in which
he used (instead of Thomson’s heat-analogy) the analogy
of an imaginary incompressible liquid, without either
inertia or internal friction, subject, however, to friction
against space, and to creation and annihilation at certain
sources and sinks. The velocity-potential in such an
imaginary fluid is subject to exactly the same conditions
as the temperature in a conducting solid, or the potential
in space outside an electrified system. In fact the so-
called equation of continuity coincides in form with what
is usually called Laplace’s equation. In this paper
Maxwell gave, we believe for the first time, the mathe-
matical expression of Faraday’s Electro-tonic state, and
greatly simplified the solution of many important elec-
trical problems. Since that time he has been gradually
developing a still firmer hold of the subject, and he now
gives us, in a carefully methodised form, the results of his
long-continued study.

A sentence like the following has a most cheering effect
when we meet with it in a preface ; and we need only add
that our author has been thoroughly successful in the
endeavour he promised :—

“J shall avoid, as much as I can, those questions
which, though they have elicited the skill of mathe-
maticians, have not enlarged our knowledge of science.”

He might with truth, and with propriety, have added
that he would also avoid, as far as possible, those so-
called experimental illustrations which require in the
operator training akin to that of a juggler, and which are
calculated to mystify, and to retard the progress of, the
real student, while gratifying none but the mere gaping
sight-seer.

It is quite impossible in such a brief notice as this to
enumerate more than a very few of the many grand and

479

valuable additions to our knowledge which these volumes
contain. Their author has, as it were, flown at every-
thing ;—and, with immense spread of wing and powet of
beak, he has hunted down his victims in all quarters, and
from each has extracted something new and invigorating
—for the intellectual nourishment of us, his readers.

The following points, however, appear to us to be
especially (we had almost said exceptionally) worthy of
notice :—

1, Though not employing the Quaternion Calculus,
Maxwell recognises its exceeding usefulness in exhibiting
(merely by the extraordinary simplicity and comprehen-
siveness of its notation) the mutual relations of variotis di-
rected, or vector, quantities ; together with their derivation
from scalar quantities, such as potentials, by the use of
the Hamiltonian V7, the operator whose square is the
negative of the scalar operator in Laplace’s equation.
There can be little doubt that in this direction must lie
the next grand simplification of the somewhat complex
mathematics of electro-dynamic investigations. —

2. The notion of electric Zwertia, first clearly pointed
out by Helmholtz and Thomson, is here developed in a
most splendid style. The mechanism whose inertia has
to be overcome before a steady current of electricity can
be started or stopped in a conductor, and which opposes a
resistance exactly analogous to the inertia equivalent of
an ordinary train of wheels, is treated by means of the
general equations of motion in the forms given respec-
tively by Lagrange and by Hamilton. Maxwell has
adopted from Thomson and Tait’s “ N atural Philosophy My
the idea of commencing with the impulse required to
produce a given motion of a system, and has developed
in this way the general equations in a form suitable for
electric problems where the mechanism is as yet entirely
unknown,

3. The chapter dealing with Electrolysis we may

specially refer to, as containing, not merely an admirable -

summary of what was previously known but also, several
new ideas apparently of great value.

4. Another curious feature of the work is the amount
of labour bestowed upon the exceedingly uselul, but dry
and uninteresting, pursuit of accuracy in the tracing of
the forms of Lines of Force anddeterminations of strensths
of electric and electro-magnetic fields, and their deviation
from uniformity under various conditions, some of exces-
sive complexity. For the theory of the newer instru-
ments, especially Thomson’s electrometers and galvano-
meters, and also for their applicability to problems in
quite different branches of physics, these results are very
valuable.

5. Another feature in which this differs from all but a
very few of the very best scientific works is the particular
care bestowed upon the modes of measurement, the units
employed, and the Dimenstons (in terms of these units) of
the various quantities treated of—such as, for instance,
Electric Quantity, Electric Potential, Electric Current,
Electric Displacement, &c.

6. The subject of Evectric Jmages is developed at
considerable length, and the reader is led up by easy steps
to a sketch of the grand problem which, thougn solved in
simple finite terms a quarter of a century ago by Thom-
son, has remained unnoticed till very recently, viz., the
statical distribution of electricity upon a spherical bowl.

480

7. The subject of Spherical Harmonics (Laplace’s co-
efficients) is also treated at some length, and in a some-
what novel way, which leads to one of the quaternion
methods of attack though without actually employing that
calculus itself.

8. Further, there is given, for the first time, the complete
solution of the problem of /zduction of Currents in a disc
rotating in the magnetic field, taking account of the
mutual action of the currents on one another—a condition
which very materially increases the difficulty of the
problem, The result is a very curious one; and it
appears especially curious when we compare the very
simple, almost homely, methods employed by Maxwell
with the elaborate analysis by means of which Jochmann
and others, some years ago, attacked the incomplete and
(comparatively) easy statement of the problem where the
mutual action of the currents is not taken account of,
This piece of work is worthy of being placed beside that
of Thomson, referred to under (6) above, as among the
very best things ever done in Mathematical Physics.

9. Theratio of the electro-magnetic to the electrostatic
unit of electricity is a Velocity whose absolute value is
independent of the magnitude of the fundamental units
employed. This has been shown by Maxwell to be the
velocity with which waves of transverse vibration will be
propagated in the medium whose stresses &c. account on
his theory for the apparent action at a distance. Neither
the velocity of light in free space, nor the ratio of the
electric units, is certainly known as yet within five or six
per cent., but it is assuredly a most striking fact that (in
millions of metres per second) three of the best determi-
nations of the former of these quantities give

314, 308, 298,
while apparently equally good determinations of the latter
give

311, 288, 282,

Such approximation is evidently much more than a
mere fortuitous coincidence, it shows that a great step
has been taken in the grand question of the connection
between radiation and electrical phenomena.

Having said so much in hearty admiration of this noble
work, a work which will do more to raise our country in
the eyes of really competent judges than cartloads of
more pretentious publications, it is only natural to seek
some of its defects. There are spots on every sun; and
they are, as phenomena, sometimes more instructive and
therefore more worthy of observation than the sun itself.
But, as they are not visible save to those whose eyes can
bear the full glare of the glowing orb, and who therefore
do not require our aid, itis unnecessary to point them out.
Such a proceeding would be mere pandering to that
miserable form of envy which leads inferior minds to
gloat over the defects of their superiors.

The concluding section of the work is particularly well
fitted to terminate our article.

“We have seen that the mathematical expressions for
electrodynamic action led, in the mind ot Gauss, to the
conviction that a theory of the propagation of electric
action in time would be found to be the very keystone of
electrodynamics. Now we are unable to conceive of
propagation in time, except either as the flight of a mate-
rial substance through space, or as the propagation of a
condition of motion or stress in a medium already existing
in space. Inthe theory of Neumann, the mathematical

NATURE

i yee

conception called Potential, which we are unable to con-
ceive as a material substance, is supposed to be projected
from one particle to another, in a manner which is quite
independent of a medium, and which, as Neumann has
himself po:nted out, is extremely different from that of
the propagation of light. In the theories of Riemann
and Betti it would appear that the action is supposed to
be propagated in a manner somewhat more similar to
that of light.

“ But in all of these theories the question naturally
occurs :—If something is transmitted from one particle to
another at a distance, what is its condition after it has
left the one particle and before it has reached the other ?
If this something is the potential energy of the two par-
ticles, as in Neumann’s theory, how are we to conceive
this energy as existing in a point of space, coinciding
neither with the one particle nor with the other? In fact,
whenever energy is transmitted from one body to another
in time, there must be a medium or substance in which
the energy exists after it leaves one body and before it
reaches the other, for energy, as Torricelli* remarked,
‘is a quintessence of so subtle anature that it cannot be
contained in any vessel except the inmost substance of
material things.’
conception of a medium in which the propagation takes
place, and if we admit this medium as an hypothesis, I
think it ought to occupy a prominent place in our investi-
gations, and that we ought to endeavour to construct a
mental representation of all the details of action, and
this has been my constant aim in this treatise.”

OUR BOOK SHELF

Medizinische Fahrbiither Herausgegeben, Von der K. K.
Gesellschaft der Aerzte redigert von S. Stricker. Jahr-
gang 1872. Hefte i. ii. iii. iv., pp. 5133; mit xil.
Tafein.

THE second volume of Stricker’s Medizinische Fahr-

biicher, now before us, maintains the promise of the first.

It is made up of a number of separate essays on various

subjects, physiological, pathological, and medical; the

physiological essays predominating over the others.

Amongst these the following deserve notice,

1. Researches on the heart and blood-vessels, by Dr.
Sigismund Mayer. In this paper Dr. Mayer shows that
the extraordinary increase of pressure of the blood
against the walls of the blood-vessels which occurs as a
result of the administration of strychnia is due to intense
excitation of the vaso-motor centre in the brain, which
leads to contraction of the small arteries,

2. A paper by Ewald Hering on the influence of the
respiration upon the circulation. In this he shows that
moderate expansion of the lungs by insufflation causes
diminished blood pressure in the arteries and increased
rapidity of the heart’s action. This latter effect, how-
ever, is not due to the increased pressure exerted
upon the external surface of the heart, nor to alterations
in the conditions of resistance in the circulation ; nor to
differences in the exchange of gases ; nor to any disloca-
tion of the heart’s position, but is effected reflectorially
through the pneumogastrics in such a manner that the
activity of the cerebral centre of the inhibitory nerves is
lowered.

3. MM. Oser and Schlesinger give the details, in an
elaborate essay, of many experiments they have made to
determine the causation of the movements of the uterus,
and sate that they have arrived at the conclusion that
these movements can be induced. by suspeysion of the
respiration ; by rapid loss of blood ; or by arrest of the
supply of arterial blood to the brain,

4. M. M. Rosenthal contributes an interesting essay on
the death of the muscles of the body, and on apparent
death, He made many experiments on about twenty sub-

* Lesionit Accademiche (Firenze, 1715), p. 25.

[April 24, 1873

Hence all these theories lead to the |

se
-i ) a ool

oe

April 24, 1873]

_ NATU.

48t

jects on the time after death, or rather after the last respira-
tion to show that contraction of the muscles could still be
induced by electricity, when applied to them either in the
form of the interrupted or of the continuous current. The
excitability of the muscles appears to be the same as
before death, for a short time after death has taken place ;
then contractility departing rather sooner in chronic
disease than in cases where death has been occasioned
by an accident or other sudden event. In most cases
contractions may be excited for from 14 hour to 3 hours
after death. The reaction to induced currents falls in a
centrifugal direction; the sphincter palpebrarum retain-
ing its irritability longest. From these experiments he
was led to think that the absence of irritability in the
muscles might be taken as a good means of distinguish-
ing between real and apparent death, and accidentally
very shortly afterwards a case of apparent death in an
hysterical patient permitted him to satisfy himself as well
as others of its value.

5. C. Heitzmann gives the results of his researches on
healthy and inflamed bone, and agrees with Rokitansky,
that blood is formed in the mother shells that under cer-
tain conditions appear in bone. :

Other physiological papers are, one by Prof. Bizzozero,
of Pavia, on the so-called endogenous formation of cells.
Another by Dr. Kolisko, on the mechanics of the heart,
and another by Schiff on the round ligament. The
papers dealing with therapeutics, are (1) an essay by
Dr. Basch on the action of nicotin, especially bearing
on the question of the relation of the blood pressure to
the periods of rest and contraction of the muscular tissue
of the intestines ; (2) a number of minor communications
from Schroff containing the results of investigations made
in the Vienna Pharmacological Institution. The patho-
logical papers of most importance are (1) the remarkable
essay of Lostorfer which has led to so much discussion in
Germany, in which he declared that he was able to
diagnose a certain specific disease (syphilis), by a micro-
scopic examination of the blood ; (2) an.account by Dr.
Philipp Knoll of a case of the rare disease termed para-
lysis pseudo-hypertrophica ; (3) an essay by Dr. J. Popoff
on pneumomycosis ; (4) investigations on the organisation
of thrombus by Dr. Durante ; (5) on the changes taking
place in ligatured vessels by Dr. Dudokaloff; (6) the
diagnosis of disease of the optic thalami. Besides these
are seversl others. The plates are very fairly executed,
and our readers will see that Prof. Stricker has done good
service in publishing these’ papers and essays in a col-
lected form, He:

LETTERS TO THE EDITVUR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. }

Reflected and Transmitted Light

[The following correspondence has been sent us by Prof.

Tyndall] :—
Cliff House, Greenhithe, April 8

A curious thing in connection with colour having come
under my notice, and never having before seen it remarked in
any scientific journal, I take the liberty of bringing it before your
notice ; if it is new to you it will inrerest you, if not I must ask
you. to excuse me for troubling you. On looking through
a piece of blue glass (of which I forward you a sample)
at a plant or tree Lt up by the sun, those leaves that are lit from
behind, or rather by transmitted light, appear of a rick crimson, the
other leaves, seen only by reflected light, merely taxe the colour
given by the glass. In the case of a geranium plant, those
leaves become almost the same colour as the flowers. As a sci-
eutific fact, if new, itis curious.

To Prof. Tyndall WALTER B, WoopBuRY

THE observation you describe is interesting, and if you have

taken care to exclude subjective colouring, is, I should think, to
be explained in this way.

RE

The light from your leaves contains a quantity of red: it
Fle as a yellowish green, I suppose, and contains little or no

ue.

Your glass is of a kind which transmits the two ends of the
spectrum while cutting out its centre. It is very hostile to the
yellow, hence, on placing it before the eye, and receiving through
it light which has already been deprived of its blue, the glass
quenches the yellow, and red alone remains.

April 9 JOHN TYNDALL

I detained this note until the arrival of sunshine, which
enables me to say that the explanation here given is correct.
Employing a blue medium, which does not transmit red you get
no effect of the kind you describe. The tender leaves of spring
are best suited for the experiment: the hard green leaves of ivy,
for example, do not produce the effect.

It is not necessary, nor indeed desirable, to have the leaves
between the eye and the sun.

April 15

The Zoological Collections in the India House

PERMIT me to offer my testimony in general support of the
view taken by P.L.S., in the ablearticle which appeared in your
last number. Rather more than a year ago it was a matter of
importance for me to examine the type of Horsfield’s Turdus
varius, contained in the Museum of the Old East India Company.
I applied in the proper quarter for leave to examine the speci-
men, but received a polite answer informing me that it was
inaccessible. The official statement therefore said to have been »
made in the House of Commons on March 14, 1871, by the~
Under-Secretary of State for India, as to the collections being
still ‘‘available to men of science” is untrue, and I trust
that some member of Parliament will not allow this subject
to be lost sight of, but, by continually recurring to it, compel the
Administration to open their valuable Museum to the public—
ils owners. To the two solutions of the difficulty suggested by
P.L.S., allow me to add a third. If neither the authorities at
South Kensington nor in Great Russell Street can properly exhibit
the East India Museum, let it be transferred (of course under
suitable guarante+), to some other National Institution.

Cambridge, April 22 ALFRED NEWTON

On the Affinities of Dinoceras and its Allies

In the April number of the American Yournal of Science
and Art there isa paper by Prof. O. C. Marsh, entitled ‘* Addi-
tional Observations on Dinocerata,” in which we learn that
Dinoceras has only four toes. The author still continues to
consider the genzra Dinoceras and Tinoceras a separate order
intermediate between the Proboscidia and the Perissodactylata.
The tacts at my disposal are now sufficient for me to state with
considerable certainty tht Dinoceras and Tinoceras are members
of the Ungulata Artiodactylata. The following are my
reasons :—

1. The palate is complete between the posterior molars, as-is
seen clearly ina photograph of Zinoceras grandis (Loxolophodon
cornutus Cope) in my possession,

2. There is no third trochanter to the femur (Marsh).

3. The astragalus has a well-marked cuboid facet (Marsh).

4. The posterior molar has a small but well developed third
cusp, as proved conclusively by an inspection of my photo-

raph.
‘ Fi The anterior premolar is wanting, six only being present.

6. The premaxillz are edentuldus.

7. There are four toes, an even number.

A. H, Garrop

11, Harley Street, April 22

Auroral Display

A sHor? but very brilliant display of aurora was visible here
this evening, making its first appearance soon after sunset, and
reaching its greatest intensity betwetn nine and ten o’clock.
Some notes of its phases which I was able to make in a perfectly
clear sky will perhaps afford useful comparisons with descriptions
furnished by observers of its appearance at other places.

The sun had set behind cirrus clouds, surrounded by a slight
halo, and with a faint mock--un on its northern side. As dark-
ness approached, the hazy clouds in the no:th-west were sur-
mounted by a faint light, and at half-past eight o’clock luminous
streaks here and there across the otherwise clear sky, apparently

482

NATURE

-

| April 24, 18

of cirrostratus cloud, had considerable resemblance to auroral
beams faintly visible in the twilight ; a considerable extension of
the twilight-glow towards the north- west also suggested the very
possible character of their light. Towards nine o'clock Mars
rose redly through a considerable haze in the east, and Venus,
in full splendour, appeared setting among slight clouds in the
west ; the planet Jupiter, and all stars above a slight distance
from the horizon, were altogether unobscured by clouds. A
pretty bright white auroral arch, divided into low streamers, was
at this time first distinctly formed, its lower edge being well
marked by their bases, and the brightest streamers being clus-
tered in two knots of the arch, in the middle of Cassiopeia, and
of Lyra, the first immediately under Polaris, and the other close
to the north-east horizon ; the western prolongation of the arch
was faint and diffuse, shining from behind and among the clouds
around the planet Venus. ‘Tall but faint streamers rose from it,
none of which were conspicuous, excepting a pretty well defined
one rising at gh 5™ from the strongly luminous light-cloud in
Lyra, nearly to the tail-stars of Ursa Major. This beam
grew sharper, and in the following minute it passed across
o Herculis, and e« Urs Majoris, but it shortly disappeared.
Between gh 8™ and 9! 12™ the two principal light-clouds in Cas-
siopeia and Lyra increased in strength, assuming with the con-
tiguous part of the arch a perfect resemblance to the heavy
fringe of a curtain gathered or folded upon itself at those points,
and particularly in the group of streamers under a Lyra. At g?
12™ another luminous patch marked the western end of the arch
between Venus and Capella, growing brighter, and from it a
bunch of rose-coloured streamers sprang upwards between Auriga
and Geminias far as the forefoot of Ursa Major. At 9215™, the
bright cloud-mass marking the eastern horizon-point of the arch
under a Lyrz also acquired great strength, throwing up a
torch-like, fire-coloured streamer of moderate height “and
great brightness, terminating the arch abruptly in that direc-
tion. It rose from the horizon across o, x to 7, p, Herculis.
A fainter arch underneath the former one was visible at this |
time, but less well-defined, and streamers rising from both
arches, and mingling together, soon quite overspread the
northern sky; a bunch of these streamers of rich crimson
colour appeared at 92 18™, extending for a short time across
o, 8, and other neighbouring stars of Ursa Major, and fading
gradually away, disappeared almost as quickly as it came. The
number and sharpness as well as the height of the streamers
rising from both the arches were now very great, and the light
from all the surrounding streamers was so strong that I could
read my watch and correct notes in my note-book at this time.
A fourth bunch of red streamers rose from the arch at its
extreme west end at 95 23™ from the neighbourhood of a Orionis
to the stars y, v, in the feet of Gemini. This was the last
strikingly red streamer seen during the display ; its spectrum,
like that of the white beams, which I examined with a small
pocket spectroscope, appeared to consist only of the usual
bright greenish line, which was very vivid in every phase of the |
aurora.

At gh 25™, the whole northern half of the sky was covered
with streamers, and arches, gradually forming a corona over- |
head, and increasing rapidly to great intensity and brightness.
The boundary of the light from east to west was a definite line
passing through, or very little south of the corona, whose centre |
was 3° or 4° east from the. stars vy, x in Ursa Major. North- |
wards from the boundary line the aurora consisted of six or |
seven parallel arches (of which only the lowest two had _ before
been visible), more or less distinctly succeeding each other |
be'ween the zenith and the horizon. Both the arches and
streamers were stationary, and presented no sensible tendency to
motion, however slow, while they were visible. At this time the
brightening streamers began to flicker in their light. Waves
of light, rising from the north, succeeded each other rapidly,
and appeared to flow swiftly over them towards the zenith.
Arch after arch was visible as the waves passed over them, and
fitful gleams among the auroral masses overhead shot to and fro
there, like flashes of summer lightning. The rays and wisps of
the corona, and bel's, or fagments of the aurora overhead
were rendered especially luminous by these discharges. Farther |
from the zenith, in the north, the waves rose smoothly and /
steadily, with a m tion that was indeed very swilt, but it wis
yet quite distinc ly discerni le, and more easily distinguishable
there, than in their passage overhead. The arches, or belts of
the stream rs appeared to he lighted up instantaneous!y, as they
were reached, Although their inter-mixture in the north made |

it very difficult to decide this clearly, yet the upward progress
of the waves there was very evident, while no such ascending
movements could be distinguished in the east and west quarters
of the sky. The belts and arches stretching towards those parts
of the horizon, through the zenith, and past, or through the
corona, forming the termination of the aurora towards the south,
were constantiy lighted up by momentary flashes, extending
almost simultaneously along their whole lengths. The brightness
of the flashes in those parts of the aurora which included the
corona, and arches or lateral branches extending from it towards
the magnetic east and west points is easily accounted for by the
belts and clusters of streamers in those positions being seen ‘*on
edge,” or ‘‘end on,” extremely foreshortened by perspective, so
that the increase of light along their whole heights appeared to
be concentrated, when the waves overtook them, to a single
flash. The motion of the waves must be extremely swift, as
they scarcely occupied more than a second in passing from an
altitude of about 45° to the zenith. Supposing that (as the best
observations of them have frequently agreed in showing) the
heights of auroral arches, and of the bases of auroral streamers,
are usually about 100 miles above the earth’s surface, the velocity
of propagation of these waves of electrical disturbance from
north to south cannot have been much less than 100 miles per
second. Such a prodigious velocity cannot possibly be ascribed
to waves in the upper atmosphere driven by winds among its

rarified strata, to which the sweeping motion of the light waves ~

apparently wafted by gusts among the streamers otherwise bore a
very singular resemblance.

At 98 34™ some of the strongest waves passing across the
corona lighted up a faint white arch in the south, extending
from Arcturus across the northern part of Virgo to the head of
Leo, several degrees in width. At 9237™, when the wave
disturbance, after continuing in full activity for about ten
munutes, ceased as rapidly as it began, this arch and the corona
still remained faintly visible; but together with all the other
arches and streamers of any altitude lately lighted up by the
waves, they soon vanished, and the whole appearance of the
sky at gh 40™ was about the same as when the aurora was first
seen, At gh 43™, however, the northern sky was again
crowded in every part with thin white streamers scattered in-
discriminately over it, like groves of slender fir-trees on a hill-
side, among which one very sharp and bright ray shone for a
few seconds, springing from the horizon to a considerable alti-
tude in the west, where it passed across ¢ Tauri. At 9!
50™ a streamer, starting from a base of intense whiteness near
the same place, and tinged at the top with a pinkish hue, as-
cended across the stars mw, v, as far as the star « in Gemini,
another very similar streamer almost simultaneous with it, also
extended from between Gemini and Auriga to near the forefoot or
Ursa Major ; afew spots of very intense white light were at the
same time visible here and there among the low clouds near the
north-west horizon. At 9 55™ all conspicuous streamers
had disappeared, leaving only a general glow, among the
brighter parts of which the wave disturbance began again, and
with less intensity than before, but with the same regularly as-
cending motions ; the undulations succeeded each other without
intermission until rob 5™; they then ceased, and the famt

| appearances of the aurora which were visible after this time

were, so far as I could observe them, until half-past eleven
o’clock, of a very insignificant and inconspicuous character.
The times in this description are from a comparison of my
watch with the clock in the Carlisle railway station, and its
hand and the figures on its dial being always distinctly visible
by the light of the aurora, they have probably been recorded
rightly 10 the nearest mnute. Altnough the dates of the April
meteoric shower usually occurring on the nights of the 19th
—21st of April are near at hand, I saw but one small shooting-
star during the hour of the auroral exhipvition. It had a short
course in one of the brightest parts of an auroral cloud, and in
its light and the aspect of its nucleus it did not appear to be
affected in any way remarkably by its passage near or under-
neath the beams of the aurora. A, S. HERSCHEL

Carlisle, April 18 ene

April Meteors

DuRING the evenings of April 19 (94 to 114) and 2oth (8
45™ to 114 15™) 20 shooting “stars were observed here. The
sky was cloudless on both nights, and on the 18ta and rgth
bright displays «f aurorze were noticed. Of the 20 meteors 12

were well obseryed, and their tracks accurately marked ; 8 of

73

eS emeeeensl
April 24, 1873)

NATURE

483

these radiated from near a Lyre, or from a point at R. A. 274°,
D, 37+. The following are the details :—

~ Date. Time. Beginning. Ending.
‘ R.Ayeee ROA OD.

April 19... .. 9.28 rst mag. * 295°} 46°+ 316° 51°+
a we «w. 10.3% 2ndmag. * 305 38+ 309 373+
Bs wwe oe 10.43 3rd mag. K 277. 36+ 2788 35 +
Fe ae os 10.50 4th mag. * 256 7 + 254 34+

April2o.. .. g.ro 3rd mag. * 266 w+ 2644 3134
» oe « 9.50 3rd mag. * 319 45 + 329 45 +
» ws ow 35.4 |ondmag. * 282 92-4 285 16 +
a ws oe 12.13 2nd mag. * 2644 16+ 261} 9+

The other four showed a well-marked radiant point at R. A.
221°3, D. 20 + in Bootes. The observed paths of these were as

under :—-
Date. Time. Beginning. Ending.
R.A, D. RAS =D:
Aprilig .«. «. 9.58 and mag. * 307% 43°+ 285° 33°+
April20 .. .«. 99 3rd mag. * 247 28+ 258 29 +
ns on 9.54 1} mag. * 244 53 + 268 67 +
» eee eee 10255 St mag. *K 225 19+ 246 16 +

The brightest meteor seen was one that appeared at gh 28™
on April 20. It diverged from the radiant in Lyra, and was
about equal in brilliancy to @ in that constellation This
meteor left a train which remained visible about 1} sec. after the
disanpearance of the head.

Bristol, April 21 WiLiiaM F. DENNING

IsenD the following observations of the shooting stars of
the April period, viz., the 19th and 2oth. On the 19th I
began to watch at rol, but saw no more until 11.45. I then
watched them until 34 15™. I found they seemed to come in the
region of the heavens about Corona, so I confined my obser-
vations to that part as I had not a situation where [ could see
the opposite side as well By 10 0’clock Hercules was quite
above the buildings, so there may have been some meteors
visible earlier, when these constellations were too low for me to
see. The first night they were all comprised in a triangle,
which wouid be formed by a line stretching from Vega by way
of Ophiuchus to Mars, and thence up to Arcturus and by Corona
back to Vega. They were pretty equally distributed over this
region. The next night they were much more concentrated in
Ophiuchus and Hercules and towards Libra. I was not able to
determine the radiant, so I confined myself to reckoning them
accurately in intervals of fifteen minutes, which time I had conve-
niently marked for me by the church clocks, and only observed
their tracks approximately. On the second night I noted the po-
sition and direction of each which shows their concentration about
the part named. On the nineteenth there were 25—15 horizon-
tal, 10 vertical. On the 20th from 9.45 to 2.45 there were 33—
22 vertical and 1% horizontal. hose I call vertical by distinction
were almost all just half way between horizontal and vertical,
z.e. atan angle of 45°. It was curious how this angle predomi-
nated. It was also curious that the first night the horizontal
ones predominated, and the second night the vertical. I do not
know if I am wrong (I) in assuming that we pass through the
node of the orbit of the meteors at this time, and (2) in inferring
from this assumption that the angle at which they principally
appear to us would be a guide to the inclination of the node.
Would the fact of their being horizontal be any proof that the
inclination of their orbit is small, and their being vertical a
proof that it is much greater, and of a somewhat similar angle?
But this would not explain the fact of the majority being hori-
zontal the first night and the majority at a greater angle the next
night. One seen on the 20th was intermittent, it ran for a long
distance, and became visible at intervals of a few seconds a little
way iurther on. Only a few were of any size, and the first
night all but two were extremely small and very faint, with very
short tracks. The next night they were not only greater in
number but larger, brighter, and with longer tracks. A few
left tracks lasting a second or two. One only moved very fast.
The first might there was one quite vertical upwards. This was
the only instance. The majority were from E. to S. or E. to W.
on both nights ; and the only two of any length on the 19th were
one running out of Corona and one running into it. It seemed
curious to me how these should be so much longer than all the
others and yet lie so close to the point of apparent divergence of
them all. The following is a list for the two nights of the num-
ber in each 15 minutes: April 19.—From 11.45 to 12, 2;
E2505, 5's E230) 202 45, 2 5-13, 1 3'13-LG be A s30 1550345,
O} 14, 33 14.15, 25 14.30, 03; 14.45, 15 15, 15 15 1015.30, 0;
Total ; 25.

April 20.—From 9.45 to 10, 1; 10.15, 3; 10.30, I ; 10.45, 0;
TT) 5 ELS, 23 LI. 30, 23 Baby. ty 12, Ob tearho ts L2r3Q,
15 12.45, 15 13, 23 13-15, 45 13.30,23; 13.45, 2; 13.45 to
Mego. 14.45, 5; Total ; 33. P. BL

att

Instinct
A Mechanical Analogy

Mr. Darwin, in his article on ‘‘ The Origin of certain In-
stincts,” in NATURE, of April 3, appears inclined to think that
what we may call the instinct of direction in animals is of the
same kind as the faculty by which men find their way: and he
instances the power of the natives of Siberia to find their way
over hummocky ice. He afterwards, however, raises without
discussing the question ‘‘ whether animals may not possess the
faculty of keeping a dead reckoning of their course in a much
more perfect degree than man, or whether this faculty may not
come into play on the commencement of a journey when an
animal is shut up in a basket.” I wish to point out that this
peculiar power of animals is one that cannot be explained
as a higher degree of any power that man possesses. What man
can do is to find the third side of a triangle after travelling the
other two sides with his eyes open. Animals can do the same
after travelling the two sides with their eyes shut. The former
power does not in any degree involve the latter. Moreover, the
power of man here spoken of depends on the careful use of his
powers of observatin. This does not appear to be the case
with animals. Among the many instances of animals finding
their way home after being conveyed away without any oppor-
tunity of seeing their way or taking their bearings, there must in
all probability be many in which the animal slept on the jour-
ney : and if so, the mental or organic process whereby it was
able to know its way back must have gone on during sleep.
There is nothing in man’s mind similar to such a process as this.
It on be made conceivable only by a mechanical analogy, if.
at all.

If a ball is freely suspended from the roof of a railway carriage,
it will receive a shock sufficient to move it, when the carriage is
set in motion: and the magnitude and direction of the shock
thus given to the ball will depend on the magnitude and direc-
tion of the force with which the carriage begins to move. While
the carriage is in uniform motion the ball will be relatively at
rest ; and every change in the velocity of the motion of the
carriage, and of its direction, will give a shock of corresponding
magnitude and direction to the ball. Now, it is conceivably
quite possible, though such celicacy of mechanism is not to be
hoped for, that a machine should be constructed, in connection
with a chronometer, for registering the magnitude and direction
of all these sh icks, with the time at which each occurred ; and
fiom these data—the direction of the shock indicating the direc-
tion of the motion of the carriage, the magnitude of the shock
indicating its velocity, and the interyal of time between two
shocks indicating the time during which the carriage has run
without change of velocity or direction—from these data the
position of the carriage, expressed in terms of distance and
direction from the place from which it had set out, might be
calculated at any moment. The automatic register of the jour-
ney may be conceived as exacily resembling the records of the
velocity and direction of the wind produced by one of Robinson's
or Beck’s self-registering anemometers, where one pencil-mark
indicates the direction of the wind,at any past hoar, and another
its velocity.

Further, it is possible to conceive the apparatus as so inte-
grating its results as to enable the distance and direction of the
point where the journey began to the point it has reached, that
they can be read off, without any cal.ulation being needed :—
a hand on a dial pointing to the direction expressed in degrees
of the circle, and the distance being shown in figures expressing
miles and decimals of a mile.

Now, I suppose such an integrating process as this (though of
course not by any similar mechanism) to be eff-cted in the brain
of an animal unconscivusly, and that the animal has the power
of reading off the result—that is to say, bringing it into con-
sciousness when wanted. JostPH JoHN MurPuy

Old Forge, Dunmurry, co, Antrim, April 11

Sense of Orientation

Your article on this subject in the issue of March 20, insists
very properly on the objecuion to Mr, Wallace’s theory that “ir
it be solely by the aid of this memory of smells that the dog is

484
to return to the place whence it was taken, it must needs make
haste back.” I wish to contribute an anecdote of which the
hero did not make haste back, and which seems to me to confirm
rather the theory already suggested in this correspondence,
namely, of a sense of polarity or orientation possessed by so
many of the lower animals both domesticated and wild. Last
summer I was at North Bridgewater, Mass., a shoe-making town
about twenty miles south of Boston. At the railroad station I
remarked an intelligent dog, whose owner told me, with a good
deal of feeling, that he had sold the animal some time previously
to be taken to Somerville—a suburb adjoining Boston on the
north-west, therefore distant from North Bridgewater at least
twenty miles. The dog was carried thither in a closed box-car,
probably making a change at Boston, where the railroad ter-
minates. For some two or three weeks the dog made himself
at home in his new premises as if perfectly contented, when
suddenly he disappeared, and turned up again not at North
Bridgewater, the home of his former owner, but at Bridgewater,
a mile or two farther south, where he had been raised, at the house
of that owner’s father ; evidently not meaning to be sold again.

Iam not sure that it is quite germane to this discussion to call
attention to the fact pointed out by the late George Catlin in his
“Life amongst the Indians” (p. 96), ‘*that the wild horse, the
deer, the elk, and other animals, never run in a straight line:
they always make a curve in their running, and generally (but
not always) to the leit.”

**T never have forgotten one of the first lessons that I had
from my dear friend Darrow, in deer-stalking in the forest.
* George,’ said he, ‘when a deer gets up, if the ground is level,
never follow him, but turn to the left, and you will be sure to
meet him ; he always runs in a curve, and when he stops he is
always watching his back track.’ But maz ‘ bends his course ;’
man, lost in the wilderness or on the prairies, travels in a curve,
and always bends his curve to the et; why this?”

Of the latter fact Mr. Ca lin gives an illustration drawn from
his own experience, and adds :

**On arriving at the Sioux village, and relating our singular
adventure, the Indians atl laughed at us very heartily, and all
the chiefs united in assuring me that whenever a man is lost on
the prairies he travels in a circle ; and also that he invariably
turns to the /e/f ; of which singular fact I have become doubly
convinced by subsequent proofs similar to the one mentioned,”

New York, April 8 Ne

UNITED STATES SIGNAL SERVICE

6 ye United States Signal Service Bureau has rapidly

risen to great and deserved importance. The chief
officer, General Albert J. Meyer, is a physician by educa-
tion, who, during the civil war, was placed at the head of
the Signal Corps. In that position he rendered great ser-
vice, and developed a remarkably complete system of
signals. The service now consists of a school of in-
struction, a central office at Washington, and stations
over the country at such points as will enable the ob-
servers to note accurately the varying conditions of tempe-
yature and the progress of storms. The school is at Fort
Whipple, Virginia. ‘A principal duty of the school has
been the drill and instruction of the Observer-Sergeants
and the assistant observers for the signal service. In the
preparation for these duties each man is required to enlist
in the signal detachment at Fort Whipple as a private
soldier, and to pass afterwards a preliminary educational
examination before he is put under especial instruction.
He is then given some knowledge of the theories of me-
teorology, and is taught the practical use of the various
instruments, forms, &c., in vogue at the several stations
of observation, while he is practised at the same time
in his regular drills of the service. When considered
competent he is or/ered as an assistant observer to a
station where, in addition to perfecting himself in the
practical details of the duties at the station, he continues
his studies, regularly under the Observer-Sergeant in
charge. A service of six months in this capac ty ren-
» ders an assistant eligible as a candidate for promotion,
He may then be ordered back to the school to review his
studies, and to appear for his final examination before a
board of officers appointed for the purpose. Passing this

NATURE

[April 24, 1873
examination, he is promoted to the grade of observer-
sergeant, and is considered competent to take charge of a
Station.
ing the past year, and each man’s fitness has been clearly
determined by this probationary service as assistant be-
fore his assignment to a more responsible position.

The central office at Washington is in telegraphic com-
munication with all the stations, and ‘each night reports
are received at 11 o’clock, P.M., and the results of the
digest are telegraphed to all the principal cities in time
for the daily morning papers.

From a detailed report of the operations of each of —

the established stations it appears that during the year
there have been issued and distributed at the different
lake, sea-coast, and river ports, and in the inland cities a
total number of bulletins, maps, &c., as follows :—

Total number of bulletins . . . 187,617
Total number of maps. 3 : . 203 hag
Total number of Press reports. ss 0,878

The accuracy of the predictions of the Bureau as to the
weather changes is stated in the report as follows :—*A
comparison of the tri-daily forecasts, or ‘ probabilities,’ as
they have been styled, with the meteoric condition after-
ward reported and, so far as known, has given an average
of sixty-nine per cent., as verified up to November 1, 1871.
Since that date to the present time (October 1, 1872) the
average of verifications has been seventy-six and eight-
tenths per cent. If regard be had to those predictions veri-
fied, within a few hours after the time for which they were
made, this percentage is considerably increased. In view of
the deficiency of telegraphic facilities during the year, and
the great irregularities of the working, it was not antici-
pated that these predictions, based as they are upon the
tri-daily telegraphic reports, would increase in accuracy.
Whatever success has been attained must be considered

an indication of what success might be with well organised

and full telegraphic facilities,”

The number of “cautionary” signals on the inland
lakes and on the sea-coast, and their value are thus
stated :—‘“‘ Three hundred and fifty-four cautionary signal
orders have been issued during the year, each display of
the cautionary signil at any station being considered a
separate order. This signal was announced as to be
shown ‘ whenever the winds are expected to be as strong
as 25 miles an hour, and continue so for several hours
within a radius of 100 miles from the station.’ The per-
centage of the cautionary signals verified by the occur-
rence within a few hours after the display of the winds
described, either at the port at which the signal was ex-
hibited, or within the radius of 100 miles from that port,
is estimated to have been about 70 per cent. The in-
stances of signals displayed, reports not verified, are those
in which they have not been proven necessary at the sta-
tion where exhibited. The signal is wholly ‘ cautionary,’
forewarning probable danger. It has been aimed to err
on the side of caution. The delays such errors may
cause are retrievable—the disasters of shipwreck are not.
Since the 1st of July of the present year (1872) thirty-two
cautionary signals, forewarning theapproach of six different
storms, have been displayed at ditferent ports. Of these
storms five were destructive, justifying the display of
twenty-eight of the sizgnals—one in advance of which four
signals were displayed was not considered dangerous.”

The operations o! the service have been considerably
extended by co-operation of the Canadian authorities, and
negotiations are in progress designed to furnish signal re-
ports from the West India Islands, and even from Europe.

THE ZOOLOGICAL AND ACCLIMATISATION
SOCIE1Y OF VICTORIA
THE first volume of the Proceedings of this Society,

_™ contains upwards of 400 pages, and the prefixed report
is altogether very satisfactory. The council of the society

This course has been followed successfully dur-

.

rightly think that Melbourne, from its size and importance,
ought to number among its attractions a good zoological
collection. If they succeed in obtaining a sufficiently
large number of subscribers, they intend, in the first
instance, to form as complete a collection as possible
of the fauna of Australia, and thereafter, when in a
position to do so, to add those of other countries. The
Government, we are glad to see, very liberally placed the
sum of 1,000/. on the estimate for the past financial year.

A considerable amount of success attended the ope-
rations of the society during the year previous to March
last. A number of pheasants of the silver (Phaseanus nyc-
themerus) and common (Phaseanus colchicus) varieties, had
been reared, and were to be liberated in suitable places,
Upwards of 150 guinea-fowl had been placed in various
secluded spots, in forests far removed from settlement,
where it is confidently hoped they will increase, and in a
few years yield both food and sport.

About 3,500 live trout, hatched at the society’s establish-
ment at the Royal Park, Melbourne, had, during the pre-
vious season, been placed in different streams. The deer
which have been liberated in many parts of the colony are
spreading and increasing rapidly, and the society possess
a fine collection of six varieties in their grounds at the
Royal Park. The valuable stock of Angora goats and the
ostriches belonging to the society are thriving and in-
creasing.

Although the society is anxious to encourage and pro-
mote sericulture, they find it difficult to advance this
industry in a really practical manner so as to be of benefit
to the colony. Baron von Mueller has, however, as well
as the society, supplied many paris of the colony with
white mulberry plants, and when they come into bearing,
silk growing will, they hope, become an important industry
of the colony.

On account of the services rendered to pisciculture by
Sir Robert Officer and Mr. Morton Allpart, of Tasmania,
the society have awarded to both these gentlemen their
silver medal; their bronze medal has been awarded to
Captain Babot, of the Aydrasies, for his enterprise in
bringing out sea-turtle.

In conclusion, the council are glad to state that the con-
dition of the society is sound and prosperous, and they
only require more liberal co-operation from the public to
enable them to produce great results in the cause of
acclimatisation. We sincerely hope the Australian pub-
lic will see it to be to their own interest to respond
liberally to the desire of the society for assistance in
carrying out their benevolent work.

The bulk of the volume is occupied by two papers.
The first is a valuable monograph on the “Ichthyology
of Australia,” by Count F. de Castelnau, in which he
gives an account of the different sorts obtainable in the
Melbourne fish market: their number is 142, In the
introduction the author speaks with great admiration of
Dr. Giinther’s Catalogue of the Fishes in the British
Museum, from which he has continually to quote ; fur-
ther on, he criticises that author’s views on the distribu-
tion of fishes. He also thinks that the learned doctor is
too severely condemnatory of the imperfections of his
scientific comrades. The second paper is a list by Baron
F. vy. Mueller ot “Select plants readily eligible for Vic-
torian industrial culture.”

NEW FRENCH INSTITUTION FOR THE
EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES

Aes all her political turmoil and strife it seems to us
a hopeful sign of the real progress of France that
she has citizens with energy, enterprise, and enlighten-
ment enough to undertake and carry out a scheme of
the magnitude and importance of the one about to be
realised at Lyons, It is to be exclusively devoted to
scientific research, and the Revue Scéentifigue thinks it

NATURE

485

deserves to be classed with the richest establishments
of a similar kind in England, Germany, and Paris.

For more than a year, it seems, the municipal adminis-
trators of Lyons have had it under consideration to form
laboratories of physiology and experimental medicine,
provided with ail the most modern and most approved
means of investigation. To settle the plan of such an
institution, the muncipality nominated a Commission of
scientific men, consisting of MM. Ollier, Perroud, and
Tripier. This Commission has given in its report, and
the following is the scheme it suggests with regard to the
biological sciences alone :— :

1. A great central laboratory, equipped for the opera-
tions and observations which are required in the experi-
mental study of the physiological and pathological pheno-
mena of the animal economy. In it will be collected and
methodically arranged all the instrumental apparatus
commonly required for such observations and experiments,
especially the registering apparatus.

2. A central hall or store-house of apparatus. This
will be the depét for apparatus and instruments not in
daily use, and which are used only in certain circum-
stances.

3. A laboratory of biological chemistry,

4. A laboratory of biological physics.

5. A laboratory of histology.

6. A room for geological researches relative to the
study of parasites and parasitical diseases, including those
of the silkworm,

7. A room for autopsies.

8. A room for minute dissections and for the mounting
of specimens intended to be preserved.

g. A workshop for construction and repairs, in which
will also be set agoing the moving forces intended to work
the apparatus.

1o, A cabinet of specimens.

11 and 12. A room of design and a small photographic
studio.

13. A library.

14. A hall for meetings and lectures.

15. Places for keeping animals,

16. A conservatory and enclosure for researches in
vegetable physiology.

17. General offices, houses for the director and as-
sistants, for fuel, water, &c.

The personnel comprehends a director and his assistant,
a librarian, who will also see to the publication of the
works of the establishment, three assistants, one for
operations and autopsies, the second for work in biolo-
gical physics and chemistry, and the third for microscopic
studies and work in experimental zoology ; finally work-
men, laboratory attendants, concierge, groom, &c.

These laboratories are intended for the study of all the
branches of the biological sciences, from general and
comparative physiology to experimental medicine, ques-
tions of hygiene and public health, diseases of animals
(especially silkworms), and vegetable physiology. _

But, although specially intended as an institution for
the biological sciences, the Commission has indicated that
the programme would be rendered complete by adding a
physico-chemical institute for the study of brute nature,
so as to unite in the same establishment the whole body
of modern experimental sciences.

On March 7 the Maire of Lyons presented to the
Municipal Council a report asking that the scheme be
immediately proceeded with. The city of Lyons has pre-
sented the grounds of the ancient corn-market on the
Quai St. Vincent. According to the plans and estimates
of the city architect, the buildings will cost g00,000f., of
which this year 330,000f. have been raised. Finally, for
the biological sciences alone, a first annual budget of
30,000f. has been set aside.

These figures speak for themselves, and need no com-

ment,

NA

TURE [April 24, 1873

nn UTES EEEEEES ae Sa

Irom a sketch by Dr. Hooker, C B., F.RS.

Possession Islands.

POSSESSION ISLANDS

SEEING is believing. The fitness of Possession
J Islands for the residence of an observing party
during a whole year may be best judged from the accom-
panying illustration, which is accurately copied from a
sketch made by Dr. Hooker at the time a landing was
effected. (See NATURE, vol. vii. p. 384.) This was 77
midsummer, and with an exceptionally calm sea. The .
spot where the crew landed is indicated by an * under-
neath. A sketch of the place by Captain Davis is given
at the beginning of chapter vii. in the first volume of
Ross's Voyage.

ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF
INSECTS *
Il.

IX the Coleoptera, the larvz differ very much in form.

The majority are elongated, active, hexapod, and more
or less depressed ; but those of the Weevils (Pl. 2, Fig 6), of
Scolytus, (Pl. 2, Fig. 4), &c., which are vegetable feeders,
and live surrounded by their food, as, for instance, in grain,
nuts, &c., are apod, white, fleshy grubs, not unlike those
of bees and ants. The larve o! the Longicorns, which
live inside trees, are long, soft, and fleshy, with six short
legs. The Geodephaga, corresponding with the Linnean
genera Cicindela and Carabus, have six-legged, slender,
carnivorous larve ; those of Cicindela. which waylay their
prey, being less active than the hunting larve of the
Carabidze. The Hydradephaga, or water-beetles ( Dyticidz
and Gyrinidz) have long aud narrow larvz (Pl. 4, Fig. 6),
with strong sickle-shaped jaws, short antennz, four palpi,
and six small eyes on each side of the head ; they are
very voracious. The larvze of the Staphylinidz are by no
means unlike the perfect insect, and are found in similar
situations ; their jaws are powerful, and their legs mode-
rately strong. The larve of the Lamellicorn beetles
(cockchafers, stag-beetles, &c.) feed either on vegetable
or on dead animal matter. They are long, soft, fleshy,
grubs, with the abdomen somewhat curved, and generally
lie on their side. The larvz of the Elateridz, known as
wireworms, are long and slender, with short legs. Those
of the glowworm are not unlike the apterous female. The
male glowworm, on the contrary, is very different. It
has long, thin, brown wing-cases, and often flies into
rooms at night, attracted by the light, which it probably
mistakes for its mate.

The metamorphoses of the Cantharidez are very re-
markable, and will be described subsequently. The
larva are active and hexapod. The Phytophaga (Crio-
ceris, Galeruca, Haltica, Chrysomea, &c.) are vegetable
| feeders, both as larve and in the perfect state. The
larve are furnished with legs, and are not unlike the
caterpillars of certain Lepidoptera.

The larva of Coccinella (the Ladybird) is somewhat de-
pressed, of an elongated ovate form, with a small head,
and moderately strong legs. It feeds on Aphides.

Thus, then, we see that there are among the Coleoptera
many different forms of larva. Macleay considered that
there were five principal types.

1. Carnivorous hexapod larve, with an elongated, more
or less flattened body, six eyes on each side of the head,
and sharp falciform mandibles (Carabus, Dyticus, &c.).

2. Herbivorous hexapod larva, with a fleshy, cylin-
drical body, somewhat curved, so that the animal lies on
its side (Lucanus, Melolontha).

3. Apod grub-like larvae, with scarcely the rudiments of
antennz (Curculio).

4. Hexapod antenniferous larve, with a subovate body,
the second segment being somewhat larger than the others

(Chrysomela, Coccinella).

* Continued from p. 446.

a .*
>)

+

April 24, 1873]

NATURE

487

5. Hexapod antenniferous larve, of oblong form, some-
what resembling the former, but with caudal appendages
(Meloe, Sitaris). :

The pupa of the Coleoptera is quiescent, and * “the
parts of the future beetle are plainly perceivable, being
incased in distinct sheaths ; the head is applied against
the breast ; the antennz lie along the sides of the thorax ;
the elytra and wings are short and folded at the sides of
the body, meeting on the under side of the abdomen; the
two anterior pairs of legs are entirely exposed, but the
hind pair are covered by wing-cases, the extremity of the
thigh only appearing beyond the sides of the body.”

In the next three orders, the Orthoptera (grasshoppers,
locusts, crickets, walking-stick insects, cockroaches, &c.),
Euplexoptera (earwigs), and Thysanoptera, a small group of
insects well known to gardeners under the name of Thrips,
the larvze when they quit the egg (Pl. 1 and 2, Figs. 1
and 2) already much resemble the mature form, differing
in fact principally in the absence of wings, which are more
or less gradually acquired, as the insect increases in size.
They are active throughout life. Those specimens which
have rudimentary wings are, however, usually called
pupee.

The Neuroptera present, perhaps, more differences in the
character of their metamorphoses than any other order of
insects. The larve are generally active, hexapod, little
creatures, and do not differ in appearance so much as those,
for instance, ot the Coleoptera, but the essential difference
is in the pupz ; some groups, as, for instance, the Psocidz,
Termitidz, Libellulidaee, Ephemeridz, and Perlidz, re-
maining active throughout life, like the Orthoptera ; while
a second division, including the Myrmeleonidz, Hemero-
biidze, Sialidze, Panorpidze, Raphidiide, and Mantispidee,
have quiescent pupz, which, however, in some cases, ac-
quire more or less power of locomotion shortly before
they assume the mature state ; thus, the pupa of Raphidia,
though motionless at first, at length acquires strength
enough to walk, while still enclosed in the pupa skin,
which is very thin.+

One of the most remarkable families belonging to this
order is that of the Termites, or white ants. They
abound in the tropics, where they are a_ perfect
pest, and a serious impediment to human develop-
ment. Their colonies are extremely numerous, and they
attack woodwork and furniture of all kinds, generally
woiking from within, so that their presence is often un-
suspected, until it is suddenly found that they have com-

letely eaten away the interior of some post or table,
eaving nothing but a tnin outer shell. Their nests,
which are made of earth, are sometimes ten or twelve feet
high, and strong enough to beara man. One species,
Termes lucifugus, is found in the South of France, where
it has been carefully studied by Latreille. He found
in these communities five kinds of individuals —(1) males ;
(2) females, which grow to a very large size, their bodies
being distended with eggs, of which they sometimes lay as
many as 80,000 in a day; (3) a kind described by some
observers as Pupz, but by others as neuters. These
differ very much from the rest, having a long, soft
body without wings, but with an immense head, and very
large, strong jaws. These individuals act as soldiers,
doing apparently no work, but keeping watch over the
nest and attacking intruders with great boldness. (4)
Apterous, eyeless individuals, somewhat resembling the
winged ones, but with a larger and more rounded head ;
these constitute the greater part of the community, and
like the workers of ants and bees, perform all the labour,
building the nest and collecting food. (5) Latreille men-
tions another kind of individual which he regards as the
pupa, and which resembles the workers, but has four
white tubercles on the back, where the wings will after-
wards make their appearance There is still, however,
much difference of opinion among entomologists, with

* Westwood’s Introduction, vol, i. p. 36. + Ibid. vol. ii. p. 52.

reference to the true nature of these different classes of
individuals. M. Lespés, moreover, who has _ recently
studied the same species, describes a second kind of male
and a second kind of female. The subject, indeed, is one
which offers a most promising field for future study.
Another interesting family of Neuroptera is that of the
Ephemere, or mayflies (Pl. 3, Fig. 1), so well known to
fishermen. The larvee (Pl. 4, Fig. 1) are semi-transparent,
active, six-legged little creatures, which live in water,
and having at first no gills, respire through the general
surface of the body. They grow rapidly and change their

PLATE 4
Pu. 4.—Fic. 1, Larva of Chloeon, 2, Larva of Meloe (ater Chapnis Candeze).

3, Larva of Caepteryx (after Leow Dufour). 4, Larva of Sitaris
5, Larva o: Can pe dea (atier Gervais). 6, Larva of Acilius 7. Larva
of Termes (after Blanchard) 8, Larva of Stylops. 9, Larva of
Thrips.

skin every few days. After one or two moults they acquire
seven pairs of branchize, or gills, which are in the form of
Jeaves, one pair toa segment. When they are about half
:rown, the posterior angles of the two posterior thoracic
segments begin to elongate. These clongations become
moreand more marked with every skin. One morning, in
the month of June, some years ago, I observed a full-grown
larva, which had a glistening appearance, owing to the pre-

488

sence of a film of air under the skin. I put it under the
microscope, and then, having added a drop of water witha
pipette I put the instrument down and looked through the
glass. To my astonishment, the insect was gone, and an
empty skin only remained. I then caught a second speci-
men, in a similar condition, and put it under the micro-
scope, hoping to see it come out. Nor was | disappointed.
Very few moments had elapsed, when I had the satis-
faction of seeing the thorax open along the middle of the
back ; the two sides 'urned over; the insect literally walked
out of itself, unfolded its wings, and in an instant flew up
to the window. Several times since, I have had the
pleasure of witnessing this wonderful change, and it is
really extraordinary how rapidly it takes place ; from the
moment when the skin first cracks, not ten seconds are
over before the insect has flown away.

The Dragon-flies, or Horse-stingers, as they are some-
times called, from a mistaken idea that they sting severely
enough to hurt a horse, though in fact they are quite harm-
less, also spend their early days in the water. The larvee
are brown, sluggish, ugly creatures, with six legs. They
feed on small water animals, for which they wait very
patiently, either at the bottom of the water or on some
water plant. The lower jaws are attached to a long
folding rod, and when any unwary little wretch approaches
too near the larva, this apparatus is shot out with great
velocity, and the prey which comes within its reach sel-
dom escapes. In their perfect condition, also, Dragon-
flies feed on other insects, and may often be seen hawking
round ponds. The so-called Ant-lion in many respects
resembles the Dragon-flies, but the habits of the larvee are
very dissimilar. They do not live in the water, but prefer
dry places, where they bury themselves in the loose sand,
and seize any little insect which passes, with their long
jaws. The true Ant-lion makes itself a little pit in loose
ground or sand, and buries itself at the bottom. Any inat-
tentive little insect which steps over the edge of this pit
immediately falls to the bottom, and is instantaneously
seized by the Ant-lion. Should the insect escape and at-
tempt to climb up the side of the pit, the Ant-lion is said
to throw sand at it, knocking it down again.

One other family of Neuroptera I must mention, the
Hemerobiidze. The perfect insect is a beautiful, lace-
winged, very delicate, green insect, something like a
tender Dragonfly, and with bright green, very touching
eyes. The females deposit their eggs on plants, not

. directly on the plant itself, but attached to it by a long
white slender footstalk. The Jarvee have six legs and pow-
erful jaws, and make themselves very useful in destroying
the Hopfly.

The insects forming the order Trichoptera are well
known in their larval condition, under the name of caddis
worms. These larvze are not altogether unlike caterpillars
in form, but they live in water—which is the case with very
few lepidopterous larvze—and form for themselves cylin-
drical cases or tubes, built up of sand, little stones, bits of
stick, leaves, or even shells, They generally feed on ve-
getable substances, but will also attack minute freshwater
animals. When full grown, the larva fastens its case
to a stone, the stem of a plant, or some other fixed sub-
stance, and closes the two ends with an open grating
of silken threads, so as to admit the free access of water,
while excluding enemies. It then turns into a pupa, which
bears some resemblance to the perfect insect, “ except
that the antennz, palpi, wings and legs are shorter, en-
closed in separate sheaths and arranged upon the breast.”
The pupa remains quiet in the tube until nearly ready to
emerge, when it comes to the surface, and in some cases
creeps out of the water. It is not therefore so completely
motionless as the pupa of Lepidoptera.

The Diptera, or Flies, comprise insects with two wings
only, the hinder pair being represented by minute club-
shaped organs called halteres, Flies quit the egg
generally in the form of fat, fleshy, legless grubs. They

NATURE

feed principally on decaying animal or vegetable matter,
and are no doubt useful as scavengers. When full
grown they turn into pupe which are generally inac-
tive ; those of some gnats, however, swim about. Other
species, as the gadflies, deposit their eggs on the bodies
of animals, within which the grubs, when hatched, feed.
The mouth is generally furnished with two hooks which
serve instead of jaws, The pupz are of two kinds. In
the true flies, the outer skin of the full-grown larva is
not shed, but contracts and hardens, thus assuming the
appearance of an oval brownish shell or case, within
which the insect changes into a chrysalis. The pupz
of the gnats, on the contrary, have the limbs distinct
and enclosed in sheaths. They are generally inactive,
but some of the aquatic species continue to swim about.

One group of Flies, which is parasitic on horses, sheep,
bats, and other animals, has been called the Pupipara,
because it was supposed that they were not born until they
had arrived at the condition of pupz. They come into the
world in the form of smooth ovate bodies, much resem-
bling ordinary dipterous pupz, but as Leuckart has
shown,* they are true, though abnormal, larve.

The next order, that of the Aphaniptera, is very small
in number, containing only the different species of Flea.
The larva is long, cylindrical, and legless ; the chrysalis
is motionless, and the perfect insect is too well known, at
least as regards its habits, to need any description.

Unlike the preceding orders of insects, the Heteroptera
quit the egg in a form, differing trom that of the perfect
insect principally in the absence of wings. The species
constituting this group though very numerous, are generally
small, and not so familiarly known to us as those of the
other large orders, with indeed one exception, the well-
known Bug. This was not, apparently, an indigenous
insect, but seems to have been introduced. Shakespeare
uses the word several times, but always in the sense of a
bugbear, and not with reference to this insect. In this
country it never acquires wings, but is stated to do so
sometimes in warmer countries. The Heteroptera can-
not exactly be said either to sting or bite. The jaws, of
which, as usual among insects, there are two pairs, are

| April 24, 1873.

like needles, which are driven into the flesh, and the ~

blood is then sucked up the lower lip, which has the form
of atube. This peculiar structure of the mouth prevails
throughout the whole order ; consequently their nutri-
ment consists almost entirely of the juices of animals or
plants. In their metamorphoses the Heteroptera re-
semble the Orthoptera; they are active through life,
and the young resemble the perfect insects except in
the absence of wings, which are gradually acquired.
The majority are dull in colour, though some few are
very beautiful. The Homoptera agree with the Hete-
roptera in the structure of the mouth, and in the meta-
morphoses. They differ principally in the front wings,
which in Homoptera are membranous throughout, while
in the Heteroptera the front part is thick. As in the
Heteroptera, however, so also in the Homoptera, some
species do not acquire wings. The Cicada, so cele-
brated for its song, and the lanthorn fly, belong to this
group. So also does the so-called Cuckoospit, so common
in our gardens, which has the curious faculty of secreting
round itself a quantity of frothy matter which serves to
protect it from its enemies. But the best known insects
of this group are the Aphides, or Plant-lice; while the
most useful belong to the Coccidz, or scale insects, from
one species of which we obtain the substance called lac,
so extensively used in the manufacture of sealing-
wax and varnish. Several species also have been used
in dyeing, especially the Cochineal insect of Mexico, a
species which lives on the Cactus. The male Coccus is a
minute, active insect, with four comparatively large wings,
while the female, on the contrary, never acquires wings,

* Die Fortpflanzung und Entwickelung der Pupiparen, Von Dr, Ry
Leuckart. (Halle, 1848.)

hie

¥

f".

NATURE

489

_ but is very sluggish, broad, more or less flattened, and, in
_ fact, when full grown, looks like a small brown scale.
The larve of Lepidoptera are familiar to us all,
under the name of caterpillars. The insects of this
order in their larval condilion are almost all phyto-
phagous, and are very uniform both in structure and
habits. The body is long and cylindrical, consisting of
thirteen segments; the head is armed with powerful
jaws ; the three following segments, the future prothorax,
mesothorax, and metathorax, bear three pairs of simple
articulated legs. Of the posterior segments, five also
bear false or pro-legs, which .are short, unjointed, and
provided with a number of hooklets. A caterpillar
leads a dull and uneventful life ; it eats ravenously, and
_ grows rapidly, casting its skin several times during the
process, which generally lasts only a few weeks, though
in some cases, as for instance the goat-moth, it extends
over a period of two or three years, after which the larva
changes into a quiescent pupa or chrysalis.
; JoHN LUBBOCK
(To Se continued.)

ON THE STRUCTURE OF STRIPED MUS-
CULAR FIBRE

FA. ‘HIGHLY interesting paper on the above subject
was read before the Royal Society on April 3, by
Mr. E. A. Schafer, of University College. The muscle
of the limbs of the large water-beetle formed the subject
of the investigation, and it was examined immediately
after removal from the living animal, without the addition
of any reagent, to prevent the introduction of complica-
tions. According to the author, a muscular fibre consists
of a homogeneous ground substance, which appears at
first sight to be formed of two distinct substances, one
dim and the other bright, arranged in alternate discs at
right angles to the direction of the fibre; and a vast
number of minute rod-like bodies, imbedded in the proto-
plasmic basis, having their axes coincident with that of
the fibre itself. These are termed muscle.rods; in the
muscle at absolute rest they are uniformly cylindrical,
and produce the appearance of a simple longitudinal
fibrillation in the fibre, with no transverse striping. But
when in action these muscle-rods are terminated at each
extremity by a knob, and are consequently dumb-bell
shaped. It is these knobs which give the appearance of
the line of dots which is always described as existing in
the middle of each bright transverse band of the muscle
fibre, whereas the dim one is that in which the shafts of
the muscle-rods are imbedded. In contraction of the
muscle, the heads of the rods become enlarged at the
expense of the shafts, the extremities of each muscle-rod
consequently approaching one another ; and the enlarged
heads come nearer to their neighbours of the same series,
and to those of the next series which meet them in the
bright stripe, the line of dots now appearing as a dark
transverse band with bright borders. As contraction
proceeds the shaft of the muscle-rod tends to, and ulti-
mately disappears, leaving an appearance of alternate
dark and light stripes ; the former however are in this case
_ dueto the enlarged juxtaposed extremities of the rods, the
latter on the other hand being mainly due to the accumu-
lation of the ground-substance in the intervals between
their shafts. An examination of minute oil-globules
imbedded in gelatine shows clearly that they give the
appearance under the microscope of dark spots with a
brilliant surrounding, and several side by side produce the
effect of abright band. From many considerations it can
be shown that the bright transverse bands in muscle are
similarly produced by the jux'aposition of the rod-heads,
among which are the following:—1. When the rod-

heads are smaller the bright bands are narrower. 2. When |

the rod-heads have become merged with the shafts in full
contraction, the bright transverse stripes entirely dis-

SSS EEE EEE EEE eee eee

appear. 3. When in contraction the rod-heads enlarge
and encroach on the shaft, their bright borders accompany
them and encroach on the dim substance, so that at last
all appearance of dimness becomes entirely obliterated,
the bright borders becoming blended in the middle.
4. The part of the muscle-rod where the head joins the
shaft, is rendered indistinct by the brightness around the
rod-head ; whereas if this brightness were inherent in the
ground substance, this part of the rod would stand out
all the darker by the contrast. 5. The appearance of a
transverse section is corroborated ; for in this case the
rod-heads are scen so close together that the optical effect
of any one would become merged into those of its neigh-
bours : consequently the whole of the intermediate sub-
stance would appear bright; and this is actually found
to be the case. 6, The fact that both the dim and the
bright substance of resting muscle appear doubly re-
fracting, would indicate that they are of the same nature.

Mr. Schafer with polarised light has found that a//Z the
ground-substance of the fibre is doubly refractive, the
rods alone being singly refractive. He concludes the
paper by offering a.conjecture as to the mode of muscular
contraction, in which he is inclined to regard the ground-
substance as the true contractile part, and the rods as
elastic structures, merely serving to restore the fibre to its
original length,

NOTES

A RUMOUR as to the fate of Sir Samuel and Lady Baker,
of a kind similar to those which have ever and anon filled the
air with reference to the undying Livingstone, appeared in the
Times of Thursday last. At the end of last year, with his force
dwindled down to 200 men, Sir Samuel had penetrated south
until he had reached the territory of the chief of the tribes
squatting near the great lakes, who had hitherto been friendly
to the Egyptian government. His reception of Baker and his
companions was however the reverse of friendly. Whatever the
cause, a desperate conflict with the natives ensued, and after much
hard fighting, Baker was compelled to retreat with but 30 out of
his 200 men. It was with the utmost difficulty that the survivors
succeeded in intrenching themselves in a small fort, whence to beat
back further attacks. Such, according to report, was the state of
matters at the end of last year. The present rumour is that Sir
Samuel and Lady Baker having at last been compelled to sur-
render, were immediately afterwards murdered. A telegram
from H.M. Consul at Alexandria, dated the afternoon of last
Thursday, announces that no intelligence of any sort respecting
Sir Samuel and Lady Baker had been received by the Egyptian
Government, or by any other, since March 5 last. <A telegram
of April 19, from the Alexandria Daily News Correspondent
states that the rumour seems to be utterly unfounded. We have,
moreover, been assured by one who has the best opportunities of
knowing, that no news has really been received, and that the
reports about Sir Samuel are inventions: “ there is not,” he
writes us, “a word of truth in them.”

WE regret to announce that Baron Liebig’s illness, to which
we referred last week, has terminated in death. The great
chemist died on the 18th instant, aged nearly 70 years, having
been born at Darmstadt on May 12, 1803. His funeral took
place with great ceremony at Munich on the 21st. Wehope, in
an early number, to be able to give a memoir of the late Baron,

Ir is with the greatest regret that we announce the death, on
the 2oth inst., after a long, and latterly, severe illness, of Dr.
Bence Jones, Secretary to the Royal Institution, the efficiency of
which hehas done much to promote. Dy. Jones was a distin-
guished chemist, and among his;contributions to the advance-
ment of science may be mentioned his Croonian Lectures on
Matter and Force, Animal Chemistry in relation to Stomach ani

my 4h

490

NATURE

Renal Diseases, Lectureson Pathology and Therapeutics, &c.
His reputation has been latterly much extended by his work on
the early history of the Institution, and by his excellent biography
of Faraday. Dr. Jones was a member of many learned and
scientific societies, at home and abroad. It will not be easy for
the managers of the Royal Institution to find one capable of so
efficiently discharging the duties of Secretary. Our readers will
remember that a short time ago a movement was set on foot to
get up a well-deserved testimonial to Dr. Jones, which, in agree-
ment with his own wishes, is to take the formof a bust to be
placed in the Royal Institution.

Dr. F. ARNOLD LEEs and Mr. T. B. Blow propose to form
a club under the name of the Botanical Locality Record Club,
the object of which shall be to collect and keep a record of the
exact localities of all the rarer British plants, with the dates of
the latest observance of each, to be published yearly at the end
of each season. The yearly report, containing not only a detailed
list of the localities, but also a geographical summary of each year’s
work, is to be pubiished and distributed only to members of the
club, and to certain learned societies; to the former a subscrip-
tion of §s. will be charged. The names of botanists desiring to
become members are to be forwarded to Mr. T. B. Blow, Wel-
wyn, Hertfordshire.

Mr. N. Hotmgs, Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceuti-
cal Society, has been appointed Lecturer on Botany to the West-
minster Hospital, in the place of Mr. A. W. Bennett.

Dr. ACLAND, the Regius Professor of Medicine in the Uni-
versity of Oxford, has given notice that the following gentlemen
have been appointed to Radcliffe Studeatships for the ensuing
Term: Mr. A. W. Huirding, of University College Hospital ;
Mr. Joseph H. Philpot, of King’s College Hospital ; Mr.
William Garton, of St. Thomas’s Hospital ; and Mr. Frederick
W. Jordan, of the Manchester Infirmary.

AmonG the works recommended by the Board of Studies in
Natural Science of the University of Oxford to students prepar-
ing for examination at the University, is Sachs’s ‘‘ Lehrbuch der
Botanik.” For the benefit of those unacquainted with the
German language, the Delegates of the Clarendon Press have
arranged with Prof. Sachs and with MM. Engelmann, of Leipzig,
for an English translation of this work from the third edition,
just published in Germany, and containing a large amount of
additional matter ; the whole of the 460 woodcuts with which
the original work is illustrated will be reproduced in the English
edition. The translation has been entrusted to Mr. A. W.
Bennett, who will also annotate the work on points where suffi-
cient prominence does not appear to be given to recent researches,
or undue prominence seems to be asssigned to certain theories,
in which part of the labour he will be assisted by Prof, Thisel-
ton Dyer. The work is expected to be ready by about the end
of the year,

Tue Edinburgh Botanical Society offers a prize of ten guineas
for the best and approved essay on the Reproduction of Lyco-
podiaceze, to be competed for by students who have attended the
botanical class of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, during
at least one of the three years preceding the award, and have
gained honours in the class examinations. The author is ex-
pected to give results of practical observations and experiments
made by himself on the subject, illustrated by microscopical
specimens. The essay and specimens to be given in on or before
May 1, 1876, with a sealed note containing the author’s name,
and a motto outside. Facilities will be given for carrying on
observations and experiments at the Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh. A prize of ten guineas; is offered, through the
Council of the Botanical Society, by Charles Jenner, Esq., for
the best and approved essay on the Structure and jReproduction

of the Frondose and Foliaceous Jungermanniaceze,
is subject to all the conditions specified in the case of the —
former. 3

Mr. CHARLES B, PLowricHT, of the Hospital, King’s —

Lynn, proposes issuing, under the title of ‘‘Sphzeriacei Bri-

tannici,” a few sets, each containing one hundred specimens,

intended to form a fair representation of the more important
genera and species of the British Spheeriacei,
be 1.

THE soirée of the Royal Society is to take place at Burlington
House on Saturday evening next, the 26th inst.

WE regret to announce the death of Sir William Tite, M.P.,
at Torquay, on Sunday.

WE regret to hear of the serious illness of the Rev. George -
Henslow from a paralytic seizure, which has impaired the use of
the lower limbs, but has not in any way affected his mental —
faculties, or the use of his arms. We understand that he has
appointed Dr. B. T. Lowne to take his place for the present
season as lecturer on Botany at Bartholomew’s Hospital.

IN pursuance of the recommendation of a committee appointed
at a former meeting, a conference, presided over by theRey. H.
Solly, took place on Saturday evening in further promotion of the
movement for giving some of the advantages of University educa-
tion to working men. The idea is to form a Guild of Operative
tradesmen to arrange for the delivery of lectures in various
places by lecturers provided by and sent from the University
of Cambridge.
meeting. The Council of Trades’ Delegates had passed a reso-
lution expressing great satisfaction with the progress of the pro-
posed scheme, while in the interviews which the chairman had
had with the heads of the University every encouragement had
been afforde| to the project, provided that a firm organisation
could be secured to deal with. The following resolution was
passed :—‘‘ That, ia the present defective state of technical and

higher education for the workman, no adequate provision being
made for those objects, either by the State or by private en-
deavour, this meeting hails with satisfaction the proposal to form

a Trades’ Guild of Learning to co-operate with the University
of Cambridge and other parties willing to aid in the education
of the people.”

FREDERICH DAUTWITZ writes us that he will exhibit a col-
lection of Cactacee at the Lustschloss, Schénbrunn, Vienna,

where he will be glad to receive visitors. He is also desirous of :

effecting exchanges,

THE sum which was left as the proceeds of Prof. Tyndall’s
lectures in America, after paying expenses, was 13,000 dols,
This balance has been placed in charge of a committee con-
sisting of Prof. Henry, General Hector Tyndale (Prof. Tyndall’s
cousin), in Philadelphia, and Prof. Youmans, of New York, and
these gentlemen are authorised to expend it in aid of students
who devote themselves to original investigation. A suggestion
has been made, and one worthy of encouragement, that efforts
be initiated to secure an increase of this fund to at least 50,009
dols., the whole to bear the name of the Tyndall Fund, so that
the objects of the professor may be carried out to a fuller
extent.

SCIENCE is certainly in the ascendant in America at present.
A fortnight ago we noted the princely gift of Mr. Anderson to
Prof. Agassiz The California Academy of Sciences has
recently received from Mr, James Lick a magnificent gift of a
building site in the city of San Francisco, valued at about
100,000 dollars.

For the purpose of more fully carrying out the law of Congress
in reference to the propagation of useful food fishes in the rivers —

This prize —

The price will

Mr. Solly stated what had been done since last —

og

and lakes of the United States, the United States Commissioner

-of Fish and Fisheries made arrangements with Mr, N, W. Clark
to hatch out several hundred thousand white fish eggs at his
establishment at Clarkston, Michigan, with the special object

of transferring them, in due season, to the waters of California.

_ At the proper time, in February last, two hundred thousand

eggs were carefully packed and forwarded to California ; but,

_ for some unexplained reason, they were nearly all dead on their

arrival. Inno way discouraged by this experience, the Com-
missioner directed the shipment of a second lot of two hundred

_ thousand eggs, which arrived in good condition, and the greater

number have since hatched out at the State hatching establish-
ment at Clear Lake, into which body of water they will be put
atthe right time. The feasibility of shipping the eggs of white
fish over so great a distance has now been satisfactorily solved,
and there will probably be no difficulty in carrying on this work
to any desirable extent. Mr. Stone has returned to the East
with the view of procuring living black bass, eels, perch, and
lobsters, which he will take back to Californiaina few weeks,
in a special car arranged expressly for the purpose. The
California Commissioners appear to be fully alive to the interests
involved in the multiplication of the food-fishes in their State,
and seem disposed to leaye no metho untried to accomplish
this desirable object.

Tue American Association for the Advancement of Science
commences its twenty-second session at Portland, Maine, on
Aug. 20.

THE Annual General Meeting of the Iron and Steei institute
will be held at Willis’s Rooms, London, on April 29 and 30,
and May 1.

Pror. O. C. Mars has in the current number of the

_ American Fournal of Science and Ars done much to clear up
the difficulties connected with the Dinocerata.

He has had the
opportunity of comparing his specimens with photographs of
Eobasileus or Loxolophodon cornutus of Cope, for the first time,
and finds that it is exactly the same as the species named by him
(Marsh) Zinoceras grandis some time before the introduction of
either of Prof. Cope’s synonyms. Prof. Marsh says, ‘‘ The
species of Dinocérata at present known with certainty are the
following :—Zinoceras anceps Marsh, Zinoceras grandis Marsh,
Vintatherium robustum Leidy, Dinoceras mirabilis Marsh, Dino-
ceras lacustris Marsh.” With regard to the osteology of the

class, we are surprised to hear for the first time that in the foot »

the hallux is absent, and the astragalus articulates with the cuboid
as well as the naviculare bone, features not Proboscidjan at all.

IF we may judge from the “ Register” of Lehigh University,
South Bethlehem, Penns., U.S., that institution seems to
be, in most respects, a model one. It was founded only
a few years ago, andis the result of a magnificent gift of 500,000
dollars and 56 acres of ground, beautifully situated in the Lehigh
Valley, South Bethlehem, by the Hon. Asa Packer, South Beth-
lehem is about fifty-four miles from Philadelphia, The education
given by the staff of professors is free, the only expense to the
student being his board, books, apparatus, &e. According to
the plan of education laid down, the first three terms ‘‘are
devoted, by all regular students, to the study of those elementary
branches in which every young man should be instructed, for
whatever profession or business in life he may be intended, viz,
Mathematics, Languages, Elementary Physics, Chemistry,
Drawing, History, Rhetoric, Logic, Declamation, and Com-
position.” At the end of this preliminary period, by which
time the Lehigh student will be not less than 17} years old, he
makes up his mind what particular direction his stud es will
take during the remaining five terms (24 years) which complete

the regular course, According as he decides, the student goes

NA TURE

491

through the special course provided for one of the following
subjects :—General Literature, Civil Engineering, Mechanical
Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, or Analytical Chemistry :
three other departments have yet to be added to this special
course. According to the prospectus before us, the training
provided in each of the special courses is wise and thorough, and
well calculated to put a diligent student in the way to make the ~
furthest advances in the branch he adopts. Any student who
wishes may pursue his studies at the University free for three
years longer than the regular course. Latin and Greek are
optional in all departments except that of Literature (which, by
the bye, has a large infusion of physical science), while French
and German are imperative in all. The institution is rendered
complete by an excellent laboratory, a well-furnished observa-
tory and a gymnasium.

Pror, PeTeRs has named the last two planets discovered by
him, Nos. 129 and 130, Antigone and Electra.

Amonc Mr. Murray’s list of forthcoming works are the
following : —* The evil Effects of Interbreeding in the Vegetable
Kingdom,” by Charles Darwin, F.R.S.; Sir Charles Lyell’s
“ Antiquity of Man,” 4th edition; “ England and Russia in the
East,” by Sir Henry Rawlinson, K.C.B., F.RS.; ‘* Human
Longevity: its Facts and Fictions,” by W. J. Thoms; ‘f Per-
sonal Recollections from Early Life to Old Age,” by Mary
Somerville.

THE Perthshire Society of Natural Sciences has recently done
a very proper thing. Onthe suggestion of the council, the
Hon. Secretary was instructed to communicate with such
members of the Suciety as might be elected to serve on the
Perth School Board and other School Boards in Perthshire, and
ask them to keep in view the importance of introducing into the
course of instruction in schools the elements of natural science,

SoME time since a paragraph appeared in NATURE relating
to a supposed power of a preparation of boxwood over the
growth of the human hair. A correspondent would be glad if
any of our readers could inform him in what way the prepara-
tion is made, and what part of the plant is used.

Mr. F. W. Putnam has sent us a few archeological notes on
an ancient fortification surrounded by a great number of mounds,
at Merom and Hutsonsville, Sullivan Co., Ind., U.S. The
fort is situated on a plateau of loess, about 170 feet above the
Wabash, on the east bank of the river. The position of the
fort would be one of great advantage even at the present day.
One of the mounds outside was dug into, and at the bottom of
the pit thus made were found remains of a fire, bones of animals,
pottery, and an arrow head. Mr, Putnam concludes that the
pits now filled up so as to form mounds, were the houses of the
inhabitants or defenders of the fort.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week include an Ocelot (/v/is pardalis), from Honduras,
presented by Miss E, E. Brooks ; two vinaceous Turtle Doves
( Zurtur vinaceus) from W. Africa, presented by T. P. Tindale ;
a Leopard (Felis pardus) and a Civet Cat (Viverra civetta) from
W. Africa, presented by L. Hart; two Goldfinch (Carduelis
elegans) and two Canary Finches (Sevinus canarius) from Madeira,
and a Paradise Whydah Bird (Vidua paradisea) from W. Africa,
presented by Lieut. F. L., C, Hearne ; a Philantomba Antelope
(Cephalopus maxwellii), born in the Gardens ; three Indian Tree
Ducks (Deudrocygna arcuata); three Summer Ducks (div
sponsa) from N, America ; two Hooded Cranes (Gras mona-
chus) from Japan, purchased; two Malayan Tapirs (Zagirus
indicus), a Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros), from the
Malay peninsula; a Derbian Wallaby (Walmaturus derbianus)
from Australia ; a Hoffmann’s Sloth (Cholopus hoffmanni) from
(anama; and a Greater Sulphur Crested Cockatoo (Cacatua
galerita) from Australia, deposited,

492

THE BIRTH OF CHEMISTRY
IX,

Early Ideas concerning the Process of Combustion. —Association
of Nitre with the Air, so far as the part they play in Combus-
tion is concerned.—Hooke's Theory of Combustion. —Mayow's
Lxperiments.—Early Pneumatic Chemistry.—Proof of the
Analogy existing between Combustion and Respiration,

AS in the history of matter we find molecules grouping them-

selves around a common centre or a common line, thus
constituting crystalline bodies, so in the history of sciences and
of nations we may often observe well-defined axes, about which
the facts of particular epochs congregate, Such axes are to be
found in the history of chemistry. At the particular period of
which we now write, the facts of the science mainly grouped
themselves around theories connected with combustion, which
involved as collateral matters conceptions regarding the nature
of calcination, and of the air,

Combustion was, and still is, the most prominent exhibition
of chemical force, with which man ordinarily comes into con-
tact. Itis a purely chemical action—the union of dissimilar
bodies under the influence of chemical affinity, attended by the
evolution of light and heat. Many attempts were made to ex-
plain its cause. Fire, in common with earth, air, and water,
as we have before seen, was regarded as an element, till almost
within our own memory. Epicurus regarded heat as a congeries
of minute spherical paficles possessing rapid motion, and
readily insinuating themselves into the densest bodies. Fire was
simply an intense form of heat. Cardanus speaks of flame as
aer accensus, and of fire as heat immensely augmented. During
the Middle Ages the existence of two kinds of fire was ad-
mitted—the one pure celestial fire “sudtlis ignis,” ‘* calestis
ignis,” the pricciple or essence of fire; the other ‘‘ gross earthly
fire,” or ‘‘mundane fire.” The latter was the saveria, the
former the forma, Celestial fire became mundane fire when it
was associated with combustible bodies, that is, in ordinary
combustion, Seneca tells us that the Egyptians divided each
element into an active and & passive form; fire became
active flame which burns, and comparatively passive warmth
and light. The elemental nature of fire was nor universally ad
mitted during the Middle Ages ; thus Francis Bacon asseris, in
the Novum Organum, that fire is ‘‘ merely compounded of the
conjunction of light and heat in any substance,” and he defines
heat as a rapid motion of material particles, Athanasius
Kircher, in his ponderous treatise, ** drs Magna Lucis et Um-
ére,” affirms that fire is air which is causet to glow by the
violent collision of bodies, by which means combustible bodies
become flame. At an early date it was observed that fire cannot
exist without air; the experiment of burning a canile in a
closed vessel was well known. Some affirmed that ‘‘air is the
food of fire,” some that ‘‘air nourishes fire.” The influence of
a blast of air upon fire was well recognised ; we have seen that
bellows were known at a very early date. When nitre—which
for many centuries was one of the most important bodies in
chemistry—came to be known, it was soon noti.ed that it pro-
duces intense ignition; that, in fact, to direct a blast of air
upon a red-hot coal, or to throw some nitre upon it, produced the
same result, viz. greatly augmented combustion. Hence aro-e
the idea that nitre and the air are in some way connected, for
‘*things which are equal to the same are equal to each other.”
This association of ideas may seem crude to us now, yet we
must remember that nitre produces rapid cembustion simply
because it contains a great quantity of that constituent of the
air, oxygen gas, which ordinarily produces combustion. Tnus
the old natural philosophers, wandering in the dim twilight of
experimental kn »wledge, were not so far wrong in th-ir suppo-
sition. The idea men ioned above was very prevalent two cen-
turies ago : Robert Boyle speaks of the pre-ence of a ‘* volatile
nitre” in the air; Lord Bacon says that nitre contains a ‘‘volatile,
crude, and windy spirit” ; Clark attribu'ed thunder and light-
ning to the presence of nitre in the air ; Gassendi imagined that
minute particles of nitre are diffused throughout the atmosphere.
When we heat lead or tin in a current of air, these metals are
respectively converted into a powder, or ca/x, and calcination
was one of the most important processes in old chemistry. Cal-
cination seemed to be due more or less directly to tie air; and
metals could also be calcined by heating them with nitre, or with
the spirit of nitre—nitric acid; hence arose another bond of
connection between nitre and the air; at least, they had some-
thing in common. Lemery in his ‘‘ Cour de Chimie,”’ published

NATURE

.

\

‘
,

in 1675, affirms that the acid of nitre contains a number of —
‘*corpuscules ignées” locked up in it, and he defines these latter
as ‘a sub le matter, which having been thrown into a very rapid —
motion, still retains the power of moving with impetuosity, even
when it is enclosed in grosser matter; and when it finds some
bodies which by their texture or figure are apt to be put into
motion, it drives them about so strongly that, their parts rub-
bing violently against each other, heat is thereby produced.”

Thus recognising the causes which had Id to the association
of the air with nitre, at least so far as they are both concerned
in the production of combustion, we are prepared to examine
Robert Hooke’s theory of combustion, The announcement of
this theory marks an important history in the theory of chemis-
try ; it was the first chemical theory worthy of the name, and it
gave a far more just and accurate explanation of combustion
than the crude and over-belauded theory of Phlogiston, of
Beccher and Stahl. Hooke'’s theory was, moreover, founded —
upon experiment, and although unfortunately he does not describe
the experiments, we see at a glance that it could not have been
constructed without such means. ‘* This hypothesis,”’ he writes,
“T have endeavoured to raise from an infinity of observations —
and experiments,” and all who know Hooke’s writings, are well
aware how good an experimenter he was. The theory was pub-
lished in 1665 in Hooke’s ‘‘ Micrographia ;” it is there found
(Observation 16) buried ina mass of irrelevant matter, and to
this cause may, perhaps, to some extent be attributed the fact
that it has been so little recognised and known. ‘The theory is
stated in twelve propositions, the principal of which are as
follows :—

1. That the air is the “ universal dissolvent of all sulphureous
bodies.”

Sulphur was long regarded as the type of combustible bodies,
on account of its ready inflammability ; some even derive the
name trom sa/, wip, the silt of fire. By sulphureous bodies,
Hooke simply meant combustible bodies, viz. bodies that can burn
in a supporter of combustion. By air being the ‘‘ universal dis-
solvent,” he meant that through the agency of air combustible
bodies are caused to become transformed into similarly invisible —
substances, [For instance, we burn a pound of wood, and a
few grains of ash remain, the rest has disappeared into air;
as we say now, it has been converted mto carbonic anhydride ©
gas ; as Hooke sad then, it has been dissolved by the air. re

2. ‘* That this action it (the air) performs not until the body —
be sufficiently heated,” ‘ ‘ o-

In mvre modern phraseology, every combustible possesses its —
special igniting point, phosphorus 92° F., sulphur 482° F., and —
so On.

3. ‘‘ That this action of dissolution produces or generates a
very great hea\, and that which we call Five.” aed :

4. ‘That thi. action is performed with so great a violence, —
and does so minutely act, and rapidly agitate the smallest parts —
of the combustible matter, that it produces in the diaphanous
medium of the air the action, or pulse, of Lighe.

This would seem to iniicate that Ho»ke considered light to
be an intensified form of heat, and to be generated in the same
manner, and to be a kid of very rapid motions

5. ‘* That the dissolution of suphurous bodies is made by a
substance inherent and mixed w th the air, that is like, if mot the
very same with, that which is fixed in saltpe re.”

Hooke had evidently traced the connection between certain
actions produced by the air and by saltpe:re or nitre; and he
says it may be readily demonstrated that combustion is effected
by that coustituent of the air which is fixed in saltpetre. This
is a remarkable assertion, because oxygen gas was not discovered
until more than a century after tue proposition of Hooke's .
theory ; and we now know that nitre contains ‘‘ fixed” init the
same substance—uxygen gas—which causes air to “dissolve” .
combusti ‘le bodies It is probable that the connection between
air and nitre may have been rendered the more probable in the 3
minds of Hooke and his contemporaries by the knowledge that |
guopowder will burn in a space devoid of air; thus, if sulphar
and charcoal burn in air, and consume air in burning, and if
nitre will cause them to burn out of con act with air it would
surely appear that nitre must contain ar, or one of its com-
ponents.

1o. ‘* That the dissolving parts of the air are but few, .. . 4
whereas saltpetre is a menstruum, when melted and rd hot,
that abounds more with these dissolvent particles, and therelore —
as a small quantity of it will dissolve a great sulphureous body,
so Will the dissolution be very quick eid valet “a

Z 24,1873)

Tt was well known that if a piece of red-hot charcoal be
thrown into melted nitre, it is consumed with great rapidity,
while in the air it burns wih far less readiness ; hence Hooke
infers that that particular component of air which causes it to
_ support combustion exists in a condensed form in saltpetre. He
also remarks that if air be violently forced upon a piece of ignited
_ charcoal by bellows it may be made to burn almost as rapidly as
in melted nitre.

12, ‘It seems reasonable to think that there is no such thing
_asan element of fire... . but that that shining transient body
- called fame is nothing else but a mixture of air and volatile sul-
phureous parts of dissoluble or combustible bodies.”

_ Hooke asserts that this theory had been worked out by him
several years earlier, and had been well supported by experi-
mental means; he says, moreover, that he has here “only time
to hint an hypothesis, which, if God permit me life and oppor-
tunity, I may elsewhere prosecute, improve and publish.” This
he never did ; but a young Oxford physician named John Mayow
(b. 1645 d. 1679) eagerly accepted the theory, and adduced
many experiments in support of it. Perhaps Mayow may have
worked with Hooke, during his residence in Oxford, and may
have helped to adduce verifications of the then half-formed
theory. Mayow’s experiments are contained in a treatise en-
tiled—** Zractatus Quinqgue Medico-Physici quorum primus

a

'

ty

*

Fic, 18.—John Mayow.
(From his “Tractatus Quinque Medico-Physici, 1674.”)

agit de Sal-nitro et Spiritu Nitro-aéreo, Secundus de Respira-
tione... . Oxonii, 1674.” The book is altogether important,
because the experiments which it contains form the basis of pneu-
matic chemistry, that is the chemistry of gaseous bodies ; it is
also distinguished by accurate reasoning and well-founded
eneralisations. ad it been better known, it can scarcely be
oubted that the discovery of oxygen and of various gases made
a century ago, would have been forestalled by many years.
Mayow calls the ‘‘dissolving parts” of the air and of nitre,
_ which we now call oxygen gas, by the several names of zitre-air,
fire-air, and nitvo-aévial sfirit, Air does not consist wholly of
nitre-air, because when a candle is burnt in a closed vessel only
a portion of the contained air is consumed. Nitre-air exists in
large quantities in a condensed form in nitre ; hence combustible
bodies mixed with nitre will burn under water, or in a vacuum.
‘The acid of nitre contains all the nitre-air in nitre, but it does
not inflame bodies so readily as nitre because in it the nitre-air
is surrounded by particles of water which tend to quench the
‘burning body. Nitre-air is not combustible itself, neither does
nitre contain any combustible substance, because it may be
sed in a red-hot crucible, but no ignition will be observed to

ROE e Ie Se
Sri 4 ‘

NATURE

493

take place, until a combustible body has been added. All acids
contain nitre-air :—how curi susly this conrasts with Lavoisier’s
name oxygen, from ofus yevvaw, which he gave to the gas, be-
cause he believed it to be an essential constituent of all acids,
Sulphuric acid, according to Mayow, consists of nitre-air united
with es des ; Wines become sour and are changed into vinegar
by the absorption of nitre-air from the atmosphere. It is the
cause also of fermentation and putrefaction, and for this reason,
substances when covered with fat or oil do not putrefy, During
calcination metals increase in weight, and this increase is attri-
buted by Mayow to absorption of nitric air; thus calx of antimony
is antimony f/us nitre-air, and this is borne out by the fact that
a substance absolutely similar to calx of antimony may be pros
cured by treating the metal with the acid of nitre and evapoe
rating. Again, rust of 1ron is iron united with nitre-air.

We come now to some of the first experiments in Pneumatic
Chemistry, In one of his experiments Mayow supported a kind
of ledge within a bell-jar full of air (see Fig. 19) ; upon the ledge
he placed a piece of camphor, and fired it by concentrating the
rays of the sun bya lens upon it. The camphor ignited and
burnt for some time, water then rose in the jar; and on again
attempting to ignite the camphor he was unsuccessful. A lighted
candle was also burned in the jar with the same result. Thus a
part only of the air had been consumed, and the remainder was
unable to support combustion. The siphon tube (shown on the
right-hand side of the figure) was inserted at the commencement
in order to render the height of the water the same, inside and
outside the tube, as stoppered air jars were then unknown.

Thus it was clearly proved that air is diminished in bulk by
combustion, In order to prove that respitation produces a

Fic. 20.
Fig. 20.—Early ex-

Fic. 19.
Fig. 19.—Early experiment in pneumatic chemistry.
periment in physiological chemistry.

similar result, Mayow tied a piece of moist bladder over the
mouth of a jar (Fig 20), and upon this he pressed a cupping-
glass, so that the edges fitted air-tight Within the cupping-
glass he placed a mouse, and as the animal continued to breathe
he noticed that the bladder was forced up, more and more into
the cupping-glass, proving that the air within it had been dimi-
nished by the respiration. Thus Mayow endeavoured to esta-
blish a connection between combustion and respiration. He
also placed a mouse in a vessel standing over water, and noticed
that the water rose in the jar as the respiration continued ; and
he found it impossible to ignite a combustible body in a jar of
air in which a mouse had died. Again, he placed a mouse and
a lighted candle together in a jar of air, and he noticed that the
mouse only lived half as Jong as a mouse lived in the same bulk
of air without the candle. Air deprived of its nitre-air was
assumed to be lighter than nitre-air, because if a mouse is placed
near the top of aclosed vessel, it dies sooner than if placed near
the bottom. :

In 1672 Robert Boyle procured hydrogen gas by acting upon
iron filings with an acid, and proved its nflammability ; but he
does not appear to have further studied its properties, and its
discovery is always attributed to Cavendish, a century later.
Boyle suggests that it probably consists of *‘ the volatile, sulphur
of Mars, or of metalline steams participating in a sulphurous
nature.” Mayow also procured some of this gas by acting upon

494

iron with dilute sulphuric acid, and he proves that it is not a
supporter of life. Pax. $244 ,

Mayow’s second treatise is on respiration, and he herein
expresses views far in advance of any of his predecessors. He
proved that the nitre-air is alone concerned in respiration, and
he asserts that this is absorbed by the blood, while the rest is
rejected. It unites with combustible particles in the lungs, and
thus produces animal heat. The lungs consist of a number of
minute sack-shaped membrattes through which the nitre-air
passes to the blood.

We add the following résumé of Mayow’s treatise, and of the
position which it ought to occupy in the history of chemistry,
from an article which we wrote on the subject a few years ago.

Mayow’s work is remarkable in several respects. Init he con-
clusively proved that respiration and combustion are analogous
processes ; he upset the four-element theory by demonstrating
the compound nature of air; and he recognised oxygen aud
nitrogen as clearly and almost as notably as they were recognised
a hundred years later—the one the supporter of lite and com-
bustion, the principle of acidity, and th cause of fermentation
and putrefaction, heavier than atmospheric air; the other in-
capable of supporting life or combustion, and lighter than atmo-
spheric air. We find, moreover, in this work the dawn of the
idea of chemical affinity in the fermentation, which he speaks of
as taking place between nitre-air and combustible particles, and
extending to the production or destruction of things. Mayow
even employs some of the terms in general use in the present
day ; thus he speaks of affnitas, existing between acids, and
earthy substances, and uses the words combinetur and combinentur
in speaking of the congressus of different substances.

The treatise is characterised by much clear and condensed
thought, well-sustained argument, and accurate reasoning ; more-
over, we seldom meet with instances of too hasty generalisation,
always the dominant source of error in the early development of
a science. We further observe a great advance towards that
exact and discriminative mode of thought which is necessary for
the investigation of chemical phenomena. The period in which
Mayow wrote, was, as regards chemistry, a period of transition ;
there was as yet no work on scientific chemistry, yet Mayow’s
treatise approached more nearly to such a work than that of any
of his predecessors. The works of previous writers in this
direction belonged to one of the three following classes: they
were either chemico-metallurgic, chemico- medical, or alchcemi-al
treatises, or they partook of the nature of all three. The publi-
cation of works on alchemy was fast waning beiore the advances
ot the new philosophy ; for as superstition retreated, and as men
began to devote their energies to the legitimate investigation of
nature, a false and chimerical art must of necessity cease to find
votaries. Mayow was the first to discuss the iutimate nature of
an intangibie body ; other writers had treated of the arasa
whole, but no oue had endeavoured to ascertain the nature of its
internal constitution, or to determiue why. it produces certain
changes in surrounding bouies, upon what these changes depend,
and the nature of the consiitueut or constituents of the air pro-
ducing them. The old dogma oi the elemental nature of the
air was received as an absviute truth, although entirely unproven ;
it was thought that a theory which had becn received since the
earliest ages must of necessity be correct, and no attempt was
maue to disprove it.

We see from the above that it was the investigation of the
nature of nitre which led to the knowledge ot the constitution
of the air, and to the first experiments in pneumatic chemistry.
Mayow remarks at the commencement of wis treatise, that so
much had been written about nitre, that it would appear ‘‘ wt sad
hoc admirabile non minus in philosophia, quam beilo strepitus
ederet; ommniague sonitu suo impleret ;” and when he rememvers
its connection with the foregoing results we are almost inclined
to agree with him. G. F. RopWeLL

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Journal of Botany for April commences with two useful
papers on Cornish botany : Supplementary Contribuuons to
the Flora ot North Comwall, a very little known district, by
Mr. J. G. Baker, and another by Mr. T. Archer Briggs. — Mr.
F. E. Kitchener contributes a very interesting noie on Cross-
fertilisation, as aided by sensitive motion, in Musk and Achimenes,
the former from observations of his own, the latter from those of
Miss Dowson. The structure and motion of the sexual organs,
which have long been known in both these flowers, are clearly

NATURE

ute

Ss Pas at
[April 24, 1893.

shown to be contrivances for enstiring cross-fertilisation by ifséct-
agency.— Dr. M‘Nab, in a short paper, suggests ths employment
of the term ‘* pseudocarp,” to distinguish fruit-like structiires —
from true fruits, such, for instance, as the apple, the strawberry, —
the rose-hip, the mulberry, and the fig, into the composition of
which other organs besides the true fruit enter. Among the
short notes, the most interesting is one of the discovery of Achinm
plantagineum in Cornwall, by M. Ralfs, the plant having been
hitherto confined, as far as British botany is concerned, to the
Channel Islands. There is a coloured illustration of four new
Hymenomycetous fungi, by Mr. W. G. Smith.

Pogsendorf’s Annalen, No. 1, 1873.—This number opens
with the fourth of a series of papers, by Oscar Emil Meyer,
on the internal friction of gases; he shows that Pois uille’s
law for droppable fluids is verified for gaseous transpiration —
through narrow pipes.—Dr. Hermann Herwig communicates
an account of experiments made on the action of the induction
spark in explosion of gaseous mixtures ; this action varying with
pressure and concentration in the mixture, and with the quantity
of elcctricity passed,—An apparatus of physiological interest, —
termed the Physometer, is described by P. Hartwig. It is a
refinement on Robert Boyle’s idea for examining the action of
the swimming bladder in fish. The fish, enclosed in a wire
cage, is elevated or depressed at will in a vessel filled with
water, whiie the changes of volume in the animal are indicated
by the rise and fall of water in a thin tube connected with the
vesse].—Dr. Pfeffer, in a paper of the decomposition of carbonic —
acid in plants by the different spectral rays, infers from his ex-
periments that the ctirve représefilifig the decomposition mainly
corresponds with the curve uf brighthess.—This papet is followed —
by another on a sitnilar stibject, by E, Getland. Among the
remaining articles may be tioted thuse on the Synaphy (or cohe-
sion) of ethers, by Df: Séliolz, on the pe fisation and colour
of light reflected in the atmosphere, by E, Hagetibach, and on
the electromotive forte of very thin gaseous layéts on metallic
plates, by F. Kolilratseh. e1

No. 2 cotitaitis off@ 6f a series of papers, Lf Thonisen, —
entitled Zhermo-chemische Untersuchungen, Ii 1 present num-
ber he investigates the affinity of eh to the metalloids,
chlorine, bromine, atid isditie —Oscar Meyer als6 continues his
series on ifternal frictiei Of gases ; giving a délailed account of
two kinds 6! apparatis fur estimating the influenéé of tempeta-

7

ture oii friction, atid adding some va uable obser a8 Of the
dynatiieal theory Of gases.—Several new Loren de-
scribed in this futiber; Prof. Mayer, of Hobo ‘

open
method of observilig the phases and wave-lehuths ind- —
vibrations in air, and also bis acoustic pyrefieter based Of this —
method } while afi ifiproved deepssea t rivomelen, & form,
of siphon, atid a photometer based of { Nigh “relief,
are described by theif several iliveritets;:—A secutid paper on
the physometer 15 als6 communicated by BP, Hartwig, in which
the physiological aid other applications of the instrument are
more fully discusséd:=W, Fe eofitfibtites an account of —
a phenomenon which he proposes tv Gall Mermo-diffusion, and —
which occurs when two poftiuns Of gas aFé separared by a porous
diaphragm, the opposite sides of which have different tempera-
tures. A diffusion 1s observed which, unlike the ordinary diffu-
sion, takes place when, on both sides of the diaphragm, there —
is the same gas with the same pressure.—Dr. Morton communi-
cates a note on fluorescence, supplementary to Hagenbach’s res
searches ; and there are, in addition, a few notes from English
and other sources. . .

4
Revue des Sciences Naturelles, Nos. 1-3, 1872.—This few
quarterly journal, published at Montpellier, is another proof « :
the scientific activity which is now reviving in France. Liké a
Lacage Duthier’s Archives de Zoologie, this provincial review
will we trust exhibit what Prol. Jourdain calls in 6ne of t
numbers ‘ces qualités éminemment frangaises : la méthode, la
rigueur et la clarté,” combined with Deutscher Fleiss aha
Unbefangenheit, which though of late years less commion
in France may well be teclaimed as no alien virtues by
the countrymen of Descartes, and Cuvier, and Laennee.
The editor is M. Dubrueil, with whom Dr. Heckel was asso-
cia ed in the first two numbers. Among the contributors aré
the names of An ouard, Barthélemy, Boyer, Paul Gervais, Joly,
Jourdain, Robin, Malinowsky. The first number opens with 4
paper by Prot. Joly, on the development of the Axolotl, illus-
trated with some good drawings. There follows a short com-
munication on a new French mollusk (Pisidia Dubruent), at
introductory lecture on botany, and an account of the geology of

f

) Ss, faa
2 [pril 24,

rs

the neighbourhood of Montpellier. Perhaps the most important
part of this and the subsequent numbers is a series of careful
abstracts of French and foreign publications in zoolo y, botany
and geology. The second number contains a botanical paper
on certain Juncaceze, by Duval-Jouve, with plates; a new
classification of Mammalia, by Prof. Contejean (there is nothing
_ very new in it: the chief novelties are definitely uniting the
_ elephant with Rodentia, and separating the Pinnipedia from the
other Carnivora to associate them with Sirenia and Cetacea) ; a
description of diatoms found in the mixture of various corallines
and algze which is known in pharmacy as ‘‘ Mousse de Corse”
(Corallina corsica, ‘‘sea-moss”), by A. de Brébis-on; and a short
account with a plate of the remarkable Filaria discovered in
chylous urine, by Wucherer and T. R. Lewis, and lately found
in human blood by the latter observer. Among the abstracts of
this number, by Prof. Jourdain, is an interesting review of the
affinities of 4mphioxus avd the Tunicata from an anti-Kowelev-
_ skian point of view, by Prof. Jourdain, apropos of Giard’s Etude
on the subject in the Archives de Zoologie. The third number,
published Jast December, contains, among other articles, an
important communication from M. Bavay on the development of
_ a frog (Hy/odes Martinicensis, Tschudi), observed in the island
of Guadaloupe. Though it issues from the egg as a perfect
anurous abranchiate Batrachian, it can be seen in the semi-
transparent foetal coverings to go through the tadpole stage,
_ having a well-developed tail and small external gills, both of
course functionless, We congratulate M. Dubreuil on his enter-
prise and success, and hope he will be able to maiutain the high
character of the first three numbers of his review. P. S.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDON

Chemical Society, April 17.—Dr. Odling, F.R.S., pre-
_ sident, in the chair.—Dr. Debus, F.R.S., delivered a lecture
_ ‘**Onthe Heat produced by Chemical Action.” The speaker
_ considered the relation existing between the chemical affinity of
the metals and the amount of heat they develop during oxid-
ation or combination with chlorine, iodine, &c., and also the
various interesting conclusions which may be drawn from the
thermic results obtained by the so ution of salts, especially no-
ticing that, in double decomposition taking place in solution,
_ those compounds are always produced which develop the
greatest amount of heat.

Geologists’ Association,—Excursion to Banbury, April

14 and 15.—This, the first excursion of the season, was
under the direction of Prof. Morris and Mr. T. Beesley, and was
largely attended. After their arrival at Banbury, the members
and their friends examined exposures of the Middle Lias Clays
(zone of A. capricornus) and the marlstone in the immediate
vicinity of the town. Subsequently the party proceeded
southwards, visiting at Twyford a section of the Lower
Middle Lias, and at King’s Sutton an extensive exposure of the
marlstone which is here worked for ironstone. Fossils, espe-
cially Brachiopoda, are numerous at this place, and abundant
_ occupation was found for the hammers of the party. At
_ Newbottle Prof. Morris described the physical geology
of the district, and showed how the hills and yalleys,
the agriculture, the occupations of the people, and even the
houses and churches of a district, depended upon its geological
_ structure. In the evening the members were entertained at a
_ conversazione in the Town Hall, Banbury. A very fine
collection of the local fossils as well as of antiquities and other
objects of interest, had been brought together by the exertions of
Mr. Beesley, and a large assembly testified to the interest the
visit of the Association had occasioned. During the evening
Prof. Morris delivered a lecture in which he described generally
the geology of Banbury, and enlarged upon the advantages of
astudy of thescience. The route for the second day was a
long one, and the party left Banbury early, and proceeded by
Constitution Hill section of Upper Lias, Broughton Castle
_ and Church, Tadmarton quarries of great oolite, and Camp,
Bloxham Church, Comb Hill quarry in inferior oolite, and
_ Adderbury ironstone quarries in marlstone and upper lias.
The physical and stratigraphical geology was explained at the
various stopping places, and many fossils were obtained at some
of the sections. At Tadmarton Mr. Beesley had provided
Tuncheon for the members and visitors, who, while assembled
in an ancient British camp, were addressed by Prof. Morris, Mr

NATURE

495
Beesley, ard Mr. Lobley. The association has, during the pre-
sent session, paid visits of inspe tion to the Brili h Museum, the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, and the Museum of
Practical Geo ogy, and lectures descriptive of portions of the
collections have heen delivered by W. Carruthers, F.R.S3

ie aia ae F.G.S., Prof. Flower, F.R.S., and R. Etheridge,

DUBLIN

Royal Irish Academy, April 14.—Dr. Stokes, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair.—Professor R. Ball, LL.D., read
some Notes on Applied Mechanics, and the secretary read, for
Mr. Donovan, a description of a Comparable Self-registering
Hygrometer.

RIGA

Naturforscher Verein, Aug. 28, 1872.—Cand. Westermann
described his visit to the Tlsingsee, in which is an island that
periodically appears and disappears. It generally makes its
appearance above water as the warm weather comes on, and the
phenomenon is supposed to depend on the development in the
peat at the hottom of mar-h and coal gas, which is increased
by the heat, and causes the masses of peat to float upwards
towards the surface.

September 25.—Herr C. Berg gave a detailed report of Dr.
Muller's work on the ‘ Application of the Darwinian Theory
to Flowers and Flower-frequenting Insects.”

October 2 —Dr. Kersting exhibited some living young frogs,
which had been from four to six weeks in the tadpole state.
While some had already completed their development, others
were still at various stages of transformation ; one animal had
all four legs, but still retamed its long tail, while another was as
yet only a biped. In proportion as the feet developed, the
animal became all the more meagre, and at the same time the
faste. the tail disappeared.—Herr Thoms produced some pieces
of the so-called sugar boxwood, an inferior kind of South
American mahogany, in which a remarkable secretion of a white
hard substance had been found. He found it of the following
composition :—Ca O 33°24. PO; 42°30. Organic matter 3°06,
Water 21°40, which is expressed in the formula 2 Ca O+ PO,
+4 HO. This is almost the same composition as that of the
substance which gathers round the kidneys of the sturgeon.

October 16.—Prof. Kieseritzky gave a list of plants rarely met
with in the province around Riga.—Dr, Bienert read a paper on
the Conifira.

VIENNA

Geological Institute, March 5.—Dr. R. v. Drasche
showed a mineral that was found in the environs of Plaben, near
Budweis, in South Bohemia. The specimens show a white
nucleus which consists of felspar, and contains in almost equal
proportions lime, potass, and soda. This nucleus is surrounded
by a perfectly homogeneous, pellucid green mineral, which some-
times enters in small veins into the felspathic substance ; the micro-
scopic examination of this green mineral shows not only the
polyhedric forms of the metamorphosed feldspar, but even the
stripes characterising the feldspar-twins (Zwillings-streifung) are
clearly visible. There can be no doubt therefore that the green
mineral is a real pseudo-morphosis of feldspar ; it belongs to the
family of the chlorites and in its properties and chemical con-
stitution is most similar to the pennine or to the pseudophite,
described by Kenngott from Mount Idiar in Moravia.—
T. Posepny on tube-ores (Ko/rven Lrze) from Raibl in Corinthia.
In the lead mines of Laibl there are to be found stalks, some
lines in diameter and some inches in length, consisting in the
outer part out of crystalline galena, whilst the axis is either quite
hollow, or is filled with earthy matter. These tubes are in-
closed in the dolomite which is the bearer of the lead ores of
the country. M. Posepny thinks that these tubes are formed
by the deposit of the galena on real stalactites—M. Ch. v.
Hauer on the occurrence of different sorts of coal in one and the
same bed. By an accurate investigation of the brown coal
of different localities in Styria, the author stated that it
consists generally of two different sorts of coal which are mechani-
cally mixed in the same bed, and sometimes in every single
specimen. The one sort shows a rather slaty fracture, is faint,
compact, and of less heating power ; the other, on the contrary,
has aconchoidal fracture, is shining, more easily friable, of
greater heating power, and may be coked. Inthe same way
in some layers of lignite y. Hauer found small parties of shining
coal which resembles good brown coal; he is inclined to
suppose that such differences of the coal in the same bed may

él ee LARA

496

NATURE

se irae

[April 24, 187

be caused by differences of the vegetables out of which the

coal has been formed.
PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, Oct. 1, 1872.—Prof.
Leidy remarked that he had visited a corundum mine recently
opened in the city of Unionville, Chester Co., Pa. The accumu-
lation is perhaps the most extraordinary discovered, and its
extent yet remains unknown. The corundum, as exposed
to view at the bottom of a trench, appears as the crest
of a large body or vein lying between a decomposing
gneiss and a white talcose schist. The exposed portion averages
about six feet in depth and five feet in thickness at bottom, and
is estimated to contain about fifty tons. It looks as if it pro-
mised to be the most valuable deposit of corundumeever found.
The corundum is the pure material, and is not emery.

October 8.—Mr. Thomas Meehan remarked, that as botanists
well knew, Quercus prinoides seldom grew more than two feet
in height. 1t was one of the smallest of shrubs. In his collec-
tions in Kansas, he found oaks in the vicinity of Leavenworth,
which made small trees from ten to fifteen feet high, and with
stems {rom one to two jeet in circumference. He was entirely
satisfied that it is identical in every respect but size with the
Q. prinoides of the Eastern States. Among trees there are few
which produce forms as low shrubs ; but the Pinus Banksiana,
in the East but a bush of five or ten feet, grew often forty feet
along the shores of Lake Superior ; the Castanea pumila, Chin-
quapin chestnut, when it gets out of the sands of New Jersey
into the clayey soils west of the Delaware, often grew as large as
many full-grown apple trees ; while the Celtis occidentalis, which
in the East 1s general y but a straggling bush along fence corners,
is in Ohio a large spreading tree with enormous trunk, and in
Indiana is as lofty and as graceful as an elm.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, April 7.—M. Bertrand in the chair.
The following papers were read :—On batteries and on electro-
capillary actions, by M. Becquerel.—On a new method for the
application of the third theorem to the control of geodetic lines
and to the determination of the true figure of the earth, by M.
Yvon Villarceau.—On the discovery of Lunar variation by Aboul
Weld, by M. Chasles.—On an access: ry reduction in the number
of periods produced by juxtaposition at the moment of the
formation of a double point, by M. Max Marie.—On Metallic
Reflection, by M. Mascart.—On the action of electric currents on
atmospheric air, by M. Boillot ; a paper dealing with the for-
mation of ozone by tubes coated wita carbon powder.—Note on
a new series of samples of crystalline or crystallised substances
obiained in the dry way, by M. Ch. Feil. —A letter was received
from M. Van der Mensbrugzhe, stating that he had been com-
pletely convinced by the arguments and experiments of M. Gernez
and Violette, in the recent controversy on crystal'isation, and
secing that the superficial tension of liquids did not play the
important part he assigned to it, he requested the Academy to
consider his recent papers as not received.—A note on Tempel’s
comet (1867, 11), was received from M. Stephan.—On com-
posite elec ric sparks, by M. Gazin.—On the Phonoptometer,
an instrument for the study of periodic or con'inued movement,
by M. J. Lissajous. —Note on the effects produced by currents of
electric ty on mercury immersed in different sclutions, by M.
Th. du Moucel.—On the solvent action of glycerine on metallic
oleates, calcic oleates, and culcic sulphate, by M. Asselin—On
the a; tion of chloracetylic chloride on aniline and toluidine, by
M D. Tommasi.—On the toxic effects of the iodides tetra-
methylammonium, and teiramylammonium, by M. Rabuteau ;
the author has found that so long as an atom of hydrogen remains
unreplaced, the amyl and methylammonium compounds are
harmless, but that as soon as the last atom of hydiogen is re-
placed by the radicle, the body becomes excessively poisonous,
with an action like that of curara.—On the age of elevation of
Mount Lozére, by M. Fabre.—Note on the public fountams of
Toulouse, by M. Grimaud de Caux. During the meeting an
election to the vacant chair of the late M. Delaunay, in the astru-
nomical section, took place. M. Lewy obtained 31,M. Wolf 24,
and M. Stephan 2 votes; M. Loewy was declared elected.

April 14.—M. de Quatrelages, presivent, in the chair.—Ex-
planation o! the text of Aboul Wefa on the third irregularity of
the moon, by M, Chasles,—A long and detailed reply to M.
Faye’s late criticism on the solar spot theory was received from
Father Secchi; this was followed by an answer by M Faye,
who also answered M. Vicaire’s attempted revival of Herschel’s

theory in the same paper.—A correspondent for the astronomical
section, in place of the late M. Quoy, was then elected, M.
Mulsant obtayned 31 votes, M. Baudelot 8, and M. Joly 1; M.
Mulsant was therefore declared duly elected.—A report on
M. Boussinesq’s ‘‘ Essay on the theory of running waters” was
then read.—On the residues relative to Asymptotes, classification
of the quadratics of algebraic curves, by M. Max Marie.—New
observations on the theory of solamcyclones, by M. Vicaire.—A
memoir on substitutions (mathematical), by M. C. Jordan.—On
a new determination of the constant of attraction and of the mean
density of the earth, by MM. A. Cornu and J. Baille.—On the
effects produced by electric currents on mercury immersed in
different solution, by M. Th. du Moncel, a continuation of the
paper read at the last meeting.—On irradiation, by M. F. P. Le
Roux.—On the hybrid reproduction of Echinoderms, by M. A,
Marion, -On the trunk ot a Nemertian hermaphrodite from |
coasts of Marseilles, by M. E. Zetler.—A study on the carboni-
ferous formations of the Bas Boulonnais, by MM. Gosselet and
Bertaut.

DIARY

THURSDAY, Aprrit 24.

Royat Society, at 8.30.—On the Durability and Preservation of Iron Ships,
and on Rivetted Joiuts Sir W. Fawbairn.—un the Employment of
Meteorological Statistics in determining the best course for a Ship whose
Sailing Qualities are known; F. Galton,

Roya LasTiTuTION, at 3.—Light: Prof. Tyndall.

GresHAM LEcTURES, at 7.—Ou Climate: E. 5, Lhompson.

FRIDAY, APRIL 25.
Roya InsTITUTION, at 9 —Palzoutological Evidence of Modification of
Animal Forms; Prot. Flower.
HorricuLtTurat Society, at 3 —Lecture.
QuEKETT CuUvs, at 8.
GresHaAM LecTuRES, at 7.-—On Climate in Health and Disease: E. S.

‘Thompson.
SATURDAY, Aprit 26.

GresHAM LEcTURES, at 7.—Oun Stimulants: E. S. Thompson.
Royac INSTiTU 110N, at 3.—Oz ne: Prot Odling.
Roya BoTANIC SOCIETY, at 3 45-

GEOLuGIsTs’ ASSOCIATION, at 8 —Excursion from Charing Cross (2.25) to }

Charlton.
MONDAY, Apxit 28.

‘

GEOGRAPHICAL Society, at 8 30. -On the prob«ble existence of unknown

Lands within the Arctic Circle : Capt. Sherard Usborn, R N.
Lonbon INSTITUTION, at 4.—Llementary Kowany; Prot. bentley.
TUESDAY, Aprit 29.
ZootocicaL Society, at 8.30.—Anniversary.
Royar InsriTuTion, at 3 — Music of the Drama: Mr, Dannreuther,
Sociery oF ArTS, at 8.—Un the British Settlements in West Africa; Go-
vernor Pope Hennessy.
WEDNESDAY, Apri 30.
Lonpon INsTITUTION, at 12.—Annusl Meeting.
Society oF ARTs, at 8.—Uun the Condeused Milk Manufacture: L. P.
Merriam. 5 i
Geo tocicau Society, at 8.—On the Permian Breccias and Boulder-beds of
Armagh: Prof, tdward Hull —Geoogical Notes upon Griqualand West:
G W. Stow.—On some Bivalve Entomosiraca, chiefly Cypridiuide, of the —
Carboniferous Formations: Prof. 1. Rupert joues. —
THURSDAY, May t.
LINnNEAN Society, at 8.—On Cinchonas; J, E. Howard,
CHEMICAL DOcIETY, at 8.—On Zirconia: J. B. Hannay.—On a new class
of Exp osives: Dr. aprengel. ¥
Roya. LnsriruTion, at 2.—Annual Meeting.

CONTENTS PaGEe
ScrenTIFIC ENDOWMENTS AND Bequests . . oa le lee ete 477°
CvreKK-MAXWELL's ELeCrRICITY AND MAGNETISM. . . « « - + 478°

UUK BOOK SHELF. . .- oat eis . + oh 5) wenn
LE?rTERs TO THE EpIrorR :-- q
Reflected and Transmitted Light—W. B. Woopnury and Prof.

‘TYNDALL, FORIS) oo. eco
The Zoological Coilection in the India House —Pro!, A. NEWTON 48e
On the Affinities of Dinoceras ana its Allies —A. H. GaRKop « 481
Auroral Display.—Prot. A. >. HERSCHEL, F.R.AS. 2. . - 481
April Meteurs.—W, #. DENNING... Cat oa) samen
Insunct: A Mecha ical Analugy.—J. J. Murpuy, F.G.S. . . . 483
UNITED STATES SIGNAL DEKVICE . . - o. ee Se" fol ne
‘THE ZOOLOGICAL AND ACCLIMATISATION SOCIETY OF VICTORIA . 484
New FRENCH INSTITUTION FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES . . 485
Possession Istanps (With didustration) . . . . 6 2 « es 5 480.
ON THE OR:GIN AND Mevamorpuoses oF Insxcts, I. By Sir Joun
Lupsock, Bart., M.P., F.R.>. (Wath Ldlustrations.). . .« . . . 486
ON THE STKUCTUKE OF STRIPED MUSCULAR FIBRE. 2 « + + + 489
NOTES 9s.) 6 yo oie, 0» ve Orn ago
‘LHe BirTH oF CuEmistTRY, IX By G, F Ropwett, F.C.S. (With
Iliustrations: AR meee. Wile a. s-\ se Baltes Py
SCIKNTIFIC SERIALS. . + + ee ° 5
SouciETI£s AND ACADEMIES « « « «

DIARY’. 5: Sigemenmeetae eu) Ge

1

ee a a ee

PAD EX

Abbott (Prof. C, C., M.D.), Origin of American Indians, 203 ; | Asbestos, Manufacture and Application of, 210

Feeding Habits of the Belted Kingfisher, 362

Aberdeen University, 54 ; Election of Lord Rector, 35, 54, 111,
131, 250

Abiogenesis (See Beginnings of Life, Bastian, H. C., Huizinga,
Prof. D.)

Academical Study, Organisation of, 72

Acclimatisation Society of Victoria, 484

Acquired Habits in Plants, 445

Action at a Distance (Prof. Clerk-Maxwell, F.R.S.), 323, 34!

Adams (Prof. W. G., F.R.S.), Physics for Medical Students,
27 ; * Diathermanous” or ‘‘ Transfervent?” 341

Adaptation to External Conditions; Frogs and Salamanders,
401

Aeronautics in America, 413

African Exploring Expeditions, 35, 36, 70, 79, 169, 189, 251,
270, 289, 351, 391

Agassiz (Prof.), The Hassler Expedition, 111, 230 ; Sub-marine
Photography, 210; Survival of the Fittest, 404; Penikese
Island and 50,000 dollars given to him by Mr. J. Anderson,
445, 471, 477

** Air and Water, Hygiene of,” by W. Proctor, M.D., F.C.S.,
318

Air-Battery, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., 472

Airy (Hubert, M.D.), Leaf Arrangement, 341, 403, 442

Aitken (John), Glacier Motion, 287

Alabama, Climate of, 231

Algee, M. de Brebisson’s Collections, 332

Algeria, Geodetic Operations in, 450

Alleghany Observatory, 251

Aloes, American, 335

Altum (Dr. Bernard), “ Forest Zoology,” 141

“Amber Works in Western Yunan, 317

America: Aeronautics, in, 413 ; Penikese Island given to Prof.
Agassiz, 445, 471, 477; Prof. Tyndall’s Lectures, 34, 54, 150,

190, 224, 249, 268, 370, 445, 490; Scienceand the Press, 445 |

(See Alleghany, Boston, California, Manitoba, New York,
Philadelphia)

American Museum of Natural History, 332

American Scientific Intelligence, 56

American Signal Service, 484

American Survey and Geological Survey, 370, 371

American Indians, their Origin, 203

Anderson (J., M.D.), ‘‘ Expedition to Western Yunan,” 317

Anderson (John), his gift of Penikese Island and 50,000 dollars
to Prof. Agassiz, 445, 471, 477

Anderson (J. F.), November Meteors at Pau, 123

Animals: Instinct, Inherited Instinct, and Perception in, 281,
303, 322, 340, 360, 361, 371, 377, 499, 417, 424, 437, 443)
444, 463, 483

Ansted (Prof.), Accident to, 452

Anthropological Institute, 39, 75, 135, 175, 208, 213, 249, 255,
267, 295, 310, 373, 395, 415, 455

Antinomies of Kant, 262, 282

Ants, Nature and Habits of, 10

Ants, Perception in, 443 ,

“ Ants, Harvesting,” by J. T. Moggridge, F.L.S., 337, 453

Aquaria: Brighton, 169, 209, 231, 362, 4513; Crystal Palace
15; San Francisco, 151

Aquatic Articulata, 469

Arachnida, Hints on collecting, 163 (See Trap-door Spiders)

Arctic Exploration, 7, 53. 117, 157, 170, 188, 208, 231, 249,
270, 311, 395, 413, 432, 452

Aristotle, Anticipation of Natural Selection, 402

Armstrong (Sir W., C.B.), The Coal Question, 270, 291

Articulata, Aquatic, 469

Ashmolean Society, 370

| Assyria, Daily Telegraph Exploration, 151, 210

Assyrian Record of the Deluge, 55, $7

Astronomical Expedition, American, 107

Astronomy, Belgian Contributions to, 23

Atlantic Telegraph, Free Transmission of Astronomical Obser-
vations, 250

Atmosphere, its Blue Colour, 132

Atmospheric Electricity, 9

Atmospheric Haze, 291

Atmospheric Refraction, 163

Atropia and Physostigma, 69

Attwood (F. L.), Physics for Medical Students, 7

Aurora by Daylight, 29

Aurora, Spectrum of, 182, 201, 242, 463 ; Polarisation of, 201

Auroral Display at Carlisle, 481 pbs

Auroral Phenomena, Trebizond, 181

Australia, the Rising of, 129

Australia, Science in, 452

Australia and Tasmania, Geological Map, 249

** Australian Mechanic and Journal of Science,” 274

Babbage (the late Chas., F.R.S.), Sale of his Mathematical
Collections, 34; his “ Tables” and Library, 171

Babinet (M.), Obituary Notice of, 53

Backhouse (T. W.), Day Aurora, 29 ; The Zodiacal Light, 341 ;
Spectrum of Aurora, 463

Bacteria (See Bastian, H. C., M.D., Beginnings of Life)

Bagehot (Walter), “‘ Physics and Politics,” 277

Baillon (H.), ‘‘ Natural History of Plants,” 320

Baird (Wm. M.), Obituary notice of, 89

Baker (Sir S. and Lady), Reported Murder of, 489

Baranetzky (J.), Diosmotic Properties of Colloids, 152

Barbados, Rainfall at, 124, 161

Barber (Samuel), November Meteors at Liverpool, 123

Barrett (W. F., F.C.S.), Prof. Tyndall’s Researches on Radiant
Heat, 66

Barrington (R. M.), Phosphorescence in Wood, 464

Barrows, in Cornwall, 378 ; near Beverley, 452

Bartlett (A. D.), Silver Medal to him on the rearing of the Hip-
popotamus, 150 :

Bastian (H. C., M.D., F.R.S.), his Experiments, 123, 180,
242, 261, 302, 321, 380, 413, 4343 ‘‘ Note on the Origin of
Bacteria” (Roy. Soc.), 275

| Bath Natural History Society, 151

Baumhauer (E, H. von), Dutch Society of Sciences, 464

| Beale (Prof. L. S., F.R.S.), Physics for Medical Students, 7

Bees, Perception in, 410 ; Inherited Instinct, 417

Beet-Sugar, 375

‘Beginnings of Life,” Dr. H. C, Bastian, F.R.S., on, 26;
Discussion on, 104, 123, 180, 242, 380, 413, 434

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, 35

Belgian Academy, 369

Belgian Contributions to Astronomy, 23

Belgium, Magnetic Survey of, 295

Belgium, Report on Botanical Science, 320, 334; Science in,
114, 168, 210

Bentham (Geo., F.R.S.), Our National Herbarium, 26 ; Carex
and Uncinia, 372

Bennett (A. W., F.L.S.), Pollen-eating Insects, 202 ; External
Perception in Animals, 322, 361

Berlin University, 89 ; Professorship of Photography, 88 ; African
Expedition, 151; New Physiological Laboratories, 405 ;
Transit of Venus, 451

Berne, Scientific Society, 235

iv INDEX

Bessemer (Mr.), his Saloon Steamer for the Channel Passage,

41

Biblical Archzeology, Society of, 87

Biela’s Comet, 163

‘Bird Life,” by Dr. Brehm, translated by Labouchere and
Jesse, 121

Birds: Yarrell’s “ British Birds,” by Newton, 461

“ Birds (British), Handbook of,” by J. E. Hartwig, F.L,S.,
IOI

Birds, Instinct of Tumbler Pigeons, 387, 417; Ceylon Pigeon
Express, 351 ; Destruction of Rare, 464

Birds, Fossil, in Kansas, 310

‘* Birds of Egypt, Handbook to the,” 178

Birmingham and Midland Institute, 53

Birmingham School Natural [History Society, 269

Black (W. J.), Gauges for Ocean Rainfall, 202

Blake (Prof. Jas.), Supposed new Marine Animal, 67

Blind Fish of the Wyandotte Cave, 12

Blue Colour of Sky and Water, 132

Bolton Literary and Scientific Society, 15

Bombay, Grant Medical College, 269

Bordeaux, Science at, 190; Scientific Association, 70

Borlase (W. C., B.A.), “ Sepulchral Monuments of Cornwall,”
337, 378

Borneo, Cave-deposits, 461

Boston (U.S.), Academy of Arts and Sciences, 214 ; the Great
Fire, 215, 230

“ Botanists’ Pocket Book,” by W. R, Hayward, 360

Botany : Notes in Lisbon, 229; Professorship at Caracas Uni-
yersity, Botanic Garden, Liege, 351; ‘‘ The Useful Plants of
India,” by Col. H. Drury, 340; Dr. H. Airy on Leaf-
Arrangement, 341, 403, 442; Edinburgh Botanical Society,
Fertilisation of Grasses, 391 ; Botany in Belgium, 334

Bowring (Sir John), Obituary Notice of, 70

Braun (Dr. A.), Darwinism, 5

Breslau, Silesian Society for National Culture, 137, 158, 162

cai las F.R.A.S.), Italian Report on the Eclipse of 1870,
30)

Brewer (W. H.), Sense of Smell in Animals, 360, 410; Mau-
pertuis on Natural Selection, 402

Bright Lines in the Solar Spectrum, Prof. C. A. Young on, 17

Brighton Aquarium, 169, 209, 231, 362, 451

Brighton, Geology of, 395

Bristol, Meteors at, 85, 322

Bristow (H. W., F.R.S.), ‘‘ Table of British Strata,” 452

British Association ; Arrangements for 1873, 88

British Museum, Herbarium, 5, 26, 45, 103 ; Memorial to Mr.
Gladstone, 212; his Reply, 243; Prof. Dyer on, 243

Broca (Paul), Troglodytes of the Vézére, 305, 326, 366, 426

Brockbank (W., F.G.S.), Glacial Action in the Furness Dis-
trict, 374

Brodie (Sir B. C., Bart., F.R.S.), Scientific Research and Uni-
versity Endowments, 97

Brough (the late J. C.), Subscription for his Family, 35, 470

Brown Institution, 369

Brunton (T. L., M.D.), “ Physiological Chemistry,” 441

Buchan (Alex., M.A.), Rainfall and Temperature of North
Western Europe, 245

Buckland (A. W.), Perception in Fowls, 444

Buckton (G. B., F.R.S.), Reason or Instinct ? 47

Buenos Ayres, Burmeister’s Annals of the Public Museum, 240

Burder (Dr. G. F.), Rainbows on Blue Sky, 68 ; Twinkling of
the Stars, 222,°262

Burmeister (G., M.D.), “‘ Annales del Museo Publico de Buenos
Ayres,” 240

Burwash (N.), Zlephas Americanus in Canada, 47

Butterflies, Perception in, 444

Butterflies of North America, 412

Butterfly-hunting at Panama, 311

Cacciatore (Prof. Cav. G.), Report on the Eclipse of 1870, 308

California: Aquarium at San Francisco, 151 ; Academy of Sci-
ences, 256, 476, 490; Agassiz Institute, 189

Cambridge, Science at, 14, 53, 88, 110, 169, 189, 190, 209,
249, 250, 251, 268, 289, 311, 331, 349, 369, 391, 411, 432,
451, 470; Cambridge Scholarships and Examinations in
Science, 229; Philosophical Society, 20, 75, 155, 374, 474

Cambridge (U.S.), Museum of Comparative Zoology, 471

‘Canada, Post-pliocene Geology of,” by J. W. Dawson, LL.D.,
240

Capron (J. Rand), Spectra of Aurora and Zodiacal Light, 182,
201

Carruthers (Wm., F.R.S.), Our National Herbarium, 26, 103

Cassiterides, Origin of the Name, 68, 104

Catlin (George), Obituary Notice of, 222

Cats: Sense of Smell, 303, 322; Perception, 360; Inherited
Instinct, 371; Sociability, 425 ; Polydactylous, from Cook-
ham-Dean, 323 ; White Toms, 464,

Cave-deposits of Borneo, 461

Cayley (Prof.), Presentation Portrait of, 349

Celtic Society, 75

Ceylon, Science in, 42 ; Pigeon Express, 351 ; Land Planarians,

353
Challenger, H.M. Ship: Accounts of Voyage, 109, 117, 131,
231, 430, 471; her Scientific Orders, 191, 252; Report by
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S., 385
Charing Cross Hospi'al, 15, 54, 123, 168
Charterhouse Science-Classes, 425
Chemical Society, 39, 75, 134, 175, 231, 235, 295, 335, 373,
415, 454, 494
**Chemical Technology, Handbook of,” by R. Wagner, Ph. D., 4
‘‘ Chemistry, Inorganic,” by Geo. Wilson, M.D., 441
‘Chemistry, Manual of,” by Fownes, revised by H. Watts,
F.R.S., 179
‘Chemistry, Organic,” by W. G. Valentin, F.C.S, 160
‘Chemistry, the Birth of,” by G, F. Rodwell, F.C.S., 36, 9o,
104, 206, 285, 393, 492
’ ; ‘
Chester, Society of Natural Science, 55 ; Science at, 432
China, Science in, 35
Chisholm (H. W.), International Metric Commission, 197,

327 ne 2

Chromusphere, (New Method of viewing the), 313

Circular Spraybows, 46

Civil Engineers, Institution of, 16, 210, 255, 455, 474

Clarke (Hyde), The Phoenician Vademecum, 462; Earthquake
Waves, 463

Clarke (Prof. F. L.), the Hawaiian Volcano, Mauna Loa, 124

“Clematis as a Garden Flower,” by T. Moore, F,.L.S., and
G. Jackman, F.R.H.S., 102

Clerk-Maxwell (Prof. J.), Action at a Distance, 323, 341;
“ Electricity and Magnetism,” 478

Clifford (Prof. W. K.), Kant’s Antinomies, 262, 282, 302

Clifton College, 54, 151

Climate of Alabama, 231

Clouds ; ‘‘ Forms of Water,” by Prof. J. Tyndall, F.R.S., 400

Coal: Rise in Price of, 267; in Bagdad, 332; in Central Asia,
349; in Peru, 311; in Western Yunan, 317; Prizes for
Economy in its Use, 150, 451 :

Coal Question, Sir W. Armstrong, C.B., on the, 270, 291 ~

“ Coal-fields of Great Britain,” by E. Hull, M.A., F.R.S., 319

Coal-fields, Scottish, 14 ; of Victoria, 200

Coffin (Prof.), Obituary Notice of, 350%

Cohn (Prof, Ferdinand), Lecture on the Progress of Natural
Science, 137, 158, 162; ‘‘ Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen,”

300

Cole (H., C.B.), his intended Resignation, 230

College of Surgeons, 14, 289, 310; Hunterian Lectures, 289,
310, 330, 348, 364, 388, 408, 428

Colloids, Diosmotic properties of, 152

Collyer (R. H., M.D.), *‘ Exalted States of the Nervous Sys-
tem,” 360

Colorado River, 290

Coloured Stars about Kappa Crucis, 130

Cometary Star-Shower, 77

Comets, their Tails, 105 ; and Meteors, Connection between, 468

Contagious Diseases, 283

Cook (Captain), his South Polar Explorations, 22, 139

Cooke (E. W., R.A.), ‘‘ Grotesque Animals,” 280

Cope (Prof. E. D.), Wyandotte Cave and its Fauna, 11; Pro-
boscidians of Wyoming, 471

“Corals and Coral Islands,” by Jas, D. Dana, LL.D., 119, 423

Cornu (M.), Growth and Migrations of Helminths, 265 ; Geo-
detic Operations iu Algeria, 450

“ Cornwall, Sepulchral Monuments of,” by W. C. Borlase, B.A.,
337, 378 ‘

Corona Line, Prof. C. A. Young on the, 28

Cotopaxi, Ascent of the Great Volcano, 449

Cowell (Sir J.), Fire-ball near Slough, 146

Cox (E. W., Serjeant-at-Law), Animal Instincts, 424

Crabs, Perception in, 424

rr ..

INDEX v
ee

— oe ee a

Cromlechs (See Sepulchral Monuments)

Crookes (Wm., F.R.S.), Wagner’s ** Chemical Technology,” 4

Cryptogams, Fossil, 267

Crystal Palace: Aquarium, 15 ; School of Art, Science, and
Literature, 35

Curry (John), November Meteors at Rookhope, 85

Curved Space, 282

Cycles, Meteorological, 161, 262 (Sze Meteorology)

Cyclone, Madras, May 2, 1871, 356

Cyclopzedias, Misleading, 68, 162

Dana (Jas. D., LL.D.), “ Corals and Coral Islands,” 119, 423

Danks’s Rotating Furnace, 272

Darwin (Chas., F.R.S.), Origin of Certain Instincts, 417; Per-
ception in Animals, 360 ; Inherited Instinct, 281 ; Philosophy
of Language, Prof. Max Muller on, 145

Darwinism: Ixpression, 362, 351, 4333 German Works on,
5; A Fact for Mr. Darwin, 462 (See Evolution Theory,
Survival of the Fittest, Instinct)

Davies (Wm.), Murchison Medal awarded to, 355

Davy, his Work at the Royal Institution, 265

Dawkins (W. B., F.R.S.), Settle Cave Exploration, 374

Dawson (J. W., LL.D.), Post-pliocene Geology of Canada,
240

Day Aurora, 29

De Candolle (Alphonse), Natural Selection, 277

Deep Sea Dredging on board the Challenger, 430

Deep Sea Soundings near the Equator, 404

Deep Springs, 177, 283

De La Rue (Dr. Warren, F.R.S.), donation to Laboratories of
Royal Institution, 451

Peres Assyrian Record of the, 55 ; Mr, Gladstone’s Speech,

7
De Morgan (A.), “ A Budget of Paradoxes,” 239
Denning (W. F., F.R.A.S.), November Meteors, 185 ; Meteor at
Bristol, 322; Meteorological Notes, 471; April Meteors, 482

Denton (J. Bailey), Deep Springs, 177, 283

Denza (Father), November Meteors in Piedmont, 122

De Saussure (M.), Eruption of Vesuvius in 1872, 1, 3

Diamonds, Combustion of, 456

Diathermacy of Flame, 28, 46, 149, 201

“ Diathermacy,” or “ Diathermancy?” 242

“Diathermanous,” or “ Transfervent?” 341

Diffusion of Gases, 9 ¢
~Dinoceras mirabilis, Prof, O.C. Marsh on, 366; and its Allies,

481

Dinocerata, Prof. O. C. Marsh on, 491

Diosmotic Properties of Colloids, 152

Dipterocarpez, Geographical Distribution of, 162

Dogs, Inherited Instinct and External Perception in, 281, 322,
349, 361, 377, 384, 409, 410, 411, 424

Dolmen (See Sepulchral Monuments)

Drach (S. M.), Eleven-year Rainfall Period, 161

Draper (H. W.), Effect of Light on Selenium, 340

Draper (J. W.), Deep-sea Soundings near the Equator, 404

D (Col. H.), “The Useful Plants of India,” 340

Dublin : Pathological Society, 133; Royal College of Science,
370; Botanic Garden, 370; Royal College of Surgeons, 111 ;
Royal Dublin Society, 332; Royal Geographical Society,
454; Royal Geological Society, 456 ; Royal Irish Academy,
375, 412, 431, 450, 494; Trinity College, 88, 331; Trinity

College Observatory, 431; University, 54, 171; Zoological |

Society, 456
Dufour (Louis), Diffusion of Gases, 9
Duncan (Prof., F.R.S.), Insect Metamorphosis (Br. A.), 30, 50;
Dana on Corals, 119, 423 ;
Dunker (Dr. W.) and Dr. K. A. Zittel, “ Paleeontographica,” 45
Dutch Society of Sciences, 464
Dyer (Prof. W. T. Thistleton), the, National Herbaria, 243

Earth, Movement of its Surface, 221

‘Barth, The,” and ‘“‘ The Ocean,” by Elisée Reclus, 421 @

Earthquakes: near Derby, 68; Vancouver's Island, Bogota,
Sinde, Samos, 268 ; Pembrokeshire, 283; Lahore, Scinde,
289; Constantinople, 290; India, Central America, Guaya-
quil, Samos, 311; Samos, Smyrna, 332; Vienna, 336;

Turkey, Tyre, Jerusalem, 351; Asia Minor, Mitylene, Central |
| France: Bureau des Longitudes, 269 ; Institution for the Ex-

America, India, 392; Samos, Asia Minor, Rhodes, 432
Earthquake Waves, 385, 463

Earthworms, 210

Earwaker (J. P.), Meteor at Northwich, 322

Echinoderms, Publications on, 350 ; found by the Challenger, 387

Eclipse of 1870, Italian Report on, 308

Eclipse Expedition of 1871, J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S., on, 57, 92

Eclipses, Early, 47

Edinburgh : Geological Society, 132 ; Museum of Science, 55 5
Royal Botanic Society, 61, 78, 151, 214, 391, 4905 Royal
Observatory, 451; Royal Physical Society, Naturalist’s Field
Club, 154; Royal Society, 111; Scottish Meteorological
Society, 375; University, 54, 164, 183, 431 ; Female Educa.
tion, 71

Education: International College at Zurich, 89 (See Female
Education)

‘Egypt, Birds of,” by G. E. Shelley, F.G.S., F.L.S., 178

Egyptian Weight found in the Great Pyramid, 146

rg Conductivity : Effect of Light on Selenium, 303, 349,
361

Electricity and Earthquakes, 162

‘* Electricity and Magnetism,” by J. Clerk-Maxwell, M.A., 478

Electrostatics and Magnetism, Papers by Sir W. Thomson
D.C.L., 218

Elephanta, Caves of, 72

Elephas Americanus in Canada, 47

Empedocles, Anticipation of Natural Selection, 402

Endowments and Bequests in England and America, 97, 477

Engineering : Class at the Crystal Palace, 35 5 College in Japan,
439

Entomological Society, 39, 75, 154, 195, 295, 315; 373s 415

Ericsson (Capt.J.), Diathermancy of Hlame, 149 ; Radiant Heat,

273
Ernst (Dr. A.), November Meteors, 443
Ethnology: “ Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie,”,473
Evaporation and Rainfall, 118

' Everett (J. D.), Dr. Cohn’s Lecture on the Progress of Science,

162; Atmospheric Refraction, 163
Everett (A.), Cave-deposits of Borneo, 461
Evolution Theory in Germany, 352, 433
Exeter College, 169

Faraday, his Work at the Royal Institution, 265 ; his Electrical
Researches, 341

Faroe Islands, Zoology, 105 ; Rainfall and Temperature, 245

Fawcett (Thos.), November Meteors in Cumberland, 86

Faye’s Comet, 291

Fayrer (J., M.D.), ‘‘ The Thanatophidia of India,” 140

| Female Education : Groningen, 15 ; Edinburgh University, 71 ;

National Union, 89, 411; Cambridge, Paris, 111; Prize
Essay of Netherlands Association, 132 ; Glasgow University,
133 ; Edinburgh Field Club, 154; Edinburgh Royal Infirmary,
170; America, 452

Fermentation and Putrefaction, 61, 78

Figuier (M.) and the Origin of American Indians, 203

Fiords and Glacial Action, 323

Fire-ball near Slough, 146 ;

Fish: Phosphorescence in, 47, 221; Lampris guttatis (Faroe
Islands), 106; Classification of, 372 ; Propagation in America,

491

Fisher (Rev. O.), Perception in the Lower Animals, 410

Fisheries of Michigan, 351

Flame, Diathermacy of, 28, 46, 149, 201

Flax, Prehistoric Culture of, 453

Flight of Projéctiles, 341, 362, 404

Flint Implements, 306, 328, 367, 373

Florafof the Quantocks, 48

Florence, Observatory at, 15

Flower (Prof.), his Hunterian Lectures, 289, 310, 330, 348, 364,
388, 408, 428

Forbes (David, F.R.S.), Palmieri’s ‘‘ Vesuvius,”’ 259, 382

Forestry in its Economical Bearings, 118

“¢ Forest Zoology,” by Dr. Bernard Altum, 141

Fossil Man of Mentone, 10, 71, 4435 Whales of Antwerp, 94 ;
Cryptogams, 267, 403; Birds from Kansas, 310; Cephalo-
pods, 94, 35° J

Foster (M., F.R.S.), “Functions of Muscle and Nerve,” 440

Fowls, Perception in, 444

Fownes’s “ Manual of Chemistry,” by H. Watts, F.R.S., 179

Fox (Howard), Will-o-the-Wisps, 222

perimental Sciences, 485 (See Paris)

vi INDEX

Franklani (E., F.R.S.), his Work at the Royal Institution, 265
Fraser (Thos. R., M.D.), Physostigma and Atropia, 69

Frere (Sir Bartle, C,B.), his Anti-Slavery Expedition, 70, 189
Fungi, Fermentation and Putrefaction, 61, 78

Garrod (A. H.), Dinoceras and its Allies, 481

Gas, New Mode of Lighting, 89 ; (Hydrocarbon), Mr. Ruck’s
Process, 329

Gasometer on Fire, 312

Gauges for Ocean Rainfall, 123, 202

Geikie (Prof., F.R.S.), Introductory Murchison Lecture on Geo-
logy, 164, 183 ; Deep Springs, 177; ‘* Physical Geography,”

Gate, (Jas.); Scottish Coal Fieldserd

Geodetic Operations in Algeria, 450

Geographical Society, 35, 36, 70, 117, 157, 208, 276

Geography, Geikie’s “ Physical Geography,” 359

Geological Science in Switzerland, 10; Society, 59, 115, 134,
175, 354, 372; 414, 454; Exhibition at Glasgow, 112, 128;
Magazine, 133, 173, 234; Institute, Vienna, 175, 336, 442,
476, 495; Survey of India, 281; ‘‘ Jahrbuch,” Vienna, 320;
Survey of America, 370

Geologists’ Association, 75, 154, 214, 295, 334, 349, 395, 412,
474, 494 :

Geology of Iowa, 16; Subjects taught at the College, New-
castle-on-Tyne, 102; the Rising of Australia, 129; Prof.
Geikie’s Introductory Murchison Lecture, 164, 183 ; Glacial
Action, 287, 323, 351, 362, 3743 Election of Woodwardian
Professor, 331

**Geology: Post-pliocene of Canada,” by J. W. Dawson,
LL.D., 240

Geometry; Prof. Clifford and Dr, Ingleby on Curved Space,

8

282

Giebel (Dr. C. G.), ‘‘ Thesaurus Ornithologice,” 44

Giggleswick Grammar School, 230

Glacier Motion, 287, 323, 351, 362, 374

Glaciers ; “ Forms of Water,” by Prof. J. Tyndall, F.R.S., 400

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.), an Air-Battery, 472

Gladstone (Rt. Hon. W. E.), his Speech on the Assyrian Record
of the Deluge, 87; Memorial to him on the National
Herbaria, 212 ; his Reply, 243

Glasgow, Geological Exhibition, 112, 128 ; Geological Society,
56, 255, 475; Society of {Field Naturalists, 412 ; Technical
College, 151; University, 13t, 392; University, Female
Education, 133

Gold produced in Victoria, 201

Géppert (Prof. H. K.), Inscriptions in Trees, 83

Gottingen, Royal Society of Sciences, 155

Government and the Arctic Expedition, 157, 170, 188, 208;
Kew Herbarium, 243

Grandy (Lieut.), and the “ Livingstone Congo Expedition,” 110,
112, 251

Grashof tor. F.), ‘* Theory of Machinery,” 45

Great Pyramid, Ancient Egyptian Weight found in, 146

Greenland, Researches in, 835

Greenwich, Royal Naval College, 209, 217

Greenwich Date, the, 68, 105. 242

Greenwood (Col. Geo.), The Greenwich Date, 105

Greek at London University, 310

Gregory (Rt. Hon. W. H.), Science in Ceylon, 42

Gresham Lectures, 190, 283

Grey-Egerton (Sir P. de M.,, Bart., F.R.S.), Wollaston Medal
given to, 354

“Grotesque Animals,” by E. W. Cooke, R.A., 280

Giinther (Albert, F.R.S.), Salmonidce of Great Britain, 203

Haeckel (Prof. Ernst.),"on Calcareous Sponges, 279 ; Theory of
Evolution, 352, 433

Hzematozoon in the Blood, 289

Hagen (Dr. A.), Mimicry in the Colours of Insects, 112

Haggerstone Entomological Society, 55

Hague (Jas. D.), Perception in Ants, 443

Hailstorm in India, 392

Hall (Prof. Asaph), November Meteors at Washington, 122;
Logarithmic Tables, 222

Hall (Marshall), Brighton Aquarium, 362 ;

Hall (Maxwell), Source of the Solar Heat, 262 ; Zodiacal Light,
203, 340; November Meteors, 341

Harlem ; Dutch Society of Sciences, 464

Tlartis (Geo., I.S.A.), Intellect and Instinct, 415

Hart (W. E.), Pollen-eating Insects, 161, 242

Harting (J. E., F.L.S.), “ Handbook of British Birds,” ror

‘¢ Harvesting Ants,” by J. T. Moggridge, F.L.S., 337, 453

Hassler Expedition, 111

Hawkins (B. Waterhouse), his Models of Fossil Reptiles, 88

Hawksley (Thos.), Twinkling of the Stars, 262

Hayward (W. R.), ‘* Botanist’s Pocketbook,” 360

Health Society, Natioaal, 131

Heat in Thibet, Senegal, Calcutta, &c., 170

Heer (Prof. O.), Murchison Fund awarded to, 355 ; Prehistoric
Culture of Flax, 453

Hegelian Calculus, 442

Helminths, Growth and Migrations of, 265

Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, 8

Henslow (Rev. G.), Leaf-arrangement, 403, 442

Herbaria at Kew and British Museums, 5, 26, 95, 103 ; Memo-
rial to Mr. Gladstone, 212 ; his Reply, 243; the National,
Prof. W. T. Thiselton Dyer on, 243

Herschel (Prof. A. S.), the November Star Shower, with Maps,
185; Auroral Display at Carlisle, 481

Hibberd (Shirley), ‘‘ The Ivy,” 198

Higgins (Rev. H. H.), November Meteors at Rainhill, 84

Himalayan Ferns, 321

Hippopotamus born at Zoological Gardens, 15, 55 ; Liberian,
392

Hobart Town, Meteorological Observations for, 320

Hooker (Dr. J. D., C.B., F.R.S.); his treatment by Mr. Ayrton,
71, 168; Herbaria of Kew and the Briti-h Museum, 5, 45,
103; Memorial to the Premier, 212 ; his Reply, 243; Kew
Gardens, Ipecacuanha Cultivation, 83; Possession Islands,
384; View of Possession Islands, 486 .

Hope (W.), Flight of Projectiles, 362 ; Deep Wells, 283

Horses, Perception in, 340, 360, 361, 384, 410

Horticultural Society, 335, 374, 415, 474; and International
Exhibition, 331

Higgins (Dr. W., F.R.S.), Inherited Instinct and Perception,
281, 377; Spectroscope, 320, 381

Huizinga (Prof. D.), Experiments on Abiogenesis, 380

Hull (EK. W. D., F.R.S.), ‘‘Coal-fields of Great Britain,” 319

“‘ Human Physiology, First Principles of,” by W. T. Pilter, 25

Hunterian Lectures by Prof. Flower, 281, 310, 330, 348, 364,
388, 408, 428

Hutton (F. W.), Movement of the Earth’s Surface, 221

Huxley (Prof.) elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen University,
131, 250

Hydro-carbon Gas, Mr. Ruck’s Process, 329

as Brgy of Air and Water,” by W. Proctor, M.D., F.C.S.,
31

Iceland, Rainfall and Temperature, 245; Eruption of the
Skaptar Jokull, 470

India ; Dr. Fayrer on Venomous Snakes, 140; Hailstorm, 392 ;
Science in, 15, 133, 162, 169, 290, 432; ““ The Useful Plants
of,” by Col. H. Drury, 340; ‘Stray Feathers,” a Calcutta
journal, 350; Travelling Notes in, 322; Trigonometrical
Survey, 281

India Office, Zoological Collections at the, 457, 481

Indices of Journals, 464

Infectious Diseases, 283

Ingleby (Dr. C. M.), Kant’s Antinomies, 262, 282, 302; Curved
Space, 282

Inherited Instinct (Sze Instinct)

“‘ Tnorganic Chemistry,” by the late Geo. Wilson, M.D., 441

Inscriptions in Trees, 83

Insects of the Wyandotte Cave, 12 ; Metamorphosis, by Prof.
Duncan, F.R.S. (Br. A.), 30, 50; Mimicry of Colour in,
113; Pollen-eating, 132,161, 202; Origin and Metamorpho-
ses of, by Sir John Lubbock, Bart, M.P., 446, 486

Instinct or Reason? 47

Instinct and Perception in’ Animals, 281, 303, 322, 340, 360,
371, 3771 409, 415, 417, 424, 437, 443, 444, 463, 483

International Book Conveyance, 161 ; Metric Commission and
Institution, 197, 237 ; Exhibition and Horticultural Society,
331

Intonation in Music, 275

Towa, Geology of, 16

Ipecacuhana Cultivation at Kew, 83

Italian Geographical Magazine, 291 ; Report on the Eclipse of
1870, 308 ; Geographical Society and Journal, 452

Italy, Science in, 234; R. Accademia del Lincei, 335

“‘Tvy, The,” by Shirley Hibberd, 198

Jade Works in Western Yunan, 317

Jamin (M.), Powerful Magnet, 452

Janssen-Lockyer Application of the Spectroscope, 301, 380

Janssen (Dr., and J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S.), Medal of, 54, 111

Japan, Engineering College, 430; Science in, 371; Volcanic
Mountain, 169

Japanese Lepidoptera, 374 ‘

Japanese Medical Student at Berlin, 89

Jebb (G. R.), Perception in the Lower Auimals, 410

Jeremiah (J.), Sociability of Cats, 425

Jesse (W., C.M.Z.S., and H. M. Labouchere, F.Z.S.), Dr.
Brehm’s ‘‘ Bird Life,” 121

Jevons (Prof. W. S., F.R.S.), Maupertuis on the Survival of
the Fittest, 341, 402 — ? y

Jones (Dr. Bence), Testimonial to, 390 ; on the New Physiolo-
gical Laboratories, Berlin, 405 ; his Death, 489

Journal of Botany, 453, 494

Judd (J. W., F.G.S.), Wollaston Donation Fund given to, 355

Kant on the Retarded Rotation of Planets and Satellites, 241

Kant’s Antinomies, 262, 282, 302

Katipo or Venomous Spider of New Zealand, 29

Kensington Entomological Society, 290

Kent (W. Saville, F.R.S.), Phosphorence in Fish, 47; Ap-
pointed Curator of the Brighton Aquarium, 209, 451

Kew Gardens, 71 ; Moreton Bay Plants, 370 ; Ipecacuanha Culti-
vation, 83; Herbarium, 5, 45, 26, 103; Memorial to Mr.
Gladstone, 212; his Reply, 243 ; Prof, Dyer on, 243

Kingfisher, its Feeding Habits, 362

Kingsley (Rev. Canon), Perception in Horses, 340

Kirk (Dr.), Testimonial to, 451

Kirkwood (Prof. Daniel), November Meteors in Indiana, 123

Klein (E., M.D.), ‘‘ Handbook for sthe Physiological Labora-

_ tory,” 438

Laboratories of the Royal Institution, New and Old, 223, 263

Laboratories, Physiological, at Berlin, 405

Labouchere (H. M., F.Z.S., and W. Jesse, C.M.Z.S.), Dr.
Brehm’s ‘‘ Bird Life,” 121

Lakes, Fresh and Salt, Lectures by Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., on,
312, 333

Lampris guttatis taken at Faroe, 106

Lankester (E. Ray), De Novo Production of Living Things,
104, 123; Hemoglobin, 133; Dr. Burdon Sanderson’s Ex-
periments ; Production of Bacteria, 242; Dr, Bastian’s Ex-
periments, 261

Laughton (J. K.), The Greenwich Date, 105 ; Perception in the
Lower Animals, 410

Lava of Mount Vesuvius, 2

Leaf-Arrangement, by Dr. H. Airy, 341, 442; [Rev. G. Hens-
low, F.L.S., 403

Leeds, Medical Society, 111 ; Naturalists’ Field Club, 155, 214,
232

Lehigh University, Pennsylvania, 491

Leidy (Prof.), Crustacean from Salt Lake, Utah, 215

Lewes (G. H.), Adaptation to External Conditions, 4o1 ; Per-
ception in the Lower Animals, 410, 437

Liebig (Baron), his Death, 489

Light, its Effect on the Conductivity of Selenium, 33, 340, 361 ;
Reflected and Transmitted, 481

Lindsay (Lord), his Preparations for the Transit of Venus, 109

Linnean Society, 39, 75, 154, 372

Lisbon, Notes on Zoology and Botany, 229

Livingstone (Dr.) and H. M. Stanley, 35, 38; his Discoveries,
70, 169, 231, 251, 110; ‘‘ How I found Livingstone,” by H.
M. Stanley, 79 ; Congo Expedition, 110 (See African Explo-
ration); Gold Medal from the Italian Government, 110

Lockyer (J. N., F.R.S.), on the Eclipse Expedition, 1871, 57,
92; Meteorclogy of the Future, 142 ; The Spectroscope and
its Applications, 125, 166, 226, 246, 345, 406, 466 ; Spectrum
Analysis, Spectrum of the Sun, 174; Medalof, 54, 111;
(and G. M. Seabroke), New Method of Viewing the Chromo-
sphere, 313; (and Dr. Janssen), their Application of the
Spectroscope, 301, 381

Logarithmic Tables, 222

London Institution, 15, 190, 251

London University, 88, 310

Lord (J. K.), Obituary Notice of, 110

Lowe (E. J., F.R.S.), Earthquake near Derby, 68

4

INDEX

vil

Lubbock (Sir Juo., Bart., M.P., F.R.S.), Bill for Preservation
of National Monuments, 297; Death of his Wasp, 391; Ex-
istence of Man in the Miocene, 401, 443; Origin and Meta-
morphoses of Insects, 446, 48

Lucae (Prof. J. C. G.), The Mammalian Skull, 460
Lunar Calendars, 47

‘* Machinery, Theory of,” by Dr. F. Grashof, 45

MacLaren (Archibald), Dr. Morgan’s “ University Oars,” 397,
418, 458

McClure (Robt. ), Meteor at Glasgow, 28

McNab (Prof. W. R.), Flowering of Welwitschia, 202; Fossil
Cryptogams, 367, 403

Madan (H. G., M.A.), Wilson’s “ Inorganic Chemistry,” 441

Madras Cyclone, May 2, 1871, 356

Magnetic Survey of Belgium, 295

‘* Magnetism and Electricity,” by J. Clerk-Maxwell, 478

Magneto-electric Light, 349

Mailly (Ed.), his Astronomical Works, 23

Mallet (R., F.R.S.), Theory of Volcanic Energy, 382

Mallock (A.), Treble Rainbow, 46

Mammalian Skull, The, 460

Man, Antiquity of, 401, 443

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 135, 296, 315,
374, 415, 455, 475; Natural History Society, 151 ; Science
in, I

Manitoba Observatory, 425

Marine Animal, Supposed new, 67

Marlborough College Natural History Society, 311

Marsh (Prof. O. C.), his Expedition to the Rocky Mountains,
209; Fossil Birds from Kansas, 310; Dinoceras mirabilis,
366; Dinocerata, 491

Massey (H. D.), A Fact for Mr. Darwin, 462

Mathematical Society, 95, 154, 235, 334) 415, 474

Maupertuis on the Survival of the Fittest, 341, 402

Mauritius, Royal Society, 71 ; Meteor at, 221, 233; November
Meteors at, 232; Metorological Observatory, 243 ; Meteoro-
logical Society, 250

Maury (Capt. M. F.), Obituary Notice of, 390

Maxwell (Prof. Clerk, F.R.S.), Action at a Distance, 323, 341

Mayer (John, F.C.S.), Geological Exhibition, Glasgow, 128 ;
The late Prof. W. J. M. Rankine, 204

Medical Microscopical Society, 210

Medical Record, 189

Meldrum (C.), November Meteors at Mauritius, 232

Mentone, Skeletons at, 401, 443

Merlin (C. H. W.), Moon’s Surface, 221

eae of Insects, by Prof. Duncan, F.R.S., 30,
50,

Meteorites : Vienna Collection, 55, 210

Meteorology: Committee of the Board of Trade, Ocean Ob-
servations, 43; Organisation Abroad, 89; Society, 95, 255,
49, 355, 455 ; of the Future, by J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.,
98, 123, 142, 161, 283, 443; Sherman Astronomical Expe-
dition,107 ; Observatory at Mauritius, 243; Rainfall and
Temperature of North Western Europe, 245; Cycles, 161,
262 ; Observations for Hobart Town, 320; Temperature of
February, 1873, 371 ; American Signal-office, 371 (Sze Rain-
fall) ; Scottish Meteorological Society, 375; E. J. Stone,
F.R.A.S., 443 ; Meteorological Notes, 471

Meteors : Shower of Nov. 27, 1872; Observations at Stonyhurst,
Dublin, Lampeter, Rainhill, Malpas, Glasgow, Durham,
Birkenhead, Bristol, Cumberland, St. Andrew’s, 84 85 ; Bun-
tingford, Brancepeth, Wisbeach, Birmingham, York, Glas-
gow, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Rothbury, 104; Prof. A. S.
Herschel, F.R.A.S., on, 103; France and Italy, 112; Yale
College (U.S.), Piedmont, Washington, 122; Indiana, Liver-
pool, Pau, 123; Bermuda, 181 ; Summary, with Maps, by
Prof, A. S. Herschel, F.R.A.S., 185, 211; Gottingen, Dant-
zig, Athens, 211 ; Mauritius, 232 ; New Brunswick, 217, 251,
443; Shower in 1838, 203; Glasgow, 28; Blackpool, 29 ;
Bristol, 71 ; at King’s Sutton, Banbury, 112; South Pacific,
242; St. Thomas, 262; Stourbridge and Manchester, 262,
290, 315, 322; Cape Matapan, 443; April 19 and 20, at
Bristol and Bath, 482 ; and Comets, Connection between, 468

Metric Commission, International, 197, 237 f

Microscopic Fungi, 78

Microscopic Preparations, 83

Microscopical Society, 154, 315, 374, 395, 455

Microscofical Fournal, 294, 454

Vill

INDEX

Microscopy, 170

Midland Institute, 209

Mildew, 61, 78

Miller (S. H.), Ocean Rainfall, 123

Mimicry : in Fungi, 55; in the Colours of Insects, 113

Mirage, References to Authorities on, 322

Moggridge (J. T., F.L.S.), “ Trap-door Spiders,” 337, 453

Monro (C. J.), Kant on the Retarded Rotation of Planets, 241 ;
Anticipations of Natural Selection, 402

Montreal Natural History Society, 475

Moon’s Surface, 221

Moore (T., F.L.S., and G. Jackman, F.R.H.S.), The’ Cle-
matis as a Garden Flower,” 102 ;

Moreton Bay Plants at Kew, 370

Morren (E.), Botanical Science in Belgium, 320, 334

Morgan (J. E., M.A.), “ University Oars,” 397, 418, 458

Moseley (H. N.), Notes on Zoology and Botany in Lisbon, 229;
Anatomy of Land Planarians, 353

Mott (Albert J.), Periodicity of Rainfall, 161

Muller (Prof. Max) on Darwin’s Philosophy of Language, 145,

412

Murchison Medal awarded, 355

Murie (Dr.), Testimonial to, 430

Murphy (J. J., F.G.S.), Water-beetles, 47; The Meteorology
of the Future, 142; Fiords and Glacial Action, 323, 362 ; Me-
chanical Analogy to Perception in Animals, 483

Naresia cyathus, found by the Challenger, 387

National Monuments, Preservation of, 297

‘“Natural History, Anecdotal and Descriptive,” 198

Natural History Museums, South Kensington and New;York,

350

«Staral Philosophy, Elements of,” by Profs. Thomson and
Tait, 399

Natural Selection, Modern Applications of the Doctrine, 277
(See Darwinism)

Naval Architects’ Institution, 431, 432

Navy (The) and Science; Royal Naval College, Greenwich,
217

‘‘Nervous system, Exalted States of the,” by R. H. Collyer,
M.D., 360

Neumayer (Dr.), South Polar Exploration,’ 21, 62, 138

New Cross Microscopical Society, 231

New England, Fauna of, 365

New Guinea, 362

New Planets, 35, 132, 169, 189, 331, 491

Newton (A., F.R.S.), Yarrell’s ‘‘ British Birds,” 461 ; Zoologi-
cal Collections at the East India House, 481

Newton (Prof., H. A.), November Meteors at Yale College, 122

New York, Statistics of Education, 152

New Zealand ; Venomous Spider, 29 ; New Zealand Institute,
132 ; Wellington Philosophical Society, 135 :

Nichols (T. L., M.D.), “ Human Physiology,” 261

Nicoll (W. R.), Inherited Instinct in Dogs, 340; Nitrogen,
Spectrum of, 463

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, 76

North Magnetic Pole, its Motion in the last two Centuries, 142

North Polar Exploration (Sze Arctic Exploration)

Northumberland and Durham, Natural History Transactions,
221

“ Observatories of Great Britain,” 232

Observatories ; on Mount Vesuvius, 2; Florence, 15; Alle.
ghany, 16; Central Asia, 71; France, 111; Vienna, 34;
Sydney, 130; Mauritius, 243; Alleghany, 251; Manitoba,
289; Cape of Good Hope, 311; Paris, Montsourris, Mar-
seilles, 331; Leyden, 350; Pera, 351 ; Madras, 371 ; Wash-
ington, 412; Manitoba, 425 ; Stonyhurst, 431; Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, 431 ; Edinburgh, 451

Ocean Meteorological Observations, 43, 68, 123 ; Rainfall, 183,
202

Occultation of Venus, 72

Octopus, Gigantic, 210

Old Change Microscopical Society, 231

‘* Organic Chemistry,” by W. G. Valentin, F.C.S., 160

Organisation of Academical Study, 72

Ornithologists’ Union, 392

Ornithology, ‘‘ Stray Feathers,” an Indian Journal, 350;
‘Thesaurus Ornithologie,” by Dr. C. G. Giebel, 44

Orton (James), Ascent of Cotopaxi, 449

Osteology of Hypotomide, 294.

Owen (Prof. R., F.R.S.), The National Herbarium, 5 ; Fossil
Mammals of Australia, 255

Oxford, Science at, 53, 88, 250, 290, 490

Page (D., LL.D., F.G.S.), Geological Subjects taught at the
College, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 102

**Palzeontographica,” by Drs. Dunkemand Zittel, 45

Palestine Exploration, English and American Societies, 35,
152, 412

Palgrave (W. Gifford), Auroral Phenomena at Trebizond, 181

Palmieri (Prof.), ‘‘The Eruption of Vesuvius in 1872,” 1, 259

“ Paradoxes, A Budget of,” by A. De Morgan, 239 .

Paris: Academy of Sciences, 20, 40, 59, 96, 115, 136, 176,
195, 216, 236, 256, 296, 316, 356, 376, 396, 416, 436, 452,
496; Award of Prizes, 86, 88 ; Jardin d’Acclimatation, 112,
351; Observatory, 331

Pathological Society, 189 id

Pavy (M.), his Arctic Expedition, 231, 270, 311

Pearson (Rev. Jas.), The Greenwich Date, 68 —

Penikese Island given to Prof, Agassiz for Scientific Purposes,
445, 471, 477

Perception in the Lower Animals, 340, 360, 361, 371, 377, 384,
409, 415, 438, 443, 444; a Mechanical Analogy, 483; in
Men and Animals, 463, 483

Periodicity of Rainfall, 98, 143, 161

Perrier (Capt.), Geodetic Operations in Algeria, 450 ‘

Perry (Rev. S. J., F.R.A.S.), November Meteors at Stony
hurst, 84; Terrestrial Magnetism, 171, 193; ‘‘ Magnetic
Survey of Belgium,” 295

Persia, Science in, 15

Petermann (Dr.), North Polar Exploration, 7

Perthshire Society of Natural Sciences, 491

Peruvian Skulls, 350

Petrified Forest in the Libyan Desert, 363

Peyton (J. E. H.), Boring in Sussex, 162

Pharmaceutical Society, 53, 131

Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences, 76, 111, 156, 195,
215, 496; Philosophical 335, 475

Phillips (Prof, John, F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of Prof. Sedg.
wick, 257 c

Pheenician Vademecum, 462

Phosphorescence in Fishes, 47, 221

Phosphorescence in Wood, 464

Photographic Association of the United States, 412

Photographic Society, 35, 154, 235 :

Photography, Dr. Vogel appointed Professor at Berlin, 88 ; Pro-
fessorship at Ghent, 111

‘* Physical Geography,” by Prof. Geikie, 359

Physics for Medical Students, 7, 27

«Physiological Laboratory, Handbook for the,” 438

Physostigma and Atropia, 69

Pigeon Express, Ceylon, 351

Pigeons, Inherited Instinct, 378, 417 ; protected from Rapacious
Birds in China, 371

Pigott (E. V.), November Meteors at Malpas, 85

Pitter (W. T.), “ First Principles of Human Physiology,” 25

Planarians of Ceylon, Anatomy of, 353

Planets, New, 35, 132, 169, 189, 331, 491; and Satellites, Re-

tarded Rotation of, 241

** Plants, Natural History of,” by H. Baillon, 320

Plateau (Felix), Aquatic Articulata, 469

Pogson (N. R.), Hints on Collecting Arachnida, 163

Pollen-eating Insects, 132, 161, 202, 242

Popular Science in 1872, 142

Portsmouth, U.S. Exploring Ship, 268 .

Possession Islands, R. H. Scott and Dr, Hooker, C.B., on, 384;
View of, 486

Potato Disease, 151, 171

Prehistoric Culture of Flax, 453

Priestley (Dr.), Statue of, 210

Pringle (E, H.), Height of Thunderclouds, 143

Pringle (E. W.), Reflected Sunshine, 162; Spectroscopic Ob-
servations, 222

Proctor (H. R.), Aurora Spectra, 242 ; Spectroscope, 381

Era (W., M.D., ‘F.C.S.), ‘‘ Hygiene of Air and Water,”

31 ‘
Progress of Science in the last Twenty-five Years, 137, 158,

162
Projectiles, }Flight of, 362, 404

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INDEX

AS
F

“Psychology, Principles of,” by Herbert Spencer, 298, 357
Putrefaction and Fermentation, 61, 78

Pyramid, Great, 71

Pyramid Mountain, 423

Pyrometer, New, 273

oo (Dr. P. H,), The Mammalian Skull, by Prof, Lucae,

Quantock Hills, Flora of the, 48
Queckett Club, 94

Radiation of Heat from the Moon, 436
Radiant Heat, Prof. Tyndall’s Researches on, 66 ; Capt. Ericsson

on, 27

Rainbow Treble, 46 ; on Blue Sky, 68

Rainfall : Periodicity of, 98, 143, 161 ; at Barbados, 124, 161 ;
for October 1872, 16; at Sea, 123, 202 ; and Temperature of
North-Western Europe, 245

Ramsay (A.), Authorities on Mirage, 322 _

Ramsay (Prof., F.R.S.), Fresh and Salt Lakes, 312, 333

Rankine (Prof. W. J. Macquorn), Obituary Notice of, 204

Ransom (A.), Inherited Instinct, 322

Ranyard (A. Cowper), Polarisation of Zodiacal Light and
Aurora, 201

Rawson (Rawson W.), Rainfall at Barbados, 124, 161 ; Meteor
at St. Thomas, 262

Reason or Instinct? 47

Reclus (Elisée), ‘‘ The Earth” and ‘The Ocean,” 421

“Records of the Rocks,” by Rev. W. S. Symonds, F.G.S.,
461

Reid (Serg.-Major R.), Flight of Projectiles, 341, 404

Reflected and Transmitted Light, 481

Reflected Sunshine in India, 162

Respighi (Prof.), Solar Diameter, 385

Reynolds (Prof. Osborne), Meteor at Manchester, 315

Rhinoceros born in Vic oria Docks, 133; its Death, 255

Riga, Society of Naturalists, 155, 215, 495

** River Basins, Notes on,” by R. A. Williams, 122

Roberts (E.), The Greenwich Date, 105

Roberts (Wm., M.D.), Dr. Bastian’s Experiments, 302, 321,

381

Robertson (G. C.), External Perception in Animals, 322, 361,
377, 499

Rocky Mountains, Prof. Marsh’s Expedition, 209

Rodwell (G. F., F.C.S.), “The Birth of Chemistry,” 36, 90,
104, 206, 285, 393, 492; Lectures on Ancient Science, 190

Romanes (G, J.), Perception in the Lower Animals, 411

Ross (Dr. James), Anticipations of Natural Philosophy, 402

Ross (Sir James),,Portrait of, 55 ; his South Polar Explorations,

63, 139

Rosse (Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.), Diathermacy of Flame, 28 ;
Radiant Heat, 273; Radiation of Heat from the Moon, 436

Rotability, Treatise on, 124

Bagine i “University Oars,” by J. E. Morgan, M.A., 397,

418

Big At Commission on Scientific Instruction, 70, 268

Royal Institution, 15, 88, 111, 131, 170; New and Old Labo-
ratories, 223, 263

Royal Society, 34, 70, 75, 114, 133, 174, 213, 235, 254, 275,
294, 313, 331, 353, 369, 372, 390, 395, 413, 434, 453, 454,

47°
Ruck’s Hydrocarbon Gas, 329
Rugby School, 131, 151
Russell (H. C.), Coloured Stars about Kappa Crucis, 130
Russia, Science in, 55
Rutherfurd (L. M.), Stability of the Collodion Film, 391

St. Andrews University, 231

St. Clair (G., F.R.S.) Meteor near Stourbridge and at Man-
chester, 262, 290

St. Petersburg, Academy of Sciences, 194; Geographical So-
ciety, 452

Sale (M. L., R. E.) Electric Conductivity of Selenium, 340

Salmon-breeding in Silesia, 290

Salmonidz of Great Britain, 162, 203

Salt Lakes, 312, 333

Sanderson (Dr. J. Bardon, F.R.S.), Dr. Bastian’s Experiments
on the Beginnings of Life, 180, 242, 261, 275, 302, 321, 380,
413; ‘* Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory,” 438

Sanitary Association, Dublin, 332

Saxon Antiquities at Trinity College, Cambridge, 251

Schafer (E. A.), Striped Muscular Fibre, 489

Schmidt (J. F.), November Meteors at Athens, 211

School of Mines, Lectures, 269

Schweinfurth (D.), his African Travels, 55, 215

Science and Art Department ; Lectures, 35, 230, 290, 370

Scientific Research and University Endowments, 97

Sclater (Dr. P. L., F.R.S.), Proceedings of Zoological Col-
lectors, 110

Scott (A. W.), November Meteors at Lampeter, 84

Scott (R. H.), Possession Islands, 384

Beka Coal Fields, 14

Scottish Meteorological Society, 24

Scottish Naturalist, 453 ce

Scrope (G. P.), German Translation of his work on ‘‘ Vol-
canoes,” 469

Seabroke (G, M., and J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S.), New Method of
viewing the Chromosphere, 313

Seals in the Frith of Clyde, 152

Sedgwick (the late Professor), Obituary Notice of, 257 ; Memo-
rial to, 391, 411

oc eaee Effect of Light on, during an Electric Current, 303,
349, 301

*¢ Sepulchral Monuments of Cornwall,” by W.C. Borlase, B.A.,
337, 378

Settle Cave Exploration, 374

Sheep, Instinct in, 425

Sheffield, Literary and Philosophical Society, 310; Naturalists’
Club, 311

Shelley (G. E., F.G.S., F.ZS.), “‘ Handbook to the Birds of
Egypt,” 178

Sherman Astronomical Expedition, 107

Sight in Dogs, 361, 384, 377, 409, 424

Signal Service in America, 484

Silesian Society for National Culture, 137, 158, 162

Silex in Water, the cause of its Blue Colour, 132

Skeletons at Mentone, 401, 443

Skeletons of Wild Animals, 46

Skull, The Mammalian, 460

Skulls of the Troglodytes of the Vézére, 426; found near
Danzig, 372

Smell in Animals, 360, 377, 384, 409, 410, 411, 424

Smith (Archibald, LL.D., F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of, 169

Smith (George), his Expedition to Assyria, 151, 210

Smith (Willoughby), Effect of Light on Selenium, 303, 340, 361

Smith (W. Robertson), Hegelian Calculus, 442

Smyth (Prof. Piazzi, F.R.S.), Petrified Forest in the Libyan
Desert, 363 ; Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, 451

Snakes, Venomous, of India and Australia, 15, 140, 190

Society of Arts, 55, 150, 392, 451

Solar Diameter, Prof. Respighi on, 335 ; Heat, its Source, 262 ;
Spots, Spectra of, 107, 108

Somersetshire Natural History Society, 48

Somerville (Mary), Obituary Notices of, 87, 132, I51

South London Entomological Society, 131

South London Museum, Proposed, 251

South Polar Exploration, 21, 62, 138

Spalding (Douglas A.), Herbert Spencer’s ‘‘ Psychology,” 298,
357; Perception in Animals, 377

Spanish Society of Natural History, 411

Spectra: Effect of Resistance in Modifying, Prof. Tyndall on,
384 ; of Solar Spots, 107, 108 ; of Aurora, 242, 463 ; of the
Aurora and Zodiacal Light, 182, 201 ; of Nitrogen, 463

Spectroscope, its application, by Janssen and Lockyer, 301, 320,

81

ge eiene and its Applications, by J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S.,
125, 166, 226, 246, 345, 406, 466

Spectroscopic Observations, 222

Spectrum Analysis; the Spectrum of the Sun, by J. N. Lockyer,
F.R.S., 174

Spencer (Herbert), ‘‘ Principles of Psychology,” 298, 3575
Planarians and Leeches, 354

Spiders, Hints on Collecting, 163

‘“Spiders, Trap-door,” by J. T. Moggridge, F.L.S., 337, 453

Spitzbergen, Geographical Discoveries, 413

Sponges ; “ Die Kalkschwamme,” by E. Hiackel, 279

Spottiswoode (Wm., F.R.S.), Old and New Laboratories of
Royal Institution, 223, 263

Sprengel (Dr. H.), Invention of the Water Air-pump, 241

i Springs, Deep, Prof. Geikie, F.R.S., on, 177, 283

2 '

x

Standard Yard, 391

Stanley (H. M.) and Dr. Livingstone, 38; ‘‘ How I found
Livingstone,” 79, 190

Stars (Coloured) about Kappa Crucis, 130

Stars, Twinkling of the, 222, 262

Star Shower, Cometary, 77; in 1838, 203; of Nov. 27 (Sve
Meteors)

State Aid to Science ; Speech of Mr.,Gladstone, Arctic Explora-
tion, 117, 157, 170, 188, 208, 310, 452; Kew Herbarium, 243

Steamer for the Channel Passage, 41

Stearn (C. H.), Spectrum of Nitrogen, 463

Steel, Gold Medal offered for best Specimens, 151

Stewart (Prof. Balfour, F.R.S.), on Arctic Exploration, 157 ;
Jensen Lackyee Application of the Spectroscope, 301, 320,
381

Stockholm, Academy of Natural Science, 268

via Implements of the Troglodytes of the Vézére, 306, 328,
397, 373

Stone (E. J., F.R A.S.), Meteorology of the Future, 443

Stricker (S.), “ Medizinische Jahrbucher,” 478

Striped Muscular Fibre, Structure of, 489

Sub-Wealden Exploration, 288, 404

Survival of the Fittest, theory of Maupertuis, 341, 402; Prof.
Agassiz on, 404

Swan (W.), November Meteors at St Andrews, 86

Swedish Academy of Sciences, 153, 173 ; Arctic Expedition, 171

Swiney Lectureship, 310

Swiczerland, Great Map of, 470; Science in, 54, 235 ; Society
of Natural Sciences, 8

Symonds (Rev. W. S., F.G.S.), Salmonidze of Great Britain,
162; ‘‘ Records of the Rocks,” 461

Symons (G. J.), Ocean Meteorological Observations, 68, 123 ;
Periodicity of Rainfall, 143, 161; International Book Con-
veyance, 161 ; Ocean Raintall, 183

Tait (Prof. Lawson), Polydactylous Cat, 323

Tait (Prof. P. G., and Prof. Sic W. Thomson), “Elements of
Natural Philosophy,” 399

Taylor (J. E.), Skeletons of Wild Animals, 46

Technical Education, 351

Telegraph, Atlantic, Free Transmission of Astronomical Obser-
vations, 250

Telegraph Engineers Society, 152, 210

Telegraphic Journal, $8

Telegraphy, Double Messages on Single Wire, 171

Temperature and Rainfall of North Western Europe, 245

Terrestrial Magnetism ; Motion of the North Magnetic Pole,
142; Rev. S. J. Perry, F.R.A.S., on, 171, 193

“ Thesaurus Ornithologiz,” by Dr. C. J. Giebel, 44

Thierfelder (Dr. Albert), ‘‘ Pathologische Histologie,” 200

Thompson (Dr. Symes), Contagious and Infectious Diseases, 283

Thomson (Sir W., D.C.1.), Papers on Electrostatics and Mag-
netism, 218

Thomson (Prof. Sir W., and Prof. P. G. Tait), ‘‘ Elements of
Natural Philosophy,” 399

Thomson (Prof. Wyville, F.R.S.), Fermenta ion and Putrefac-
tion, 65, 78 (See Challenger)

Thunderclouds, height of, 143

Tin Oie in Queensland, 59

Torquay Natural History Society, 190

Tortoiseshell Butterfly, Metamorphosis of, 30

Trades’ Guild of Learning, 490

**Trausfervent” or * Diathermous,” 341

Transit of Venus, Lord Lindsay’s Preparations, 109 ; America,
169; India, China, 371; New South Wales, 431; Berlin,

451

‘**Trap-door Spiders,” by J. T. Moggridge, F.L.S., 337, 453

Travelling Notes, 362

Troglodytes of the Vézére, 305, 326, 366, 426

Troubelot (L.), Meteorology of the Future, 283

Tuckwell (Rev. W., M.A.), Flora of the Quantocks, 48 ; Uni-
versity Local Examinations, 71

Tumbler Pigeons and Inherited Instinct, 378

Tunnel through the Hcosac Mountains, 189

Twinkting of the Stars, 222, 262

Tyndall (Prof. J., F.R.S.), his Lectures in America, 34, 54,
150, 190, 224, 249, 268, 370, 445, 490; Banquet to him at
New York, 303; his Return, 349; his Work at the Royal
Institution, 265; Researches on Radiant Heat, 66; Effect of
Resistance in Modifying Spectra, 384; “Forms of Water,
400; Reflected and Transmitted Light, 481

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eat es bak wie ite 5

Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, 268

United States Coast Survey, 189

University College, 88, 190

University Endowments,
Endowments and Scientific Research, 97; Local Exami-
nations, 71

*¢ University Oars,” by J. E. Morgan, ‘M.A., 397, 418, 458

Valentin (W. G., F.R.S.), ‘Introduction to Organic Chemis-

try,”’ 160 ’

Venice, Royal Institute of Science, 54

Venus, Occultation of, 72 ;
371, 431, 451 .

Venomous Snakes of India, 140

Venomous Spider of New Zealand, 29

Verney (E. H., Com. R, N.), Meteor off Cape Mataplah, 443

Verrill (Prof. A. E.), Fauna of New England, 365; Dana on
Corals, 423 -

‘*Vesuvius : The Eruption of 1872,” by Prof. Palmieri, 1, 259

Vézere, Troglodytes of the, 305, 326, 336, 426

Victoria : Coalfields, 200 ; Reports of Mining Surveyors, 201 ;
Society of Arts, 351; Exhibition at Melbourne, 452; Zoolo-
logical and Acclimatisation Society, 484 :

Vienna : Observatory, 34; Exhibition, 150; Imperial Academy
of Sciences, 155; I. R. Geological Institute, 175, 336, 442,
476, 495; Geological ‘‘Jahrbuch,” 320; Meteorites in Im-
perial Museum, 210; International Patent Congress, 412

Vierordt (Dr. K), *‘Die Anwendung des Spectralapparate,”
401

Vine Disease, 131

Vogel (Dr.), Professor of Photography at Berlin, 111

Volcanic Energy, Mr. Forbes on, 259; Mr. Mallet’s Theory,

Volcanoes: Eruption of Vesuvius in 1872, 1; Mauna Loa, the
Hawaiian Volcano, 124; Japan, 169 ; Central America, 268 ;
Chili, 312 ; Rangitoto, 423; Ascent of Cotopaxi, 449; Skap-
tar Jokull, 470

Volpicelli (Prof.), Atmospheric Electricity, 9

Wagner (R., Ph.D.), ‘‘ Handbook of Chemical Technology,” 4

Wallace (A.R., F.Z.S.), Misleading Cyclopzdias, 68, 162;
Modern Applications of the Doctrine of Natural Selection,
277; “Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders,” by J. T.
M. Moggridge, F.L.S., 337; Instinct and Perception in Ani-
mals, 322, 340, 360, 377, 384, 409; Cave Deposits of Borneo,
6

461

Walters (J. H.), Sight in Dogs, 361

Water, its Blue Colour, caused by Silex in Solution, 132

‘‘ Water, Forms of, in Clouds, Rivers, Ice and Glaciers,” by

Prof. J. Tyndall, F.R.S., 400

Water; ‘‘ Hygiene of Air and Water,” by W. Proctor, M.D.,
F.C.S., 318

Water-Air-Pump, its Invention, 241

Water-beetles, 47

Watts (H., F.R.S.) Fownes’s “ Manual of Chemistry,” 179

Webb (Rev. T. W., M.A., F.R.A.S.), Scar Shower in 1838,
203 ; Earthquake ‘n Pembrokeshire, 283

Weight, Ancient Egyptian, 146

Weiss (Prof.), November Meteors, 211

Wells, Deep, 177, 283

Welwitschia, Prof. W. R. McNab on, 154, 202

Wes minster Clock Tower, Illuminated, 349

Weiterham (J. D.), Perception in Butterflies, 444

Whales, Fossil, 94, 350 3

Wheatstone (Sir C., F.RS.), Ampére Medal awarded to, 451

Wheeler (Lieut. G. M.), Explorations in Nevada, 431

Whirlwinds, in Ireland, and near Banbury, 112

Whitmee (S. J.), Meteors in South Pacific; the Greenwich
Date, 242 ; ,

Whitwo-th Scholarships, 370

Waymper (Edw.), Researches in Greenland, 8, 35 ;

Wilkinson (T.T.), authorship of ‘* Treatise on Probability,”
12 :

WillenoesSuten (Rud. v.), Zoology of the Faroe Islands, 105

Williams (R. A), ‘* Notes on River Basins,” 122

Wilams (W. M., F.C.S.), Diathermacy of Flame, 46, 149,
291; Scence in Italy, 234; Radiant Heat, 273 -

Williamson (Prof. W, C., F.R.S.), Fossil Cryptogams, 403

Wi |-o’-the- Wisps, 222

Speech of Mr. Gladstone, 150;

Transit of, Preparations, 109, 169, —

ah

son (A.), ‘Elements of Zoology,” 179

Wilson (the late Geo., M.D.), ‘‘ Inorganic Chemistry,” 441
Wings

Insects, their Growth, 50

__ Winstanley (D.), Meteor at Blackpool, 29
Wintle (L. H.), The Rising of Australia, 129
Wisconsin Academy of Science, 274 :

Wollaston Gold Medal, 354

Wood (Searles W., jun.), Antiquity of Man, 443
Wood (W. W.), Geographical Distribution of Dipterocarpez ;

Electricity and Earthquakes, 162

Woodbury (W. B.), Reflected and Transmitted Light, 481

Woodward (B. B. and H.), Reclus’ ‘‘Earth” and “ Ocean,”

I
Woodward (H., F.G.S.), Geology of Brighton, 395
Woolwich, Fire at the Military Academy, 269
Working Men’s College, 471
Wright (W.), Meteor at Mauritius, 221, 233

‘Wyandotte Cave and its Fauna, 11

Yarrell’s ‘‘ British Birds,” by A. Newton, F.R.S., 461

_ Yates’s Bequests, 391

Yellowstone National Park, 431

INDEX

Young (Prof. C. A.), Bright Lines in the Solar Spectrum, 17 ;
Corona Line, 28; Sherman Astronomical Expedition, 107

Young (Dr. John), Indices of Journals, 464

Yunan (Western), Expedition to,” by J. Anderson, M.D.,
317

Zittel (Dr. A. K., and Dr. W. Dunker), ‘‘ Palzeontographica,”

45

Zodiacal Light, Spectrum of, 182, 201 ; Polarisation of, 201,
340, 341 ; Observations at Jamaica, 203

ca (Prof. F.), Connection between Comets and Meteors,
46

Zoological Collections at the India House, 457, 481

Zoological Record, 332

Zoological Society, 75, 134, 255, 295, 334, 373, 415, 4343
Gardens ; Additions to, 190, 351, 370, 371, 392, 413, 432,
453, 472, 491; Birth of Hippopotamus, 15, 55 ; Death of a
Lioness, 251 ; New Entrance, 470

Zoological Society of Ireland, 332

Zoological Society of Victoria, 484

** Zoology, Elements of,” by A. Wilson, 179

Zoology: Notes in Lisbon, 229; of the Faroe Islands, Ics 5
Proceedings of Collectors, 110

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A WEEKLY

ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VOLUME VIIL

MAY 1873 to OCTOBER 1873

“To the solid ground
Of Nature trusts the mind that builds for aye.” —WORDSWORTH

London and Netw Pork :
MACMILLAN AND Co.
1873

LONDON cA
g. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS

ues
BREAU STREET HILL

A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

“To the solid ground
Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WoRDSWORTH

THURSDAY, MAY 1, 1873

THE WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT

“(CAVE me from my foolish friends,” ought to be a
“stave in the spring-song of each fowl of the air, from

the Nightingale which warbleth in darkness to the Dotterel
which basketh at noonday. Last year, as is well known,
a bill for the protection of “ Wild Fowl” was brought into
Parliament at the instance of the “Close-time” Com-
mittee of the British Association,* and the various
changes and chances which befell it before it became an
Act were succinctly recounted in the Committee’s report at
the Brighton meeting, printed in NATURE, vol. vi. p. 363.
This bill, as at first prepared and introduced to the
House of Commons, was framed entirely on the Sea-birds
Preservation Act, which became law in 1869, and only
differed from that successful measure where difference
was needed, and the penalties and procedure it pro-
posed were the same as those which have proved to be
so thoroughly efficient in the former case. The minute
care, the practical knowledge, and the consideration of
various interests with which it was originally drawn, may
be gathered from a few facts. Many of the birds it in-
tended to protect are known in various parts of the
country by various names, and accordingly all these
names were introduced, for it was clear to the promoters
of the bill, though not, as shown by the sequel, to the
public at large, that a man summoned for killing (let us
say) a Lapwing would never be convicted if he brought,
as he easily might bring, credible witnesses who in good
faith swore that it was a Peewit, and that they never heard
it called anything else. At the same time, that the

measure might not be needlessly severe, care was taken |:

that of those species which bear different names in
Scotland and England and do not breed in the latter,
they should only appear under the name by which they

*This Committee in 1871-72 consisted of Mr. Barnes, one of the secre-
taries of the Associ-tion for the Provection of Sea-birds, Mr. Dresser (re-
porter), Mr. Harting, Prof. Newton, and Canon Tristiam, and it may be
doubted whether five gentlemen more thorouzhly conversant with the sub-
ject could have been selected. Mr, Harland, the other secretary of the
Sea-birds’ Association, has since been added to their number.

No, 183—VoL, vit.

are known in the former. A few species too, though
coming strictly under the category of “ Wild Fowl,” were
omitted because of their making themselves obnoxious to
farmers. But the great feature of the bill was its being
directed to a definite point—the preservation during the
breeding season of those birds which, beyond all others,

were and are subjected to cruel persecution at that time

of year—thousands of Wild Ducks, Plovers, and Snipes,
being constantly to be found in the poulterers’ shops
throughout the spring months, not only killed while they
are breeding, but killed, it is not too much to say, because
they are breeding, since during that season they put off
much of their natural shyness and fall easy victims to the
professional gunners. Furthermore, all who really know
anything of birds know that it is just these kinds which
are most rapidly diminishing in number—some of them,
which in bygone days were most abundant, are now only
seen as stray visitors. There is, for example, the Avocet,
the disappearance of which can be plainly traced to its
destruction by gunners,* and had we space we could cite
many similar cases. Then too, nearly all these birds are
of no small importance as an article of food, and their
supply to our markets has produced a trade of con-
siderable extent.

Now, on the other hand, there are a good many
enthusiastic persons, of whom we desire to speak with all
respect, who have long been under the belief that in this
country the number of birds generally, and of small birds
in particular, has been gradually diminishing, and these
persons wished for a much wider extension of the principle
of protection than seemed to the “ Close-time ” Committee
necessary or expedient. Whether their zeal is according
to knowledge may be judged from what we have further
to relate, but it is very plain that they disregard the wide-
spread belief in the mischief popularly supposed to be
caused by many of even our most useful small birds, and
the fact, which no observer of experience can deny, that
under certain circumstances, certain birds do a very
considerable amount of harm—witness Song-thrushes and
Blackbirds in the strawberry-beds—as well as that it is

*See Stevenson’s “ Birds of Norfolk,” vol ii. p. 237 and following pages.
B

only careful observation which will convince an unpreju-
diced man that the harm so done is outweighed by the
general good. Further, too, these persons overlook the
impossibility of making people change their opinions by
Act of Parliament, and it could be only when they become
better acquainted with the great truths of natural history,
that the desired results would follow. An attempt to force
public opinion in this country generally fails.

Now this being the state of things when the “ Wild
Fowl Protection Bill” was introduced by Mr. Johnston,
the enthusiasts at once tried to make it meet their ends.
The history of the bill being, as we have said, accessible to
our readers, there is no need for us to enter upon details, and
we content ourselves by reminding them that, in an almost
deserted House, Mr. Auberon Herbert, on the motion for
going into committee, succeeded in carrying, by a
majority of 20 to 15, an “instruction” to extend the
protection accorded under the bill to “ Wild Fowl” to
other wild birds, and thereupon the spirit of the Bill was
entirely changed, and it was converted from the reasonable
measure originally contemplated into one of indefinite
and general scope. Persons of common sense at once
saw that in its new shape it would be impracticable, not
to say tyrannical, and notice was speedily given of its
rejection. Its introducer, however, contrived to get it
referred to a Select Committee, by whom it was still
further modified, the objections naturally urged against
its sweeping clauses being overcome by limiting its effects
to certain birds named in a schedule, while the penalties
were diminished. The schedule, it is true, contained the
names of all those birds originally included in the Bill,
but miny others were added, though on what principle
some were omitted and others introduced we cannot profess
to say. No ornithologist whose opinion could carry the
slightest weight appears to have been consulted, and it is
needless to say that no ornithologist was among the twenty-
three members forming the Select Committee.*

We need not dwell further on historic details. It is now
evident that the efforts of the enthusiasts—well intended
as they doubtless were—have produced a law which is on
all sides admitted to be virtually inoperative, instead of
the effective measure which the results of the Sea-birds
Act warrant us in believing that the original Bill would
have proved. Substantial fines, which would have been
resonable enough where professional gunners and poul-
terers were concerned, would have been manifestly cruel
in the case of schoolboys.
were, to use the forcible expression we have heard ap-
plied, ‘sweated away” to suit the minor offenders, and
the Act is almost a dead letter. Mr. Herbert, on the
21st of June last, laid a cuckoo’s egg in the carefully-
built nest of the British Association Committee, and the
produce is a useless monster—the wonder alike of the
learned and the layman, and an awful warning as an
example of amateur legislation. The forebodings of the
“ Close-Time” Committee have proved but too true.
In its last Report we read—

“Your Committee cannot look with unmixed favour
on this measure. It appears to them to attempt to do

* The printed “ Proceedings” of the Select Committee do not throw
much light on the subject ‘Tne schedul+ was proposed by Mr Samuelson
On a division the Owl was saved by rq votes to 4, the Hedge-Sparrow and
Whinuchat by the casting vote ot the chairman, the Thrush was lost by 9 to 6.
All the birds added are included only under their book-names, which of
course are, as every practical naturalist is aware, very different from those
by which they are commonly known.

Accordingly the penalties |

too much, and not to provide effectual means of doing it.
In their former Reports they have hinted at, if not
expressed, the difficulty or impossibility of passing any
general measure, which, without being oppressive to any
class of persons, should be adequate to the purpose. —
Further consideration has strengthened their opinion on

this point. They fear the new Act, though far from a
general measure, will be a very inéfficient check to the
destruction of those birds, which, from their yearly
decreasing numbers, most require protection, its restrain-
ing power having been weakened for the sake of pro-
tecting a number of birds which do not require protection
at all. Your Committee have never succeeded in obtain-
ing any satisfactory evidence, much less any convincing
proof, that the numbers of small birds are generally decreas-
ing in this country ; on the contrary they believe that from
various causes many, if not most, species of small birds
are actually on theincrease. They are therefore of opinion
that an Act of Parliament proposing to promote their pre-
servation is a piece of mistaken legislation, and is mis-
chievous in its effect, since it diverts public attention from
those species which, through neglect, indifference, custom,
cupidity or prejudice, are suffering a persecution that will,
in a few years, ensure their complete extermination.”

We believe that this opinion is entirely correct, but our
space would not allow us to adduce evidence in support
of it. Mr. Herbert has now confessed the inutility of his
handy-work, and some time since gave notice of a motion
for the appointment of a Committee of the House of
Commons to examine witnesses on the question. Before
this article appears in print, our readers will know whether
he gets what he wants. If he succeeds we suspect that
not much good will follow. The eloquence of the enthu-
siasts is likely to overpower the reason of the true natu-
ralists—a race not prone to sentimentality or given to
sensationalism.

We would observe that the destruction of “ Wild
Fowl” stands on a very different footing from the de-
struction of “ Small Birds,” and if either is to be stopped
it must be by different means. To check the first we
believe no measure can be devised so complete as that
which was last year spoilt by Mr. Herbert, but, since his
unhappy success has taught Leadenhall Market that an
Act of Parliament may be set at nought with impunity,
it is quite possible that a new Act to be effectual should
absolutely prohibit, within certain days, the possession or
sale of the birds to be protected, irrespective of whether
they can be proved to have been received from abroad or
not. The destruction of “ small birds” is chiefly caused
by professional bird-catchers, for the numbers killed by
the gun is in most cases comparatively trifling. The
outcry that would be raised by farmers and market-
gardeners, were they hindered from shooting the birds
they find rifling their crops, would quickly repeal any Act
which Parliament might inconsiderately pass to that
effect. But we certainly should have no objection to
putting the bird-catchers under some restriction, and we
believe it would be to their own advantage if they were
restrained from plying their art during the breeding-
season. We shall no doubt be condemned by many
excellent persons, but we cannot look upon bird-catchers-
asa class that saould not be suffered to exist. The voca-
tion of a bird-catcher may or may not conduce to the
practice of all the virtues, but there is no reason for
regarding it as essentially and necessarily vicious. Good
and bad exist in every trade, bird-catching among the

rest. We conceive that Mr. Sweedlepipes hada right to —

ee Me

—

¥

make his living—nay, to be protected in doing so as
long as he did not exercise his calling to the detriment
of the community. Of course this view will not suit the
spasmodic writers of letters to the 7émes and other
newspapers with their passionate appeals on behalf of the
harmless Hedge-Sparrow and the unappreciated Tomtit.
Who is there that systematically persecutes either ?

- Certainly not the bird-catcher even of the blackest dye,

begrimed with the soot of Seven Dials or Spitalfields.
Are there not just as many Hedge-Sparrows and Tomtits
in this country as there is room or food for? Are there
not now many more Skylarks and Chaffinches than there
were before heaths were broken up and bogs drained,
plantations made and “vermin” killed by the game-
keepers? But our excellent enthusiasts cannot see this :
with them are alike despicable and detestable the gar-
dener who will not believe that the Bullfinch is actuated
by the purest and most benevolent motives in nipping off
his apple-buds, and the farmer who doubts whether the
Sparrow's ravages in his ripening grain are counter-
balanced by that saucy bird’s services in the cabbage-
garden, To them all birds are at all times bent’on bene-
fiting the human race. No statement in this direction is
too gross for such people to swallow. The last we have
met with is one of the most absurd. Inthe Quarterly
Review for the present month (p. 402), we read that from
some nameless moors the sportsman has been driven by
the vipers, and the abundance of the vipers is owing to
the extermination of “ their natural enemy, the beautiful
peregrine falcon”! Such a story is not worth refuta-
tion ; its original teller has said “ that which is not,” and
the man who gravely repeats it is an idiot or worse.*

But now to conclude, we beg leave to offer the following
suggestions :—

Ist. That the “ Wild Fowl Protection Bill” be passed
as originally introduced, with the possible exception of the
sentence whereby fowls proved to have been imported
from any foreign country are exempted.

and. That a “ Bill for the Regulation of Bird-catchers ”
be brought in—its chief feature being the absolute prohi-
bition of bird-catching by means of traps, springes, or nets
during the spring months—say from April 1 to July 1,
and that at other times of the year such engines should
not be used within (say) 50 yards of any highway.

. 3rd. That the “sport” of Swallow-shooting be abso-
lutely and at all times prohibited ; and finally we may
add that if a Chancellor of the Exchequer should ever
take a hint from North Germany and lay a tax on birds in
cages, we in the name of our Nightingales shall thank him.

FAUNA DER KIELER BUCHT

Fauna der Kieler Bucht. Zweiter Band: Prosobranchia
und Lamellibranchia, nebst einem supplement zu den
Opisthobranchia. Mit 24 tafeln. Von H. A. Meyer und

K. MGbius. Small folio, 139 pp. (Leipsic, 1872.)
E are rejoiced to see the second volume of this
excellent “ouvrage de luxe.” Like the first volume,
the second bears evident marks of having been prepared

* It is painful, however, that such folly should be countenanced by reviews
which in other respects are deservediy of high repute. But in no depart-
ment of criticism is there such a want of competent writers as in Zoology.
We are not exaggerating when we say that nine out of ten reviews of zoolo-
4 works are written by men who have no sound knowledge of the elements
of the science,

“NATURE

Peer re ther to

~

wee 8 =

with the greatest care. The illustrations are inimitable and
life-like : we venture to say that no such figures of Mol-

| lusea and their shells have ever been published in any

country.

The introduction to the present volume contains an
account of the currents, saline ingredients, and tempera-
ture of the water in Kiel Bay, together with elaborate
tables of the latter properties in comparison with those
in some other parts of the North Atlantic and in North
Japan, as well as a notice of the peculiarities, distribution,
and frequency of occurrence of the Kiel Bay Mollusca,
and relative abundance of the genera and species in
proportion to that of the Mollusca in Great Britain,
Christianiafiord, and the Sound.

The body of the work embraces the subclass Proso-
branchia (comprising the orders Cyclobranchiata, Pectini-
branchiata, and Siphonobranchiata) of the class Gastro-
poda, a supplement to the first volume in respect of
the other sub-class Opisthobranchiata (orders Pleuro-
branchiata and Pellibranchiata), and the Lamellibranchia
(order Lamellibranchiata of the class Conchifera), with
short diagnoses in Latin, and full descriptions in German
of all the species given in the work. The admirable
figures amply illustrate every character of the living
animal and its shell, some being of the natural size, and
others magnified 300 times.

-We are not told whether any Brachiopod, marine
Pulmonobranch, or Cephalopod inhabits Kiel Bay ; but
assuming the list to be complete, we find 23 species of
Conchifera, and 40 of Gastropoda, being altogether 63
species. There are 562 species of Mollusca inthe British
seas. This great difference may arise from the brackish
nature of the water in Kiel Bay; and to the same cause
may be attributable the small size of all the Mollusca,
except Mytilus edulis, which is usually stunted on the
open sea coast.

The authors have satisfactorily shown that the genus
Triforis (erroneously changed by Deshayes to Z7iphoris)
is distinct from Cerithium, although belonging to the
same family, between which and Cer7thiopside it appears
to be intermediate. The principal difference consists in
the animal of Zrzfor7s having a retractile proboscis ; and
Lovén’s description of 7. ferversa was doubtful on that
point. Other writers on the Mollusca have done nothing
to help us in the classification of this difficult group.
The shells are distinguishable by the shape of the mouth,
which is very peculiar in 7yiforis; and the sculpture of
the apex differs from that of Cerithixm—an important
character which might have been advantageously repre-
sented in the plate before us.

We hope the authors will not take amiss a few slight
criticisms. Their Rissoa inconspicua is not Alder’s
species, but R. alve/la of Lovén. AR. octona of Linné is
probably a variety of Hydrobia ulve, judging from his
description and the habitat “in Sveciz subpaludosis.”
The species described and figured by Meyer and Mébius
as RF. octona has two more (viz. ten) whorls; it is not
horn-colour, but variegated ; the mouth is oval, and not
“fere orbiculata ;” and Linné does not mention the ribs
which characterise the Kiel Bay species. The figures of
Rissoa striata do not show the foot-appendage or caudal
cirrus, although it is described in the work. Amphisphyra
should be U¢riculus.

We wish the authors could have given us some infor-
mation as to the modus operindi of the Teredo in exca-
vating its cylindrical tube, instead of merely quoting
Kater’s opinion that the shell is the boring organ. One
thing is certain, and indeed has been admitted by Kater,
that the foot of Zeredo is in front, occupying the bottom
of the tube, while the shell at the same time occupies that
part of the tube which lies immediately above the foot,
and is closely pressed against the sides of the tube. To
suppose that the position of the foot and shell could be
reversed by the animal, so as to make the shell lie at the
bottom of the tube and the foot on one side during the
process of excavation, is quite inconsistent with our
knowledge of the Zervedo and of the habits of other
boring and burrowing Mollusca. Solen, \ Cardium,
Natica, Acteon, and many other kinds burrow in sand
by means of their strong muscular foot; Pholas
dactylus occasionally does the same ; and the limpet uses
its foot only for excavating the hard rock in which it is
sometimes more or less deeply imbedded. The gradual
enlargement throughout of the tube of Zeredo, especially
at the opening (where the siphons are placed), cannot
possibly be caused by the shell, which invariably lies at
the other end; and the prickles which cover the surface
of the shell, and enable it to act as a fulcrum or Joint
d’appui, could not be renewed if they were continually
employed in rubbing away the wood. There can scarcely
be a question that the foot is the sole instrument of per-
foration in Zeredo, as it is in Solen, Pholas, and Patel/a.

J. Gwyn JEFFREYS

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Student's Manual of Comparative Anatomy and
Guide to Dissection. Part I. (Mammalia). By G. H.
Morrell, M.A. (Longman aad Co.)

THIS work is in two parts, which are of such different
characters that they must be considered separately. The
first is intended to include a short and complete summary
of the main facts of the anatomy of Mammalia. This is
a large undertaking, and one which a resident in Oxford
has not full opportunities of completing ; for the ad-
vantages in any place other than London, are not
sufficient to enable any single student, however enthusi-
astic, to get familiar with many of the subjects discussed.
There is a want of vividness and point in many of the
statements, several of which are too inclusive. Referring
to the lobulation of the kidneys, the seals and whales are
mentioned as presenting it, but why are the ox, otter, and
rhinoceros omitted? The peculiarity of the stomach of
the chevrotain is not referred to, and all we can possibly
infer as to that of the peccary or hippopotamus is that it
is constricted into two or three portions, which is un-
doubtedly not enough. Half a page only is devoted to
the peculiarities of the liver throughout the class, and that
of man is called simple, while that of the Ruminants is
included among the multifid. The spleen of the mar-
supials is stated erroneously to be bent or bilobed.

But the great and inexcusable imperfection of the work
is the omission of the description of the generative system,
which no amount of argument could persuade us will
prove of the slightest good in any way. It only engenders
a mystery and curiosity in the mind of the younger
students, as to peculiarities of structure, which if they

‘were treated in the ordinary routine, would, as they un-
doubtedly are among medical students, be looked upon
in nothing but a common-place manner.

The second portion of the work, the guide to the dis-

NATURE

aa
Or +5. :
[May 1, 18

sections of the brain, heart, &c., of the sheep are excel-
lent, and will be found of great value ; they have long
been wanted by teachers. A carefully compiled synopsis
of the cerebral convolutions in man and the higher apes,
from the work of M. Gratiolet, terminates the book.

J

Centiéme Anniversaire

Académie Royale de Belgique.
(Brussels; F. Hayez,

de Fondation. Two vols.

1872.)
THESE two stout volumes, intended as a memoria
of the celebration of the hundredth anniversary of
the Belgian Academy, treat of a great variety of
interesting and valuable matters. The Belgian Academy
of Science, Literature, and Art was founded by Maria
Theresa on December 16, 1772, but as December is not a
very suitable month for a great public gathering of men
from all parts of Europe, the Academy held its centenary
féte on May 28 and 29, 1872, and it did it very royally, in
presence on both days of His Majesty the King of the
Belgians, who gave the opening address, and entertained
members and friends on the second day in his palace at
Brussels, There took part in the celebration distin-
guished deputies from all the countries of Europe
and from America, and altogether it seems to have
been a great success. In these volumes will be found
a detailed account of all that was said and done,
verbatim reports of all the speeches made, and of all the
interesting papers read. The Academy began to make
preparations for the centenary celebration in 1869 by the
appointment of a commission. This commission ap-
pointed members of the various classes of science, litera-
ture and art to prepare papers giving accounts of the
work done in these classes from the commencement, and
others to do the same for the various literary, antiquarian,
artistic and scientific subjects with which the Academy
deals. From this it may be surmised that these two
volumes contain matter of very great value indeed. The
first paper is by M. A. Quetelet, giving a sketch (170
pages) of the history of the first century of the Academy.
But the second volume will be the more interesting of the
two to scientific men ; we can only indicate its contents :—
Astronomy in the Royal Academy of Belgium from 1772
to 1872, by M. E. Mailly ; Report on the Mathematical
works of the Academy during the same period, by M. J.
M. de Tilly ; Report on works in the Physical Sciences,
Meteoro'ogy, and Physical Geography, by M. J. Duprez ;
Report on works in Chemistry, by M. L. G, de Koninck ;
Report on works in Zoology, by P, J.van Beneden ; Report
on works in Botany and Vegetable Physiology, by M. E.
Morren ; Repo-t on works in Geology and Mineralogy, by
M. G. Dewalque.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Biela’s Comets

THE present note is designed to show that several comets
move in nearly the same orbit with that of Biela; that they
probably entered the solar system asa group; and that, after
making their first perihelion passage in close proximity to each
other, they were, when receding from the sun, thrown into
their present orbits by the disturbing influence of Jupiter.

1. Was the comet of 1772 identical with that of Biela?—
The mean of theseven consecutive periods between January 2,
1806, and September 23, 1852, is 2437°7 days. Counting five
periods of the same mean length from February 17, 1772, brings
us to July 2, 1805—six months before the perihelion passage
of 1806, In other words, the mean period between 1772 and
1806 was greater by about thirty-seven days than that between
1806 and 1852. The perturbations during the half century
succeeding the apparition of 1772 have not been computed. It
seems very unlikely, however, that the difference of periods

4
bs -

:

2

E ~ could thus be accounted for. We conclude, therefore, that the

comet of 1772 was not that of Biela.

2, The first comet of 1818 is regarded by Dr. Weiss as a
robable member of the Biela group.* This body, discovered
By Pons, was visible only four days. Its elements, as computed
by Pogson, have a striking resemblance to those of Biela’s
comet, the longitudes of the ascending nodes differing by only
1. There can be little doubt that it was connected, in its
origin, with the comet of Biela. 3

3. The companion of Biela, observed in 1846 and 1852, is
another comet of the same cluster. The fact that several
cometary masses move in orbits almost identical, may afford a
plausible explanation of the division of Biela’s comet. Was
one member of the group overtaken by another as they were
‘approaching perihelion in 1845, and was their separation after
imperfect collision the phenomenon observed at that epoch ?

4. The comet detected by Pogson, at Madras, on December
2 and 3, 1872, may hive been another member of the same
family. Its perihelion passage occurred nearly three months
after the time computed for that of Biela. Prof. Newton has
remarked *+ that so great a lengthening of the period could not
probably be explained by planetary perturbation.

M. Hoek has shown { that certain comets have been asso-
ciated in groups before entering the solar domain, When
the members of such cometary systems are widely separated,
they may pass round the sun in very different orbits. The
comets, however, which constitute the Biela cluster must have

entered our system at small distances from each other, since
their orbits are nearly coincident. These orbits, between longi-
tude 255° and 265°, pass within no great distance of that of
Jupiter. The group had perhaps made its first perihelion pas-
sage in a parabolic orbit, Receding from the sun, it fell under
the controlling influence of Jupiter ; the comets had various
positions:in relation to the planet, and hence the orbits resulting
from the attraction of the latter were slightly different.

We might regard the comet of 1772, the companion of Biela,
and Pogson’s comet of 1872, as probably identical, but for the
small increase of distance between the two Biela-comets in the
interval from 1846 to 1852. ‘The period would be about 2456
days.

That the comets of this cluster have been moving in their pre-
sent orbits but a comparatively short time is rendered probable
by the fact that no two of the members hitherto detected have
become widely separat-d, and that, notwithstanding the fre-
quency of the return to perihelion, the meteoric déyis is much
less diffused than in the case of other known streams.

Were all the members of this cluster originally united in a
single comet, or did they evter the solar system as a group? To
this question, perhaps, no satisfactory answer can yet be given.
It seems probable, however, that the united masses would have
formed a somewhat conspicuous object, too brilliant to have en-
tirely escaped observation. « DANIEL KiIRKwoopD

B:oomington, Indiana, April 15

Earthquake in Dumfries

WHILE sitting in my lonely house in a retired but beautiful
glen of Dumfriesshire, I was aroused on the evening of Wednes-
day 16th current, at ten minutes to ten o’clock, by one of the
most singular noises ever I had listened to. The tone of it was
somewhat like thunder, but it did not rise and fall in pitch. It
las'ed, perhaps, for twenty seconds, and was accompanied by a
slight tremor. At first I thought it was a two-horsed carriage
coming, and at a lumbering pace, and then, with some hesita-
tion, I took it for thunder, but next day I found that it was
generally recognised as an earthquake. The shaking was very
perceptible in some localities. It extended through the parishes
of Closeburn, Morton, Penpont, Glencairn, and Tynron, over a
length, I am safe to say, of ten miles. Dr. Grierson of Thorn-
hill Museum felt it as a rude shock. In Tynron village there
was some alarm, as one family thought it was the wall of the
churchyard that had fallen, On December 24, last year, a similar
shock was felt in some parts of Upper Nithsdale. Although I
_have resided for many years in Dumfriesshire, these are the only
occasions on which there was any surmise of an earthquake.
The local papers have said almost nothing about it, but I am
sure this will interest some of your readers.

Tynron School, April 23

* Astr. Nach., No 1710.
+ American Journal of Science, April 1873.
} Monthly Notices of the R,A-S., vol, xxv. p, 243.

J. SHAW

NATURE

East India Museum

ALLOW me to make yet another suggestion (in addition to
those of P.L.S. and Prof. Newton), with regard to the disposal
of the natural history collections at the India House. It seems
to me to be one of the greatest popular delusions, that specimens
of natural history necessarily require lofty halls and spacious
galleries for their preservation and exhibition ina useful manner.
Thold, on the contrary, that, with few exceptions, they far
better serve educational and scientific purposes when arranged
in ordinary apartments. All the scientific work in the British
Museum is done in small rooms ; and the palatial galleries with
their crowded myriads of specimens and miles of glass cases,
however instructive they may be (or might be made) to the
public, are a positive hindrance to scientific work. Iam very
much mistaken if all the India House natural history collections
might not be suitably placed in two or three ordinary sitting
rooms, and so arranged in cabinets and boxes as to be far more
convenient for reference and study than they have ever been.
The rent of a moderate-sized house in an airy situation, say 250/.
with an equal sum for the salary of an efficien: Curator, and a
small grant for cabinets and the necessary books of reference,
is all the expense required to make this interesting collection
completely accessible to all who wish to consult it. Every
one interested in Indian natural history would then visit it. It
would again receive gifts of collections from travellers, Indian
Officers, and other persons interested in the natural history of
the East ; and its increase in value from this source alone might
go far towards furnishing a tangible equivalent for the expense
incurred, while it would certainly render the collection a better
representation of the Indian fauna than it is at present, and more
worthy ofa place, at some future time, in the proposed grand
Indian Museum.

Such a modest establishment would also, I believe, do much
good by showing at how small an expense a really useful
scientific museum may be kept up, and would thus encourage
the formation of local museums in cases where 20,000/, or’ 30,000/,
cannot be raised for a buil' ing. It would not, of course, be a
show museum for the uneducated public to wander and gaze in ;
—the Brit sh Museum serves that pur; ose. But it would prove
greatly superior to any such mere exhibition, as a means of
furnishing definite information on Indian zoology, and enabling
any intelligent inquirer to obtain some idea of the many wonder-
ful and beautiful forms of life which characterise, what is at
once the smallest and the richest in proportion to its extent, of
the great zoological regions of the globe.

ALFRED R. WALLACE

It will be greatly to be regretted if even your suggestions are
adopted asa remedy for the presen neglect, and the claims of
scientific men and of the public at large for a Government
museum be abandoned. It is very desirable for Indian interests
that the Museum shall be, as before, connected with the Indian
department.

It is quite true accommodation in the sky-parlours, with casual
access by a lift, is given for the industrial collections so well
conducted by Dr. Forbes Watson, and which collections, as
chairman of the Indian Committee of the Society of Arts, I feel
bound to contend for as of great value to England and to
India.

There is no solid ground for letting the Government go,
They acquired in the like way the property of the Levant Com-
pany, and attempted to shirk the rights and obligations, but
were compelled to maintain the public buildings, churches, hos-
pitals and burial-grounds at Constantinople, Smyrna, &c. It
must be owned they constantly attempt to evade the obliga-
tions.

They are now engaged in paying off the stock of the old East
India Company, of which they have acquired the territory,
houses, property, prerogatives, &c., and they must simulta-
neously accept every obligation, pecuniary and moral.

This was a museum for the service of England and the service
of India, and there is no reason why it should not be kept up.
There is, it is true, a growing licence in this day for representing
us as usurpers and oppressors of India, whereas the peace, pros-
perity, and progress of India have been created by us, and were
we to withdraw, would be destroyed by the sanguinary conflicts
of the various races of conquered and conquerors constituting the
populations.

We ought to stand on ourright to share in the prosperity of
India as a prerogative belonging to us. Besides, for the benefit
of India, the collections are kept up by Englishmen, for there i;

"aed

not the requisite knowledge among natives in India ; the work |

must be done in this safer climate, and the specimens can be

better preserved here than in the museums of the hot plains,

or those which may be formed in the damp regions of the

hills. HYDE CLARKE
St. George’s Square, S. W.

Instinct
Moving in a Cirele

In your last week’s number a letter appeared with the initials
N. Y., in which it was stated that itis believed in North Ame-
rica that a lost man always strays in a circle towards the left. I
may mention that whilst walking in a woody and hilly part of
the New Forest, I found, to my great astonishment, that I had
described a complete circle, and it was towards the left. My
father also tells me that he has been informed (although under
what circumstances he does not recollect) that the same idea
obtains in Australia. It has been suggested that the reason of
this fact (if fact it is) is, that the right side of the body is stronger
than the left ; in confirmation of the truth of this explanation, it
is worthy of notice that Dr. Wm. Ogle (in a paper on Dextral
Pre-eminence, Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. liv.) finds
that men are right-legged as well as right-handed, although the
rule has not so universal an application. One of the points
adduced by him in evidence is that bootmakers generally find the
right foot larger than the left.

If any of your readers who have strayed ina similar manner,
would take the trouble to write to you merely stating whether
they wandered to the right or the left, it is possible that a suffi-
cient body of facts might be collected either to confirm or dis-
prove this curious belief. GEORGE DARWIN

Down, Beckenham, April 29

Perception in Dogs

PERHAPS you will think that the following story of a Mentone
dog, Pietrino, is worth adding to the similar stories which have
appeared in your columns :—

The Archduchess Marie Régnier passed the winter of 1871-2
at the Hotel Victoria in Mentone. While there she became
much attached to a spaniel belonging to M. Milandri, the land-
lord, and on her return to Vienna in the spring she took the
dog there. Not long after, the dog reappeared at the hotel in
Mentone, having returned on foot a distance of nearly one
thousand miles over a country totally unknown, excepting
having once traversed it by rail. The fatigue caused the poor
fellow to die a few days afterwards, and Pietrino is honoured
with a grave and a monument in the hotel gardens.

I send you a French paper containing the same facts.

JAmEs B, ANDREWS

Villa d’Adhemar, Mentone, April 17

Peruaps the following anecdote on the instinct of dogs,
which has lately come to my knowledge, may prove of interest
to some’of your readers.

A family residing in Yorkshire possessed two dogs, one a
mastiff, and the other a small dog. The owner, visiting Hastings,
took the little dog with him, and at the house where he stayed
there was a larger animal, who, disregarding the laws of hospi-
tality, woefully maltreated his youthful visitor. The little dog,
upon this, disappeared, and in a few days returned, bringing
with him the mastiff from Yorkshire, which set upon the Iastings
dog and thrashed him to within an inch of his life. Having
performed this piece of retributive justice he returned to his
home in the north, while the little dog stayed to rejoice over his
fallen antagonist. A. Percy SmMitH

Rugby, April 18

Prehistoric Art

Mr. SEARLE V. Woon’s inquiry [((NATURE, vol. vii. p. 443)
whether any existing race of savages is capable of depicting
animals with the spirit and fidelity of the supposed con-
temporary representations of the mammoth is a most per-
tinent one, but must be answered in the affirmative.
In the Atlas to Gustav Fritsch’s great work on the
Aborigines of South Africa, just published at Berlin, will be
found reproductions of delineations of animals, executed in
caves by the Bushmen, which are certainly equal to the carvings
‘and tracings of the prehistoric period. The originals are usually
painted, but sometimes carved or scratched in sandstone or some
other soft material. Five different colours are employed ; the

NATURE

objects represented are usually the animals indigenous to the

country, but the human figure is occasionally introduced, and

since the arrival of the European colonists, horses and even

ships have been added. It is most remarkable to find the Bush-
men in this respect so far in advance of the comparatively
civilised negro, who has never of his own impulse produced
anything approaching to the merit of these designs. Perhaps
some of your contributors will be able to state whether any cor-
responding difference exists in the cerebral organisation of the
respective races. R. G,
London, April 19

April Meteors

IN continuation of my report sent you yesterday in reference
to the April meteors of this year, I desire to add the following.
The evening of April 21 being clear, a watch was sustained
from 94 to 12, during which time 14 shooting-stars were seen.
These, with the 20 observed on the two previous evenings, make

the total number seen 34 in 74 hours of observation, The de-

tails of the meteors noticed on April 21 are as under :—

Ref. Date. Time. Beginning. Ending.
No. RAS ae RA. DS
21 .«. Apriler.. 98 xr} mag. 266° 549+ 2369 3294
Sak tae ¢ +» 9,20 2nd mag. > 299 383+- 309 38 +
23 on » 9.29 3rd mag. 310 59+ 319 58 +
24 ave » g-4t 3rd mag. * 289 or -F 270 68 +
SB Nu 4A 9.57 2nd mag. * 263 50+ 238 47 +
26 .. A 10.22 grd mag. * 273 51+ 273 61 +
27 ns > «» 10.30 4th mag. * 325 68 + 328 60 +
aera 2 «+ 10.32 4th mag. * 2643 61 + 255 55 +
Tey 6 10.50 4th mag. * 319 693+ 339 66 +
BO vas 3). ans.” LXV 295 45 + 309 49 +
Bi, kes ii «- 1116 3rd mag. 278 49 + 270 593+
AA wiash ¥ 11.32 4th mag. * 27 14+ 283 12+
cc on > 11.40 3rd mag. * 28 59 + 270 47 +
34 + ” 11.45 4th mag. * 334 47 + 34 qt +

Nos. 22, 25, 26, 30, and 31 were from the radiant near a Lyrae.
On April
Lyraids, but on April 21 they were ina minority. Nos. 21, 23,
24, 33, and 34 were conformable to a radiant at o Draconis,
R.A. 283°, D. 59°+, and it is worthy of note that on the two
preceding nights there were no indications of this radiant point,
To sum up my recent observations, it would seem that from the
various meteoric tracks noted, the April shooting-stars of this

year had three well-marked centres of radiation, viz., (1) near

a Lyrz, (2) near Arcturus, and (3) at o Draconis (R.A. 283°,
D. 59+). There were also evidences of at least two other
radiant points that, owing to the paucity of meteors, could only
be approximately ascertained, viz., (1) near (Draconis, and (2)
near a Cygni. ‘The brightest meteor seen on April 21 was a
Lyraid ; time, 11" 7". Its path was accurately fixed. The
meteor first appeared at 1° N. of 5 Cygni, and travelling to N,
disappeared in a small triangle of stars 5° N. ofa Cygni. Several
of the meteors emitted sparks in traversing their courses, but the
majority were small objects of very brief duration.

The foregoing particulars (taken in conjunction with my pre-
vious letter) may be useful in determinating the radiant point of
the April meteors, especially with regard to those diverging
from Lyra, which, I believe, are considered identical with
Comet I. 1861. I fixed this point at R.A. 274°, D. 37+, which
is nearly of accord with the result of Karlinski (1867), R.A.
278°2 D. 34°°5+, and of Prof. A. Herschel (1864), R.A.
277°'5, D. 34° +. »

Bristol, April 22 WILLIAM F,. DENNING

A proposed new Barometer

In the number of the Philosophical Magazine for May 1871 is
an article by Prof. Heller, of Ofen, rendered (carelessly enough)
from Poggendorff’s Annalen, describing a balance fitted with
nearly equal weights of very different volumes, which he pro-
poses as a barometer. He says that the principle on which it is
founded ‘‘has not hitherto been used in barometric measure-
ments.” This is not quite correct ; a balance, absolutely iden-
tical in principle, is described by Boyle in vol. i. p. 231, of the
Philosophical Transactions, under the title of ‘‘ A new Statical
Baroscope.” It would seem that the practical difficulty of keep.
ing it in accurate adjustment has been and still will be a bar to
its use in the way the two inventors have proposed ; otherwise,

it might perhaps be advantageously employed in mountain sur- —

veys ; it would, at any rate, be free from many of the objections
to the aneroid.
Considered, however, as an exact barometer, I would main-

19 and 20 the largest proportion of meteors were -

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tain that the principle is altogether erroneous, depending as it
_ does on the assumption that the pressure of the atmosphere is
_ purely a function of its specific gravity or density. This is not
true, for pressure may vary within wide limits, whilst the density
remains unchanged. Experimentally this might be shown by
putting, say, an aneroid and a balance, such as I have been
speaking of, in a large glass vessel, which can be made air-tight
when closed. Under normal conditions the two will at first
register the same pressure ; but if the temperature is sufficiently
increased or diminished, the increase or diminution of elastic
force will manifest itself by the aneroid ; but as the density re-
mains unaltered, the balance will show no change. Does such
an experiment at all correspond with any natural observations?
I think so, in, of course, a limited degree. If the lower part of
a column of air is heated, its expansive force will push the ad-
jacent air outwards and upwards ; but as it does so, it has to
overcome a certain amount of inertia ; to do this requires time,
during which, as the volume of the heated air does not increase
in proportion to the temperature, the elastic force does. This
ought to be shown by the barometer ; I think it often is, but the
barometer is a sluggish instrument at best, and its indications are
undoubtedly wanting in quickness, and therefore in exactness.
Still its principle is correct ; so is the principle of the aneroid, or
of Bourdon’s barometer (on which there is an interesting paper
in the Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Society for
April 1872), though practical difficulties stand in the way of
their use becoming general. But the tangent balance is not
capable of measuring atmospheric tension, except when that ten-
sion depends on density alone; and this is frequently not the
case—perhaps never. J. K. Laucuton

- April 23

Acquired Habits in Plants

Av p. 446 of Naturg, J. G, records a ‘‘dog violet” which he
thinks has assumed anunusualform. As there are several plants
called ‘‘dog violet,” and as one of them does in favourable

_ situations attain a very considerable height, it would be interesting
to know what was the species observed by the river Aled. The
Viola canina (V. riviniana Reich.), in one of its forms which is
probably a distinct species, has flowering shoots which some-
times attain a foot in length, and if supported by the surrounding
yegetation do sometimes stand nearly upright, If this was the
plant {observed, J. G. only found a more than usually strong
form, Maite 2 C. C. BABINGTON

The Zodiacal Light

Mr. BAcKHOoUuSsE asks if the observations given in vol. iii.
p- 203, afford any proof that the Zodiacal Light is not a lens-
shaped disc of light enveloping the Sun; if this theory were
correct, and the sun enveloped in a continuous mass of light-
reflecting matter, whenever the light is seen in the evening
after sunset, it ought to be also seen in the morning before sun-
rise, of the same brilliancy at the same angular distances from
the sun, especially when those distances are small, for then the
effect of an elliptical form in the section of the envelope by the
plane of the ecliptic would be almost entirely eliminated.

The results of observation given in most of our hand-books of
astronomy are therefore directly at variance with this theory,
and I did not consider it necessary to allude to it before.

Jamaica, April 6 MAXWELL HALL

ON VENOMOUS CATERPILLARS *

OISON and venom are often used as convertible
terms. I do not understand them to beso. Poison
properly means something which injures the system by
introduction through the stomach. Venom, something
which injures by introduction into the vascular system
through lesion of the tissues. Most poisons are also
venoms ; whatever injures, if introduced into the stomach,
will most probably also injure ifintroduced directly into the
blood. But the converse is not true : most venoms are
not poisons, that is, itis not by digestion and assimilation
that they work, but by entering the vascular system from
without. It is said that you may swallow the venom of
the rattlesnake with impunity ; and I imagine you may,
if it does get absorbed through the mucous membrane ;
_ but Dr, Fayrer’s experience, lately published, of the effects

___* A paper read at the opening of the Kensington Entomological Society.

NATURE

of the semi-swallowing, which occurs in extracting the
venom from a poisoned wound by sucking, would rather
seem to show that such extremely virulent venom would
penetrate the mucous membrane, and act as if actually
introduced by a wound, his throat having become dange-
rously ulcerated from sucking the poison from the wound
of aman bitten by a cobra, There is yet another way
than swallowing or being wounded, by which venom may
injure, and that is through the nervous system, by appli-
cation to the skin. This is the way in which the nettle
must sting. In that case there is not the smallest lesion in
the skin, and if anettle were artistically made to touch the
open surface of a gaping wound, it would not sting at all ;
neither is it by mechanical irritation that the pain is
caused. The nettle has a venom gland, as well as the
rattlesnake, and it is the application of this venom to the
delicate termination of the nerves in the skin which pro-
duced the pain felt.

The subject to which I invite the consideration of the
Society this evening is whether any insects possess simi-
lar power of injury to that of the nettle. In ordinary
cases the venom of insects is applied by a puncture in
the skin, into which the venom is introduced by an appa-
ratus provided for the purpose, But for along time it
has been said that certain caterpillars sting like the
nettle, although the authorities have for the most part
been too vague to allow us to be very sure as to the fact ;
and supposing the fact to be true, it has been argued that
the pain or annoyance was merely the result of mechani-
cal irritation of a similar nature to that which medical
men sometimes meet with in hairdressers, or rather hair-
cutters, where minute portions of the cut hair of their cus-
tomers work their way into the skin below the shirt-sleeve
and give rise to a painful and irritating sore on the wrist.
Two passages which I shall take leave to quote, will bring
the question, as it at present stands, pretty fairly before
the meeting. The first is from a paper by myself on the
geographical relations of the chief Coleopterous Faunas,
which was published in the Linnaean Society’s Journal
for 1870 (p. 55) :—

“ A very remarkable African affinity in the Lepidoptera
has been mentioned to me by Dr. Welwitsch. It is plain
that an affinity to any genus endowed with peculiar pro-
perties is rendered doubly certain if the supposed allied
species possesses the same properties. There is a Lepidop-
terous insect in Australia, the larva of which possesses re-
markable poisonous powers. It has been named Doraéo-
phora vulnerans. Such insects also occur in South
Africa, Livingstone speaks of a caterpillar called Rzgura
as producing fearful agony if a sore is touched with its
entrails. Mr. Baynes, in his “ Explorations in South-west
Africa,” speaks of another, or perhaps the same, which
he calls the Aaa, and which is used as a poison for their
arrows by the Bushmen ; and Dr. Welwitsch had a per-
sonal experience of the severe swelling and pain in every
part of his body which he touched with his hand after
collecting specimens of a caterpillar against which he had
been warned as poisonous. He had in consequence of
the warning carefully avoided touching them, shoving
them into a phial with a straw ; but whether he had inad-
vertently touched them or fingered the leaves on which
they had been feeding (which he collected for examina-
tion), he and his servant were both laid up helpless for
two or three days. His specimens of the caterpillar
were lost ; but among his Lepidoptera Dr, Fendler of
Vienna, who has undertaken a description of them, finds
no less than four species of Doratophora, and these,
doubtless, are the per.ect insects of species of the cater-
pillar, from one of which he suffered.”

The second passage which I wish to quote is from a
paper by Mr. Roland Trimen, Notes on the above paper,
and also published in the Linnean Society’s journal, It
is as follows :—

“ At p. 55 Mr. Murray notes what he considers ‘ a very

»~ S = * 7 ee

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—

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remarkable African affinity’ in the Lepidoptera of Aus-
tralia, in reference to the case of the larva of Loratophora
vuinerans Lewin, The instances which he cites as analo-
gous, however, are very different in character, for he
quotes the mention by Livingstone ‘of a caterpillar called
Rigura, producing fearful agony if a sore is touched wth
zts entrails’; and the statement made by Baynes and
other travellers, that a caterpillar is used by the Bushmen
to poison their arrows. It is evident that, if a caterpillar
be used at all for poisoning arrows (concerning which
report my inquiries have hitherto been attended by no
satisfactory result) it must be the intestines or juices of
the animal which are so employed. But the case of
Doratifera vulnerans is the common one of (what appears
to be mechanical) irritation, by means of clusters of
spines, a defence possessed by many caterpillars, not only
in Australia and South Africa, but throughout the globe,
and of which the larva of the European Cwethocamba
processionea presents a familiar example. Duncan (Nat.
Libr. Ent. vol. vii. Exotic Moths, pp. 181-2. pl. xxii. f. 5)
represents the larva of D. vu/#erans as possessing four
fascicles of rufous spines, exsertile at will on both the an-
terior and posterior portions of the body, and quotes Lewin
to the effect that the wound inflicted by the fascicles is
very painful. According to Mr. Murray’s account it
would appear that the African larvae, from the handling of
which Dr. Welwitsch experienced such suffering, were near
allies (if not actually species of Doratzfera) ; and the con-
clusion is obvious that it was by fascicles of spines that the
pain was occasioned—not an uncommon case in the
warmer parts of the world, and one by no means indi-
cative of any special relation between the Lepidopterous
faunas of South Africa and Australia.”

Mr. Trimen is obviously right as to the absence of
analogy between the venomous properties of the cater-
pillars spoken of by Livingstone and Baynes, and those
met with by Dr. Welwitsch, and it was a slip on my part
to collocate them together ; but I am not satisfied that he
is equally right in referring the pain caused by the species
of Doratophora to mechanical irritation. He gives no
facts in support of his assumption to that effect, and
the facts communicated to me by Dr. Welwitsch regard-
ing the insect from which he suffered seem to me wholly

‘inconsistent with that supposition. It may be supposed
from his and my silence that we acquiesed in Mr.
Trimen’s views. But it isnotso. When Mr, Trimen’s
paper appeared Dr. Welwitsch spoke to me upon the
point, and I urged him to communicate to.the scientific
world fuller details of the incident than I had given, and
I understood that he intended to do so in any account of
the insects collected by him. I therefore did not feel
warranted in speaking, which I now regret, for as with
much else that he had on hand to do, his life has been
too short for him to do it himself. Now that he has
passed away from us I should not like an erroneous im-
pression to exist as to the facts; and although I have
little to add to what | formerly stated as communicated by
him to me, I should wish to repeat it more precisely, and
to say that Dr. Welwitsch himself was firmly convinced
that it was not a case of mechanical irritation but of a
special virus of unusual potency.

In the first place, then, Dr. Welwitsch had heard of
this noxious caterpillar before he met with it—the natives
knew it well and dreaded it. In the next place when he
did meet with it his native attendant warned him of it—
and they took every precaution against touching it ; they
plucked leaves on which the caterpillars were feeding and
guided them from the leaf into the wide-mouthed bottle
or vessel he had to carry such specimens home in. They
also took specimens of the plant on which they were feed-
ing. I suggested to him that the sting might have been
in the plant, but this he was positive was not the case.
Tae virulence of the venom was such that by the time
they reached home in an hour or so after, every tender

NATURE

6

Sepa”) *%

part of their body which they had touched with their
fingers had become swollen and inflamed; their eyes
were closed up, their lips and cheeks swollen as if they
had been assisting (as principals) at a prize fight, and the ”
consequent fever was so great that they were laid up,
unable to move for two or three days ; and when they did
get up he found that their attendant$ had bundled out of
the house both the caterpillars and the plants on which |
they fed. Now it seems to me that mechanical irritation
is a wholly inadequate cause for such extreme inflamma-
tory action. Mechanical irritation may go a certain
length, but there are bounds beyond which we must look
for some other explanation.

But first we want more facts and more examples. I
exhibit two caterpillars, apparently different species, which
I have received from Old Calabar, given to me with a
notandum as reckoned injurious if not venomous, but my
information as to them is too vague to allow me to cite
them as positive examples of venomous caterpillars. And
I also show one from Brazil which I have received from
my friend, Mr. Fry, which he informs me bears a very
bad character in Brazil. Both of these, indeed, all to
which this property has been ascribed, are hairy cater-
pillars ; but then it is only hairy caterpillars that seem to
have the necessary apparatus for stinging—all stinging
plants, so far as I know, are hairy. If the caterpillars
have a special venom, then, as in the nettle, there should
be a gland at the base of each hair, which should be
hollow, and the spines in most, if not all, our caterpillars
are hollow. I know of no physiological reason against their
being so made. In the skin of the newt there are pores
which exude an acrid irritating fluid. If a hollow hair
were placed over the pore with proper muscles, we should ~
then have a parallel to the supposed case.

But, as I said before, we want information as to the
existence and amount of this venomous property, and the
chief object of this paper to-night is, after eliciting the
views of the meeting, to suggest to those who may have
the opportunity, the desirableness of making observations
on the point. A. MURRAY

ON SPACE OF FOUR DIMENSIONS

WV TE

measures the extension of the Universe. We may
determine the form and position of any material object
by assuming three infinite planes, fixed in infinite space,
and at right angles to each other. Space then is the
room occupied by matter, or included between distant
masses of matter; and, as such, we know of it only as
possessing three dimensions :—length, breadth, thick-
ness.

Descartes (Principia pars. 2, “ Quid sit spatium, sive
locus internus”) remarks, “ For, in truth, the same exten-
sion in length, breadth, and depth, which constitutes
space, constituted body; and the difference between them
consists only in this: that in body we consider extension
as particular, and conceive it to change with the body ;
whereas in space we attribute to extension a generic unity
(genericam unitatem), thus after taking from a certain
space the body which occupied it, we do not suppose that
we have at the same time removed the extension of the
space, because it appears to us that the same extension
remains there so long as it is of the same magnitude and
figure, and preserves the same situation in respect to cer-
tain bodies around it, by means of which we determine
the space.”

Gauss used.to say that one of the happinesses of his
future life would be the amplification of his conceptions
of space; the realisation of that which he had once
known as space of three dimensions, as space of four
dimensions.
infinitely attenuated book-worms in an infinitely thin

*%

| [May 1, 1873 Bi

may define sface as that which indicates and

For just as we can conceive of beings “like —

>

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sheet of paper,” which can realise space of only ¢wo
dimensions, so also we may conceive of beings capable
of realising space of four dimensions, Prof. Sylvester,
Dr. Salmon, Prof. Clifford, and others, have indicated in
some of their profoundest mathematical demonstrations
that they possess “an inner assurance of the reality of
transcendental space.” We desire now to bring forward,
with great apology to the mathematicians for our temerity,
some ideas, which we believe may enable even the least
mathematical amongst us, to realise,—faintly, indeed,
and very dimly—the possibility of existence of space,
other than that which we now occupy. This we propose
to do, (a) by attempting to realise a condition of life in
space of two dimensions, and (8) by adding the element
of diverse motions, to our already known space.

Our knowledge of the Universe involves the conception
of space, time, and number. These are intuitive notions :
we cannot strictly define them; in the abstract our
notion of them is merely relative ; apart from material
existence we cannot realise them, Extension is an
essential property of matter, and our conception of space
is linked with our conception of extension. Robert
Hooke, in a series of lectures De Potentia Restitutiva,
written nearly two hundred years ago, and too little
known, defines a sensible body as “a determinate space,
or extension, defended from being penetrated by another,
by a power from within.” Now this power may be most
readily conceived to be a vibratory motion of the particles
across a position of rest. Let us imagine an infinitely
thin plane vibrating between two fixed points with such
velocity that no other matter can penetrate into the space
limiting the vibration, then a solid bounded in one direc-
tion by the two fixed points would be the result. For ex-
ample, let an infinitely thin sheet of iron a metre square
vibrate with extreme velocity in a span of one metre, and
acubic metre ofiron would be the result. The rapid vibra-
tion of the plate would defend the range of vibration from
being penetrated, and impenetrable material substance
would result. An infinitely thin line vibrating between
two fixed points would furnish a plane, An infinitely thin
plane vibrating between two fixed points would furnish a
solid. Thus by the addition of motion we can convert a
determinate space, approximately of one dimension, into
space of two dimensions ; and by the addition of motion
we can convert space of two dimensions into space of
three dimensions. Can we cdnceive of any motion which
given to space of three dimensions shall generate space of
Jour dimensions? We do not know of such motion, but
we can surely conceive the possibility of its existence.
Space of four dimensions is transcendental space: it is
beyond the limit of our experience, but not beyond the
limit of our imagination.

Let us now endeavour to realise the condition of
a being living in space of two dimensions. If man pos-
sessed the eyes and the power of flight of an eagle, super-
added to his ordinary intellectual qualities, he would, no
doubt, have very enlarged views of space. As it is, man
is distinguished from the brute animals by his erect bear-
ing, and the range of space which his vision enables him
to scan. Our eyes are easily movable in various direc-
tions, so also is our head ; by a slight movement of the
head and eyes, we may take in either space bounded by
the horizon, or by a surface a foot square. If we throw
our head back we enlarge our view of space; if we bend
our head forward we narrow our view of space. Now,
imagine that a man thus endowed, and with our own
notions of space of three dimensions, begins to stoop for-
ward and to grow so: his eyes survey less space ; he stoops
more forward; his body forms angles of 80°, 70°, 60°, 50°
in succession, with a horizontal plane. Then he is obliged
to go on all-fours, his limbs shorten and are gradually
absorbed into the mass of his body; he crawls, he creeps;
at length his limbs disappear altogether, and he trails
himself along and glides like a serpent, moving in a hori-

NATURE

zontal plane, During these successive shrinkings in the
direction of his thickness his head has become fixed, his
eyes motionless, in the plane in which he moves, and his
vision has hence become more and more limited. Now
his body begins to diminish in thickness; he becomes
thinner, and thinner, and thinner, and when he has be-
come very thin indeed, let his thickness be expressed as
the numerator of a fraction, while the denominator is an
infinitely great number—say, if you will, as many figures
as, written on paper, would reach ten billion miles, with
ten figures to an inch. Now he is a mere plane, an infi-
nitely thin surface; he occupies space approximately of
two dimensions ; his eyes are onaline. Try to imagine
what the ideas of space of such a being would be; com-
pared with our own ideas of space, compared with his own
ideas before and during his process of flattening. He
would now contemplate only a plane surface ; he would
see length and breadth without thickness. Compare also
his ideas of space at each and every position between
verticality and horizontality as his ken gets less and less,
and at last the whole world is shut out from him.

Again, to come nearer home, and back again to the
world of real existences, let us compare our own ideas of
space after concentrating our vision for awhile on a book
a foot square, with our ideas of space acquired while we
ascend a lofty mountain, or lie upon our back on the deck
of a vessel in mid-ocean. Compare the views of space
possessed by a prisoner immured for forty years in a
dungeon eight feet square, of La Sachette in the 7yow aux
Rats, of a being bed-ridden for half a century, with those
of a hunter in the prairies of the West, a sailor of the
Atlantic, even of a dweller in a flat tame country. The
conceptions of space possessed by these different people
will vary enormously. Contract the limits of space of
possible contemplation ; remove the possibility of con-
templating space of great dimensions, and the facu/ty of
such contemplation willitself die out ; and thus, bya gradual
process of diminution, we may arrive at our ideal being,
living in space of two dimensions. Finally, let us imagine
the being of two dimensions—length and breadth—to
become narrower and narrower, and when he has become
extremely narrow let us divide his breadth by an infinitely
large number, and he becomes approximately of one
dimension ; he has now only length; he lives in a line;
his one motionless eye is a point.

So much for space of less dimensions than our own.
Let us now try to conceive an extension of our ordinary
space ; and let us attempt this by the superaddition
of motion to “known space. And let us clearly
realise the fact that one and the same thing
may easily possess various motions at the same time.
For instance, when I walk across the room, talking the
while ; my vocal chords possess five distinct motions:
(a) their own proper motion of vibration; A/ws (8) the
motion of translation caused by walking forward ; p/ws (y)
the motion of rotation of the earth about its axis ; A/is (8)
the motion of revolution of the earth about the sun ; plus
(ec) the motion of translation of the whole solar system
through space. Let us suppose now that our bodies,
instead of being at apparent rest, were to vibrate in arcs,
with an amplitude of 10,000 miles, and with an infinite
velocity ; and let the plane of the direction of vibration
itself vibrate between limits 10,000 miles apart; and let
the whole vibrating system move with infinite velocity in
a circle 1,000,000 miles diameter; and let the circle
rotate upon its diameter; and let the sphere of revo-
lution thus formed revolve in an infinitely great ellipse ;
and let the ellipse rotate upon one of its axes; and
but hold! we have surely arrived at a somewhat enlarged
view of our own relations to space. Conceptions of this
nature sufficiently pursued may, perchance, lead us to the
very threshold of transcendental space ; and, once on the
threshold, we may look wonderingly beyond.

G, F. RoDWELI.

ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
VIII.

I TOLD you I had something more to say about the

spectrum of blood, and this is not only an instance
of the way in which the spectrum helps us in several
important questions that, at first sight, do not seem
at all connected with each other, but it shows the
enormous power of research that is open to us. The
colouring matter of blood, for instance, is found, like that
of indigo, to exist in two perfectly different states, which
give two perfectly different spectra, The colouring matter
of blood is indeed capable of existing in two states of
oxidation, which are distinguishable by a difference in
colour, and also in their action on the spectrum. They
may be made to pass one into the other by suitable
oxidising and reducing agents; they have been named
by Professor Stokes, their discoverer, red and purple cruo-
rine. Previous to the introduction of spectrum analysis,
red and purple cruorine were perfectly unknown, Fur-
ther, if by means of a spectrum microscope, such as I
have already described, a blood-stain is examined, Mr.
Sorby asserts that the thousandth part of a grain of blood,
—that is to say, a blood-spot so small that it only contains
yooo Of agrain, is perfectly easy of detection by means of
this new method, and he has shown that its presence may
be easily proved in stains that have been kept for a long
time, and recognised even after a period of fifty years.

oF

t

Fic. 46. Fic. 47-
Tig. 46.—Steinheil’s slit, showing reflecting prism. Fig. 47.~Path of light
through reflecting prism and into the slit.

He has also shown how it may be detected under the most

unfavourable conditions, provided that a trace of hamatin,

has escaped decomposition or removal; he has, in fact,
successfully applied this method in several important
criminal cases.

Another very interesting fact is, that when blood con-
tains very small quantities of carbonic oxide gas in solu-
tion, it exhibits a very curious series of absorption bands.
This fact is of considerable value in toxicological research,
for in cases of poisoning by the so-called charcoal fumes,
where, as is well known, the poisonous action is due to
the formation of carbonic oxide, it can be readily detected
by the peculiar bands which the blood under these cir-
cumstances exhibits.

Mr. Sorby has also applied the spectrum microscope
to the study of blow-pipe beads, and has shown that in
some cases as small a quantity as ,,1,,th of a grain of
some substances can be thus recognised, even when mixed
with other coloured bodies, which would interfere with
the usual reactions dependent on colour alone,

In the case of radiation, as you know, we are able to
determine the existence of new elements altogether, This
is produced to a certain extent, as in the above case, in
the absorption spectrum, Let me give you another prac-
tical application of this principle. Dr, Thudichum, as a
result of researches made for the Medical Department of
the Privy Council, has communicated to the Royal Soc‘cty

NATURE

a paper in which he narrates the result of his inquiries on
the yellow organic substances contained in animals and
plants ; and at the present moment it is impossible to
say what important practical results may be expected as
we come to know more about these substances, especially
in the matter of dyes, which I am sure is a thing that will
commend itself to you. -

Again, Mr. Sorby, in a communication to the Micro-
scopical Society, brings the matter still nearer home, He
shows us that, in the case of wines, he can, by means of
the absorption bands, determine the very year even of
vintage, and this, you will see at once, is a matter of very
great importance. Let me read you an extract from one
of Mr. Sorby’s reports. He says :—“‘ The difference for
each year is at first so considerable that wines of different
vintages could easily be distinguished; but after about
six years, the difference is so small that it would be diffi-
cult or impossible to determine the age to within a single
year. After twenty years, a difference of even ten years

Fic. 48-—Coincidence between the bright line given out by sodium vapour and the dark
line produced by the absorption of sodium vapour.

y ’
z 5

does not show any striking contrast, and the age could
not, therefore, be determined to nearer than ten years by
this process. However, up to six years I think it quite
possible to determine the age to within a single year, I
took specimens of various ports from the casks, of different
ages up to six or seven years, and labelled them in such a
manner that I did not know the age of any, but could
ascertain it afterwards by reference. I then made the
experiments with great care, and found that, by proper
attention to the details described above, I could correctly
determine the year of vintage of each particular speci-
men.” (Chemical News, December 17, 1869, p. 295.)

We have, in fact, a definite method of analysis of
animal and vegetable colouring matter, and also of the
colouring matter of decayed wood. Nor is this all, for,
in another communication—for these things are now be-
ginning to crowd upon us, and they will continue to do so
much more by-and-by—Dr. Phipson asserts that this
new method is perfectly competent to indicate any ar i-

ae

i

4
-
2
|

with radiation.
_ while I attempt to make clear to you all the strange facts

ficial coloration of wine. Mr. Sorby,on the other hand,
has given his attention to beer; so that you see, if I have
been taking you occasionally to the stars, I sometimes

have the opportunity of travelling a great deal nearer |

home.

Mr. Sorby has also made some extremely delicate and
interesting researches on the colouring matters existing in
leaves. He has been able to identify numerous colouring
principles, which he has arranged in five distinct groups :
these groups rejoice in the names of chlorophyll, xanto-
phyll, erythrophyll, chrysophyll, and phaiophyll, the ab-
sorption spectra of which are perfectly distinct and well
marked. It is found generally that leaves contain colours
belonging to several groups, and frequently more than one
of the same group. Mr. Sorby also finds that the change
of colour which takes place in autumn consists chiefly in

the disappearance of the chlorophyll, which renders the

remaining colours visible, and these most frequently are
of a yellowish tint. Some leaves, however, turn red in
the autumn: this appears to be due to a falling off of the
vital power of the plant, for by artificially diminishing the
vital power, the intensity of this red colour is increased.
One great value of this method of research is that it
enables us to recognise special colouring-matters, even
when mixed with several others, and to determine the
particular conditions in which they occur in plants or

NATURE

II

animals—whether in a solid state or in solution —and
| whether those dissolved out by reagents exist as such in
| the living organisms, or are the products of decom-
positions.

So that you see, on the whole, at the present moment,

I think we may be full of hope that the new process may
gradually lead to many more practical applications ; but
really we cannot say much about them at present, because
.the introduction of spectrum analysis is so recent. We
are, however, already furnished with another instance of
the close connection there always must be between any
great advance in physical inquiry and the application of
the skill of our opticians to aid usin the inquiry. We
have the Sorby-Browning spectrum microscope, and then
a large number of people can study the beautiful pheno-
mena which this new method of research has opened up
| to us, where formerly it was almost impossible to imagine
that science, or even the practical affairs of earth, should
in any way benefit.

Having thus dealt very briefly with some of the more
practical applications of the subject, I must now take you
a somewhat distant journey to the sun and to the stars ;
| and I must, in the first instance, attempt to connect the
two perfectly distinct classes of phenomena which I have
brought to your notice,—the phenomena, namely, of radi-
ation, and the phenomena of absorption ; and this con

HL

Fic. 49.—Correspondence of some of the lines given out by iron vapour (below), and of some of the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum.

nection between radiation !and absorption is an instance
of the slow growth of science. I remarked to you in the
former lecture, that Fraunhofer, at the beginning of this
century, had a very shrewd suspicion of the perfect co-
incidence of place in the spectrum between certain dark
lines which he saw in the spectrum of the sun, which I
promised to explain to you on this occasion, and the
bright lines in the spectrum of sodium. Yeu know how
very simple the spectrum of sodium is : you will, perhaps,
think it very strange indeed that such a simple thing was
not explained very long ago. But Fraunhofer at the first
suspected, and after him many of our greatest minds sus-
pected, that there was some hidden, wondrously strange,
connection between the double yellow line which you will
remember is characteristic of sodium, and a certain double
line which exists among the strange black lines of the
solar spectrum, which I begged you to banish from your
minds on the last occasion, when we were merely dealing
But now I must ask you to bear with me

concerning these black lines. I have been favoured by
Dr. Gladstone with an extract from Dr. Brewster's note-
book, dated St. Andrews, October 28,1841. Init Brewster
says :—“I have this evening discovered the remarkable
fact that, in the combustion of nitre upon charcoal, there
are definite bright rays corresponding to the double lines
of A and B, and the group of lines a in the space A B.
The coincidence of two yellow rays with the two deficient
ones at D, with the existence of definite bright rays in the

nitre flame, not only at D but at A, a and 8, is so extra-

| ordinary, that it indicates some regular connection between
the two classes of phenomena.” The double lines A and
B refer to some of these dark Fraunhofer lines in the solar
spectrum, which for convenience of reference were at first
called after the letters of the alphabet ; we now find that
their number is so enormous that it is absolutely im-
possible to attempt to grapple with them in any such
method, but these names are still retained.

The explanation of the coincidence between the two
bright lines of burning sodium vapour and the two dark
lines D in the solar spectrum was first given by Prof.
Stokes about 1852.

It is this. The light emitted by an incandescent
vapour is due to the vibrations of its molecules, as a
sound note emitted by a piano wire is due to the vibra-
tion of the wire. You have only to go into a room where
there is a piano, and sing a note, to find that the wire
which corresponds to your note will respond to your
voice. Now, in the same way, when light is passing
through a vapour, the molecules of which vibrate at
any particular rate, they will be urged into their own
special rate of vibrations by the vibrations of the light
which correspond to that particular rate waich is passing
through them. Hence the light will, so to speak, be
| sifted, and the force it has exercised in impelling the
particles in the interrupting vapour to vibrate will tell
upon it ; and in this way those particular vibrations which
have had the work to do will be enfeebled.

It is clear that the parts of the spectrum thus reduced

in brilliancy will depend upon the vapour through which

12

the light has passed. If sodium vapour be traversed, then
the light corresponding to the bright lines of sodium will
be enfeebled.

This great law, to which the researches of Stokes and
Stewart and Angstrém have led, and which has been
established by the experiments of Foucault, Kirchhoff,
and Bunsen, may be summed up as follows :—Gases and
vapours, when relatively cool, absorb those rays which
they themselves emit when incandescent ; the absorption
is continuous or selective as the radiation is continuous
or selective, J. NORMAN LOCKYER

‘ (To be continued.)

NOTES

THE Emperor of Brazil has conferred upon Dr. Warren De
La Rue the distinction of Knight of the Imperial Order of the
Rose.

THE subject of Professor Tait’s Rede Lecture, to be delivered
on the 23rd inst., will be ‘‘ Thermo-Electricity.”

A PARAGRAPH has recently appeared in several scientific papers
quoted from the Zeitschrift ftir Parasitenkunde, stating that
Prof, Hallier of Jena has described a new potato-disease, which
made its appearance last autumn in the neighbourhood of that
town, the disease being indicated by the presence of a purple web
and the appearance of a number of black spots on the skin, referable
apparently to the perithecia of a pyrenomycetous fungus. We
learn from the Rev. M. J. Berkeley that this so-called new
disease is nothing but the well-known ‘‘ copper-web ” which is in
some years very destructive to asparagus, mint, and other crops,
and has been known in some instances to attack the potato.
The description in the Zeitsch7if¢ is identical with this familiar
parasite. Figures will be found in Tulasne’s ‘‘ Fungi Hypogzi,”
under Rhizoctonia, showing that the so-called perithecia are
spurious, Mr. Broome has detected the form of fructification
known as conidia,

LApy LYELL, wife of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart, F.R.S., died
Jast Thursday, inher 65th year. Her ladyship was the eldest
daughter of the late Mr. Leonard Horner, F.R.S.

Durinc the Easter term the following lectures in natural
sciences will be given at Cambridge :—On Heat (1) Advanced
(for the Natural Sciences Tripos), by Mr. Trotter, Trinity Col-
lege, in Lecture-room No. 11, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and
Fridays at 10, commencing Wednesday, April 30 (2) Elemen-
tary (for Special Examination and Ist Part of Natural Sciences
Tripos), on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays at II, com-
mencing Tuesday, April 29. On Chemistry, by Mr. Main, St.
John’s College, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays at 12,
in St. John’s College Laboratory, commencing Thursday, April
24. Instruction in Practical Chemistry will also be given, On
Palzontology—the Mollusca, &c., by Mr. Bonney, St. John’s
College, on Tuesdays and Thursdays, at 9, commencing Thurs-
day, April 24. On Geology—(for the Natural Sciences Tripos,
Stratigraphical Geology), by Mr, Bonney, St. John’s College,
on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 10, commencing
Wednesday, April 23. Elementary Geology (for the First part
of the Tripos and the special examination), on Tuesdays and
Thursdays, at 11, commencing Thursday, April 24; there will
be excursions, of which notice will be given from time to time.
On Botany (for the Natural Sciences Tripos), by Mr. Hicks,
Sidney College, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at
11, in Lecture-room No. 1, beginning on Tuesday, April 29 ;
the lectures during this term will be chiefly on Cryptogamic
Botany and on Classification. Biology: the Trinity Preelector
will give a course of Practical Lectures on Elementary Biology,
on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays, at 11 A.M., commenc-

NATURE

[May a 7

7k
ing Wednesday, April 30. This course is intended as an intro * 4
duction to the study of both anatomy and physiology. A short
lecture of about half-an-hour will be given at each meeting, ae ‘
lowed by practical work for about 1} or 2 hours.

THE annual sorée of the Royal Society last Saturday at Bur
lington House was a great success. “Lhe number of visitors was
exceedingly large, and the objects exhibited were numerous and
varied. In the Mathematical Room, Mr. Latimer Clark showed %
his remarkable experiment of the influence of light on the con- : id

§
ea
f

ductivity of selenium, recently described in NATURE,
a.

THE office of ‘‘Lord Rector” of a Scotch University is_ cay
generally regarded as merely honorary, a testimony of the esti- _ 4
mation in which the students hold the gentleman whom they
elect. As a rule the Lord Rector acquiesces in this opinion, and
seldom does more in return for the supposed honour conferred —
than mark the commencement or close of his three years’ ~*
tenure of office by making a speech to the students. As might ri
be surmised, Prof. Huxley, who was recently elected to the
Lord Rectorship of Aberdeen University, which counts Prof.
Bain among its staff of teachers, does not regard the office as {
merely honorary: he intends to take advantage of the position — ie
conferrred upon him by doing some actual work for the good of — a

q
3

the University. Naturally one of the first grievances he has
attacked is the medical curriculum, which at Aberdeen, as at ;
most other medical schools, is hampered by the ‘traditions of | i
the elders’’ as to the supposed advantages of the dead languages
to a medical s'udent. Shortly after Prof. Huxley’s election, he —
received a numerously signed petition from the medical students .
requesting him to use his influence to obtain the omisssion of
Greek as a compulsory subject in the preliminary examination.
Prof. Huxley has given notice that he will bring forward at the —
next meeting of the University Court a resolution to reform the —
medical curriculum at Aberdeen, as he considers it at present —
rather overweighted with classics, and believes that some new
arrangement’ would probably be exceedingly advantageous,
especially in the matters of natural history and botany, WN

WE hear from Mr. Lloyd that living specimens of the Lancelet
(Amphioxus la nceolatus) have been very recently received at the —
Crystal Palace Aquarium, from Naples, and are now alive. We e
hope that Dr. Dohrn will be successful in sending other Jiving- 7
specimens of this most interesting fish to other Aquaria in ed ’
country, so that its affinities and development may be more
thoroughly worked out and generally understood,

Mr. THOMAS WILLIAM BRIDGE was on Friday elected toa
Natural Science Scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge.
Mr. Bridge has for some two years worked under Mr. J. W.
Clark, the Superintendent of the University Museums of Zoology ©
and Comparative Anatomy, and about a month since was ap-
pointed, by the Professor of Zoology, to the newly-founded post
of Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy in the University.

Dr. Divers, of the Middlesex Hospital, has been appointed —
to the Professorship of Chemistry in the new Engineering Cole a
lege at Jeddo.

Pror, AGassiz has not been behindhand in employing dies
advantages placed at his disposal by Mr. Anderson’s munificent
bequest. A programme is already published of a summer course ~
of Natural History at Penekese Island, designed chiefly for r
teachers, and for students preparing to become teachers, Among
those that Prof. Agassiz is able to include on his staff we find
the names of Profs. Shaler, Wilder, Packard, and Putnam, and
every attempt is being made to obtain a sufficient endowment, —
through the liberality of others, to offer the course free of charge —
to deserving students, The Superintendent of the United States
Coast Survey and the United States Commissioner of Fisheries —
have also promised all the assistance in their power to this excel-
lent undertaking.

a

7)

Ar

=}

.

;

era ee ee ee eee Eee. Te oo. FS ~ ee.

Dr. CHARLES C, ABBorr has discovered in the river drift at

Trenton, New Jersey, in gravel at great depth, and beneath
undisturbed layers of fine sand, three chipped implements, of
unquestionably human manufacture, lying close to each other.
One hasa knife-like form, 9 in. long, made of a reddish-brown
stone, compact, laminated, and susceptible of a high polish.
‘The other two bear a considerable resemblance to common
European forms: one is of opaque yellowish quartz, 5} in. long,
and 12 ih. in greatest width ; the other isa flake of sand-stone
rock, 63in. long, 3}in. wide. From the occurrence of such
specimens so near each other, Dr. Abbott thinks that we must
admit that the antiquity of American man is greater than the
advent of the so-called ‘* Indian.”

THE Royal Geographical Society have awarded the following
medals for the present year :—In Physical Geography : Gold
medal to W. C. Hudson, age 18, of Liverpool College ; bronze
medal to W. A. Forbes, age 17, of Winchester College. In
Political Geography : Gold medal to S. E. Spring Rice, age
16, of Eton College; bronze medal to A, T. Nutt, age —, of
University College School.

Ar the meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on
Monday, Sir Henry Rawlinson said despatches with reference to
the East Coast Livingstone Expedition had been received from
Sir Bartle Frere, dated March27. The English portion of the
expedition had been recently materially augmented, for, instead
of consisting as previously of Lieut. Cameron and Dr. Dillan, it
had received the valuable services of Lieut. Murphy, an officer
of Engineers, who had obtained permission from the Indian
Government to join it. Mr. Moffatt, a nephew of Dr. Livingstone,
had alsojoined the expedition, and there was every reason to expect
that his assistance would be of the greatest use in time of need.
Bergamoyo had been already reached, and by the latest accounts
the march into the interior had been commenced. From the
first camp, at a distance of twenty miles from Bergamoyo, com-
munications had been received from Dr. Dillan, in which he
intimated his expectation of being speedily joined by Lieut.
Cameron, Lieut. Murphy, and Dr. Moffatt. They would, not-
withstanding the fact that the rainy season was not yet over, at
once proceed on their journey.

Pror. THISELTON DYER announces a course of six lectures
on the ‘‘ Aspects of Vegetation” at the Royal Horticultural
Society’s Gardens; and Mr, Thomas Moore a course of six
demonstrations on ‘* Medical Botany” in the Chelsea Botanic
Garden. ere:

A TWICE-MONTHLY scientific periodical, in Turkish, is to be
brought out in Constantinople called the Do/ad, the Repository.

ON Jan. 31 there wasa slight shock of earthquake at Rangoon
in English Burmah. On Feb. 12 an earthquake was felt at
Peshawur and Lahore in India. Slight earthquake shocks were
felt on March 14, at 8 P.M., at Yanina (Janina) in Albania,
Turkey.

THERE is a report from Doncaster to the effect that shortly
after two o’clock on Tuesday afternoon the town was visited by
a smart shock of earthquake, which shook several houses to
their foundations. In our correspondence this week will be
found an account of an earthquake which occurred recently in
the south of Scotland.

THE French Association for the Advancement of Science, com-
mences its second annual session at Lyons on August 21. We
believe that there is every hope of a most numerous and in-
teresting meeting.

NATURE — Son

THE New York Fournal of Applied Chemistry for February
contains a very excellent article on ‘‘ The Promotion of Scien-
tific Research,” by Prof. C. A. Joy, in which he animadverts
severely on those so-called ‘‘ practical men” who test the value
of all scientific investigation by the ‘* Whatis the use 2” standard,
“Original research,” the writer says, ‘‘is the nervous fluid that
furnishes strength to the muscle, The brawny arm is but
dead meat unless the body is fed with nourishing food, Theo-
dore Parker, in one of his discourses, alludes to the figure of a
Chinaman in a shop window turning vigorously a crank ; upon
investigation he found that it was the crank that turned the man,
and not the man the crank. It is the same with practical appli-
cations, The practical man applies the principle, and with
great pomp and arrogance claims to turn the crank ; it is not
true—a power higher than his is behind it all; the origi-
nal investigation, the discovery of the principle upon
which the movement rests, is really the engine that
drives the man and makes him do its bidding.” Prof.
Joy in speaking of the recent article in NATURE, in which
Sir Benjamin Brodie calls attention to the enormous expenditure
of money of the University of Oxford, in the way of subsidies to
students and annuities to fellows, without any adequate results,
counsels the Americans to forbear copying the English University
system. He proposes the following plan of promoting scientific
research :—Let there be incorporated a society for the promotion
of scientific research, to consist of a small number of strictly
scientific trustees, who shall hold the property and appropriate
the income to such objects as they deem worthy of aid. It would
not be, strictly speaking, a society, but a foundation for the
purposes specified. The head-quarters of the corporation should
be in New York City. If the wealthy citizens of New York,
who “owe all they possess to the progress of science, would
give money into the hands of such a board of trustees, they would
be doing a most important work. Wherever and whenever any
person was known to be engaged in the prosecution of some
scientific research, the trustees could make him an allowance
for conducting the inquiry, or to enable him to publish his
results. Such assistance would often secure important dis-
coveries. There are numerous professors scattered over the
country whose salary is so small that they are obliged to add to
it by outside work, or whose services at the college are so press-
ing that they have no leisure for anything like voluntary labour.
A little assistance and encouragement to such persons would go
a great way. Any college would be flattered by having their
officers thus singled out by the best judges of the country as
worthy of a subsidy from a society founded to encourage research.
This course is preferable to giving a fund to a college for educa-
tional purposes, or to found a professorship, as the means for
education are-very great in this country, and there is far less
need of mere educational facilities than there is of men engaged
in purely scientific study. It has often happened that money
has been raised to found a professorship for a particularly able
man ; after his death a person of inferior ability takes his place,
and thus the object of the donor is defeated. It is therefore
better to put the money into the hands of trustees selected for
the purpose, and let them pay the income to those who are
known to be worthy to receive it. The demands upon the
fortunes of our wealthy men are constant and numerous, and
they naturally give to such objects as are within their compre-
hension. If they could be made to understand that the source
of our presperity is science, and that the springs of discovery
whence flow all the improvements of the day must be kept
perennial, they would freely give of their substance, and we
should soon see the watch-fires of original research kindled over
the whole country. ;

Tue New York Nautical School-ship AZrcury has spent the
past winter in deep-sea research, as in a previous season, and,

5
4

*

as before, has utilised the opportunities presented in the interest
of science. Captain Giraud surveyed a large portion of the so-
called “volcanic region” of the Atlantic Ocean, finding the
water very deep in that vicinity. Specimens brought up from
the bottom appeared to be of undoubted volcanic origin. The
Casella-Miller deep-sea thermometer was used on one occasion
at a depth of 2,040 fathoms, two miles north of the equator, in
longitude 22° 16’ west, and indicated a temperature of 35° F., at
1,000 fathoms 38°, and at the surface $1°, the air being 80°.
During the voyage from the Canary Islands to Rio the tempe-
rature at uniform depths was found to vary only about two
degrees.

THE Iron-Steel Institute conclude their meeting at Willis’s
Rooms to-day.

Prizes for papers on the ‘‘ Elyan Courses” of Cornwall, are
offered by Mr. J. A. Phillips, F.C.S., to the present and former
pupils of the Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devon. The
papers and illustrative specimens are to be deposited with Mr.
J. H. Collins, F.G.S,, Hon, Assistant Secretary of the Miners’
Association, Polytechnic Hall, Falmouth, on or before Sept. 1,
1873. The author of the best paper will be entitled to a prize
(in books, selected by himself) of the value of 57. A second
prize, also in books, of the value of 3/., will be given to the
author of the paper next in order of merit.

WE have received the first number of a new American journal,
started last month, Zhe Sanitarian, edited by Dr. A. N. Bell,
of New York. It aims at presenting the results of the various
inquiries which have been, and which hereafter may be made,
for the preservation of health and the expectations of human
life, so as to make them most advantageous to the public and to
the medical profession. Among the most important articles is
one by the editor, on ‘‘ The New York Quarantine Establish-
ment,” which is illustrated with two maps, This is preceded by
one on ‘‘Infant Mortality, with suggestions for improving the
condition of Foundlings ;” and followed by another on ‘* The
necessity of Re-Vaccination.” We strongly recommend this ex-
cellently conducted journal to those interested in sanitary
science.

AMONG the rarer and more interesting remains found in the
mounds of the west of America, are plates of mica cut into
different shapes, and evidently preserved as objects of great
rarity and value; and, in the absence of this mineral in the
Mississippi Valley, the question has frequently arisen whence
the material could have been derived. A recent communication
from Prof. W. C. Kerr, the State Geologist of North Carolina,
tends to throw some light on this subject, and to open an inte-
resting chapter in regard to the American prehistoric man. The
work of collecting mica is at present carried on upon the largest
scale in the high and rugged region between the Black Mountain,
the Roanoke, and the head waters of the Nolachuchy, principally
in Mitchell County, North Carolina, The region in question

_ has long been known for the existence of numerous open works
and tunnels, which, at first sight, were supposed to have been
made in the search for silver or some other valuable metal.
Prof. Kerr, in his capacity of State Geologist, was led to investi-
gate this question, and very soon found, in every instance, that
the excavations referred to were much older than the earliest
discovery of the country by the Spaniards, and that in all cases
they were found in ledges of coarse granite, which contained
nothing but large patches of mica. Prof. Kerr has been satisfied
for some time that in these mines we have the work of the

* contemporaries of the mound-builders, and the localities whence
they derived the mica. What use they made of it we cannot
say ; but it is suggested that it may have served the purpose of
mirrors, or possibly have been used as windows, as well as for

NATURE

ormament, The number and size of these mines is remarkable,
some of the open cuts being more than too ft. in diameter, and

20 ft. or 30 fi. in depth, even after the caving in and filling up of >

centuries of weathering. The tunnels often extend inwards several
yards, but are said to be too small for a man of ordinary size to

work in, These show distinct marks ofthe tool in the granitic

wall, as if made by a chisel-shaped instrument about an jinch

broad. Numerous plates of mica are found in these tunnels and ex-

cayations, some of them trimmed to particular shapes. These facts

open up a new chapter in the history of the American aborigines, —
illustrating the character of the commerce carried on at a very
remote period, and showing the magnitude of the operations,

and the extended period of time over which they must have been
prosecuted, to enable a people furnished with nothing better than
wooden and stone tools to produce excavations of so great

magnitude,

Sirius, a journal of popular astronomy published at Leipzig
and Vienna, contains, in its fourth number for this year, a lec-
ture by Prof. Oppolzer, on ‘‘ The Importance of Astronomy in
connection with Ancient History,” the continuation ofan article
on ‘‘ Copernicus and his Anniversary,” one of a series of articles
on the ‘‘ Topography of the Heavens,” the present treating of
the constellation Gem ini, besidesa few notes,

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week include a Ring-necked Parakeet (Paleornis torquata)
from India, presented by Mr. W. E. Johnson; a long-eared

Owl (Otus vulgaris) feom Europe, presented by Dr. Bree; a

Wood Owl (Syrnium aluce), presented by Mr. H. W. L. Browne 5
a Chinese Harrier (Circus spilonotus) ; a grey Eagle Owl (Budbo
cinereus) and a Bosman’s Potto (Perodicticus potto) from W.-
Africa; a horned Tragopan (Ceriornis satyra) from the Hima-
layas ; a black-tailed Hawfinch (Coccothraustes melanurus) from
Japan ; two crested Buntings (JZelophus melanicterus) ; two red-
eared Bulbuls (Pycxonotus jocosus), and a red-vented Bulbul
(P. hemorrhous) from India; a red-headed Bunting (Zmberiza
rutila), and a yellow-browed Bunting (Z. chrysophrys) from
Japan; a black Tanager (Zachyphonus melaleucus) from S$.
America, purchased; two Emus (Dromeus nove-hollandia)
from Australia, deposited; a great Kangaroo (Macropus gigan-
zeus), and a Derbian Wallaby (Halmaturus derbianus), bom
in the gardens. }

ON THE HYPOTHESES WHICH LIE AT”
THE BASES OF GEOMETRY* ;

Plan of the Investigation

I T is known that geometry assumes, as things given, both the
notion of space and the first principles of constructions in
space. She gives definitions of them which are merely nominal,
while the true determinations appear in the form of axioms.
The relation of these assumptions remains consequently in dark- ~
ness ; we neither perceive whether and how far their connection
is necessary, nor, @ friori, whether it is possible. ‘
From Euclid to Legendre (to name the most famous of modern
reforming geometers) this darkness was cleared up neither by ma-
thematicians nor by such philosophers as concerned themselves
with it. The reason of this is doubtless that the general notion of
multiply extended magnitudes (in which space-magnitudes are
included) remained entirely unworked. I have in the first place,
therefore, set myself the task of constructing the notion of a
multiply extended magnitude out of general notions of magni-
tude. It will follow from this that a multiply extended magni-
tude is capable of different measure-relations, and consequently
that space is only a particular case of a triply extended magni-
tude. But hence flows as a necessary consequence that the pro-
positions of geometry cannot be derived from general notions of
magnitude, but that the properties which distinguish space from
other conceivable triply extended magnitudes are only to be

_“ By Bernhard Riemann. (Translated by Prof.W. K, Clifford, from vol.
xiii. of the Gottingen Abhandlungen.)

ve...
Nk

deduced

from experience. Thus arises the problem, to discover
the simplest matters of fact from which the measure-relations of
space may be determined ; a problem which from the nature
of the case is not completely determinate, since there may be
several systems of matters of fact which suffice to determine the
measure-relations of space—the most important system for our
ee purpose being that which Euclid has laid down as a
foundation. These matters of fact are—like all matters of fact—
not necessary, but only of empirical certainty ; they are hypo-
theses. We may therefore investigate their probability, which
within the limits of observation is of course very great, and
inquire about the justice of their extension beyond the limits of
observation, on the side both of the infinitely great and of the
infinitely small.

I.—WNotion of an n-ply extended magnitude

In proceeding to attempt the solution of the first of these pro-
blems, the development of the notion of a multiply extended
magnitude, I think I may the more claim indulgent criticism in
that I am not practised in such undertakings of a philosophical
nature where the difficulty iies more in the notions themselves
than in the construction ; and that besides some very short hints
on the matter given by Privy Councillor Gauss in his second
memoir on Biquadratic Residues, in the ‘*G6ttingen Gelehrte
Anzeige,” and in his Jubilee-book, and some philosophical re-
searches of Herbart, I could make use of no previous labours.

§ 1.—Magnitude-notions are only possible where there is an
antecedent general notion which admits of different specialisa-
tions. According as there exists among these specialisations a
continuous path from one to another or not, they form a con-
tinuous or discrete manifoldness : the individual specialisations
are called in the first case points, in the second case elements, of
the manifoldness. Notions whose specialisations form a discrete
manifoldness are so common that at least in the cultivated
languages any things being given it is always possible to find a
notion in which they are included. (Hence mathematicians might
unhesitatingly found the theory of discrete magnitudes upon the
postulate that certain given things are to be regarded as equiva-
lent.) On the other hand, so few and far between are the occa-
sions for forming notions whose specialisations make up a cov-
tinuous manifoldness, that the only simple notions whose
specialisations form a multiply extended manifoldness are the
positions of perceived objects and colours. More frequent occa-
sions for the creation and development of these notions occur
first in the higher mathematic.

Definite portions of a manifoldness, distinguished by a mark
or by a boundary, are called Quanta. Their comparison with
regard to quantity is accomplished in the case of discrete mag-
nitudes by counting, in the case of continuous magnitudes by
measuring. Measure consists in the superposition of the magni-
tudes to be compared ; it therefore requires a means of using
one magnitude as the standard for another. In the absence of
this two magnitudes can only be compared when one is a part
of the other ; in which case also we can only determine the more
or less and not the how much. The researches which can in
this case be instituted about them form a general division of the
Science of magnitude in which magnitudes are regarded not as
existing independently of position and not as expressible in
terms of a unit, but as regions in a manifoldness. Such re-
searches have become a necessity for many parts of mathematics,
e.g., for the treatment of many-valued analytical functions ; and
the want of them is no doubt a chief cause why the celebrated
theorem of Abel and the achievements of Lagrange, Pfaff,
Jacobi for the general theory of differential equations, have so
long remained unfruitful. Out of this general part of the science
of extended magnitude in which nothing is assumed but what is
contained in the notion of it, it will suffice for the present pur-
pose to bring into prominence two points; the first of which
relates to the construction of the notion of a multiply extended
manifoldness, the second relates to the reduction of determina-
tions of place in a given manifildness to determinations of
quantity, and will make clear the true character of an 7-fold
extent. .

§ 2 --Ifinthe case of a notion whose specialisations form a con-
tinuous manifoldness, one passes from a certain specialisation in
a definite way to another, the specialisations passed over form a
simply extended manifoldness, whose true character is that in it
a continuous progress from a point is possible only on two sides,
forwards or backwards. If one now supposes that this mani-

- foldness in its tum passes over into another entirely different,

and again in a definite way, namely so that each point passes

over into a definite point of the other, then all the specialisa-
tions so obtained form a doubly extended manifoldness. In a
similar manner one obtains a triply extended manifoldness, if
one imagines a doubly extended one passing over in a definite
way to another entirely different ; and it is easy to see how this
construction may be continued. If one regards the variable
object instead of the determinable notion of it, this construction
may be described as a composition of a variability of +1
dimensions out of a variability of 2 dimensions and a variability
of one dimension.

§ 3.—I shall now show how conversely one may resolve a
variability whose region is given into a variability of one dimen-
sion and a variability of fewer dimensions. ‘To this end let us
suppose a variable piece of a manifoldness of one dimension—
reckoned from a fixed origin, that the values of it may be com-
parable with one another—which has for every point of the
given manifoldness a definite valuc, varying continuously with
the point ; or, in other words, let us take a continuous function
of position within the given mani o!dness, which, moreover, is
not constant throughout any parto that manifoldness, Every
system of points where the function 42s a constant value, forms
then a continuous manifoldness of fewer dimensions than the
given one. These manifoldnesses pass over continuously into
one another as the function changes ; we may therefore assume
that out of one of them the others proceed, and speaking gene-
rally this may occur in such a way that each point passes over
into a definite point of the other; the cases of exception (the
study of which is important) may here be left unconsidered,
Hereby the determination of position in the given manifoldness
is reduced to a determination of quantity and to a determination
of position in a manifoldness of less dimensions. It is now easy
to show that this manifoldness has #—1 dimensions when
the given manifoldness is #-ply extended. By repeating then
this operation # times, the determination of position in an
n-ply extended manifoldness is reduced to » determinations
of quantity, and therefore the determination of position in a
given manifoldness is reduced to a finite number of deter-
minations of quantity when this is possible. There are mani-
foldnesses in which the determination of position requires
not a finite number, but either an endless series or a continuous
manifoldness of determinations of quantity. Such manifoldnesses
are, for example, the possible determinations of a function for a
given region, the possible shapes of a solid figure, &c.

Il.—Measure-relations of which a manifoldness of n dimensions
ts capable on the assumption that lines havea length independent
of position, and consequently that every line may be measured by
every other.

Having constructed the notion of a manifoldness of 7 dimen-
sions, and found that its true character consists in the property
that the determination of position in it may be reduced to x
determinations of magnitude, we come to the second of the
problems proposed above, viz., the study of the measure-relations
of which such a manifoldness is capable, and of the conditions
which suffice to determine them. These measure-relations can
only be studied in abstract notions of quantity, and their depen-
dence on one another can only be represented by formule. On
certain assumptions, however, they are decomposable into rela-
tions which, taken separately, are capable of geometric re-
presentation ; and thus it becomes possible to express geome-
trically the calculated results. In this way, to come to solid
ground, we cannot, it is true, avoid abstract considerations in
our formulz, but at least the results of calculation may subse-
quently be presented in a geometric form. The foundations of
these two parts of the question are established in the celebrated
memoir of Gauss—‘‘ Disquisitiones generales circa superficies
curvas.”

§ 1.—Measure-determinations require that quantity should be
independent of position, which may happen .in various ways.
The hypothesis which first presents itself, and which I shall here
develop, is that according to which the length of lines is inte-
pendent of their position, and consequently every line is measur-
able by means of every other. Position-fixing being reduced to
quantity-fixings, and the position of a point in the 7-dimensioned
manifoldness being consequertly expressed by means of #
variables 2, x», 7g, + + » “,) the determination of a line comes
to the giving of these quantities as functions of one variable.
The problem consists then in establishing a mathematical ex-
pression for the length of a line, and to this end we must con-
sider the quantities as expressible in terms of certain units, I

%

16

A ==

shall treat this problem only under certain restrictions, and Ishall
confine myself in the first place to lines in which the ratios of
the increments dx of the respective variables vary continu-
ously. We may then conceive these lines broken up into
elements, within which the ratios of the quaniities dv may
be regarded as constant; and the problem is then reduced
to establishing for each point a general expression for the
linear element ds starting from that point, an expression
which will thus contain the quantities + and the quantities
dx. 1 shall suppose, secondly, that the length of the
inear element, to the first order, is unaltered when all the
points of this element undergo the same infinitesimal dis-
placement, which implies at the same time that if all the quan-
tities dr are increased in the same ratio, the linear element will
vary also in the same ratio. On these suppositions, the linear
element may be any homogeneous function of the first degree of
the quantities @x, which is unchanged when we change the signs
of all the 2x, and in which the arbitrary constants are continuous
functions of the quantities «. To find the simplest cases, I shall
seek first an expression for manifoldnesses of #—1 dimensions
which are everywhere equidistant from the origin of the linear
element ; that is, I shall seek a continuous function of position
whose values distinguish them from one another. In going
outwards from the origin, this must either increase in all direc-
tions or decrease inall directions ; I assume that it increases in
all directions, and therefore has a minimum at that point. Tf,
then, the first and second differential coefficients of this function
are finite, its first differential must vanish, and the second diffe-
rential cannot become negative ; I assume that it is always posi-
tive. This differential expression, then, of the second order
remains constant when ds remains constant, and increases in the
duplicate ratio when the dx, and therefore also ds, increase in
the same ratio; it must therefore be ds* multiplied by a con-
stant, and consequently ¢@s is the square root of an always posi-
tive integral homogeneous function of the second order of the
quantities dx, in which the coefficients are continuous functions
of the quantities «, For Space, when the position of points is
expressed by rectilinear co-ordinates, ds=./3(dx)°; Space is
therefore included in this simplest case. The next case in sim-
p icity includes those manifoldnesses in which the 1 n= element
may be expressed as the fourth root of a quartic differential ex-
pression. ‘The investigation of this more ge neral kind would
require no really different principles, but would take considerable
time and throw little new light on the theory of space, especially
as the results cannot be geometrically expressed ; I restrict my-
self, therefore, to those manifoldnesses in which the line-element
is expressed as the square root of a quadric differential expres-
sion. Such an expression we can transform into another similar
one if we substitute for the 7 independent variables functions of
2 new independent variables. In this way, however, we cannot
transform any expression into any other ; since the expression
u+t

contains 7 coefficients which are arbitrary functions of

the independent variables ; now by the introduction of new
variables we can oaly satisfy 7 conditions, and therefore make
no more than # of the coefficients equal to given quantities.

The remaining x» “— T are then entirely determined by the

nature of the continuum to be represented, and consequently
n-1{ :

n . functions of positions are required for the determina-

tion of its measure-relations. Manifoldnesses in which, as in
the Plane and in Space, the line-element may be reduced

to the form «/ Sx, are therefore onlya particular case of the
manifoldnesses to be here investigated ; they require a special
name, and therefore these manifoldnesses in which the square of
the line-element may be expressed as the sum of the squares of
complete differentials I will call #a¢. In order now to review
the true varieties of all the continua which may be represented
in the assumed form, it is necessary to get rid of difficulties
arising from the mode of representation, which is accomplished
by choosing the variables in accordance with a certain principle.

§. 2.—For this purpose let us imagine that from any given
point the system of shortest lines going out from it is constructed ;
the position of an arbitrary point may then be determined by the
initial direction of the geodesic in which it lies, and by its dis-
tance measured along that line from the origin, It can therefore
be expressed in terms of the ratios @v of the quantities dv in
this geodesic, and of the length s of this line, Let us intro-

NATURE

* eA a

bs

on

duce now instead of the @% linear functions dx of them, such
that the initial value of the square of the line-element shall
equal the sum of the squares of these expressions, so that the
independent variables are now the length s and the ratios of
the quantities dx. Lastly, take instead of the d x quantities
4X, X%yXz...%, proportional to them, but such that the sum of their
squares = When we introduce these quantities, the square
of the line-element is = @.2* for infinitesimal values of the «, but
the term of next order in it is equal to a homogeneous function’

of the second order of the x “—!

quantities (x, dx,—4%,dx,),

x, @%4—-xX3d@x,)... an infinitesimal, therefore, of the fourth
I 3 3 4

order ; so that we obtain a finite quantity on dividing this by the
square of the infinitesimal triangle, whose vertices are (0, 0, 0,...),
(x, %_%y...), (€x,, Axy, AX y,...). This quantity retains the
same value so long as the x and the ¢ are included in the same
binary linear form, or so long as the two geodesics from 0 to x
and from o to dx remain in the same surface-element ; it depends
therefore only on place and direction. It is obviously zero when
the manifold represented is flat, ze. when the squared line-
element is reducible to S@«*, and may therefore be regarded as
the measure of the deviation of the manifoldness from flatness at
the given point in the given surface-direction, Multiplied by
— it becomes equal to the quantity which Privy-councillor
Gauss has called the total curvature of a surface. For the
determination of the measure-relations of a manifoldness capable

Of representation in the assumed form we found that ne

place-functions were necessary ; if, therefore, the curvature at

i!

each point in »” surface-directions is given, the measure-

relations of the continuum may be determined from them—
provided there be no identical relations among these values,
which in fact, to speak generally, is not the case, In this way
the measure-relations of a manifoldness in which the line-element
is the square root of a quadric differential may be expressed in
a manner wholly independent of the choice of independent vari-
ables. A method entirely similar may for this purpose be ap-
plied also to the manifoidness in which the line element has a
less simple expression, ¢g., the fourth root of a quartic
differential. In this case the line-element, generally speaking,
is no longer reducible to the form of the square root of a sum of
squares, and therefore the deviation from flatness in the squared
line-element is an infinitesimal of the second order, while in
those manifoldnesses it was of the fourth order. This property
of the last-named continua may thus be called flatness of the
smallest parts. The most important property of these continua
for our present purpose, for whose sake alone they are here in-
vestigated, is that the relations of the twofold ones may be geo-
metrically represented by surfaces, and of the morefold ones may
be reduced to those of the surfaces included in them; which now
requires a short further discussion. ,

§ 3.—In the idea of surfaces, together with the intrinsic mea-
sure-relations in which only the length of lines on the surlaces is
considered, there is always mixed up the position of points lying
out of the surface. We may, however, abstract from external
relations if we consider such deformations as leave unaltered the
length of lises—z.e. if we regard the surface as bent in any way
without stretching, and treat a1 surfaces so related to each other
as equivalent, hus, for example, any cylindric or conical sur-
face counts as equivalent to a plane, since it may be made out of
one by mere bending, in which the intrinsic measure-relations
remain, and all theorems about a plane—therefore the whole of
planimetry—retain their validity. On the other hand they
count as essentially different from the sphere, which can-
not be changed into a plane without stretching. According
to our previous investigation the intrinsic measure-relations of a
twofold extent in which the line-element may be expressed as
the square root of a quadric differential, which is the case with
surfaces, are characterised by the total curvature. Now this
quantity in the case of surfaces is capable of a visible interpre-
tation, viz, it is the product of the two curvatures of the surface,
or multiplied by the area of a smatl geodesic triigle, it is equal
to the spherical excess of the same. The first cefinition assumes
the proposition that the product of the two radii of curvaiure is
unaltered by mere bending; the second, that in the same
place the area of a small triangle is proportional to its spherical
excess. To give an intelligible meaning to the curvature of an
n-fold extent at a given point and in a given surface-direction
through it, we must start from the fact that a geodesic proceeding

[May ty 1873. a

*

:

5

<= se

from a point is entirely determined when its initial direction is
given. According to this we obtain a determinate surface if we

_ prolong all the geodesics proceeding from the given point and

lying initially in the given surface-direction ; this surface has at
the given point a definite curvature, which is also the curvature
of the #-fold continuum at the given point in the given surface-
direction.

§ 4.—Before we make the application to space, some con-
siderations about flat manifoldnesses in general are necessary ; 7. ¢.
about those in which the square of the line-element is expressible
as a sum of squares of complete differentials.

Ina flat #-fold extent the total curvature is zero at all points
in every direction ; it is sufficient, however (according to the
preceding investigation), for the determination of measure-
relations, to know that at each point the curvature is zero in

7

w—T <p 3
n =e independent surface directions. | Manifoldnesses whose

curvature is constantly zero may be treated as a special case
of those whose curvature is constant. The common character
of these continua whose curvature is constant may be also ex-
pressed thus, that figures may be moved in them without stretch-
ing. For clearly figures could not be arbitrarily shifted and
turned round in them if the curvature at each point were not
the same in all directions. On the other hand, however, the mea-
sure-relations of the manifoldness are entirely determined by the
curvature ; they are therefore exactly the same in all directions at
one point as at another, and consequently the same constructions
can be made from it : whence it follows that in aggregates with
constant curvature figures may have any arbitrary position given
them. The measure-relations of these manifoldnesses depend only
on the value of the curvature, and in relation to the analytic
expression it may be remarked that if this value is denoted by a,
the expression for the line-element may be written

I
a be

§ 5.—The theory of surfaces of constant curvature will serve
for a geometric illustration. It is easy to see that surfaces whose
curvature is posuive may always be rolled on a sphere whose
radius is.unity divided by the square root of the curvature ; but
to review the entire manifoldness of these surfaces, let one of
them have the form of a sphere and the rest the form of surfaces
of revolution touching it at the equator. The surfaces with
greater curvature than this sphere wiil then touch the sphere in-
ternally, and take a form like the outer portion (from the axis)
of the surface of a ring; they may be rolled upon zones of
spheres having less radii, but will go round more than once.
The surfaces with less positive curvature are obtained from
spheres of larger radii, by cutting out the lune bounded by two
great half-circles and bringing the section-lines together. The
suriace with curvature zero will be a cylinder standing on the
equator ; the surfaces with negative curvature will touch the
cylinder externally and be formed like the inner portion (towards
the axis) of the surface ofa ring. If we regard these surfaces as
locus in quo for surface-regions moving in them, as Space is
locus in guo for bodies, the surface regions can be moved in all
these surfaces without stretching. The surfaces with positive
curvature can always be so formed that surface regions may also
be moved arbitrarily about upon them without dending, namely
(they may be formed) into sphere-surfaces ; but not those with
negative curvature. Besides this independence of surface regions
from position there is in surfaces of zero curvature also an inde-
pendence of direction from position, which in the former surfaces
does not exist.

(To be continued.)

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, No. 6.—The present number gives
a compendium of useful suggestions, which might advantageously
be acted on in other countries besides Germany, addressed by
the Anthropological Society of Berlin to all persons engaged in
exploring, or other expeditions to distant regions, In those
directions for observing and collecting whatever is most adapted
to extend and rectify ouractual knowledge, information is given
in regard to the various races with whom travellers may come in
contact, and the special geographical, linguistic, social and other
conditions, which more particularly require further elucidation.

—Prof. A. Bastian gives usin this number with his habitual |

NATURE

completeness an exposition of the worship of the heavenly
bodies among different nations, and the extent to which local
conditions of climate and ethnological differences have influenced
the character of the adoration offered to the sun and the moon
and the stars. According to him a ¢rue worship of the sun—
except in the polar regions—is only to be found on elevated
plateaux, where the return of the orb of day was welcomed with |
gratitude after the colder night, while in low-lying tropical lands
the aborigices looked with dread at the glowing ball of fire
which each summer seemed to threaten their world with annihi-
lation. We can strongly commend this paper as a most com-
prehensive, although not specially novel exposition of Aryan and
other mythological systems.—The German engineer, Herr H.
Keplin, has drawn attention to the mussel-hills (Casguecros
sambaguis) of Brazil in the district of the Rio do San Francisco
do Sol. The position of these deposits appears to refute the
idea of their being mere Kjokkenmédings, while the great
respect shown by the natives for the dead, and their care to pro-
vide them proper sepulture, would seem to afford further evidence
that these elevations, which often rise to a height of 50 feet,
cannot be due to the hand of man, In relerence to the
above, it may interest our own archeologists to know that Herr
Walter Kauffman draws attention in the same number to his
discovery in the neighbourhood of Hull, at a spot known as
Castle Hill, near Holderness, of a burial place belonging, as he
conjectures, to the transition period between the Stone and
Bronze ages. Herr Kauffman found on the western side of the
hill, where the ground had been cut for building purposes, a
fragment of some loam vessel, a compact mass of oys:er shells,
some flint flakes, andahuman rib. After carefully removing the
earth, Herr K. discovered at from 4 to 44 feet below the surface
the vertebrze of another skeleton, and finally collected nearly all the
bones of two skeletons, completely enclosed in a mass of oyster
shells—Dr. A. B. Meyer, of Manilla, in the course of a short visit
in the Philippines, found skulls which presented that peculiar
appearance of sharpening or filing of the teeth, described by the
old traveller, Thévenot, and the accuracy of which has often been
called in question. The Negrito skulls from the Philippines,
examined by Dr. Meyer, also exhibited the artificial flattening
of the heads noticed by Thévenot —Herr Virchow drew atten-
tion last summer to the fact that occasional deviations present
themselves from the normal cranial configuration of a race, which
ought to teach us extreme caution in regarding any single
specimen as a typical form. He was led to make this remark
by his observation in the Anatomicil Museum of Copenhagen
of the skull of Kay Lykke, a man of the noblest Danish descent,
who had flourished two hundred years ago, and been celebrated
in his day for his personal beauty, his effeminacy, and the sensual
bias of his disposition. Yet the skuil of this once elegant,
accomplished, and self-indulgent courtier of the 17th century,
belonging to an otherwise brachycephalic race, is more strikingly
dolichocephalic and depressed than the Neanderthal head, and
might readily be supposed to have belonged to an Australian
savage. The cranial capacity which is givea by Professor
Panoum, of Copenhagen, as 1,250 cubic centrm., is, moreover,
below the amount that is conjecturally assurned for the Nean-
derthal skull.

The supplement to the vol. of the ‘‘Zeits. f. Ethnologie,” for
1872, is exclusively occupied with the Linguistic Notes of Dr.
G. Schweinfurth, drawn up as the result of his travel in Central
Africa, and gives numerous vocabularies and specimens of the
languages of the different tribes who occupy the district of the
Bahr-el-Ghasal, among whom Dr. Schweinfurth lived more
than two years.

Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano, vol. iv. Nos. 1—4, Jan.—
Dec., 1872. The volume for 1872 of this journal, edited by one
of the most accomplished of Italian botanists, Prof. Caruel, con-
tains evidence of considerable scientific activity in the Peninsula,
A large space of these four numbers is devoted to cryptogamic
botany; we have papers on the mosses of Abyssinia, by De
Venturi, and of Ceylon and Borneo, by Hampe; on the tungi of
Parma, by Passerini ; on Diatoms, by Ardissone, and on a new
classification of cryptogams, proposed by Prof. Cohn. Besides
several papers on systematic, descriptive, and geographical
botany, one of the most interesting on physiological and histo-
logical subjects is by Saccardo, on the amyloid corpuscles
contained within the fovilla of pollen, illustrated by a
plate. Prof. Caruel contributes a very valuable biographical
notice of the Italian botanist, Andrea Cesalpino, born at
Arezzo in 1519, and a summary of the contents of his great

work, ‘ De Plantis,” published at Florence in 1583, which his
biographer states to contain the essential features of the classifi-
cation propounded by A. L. Jussieu two centuries later.

Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, February, 1873. The
number commences witli a paper on a new derivative of sulpho-
carbamic acid, by H. Hlasiwetz and J. Kachler. The new
body is obtained by the action of carbonic disul»hide on cam-
phor in the presence of ammonia. Measurements of its crystals
are given. The numbers obtained by an analysis agree well with
the formula C,, Hy, , Ny, 5S»; this is regarded as an ammonia
salt ; a copper compound C,, H, Ng, Ss, Cu, has been obtained,
but the acid cannot be isolated from it, as SH, refuses to pre-
cipitate the copper. Several other compounds of the body are
described. —The next paper is a short note by M. Berthelot on
the formation of Acetylen by the silent electric discharge.
Messrs. R. Boettger and Theodor Petersen contribute a paper
on the Nitro-compounds of Anthrachinon. The following bodies
are described: « Mononitroanthrachinon, a Monamidoanthra-
chinon, and a Diazoanthrachinon Nitrate ; the behaviour of these
a bodies with concentrated sulphuric acid is then described,—On
the Vanadates of Thallium, by Thomas Carnelly. The author
describes the method of preparation and properties of the salts
in question ; this paper has already appeared in the April num-
ber of the Chemical Society’s journal, as also has the next, on
Ethyl-amyl, by Harry Grimshaw, and Schorlemmer’s paper on
the Heptanes from Petroleum.—Crystallographic Notices, I. by
C. Klein, is a long paper on the measurement, &c. of crystais ;
a contribution to our knowledge of Neurin, by Julius Mauthner ;
‘Remarks on my Water Air-pump,” by N. Jagn ; and a paper on
Excretin from Human Excrement, by F. Hinterberger. The
author has established the formula Cy), H3gO for this body, and
has obtained a Brominated derivative C,), H5,, Br.. O.

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie.—The first article in the
March number is by the Abbé Durand, formerly a missionary in
Brazil, on the Solimoes, the name given to the Amazon from its
junction with the Rio Negro upwards, this being the name of the
most powerful tribe on its banks. The Abbé gives an account
of his journey up the river as far as Peru. His article contains
many valuable facts as to towns, and people, and products of the
district through which he passed. The next article is the last of
Capt. Derrégagaix’s papers on the South of the Province of
Oran ; the present one treating of the Geology and Meteorology
of the district. This is followed by a translation of part of
Col. Yule’s essay on the geography of the Oxus prefixed to
Wood’s ‘‘Journey to the Source of the Oxus.”—M. N. de
Khanikoff contributes a paper on our knowledge of the Khanate
of Khiva.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Royal Society, April 24.—On the Durability and Preservation
of Iron Ships, and on Riveted Joints, by Sir William Fairbairn,
Bart., F.R.S. ; 2 ay

On the employment of Meteorological Statistics in deter-
mining the best course for a Ship whose sailing qualities
are known, by Francis Galton, F.R.S.

Zoological Society, April 29.—Anniversary Meeting.—
Viscount Walden, F.R.S.,. president, in the chair.—After some
preliminary business the report of the Coun-il was read by the
Secretary, Mr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S. It stated that the number
of ordinary members of the Society on January I last, was 3,050,
of Foreign members, 25, and of Corresponding members, 197.
The total income of the Society in 1872 was 26,728/., being
2,017/. more than that of 1871, and exceeding the income of any
previous year, except that of the year 1862, when the Inter-
national Exhibition was held. The total expenditure of 1872
had been 26,900/., and a balance of 1,956/. had been carried
forward for tne benefit of the current year. The assets of the
Society on December 31, 1872, were calculated at 10,532/.,
while the liabilities were reckoned at 5,490/. The Reserve-tund
consisted of a sum of 8,000/. Reduced 3 per Cents. The Scien-
tific publications of the Society for 1872 had consisted of the
usual volume of “ Proceedings,” four parts of “ Transactions,” a
Revised List of the Vertebrated Animals, now or lately living
in the Society’s Gardens, and a General Index to the ten years
of the Society’s ‘* Proceedings,” from 1861 to 1870. The most
important work undertaken in the Society’s Gardens in 1872 had

been the bridge over the Regent’s Park Canal, intended to connect

the Society’s new grounds on the north bank, with the present
This had been completed in October last ata total cost

Gardens.
of 1,333/. The new Lodge and Entrance-gates in Primrose-hill
Road had likewise been finished, and the new entrance opened to
the public for the first time on Easter Monday.
number of visitors to the Society’s Gardens in 1872 had been
648,088, being 52,171 more than the COrresponding number in
1871. The greatest number of admissions in any one day in
1872 had been 44,608, which took place on May 20 (Whit
Monday). The number of animals in the Menagerie on Dec. 31,
1872, was 2,010. Many of the laccessions during the year had
consisted of specimens of rare or little known animals, of which
full particulars are given. The Report concluded with a long

list of donors, and their several donations to the Menagerie. y

The Meeting then proceeded to elect the new Members of
Council and the Officers for the ensuing year, and a ballot
having been taken it was found that Viscount Walden, F-.R.S.,
had been elected President, Mr. Robert Drummond, Treasurer,
and Mr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., Secretary of the Society. The
new Members of Council elected were Francis Galton, F.R.S.,
John P. Gassiott, Jun., St. George Mivart, F.R.S., George
Russell, and Richard H. S. Vyvyan.

Geological Society, April 9.—His Grace the Duke ot
Argyll, K.T., F/R.S., president, in the chair. The following

communications were read :—‘‘ Lakes of the north-eastern Alps,

and their bearing on the Glacier-erosion Theory,” by the Rev.

T. G. Bonney, F.G.S. The purpose of this paper was to test,
by the lakes of the Salzkammergut and neighbourhood, the.
theory of the erosion of lake-basins by glaciers, which has been
advanced by Prof. Ramsay. The author premised (1) that an ex-
tensive glacier could not exist without a considerable area to sup=
port it ; (2) that under no circumstances could a glacier excavate
a cliff of considerable height (say 1,000 ft.) approximately verti-
cal ; (3) that owing to the proximity of the regions, a theory of
excavation which applied to the Western and Central Alps ought
to be applicable also to the Eastern Alps. He then proceeded

to examine a number of lakes in detail. The K6nigsee lies in
a remarkably deep, steep-sided valley, terminated by a cirque,

with cliffs full a thousand feet high, and has no large supply area
behind. The Hallstadtersee is similarly situated, has a cirque at
the head, and two lateral valleys nearly at right angles to the

lake, up which arms of it have formerly exteuded. These are

not likely to have furnished glaciers which could have excavated

the lake ; and above the cirque there is no large supply area. —
The Gasauthal consists of lake-basins separated by valleys of —

river-erosion. The Fuschelsee and Wolfgangersee, on the south
side of the Schafberg, are separated by a narrow sharp ridge of
hills, incapable of nourishing glaciers large enough to grind
them out; there are no signs of glaciers from other directions
having eroded them. The Mondsee and Attersee (once one
lake) on the north lie under the steep cliffs of the Schafberg,
which could not have nourished a large glacier ; and the ri

of the Schafberg is too sharp to admit of the supposition that a
great glacier, coming from the south, has passed over it to ex-
cavate the Jake ; yet the Attersee, in a position least favourable
to glacial action, is the largest and deepest lake in the Salzkam-
mergut. The head of the valley in which these lakes lie is
realiy among low hills, in the direction of the Austro-Bavarian
plain. The Traunsee was shown to give no evidence in fayour ©
of a theory of glacial erosion. Since then these lakes either had
at their heads preglacial cirques (the very existence of which
was incompatible with much erosive power on the part of a
glacier), or were beneath sharp and not greatly elevated ridges
of rock, the author concluded that they had not been excavated
primarily by glaciers. He considered a far more probable ex-
planation to be, that the greater lake-basins were parts of ordi-
nary valleys, excavated by rain and rivers, the beds of which had
undergone disturbances after the valley had assumed approxi-
mately its present contour. He showed that the lakes were in”
most cases maintained at their present level by drift ; and that,
while in a region so subject to slight disturbances as the Alps,
positive evidence for his theory would be almost impossible to
obtain, no lake offered any against it, and one, the K6nigsee,
was very favourable to it.—‘* On the Effects of Glacier-erosion
in Alpine Valleys,” by Signor B. Gastaldi. The author de- —
scribed the occurrence in the valley of the Lanzo and other
Alpine valleys, at heights between 2,000 and 3,000 metres’

The total %

(6,700 and 10,000 feet), of large cirques, in two of which, inthe —_

valley Sauze de Césanne, the bottom was occupied in the autumn

SS, el

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*

a.

glaciers reduced to their smallest dimensions. The author

; noticed the various rocks in which these cirques were cut, and

expressed his opinion that they are the beds formerly occupied
by glaciers, the power of which to excavate even comparatively
hard rocks, such as felspathic, amphibolite, and chlorite-schists,
he considered to be proved. The author then referred to the
mouths of the Alpine valleys opening upon the plain, which he
described as being generally very narrow in proportion to their
length, width, and orographical importance; and he pointed
out that in the case of the valley of the Stura, at any rate, the
outlet of the valley has been cut out by the river. This pecu-
liarity he accounts for by the fact that whilst the calcareous and
felspathic rocks are easily disintegrated by atmospheric action,
certain other rocks, such as the amphibolites, diorites, syenites,
amphibolite-schists, euphotides, serpentines, &c., resist atmo-
spheric denudation ; and he indicated the peculiar distribution
of these rocks in the region under consideration, by reason of
which portions of them occupied the points which are now the
mouths of the valleys.

Anthropological Institute, April 22.—Prof. Busk, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—
The Religious Beliefs of the Ojibois or Santeux Indians resident
in Manitoba and at Lake Winnepeg, by A. P. Reid, M.D.—
The predominating Danish aspect of the local nomenclature of
Cleveland, by Rev. J. C. Atkinson.—Rock Inscriptions in
Brazil, by John Whitfield.—Remarks about the consecration of
the Serpent as an Emblem but not an Object of Worship among
the Intelligent Druids, by James Hutchings,

Entomological Society, April 7.—Prof. Westwood, pre-
sident, in the chair.—Mr. Champion exhibited specimens of
Tribolium confusum and Ftinus testaceus, which be had ob-
served in British collections mistaken for Z. testaceum and
P. fur.—My. Verrall exhibited several new species of Diptera
belonging to the families Asi/ide and Syrphide, taken in Britain.
—Mr. McLachlan stated that he had been informed by Lord
Walsingham that he had observed Dragon flies in California and
Texas preyed upon by other large insects which seized them
whilst flying through the air. The latter were, no doubt, some
species of Asz/us ; but it was the first time he had heard of
Dragon flies being preyed upon by other insects, as they had,
hitherto, been supposed to be free from such attacks,—Mr. F.
Smith made some remarks on a species of Penfatoma sent from
Calcutta by Mr. Rothney, which was of the same colour as the
bark of the tree on which it was observed in great numbers.—
Major Parry communicated a paper on the characters of seven
nondescript Lucanoid Coleoptera, with remarks on the genera
Lissotes, Nigidius, and Figulus.—Mr. Frederick Bates commu-
nicated ‘‘ Descriptions of new Genera and species of Zene-
brionide from Australia, New Caledonia, and Norfolk Island.”
—Mr. Miiller read some interesting remarks on the habits of the
Cynipfide, communicated to him in a letter from Mr. W. F.
Bassett, of Waterburg, U.S.—Part I. of the Transactions for
1873 was on the table.

Meteorological Society, April 16.—Dr. Tripe, president,
in the chair.—A discussion took place on the following ques-
tions which had been submitted to the consideration of the
Meteorological Conference held at Leipzig in August last :—
No. 2. Barometers for Stations of the second order. No. 4.
Maximum and Minimum Thermometers. No. 5. Instruments
for determining Solar Radiation. No. 18. Uniformity in Hours
of Observation. No. 20. Division of the Year for the Calcula-
tion of Mean Results. On question No. 2, several spoke in
favour of aneroids, and several that they were not to be trusted; the
opinion of the meeting was that for hard rough work where the
aneroid is exposed to low and high pressure it is not suited for
taking correct observations, and that the Kew barometer is much
to be preferred. On question No. 4 the testimony of the meeting
was in favour of Phillips’ and Negretti’s maximum thermometer.
On question 5, reference was made to a paper by Rev. F. W.
Stow, M.A., on ‘Solar Radiation,” which is printed in the
Journal of the Society for April 1873. Time would not allow
of questions 18 and 20 being fully discussed, so they will be
brought up again at the meeting on May 21.

MANCHESTER

Literary and Philosophical Society, April 15.—R. Angus
Smith, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair —Mr. Francis Nicholson
exhibited two fine eggs of the golden eagle (Fadco chrysaétos) taken
the previous week from a nest in the north of Scotland. For-

19

tunately some of the large landed proprietors both in Scotland
and Ireland are now preserving this noble bird from persecution
during the breeding time.—A letter was read from Mr. William
Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., who, as Secretary of the Committee of
the British Association for carrying on the exploration of the
Victoria Cave, felt obliged to notice the ‘‘ Notes on Victoria
Cave,” by Mr. W. Brockbank, published in the Proceedings,
March 10, 1873. Mr. Dawkins submitted that until the work
of the Committee, to which the cave has been handed over by the
kindness of the owner, be finished, and the observations, to

which Mr, Brockbank has had no access, be recorded, his notes -

must of necessity be imperfect and liable to error. Mr. Dawkins
then calls attention to two matters of fact, in which he shows Mr.
Brockbank’s statement to be entirely unfounded.—‘‘ On some
Improvements in Electro-Magnetic Induction Machines,” by
Mr, Henry Wilde.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, October 15.—Prof.
Leidy directed attention to the collection of fossils, from
the vicinity of Fort Bridger, Wyoming, presented by Dr.
J. Van A. Carter, Dr. Joseph K, Corson, U.S.A., and
himself. Some of the fossils were referred to a huge pachy-
derm with the name of Uintatherium robustum. [This subject
has already been several times referred to in NATURE. See
Mr. A. H. Garrod’s letter last week]. Prof. Leidy further
called attention to a multitude of chipped stones, which
he had collected about ten miles north-east of Fort Bridger.
Many of the fragments are broken in such a manner that
it is difficult to be convinced that they are not of artificial
origin. The materials of the splintered stones consist of jaspers,
quartzites, some of the softer rocks of the tertiary strata, and
less frequently of black flint identical in appearance with that of
the English chalk.

December 3, 1872.—The president, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the
chair.—Joseph Wilcox made remarks about some glacial
scorings lately observed by him in St. Lawrence County, N. Y.

December 10, 1872.—The president, Dr. Ruschenberger, in
the chair.—Jos. Wilcox made the following remarks : —Having
lately visited many mineral localities in Canada, I desire to place
them on record, as many of them are not mentioned either in
the “ Geological Report of Canada,” or in Dana’s ‘‘ Mineralogy.”
At the falls of Ottawa River at Grand Calumet Island, black
mica (phlogopite), pyroxene, hornblende, serpentine, tremolite.
The following localities are all in the Province of Ontario :—At
Arnprior, Calcite (dog tooth spar); near Packenham, Horn-
blende ; in Bathurst, pyroxene, scapolite, sphene, apatite, peris-
terite ; two miles south-west of Perth, bronze mica (phlogopite),
having beautiful hexagonal marks on the cleavage planes ; near
Otty Lake, in North Elmsley, Apatite, pyroxene, black mica
(biotite), zircon, red spinel—chondrolite; in Burgess, apatite,
black mica (biotite) ; near Bob Lake, twenty miles north-west of
Perth, the best crystals of apatite are found ; near the St. Law-
rence River, six miles south-west of Brockville, large octahedral
crystals of iron pyrites, some of them four inches in diameter.
All of these minerals are well crystallized, except the peristerite
and chondrolite.—Prof. Leidy directed attention to some fossils
recently received from Dr. J. Van A. Carter, of Fort Bridger,
Wyoming. They were—/aleosyops junior, Uintacyon edax,
Uintacyon vorax, and Chameleo pristinus:—Remarks on silver
ore from Colorado, by George A. Kénig.

December 17, 1872.—Dr. J. L. LeConte in the chair.—Prof,
Cope made some remarks on the Geology of Wyoming, es-
pecially with reference to the age of the coal series of Bitter
Creek. He said that discovery of the Dinosaur Agathaumas
sylvestris had settled the question of age, concerning which there
had been much difference of opinion, in favour of the view that
they constitute an upper member of the Cretaceous series. It ap-
peared to the speaker, that the explorations directed by Dr.
Hayden during the past season had contributed largely to our
knowledge, proving the existence of an interruption between the
cretaceous and tertiary. formations: less it is true than that
which exists elsewhere, and similar to that insisted ion by
Clarence King’s survey in the region of Bear River and the
Wahsatch country.—Prof. Cope defined a genus of Saurodont
Fishes from the Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas, under the name
of Zrisichthe. He stated that it agreed with Portheus and Jch-
thyodectes in the absence of nutritious dental foramina on the
inner face of the dentary bone, and especially with Portheus in
the irregular sizes of the teeth.

January 7.—Dr. Ruschenberger, president, in the chair
—E. Goldsmith described what he considers a new mineral
which he names 7razufwinetle, after its first observer, Mr.
J. C. Trautwine. The mineral has a green colour; the
hardness is between 1 and 2, and it is micro-crystalline.
The regular forms, which he saw, were short hexagonal
pyramids, the infinite pyramid (prism), and triangular slender
prisms, which may be one-sixth sections of the hexagonal
prism. Under ordinary circumstances the mineral is dull, but
when observed under power it appears vitreous. The streak is
light green, The qualitative chemical examination indi-
cated the oxides of chromium, iron, and magnesium,—Prof.
Cope remarked, that, through the kindness of Prof. B. F.
Mudge, he had an opportunity of examining additional
specimens of the turtle from the cretaceous of Kansas, described
by him in the Proceedings of the Academy, 1872, p. 129. The
phalanges indicated a large flipper of the type of marine turtles,
‘They are more flattened than in the Prof/uride so far as the
latter are known, and are proportionally larger. The genus and
species were named Zoxochelys latiremis,

ParRIs

Academy of Sciences, April 21.—M. de Quatrefages
president, in the chair.—The following papers were read.—A
final answer to M, Secchi, by M. Faye. M. Faye called atten-
tion to the fact that Father Secchi has accused him of insinu-
ating that his drawings of the spots are not authentic, which
insinuation also applies to the drawings of Carrington and
Father Tacchini. This he showed was not the case, his state-
ment that photographs, and not drawings, were required, being
perfectly obvious as regards its signification. He then pro-
ceeded to answer Secchi’s statements as to eruptions projecting
the erupted matter towards a common centre, and asked how it
was that these masses cooled during a passage which lasted
often but a day or two, or even a few hours, could produce
spots which lasted for months. He then answered several other
objections, and called attention to Respighi’s observations of the
chromosphere, the earliest, as they are the best yet executed,
as fully beerimg out his theory.—On the condensation of
Carbonic Oxide and Hydrogen, and of Nitrogen and Hydrogen,
by the silent electric discharge, by MM. P. and A.Thenard.
The authors had noticed that the protocarbide of hydrogen and
carbonic anhydride, which, under the silent discharge condensed
to a liquid, were doubled in volume and converted into carbonic

. Oxide and hydrogen by the spark. they therefore sought to

recombine the two latter gases by the discharge ; in this they
succeeded, and the action was more rapid than with the first.
They also succeeded in producing ammonia from three volumes
of hydrogen and one of nitrogen when treated in the same
way; the action was most rapid when an acid was present to
absorb the NH, as fast as it was formed.—On the physical
and political history of Chili, by M. Gay, was a sketch
of a work by the author in Spanish consisting of thirty
volumes.--On the qualities necessary to the springs required
for the supply of water to Paris by M. Belgrand.—M. Ley-
merie was then elected correspondent of the Mineralogical
section in place of the late M. Haidinger, and M. Didion
correspondent of the Mechanical section in place of the late
Canon Moseley.—On a spectral illuminator, by M.F. P. Le
Roux, described a new method of obtaining monochromatic
illumination.—On the action of electricity on flames by M.
Neyreneuf.—On the application of the curves des debits to the
study of the laws of rivers and to the effects produced by a
multiple system of reservoirs by M. de Graeff.—Observations on
Phylloxera vastatrix, by M. Maxime Cornu.—A decree from the
President of the Republic was received authorising the Academy
to receive a legacy of 40,000 francs, left to it by the late
Marshal Vaillant.—On the interference fringes observed in the
case of Sirius and several other stars when large telescopes are
employed ; a consequence of the relative angular diameter of
the stars in question, by M. Stephan. The author hopes, by
means of certain observaiions, to obtan an approximate
measurement of the diame’er of Sirius. —On the comparison of
electrical machines, by M. Mascart.—Remarks on the resistance of
galvanometers, by M. J. Reynaud.—On the condensed discharge
of the induction spark, by M. Th. du Moncel.—Researches on the
chloride bromide and iodide of trichloracetyl, by M. H.Gal—
On the action of sodic sulphide on glycerin, by M. F. Schlagden-
hauffen.—On a volumetric method of estimating oxygen in
hydric peroxide and other liquids, by M. F. Hamel ; this is an

application of the disengagement of oxygen from the above

NATURE

body, by means of potassic permanganate. The gas liberated and ~
the permanganate used form the data necessary for the prepara-
tion of standard permanganate solution, where the oxygen
liberated per c.c, of reagent used is known, Oa the properties
and composition of a cellular tissue which extends throughout the
organism of the vertebrata, by M. A. Miintz.—Discovery of a
new human skeleton of the paleolithic period in the caverns
of Baoussé Roussé, by M. E. Riviéreg—On the influence of
various coloured rays on the spectrum of chlorophyll, by M. J.
Chautard.—A note on the habits of ‘*Lombrics,” by M, E.
Robert.

DIAR

THURSDAY, May x.

Royvat Society, at 8.30.—On the Effect of Pressure on the Character of the
Spectra of Gases: C, H. Stearn and G. H. Lee.—On the Condensation of
a Mixture of Air and Steamupon Cold Surfaces: Prof. Osborne Reynolds.
—Further Observations on the Temperature at which Bacterra Vibriones —
and their supposed Germs are killed when exposed to Heat, &c,—Dr.
Bastian.

Society or ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Flint Implements from Japan; W. L.
Lawrence.—On Religious Guilds, and particularly the Privileged Guild
at Walsoken, Norfolk; J. G. Nichois.

LINNEAN SocieTy, at 8.—On Cinchonas: J. E. Howard,

CHEMICAL SociETY, at 8.—On Zirconia: J. B. Hannay.—On a new class

of Expiosives: Dr. Sprengel. ’

Roya [NnsTITUTION, at 2.—Annual Meeting.

FRIDAY, May 2.

Geo.oGisTs’ AssociATIon, at 8.—On the Valley of the Véztre (Dordogne),

its Limestones, Caves, and Pre-histor.c Kemais: T. Rupert Jones,

Roya LnstiTuTion, at 9.—Alcohois from Flints; Prof. Reynolds.

ARCH/ZOLOGICAL INSTITUTION, at 4.

HORTICULTURAL Society, at 3 —Lecture.

Royat InsTituTION, at 3.—Oz-ne: Prof. Odling.
SUNDAY, May 4. .

Sunpay Lxcture Society, at 4.—The Relations between Science and some
Modern Poetry : Prof. Clifford.

MONDAY, May 5
Royat Institution, at 2—General Monthly Meeting.
GgoLocists’ AssociaTion.—Excursion to Aylesbury, from Euston Square
at 10.15 A.M. 3
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.
ASIATIC SOCIETY, at 3.
Lonpvon_InsTITUTION, at 4.—Elementary Botany: Prof, Bentley.
TUESDAY, May 6.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—Eastern Coolie Labour: W. L. Distant.
‘Dhe Westerly writing of Nomades irom the Filth to the Nineteenth
Century. Part X. ‘Lne Alans or L.sghs: H. H, Howorth, —
OCIETY OF BIBLICAL ARCHZULOGY, at 8.30.—Un the Signincation and Ety-
mology of the Hebrew Noun snow dirshatha; R. Cuil—On the Chrono-

logy of the Olympiads in Connection with the Golden Age of Greece:

W. K. A. Boyle.— On the sites ef Ophir and l’aprobane, trom Greek and

Hindu Authonties: A M. Cameron.—On the Character of the Prepusiuion

in the Egyptian Language: ¥. Le Page Kenout.—LJrausiation of an

Egyptian Hymn to Ammon: C, W. Goodwin. : .

ZooLoGicaL Society, at 8.30.—On some new Species of Avaneidea: O. P.

Cambridge.— On Airican Buffaloes: Sir Victor Brooke.

Royat InsritTuTIoN, at 3 —Music of the Drama: Mr, Dannreuther.

WEDNESDAY, May 7.

Society oF ARTS, at 8,—Improvements in the Manufacture of Guu Cotton.

S. J. Mackie.

HorTicuLturat Society.— Exhibition of Roses, Azateas, &c.

MucroscoricaL Socigety, at 8.—On the Development of the Sturgeon’s

Facial Arches: W. K. Pavker.

London LNSTITUTION, at 7,—Conversazione and Lecture by Prof. Clifford,

LHURSDAY, May 8.

Roya InsTiTuTION, at 3.—Light: Prot. ‘lyndall. ’

MATHEMATICAL SUCIETY, at_8 —On an application of the Theory of Uni-
cursal Curves; Plan of a Curve-tracing Apparatus: M. Hermite,—On

Bicursal Curves: Prof. Cayley. -

-

CONTENTS a
Tre Witp Birps Prorecrion. ACT. . . . «© © « ‘s © isle Une
Fauna ber KigLer Bucut. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S. . . . 3
Our Book SHELF... Ss es 0) 6 1%) 8 6) ss ee
LETTERS TO THE EpITOoR :--
bieia’s Comets —Prof. Danie: KirnKwoop. . . . ..+ .s+ 4
Earthquake in Dumfnes.—J. SHAW. MP merAce co YS
East Judia Museum.—ALFRED R. WALLACE, F.Z S.; Hype CLARKE 5§
lustinct. —GEORGE DARWIN ; JAMES B. ANDREWS; A. Percy SMITH 6
Prehisroric Art << 6: ieee ys obi ee) oe ee ee
April Meteors —WitiiaM F. Denninc, F.RAS. . . . + ss 6
A Proposed New Barometer.—J. K. LauGHTON . . . . . «+ 6
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On VENOMOUS LA. EKPILLAKS. By A. MURRAY . . «2. 4 2 ee 7
On Spacek oF Four wimensions. By G. F. Ropwett, F CS... . 8

By J. NoRMAN -

ON THE SPECTRUSCOPE AND ITS ApPLicaiions, VIII.
Lockyer, #.K.S. (With Lieustrations). . 5

Norges oe aes A. 2S ee
On THe HyPOTHESES WHICH LIE AT THE Bases oF GEOMETRY. « By
BERNHAKD KIEMANN. ‘Lranslated by Prof. W K. Cuirrorp .

SCIENTIFIC‘SERIALS . “.) MENe es ss |) ot ee
SocigeTIES AND ACADEMIES « + © e+ - + es s+ @ es «eee
DYARY (. ic is + 2, a/R NEES TID piace 0 = 0 le) Sight

SATURDAY, May 3. .

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7‘ 2 o

THURSDAY, MAY 8, 1873

A VOICE FROM CAMBRIDGE

T is known to all the world that science is all but dead
in England. By science, of course, we mean that
searching after new knowledge which is its own reward,
a thing about as different as a thing can be from that
other kind of science, which is now not only fashionable,
but splendidly lucrative—that “science” which Mr.
Gladstone and Mr. Lowe always appeal to with so much
pride at the annual dinner of the Civil Engineers—and
that other “science” prepared for Jury consumption and
the like. :

It is also known that science is perhaps deadest of all
at our Universities. Let any one compare Cambridge, for
instance, with any German university ; nay, with even some
provincial offshoots of the University in France. In the one
case he will find a wealth of things that are not scientific,

_ and not a laboratory to work in ; in the other he will find

science taking its proper place in the university teaching,
and, in three cases out of four, men working in various
properly appointed laboratories, which mea are known
by their works all over the world.

This, then, is the present position of Cambridge after a
long self-administration of the enormous funds which
have been so long accumulating there for the advance-
ment of learning. Cambridge no longer holds the place
which is hers by right in the van of English science, her
workers are few, and to those few she is careful to afford
no opportunity of work, such as it is the pride of scho-
lastic bodies in other countries to provide for the men
who bring the only lasting honour to a university.

We have in what has gone before instanced Cambridge
specially, as we have to refer to a step which has been
recently taken there ; but if the state of things is to be
condemned at Cambridge, it must be admitted that it is
only too recently that an attempt has been made to
correct, in one direction, a similar state of things at Oxford.

What then do the Universities do? They perform the
functions, for too many of their students, of first-grade
schools merely, and that ina manner about which opinions
are divided; and superadded to these is an enormous
examining engine, on the most approved Chinese model,
always at work, and then there are fellowships.

Now the readers of NATURE do not need to be in-
formed that at the present moment there are two Royal
Commissions inquiring into matters connected with the
Universities, and that not long ago, at a meeting at
the Freemasons’ Tavern, the actual absence of mature
study and research at the Universities, the lack of oppor-
tunities and buildings for scientific puposes, the apothe-
osis of the examining system, and the wanton waste of
funds in fellowships, were unhesitatingly condemned by
some of the most distinguished men in the country,
many of them residents in the Universities.

Within the last week a memorial has been presented to
‘the Prime Minister by persons engaged in University
education at Cambridge, which on one of the points
above referred to contains a most important expression
of opinion ; but we had better give the memorial zz ex-
fenso :—

No. 184—VOoL, VIII.

Perey, arts. \
Zp

NATURE

21

[Memorial.]

“We, the undersigned, being resident Fellows of Col-
leges and other resident members of the University of
Cambridge engaged in educational work or holding offices
in the University or the Colleges, thinking it of the
greatest importance that the Universities should retain the
position which they occupy as the centres of the highest
education, are of opinion that the following reforms would
increase the educational efficiency of the University, and
at the same time promote the advancement of science and
learning.

“1. No Fellowship should be tenable for life, except
only when the original tenure is extended in considera-
tion of services readered to education, learning, or science,
actively and directly, in connection with the University or
the Colleges.

“2. A permanent professional career should be as far as
possible secured to resident educators and students,
whether married or not.

“3. Provision should be made for the association of the
Colleges, or of some of them, for educational Purposes, so
as to secure more efficient teaching, and to allow to the
teachers more leisure for private study.

“5. The pecuniary and other relations existing between
the University and Colleges should b2 revised, and, if
necessary, a representative Board of University Finance
should be organised.

“Weare of opinion that a scheme may be framed which
shall deal with these questions in such a manner as to
promote simultaneously the interests of education and of
learning, and that any scheme by which those interests
should be dissociated would be injurious to both.”

This memorial reflects great credit upon the two ot
of seventeen heads of Colleges, and the majority of
Professors, Tutors, Assistant-Tutors, and Scholars who
have signed it. The only wonder is that some action
to remedy a state of things which has been considered
a scandal by many, both in and out of the University,
who have had the best opportunity of studying it,
should not have been taken before. But we think
the memorial fails in one point, and we believe that
Mr. Gladstone has hit the blot, for his carefully worded
reply reads to us most ominous, “The time has
scarcely arrived for bringing into a working shape
proposals for extending and invigorating the action
of the Universities and Colleges in connection with th>
more effective application of their great endowments.”
We see in the memorial too much reference to teaching,
and too little to the advancement of learning.

Surely if the funds accumulated at our great Universi-
ties are to be merely applied to teaching purposes, the
Government has the best possible argument for instantly
requiring a very large proportion of the “great endow- -
ments ” to be handed over, in order to endow other teach-
ing bodies at present crippled for want of funds, and to
create other teaching centres where now no teachin ig
exists.

Might not the memorialists have taken a higher line, in
which they would have been supported by all the culture
of the country ?. Might they not have pointed out that the
universities were once the seats of learning, and that the
fact that they are now merely seats of teaching has arisen
from a misapplication of the “great endowments” to

c

22

NATURE

(May 8, 1873

which Mr. Gladstone refers? Why should not the men
of Cambridge say boldly that they wish their University
to become again in the present what it was in the past?
No government would dare to cripple such a noble work.
As representing the then range of knowledge, and as
seats of research centuries ago, our universities were un-
equalled; at present in both these respects they are
ridiculous,

COUES’ AMERICAN BIRDS

Key to North American Birds. By Elliott Coues, M.D,
(Salem, U.S.)

* tigen by no means small volume isjintended to give a
concise account of every species of living and fossil
bird at present known from the continent north of the
Mexican and United States boundary. The reputation
of the author, who is so well known by his works on the
sea-birds, and for the anatomy of the loon, cannot but be
increased by this production, which illustrates on every
page the extent of his general information, and the sound-
ness of his judgment. The subject is treated in a manner
rither different from that usually adopted by systematic
ornithologists ; less stress is laid on specific peculiarities,
and more on the elucidation of the characteristics of the
genera, families, and orders. There is a freshness and
boldness in the manner in which the facts are handled,
which will be extremely acceptable to those who look
upon ornithology as a branch of natural history rather
than an all-absorbing study of itself. We know of no
work of the size which gives such a fair and reliable de-
scription of the reasons that have led to the limitation of
the ranges of the larger divisions which now obtain, and
their inefficiency is in many cases rendered but too
evident. The introduction, occupying nearly seventy
pages, incorporates much of the work of the illustrious
Nitzsch, which is daily becoming more fully appreciated,
though neglected so long. We are surprised to find that
the labours of Mr. Macgillivray have not been here done
equal justice to, for there cannot be a doubt that the
p2culiarities of the viscera are of as great importance in
the classification of birds, and yet they are scarcely men-
tioned ; in one instance we find it incorrectly stated that
the caeca of the Cathartide are very small, the term must
be here understood in its extreme sense, as they are
absent altogether.

The descriptions of the genera are clear and concise ;
many of the peculiarities of the beak and primaries
especially, are made more evident by the liberal intro-
duction of excellent line drawings, as in the account of the
genus Vireo, which is discussed much in detail ; and in most
cases a picture of the whole bird, or the head, is given.
A key is appended for discovering the genera with facility,
constructed on the same principle as those employed by
botanists. The paucity of the avian fauna in the region
discussed, in comparison to that of the Southern Con-
tinent, is made most manifest, and the few stragglers
which have thence made their way north, serve well as
illustrations of the classes which, were it not for them,
would not find a place in a work on North American
Birds.

FLAMMARION’S ATMOSPHERE

The Atmosphere, Translated from the French of Camille
Flammarion, edited by James Glaisher, F.R.S., &c.
(London : Sampson Low and Co., 1873.)

Se some respects the volume before us may be consi-

dered as the sequel to its equally sumptuous companion

“The Forces of Nature.” For the ordinary reader must

have some acquaintance with physics intelligently to

follow the disentanglement of the various forms of energy

—the mingled play of which give rise to the phenomena of

meteorology. Nevertheless, M. Flammarion writes so

lucidly and pleasantly, that a totally unscientific person:
can read this work with enjoyment and instruction. On
the other hand it contains much that will be of interest
to the man of science, as well as to the mere d/ettante.
The scope of the work is stated in the editor’s preface.
It treats of the form, dimensions, and movements of the
earth, and of the influence exerted on meteorology by the
physical conformation of our globe; of the figure, height,
colour, weight, and chemical components of the atmo-
sphere ; of the meteorological phenomena induced by the
action of light, and the optical appearances which objects
present as seen through different atmospheric strata ; of

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Fic. 1.—Section of a hailstone enlarged.

the phenomena connected with heat, wind, clouds, rain,
electricity ; and also ofthe laws of climate. These subjects
are illustrated by ten admirable chromo-lithographs, and
upwards of eighty woodcuts, but many of these latter
we observe have already done duty in other French
treatises. The coloured illustrations are quite works of
art ; especially noteworthy are the representations of a
sunset, of sunrise as seen from the Righi, and of a
solar and a lunar rainbow. Science has more often given”
than received aid from art, but the pages of this book
show how much service art can render to science. The
printing is remarkably well executed.

The translation has been done by Mr. E. B. Pitman,
and the task has been well discharged. The value of the
original work is considerably increased by the careful’
revision it has received from Mr. Glaisher, and the addi-
tions by him of many useful foot-notes. The tendency
of M. Flammarion, like other popular French writers, to :
run into grandiloquent language, has been in general sup-
pressed ; though still a few cases remain that might well
have been pruned. ;

May 8, 1873)

NATURE

23

One of the important features in this book is the
frequent graphic delineation of meteorological data. Take
for example the representation of the decreasing rainfall
in passing from tropical to polar regions.

In a similar manner is shown the increase of rain,
according to altitude, but in this there is evidently a
mistake in one of the figures. Following this woodcut is
the representation of the comparative depths of rainfall at
noticeable spots.
at the mountain station of Cherra-Poejen in India, where
upwards of 50 feet of rain annually descend during the
seven months of the rainy season.

The engravings of different forms of hailstones are

Towering over the whole is the rainfall |

| is here represented on an enlarged scale.

interesting. Here aresome that fell on different occasions
At the four corners are represented hailstones that fel
at Auxerre, on July 29, 1871. The small drawings are o
the more usual form of hailstones. The two stones in the
centre are taken from drawings exhibited to the Academy
of Sciences at St. Petersburgh, in September 1863,
These stones were ellipsoidal in shape; their surface
when examined through a lens “had the aspect of six-
fronted pyramids, and a section of the interior revealed

| the existence of a hexagonal network of meshes,” which

The fact of the
crystalline structure of ice palpably occurring in hail-
stones, is a most interesting observation, Mere pressure

lic,

of adjacent hailstones, like the pressure of soap-bubbles
in a dish, would hardly produce such definite and regular
hexagons,

As indicative of the labour Mr. Glaisher has bestowed
on this work, we notice that all measurements are given n
English equivalents, centigrade degrees are converted to
Fahrenheit, Paris observations are replaced by data from
Greenwich, and appropriate condensation and excision
has reduced by one-half the unwieldy size of the original
work,

Notwithstanding this evident care, several blemishes

2. —D/ffiie..t forms of hail.

have escaped editorial revision. For example, the ascent
of sound is given as the explanation of the ease with
which sounds are heard in a balloon.

On p. 195 it is stated that “The sun’s rays, after
having. traversed either the air, a pane of glass, or
any transparent body, lose the faculty of retreating

| through the same transparent body to return towards

celestial space.” No reference is here made to diather-
mic bodies, such as rock-salt, concerning which this state
ment is wholly incorrect ; and even as regards the most

| athermic substances, such as alum or water, a considerable

percentage of the sun’s rays (its luminous portion, for
example) would be re-transmitted. To explain electrical
phenomena, M. Flammarion remarks, “It is admitted, first,
that electricity is a subtle fluid capable of being amassed,
eondensed, and rarefied, &c.,” and on p. 493, “ The Saint
Elmo fires are a slow manifestation of electricity, a quiet
outflow, like that of the hydrogen in a gas-burner.” At
the present day we hardly expected to find so material a
conception of electricity put forth, unguarded by a restric-
tion of the fluid theory being merely a convenient hy-
pothesis whereby electrical effects can be represented to
the mind. And what evidence has M. Flammarion for
his unqualified assertion on p. 427, that “the globe is one
vast reservoir for this subtle fluid [electricity], which exists
in all the worlds appertaining to our system, and of which
the radiating focus is in the sun itself... . Its palpita-
tions sustain the life of the universe !”

We have noticed a few other passages that have es-

caped the editor’s attention in the present edition. The
author speaks of a mist in the Grotto del Cane as “com-
posed of carbonic acid gas, which is coloured by a small
quantity of aqueous vapour.” This is difficult to under-
stand, the vapour being as invisible as the gas itself. We
did not know it was necessary to use a “preparation of
‘Joseph’s paper,” steeped in a solution of starch and
potassic iodide, in order to detect ozone. In describing the
discovery of oxygen and the chemical composition of the air,
Lavoisier is theonlyname mentioned. It is not unlikely that
a French writer should forget Priestley and Scheele, but
the English editor ought hardly to have overlooked their
names. We think also that a table of the analysis of air
obtained from different parts of the globe should have
been supplied. All that is given is one comparatively
rough determination, namely, that 100 parts of air con-
tain 23 of oxygen and 77 of nitrogen by weight. This is
termed “an analysis made with every conceivable pre-
caution.” A large part of this same chapter is devoted to
impurities present in the atmosphere, but Dr. Angus
Smith’s classical researches are not referred to, nor even
is his name mentioned. And this reminds us that the
volume is incomplete without an index, which it ought
to possess.

We should like also to have seen some attempt at a
collation of meteorological phenomena, Meteorologists
in general seem to have their eyes so close to their special
observations, that they accumulate a vast mass of figures
without “ hunting for a cycle,” which has been asserted to
be their first duty. There certainly appears to be some
traces of an eleven-yearly cycle in the recurring period of
extremely hot summers and cold winters from 1793 to the
present time, cited by M. Flammarion. By collecting and
tabulating these figures (given in chapters 4 and 5 of the
third book), it becomes evident that extreme winters have
immediately preceded or followed very hot summers.
As the dates stand, they go alternately before and after,
but this, no doubt, is but an accidental coincidence.

In spite of the slight defects we have pointed out,
almost inseparable from a work dealing with such a
variety of subjects, we can nevertheless endorse the opi-
nion of the editor that the volume “will be found to be
readable, popular, and accurate, and it covers ground not
occupied by any one work in our language.”

W, F. BARRETT

NATURE

Ree

' +

[May 8, 1873

OUR BOOK SHELF

Mensuration 4 Lines, Surfaces, and Volumes. By
D. Munn, F.R.S.E. (132 pp. “ Chambers’s Educational
Course.”)

THis little work presupposes that the student has some
knowledge of algebra and geometty, and we agree with
the author that “it is not until a pupil has acquired this
knowledge that he can take up the subject with any
degree of intelligence or derive any educational advantage
from its study.” The number of propositions (59) is not
too great ; great judgment is displayed in the selection of
the properties elucidated ; the proofs are concise and
clear, and are followed up by more than 350 examples,
which appear to be clearly drawn up and to be well suited
to test the student’s acquaintance with the text. The
book-work is accurately printed, the most important
mistakes being p. 41, line 23, p. 91, lines 23, 24, and
p. I10, line 22, but these are easily corrected. The work
is one of a series, and the references throughout are to
the edition of Euclid brought out by the same publishers ;
this reference to Euclid may appear objectionable in the
eyes of some readers, but it is an objection easily got over
in the case of those students for whom the work is in-
tended,

Geological Stories, Aseries of autobiographies in chrono-
logical order. By J. E. Taylor, F.G.S, (London :
Hardwicke, 1873.)

THE mere form into which Mr. Taylor has thrown his
work—that of making a characteristic specimen from

each geological formation tell its own story—has not, we
think, added anything to its attractiveness: on the con-
trary, it will be apt to give many readers an uncomfortable
feeling of unreality, and seems to us to have often cramped
the author’s freedom of description. We do not object
to the autobiographical form in the abstract, but we
think the direct form would have been more suited
to Mr. Taylor’s mental make. Notwithstanding this little
drawback, Mr. Taylor tells the “old, old story,” on the
whole, in a manner well calculated to interest general
readers, and send them to works where they may get the
outline here given filled up. Anyone who reads this book
carefully, will have a very fair notion indeed of what the
best geologists think has been the earth’s geological
history. Mr, Taylor has of course wisely avoided enter-
ing upon disputed points, though one cannot but see that
he has a comprehensive and very thorough knowledge of
his subject. The illustrations are plentiful, though many
of them seem well worn, On the whole the work is one we:
would recommend to be put into the hands of anyone
who needs to be enticed into a knowledge of geology-
“ Stories ” of this class are becoming more and more com=
mon every year, Not that we think or desire that they
should ever supersede “ stories ” of another kind ; but we
take it as one of the most significant signs of the permea-

tion of culture through society, that books of this class

find a remunerative public.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed:
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymaus
communications. | ;

Originators of Glacial Theories

THE writer of a notice of Tyndall’s “Forms of Water” (NATURE;
vol. vii. p. 400) blames Tyndall for,having"revived in a popular-
work the Forbes-Rendu controyersy, and for'calling attention to,
the claims of Agassiz and Guyot.’"‘ °

It seems rather curious that, the attempt to give credit to. —
scientific investigators for the share they may have had in the-
development of a great theory should be the occasion of fault-
finding. No property: is “as’ subtle’ as’ scientific property, and
the care Tyndall has bestowed upon the historical facts bearing

eG

we dee. 3

NATURE

=s

on the glacial theory in his various writings on glaciers, is in
marked contrast to the ignorance of the true state of the case
usually displayed by English authors, who ascribe to Forbes the
sole credit of all recent progress in the glacial theory.

Forbes’s work commenced in 1841 ; it was in that year that
he made his memorable visit to the Glacier of the Aar, and there
found Agassiz, who had at that time already spent five summers
in the study of glaciers, and published in 1840 the preliminary
part of the investigations carried on by himself and his com-
panions (*‘ Etudes sur les Glaciers”).

Agassiz with his usual freedom in dealing with his associates,
which has so often made him appear as following the lead of his
pupils, freely imparted to Forbes all he had seen, and certainly

-had no idea that the hospitality so freely proffered would be
returned by the proceedings of Forbes, who appropriated what
he could, and misrepresented the nature of his intercourse with
Agassiz while his guest on the Glacier of the Aar.

To Tyndall we owe a thorough sifting of the claims of each
investigator on the subject, and however unpalatable it may be
to national prejudices that the name of Forbes should play a
secondary part in these investigations by the side of those of
Venetz and Charpentier, Rendu and Agassiz, the fact remains
the same, and every fair-minded investigator will thank Tyndall
for what he has done. ALEX. AGASSIZ

Cambridge, Mass., April 15

Scientific Endowments and Bequests

In the article on scientific endowments and bequests in NATURE
for April 24, there is a statement, in reference to the Trinity
Natural Science Fellowship, which perhaps requires a little
correction.

Although there can be no doubt that the proposed new scheme
for the selection of a fellow is in every way better than the old
system of selection by routine examination, it is hardly right to
speak of the election of a Natural Science Fellow, which took
place in October 1870, as an ‘‘ unsuccessful experiment.”

It is certainly much to be regretted that circumstances have
prevented the gentleman then chosen from strengthening the
staff of scientific workers and teachers at Cambridge ; but it is
equally certain, that no system of selection that could possibly
be desired, would have resulted in the election of a man possessed
at once of more promising scientific abilities, and of a more
genuine love for science.

The writer of the article seems to think that the examiners on
that occasion were in search of what he is pleased to call a
* genuine zoologist ;” there is no doubt that there was then as
there is now, a striking absence of young men of ability, devoting
themselves to zoology ; but though the college had announced
a preference for a physiologist, yet the examiners were em-
powered to recommend either a zoologist, or one following any
other branch of natural science. F, M. BALFour

Trinity College, Cambridge, April 20

Permanent and Temporary Variation of Colour
in Fish

ONE or two episodes in the annals of the Brighton Aquarium
for the week just ended deserve a passing note.

Among the Plaice, Pleuronectes platessa, added to the general
collection, is one remarkable example, having the pos-
terior half of its under surface, usually white, coloured
and spotted as brilliantly as the upper one; the line of
demarcation between these two colours again, though sinuous,
is most abrupt, there being no shading through from one to the
other as might have been anticipated. This specimen may be
turned to good account by advocates of the Darwinian theory, ‘as
affording a remarkable instance of the occasional tendency of a
specially modified type to revert to its primeval state—the Pleuro-
nectidze being derived from ancestors originally possessing bilateral
symmetry, and an equal degree of coloration on each side.

As the spawning season advances, many of the fish, and more
especially certain of the Acanthopterygian order, undergo various
important modifications in both their habits and appearance.
During the last week or so, many of the larger examples of the
Black Bream, or Old Wife (Cantharus lineatus), exhibited in
tank 4 on the north side of the Western corridor, have afforded
a striking illustration of these phenomena. Hitherto their
prevailing tint has been a delicate silvery blue, varied by irregular
longitudinal lines of pale yellow, a hue scarcely in harmony with

| the name by which they are most popularly known. These light
colours have now disappeared, or rather become absorbed, in a
prevailing shade of deep leaden black, which, while deepest on
the back, spreads itself over the whole surface of the fish with
the exception of a few transverse lighter bands in the region of
the abdomen. The males in particular are most conspicuous for
this change, and these retiring from the remainder of the shoal,
select certain separate and prescribed areas at the bottom of the
tank, where they commence excavating considerable hollows in
the sand or shingle, by the rapid and powerful action of the tail

and lower portion of their body. A depression of suitable:size
having been produced, each male now mounts vigilant guard
over his respective hollow, and vigorously attacks and drives
away any other fish of the same sex that ventures to trespass
within the magic circle he has appropriated to himself. Towards
his companions of the opposite sex his conduct is far different ;
many of the latter are now distended with spawn, and these he
endeavours by all the means in his power to lure singly
to his prepared hollow, now discovered to be a true nest- or
spawning bed, and there to deposit the myriad ova with
which they are laden, which he then protects and guards with
the greatest care. Whether the aggregated produce of
a large number of females is thus consigned to one bed, and
whether the ova are guarded by the male until the young fish
make their appearance, are points which, while awaiting con-
firmation, may be almost confidently inferred, reasoning from
the very analogous nest-forming habits of the Gusterosteide or

+ Stickleback family, already so familiar to every naturalist. The

male of the Lump fish (Cyclopterus lumpus) is said to watch
over the spawn of the female in a very similar manner, and at
the particular time of the year, early spring, whenit is deposited,
assumes the most lively tints of red and blue, which disappear
again after his paternal duties have been discharged, and are not
retained through life as has been formerly supposed. On this
point we have direct evidence from specimens confined within
the aquarium walls. For yet another instance of change of
colour in the male fish, associated with its nest-forming habits
in the same Acanthopterygian order, I am indebted to a recent
visit to the aquarium at the Crystal Palace, where Mr. Loyd
directed my attention to a male example of the Cuckoo Wrasse
(Zabrus mzxtus), which had formed a deep hollow in the sand of
its tank, and was endeavouring in the most persuasive manner to
induce a female of the same species to share it with him, swim-
ming backwards and forwards between her and the completed
nest, and plainly exhibiting the greatest anxiety for her to
follow. The normal brilliancy of this fish was supplemented by
a light opaque patch that extended over a considerable portion
of the back of his head and shoulders, while the tints of the
remaining portion of the body were more than ordinarily
deepened.
W. SAVILLE KENT

On Approach caused by Velocity and Resulting in
Vibration

Pror, J. CLERK-MAXWELL, in his recent paper on ‘‘ Action
at a Distance,” has brought under notice again the experiments
of Prof. Guthrie ‘‘On Approach caused by Vibration,” and has
so well summarised in popular language the facts investigated
and the conclusions arrived at, that fitting opportunity appears
to present itself to me for calling the attention of the scientific
world to phenomena closely allied to those under review although
more complex in their manifestation, since in these velocity is
independent of, yet initiates vibration. That they have not been
referred to in the experiments either by Prof. Guthrie, Challis,
and others who have taken part in the discussion is probably to
be accousted for in the unfortunate although convenient habit
indulged in by experimentalists of using the tuning fork as the
agent for demonstration.

The following passage from Prof. J. Clerk-Maxwell’s paper
alluded to will best introduce my own observations—‘‘ Here is a
kind of attraction with which Prof. Guthrie made us familiar.
A disc is set in vibration and is then brought near a light sus-
pended body which immediately begins to move towards the
disc as if drawn towards it by an invisible cord. What is this
cord? Sir W. Thomson has pointed out, that in a moving fluid
the pressure is least where the velocity is greatest. The velocity
of the vibratory motion of the air is greatest near the disc.
Hence the pressure of the air on the suspended body is less on
the side nearest the disc than on the opposite side ; the body
yields to the greater pressure and moves towards the disc. The

26 NATURE

| May 8, 1873

dise therefore does not act where it is not. Itsets the air next
it in motion by pushing it, this motion is communicated to more
and more distant portions of the air in turn and thus the pres-
sures oh opposite sides of the suspended body are rendered
vnequal, and it moves toward the disc in consequence of the
excess of pressure. The force is therefore a force of the old
school, a case of vis a tergo, a shove from behind.”

It has been customary with me for several years, when occa-
sion invited it, to demonstrate to my musical friends the physical
ection existing in the sounding organ-pipe, toshow them (taking
upa chance wood-shaving lying on the floor of the workshop or
a strip of tissue paper) that, heterodox though the teaching be,
the stream of air at the mouth of the organ-pipe constitutes a
free-reed—visibly ;before them the film-like wood-shaving is
drawn into the motion of the air, and the beautiful curve of the
reed’s swing displays itself beyond dispute ; then to show them
that the air-moulded tongue obeys every law of the free-reed,
has its own definite rate of vibration, that the current is so
directed that it shall fass not sészke the lip, that it is an air-
moulded or aéroplastic reed as definitely fashioned in substance,
strength, proportion, and form, as metal reeds are to produce a
required and determinate rate of vibration. First, the velocity
of current, a constant upward force; then, the periodicity of
yibration as a secondary mode of its activity. The aéroplastic
reed forming with the pipe a system of transverse vibration asso-
ciated ii tegindiva vibration, and possibly another phase of
vibration across the width of the reed enabling it to synchronise

with the harmonic range of the pipe; the principle of action of |.

the whole being termed, in my non-academic phraseology, suction
by velocity ; but if more exact expression is found its explana-
tion should imply, or better still, include the axiomatic phrase
of Sir W. Thomson, ‘‘in a moving fluid the pressure is least
where the velocity is greatest.” To state the existence of an
air-moulded free-reed is to give the key to its nature. Flutes,
flageolets, whistle-pipes, disc-whistles, form one group with
organ-pipes ; all are of one type. Then there is another group
of free-reeded instruments including the vocal organs, the
trumpet, bassoon, oboe, harmonium, and the like, the only dis-
tinction between the two groups being that the one possesses
reeds of air of definite pitch; and the other possesses reeds of
grosser substance, whether it be membrane wood or metal,
alike of definite pitch, but in every one the degree of elasticity
or pliancy in the substance determines how much of that pitch
shall be maintained as the work is done. Velocity is power,
and in every conjunction of reed and pipe the reed is the domi-
nant. Most distinctly it should be recognised that the air-reed
does work and expends power in doing it. A rod or a string
delivers up under a single blow the whole vibrating energy it is
capable of—not so the air-column inthe organ-pipe, which needs
to be beaten the precise number of blows requisite for the pitch
of tone elicited.

Reeds of the oboe are as truly free-reeds as are the vocal
cords. The stream of air does not necessarily pass down the
organ-pipe, but in the oboe it is essential it should pass down
the pipe. The action of this orchestral instrument is best ex-
plained under the law of ‘‘least pressure,” showing an identity
in principle but with difference of mode; instead of the stream
with a lapping action as an air-tongue at the mouth of the organ-
pipe, we have an air-current passing between two sensitive reeds
down a narrow straw-like tube into the main body of the pipe.
The velocity in the little tube immediately causes ‘‘ least pressure”
in the interior, effecting approach and closure of the pair of lip-
like reeds, and so on, a perpetual renewing and breaking of con-
tacts, the periodicity of such movement being determined by the
sensitiveness of the reed in relation to theair-tube through which
the impulses must move before the ‘‘ dispersion of the vibrations ”
into the air ve/ieves the reed and fixes the eriod ot its stroke. In
further proof that the flue organ-pipe is a free-reed instrument,
compare the flute, its representative, with the oboe and clarionet.
So little is understood concerning the nature of these wind
instruments, that, whenever in the science of acoustics they are
referred to, it is stated that the clarionet is a closed pipe, and
the oboe an open pipe; that the former produces the series of
uneven harmonics and the latter the even series, and the expla-
nation given is that the tube of the one is cylindrical, and the
tube of the other is conical.
explain. It is true that the clarionet gives in relation to its length
the pitch corresponding to that of a closed pipe, whilst the opve,
though of similar length (scale of key allowed for), is of the
pitch of an open pipe, with relative harmonics ; yet this difference

The explanation does not really |

arises not in any degree from the shape of bore cylindrical or
conical. As well denominate the oboe ‘‘a closed pipe” if
structure is compared ; the one is not more a closed pipe th:
the other, the true cause of the diversity is in the raté of reed-
vibration of the clarionet being only half the rate of that natur:
tothe oboe. The proof is clear and open to anyone intent to
observe. Place the obos head on the clarionet-tube, and you
will get from this same tube only the two-feet tone instead of the
four-feet tone, and with this transformation of pitch the series of
harmonics previously wanting. Place the flute-head on the
clarionet-tube and the same results follow; showing that the
velocity of vibration originates with the reed, and that the flute
rightly considered is a free-reeded instrument.

The experience of years justifies me in presenting these conclu-
sions, and should they not be disproved, questions will suggest
themselves whether physicists should not look to the disturbance
of the equilibrium of air-pressure as the chief element in deter-
mining the pitch of sounds produced in organ pipes ; whether
the long conserve doctrine of ‘‘ the column of air within being
alone the cause of sound ” has not been detrimental to investiga-
tion as was in older times the doctrine that ‘‘nature abhors a
vacuum,” which, as Whewell points out, retarded science a
century by pre-occupying men’s minds against observation; a)
whether it is not through the presence of the law of ‘*least
pressure ” that vibration of any kind becomes possible.

HERMANN SMITH

The Hegelian Calculus

YESIERDAY evening a copy of Nature for the roth instant,
sent to my late address at Piershill, reached me here. The
sender annexes the initials W. R. S.—those, presumably, of Mt.
W. R. Smith. It was only thus that I became aware of that
gentleman’s letter on *‘ The Hegelian Calculus,” in said issue ;
and, as I am called upon by name therein, I should be obliged
if, in an early number of the valuable publication referred to,
you would kindly allow me insertion of this explanatory word
in return. :

In my rejoinder, mentioned by Mr. Smith as appearing in the
current number of the Forfnighily, and which (rejoinder) treats,
as Mr. Smith truly says himself, his own paper in the same
pages ‘‘asa virtual concession of the entire case,” I speak
thus :—

‘*He that, with whatever tincture of mathematics, will but
cast a single glance into the situation as it veritably is, will per
ceive at once that Mr. Smith’s present paper is of such a
character as not to demand any further answer from me, It is
of such a character, however, that it may be put on the level of
a business transaction, and if Mr. Smith can persuade any com=
petent mathematician—say the greatest alive, Sylvester, hé
being at once mathematician, metaphysician, and German
scholar, and at the same time wholly unknown to myself—if, I
say, Mr. Smith can persuade any such competent expert to seé
in this matter with Mr. Smith’s eyes, I shall consent to be
mulcted in what pecuniary penalty this expert may please.”

Of course with reciprocity in the other event. I hepe Mr.
Sylvester will kindly pardon me for having thus, almost invo-
luntarily, made free with his name; but, if I could say the
above then, certainly not less can I say the above: now—after
this letter of Mr. Smith’s. The ‘‘ characier” in allusion is one,
I believe, hitherto unexampled in literary controversy, and suclhy
that, as I also believe, the most important interests call forth
thorough understanding of it. It is m consequence of this
“character” that, as I have intimated, I caunot, with any
respect to myself, enter into further direct relations with Mr.
Smith, and that I must confine myself to what has been said
above. All, for that part, may be confidently left to time.
Napoleon snipped off, and put in his pocket the alleged gold
tassel, assured that use would disclose the tinsel in suspicion,
So, as regards the—to me—extraordinary operations of Mr.
Smith—not but every Kener must see what is concerned at a
glance—I can leave them fearlessly to the intromissions of the
public.

Further proceeding, let me intimate in conclusion, however
formidable it may look, must, so far as [ am concerned, be:
arranged by a friend on the one par, and a friend on the other..
Longer to trouble the public with these alcercations can only
seem to itimpertinent. I, at least, shal! be satisfied if it will
but consider the result in the end,

Edinburgh, April 18 J. HUTCHISON STIRLING

—_ ~ As tr at Ses Ton” Pee ett.

ay 8, 1873]

Moving in a Circle

* I Ap to cross a very large flat field in Lincolnshire one even-
ing ; the ground covered with saow, and there being a dense
fog. I knew my way perfectly; but on coming to the hedge
found that I had deviated fo the right, Next day I had
occasion to re-visit my track and fouad that I had described
about one quarter of a ciccle. ; T. M. W

FUSTUS LIEBIG

USTUS LIEBIG was born at Darmstadt, the native
place of many eminent chemists, May 13, 1803 ; died
at Munich, April 18, 1873.

_ As generations pass away, and the deeds and capacitiés
of great men come to be truly estimated, it will be found
that the name of Liebig claims a position very cluse to
those of Lavoisier and Dalton, the greatest leaders in our
science. It is not as the author of the 317 investigations
the titles of which fill the pages of the Royal Society
catalogue, nor even as the father of organic chemistry, nor
as the great originator of a scientific physiology and agri-
culture, nor again as the writer of numerous handbooks,
that Liebig has done most for science ; his greatest in-
fluence has been a personal one, for it is to him that
most chemists now living either directly or indirectly
owe their scientific existence. The Giessen Laboratory
was the first one in which our science was truly taught,
and from this centre the flame of original research was
carried throughout all lands by ardent disciples who more
or less successfully continueji, both as regards tuition
and investigation, their master’s work.

Liebig early showed his love for experimental inquiry,
and his father apprenticed him—as was then usual in the
case of boys who exhibit such tastes—to an apothecary.
Ten months of the shop drudgery was sufficient to con-
vince the boy that this sort of life was not what he
required, and it is said that he ran away from his pill-
making ; at any rate, he returned to his home in Darm-
stadt, and soon entered the University of Bonn, and
afterwards that of Erlangen, where he met with congenial
Spirits, and continued his scientific education, At that
time (1822), however, the German universities were al-
most destitute of means of stimulating research, or even
of imparting a knowledge of existing science in its higher
and more modern forms ; and for this reason the steps of
all young German chemists were naturally turned towards
Paris, where Gay Lussac, Thenard, Dulong, and other
well-known masters were working and teaching. In 1822,
being nineteen years of age, Liebig had already made
himself known in his native town and to its paternal
government by the investigation of the action of alkalies
on fulminating silver, as well as by other publications on
the composition of certain colouring materials ; and the
Grand Duke, anxious to promote the glory of his capital,
gave his promising young townsman the means of study-
ing in Paris. There Liebig, thanks to the friendly intro-
duction of Alexander von Humboldt, was allowed to work
in Gay Lussac’s private laboratory, where he completed
his investigation on fulminic acid, and became acquainted
with Gay Lussac’s methods of exact investigation. In
Paris, too, he met Mitscherlich and Gustav Rose, and the
intercourse with them and other men of science which he
there enjoyed confirmed him in the choice of his profes-
sion, and in 1824 he returned home and was appointed,
when twenty-one years of age, Extraordinary, and two
years afterwards the Ordinary Professor of Chemistry at
Giessen, the University of his country, and the scene of
the great labours and triumphs of his life.

The influence which Liebig has exerted on the progress
of discovery in our science is due to his possession of
that peculiar gift essential to all great investigators of
nature, which unites to indomitable perseverance in fol-

NATURE

o 27

lowing out experimental details, the higher power of
generalisation. His indefatigable energy in experimental
investigation must be known to all who have even turned
over the pages of his Annalen ; there is scarcely a volume
ia the thirty years dating from the commencement of the
journal in 1832 to 1862, which does not contain some im-
portant record of his labours, and in the height of his
power the number of independent researches which he
was able to carry out at once is certainly marvellous.
A mere list of even the most important of his investi-
gations in the one branch of organic chemistry would
be far too long for a brief notice such as this; it may,
however, be well to call to mind his productivity during
the first few years of the Giessen career. In the first
rank amongst his earlier researches, and serving as a
necessary basis for the whole, come those in which he
placed the analysis of organic substances upon a firm
and simple basis. His final description of the apparatus
is worth remembering—“ There is nothing new in this
arrangement buat its simplicity and perfect reliability.”
The attack on this subject, commenced in conjunction
with Gay Lussac in 1823, was not completed by himself
till 1830; but then he furnished chemists with the simple
and effectual methods which, with slight modifications,
we still employ.. Thus armed, the secrets of the com-
position of the organic acids and alkaloids were soon
revealed, and among the most important discoveries we
have first amongst the acids, fulminic (1822), cyanic
(1827), hippuric (1829), malic, quinic, rocellic and cam-
phoric (1830), lactic (1832), aspartic (1833), uric (1834),
then we find chloral and chloroform (1831), acetal (1832),
aldehyde (1835).

In 1837 he published, in conjunction with Dumas,
a paper, “ Note sur la constitution de quelques acides,”
in which for the first time the theory of polybasic organic
acids was put forward, Graham’s researches on the phos-
phates proving the polybasic character of phosphoric acid
having been published in 1833. Ina research on the consti-
tution of these bodies published in 1838 this was more fully
worked out, and Davy’s previously expressed views as to
the part played by hydrogen confirmed and supported.
His researches on the cyanogen derivatives (1834), on
the chlorine substitution-producis of alcohol (1832), and
those carried on for so many years in conjunction with
his life-long friend Wohler, as on the composition of sul-
phovinic acid (1832), and especially that on the deriva-
tives of benzoic acid (1832) sufficed to place the theory of
organic radicals on a firm basis. Then too we must not
forget their conjoint researches, chiefly carried on by cor-
respondence between Giessen and Gottingen on the oxi-
acids of cyanozen (1830), a most difficult subject worked
out in a masterly way, or that on the formation of benzoy!
hydride from amygdalin in the bitter almond (1837), or
again the memorable investigations on the nature of uric
acid and the products of oxidation of this substance by
nitric acid (1838), in waich not only a large number of
new bodies are described and allantoin artificially pre-
pared, but system and order introduced among the whole.

One of his favourite subjects was that of Fermentation,
and his explanation of the phenomena as being due to
the action of a substance whose molecules are in a State
of motion upon the fermentable body is yet well known,
though now in the minds of most supplanted by the gefm
theory of Pasteur.

As a critic Liebig was sharp, satirical, and sometimes
éven unsparing and bitter, especially when his own views
were assailed ; his anonymous critiques are brimfull of
good-humoured satire, whilst in others to which he gives
his name, he lashes his victim most unmercifully. Who
can read his “ Das entrathselte Geheimniss der geistigen
Gahrung ” “ Vorlaufig briefliche Mittheilung,” 1839, with-
out amusement? His description of the minute organisms
having the form of a Beindorfschen Destillirblase (ohne
den Kiihlapparat) feeding on sugar and excreting alcohol

28 NATURE

[May 8, 1873

‘aus ein rosenroth gefarbten punkt), and carbonic acid
fei dem Harnorganen) will be long remembered, and
even at the present day the satire has not lost its applica-
bility. Then again ina letter purporting to be written
from Paris and signed S. C. H. Windler, though doubtless
written by Liebig, he laughs to scorn the idea that the
theory of substitution, which he himself upheld, could be
so far extended as was by some chemists believed possible.
In this letter he states, as the last great discovery of the
French capital, that it had been found possible to replace
in acetate of manganese, first the atoms of hydrogen
by chlorine, then the atoms of oxygen, then those of
manganese, and lastly that even the atoms of carbon had
been replaced by this gas. So that a body was in the
end obtained, which, although it contained nothing but
chlorine, still possessed the essential properties of the
original acetate of manganese. He adds ina note: “Je
viens d’apprendre qu'il y a déja dans les magasins 4
Londres des étoffes en chlor filé, trés recherchés, dans les
hépitaux, et preférés 4 tout autres pour bonnets de nuits,
calecons, etc.!”

Those who wish to read an unsparing critique, may
turn to Liebig’s remarks on Gerhardt (1846), to those
on Mulder as regards his protein theory, or again on
Gruber and Sprengel respecting a review of his own book
on Organic Chemistry (1841). It was not in Liebig’s
nature to spare either private persons or Governments
when he thought that scieuce would be advanced by
plain speaking. In his two papers on “ Der Zustand der
Chemie in Oestreich” (1838), and in “ Preussen” (1840),
whilst he points out the shortcomings of both countries,
bravely asserts, in the strongest terms, the dependence of
national prosperity upon original research, a subject con-
cerning which in England, most people, thirty years
later (to our shame be it said) are altogether in the dark /

Other and wider questions, to the solution of which
Liebig in later life turned his energies, were those re-
specting the establishment of a Scientific Agriculture, and
the foundation of a new science of Physiological Che-
mistry. It is in this direction that his labours are best
known to the general public in England; and there is
no doubt, although in many details his views have since
proved erroneous, that he was correct in the main issues,
and that the stimulus given to British agriculture through
Liebig’s writing and investigations, has been of the most
important kind. Agriculturists have thus been made
aware that a scientific basis for their practice exists
which, if not as yet complete, can still explain much in
their art of what had previously depended on mere em-
piricism. Then, again, the interest and attention which
were thus brought to bear on these subjects, has led to
the establishment of Agricultural Colleges and “ Ver-
suchs-Stationen,” and to the carrying out of researches
like those magnificent ones of Lawes and Gilbert, from
which we are receiving information concerning the
various questions relating to plant life such as long-con-
tinued investigation and observation alone can yield.

In the year 1852, having lectured for sixty semestres in
Giessen, he left the university to which he had given a
world-wide fame, to become the centre of a galaxy of men
of science whom Maximilian II. of Bavaria had called to
Munich. There, having built himself a good laboratory
and a spacious house adjoining, he spent the remainder
of his days in quiet labour and well-earned and honoured
repose. The active period of his life having passed, he
entirely withdrew from discussions on purely theoretical
questions, and occupied himself with investigations chiefly
of a practical character, such as those on the extract of
meat, and on infants’ food. He continued to re-edit his
various books, indulging occasionally in his old habit of a
sharp hit at the views of some scientific brother. His last
investigation and critical discussion of the labours of
other chemists was published in 1870, “On Fermentation
and the Origin of Muscular Force.” In this he strenuously

upholds his old theory of fermentation against Pasteur’s
explanation of the phenomena, and his views and argu-
ments are as forcibly and clearly expressed as we find
them in his early publications. The last of his hundreds
of communications to the Annalen is a notice on the
discovery of chloroform, published in March of last year,
in which he calls attention to the fact that the discovery
of this important substance is due to himself in 1831, and
not to Soubeiran, as is generally supposed, although
Liebig overlooked the small quantity of hydrogen (08
per cent.) which chloroform contains, and termed it a
chloride of carbon.

As an author, Liebig is remarkable for the lucidity and
grace of his style. The best examples of this are to be
found in his ‘‘ Familiar Letters on Chemistry.” His
mode of popular treatment of a somewhat obscure sub-

ject is seen in the well-known chapter (xxiv.) in his

“Familiar Letters,” on “Spontaneous Combustion of the
Human Body.” He there goes step by step through all
the better authenticated cases, shows the want of suffi-
cient evidence in each case, points out the fallacies of the
theories proposed to explain them, and concludes with
proving, by the application of known physicaland chemical
laws, that the supposed phenomena cannot possibly cccur.

Looking once more back upon the labours of Liebig,
we again come to the conclusion that the chief and
characteristic glory of his life is the impulse which he
gave to the study of our science and the personal influ-
ence which he exerted among his numerous and distin-
guished pupils.

The present short and imperfect sketch of the scientific
bearings of a great life is not one in which personal
qualities can be discussed ; suffice it to say that though
Liebig was an awkward adversary, he was a faithful
friend, and always ready and anxious to assist deserving
merit. H. E. ROSCOE

NOTES FROM THE “CHALLENGER”

WE left Santa Cruz on the evening of Friday, the 14th

of February. The weather was bright and pleasant
with a light breeze—force equal to about 5—fromthe north-
east. Our course during the night lay nearly westward,
and on the morning of the 17th we sounded, about 75
miles from Teneriffe, and 2,620 miles from Sombrero
Island, the nearest point in the Virgin group, in 1,891
fathoms, with a bottom of grey globigerina ooze, mixed
with a little volcanic detritus. The average of two
Miller-Casella thermometers gave a bottom temperature
of 2h1G, :

The slip water-bottle which was used by Dr. Meyer and
Dr. Jacobsen in the German North-Sea Expedition of
last summer was sent down to the bottom, and Mr.
Buchanan determined the specific gravity of the bottom
water to be 1'02584 at a temperature of 17°9 C., the
specific gravity of surface water being 1':02648 at a tem-
perature of 18°°5 C.

All Sunday, the 16th, we spent sailing with a light air
from the northward, and by Monday morning we had
made about 130 miles from our previous sounding. The
dredge was put over at 5.15 A.M. with 2,700 fathoms rope,
and a weight of 2 cwt. 300 fathoms before the dredge.

After steaming up to the dredge once or twice, hauling-
in was commenced at 1.30 P.M., and the dredge came up
at 3.30 half full of compact yellowish ooze. The ooze
was Carefully sifted, but nothing was found in it with the
exception of foraminifera, some otolites of fishes, some dead
shells of pteropods, and one mutilated specimen of what
appears to be a new Gephyrean. This animal has been
examined by Dr. von Willemces-Suhm, who finds that
it shows a combination of the character of the Sipuncu-
lacea and the Priapulacea. As in the former group, the
excretory orifice is near the mouth, in the anterior part of

¥ May 8, 1873]

~~ eo :
c °

the body, while, as in the latter, there is no proboscis and
there are no tentacles. The pharynx is very short, and is
attached to the walls of the body by four retractor
muscles. The pharynx shows six to seven folds ending
in a chitinous border. The mouth is a round aperture,
beset with small cuticular papillae. The perisom is divided
into four muscular bands, the surface large, showing a
tissue of square meshes, in each of which there are four to
five sense-bodies. For the reception of this singular
species Dr. von Willemces-Suhm proposes to establish
the genus Leéoderma, which will represent a family
intermediate between the Sipunculids and the Pria-
lids, .
: On the 18th we sounded at 9 A.M. in 1,525 fathoms,
lat. 25° 45’ N., long, 20° 12’ W., 160 miles S.W. of the
Island of Ferro, and 50 miles to the west of the station of
the day before, in 1,525 fathoms. The “ Hydra” tube
brought up no bottom, and we sounded again with a
depth of 1,520 fathoms, and again no bottom. It thus
seemed that we had got upon hard ground, and as the
sounding of the following day gave 2,220 at a distance of
only 19 miles, we had evidently struck the top of a steep
rise. The dredge was lowered at Io A.M. with 2,220
fathoms of line and 2 cwt. leads 300 fathoms before the
dredge. At 5.30 P.M. the dredge was hauled up, and
contained a few small pieces of stone resembling the
volcanic rocks of the Canary Islands, and some large
bases of attachment and some branches of the calcareous
axis of an Alcyonarian polyp allied to Corallium. Some
of the larger stumps were nearly an inch in diameter ; the

_central portion very compact, and of a pure white colour :

the surface longitudinally grooved, and of a glossy black.
The pieces of the base of the coral which had been torn
off by the dredge were in one or two cases several inches
across and upwards of an inch thick, forming a thick
crust from which the branches of the coral sprang. The
crust was of a glossy black on the surface, showing a fine
regular granulation, and a fracture through the crust was
of a uniform dark brown colour and semi-crystallised.

- The whole of the coral was dead, and appeared to have

been so for a longtime. It was so freshin its texture, how-
ever, that it was scarcely possible to suppose that it was
sub-fossil, although from the comparatively great depth at
which it was found, and the many evidences of volcanic
action over the whole of this region, one could scarcely
avoid speculating whether it might not have lived at a
higher level and been carried into its present position by
a subsidence of the sea-bottom. I hope we may have an
opportunity of determining this question in returning
over the same ground later in the season,

Attached to the branches of the coral there were
several specimens of a magnificent sponge belonging to
the Hexactinellide. One specimen, consisting of two
individuals united together by their bases, is about 60
centimetres across, and has very much the appearance of
the large example of the tinder-fungus attached to the trunk
of a tree (Fig. 1). Both surfaces of the sponge are covered
with a delicate network. of square meshes closely re-
sembling that of Aya/onema, and formed by spicules of
almost the same patterns. The sponge is bordered by a
fringe of fine spicules, and from the base a large brush of
strong, glassy, anchoring spicules project, fixing it to its
place of attachment. The form of the barbed end of the
anchoring spicules is as yet. unique among sponges.
Two wide, compressed flukes form an anchor very much
like that of one of the skin-spicules of Syxapta. The
sponge when brought up was of a delicate cream colour.
It was necessary to steep it in fresh water to free it from
salt, and the colour changed to a leaden grey. A
number of small.examples of the sponge, some of
them not much beyond the condition of gemmules,
were found attached to the larger specimens and to
branches of the coral, so that we have an opportunity of
studying the earlier stages of its development.

NATURE 29

* For this sponge, which forms the type of a new genus,
I propose the name Polzopogon amadou.

Attached to the sponge were two examples of a fine
Annelid which Dr. v. Willemces-Suhm refers to the
family Amphinomidze, sub-family Euphrosyninz, with
many of the characters of the genus Luphrosyne. The
body is 12 mm. long and 5 mm. broad, and consists of
fifteen segments. The surface of the head is covered
with a caruncle extending over the anterior segments,
and the whole surface is clothed with milk-white two-
bperenee sete, which radiate over each segment like
a fan,

On the following day a series of temperatures were
taken from the surface to 1,500 fathoms at intervals of
Ioo fathoms.

Depth. Temp. Depth. Temp.
Surface 19” 5C. | 800 fathoms Lies! &
100 fathoms . 17° 2 | OOO) As 4°7
200)6-4,5 pay, | 1000 ,, 4°6
3005 «55 rhs FIOO"* 5; 38
400, 9 * 5 eeecom ys 3.5
500 ” im 0 | 1300 ” i ea!
600) ~,5), 2-0... « 6° Somos 2°8
700 6°2 | ¥500 2° 6

Ee oe eae hc

The dredge was not used, but, as is our custom when-
ever the rate of the ship is such as to make it practicable,
a large towing-net was put out astern.

In hot, calm weather the towing-net is usually un-
successful. It seems that the greater number of pelagic
forms retire during the heat of the day to the depths of
a few fathoms, and come up in the cool of the evening
and in the morning, and in some cases in the night. The
larger phosphorescent animals are frequently abundant
during the night round the ship and in its wake, while
none are taken in the net during the day. Mr. Moseley
has been specially engaged in working up the develop-
mental stages of Pyrosoma, and the intricate structure of
the tissues and organs of some of the surface groups,
whose extreme transparency renders them particularly
suitable for such researches,

Feb. 21.—Up to 2.15 P.M. sailing under all plain sail at
the rate of six knots an hour before the N.E. trades, force
3 to 4.

The dredge was put over at 5 P.M. with 3,400 fathoms
of line, and was kept down till one o’clock AM. on the
following morning, the ship drifting slowly. Our position
at noon on the 21st was about 500 miles S.W. of Teneriffe,
lat. 24° 22’ N., long. 24° 11’ W., Sombrero Island S. 58°
W. 2,220 miles. Work began early on the 22nd, and the
dredge, which had begun its ascent at 1,15 A.M., came up
at 5.45 half full of a yellowish ooze, which was not so
tenacious as usual, and on the whole singularly poor in
higher living things. A careful and laborious sifting cf
the whole mass gave us three small living mollusca,
referred to the genera Arca, Limopsis, and Leda; and
two Bryozoa apparently undescribed. Foraminifera were
abundant, many examples of miliolines being of unusually
large size. Some beautiful radiolarians’ were sifted out
of the mud, These may have been taken into the

dredge on its way up, or more probably they may have

lived on the surface or in intermediate water and have
sunk to the bottom after death, since they consist of
continuous fenestrated shells of silica.

On Tuesday the 25th a small dredge was lowered at
6.30 A.M. with 3,500 fathoms of line (2,500 fathoms of
2} in. rope and 1,000 of 2-in.), and 2 cwt. leads attached
300 fathoms in advance. At 7.30 we sounded in 2,800
fathoms, with a bottom of the same reddish ooze, and a
temperature of 2°C. A series of temperatures were taken
at intervals of 100 fathoms down to 1,000, the result
agreeing closely with those of the previous series. At
5.15 P.M. the dredge came up clean and empty. It had
either never reached the bottom, owing to some local
current or the drift of the ship, or else everything had

T Modcdc, white, and zwywv, a beard, o

30

NATURE ;

[May 8, 1873

no

been completely washed out of it on its way to the sur-
face. The bottom water gavea specific gravity of 1°02504
at 19°6 C., that of the surface being 102617 at 21°3 C.
While sounding, the current-drag was tried, and indicated
a slight north-westerly current. :

As the attempt to dredge on the previous day had been
unsuccessful, it was determined to repeat the operation
with every possible precaution on the 26th. The morning
was bright and clear, and the swell, which had been
rather heavy the day before, had gone down considerably.
A sounding was taken about 10 o’clock A.M. with the
“Hydra” machine and 4cwt. The sounding was tho-
roughly satisfactory, a sudden change of rate in the
running out of the line indicating in the most marked
way when the weight had reached the bottom. During
the sounding a current-drag was put down to the depth
of 200 fathoms, and it was then ascertained that, by
means of management and by meeting the current by an
occasional turn of the screw, the ship scarcely moved from

depth, totally different from what we had been in the
habit of meeting with in the depths of the Atlantic. For
a few soundings part of the ooze had been assuming a
darker tint,and showed on analysis a continually lessening
amount of calcareous matter, and, under the microscope,
a smaller number of foraminifera. Now calcareous
shells of foraminifera were entirely wanting, and the only
organisms which could be detected after washing over
and sifting the whole of the mud with the greatest care,
were three or four foraminifera of the Cristellarian series,
with their tests made up of particles of the same red mud.
The shells and spines of surface animals were entirely
wanting ; and this is the more remarkable as the clay-
mud was excessively fine, remaining for days suspended
in the water, looking in colour and consistence exactly
like chocolate, indicating therefore an almost total absence
of movement in the water where it is being deposited.
When at length it settles, it forms a perfectly smooth red-
brown paste, without the least feeling of grittiness between
the fingers, as if it had been levigated with extreme care

her position during the whole time the lead was running
out. The depth was 3,150 fathoms ; the bottom a per-
fectly smooth red clay, containing scarcely a trace of
organic matter—merely a few coccoliths, and one or two
minute granular masses. The thermometer indicated a
bottom temperature of 1°'9 C. ;

The small dredge was sent down at 2.15 P.M. with two —

hempen tangles ; and, inorder to efisure its reaching the
bottom, attached to the iron bar below the dredge which
is used for suspending the tangles, a “ Hydra” instrument
with detaching weight of 3cwt. Two additional weights
of 1 cwt. each were fixed to the rope 200 fathoms before
the dredge. 3,600 fathoms of rope were payed out—1,000
fathoms 2 in. in circumference, and the remainder (2,600
fathoms) 2}in. The dredge came up at 10.15 P.M. with
about 1 cwt. of red clay.

This haul interested us greatly. It was the deepest by
several hundred fathoms which had ever been taken, and,
at all events coincidentally with this great increase in

Base
Fic. 1.—Potyorocon_Amapou Wy. T.

for a process in some refined art.
almost pure clay, a silicate of alumina and the sesqui-
oxide of iron, with a small quantity of manganese,

It is of course a_ most interesting question whether the
peculiar nature of this deposit is connected in any way

On analysis it is

with the extreme depth. I am certainly inclined at
present to believe that itis not. The depth at Station 5
was 2,740 fathoms, and on that occasion foraminifera
were abundant, and several bivalve mollusca were taken
living. I cannot believe there can be any difference
between a depth of 2,740 fathoms and one of 3,150 so
essential as to arrest the life of the organisms to the
secretions of whose tests the grey Atlantic ooze is due.
I am rather inclined in the meantime to attribute this
peculiar deposit to the movement of water from some
special locality—very possibly the mouths of the great
South American rivers—the movement possibly directed
in some measure by the form of the bottom. This, how-
ever, is a question for the solution of which we may hope
to procure sufficient data. WYVILLE THOMSON

NATURE

31

a INSECTS *

ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF
i, Ill.

. THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL CONDITIONS ON THE
ji FORM AND STRUCTURE OF LARV

| liens facts recapitulated very briefly in the preceding

chapters show, that the forms of insect larva depend

greatly on the group to which they belong. Thus the

same tree may harbour larve of Diptera, Hymenoptera,

Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera ; each presenting the form
typical of the group to which it belongs,

Fic. 1, Larva_of_the Cockchafer (Melolontha). (Westwood. Int. to the
M Classification of Insects, v- z., p. 194.) 2, Larva of Cetonia, 3,
Larvaof Trox. 4, Larvaof Oryctes. 5, Larva of Aphodius. (Chapuis
and Candeze, Mem. Soc. Roy. Liege, 1853. 6, Larva of Lucanus.
(Packard, ‘‘ Guide to the Study ot Insects,” Fig. 403).

If, again, we take a group, such, for instance, as the
Lamellicorn beetles, we shall find larve extremely similar
in form, yet very different in habits. Those for instance
of the common cockchafer (Fig. 1) feed on the roots of
grass, those of Cetonia aurata (Fig. 2) are found in ants’
nests ; the larvz of the genus Trox (Fig. 3) on dry animal
substances ; of Oryctes (Fig. 4) in tan-pits : of Aphodius
Fig. 5) in dung; of Lucanus (the stag-beetle, Fig. 6) in
w

-

‘Fic. 9, Larva of Sitaris humeralis.

(Fabre, Ann. d. Sci. Nat. Ser.
4, vol. vii.) rva of Sitaris humeralis. in the second stage.
31, Larva of Sitaris humeralis, in the third stage. 12, Larva of Sitaris

humeralis, in the fourth stage. 13, Pupa of Sitaris.

10,

Tm the -present chapter it will be my object to show
that the form of the larva depends also very much on its
mode of ‘life. Thus, those larve which are internal
parasites, whether in animals or plants, belong to the
vermiform state ; and the same is the case with those
which live in cells, and depend on their parents for
food. On the other hand, larve which burrow in

* Continued from yol. vii. p. 489.

wood have strong jaws and generally somewhat weak
thoracic legs ; those which feed on leaves have the
thoracic legs more developed, but less so than the carni-
vorous species. Now, the Hymenoptera, as a general rule,
belong to the first category: the larve of the Ichneu-
mons, &c., which live in animals,—those of the Cynipida,
which inhabit galls,—and those of ants, bees, wasps, &c.,
which are fed by their parents, are all fleshy, apodal
grubs. On the other hand, the larvae of Szvex, which are
wood-butrowers, quit the type which is common to the
majority of the order, and remain in the egg until they
have developed small thoracic legs. Again, the larvze
of the Tenthredinidz, which feed upon leaves, closely

;

Fic. 7, Larva of Brachytarsus (Ratzeburg, Forst. Insecten). 8, Larva of
Crioceris (Westwood, l.c.) 14, Larva of Sirex (Westwood le.) 15,
Egg of Rhynchites, showing the parasitic larva in the interior. 16,
the parasitic larva more magnified.

resemble the caterpillars of Lepidoptera, even to the
presence of abdominal prolegs. There is, however, some
little variety in this respect, some species having eleven
pairs, some ten, some nine, while the genus Lyda has only
the three thoracic pairs.

Again, the larvze of beetles are generally active, hexapod,
and more or less flattened: but on the other hand with
those species which live inside vegetable tissues, such as
the weevils, they are apod fleshy grubs, like those of
Hymenoptera. Pl. 2, Fig. 6, represents the larva of

Fic. 17, Egg of Platygaster (after Ganin). 18, Egg of Platygaster
‘Hiscineahe central ate 19, Egg of Platygaster after the division of
20, Egg of Platygaster more advanced. 21, Egg of

the central wall ; D
22, Egg of Platygaster showing the rudi-

Platygaster more advanced.
ment of the embryo.

the nut-weevil, Balaninus (Pl. 1, Fig. 6), and it will be
seen that it closely resembles Pl. 2, Fig. 5, which represents
that of a fly (Anthrax), Pl. 1, Fig. 5, and Pl. 2, Figs. 7, 8,
and 9, which represent respectively those of a Cynips or
gall-fly (Pl. 1, Fig. 7), an ant (Pl. 1, Fig. 8), and wasp
(Pl. 1, Fig. 9). Nor is this the only group of Coleoptera
which affords us examples of this fact. Thus in the
genus Scolytus (Pl. 1, Fig. 4), the larve (Pl. 2, Fig. 4),

*

32

NATURE

which, as already mentioned, feed on the bark of the elm,
closely resemble those just described, as also do those of
Brachytarsus (Fig. 7). On the other hand the larva of
certain beetles feed on leaves, like the caterpillars of
Lepidoptera ; thus the larva of Crzoceris Asparagi (Fig. 8),
which, as its name denotes, feeds on the asparagus, closely
resembles that of certain Lepidoptera, as for instance of
Thecla spini. A striking illustration of this is afforded
by the genus Sitaris (PI. 3, Fig. 4), a small beetle allied
to Cantharis, the blister-fly, and Meloe, the oil-beetle.
The habits of this species have been very carefully investi-
gated by M. Fabre.* ‘

The genus Sitaris is parasitic on Anthophora, in the
galleries in which it lays its eggs. These are hatched at

the end of September or beginning of October; and
M. Fabre not unnaturally expected that the young
larvee, which, as already mentioned, are active little

Fic. 23, Larva ot Platygaster (after Ganin)—o0, mouth; a, antenna;
J, hocked feet ; 7, toothed process; 2/g, lateral process ; /, branches
of the tail. 24, Larva of another speciesof Platygaster. The letters in-
dicate the same parts as in the preceding figure. 25, Larva of a third
species of Platygaster The letters indicate the same parts as in the pre-
ceding figures. : 6, Larva of Platygasterinthesecor d stage—z 0, mouth;
slkj7, cesophagus; gs@e, supra-cesophagal ganglion; 77, muscles;
(sm, nervous system ; gag/, rudiments of the reproductive glands.
27, Larva of Platygaster in the third stage—#z 0, mouth; md,
mandibles; gsa@e, supra-cesophagal ganglion; s24, cesophagus; ag,
ducts of the salivary glands ; 4, ventral nervous system ; sf, salivary
glands ; #s/, stomach; 7, imaginal discs; ¢7, trachee; (4, fatty
tissue ; ed, intestine ; ga, rudiments of reproductive organs ; e w, wider
portion of intestine ; a 0, posterior opening.

creatures with six serviceable legs (Fig. 9), would at once
eat their way into the cells of the Anthophora. No such
thing: till the month of April following they remain
without leaving their birth-place, and consequently with-
out food ; nor do they in this long time change either in
form or size. M. Fabre ascertained this, not only by
examining the burrows of the Anthophoras, but also by
direct observation of some young larve kept in captivity,
In April, however, his specimens at last threw off their
long lethargy, and hurried anxiously about their prisons.
Naturally inferring that they were in search of food,
M. Fabre supposed that this would consist either of the
larvze or pupz of the Anthophora, or of the honey with
which it stores its cell. All three were tried without

* Ann. das. Sc, Nat, V, vii. T. 4. See also Natural History Review,
April +862,

success, The two first were neglected, and when placed
on the latter the larve hurried away, or perished in the
attempt, being evidently unable to deal with the sticky
substance. M. Fabre was in despair : “ Jamais experience,”
he says, “n’a éprouvé pareille déconfiture. Larves,
nymphes, cellules, miel, je vous ai tous offert; que
voulez-vous donc, bestioles maudites?” The first ray of
light came to him from our countryman, Newport, who
ascertained that a small parasite found by Léon Dufour
on one of the wild bees, and named by him Triungulinus,
was, in fact, the larva of the Meloe. The larve of
Sitaris much resembled Dufour’s Triungulinus; and acting
on this hint, M. Fabre examined maany specimens of
Anthophora, and at last found on them the larve of his
Sitaris. The males of Anthophora emerge from the pup
before the females, and he ascertained that as they come
out of their galleries, the little larva fasten upon them.
Not, however, for long: their instinct teaches them that |
they are not yet in the straight path of development ; and,
watching their opportunity, they pass from the male to
the female bee. Guided by these indications, M. Fabre
examined several cells of Anthophora: in some, the egg
of the Anthophora floated by itself on the surface of the
honey ; in others, on the egg, as on a raft, sat the still
more minute larva of the Sitaris. The mystery was
solved. At the moment when the egg is laid, the Sitaris-
larva springs upon it. Even while the poor mother is
carefully fastening up her cell, her mortal enemy is be-
ginning to devour her offspring. For the egg of the
Anthophora serves not only as a raft, but as a repast.
The honey, which is enough for either, would be too little
for both; and the Sitaris, therefore, in its first meal,
relieves itself from its only rival. After etght days the
egg is consumed, and on the empty shell the Sitaris under-
goes its first transformation, and makes its appearance
in a very different form as shown in Fig. to.

The honey which was fatal before is now necessary ;
the activity which before was necessary, is now useless ;
consequently, with the change of skin the active, slim
larva changes into a white, fleshy grub, so organised as
to float on the surface of the honey, with the mouth
below, and the spiracles above the surface ; “grace a
lembonpoint du ventre,” says M. Fabre, “la larve est &
Yabri. de l’asphyxie.” In this state it remains till the
honey is consumed ; then the animal contracts, and.de-
taches itself from its skin, within which the other trans-
formations take place. In the next stage, which M.
Fabre calls the pseudo-chrysalis (Fig. 11), the larva has a
solid corneous envelope and an oval shape, and in its
colour, consistency, and immobility reminds one of a
Dipterous pupa. The time passed in that condition
varies much. When it has elapsed, the animal moults
again, and again changes its form, and assumes that shown
in Fig. 12; after this it becomes a pupa (Fig. 13) without
any remarkable peculiarities; and finally, after these
wonderful changes and adventures, in the month of
August the perfect Sitaris (Pl. 3, Fig. 4) makes its
appearance. :
q,Qn the other hand, there are cases in which larvae

iverge remarkably from the ordinary type of the group
to which they belong, without, as it seems in our present —
imperfect state of information, any sufficient reason.

Thus the ordinary type of Hymenopterous larvz, as we
have already seen, is a fleshy apod grub ; replaced however
in the leaf-eating and wood-boring groups, Tenthredinidz
and Sirecidz (Fig. 14) by caterpillars, more or less closely
resembling those of Lepidoptera. There is, however, a
group of minute Hymenoptera, the larvze of which reside
within the eggs or larve of other insects. It is difficult to
understand why these larvz should differ from those of
Ichneumons, but as will be seen by the accompanying
figures, they assume very remarkable and grotesque forms,
The first of these curiouslarvee was observed by De Filippi,”

* Ann, and Mag.fof Nat, His., 1852.

he Si

| May 8, 1873]

an a &, > )

who had collected some of the transparent ova of Rhyz-
chites betuleti and to his great surprise found more
than half of them attacked by a small parasite, which
are to be the larva of a minute Hymenopterous insect

elonging to the Pteromalide. Fig. 15 shows the egg of
Rhynchites, with the parasitic larva, which is represented
on a larger scale in Fig. 16. Recently, however, this group
has been more completely studied by M. Ganin,* who thus
describes the development of Platygaster. The egg, asin
other allied hymenopterous families, for instance in
Cynips, is elongated and club-shaped (Fig. 17). After a
while a large nucleated cell appears in the centre (Fig. 18);
this is anew formation not derived from the germinal
vesicle. This nucleated cell divides (Fig. 19) and sub-
divides. The outermost cells continue the same process,
thus forming an outer investing layer. The central one,
on the contrary, enlarges considerably, and develops
within itself a number of daughter cells (Figs. 20and 21),
which gradually form themselves into a mulberry-like
mass, thus giving rise to the embryo (Fig. 22).

Ganin met with these larve in those of a small gnat,
Cecidomyia. Sometimes as many as fifteen parasites oc-
curred in one host, but as a rule only one attained maturity.
The three species of Platygaster differed considerably
in form, as shown in the three following Figs. (23-25).
They creep about in the egg by means of the strong
hooked feet, 47, somewhat aided by movements of the
tail. They possess a mouth, stomach, and muscles, but
the nervous, vascular, and respiratory systems do not
make their appearance until later. After some time the
larva changes its skin and assumes the form represented
in Fig. 26. In this moult the last abdominal segment of
the first larva is entirely thrown off: not merely the outer
skin as in the case of the other segments, but also the
hypodermis and the muscles. This larva, as will be seen
by the figure, is in the form of a barrel or egg, and
*870 mm. in length, the external appendages having dis-
appeared, and the segments being indicated only by the
arrangement of the muscles; s/4/is the cesophagus lead-
ing into a wide stomach which occupies nearly the whole
body, sz sae is the rudiment of the supracesophagal
ganglia, 6s” the ventra nervous cords. The ventral
nervous mass has the form of a broad band, with
straight sides; it consists of embryonal cells, ani re-
mains in this undeveloped condition, during the whole
larval state.

At the next moult the larva enters its third state, which,
however, as far as the external form (Fig. 27) is con-
cerned, differs from the second only in being somewhat
more elongated. The internal organs, however, are much
more complex and complete. The trachee have made
their appearance, and the mouth is provided with a pair
of mandibles. From this point the metamorphoses of
Platygaster do not appear to differ materially from those
of other Hymenoptera.

An allied genus, Polynema, has also very curious
larve. The perfect insect is aquatic in its habits,
swimming by means of its wings; flying, if we may
say so, under water. It lays its eggs inside those of
Dragon flies ; and the larva, as shown in Fig. 28, leaves
the egg in the form of a bottled-shaped mass of undiffe-
rentiated embryonal cells, covered by a thin cuticle, but
without any trace of further organisation. Protected by
the egg shell of the Dragon fly, the young Polynema is
early able to dispense with its own ; and bathed in the
nourishing fluid of the Dragon fly’s egg, it imbibes
nourishment through its whole surface, and increases
rapidly in size. The digestive canal gradually makes its
appearance, the cellular mass forms beneath the original
cuticle a new skin, distinctly divided into segments, and
provided with certain appendages. After a while the old
cuticle is thrown off, and the larva gradually assumes the
form shown in Fig. 29. asch are the antennal discs, or

* Zeits. f. Wiss. Zool., 1869,

NATURE 33

rudiments of the antenna, /7sch of the wings, dsch of the
legs, vfg are lateral projections, gsch of the ovipositor,
&c., ff is the fatty tissue. The subsequent metamor-
phoses of Polynema offer no special peculiarities.

From these facts—and, if necessary, many more of the
same nature might have been brought forward—it seems
to me evident that while the form of any given larva de-
pends to a certain extent on the group of insects to which
it beiongs, it is also greatly influenced by the external
conditions to which the animal is subjected ; that it is a
function of the life which the larva leads and of the group
to which it belongs.

The larvee of insects are generally regarded as being
nothing more than immature states—as stages in the de-
velopment of the egg into the imago ; and this might
more especially appear to be the case with those insects
in which the larve offer a general resemblance in form
and structure (excepting of course so far as relates to the
wings) to the perfect insects. Nevertheless we see that
this would be a very incomplete view of the case The
larva and pupa undergo changes which have no relation
to the form which they will ultimately assume. With a
general tendency, as regards size and the production of
wings, to this goal, there are combined other changes
bearing reference only to their existing wants and condi-
tion. Nor is there in this, I think, anything which need

Fic. 28, Embryo of Polynema (after Ganin). 20, Larva of Polynema,
asch, rudiments of the antenna; f/sch of the wings; dsch of
the eggs ; v_/g, lateral projections ; gsc, rudiments of the ovipositor ;
fk, tatty tissue.

surprise us. External circumstances act on the insect in
its preparatory states, as well as in its perfect condition.
Those who believe that animals are susceptible of great,
though gradual, change through the influence of external
conditions, whether acting, as Mr. Darwin has suggested,
through natural selection, or in any other manner, will
see no reason why these changes should be confined to
the mature animal. And it is evident that creatures
which, like the majority of insects, live during different
parts of their existence in very different circumstances,
may undergo considerable changes in their larval orga-
nisation, in consequence of forces acting on their larval

‘condition ; not, indeed, without affecting, but certainly

without affecting to any corresponding extent, their ulti-
mate form.

I conclude, therefore, that the form of the Jarva in
insects, whenever it departs from th2 orizinal vermiform—
or the later Campodea—type, depends in great measure
on the conditions in which it lives. The external forces
acting upon it are different from those which affect the
mature form; and thus changes are produced in the
young, which have reference to its immediate wants,
rather than to its final form.

And, lastly, as a consequence, that metamorphoses may
be divided into two kinds, developmental and adaptional.

34

NATURE

[May 8, 1873

NOTES

THE following are the names of the fifteen candidates who
have been selected by the Council of the Royal Society, for
election this year into that body :—William Aitken, M.D., Sir
Alexander Armstrong, M.D., K.C.B., Robert Stawell Ball,
LL.D., John Beddoe, M.D., Frederick Joseph Bramwell, C.E.,
Staff-Captain Edward Kilwick Calver, R.N., Robert Lewis
John Ellery, F.R.A.S., Lieut.-Col. J. Augustus Grant, C.B.,
C.S.L, Clements Robert Markham, C.B., George Edward
Paget, M.D., George West Royston-Pigott, M.D., Osbert
Salvin, M.A., The Hon. John William Strutt, M.A., Henry
Woodward, F.G.S., James Young, F.C.S.

THE University of Cambridge has accepted the offer made by
Dr. Anton Dohrn of the Zoological Station at Naples, through
Dr. Michael Foster and Prof. Newton, of a working table in
the laboratory of the station ; and last week, on the recommenda-
tion of the Board of Natural Sciences, a grace passed the senate
without opposition to the effect that from the Worts Travelling
Bachelors’ Fund the sum of 100/, per annum be granted for three
years, for the purpose of securing to such members of the Univer-
sity, as the Board shall from time to time nominate, facilities of
studying in the station.

WITH reference to a short article entitled “ Survival of the
Fittest,” in NaTuRE, vol. vii. p. 404, Prof. L. Agassiz writes us
that the observations therein attributed to him are taken from
an unauthorised newspaper report, from which we infer that he
disclaims them.

WITH reference to our report of the American Philosophical
Society for August 16, 1872 (NATURE, vol. vii. p. 335), Prof.
Cope writes that we have been misinformed as to the date at
which his communication on the discovery of Proboscidia in the
Wyoming Eocene was communicated to the Society. The
paper was not announced to the Society till its meeting on Sep-
tember 20, and was not published till February 6, 1873.

MR. PENGELLY writes us that the specimens referred to by
Mr. Everett (NATURE, April 17) did reach him through Mr.
Everett’s mother, and were duly acknowledged. The labels
were rotten with wet, and the specimens consisted of shells and
bones, the latter including human teeth and portions of a skull,
incisors of some rodent, and a large hog-like molar.

PENIKESE ISLAND, the gift of which for the study of natural
history to Prof. Agassiz by Mr. Anderson we have already more
than once spoken of, was handed over by the donor on Monday,
April 21, in a very simple way, accompanied by some speech-
making. Prof. Agassiz and his generous admirer then met for
the fr-t time, and for the first time Agassiz set foot on the
future sphere of his Jabours. The short deed of conveyance
was read and handed over, and Prof, Axassiz briefly returned
thanks, announcing that he intended to christen the institution
to be founded on the island, *‘Tne Anderson School of
Natural History.” Preparations for the school, which will
open this summer, will be immediately commenced. Plans
have already been drawn for a two-story wooden building
Ico ft. long and 25 ft. wide. . The lower floor is intended
for laboratories and working-rooms, of which there will be eight,
with a large hall. The second story will contain twenty-six
sleeping-rooms, two bath-rooms, and a large room for the Super-
intendent of the Institution. Several friends of Mr. Anderson
in New York have become interested in the school, and will
probably give liberally towards its endowment. The island of
Penikese, Penekese, or Penequese, and often called Pune by the
pilots, is one of a group of the Elizabethan Isles, lying between
Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound, and stretching southward
irom Cape Cod to a point nearly opposite the coast of Rhode
Island. Penikese is just inside and on starboard hand of the

———

entrance to Buzzard’s Bay. It is twelve miles from New Bedford.
The island is three-fourths of a mile long and half a mile wide, and
contains ninety-seven acres of land, some of which is of good
quality. A young tree was pointed out that had grown in oné
season higher than anybody in the party could reach. The surface
is hilly, the highest point being about a hundred feet above the
water. Mr. Anderson reserves a peninstla of some fifteen acres
onthe east end of the island, and here he proposes to build a
house next year. Prof. Agassiz states that Penikese is a much
better location for the school than the one originally contem-
plated at Nantucket. The school is to be devoted mainly to
the study of fish and marine objects in the summer season, and
a much larger variety is found in Penikese. The Sound and
waters in the vicinity of Nantucket have almost invariably a
sandy bottom, while the diversity in marine topography in Buz-
zard’s Bay invites and fosters a corresponding bags’ of animal
and vegetable life.

Art the meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute receatly held
in London, Mr. Lowthian Bell was elected president, and
delivered a very interesting address. He pointed out the great
success which had attended the organisatien of the society,
which although only in the fifth year of its existence, now nums
bered on its rolls 522 members. He expressed his opinion
that the Institute ‘had far from reached its limits. Referring
then to the instances which still exist here and there, of a
disregard for scientific inquiry, the result, perhaps, of con-
siderable success effected independently of philosophical T2-
search, in which cases practical experience, as it is called, is the
only rule admitted, Mr. Bell remarked, that on the other hand,
abstract science, correct as it may be in every step employed in its
elaboration, when introduced into the workshop may be found
unable to stand the rude but inevitable test of commercial prae=
ticability ; hence the necessity of a convenient method of effecting
a sound union between these two great principles, and to obtain
this was the object of the organisation of the Iron and Steel
Institute, where are brought face to face men, some distinguished
for their practical knowledge, and others equally eminent for
their attachments to scientific observation. He then proceeded
to consider the present aspect of foreign competition, and thought
the progress in other countries in iroa manufacture had arisen
from an adaptation of our own appliances, and not from any
important discoveries abroad. In speaking of the recent scarcity
of coal, although it was his impression that an important addition
can and will be made to their present output, he yet contem-
plated the possibility of a time being now approaching when
“any extension of manufacturing operation in this country
would have to be regulated, not by the requirements of
society for their produce, but by the means our coal mines
might possess of furnishing the fuel required. Mr. Bell, after
referring to several improvements in the plant and processes for
manufactwiing iron, looking forward to the future, expressed his
opivion that, waless new discoveries of coal be made in Europe,
the great rival we Have to fear in the iron manufacture is the
United States, which possesses unlimited quantities of ores of the
finest quality, and such enormous deposits of coal, that our
own wealth in that mineral is but comparative poverty. At
the proceedings on April 30, a paper by Dr. C. William Sie-
mens, ‘‘On the Manufacture of Iron and Steel by Direct Pro-
cess,” was read,
tive gas furnace.

A SPECIAL meeting of the Council and Natural History Com-
mittee of the Asiatic Society was held at Calcutta a few weeks
since, for the purpose of considering Mr. Schwendler’s scheme
for the establishment of a Zoological Garden in Calcutta. After
considerable discussion it was resolved that the Council of the
Society should once more record their opinion as to the great
advantage to Natural History Science, as well as to the public

Dr, Siemens described his rotative regenera-_

NATURE

35

which would result from the successful establishment of a Zoolo-
gical Garden. In addition a Committee was appointed to report
on the scheme. Few places are more suitable for the establish-
ment of such gardens than Calcutta—climate, facilities for pro-
curing animals, and an enormous floating population are all in
their power. We are glad to learn that several of the native
princes have already promised large donations, and that the
local and Imperial Governments will give the schem> their

support.

Dr. SCHOMBURGK’s Report on the Botanic Garden at Ade-
laide, South Australia, gives an interesting view of the usefulness
of such an institution in a new country. Although, according
to the director, young Australia has very little taste for the
science of botany, yet the number of persons who frequent the
gardens for the purpose of getting various kinds of information
incréases yearly. Part of the report deals with the subject of
state conservation of forests. In many districts of the colony the
supply of wood for timber and fuel appears to be altogether
exhausted, or is soon about to become so, The effect of the
déboisement on the climate is much dreaded by Dr. Schomburgk,
and no doubt, even if the belief in a diminution of the rainfall
be not well founded, clearing certainly promotes evaporation,
and sooner or later brings about the drying up of springs.
Various economic plants have been introduced, including esparto
(Macrochloa tenacissima), The climate allows of the planting
out of many palms in the open air, such as Latania borbonica,
Rhapis flabelliformis, Sabal Blackburniana, several species of
Chamerops and others. There are grand possibilities for a well-
managed botanic garden in such a climate.

Tue third part of Mr. D. G, Elliott’s superb ‘* Monograph of
the Paradiseidz: or Birds of Paradise,” has just been published, it
contains six plates beautifully executed by Mr. Wolf and
Mr. Smit.

THE first part of a new biological work has recently been
published at Moscow, entitled ‘‘ Pripoda””—popularnoi estest-
venno—istoricheskisaornik. It contains a paper by M. Severtzoff
on the sheep of Asia, but from being written in Russian, it is
beyond the reach of most English readers, and would probably
be worthy of translation,

_ Lerrers received from Mr. R. Swinhoe announce his removal
from the Consulship of Ning-po to the more northern Chinese
port of Che-fow, on the south shore of the Gulf of Petchelee.
M. Swinhoe alsoannounces the despatch of a living specimen of
the very interesting hornless deer, Hydropotes inermes, first
‘described by him in 1870, for the Zoological Society’s Menagerie.

_ WE understand that Dr. John Anderson, F.Z,S., director of the
Indian Museum at Calcutta, will return to England in the
autumn for a leave of two years.

WE learn from Sirius that the Russian Government has de-
voted 70,000 roubles to the observation of the Transit of Venus,
and is to send out twenty-four expeditions to various parts of
the world.

’ From Sirius we learn that recently 84 pages of a manuscript
‘of Copernicus have been discovered.

Tue Archeological Institute of Great Britain and Ircland
will hold its annual meeting at Exeter on July 29 and following
days. Lord Deyon has consented to fill the office of President.

THE Royal Microscopical Society hold a conversazione in the
Large Hall, King’s Coll:ge, on Wednesday evening, May 14.

In reference to the Natural Science Scholarship at Trinity
College, Cambridge, to which, as mentioned last week, Mr.
‘Bridge has just been elected, we are informed that Mr. Alfred
Milnes Marshall, of St. John’s College, was also highly recom-

mended by the examiners for a second scholarship, but the master
and seniors decided that only one should be given. Mr. Bridge,
we may add, has for some time past, been a non-collegiate mem-
ber of the University.

A VERY interesting publication is the ‘“ Memoir of the
Founding and Progress of the U.S. Naval Observatory,” at
Washington, prepared by Prof. J. E, Nourse, by order of Rear-
Admiral B. F. Sands, the presentiSuperintendent of the obser-
vatory. The large pamphlet gives details of the history of the
observatory from the first attempt in 1810 to move the American
Government to take steps to establish a meridian for America,
so as to make that cvuntry independeut of the meridians of
Greenwich and Paris, down to the present time, when by the
liberality of the Government and the zeal and knowledge of
American astronomers and meteorologists, it has become one of
the most efficient observatories in the world. The present
observatory was founded in 1842, and the first superintendent
was the late Commander M, F. Maury, whose successors have
been Capt. J. M. Gilliss, Rear-Admiral C. H. Davis, and Rear-
Admiral B. F. Sands. In their attempts to render their obser-
vations, astronomical, meteorological, and magnetic, as thorough
and wide as possible, the officials have been well backed by the
American Government, the result being, as we have said, that
the observatory is perhaps the most efficient institution of the
kind in the world, both with regard to the higher aims and the
practical results of the sciences with which it is connected,
Every year, almost every month, as the readers of our *‘ Notes ”
must have seen, are new ramifications being developed, and new
means of greater efficiency being added. For the purpose of
circulating accurate time, the observatory is connected with all
the telegraphic offices in the United States, and every day at
12 o’clock, the exact time is by this means made known through-
out the country. At present, as we noted some time ago, there
is being constructed for the observatory by Messrs. Clark, of
Cambridgeport, at a cost of 50,000 dollars, a refracting telescope
of the largest size ; and as we also noted several months since,
preparations on the most liberal scale are being made for
observing the forthcoming Transit of Venus.

A CORRESPONDENT puts the following case:—A strong man
is suddenly struck dead by lightning. What has become of the
potential energy he possessed the instant before he was struck?
To this we have received the following reply :—His potential
energy would be where it was before, viz., within the space
bounded by his exte:nal surface, What the l'ghtning has done
has been to destroy the mechanism for realising that potential
energy. A small portion of the man’s potential energy might
have been converted into actual energy by the lightning, as, for
instance, in the shape of heat ; but the great bulk would be got
by anybody who chose to eat his body.

AN International Monument to the late Commodore Maury
has been proposed, and there is no doubt his memory well
deserves such a tribute. It has been mooted that an appropriate
form in which to embody the monument would be a lighthouse
on Rocos, which is sighted by all vessels on the route t Rio de
Janeiro. :

AT a meeting held in Edinburgh last week, it was resolved to
appeal to the public for subscriptions in order to procure the
erection in Edinburgh of Mrs. D. O. Hill’s, statue of Dr.
Livingstone. The sum proposed to be raised is 3,500/.

Tue U.S. signal office has begun the ;ublication of a brief
monthly review of the weather, in which special attention is, of
course, given to the storms that visit the Unived States. Tt ap-
pears irom these that there were € iumerated during the month of
January twelve storms, during February ten, and during March
eleven. The paths pursued by the centres of these storms are
classified as follows :—Twenty-one passed from the Upper Mis-

36

NATURE

[May 8, 1873

souri Valley, and possibly from Oregon and British Columbia,
eastward, over the lakes to Canada or New England; nine
passed from ~the south-west, north and- eastward, to the
Middle or Eastern States; three passed from the south-
west, eastward, to the South Atlantic States, and thence
north-eastward; and two passed up north-eastward some
distance off the Atlantic coast. Several of these storms divided
into two portions, pursuing separate routes ; and, with but one
or two exceptions, they all increased in severity as they advanced
eastward. The rainfall returns show a general deficiency on the
Pacific coast ; that, however, which was reported in the States
east of the Rocky Mountains in March is probably compensated
by the excess during January and February. During the entire
three months the temperature has been colder than usual—at
least for the country east of the Rocky Mountains.

WE have received the programme of the Leeds Naturalist’s
Field Club for the quarter April to June, from which we see
that alternately with “ exhibition of specimens and conversation,”
which takes place once a fortnight, papers on subjects of scientific
interest are to be read. Excursions also take place on an average
once a fortnight, the first object of the Club being “ the minute
investigation of the natural history, in all its branches, of the
immediate neighbourhood of Leeds, and a more general investi-
gation of the whole of the West Riding.” This Society was
founded in 1870, and was reorganised on a broader basis in
March 1872, and seems to be doing good work.

A CORRESPONDENT writes, asking information with reference
to the etymology of the word aphis.

THE following additions to the Brighton Aquarium have been
made during the past week :—Picked Dogfish ( Acanthias vulgaris),
Larger Spotted Dog-fish (Scy//ium stellare), Lesser do. (Scyllium
canicula), Monkfish (Rina squatina), Spotted Rays (Raja macu-
lata), Sharp-nosed do. (Raja lintea), Streaked Gurnards ( Zrigla
lineata), Grey Gurnards (Triglia gurnardus), Greater Weevers
(Trachinus draco), Lesser do. (T7vachinus vipera), Gemmeous
Dragonets (Callionymus lyra), Lump Fish (Cyclopterus lumpus),
Sea Snail (Zifaris vulgaris), Yarrell’s Blenny (Blenniops ascani),
Sand Smelts (A¢herina presbyter), Turbot (Rhombus maximus),
Brill (Rhombus levis), Sail Fluke (Rhombus punctatus), Plaice
(Pleuronectes platissa), Flounders (Pleuronectes flesus), Soles (Solea
vulgaris), Minnows (Leuciscus phoxinus), Tench ( Tinca vulgaris),
Masked Crab (Corystes cassivelanus), Tube Worms (Serpula
contortuplicata), Sea Mice (Aphrodite aculeata), Sun Starfish
(Solaster papposa), Mediterranean Corals (Balanophyllia verru-
cari), Golden Cup Coral (Balanophyllia regia), Devonshire Cup
Coral (Caryophyllia smithii), Sea-fingers (Alcyonium digitatum),
Sea-anemones (various).

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during
the past week include an Indian leopard (Felis pardus), two
Indian jackals (Canis aureus), presented by Capt. Henry; a
Malabar Squirrel (Sciusus maximus), presented by Mr. White-
side ; three Egyptian cats Fé/is chaus (?) from Cashmere, pre-
sented by Capt. J. J. Bradshaw ; two Egyptian geese (Chena-
lopex egyptiaca), presented by Mr. H. W. Thornton ; a haw-
finch (Coccothraustes vulgaris), from the British Isles, presented
by the Viscountess Downe; four European Terrapins (Zmys
lufaria) and a green lizard (Lacerta viridis, var. chloronotus),
presented by Lord A. Russell ; two black-handed spider monkeys
Ateles melanochir) ; a white-throated Capuchin (Cebus hypoleucus) ;
a blue-fronted Amazon (Chrysotis estiva); a yellow-fronted
Amazon (C. ochrocephala), and an orange-winged Amazon (C.
amazonica), from Cartagena; a crested agouti (Dasyfrocta
cristata) from Colon ; an alligator, and a red and yellow macaw
(Ara chloroptera), from Barauquilla; a golden eagle (Aguila
chrysaétus), purchased ; a bladder-nosed seal (Cystophora cris-
tata), from the North Atlantic, deposited.

i ee
eS

ON THE HYPOTHESES WHICH LIE AT
THE BASES OF GEOMETRY*

IIl.— Application to Space.

§ 1.—By means of these inquiries into the determination of
the measure relations of an 7-fuld extent the conditions may be
declared which are necessary and suffitient to determine the
metric properties of space, if we assume the independence of
line-length from position and expressibility of the line-element as
the square root of a quadric differential, that is to say, flatness in
the smallest parts.

First, they may be expressed thus : that the curvature at each
point is zero in three surface-directions ; and thence the metric
properties of space are determined if the sum of the angles of a
triangle is always equal to two right angles.

Secondly, if we assume with Euclid not merely an existence of
lines independent of position, but of bodies also, it follows that
the curvature is everywhere constant ; and then the sum of the
angles is determined in all triangles when it is known in one,

Thirdly, one might, instead of taking the length of lines to be
independent of position and direction, assume also an independ-
ience of their length and direction from position. According to
this conception changes or differences of position are complex
magnitudes expressible in three independent units.

§ 2.,—In the course of our previous inquiries, we first dis-
tinguished between the relations of extension or partition and
the relations of measure, and found that with the same extensive
properties, different measure-relations were conceivable; we
then investigated the system of sinple size-fixings by which the
measure-relations of space are completely determined, and of
which all propositions about them are a necessary consequence ;
it remains to discuss the question how, in what degree, and to
what extent these assumptions are borne out by experience. In
this respect there isa real distinction between mere extensive
relations, and measure relations; in so far as in the former,
where the possible cases form a discrete manifoldness, the declara-
tions of experience are indeed not quite certain,-but still not
inaccurate ; while in the latter, where the possible cases form a
continuous manifoldness, every determination from experience
remains always inaccurate: be the probability ever so great
thatit is nearly exact. This consideration becomes important
in the extensions of these empirical determinations beyond the
limits of observation to the infinitely great and infinitely small ;
since the latter may clearly become more inaccurate beyond the
limits of observation, but not the former.

In the extension of space-construction to the infinitely great,
we must distinguish between unboundedness and infinite extent,
the former belongs to the extent relations, the latter to the mea-
sure-relations. ‘That space isan unbounded three-fold manifold-
ness, is an assumption which is developed by every conception
of the outer world ; according to which every instant the region
of real perception is completed and the possible positions of a
sought object are constructed, and which by these applications is
for ever confirming itself. The unboundedness of space possesses
in this way a greater empirical certainty than any external
experience. But its infinite extent by no means follows from
this ; on the other hand if we assume independence of bodies
from position, and therefore ascribe to space constant curvature,
it must necessarily be finite provided this curvature has ever so
small a positive value. If we prolong all the geodesics starting
in a given surface-element, we should obtain an unbounded
surface of constant curvature, z.¢., a surface which in a /la¢ mani-
foldness of three dimensions would take the form of a sphere,
and consequently be finite.

§ 3. The questions about the infinitely great are for the inter-
pretation of nature useless questions. But this is not the case
with the questions about the infinitely small. It is upon the
exactness with which we follow phenomena into the infinitely
small that our knowledge of their causal relations essentially
depends. The progress of recent centuries in the knowledge of
mechanics depends almost entirely on the exactness of the con-
struction which has become possible through the invention of
the infinitesimal calculus, and through the simple principles dis-
covered by Archimedes, Galileo, and Newton, and used by
modern physic. But in the natural sciences which are still in
want of simple principles for such constructions, we seek to
discover the causal relations by following the phenomena into
great minuteness, so far as the microscope permits, Questions

(Continued from page 17.)

May 8, 1873]

about the measure-relations of space in the infinitely small are

not therefore superfluous questions.

Tf we suppose that bodies exist independently of position, the
curvature is everywhere constant, and it then results from
astronomical measurements that it cannot be different from zero ;
or at any rate its reciprocal must be an area in comparison with
which the range of our telescopes may be neglected. But if
this independence of bodies from position does not exist, we
cannot draw conclusions from metric relations of the great, to
those of the infinitely small ; in that case the curvature at each
point may have an arbitrary value in three directions, provided
that the total curvature of every measurable portion of space
does not differ sensibly from zero. Still more complicated
relations may exist if we no longer suppose the linear element
expressible as the square root of a quadric differential. Now it
seems that the empirical notions on which the metrical determi-
nations of space are founded, the notion of a solid body and of a
ray of light, cease to be valid for the infinitely small. We are
therefore quite at liberty to suppose that the metric relations of
— the infinitely small do not conform to the hypotheses
of geometry ; and we ought in fact to suppose it, if we can
thereby obtain a simpler explanation of phenomena.

The question of the validity of the hypotheses of geometry in
the infinitely small is bound up with the question of the ground
of the metric relations of space. In this last question, which we
may still regard as belonging to the doctrine of space, is found
the application of the remark made above; that in a discrete
manifoldness, the ground of its metric relations is given in the
notion of it, while in a continuous manifoldness, this ground
must come from outside. Either therefore the reaiity which
underlies space must form a discrete manifoldness, or we must
seek the ground of its metric relations outside it, in binding
forces which act upon it.

The answer to these questions can only be got by starting from
the conception of phenomena which has hitherto been justified
by experience, and which Newton assumed as a foundation, and
by making in this conception the successive changes required by
facts which it cannot explain. Researches starting from general
notions, like the investigation we have just made, can only be
useful in preventing this work from being hampered by too
narrow views, and progress in knowledge of the interdependence
of things from being checked by traditional prejudices.

This leads us into the domain of another science, of physic,
into which the object of this work does notallow us to go to-
day.

: : Synopsis
PLAN of the Inquiry :

I. Notion of an x-ply extended magnitude.

'-§ 1. Continuous and discrete manifoldnesses. Defined parts
of a manifoldness are called Quanta. Division of the
theory of continuous magnitude into the theories
(1) Of mere region-relations, in which an independence

of magnitudes from position is not assumed ;
(2) OF size-relations, in which such an independence
must be assumed.

§ 2. Construction of the notion of a one-fold, two-fold,
n-fold extended magnitude.

§ 3. Reduction of place-fixing in a given manifoldness to
quantity-fixings. True character of an -fold extended
magnitude,

II. Measure-relations of which a manifoldness of 7 dimensions
is capable on the assumption that lines have a length inde-
pendent of position, and consequently that every line
may be measured by every other. <

§ 1. Expression for the line-element. Manifoldnesses to be
called Flat in which the line-element is expressible as the
square-root of a sum of squares of complete differentials.

§ 2. Investigation of the manifoldness of #-dimensions in
which the line-element may be represented as the square
root of a quadric differential. Measure of its deviation
from flatness (curvature) at a given point in a given sur-
face-direction. For the determination of its measure-
relations it is allowable and sufficient that the curvature

n-I
surface

be arbitrarily given at every point in

(flixections. :
.§ 3. Geometric illustration.
§:4. Elat manifoldnesses (in which the curvature is every-
' where =.0) may be treated as a special case of manifold-
jhesses.with constant curvature. These can also be defined

{
Ly

NATURE

37

as admitting an independence of x-fold extents in them
from position (possibility of motion without stretching),

§ 5. Surfaces with constant curvature.

III. Application to Space.

§ 1. System of facts which suffice to determine the measures
relations of space assumed in geometry.

§ 2. How far is the validity of these empirical determina-
tions probable beyond the limits of observation towards.
the infinitely great ?

§ 3. How far towards the infinitely small? Connection
of this question with the interpretation of nature.

THE DEVELOPMENT THEORYINGERMANY*
III.
Chorology: or, the Geographical Distribution of Living Beings

THE importance of the theory of Evolution does not consist

in its accounting for this or that particular fact, but in its
explaining all biological facts collectively. It is found to be
confirmed in every detail by the mode of distribution of the
various organisms on the surface of the earth. This distribution
had already been studied by Alexander von Humboldt and
Fr. Schouw for plants, by Berghaus and Schmarda for animals.
But previous to Darwin and Wallace, this study had produced
only a collection of unsystematised facts ; Haeckel has attempted
to create out of it a special science under the name of Chorology.

With the exception of the monocellular protozoa, which, on
account of their simplicity, have been able to appear at the
same time or at several times in different places ; with the ex-
ception also of species which owe théir origin to a hybrid or
bastard generation, and which it has been possible to reproduce
in different circumstances wherever the parent species have pre-
viously spread, it must be admitted that each of the other species
has only been originated a single time and in a single place.
But, once produced, they must, as a consequence of the struggle
for existence, and in virtue of the laws of population, or rather
of excess of population, tend to spread to the widest possible
extent. Animals and plants migrate as well as man, both
actively and passively.

In the case of animals, which have, more than plants, freedom
of movement, active migration plays the principal part. The
more easy locomotion is in the case of any species, the more rapidly
is the species bound to spread. This is why birds and insects,
furnished with wings, although referable to a less number of
orders or natural groups than other animals, yet present a very
great diversity of species slightly distinguishable from one an-
other; this is to be ascribed to the fact that the facility with
which they can move from place to place has subjected them to
the modifying influences of the most varied localities. After
birds and insects the swiftest runners among the denizens
of the land, the best swimmers among the inhabitants of the
water have been subject to the widest extension, With regard
to animals which are fixed or immoyable while being developed,
corals, tubicolz, tunicata, crinoids, &c., they usually enjoy
during their youth so much of the power of movement as admits
of their displacement. A great number of floating plants are
also transported to great distances by water.

But the spread of a large number of plants and of certain
animals can be explained only by a passive migration. The
wind sweeps to great distances, sometimes over seas, eggs of
small animals, seeds, and sometimes even minute organisms ;
this explains the well-known phenomena of showers of frogs.
These eggs, these seeds, these small organisms, sometimes
fall into the water, which transports them to still greater
distances. Trunks of trees, which traverse the ocean under.
the direction of the currents, and those which the tempest
hurls from the mountain tops, can carry with them, hidden in
their interstices, in the moss or the parasitical plants with which
they are covered, in the earth which adheres to their roots, in-
numerable germs to be developed in new regions. The icebergs
of the polar sea have landed foxes and bears even on the shores
of Iceland and Britain. Birds, insects, mammals which are
removed, carry with them thousands of parasites, microscopic
beings, eggs or germs, Man himself carries them about more
abundantly still along with the varied materials he employs for
kis works and his industry.

The fact of the distribution of certain species which cannot
be explained by migration, either active or passive, may be
accounted for by geological facts. In consequence of the im-

* Continued from vol. vii. p. 434.

eo . NATURE

perceptible but unceasing change of the level of the seas, in con-
sequence of the phenomena of subsidence and elevation of the
land, lands at one time united have been divided, watercourses
which communicated have been separated, thus accounting for
the fact that fishes of the same species are found in different
rivers, that islands are tenanted by the same mammals as
the continents. England has been united to Europe at two
different times ; at a certain epoch our continent must have been
united by land to N. America. The Sourh-sea Islands are the
remains of what was at one time a single land; so in the Indian
Ocean land has at one time stretched along the South of Asia
from Sunda to Africa; this great continent which Sclater has
called Lemuria, on account of the apes which were peculiar to
it, is probably the cradle where the human race was developed
from the anthropoid apes. Mr. Wallace has proved that the
Malay Archipelago consisted of two entirely different parts: one,
comprehending Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, was united to Asia
by the peninsula of Malacca, while the other, comprehending
the Celebes, the Moluccas, New Guinea, the Salomon Isles, &c.,
was immediately attached to Australia,

Another cause which has favoured the dispersion of species
all over the globe, was the uniformity of temperature which pre-
vailed up to the tertiary geological period. Previous to the
freezing of the polar regions, species found everywhere a climate
equally warm and agreeable, favourable to migrations in all
directions ; since that period, on the contrary, a new difficulty of
existence has arisen, —organisms have to undergo acclimatisation ;
those which have the power of adapting themselves to the lower
temperature of regions at a distance from the equator, have been
transformed by selection into new species ; while those which
have found such adaptation impossible, have been compelled,
under pain of extinction, to remove to more favourable climates.
When, at a later period, occurred that strange phenomenon—of
which, as yet, no satisfactory explanation has been given—
known as the Glacial Period, animals and plants were compelled
to migrate anew ; the living popu'ation of the earth, condensing
itself between the tropics, a terrible struggle for existence took
place between the old inhabitants of these regions and those that
fled thither for refuge ; many species were bound to disappear,
while many new ones were originated. There is still another choro-
logical phenomenon which is to be accounted tor by the glacial
period, viz., the resemblance of many of the inhabitants of moun-
tains to those of the Polar regions ; as those animals and those
plants are not found in the intermediate countries, it is absolutely
necessary to suppose a migration which, considering the habits
of these creatures, could only have taken place at the glacial
epoch, It is probable that at this period the gentians, the saxi-
frages, the Polar hare and fox, inhabited the central part of
Europe ; but as the temperature rose, some of these creatures
retired towards the north, while the remainder found a refuge
upon the summi's of the European mountains.

When planis or animals migrate to new regions, they are sub-
jected to new conditions of existence to which they must adapt
themselves. The new climate, new food, relations with new
organisms, all this oblizes the emigrants to submit to mo-
difications under pain of annihilation, and, as a consequence,
to form new varieties or new species; it is in these
circumstances, ia fact, that matural selection acts with
the greatest intensity. In ordinary circumstances, indi-
viduals which have changed breed with indivduals who
have not changed, and the products of such crossings have
a tendency to revert to the prim tive type; but when a migra-
tion has taken place, when modified individuals are separated
from the others by mountains or by seas, they can no longer
interbreed, and this isolation insures the preservation of the
newly acquired forms. It is of course evident that these con-
siderations apply only to species in which the sexes are separate.

There still remain three other chorological phenomena which
furnish an important proof of the truth of the evolution theory.
There is first the likeness of form, the family resemblance which
exists among the local species characteristic of each region, and
the extinct and fossil spe-ies of the same region ; in the second
the no less striking family resemblance which exists among the
inhabitants of certain groups of those of the neighbouring con-
tineats, whence the population of these islands must have come ;
and lastly, the special character pres:nted by the cullective fauna
and flora of the islands. All the facts adduced by Darwin,
Wallace,* and Moritz Wagner,+ as weil as all those other facts

* “ Malay Archipelago.”

+ The “Darwinian ‘Theory and the Law of Migration of Organisms”
Leipzig, 1868).

which geographical and topographical dispersion of organisms
present to us are simply and completely explained by the theory
of selection and migration, while it would be impossible to
explain them without it.

Paleontology

Thanks to the theory of evolution, the natural classification of
animals and plants, which was previously Only a record of names
for arranging the different forms in an artificial order, or a record
of facts expressing summarily the degree of resemblance among
them, tends to become the genealogical tree of organisms.
In order to construct it the student has only to combine the
data furnished by the three parallel developments referred to
above—the palzeontological development, the embryological de-
velopment, and the systematic development in the order of per-
fection or of comparative anatomy. The writer jin the Reve.
Scientifique here gives a table presenting a view of the geological
and palzeontological doctrines of Haeckel. Between the stages
generally admitted by geologists, Haeckel intercalates others
which he calls inferior or intermediate stages in relation to the
superior stages. Haeckel accepts completely the system of gra-
dual and continuous evolution as propourided by Lyell, and re-
jects the system of sudden catastrophes which has been advocated
by Cuvier and his disciples. He places the probable appearance
of man in the Miocene, and his certain existence in the Pliocene.
Many attempts have been made to determine approximately how
many thousand years each geological period has lasted ; these
conjectures are principally framed on the relative thickness of
the different beds, The total thickness of the Archzolithic or
Primordial beds, in which Haeckel includes the Laurentian, Cam-
brian, and Silurian, is 70,000 ft. ; that of the Primary, from the
Devonian to the Permian, 42,000 ft. ; that of the Secondary,
15,000 ft. ; that of the Tertiary, 3,000 ft. ; while the thickness
of the beds of the ‘‘ Anthropolithic ” or Quaternary age is only
from 500 to 7ooft. From these figures, the following relative
duration of the successive ages may be deduced :—

Primordial Age : e 5 53°6

Peimary Fy 5 ‘ . 32°1
Secondary ,, : ‘ : 11'S
Tertiary i3 F , 2°3
Quaternary ,, . . . o’5

Thus the Primordial age has existed longer than the other four
put together. As to the number of centuries or of millenniums
necessary for the deposition of one bed only one foot thick, that
depends on circumstances so yariable that it is impossible to give
any measure: it is longer in the depths of mid-ocean, in the
beds of very long rivers, in lakes which receive no affluents ; it is
shorter on the sea-margins, at the mouths of great rivers whose
course is long and straight, in iakes which receive many tributary
streams. It results from such considerations that every estimate
of the duration of a geological epoch must be relative.

It will be necessary, moreover, to take into consideration,
elevations and depressions of the ground, which, according to
Haeckel, will be alternative, and will correspond to the minera-
logical and paleontological differences which exist between
two systems of beds and between two formations of these systems.
When a certain region, after having remained for many thousand
centuries beneath the water, emerges for a certain tim’, and is
again submerged, it will be readily admitted that the bed which is
deposited after such an interval ought to present characteristics
different from those of the lower bed: for time is bound to
accomplish change of all organic and organic conditions. This
theory has been disputed by Huxley, who finds it inconsistent
with the existence of a large number of beds, in which are found
united organic forms, holiing a middl2 place between those of
adjacent formations ; the English naturalist adduces, for example,
the beds of Saint Cassian, in which are found mingled the forms
of the primary and secondary formations.

It is certain that even yet our knowledge of paleontology is
very imperfect, and far from enabling us to write, with anything
like exactness, the history of the production of organic species.
We know with what difficulties this study is surrounded. The
fossil remains of the most remote ages appear to have been
destroyed by the great heat of the lower beds in which they were
deposuied. £oz00n Canadense is the only fos,il which has hitherto
been found in the formations of the Laurentian period ; while
the beds of carbon and of crystallised lime(graphite and marble)
give us the assurance that in them have existed animal and
vegetable petrifactions. Another difficulty lies in the fact that
hitherto the field of geological exploration has been very re-

| May 8, 1873

May 8, 1873]

NATURE

39

stricted. Outside of England, Germany, and France, very few
formations have been seriously studied ; almost the only success-
ful explorations have been in railway-cuttings. One indication
of what maybe discovered elsewhere is furnished by the remarkable
petrifactions which have resulted from some researches prosecuted
in Africa and Asia, in the neighbourhood of the Cape, and on
the Himalayas : forms have been discovered which fill up im-
portant gaps in palzontological classification. It must be remem-
bered also that only the hard and solid parts of organisms have
been preserved, that entire forms, such as the Medusz, shell-less
molluscs, many articulata, nearly all worms, could leave no trace
behind. The most important parts of plants, the flowers, have
completely disappeared. Moreover, terrestrial organisms have
been petrified only in accidental instances, where they have fallen
into the water and been covered with mud ; it is not to be won-
dered at then if the number of fossils of this kind is relatively
much less considerable than that of those kinds which have in-
habited the sea or fresh water. This explains also the appa-
rently strange fact that of many fossil mammals, especially those
of the secondary, we recognise only the lower jaw. This arises
from the fact that that bone is easily separated from the dead
body ; while the rest swims on the surface of the water and is
carried to the bank, the jaw falls to the bottom, and is buried in
the mud, where it is petrified. The traces of those which have
been found in different beds of sandstone, and especially in the
red sandstone of Connecticut, belong to organisms whose bodies
are entirely unknown to us, and prove that we are far from pos-
sessing remains of all actual forms. What gives us reason to
think that an immense number must remain unknown is the fact
that of those whose fossil remains we possess, only one or two
examples have come to light. It is only ten years since a bird
of the highest importance was discovered in the Jura ; till then
no intermediate form was known between the birds proper and

reptiles, which are, nevertheless, the class most closely related |

to the former. Now ‘this fossil bird, which possesses the tail,
not of an ordinary bird, but of a lizard, confirms the hypothesis
that birds are descended from the saurians. A couple of small
teeth which have been found in the Keuper of the Trias are, up
to the present, the only proof that mammals have existed from
the Triassic period, and that they did not appear only in the
Jurassic period, as was previously believed.

Fortunately we are able to supplement the insufficient data of
palzontology by tho-e of embryology, since individual develop-
ment is, as it were, a reproduction or recapitulation brief and
rapid, by means of heredity and adaptation of the development
of species. Embryology is especially valuable for the light
which it throws on the more ancient forms of the primordial
period ; by it alone do we learn that these primitive forms must
have been simple cells, similar to eggs; that these cells, by their
segmentation, their conformation, and their division of labour,
have given birth to the infinite variety of the most complicated
organisms.

To the valuable data respecting the relations of organisms
furnished by palzeontology and embryology must be added those
derived from comparative anatomy. When organisms, whose
exterior is very different, resemble each other in their interior
construction, we may conclude with certainty that this resem-
blance is due to heredity, while the differences are a result of
adaptation. If, for example, we compare the limbs or extremi=
ties of different mammifers, the arm of man, the wing of the bat,
the anterior members of the mole adapted for digging, those of
other mammifers made for leaping, climbing, or running ; if we
consider, besides, that in all these members variously formed, the
same bones are found, equal in number, in the same place, dis-
posed in the same manner, are we not forced to admit the close
relationship of organisms? This homology can be explained
only by heredity, by descent from common ancestors. And to
go still further, if we find in the wing of the bird, in the
anterior members of reptiles and amphibia, the same bones as
in the arms of man, or in the anterior limbs of other mammifers,
can we not affirm with certainty the common descent of all
these vertebrate animals ?

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Ocean Highways, May.—The first paper in this number is an
article on Mexico, by Mr. Maurice Kingsley, accompanied by a
map showing the course of the Vera Cruz and Mexico Railway.
This is followed by a very interesting article on “* Railway Com-
munication between London and Calcutta,” with a tap showing

the proposed line from Ostende, by Vienna, Constantinople,
Diabeker, Herat, Cabul, Lahore, Delhi, Cawnpore, and Cal-
cutta. By this route the land journey would amount to 6,336
miles, with only 73 miles of sea, which could’ be accomplished
in 214 hours, or about 9 days ; while by the present shortest
route, the sea-journey amounts to 3,941 miles, and the time
taken is 492 hours, or upwards ef 20 days. Dr. Robert Brown
contributes a paper entitled ‘* A Cruise with the Whalers in
Baffin’s Bay,” which is followed by ‘‘ Notes on Mr. Stanley’s
Work,” by Capt. RF. Burton, in which that gentleman points
out several things in Stanley’s book that he thinks are capable
of amendment. Burton thinks Stanley ‘‘ wants only study and
discipline, to make him a first-rate traveller.” This is followed
by a very valuable paper on ‘“‘ The Steppes to the North of
Bokhara,” by A. Vambéry. Then follow the usual reviews,
notes, reports of societies, &c.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Chemical Society, May 1.—Dr, Odling, F.R.S., president,
in the chair.—Dr. H. Sprengel, ‘f On a new class of explosives.”
gave an account of some new explosives consisting of two liquids
inexplosive by themselves, but which when mixed and fired with
a detonating charge are as eff-ctive as nitroglycerine. —Prof. Abel
of the Royal Arenal, Woolwich, drew attention to the great
difference produced by variations in the mechanical state of the
explosive.—On Zirconia, by Mr. J. B. Hannay.—On Pyrogallate
of lead and lead salts, by Mr. W. H. Deering.

Royal Horticultural Society, April 16.—General meeting,
Sir Coutts Lindsay, Bart., inthe chair. The Rev. M. J. Berkeley
commented on the plants exhibited, and remarked that :he unused
archways of railways might be profitably employed for the produc-
tion of mushrooms.—Mr. W. A. Lindsay (the secretary) enume-
rated the concessions which the Council had made for this year to
Her Majesty’s commissioners for the Exhibition,including a passage-
way across the gardens: the society would receive in return the
sum of 1000/.—Scientific committee—Prof. Westwood, F.L.S., in
the chair. The Rev. M. J. Berkeley commented on an article
in the recent number of the journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society on the injury suffered by horses fed upon mouldy oats.
There was an evident error with respect to the fungus figured as
Aspergillum (sic) which was clearly the common bread-mould
Ascophora Mucedo. With respect to the diseased coffee-plants
from Natal brought forward at the last meeting he was disposed
to think that climatic conditions were the cause, of their malady.
The differences between the summer and winter temperatures
had been too slight to check the growth of the coffee trees.
There are often three flowerings instead of one, or at all events
two. It seemed on the whole probable that growth was over-
estimated, and that, consequently, when the drought came, the
plants were unable to supportit. There was a minute immature
black fungus, which might be referred to Defazea, on the twigs.
Prof. Thiselton Dyer read a letter addressed to Dr. Hooker
from Dr. Henderson in charge of the Calcutta Botanic Garden,
describing the disease of the opium poppy. This appeared to be
favoured by moist weather, and the plants affected were infested
with Peronospora arborescens, and also with a fungus (which Mr.
Berkeley identified as Macrosporium cheiranthi, a peculiar form
of Cladosporium herbarum.) The places attacked were black,
and the disease progressed from below, upwards. If the plant
has not flowered when attacked, it never does so; but if it is on
the point of flowering. the sepals, petals, and stamens, do not drop
off as they would do in healthy plants. The effect of guano, even
in very small quantities, was remarkable in increasing the crop.

Institution of Civil Engineers, April 29.—Mr. T.
Hawksley, president, in the chair.—‘‘On the Rigi Railway,”
by Dr. William Pole, F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E. The object of this
railway was to convey passengers to the top of the Rigi, a
mountain near Lucerne, from which there was a view so cele-
brated as to attract large numbers of visitors in the summer
months. The line commenced at Vitznau, on the Lake of Lucerne,
and was about four miles long. The works are mostly formed
by cutting and benching on the rocky slope of the mountain.
There was but one short tunnel, and only one iron bridge over a
rayine, The gauge was 4 feet 83 inches.

GLascow

Geological Society, April 10.—Mr. John Young, vice-
president, in the chair—The chgirman exhibited a specimen

40

NATURE

7 [May 8, 1873

of carboniferous limestone from Braidwood, near Car-
luke, containing in great abundance the tests or shells of a
species of Foraminifer, Saccimina carteri. Similar organisms
had been found in a limestone from the Elf Hills, Northumber-
land, and described by Dr. H. B. Brady in 1871. They had
also been found once or twice in the limestones of the east of
Scotland, but so far as he was aware, this was the first instance
in which it had been recognised in the limestones of the Lanark-
shire coal field.—Mr. J. Thompson, F.G.S., read a paper which
he had prepared in conjunction with Mr. Henry Caunter, on
the geology of the neighbourhood of Stornoway, island of Lewis.
The authors briefly described the relations of the gneissic or
Laurentian rocks to the Cambrian strata of the island. The
junction of the two formations is seen in the bed of a small stream
that flows into the sea in the harbour of Stornoway ; also in
Garabost Bay, about seven miles to the east. The Laurentians
dip N.W., while the lower members of the Cambrian dip at an
angle of 23° tothe N.E. These beds have been termed by Sir
R. Murchison, Upper Cambrian. The authors next described
the more recent deposits of the island, beginning with the boulder
drift, with its transported striated erratics, all of which belong to the
Laurentian system, and are traceable to the west and north-west.
They then referred to the gravels and drift-sand which overlie
the remains of an extensive bed of peat seen in Stornoway Bay,
where it attains a depth of 15 feet. At the lower extremity of
this bed, and only seen at extreme low tides, are numerous
stumps of trees of considerable dimensions, the roots of which
rest upon and pass down through a bed of clay which forms the
subsoil. From this it would seem that there has been an exten-
sive subsidence of the island at a comparatively recent period,
and that the climatal conditions must have been very different
during the time when such trees grew from those which prevail
at the present day.
PARIS

Academy of Sciences, April 28.—M. de Quatrefages,
president, in the chair,—The following papers were read.—On
the actions produced in capillary spaces by molecular attractions,
by M. Becyerel. The author described the various results
produced by inserting solutions contained in cracked vessels into
other vessels containing solutions capable of producing precipi-
tates in them, ¢.g. baric nitrate and potassic sulphate. After a
few days the solutions communicate by the crack and electric
curren's are started.—On the heat disengaged by the reactions
between the alkalis and water: potassic and sodic hydrates by
M. Berthelot. The results obtained lead the author to suppose
that there is a potassic hydrate intermediate between the ordinary
fused and crystallised hydrates.—On the combinations produced
by the electric discharge between marsh gas and carbonic anhy-
dride, and between carbonic oxide and hydrogen, by MM. P.and
A. Thenard.—On certain particular spectroscopic observations
by Father A. Secchi. —On the application of the pandynamometer
to the measurement of the work performed by a steam engine,
by M. G. A. Hirn.—On the application of the mathematical
theory of elasticity to the study of articulated systems formed by
elastic rods, by M. Maurice Levy.—On the composition of the
thermic mineral waters of Vichy, Bourbon l’Archambault, and
Weris, as regards those substances which invariably exist in
water in minute proportions, by M. de Gouvernain.—An exami-
nation of the difference produced in the spectrum of chlorophyll
by different solvents, by M. J. Chautard.—On the unwholesome
nature of the Versailles water supply, by M. E. Decaisne.—On
the awakening of the Phylloxera in the month of April 1873, by
M. Faucon.—On nebulz discovered and observed at the Mar-
scilles observatory, by M. E. Stephan.—On characteristics in
the theory of conics, on planes, and in space, and on second
order surfaces, by M, Halphen.—On the vapour emitted at the
same temperature by the same body in two states, by M. J.
Moutier.—On the spectrum of erbia, by M. Lecocq de Boisbau-
dran. The author has found that erbia and erbic phosphate
give, when heated, different band spectra, of which the author
exhibited plates and tables. These spectra he has carefully in-
vestigated, and finding it impossible to attribute either of them
to another body, he concluded that they were both due to
erbium in different states of combination.—Observations on M.
du Moncel’s late note on the history of the silent discharge, by
M. Arn. Thenard.— On the Manufacture of ammonic sulphate
from nitrogenous waste products, by M. L’Hote.—On the con-
ditions of formation of extra silicious pig in blast furnaces, by
M. S. Jordan. Experiments on the effects of dynamite, by
MM. Roux and Jarrou.—On necrobiosis and gangrene, an expe-

rimental study on the phenomena of mortification and putrefac- —
tion as they occur in the living body, by M. Chauveau.—On the
geology of Mount Léberon, by M. A. Gaudry.

DIARY

THURSDAY, May 8.

Royvat Soctety, at 8.30.—Contributions to the Study of the Errant Anne-
lides of the older Palzozoic Rocks : Prof. Alleyne Nicholson.—Researches
in Spectrum Analysis in Connection with the Spectrum of the Sun:
J. Norman Lockyer.—The Action cf Light on the Electrical Resistance of
Selenium: Lieut. Sale.

Matuematicat Society, at 8 —On Bicursal Curves, and Plan of a Curve-
tracing Apparatus: Prof. Cayley. —On an application of the Theory of
Unicursal aaa M. Hermite.

Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.

Roya INSTITUTION, at 3-—Light: Prof. Tyndall.

FRIDAY, May 9.
Roya InsTiTUTION, at 3—A Fortnight in Asia Minor: Mr. Grant Duff,
ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 8.
QueketTT Cxvs, at 8.
SATURDAY, May 10.
Royat InstiTuTION, at 3.—Ozone: Prof Odling.

MONDAY, May 12.
Roya GEOGRAPHICAL Soci&ty, at 8 30.
Lonpon InstiTuTION, at 4.—Elementary Botany: Prof. Bentley.

TUESDAY, May 13. :
Roya InstituTIon, at 3.—Roman History and Architecture: J. H.
Parker.
Puorocrapuic Society, at 8.—On instantaneous Landscape Photography :
F. R. Elwell.—Improvements in Carbon Printing : A. Marion,

WEDNESDAY, May 14.

Society oF Arts, at 8.—Improvements in Rifles: Capt. O’Hea.

GEoLoaiIcau Society, at 8.—Notes on Structure in the Chalk of the York-
shire Wolds: J. R. Mortimer.—On the genus Pa/eocoryne, Duncan and
Jenkins, aud its affinities: Prof. P. Mart Duncan.—On Platysiagum
sclerocephalum and Paleospinax priscus, Egerton: Sir Philip de M.
Grey-Egerton.—On a new genus of Silurian Asteride: Dr. Thomas

right. i

ARCHAOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, at 8.—Anniversary.

Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 7.—Paper and Discussion.

Society or TELEGRAPH ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—On the Block System of
Working Railways: W. H. Preece and Capt. Mallock.

THURSDAY, May 15.
Royat Society, at 8.30,
SocigTy OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.
CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—On Isomerism; Dr, H. E. Armstrong.
Numismatic Soctgty, at 7.
Roya Institution, at 3.—Light: Prof. Tyndall.

BOOKS RECEIVED

EnGuisu.—Comet's Tails no longera Mystery: T. A. R. (Reeves aud
Son).—Manual tor Medical Officers of Health: E. Smith(Knight & Co.),
—Manchester Science Lectures, 1871-73. 3rd Series: J. Heywood & Co.—
Tropical World. New Edition: Dr. G. Hartwig (Longmans).—The Life of
von Humboldt, Vols. i. and ii. : Bruhns, translated by Lassell (Longmans),—
Astronomical Plates from the Observatory of Harvard College (Tribner).—
Text-books of Science ; Electricity, and Magnetism: F. Jenkin (Longmans).
—Critiques and Addresses: Thomas Huxley (Macmillan & Coj— The
Familiar History of British Fishes: Frank Buckland (published by the
Society for promoting Christian Knowledge).—The Cruise of the Curacoa
among the South Sea Islands, 1865: J. C. Brenchley (Longmans),

Foreicn.—Zeitschrift fur Biologie, Part 1, Vol. ix.—Zoologische Botan-

ische Gesellschaft in Wien, Vol, xxii., 1872.—Die Naturkrafte, Munich,
Edited by Dr. K. A. Zittel.

CONTENTS Page
A Voice From CAMBRIDGE. ibys. 0) 0 ss 0. > > ys = 5 ee
Coves’ AMERICAN Birps. .. .» 22

Fiammarion’s ATMOSPHERE. By W. F. Barrett, F.C.S. (With
Lbbustr ations) jx..s0,)%),= geanemeitine ace rei (0 oss: yh wind eo
Our Book SHELF . =) feng
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :—
Originators of Glacial Theories.—A. AGassiz . . . . . . « « 2%
Scientific Endowments and Bequests.—F. M. BALFouR . . . . 25
Permanent and Temporary Variation of Colour in Fish.—W. SAVILLE

0) (= 2, Ree Pte 8 oe Be ee

KENT‘. (st. 0; 2s Gem, 500 os 6, lounge
On Approach caused by Velocity and Resulting in Vibration.—
HERMANN SMITH. . - ar ee eee

The Hegelian Calculus.—J. Hurcuison STIRLING eae oo
Moving in a Circle... tis tey-0, + js.» seue) 8) aes a
Justus Liesic. By Prof. H. E. Roscoz, F.R.S.. .

eo © 6 y'. (eee
Notes FROM THE Challenger (With Iilustrations). By Prof. WyviLtz of
Tuomson, F.R.S. . eS he eb tec te a’ eg nnn
On THE OricIn AND METAMORPHOSES OF INssECcTS, III. By Sir Joun
Lussock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S, (Wsth Iilustrations.) . . . . . « 3%
Notes Ta err
On THE HyPOTHESES WHICH LIE AT THE Bases or Geometry, II. By
BERNHARD RieMANN. Translated by Prof. W.K. CLirrorp . . . 36
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NATURE

41

THURSDAY, MAY 15, 1873

A VOICE FROM CAMBRIDGE
is

A ger questions raised by the Cambridge Memorial to

which we referred last week are so important that
no excuse is necessary for recurring to them. In the
first place it may be remarked that the answer of
Mr. Gladstone to the Cambridge memorialists, is quite
such as any reasonable man might have looked for.
University reform is not at present a political question
in the vulgar sense of that word. The heart of the
masses is not stirred by proposals concerning the tenure
of fellowships. The religious element, or rather the sec-
tarian element, has now been largely eliminated from the
matter; there remains scarcely anything at stake save
the interests of learning and science; and these, as we
know, are things of very little value in the eyes of the
present Government.

The more one looks at the matter the more it is
difficult to see what good the Cambridge Reformers
expected to result from their respectable document.
No fault can be found with the propositions of the
memorial so far as they go. They are just such sound
steady-going sober proposals as would naturally come
from a body of quiet moderate officials who, on the
whole, content with the general state of things, desired
to see some practical amendments introduced, but
dreaded to agitate, had a wholesome fear of radical |
changes, and above all, were not clear about the broad
features of the necessities which have to be met, or of |
the changes which have to be brought about.

Until the public mind, to say nothing of the Univer-
sity mind, has gained some clear definite notions about
the functions of a University, all attempts at reform must
be partial or complete failures. : ,

The prevalent theories concerning the office of a Uni-
versity may be put in three categories.

The first regards the University as an ecclesiastical
nursery. This was the original view, but now-a-days is
passing out of mind, though tenaciously clung to by some
resident members at either University. It only needs to
be mentioned to be dismissed.

The second looks upon Oxford and Cambridge as
places where the young Tartars of modern English society
are covered with a varnish of “culture,” and polished
into gentlemen. Dr. Lyon Playfair said in the House
the other day that the Scotch University taught a man
how to make a thousand a year, the English University
how to spend it; and in saying this he simply put into
forcible language the ideas which are prevalent among
many members of the Universities. They distinctly and
emphatically discard the idea that it is the duty of the
University to equip a man for the struggle for a livelihood,
to train him for business, for the arts, for the professions.
Their token is “culture,” not culture in the sense of
higher learning, but in the sense of personal varnish, in
the sense of a mental equipment which does not pay, and
which is of no use to the owner in practical life, which is
a luxury and not a need, a sort of evening dress of the
mind, which may be ornamental under the artificial lights |

No, 185—Vot, vu.

| in the way.

of society, but is ill suited for every-day work. Now this
Sort of culture is not much sought after ; for by hard-
headed fathers whose sons have to get or to keep their
living by their own exertions, it is sought for less and less
year by year. The advocates of the view we are dealing
with see this very clearly, and accordingly they contend,
very logically, that since the world does not care greatly
for this kind of culture, and will not send its sons to a
University for that only, some other inducements must be
provided. And these are found in the prize fellowships,
more especially in the non-resident fellowships. A lad of
parts whose friends would not send him to Oxford simply
to gain that liberal education, “which softens the cha-
racter and prevents its being strong,” goes there because
by show of possessing that culture which he despises or
even hates, he gains a good round sum of money which
it is worth his while to waste three or four years in
getting.

The third view, which at present has but few advocates,
teaches that the University is a place where anyone and
everyone may be trained for any and every respectable
path of life, and where at the same time all the interests
of higher learning and science are cared for. The advo-
cates of this view say, Do not bribe men by fellowships to
come to a University from which they will go carrying
with them a very little learning, and that for the most
part useless, and an artificial culture of doubtful value.
Make it worth their while to come to the University, teach
them there what they want to be taught, train them there
as they desire to be trained, and there will be no need to
bribe them with fellowships. They will then come to
Oxford and to Cambridge as they are now going to
Owens College, to London, to Newcastle, and to Ger-

| many. Take care at the same time that the teaching be

not narrow and professional, broaden it with the diligent
nurture of higher learning and science, and thea there
will be every hope of seeing true culture and useful edu-
cation going hand in hand. Let the youth of the
University have the opportunity of seeing the master-
minds of the age at their work, so that they may be
inspired by them to the highest reaches of thought.

It appears to us that many of those who signed the
Cambridge memorial had no clear ideas as to which of
the above views they adhered ; and hence the uncertain
sound of their trumpet. Apparently the document was
so loose that supporters of all three views signed it con-
scientiously ; no wonder it fell without effect.

It is unnecessary for us to say that the third view we
have mentioned is one which we ourselves support. The
real difficulty lies in this, how to change the old Univer-
sities to suit these new views, how to ring out the old
ecclesiasticism and false culture and ring in useful training
with high science and deep active learning and re-
search. The difficulty of this task cannot be exaggerated.
Long years of misrule have left suckers of jobbery, like
bindweed in an old garden, which come up refreshed
with every stirring of the soil. There is a mass of power-
ful conservatism which has to be striven against. There
is a careless public and a still more careless Government
which has to be roused. There are plenty of difficulties
If the memorialists really have the reform
of the old universities at heart, they will cease to memo-
rialise feebly a feeble administration, and search dili-

D

42

NATURE

[May 15, 1873

on — ————————————————————————————

gently for some broad scheme of reform which may be
introduced without danger, which will render all fellow-
ships unnecessary, which will at once provide for the pro-
fessional student and the original investigator, and that
in such a way that an ignorant Parliament shall have no
excuse for tampering with it. And if they do this quickly,
they may do it before the Association for Academical
Organisation has begun to stretch its limbs.

LONGMANS’ TEXT-BOOKS OF SCIENCE

Electricity and Magnetism. By Fleeming Jenkin,
F.R.SS. L. and E., M.I.C.E., Professor of Engineering
in the University of Edinburgh. (London : Longmans
and Co., 1873.)

HE author of this text-book tells us with great truth
that at the present time there are two sciences of
electricity—one that of the lecture-room and the popular
treatise; the other that of the testing-office and the
engineer’s specification. The first deals with sparks and
shocks which are seen and felt, the other with currents
and resistances to be measured and calculated. The
popularity of the one science depends on human
curiosity ; the diffusion of the other is a result of the
demand for electricians as telegraph engineers.

The text-book before us, which is the work of an
engineer eminent in telegraphy, is designed to teach the
practical science of electricity and magnetism, by setting
before the student as early as possible the measurable
quantities of the science, and giving him complete in-
structions for actually measuring them.

“ The difference between the electricity of the schools
and of the testing office has been mainly brought about
by the absolute necessity in practice for definite measure-
ment. The lecturer is content to say, under such and
such circumstances, a current flows or a resistance is
increased. The practical electrician must know how
much resistance, or he knows nothing ; the difference is
analogous to that between quantitative and qualitative
analysis.”

It is not without great effort that a science can pass
out of one stage of its existence into another. To
abandon one hypothesis in order to embrace another is
comparatively easy, but to surrender our belief in a mys-
terious agent, making itself visible in brilliant experi-
ments, and probably capable of accounting for what-
ever cannot be otherwise explained; and to accept the
notion of electricity as a. measurable commodity, which
may be supplied at a potential of so many Volts at so
much a Farad, is a transformation not to be effected
without a pang.

It is true that in the last century Henry Cavendish led
the way in the science of electrical measurement, and
Coulomb invented experimental methods of great pre-
cision. But these were men whose scientific ardour far
surpassed that of ordinary mortals, and for a long time
their results remained dormant on the shelves of libraries.
Then came Poisson and the mathematicians, who raised
the science of electricity to a height of analytical splen-
dour, where it was even more inaccessible than before to
the uninitiated.

' And now that electrical knowledge has acquired a
commercial value, and must be supplied to the telegraphic

world in whatever form it can be obtained, we are per-
haps in some danger of forgetting the debt we owe to
those mathematicians who, from the mass of their unin-
terpretable symbolical expressions, picked out such terms
as “ potential,” “ electromotive force” and “ capacity,” re-
presenting qualities which we now know to be capable of
direct measurement, and which we are beginning to be
able to explain to persons not trained in high mathe-
matics.

Prof. Jenkin has, we think, made great progress in the
important work of reducing the cardinal conceptions of
electromagnetism to their most intelligible form, and
presenting them to the student in their true connection.

The distinction between free electricity and latent,
bound, combined, or dissimulated electricity, which
occurs so frequently, especially in continental works on
electricity, is not, so far as we can see, even alluded to in
these pages ; so that the student who takes Prof. Jenkin
as his sole guide will not have his mind infected with a
set of notions which did much harm in their day, On
the other hand, terms which are really scientific—the use
of which has led to a clearer understanding of the
subject—are carefully defined and rendered familiar by
well-chosen illustrations.

Thus we find that men of the most profound scientific
acquirements were labouring forty years ago to discover
the relation between the nature of a wire and the strength
of the current induced in it. By the introduction of the
term “electromotive force” to denote that which produces
or tends to produce a current, the phenomena can now
be explained to the mere beginner by saying that the
electromotive force is determined by the alterations of the
state of the circuit in the field, and is independent of the
nature of the wire, while the current produced is mea-
sured by the electromotive force divided by the resistance ~
of the circuit. To impress on the mind of the student
terms which lead him in the right track, and to keep out
of his sight those which have only led our predecessors,
if not. ourselves, astray, is an aim which Prof. Jenkin
seems to have kept always in view.

To the critical student of text-books in general, there
may appear to be a certain want of order and method in
the first part of this treatise, the different facts being all
thrown into the student’s mind at once, to be defined and
arranged in the chapters which follow. But when we con-
sider the multiplicity of the connexions among the parts
of electrical science, and the supreme importance of never
losing sight of electrical science as a whole, while en-
gaged in the study of each of its branches, we shall see
that this little book, though it may appear at first a mighty
maze, is not without a plan, and though it may be diffi-
cult to determine in which chapter we are to look for any
particular statement, we have an excellent index at the
end to which we may refer.

The descriptions of scientific and telegraphic instru-
ments have all the completeness and more than the concise-
ness which we should look for from a practical engineer,
and in a small compass contain a great deal not to be
found in other books. The preface contains an outline of |
the whole subject, traced in a style so vigorous, that we
feel convinced that the author could, with a little pains
bestowed here and there, increase the force of his reason-
ing by several “ Volts,” and at the same time diminish by

May 13, 1873)

NATURE

43

an “Ohm” or two the apparent stiffness of some of the
paragraphs, so as to render the book more suitable to the
capacities of the “ Microfarads ” of the present day.

ZOOLOGICAL MYTHOLOGY

Zoological Mythology; or, the Legends of Animals. By
Angelo De Gubernatis, Professor of Sanskrit and Com-
parative Literature in the Istituto di Studii Superiori
e di Perfezionamento at Florence. 2 vols. (London:
Triibner and Co., 1872.)

HE claims which these volumes make to our con-
sideration as students of Nature is that their stories

of birds, beasts, and fishes are treated as being Natural
History, not indeed in an ordinary, but in an extra-
ordinary sense. It is asserted that they are descrip-
tions in mythical language of the great phenomena of the
earth and sky. To no small extent this assertion is in-
disputably true. In ancient poetry or story, it often
happens that the teller of a myth incidentally lets us
know what his underlying meaning is. Thus many a
passage from the Veda shows that the minds of that
poetic race of herdsmen, the ancient Aryans, were so
moulded to the dominant ideas of the pasture and the
stall, that they saw throughout all heaven and earth the
analogues of their beloved herds. The winds chasing
the clouds seem, to their fancy, bulls rushing among the
cows. The sky is a beneficent cow, giving rain for milk.
Indra, the Heaven-god, is a bull of bulls, whose horns
are the thunderbolts, who smites in storm the mountain
cavern where the cloud-cows are imprisoned, and sets
them free. The sun may be fancied a herdsman, as in this
ancient Vedic riddle : “ I have seen a shepherd who never
set down his foot, and yet went and disappeared on the
roads ; and who, taking the same and yet different roads,
goes round and round amidst the worlds.” Horses, too,
as we moderns know by thejclassic chariot of the sun,
figure in mythic astronomy. Prof. De Gubernatis gives
us the beautiful little Russian nature-tale of the maiden

_ Basilica, who, on her way to the old witch’s house, sees a
black horseman all in black on a black horse, and then
night falls ; then she sees a white horseman on a white
horse, and day dawns; then a red horseman on a red
horse, and the sun rises. The story has been told already
in England, but deserves telling again for its absolute
certainty of meaning, which hardly requires the old witch’s
explanation that the black, white, and red horsemen are
mythic personifications of night, day, and sun. If, then,
we meet with stories very like unquestionable nature-myths,
there is a strong case for the mythologists who say these
stories are also nature-myths, whose original meaning
has been forgotten, so that they have fallen into the
state of mere fanciful tales. Thus, in an Esthonian
story quoted by our author, this same notion appears
of the three horsemen who are personifications of the
great periods of light and darkness. The hero comes to
deliver the princess from the glass mountain where she
sleeps, and he comes dressed first in bronze colour on a
bronze-coloured horse, next in silver on a silyer-coloured
horse, and lastly in golden garb on a golden horse. This
certainly looks like a story suggested by the victorious
noonday sun coming at last with glowing rays to accom-
plish the task he had failed to perform in darkness or

twilight, to deliver the Spring from the icy fortress of
Winter, or, as our nursery tale has it, to awaken the
Sleeping Beauty in the Palace where the spell of Winter
has bound her and hers in numbness andsilence, Valeat
quantum.

The scientific study of mythology will be advanced by
the collection of mythic episodes made with extraordinary
earning by Prof. De Gubernatis. It is a museum of
material, and a good many of the author's rationalisations
of old legends seem plausible. For instance, he adds
new versions to the group of tales (towhich belong “ Tom
Thumb” and “ Little Red Ridinghood”) in which the
night is dramatised as a wolf or other monster, which
swallows and afterwards releases the hero who represents
the sun or day. He goes on to interpret in the same way
the stories where the hero is shut up in the sack or chest
and cast into the water, but comes safe to land after all,
as the sun, shrouded in the shades of evening, crosses
the ocean and reappears at morning. The value of such
interpretations as these depends, of course, on careful
comparison of evidence. Unhappily, however, the gene-
ral method of the book is unscientific. The author has
no strict logic in him. His argument is substantially
this : natural phenomena often suggest to tale-tellers or
poets ideas which they shape into cock-and-bull stories ;
therefore, the way to interpret cock-and-bull stories in gene-
ral is to guess at some natural phenomena which may have
suggested them. The consequence of such a principle of
interpretation is a network of tangled guesses, which often
only mystify the legends they pretend to explain. The
ease with which such a method can be applied, and the
worthlessness of its results when it is applied, are shown
in the authors treatment of common proverbs, As a
tule, proverbs really require no explanation ; their origin
is intelligible at a glance, as it always was; we feel we
might have made them ourselves, if we had been clever
enough, and proverb-making had been still in fashion,
Not so our author. “The black cow gives white milk”
means to him that the night produces the dawn, or the
moon, or the Milky Way (we are allowed to take our
choice which we like best). ‘Though the cow’s tail
waggles, it does not fall,” seemsto us to require no recon-
dite explanation ; but to Prof. De Gubernatis it connects
itself with a whole fabric of speculations about the night-
monster running after the dawn-cow’s tail to clutch it.
On the whole, we can hardly better characterise the work
before us, in its combination of curious material and

; absurd argument, than by quoting the following piece of

amazing nonsense, ending ina parenthesis with a little
fact which will be new to most of our readers, and which
shows that modern Italy has so kept up old classic cus-
toms, that the proverb “Ab ovo usque ad mala” still
explains itself, just as we might now say, “From soup to
dessert ” :— ;

“The hen of the fable and the fairy tales, which lays
golden eggs, is the mythical hen (the earth or the sky)
which gives birth every day tothe sun. The golden egg
is the beginning of life in Orphic and Hindoo cosmogony ;
by the golden egg the world begins to move, and move-
ment is the principle of good. The golden egg brings
forth the luminous, laborious, and beneficent day. Hence
it is an excellent augury to begin with the egg, which
represents the principle of good, whence the equivocal
Latin proverb, ‘Ad ovo ad malum,’ which signified
‘From good to evil,’ but which properly meant ‘From

44

NATURE

[May 15, 1873

the egg to the apple,’ the Latins being accustomed to
begin their dinners with hard-boiled eggs, and to end
them with apples (a custom which is still preserved
among numerous Italian families).”

It is clear that a theorist who can thus turn the practi-
cal sense of his own dinner-table into mythological non-
sense about sky-hens and sun-eggs, is no fit guide to
students of Comparative Mythology. But his book will
be useful to those who can profit by his learning and
ingenuity, without being misled by his fantastic ex-
travagance,

OUR BOOK SHELF
The Year-Book of Facts in Science and Art: exhibit-
ing the most important discoveries and improvements

of the past year in mechanics and the useful arts, &c.
By John Timbs. (London: Lockwood and Co., 1873.)

WE are glad to notice in Mr. Timbs’s annual volume an
improvement in some of the points in which last year we
called attention to very serious deficiencies. There is a
more copious reference to the original authorities, though
this is still too frequently withheld, and the statements
thus deprived of all scientific value ; and the references
are in general to more trustworthy sources. There is also
a sensible diminution in the number of glaring errors of
the press, which have been so conspicuous a feature in
earlier volumes. The compilation shows, as does every-
thing from the hand of the same editor, unwearied in-
dustry ; but with all that a lack of the power of dis-
tinguishing the worthless from the really valuable. Many
of the paragraphs belong unquestionably to the former
category, and it is difficult to see what purpose they serve
except that of ‘‘padding.” On the other hand some
really important discoveries or applications of the year
are altogether unnoticed. Considerable further improve-
ment will be necessary before ‘‘ Timbs’s Year-book” be-
comes either an adequate or a trustworthy record of
the scientific events of the year. The portrait of Dr.
Carpenter given by way of frontispiece is exceedingly
good,

Das Leben der Erde. Bilicke in ihre Geschichte, nebst
Darstellung der wichtigsten und interessantesten
Frazen ihres Natur-und Kulturlebens. Ein Volksbuch
von A. Hummel. (Leipzig: Verlag von Friedrich
Fleischer, 1872). ‘

Physikalische und chemische Unterhaltungen. Ein Volks-
buch von Dr, Otto Ule und A. Hummel. (Leipzig:
Verlag von Friedrich Fleischer, 1873.)

TILL the publication of Hummel’s “Leben der Erde”
there were scarcely any popular scientific works pub-
lished in Germany, which may seem strange, seeing
that that country has claimed, probably with justice, the
intellectual leadership of the world for many years past.
It is possible there is less need for popularising the results
of science in Germany than in England and France,
seeing that the German system of education is so thorough
and comprehensive. Germans also have a greater ten-
dency to go about everything in a systematic way ; and
this is shown with great force and clearness by Mr.
Matthew Arnold to be especially the case in their edu-
cational organisation, which discourages the acquirement
of knowledge in an irregular and haphazard way. In
this country again, as well asin France, “the people”
generally make their first acquaintance with subjects in
which the German people are grounded when at school,
long after they have left school from popular scientific
treatises. These two works are constructed on some-
what the same plan as the well-known French works
of Flammarion, Guillemin, and Reclus, and appear
to us to be well and often eloquently written, and so
far as we have been able to test them, are accurate and

wonderfully full. In the second the authors aim at
giving every-day illustrations of physical and chemical
laws, and at showing their practical and economical
bearings. They divideit into four sections :—1. General
phenomena of motion as applied to solid, liquid, and zri-
form bodies. 2. Sound, light, and heat. 3. Magnetic
and electric phenomena. 4. Chemical phenomena.
Hummel’s Lebex der Erde, we should think, would be the
more popular of the two, both from the subjects treated
of, the greater picturesqueness of language, and the
greater abundance and attractiveness of the illustrations,
some of which are very fine, though on the whole, not so
well executed as such illustrations generally are in corre-
sponding English and French works. He endeavours to
show the relation of the earth to other heavenly bodies,
gives its geological history, describes its physical geo-
graphy, including the phenomena of land, water, and air,
and concludes with a very eloquent account of the organic
life of the earth. On the whole, both works seem to us
very creditable to their authors.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressid
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Agassiz and Forbes

THE letter from Mr. Alexander Agassiz, published in last
week’s NATURE, revives an attack which was made by Agassiz
and Desor more than thirty years ago. It was then promptly
met. (See Forbes’s ‘‘ Historical Remarks on the first Discovery
of the real Structure of Glacial Ice,” Edin. New Phil. Journal,
1843.) I possess correspondence which abundantly shows that
the scientific world (English and Foreign) was thoroughly satis-
fied with the answer given by Forbes. Much of this correspon
dence can, if necessary, be published. But the reply given at
the time, and which I am confident will satisfy any unprejudicea
person, may be found zx extenso in Appendix B to the ‘‘ Lifeand
Letters of James David Forbes” (Macmillan and Co., 1873),
No answer was ever attempted by Mr. Agassiz to the paper in
question, and the facts it contains could not have been allowed
to pass by him unchallenged, had they not been accurately given,
Mr. Alexander Agassiz may never have read the original paper,
The date of his letter shows that he cannot have seen the reprint
in the Life of Forbes.

This impeachment of Forbes’s character by Mr. Agassiz
(made, I willingly grant, with the best motives, and in ignorance
of the details of the case) demands an explanation. I am aware
that few would give credence to imputations of dishonesty in
Forbes’s character ; but the matter is also of historical interest,
and deserves an historical examination. I will therefore, with
your permission, lay before the readers of NATURE next week
the facts from which they shall judge whether the assertions in
Mr. Agassiz’s letter are supported by the evidence, or not.

Blackheath, May 10 GEORGE FORBES

Venomous Caterpillars

In Mr. A. Murray’s paper on venomous caterpillars in
NATURE of May 1, I observe that in discussing the distinction
between the terms poison and venom, he says in reference to the
action of snake poison :—‘‘It is said that you may swallow the
venom of the rattlesnake with impunity, and I imagine you
may, if it does not get absorbed through the mucous membrane ;
but Dr. Fayrer’s experience, lately published, of the effects of
the semi-swallowing, which occurs in extracting the venom from
a poisoned wound would rather seem to show that such ex-
tremely virulent venom would penetrate the mucous membrane
and act as if actually introduced bya wound, his throat having
become dangerously ulcerated from sucking the poison from the
wound of a man bitten by a cobra,”

If Mr. Murray will refer to my investigations on this subject,
he will find that snake poison produces the same effect when
applied to a mucous membrane, and introduced into the stomach,
the eye, the intestine, or applied to the exposed surface of a
muscle or peritoneum, though not so rapidly as when injected
directly into the vascular system. The idea that it may be
swallowed with impunity being quite incorrect. But I must

7

May 13,1873)

NATURE

45

disclaim (having no title to it) the experience he assigns to me in
reference to the dangerously ulcerated throat, never having made
myself a martyr to science by so experimenting in propria per-
sona, Ihave no doubt, however, as I have elsewhere stated,
that this method of treating a cobra bite would not be devoid of
danger to the operator.

As to venomous caterpillars. There is one much dreaded by

sportsmen in the Himalayan Terai. [t is said to be apt to fall
from the trees on to persons passing or resting beneath their
branches, and causes great irritation of the parts with which it
comes in contact, amounting, I have been told, in some cases to
erysipelatous inflammation. [tis a moderate-sized, dark-coloured,
hairy caterpillar, and known (I believe) in those parts of the
Terai where I have been, as the 4om/a. Ihave never seen it,
but during my tiger-shooting expeditions into the Terai, it was
always one of the probable inconveniences to be looked for in a
camp in the tree jungle. 1 have heard many stories of the
painful and irritating effects of contact with this creature, whose
hairs are said to cause those results not only by breaking into but
by also inoculating some irritating secretion into the skin.
London, May 4 J. FAYRER

I HAVE just read with interest your report of the paper on
“Venomous Caterpillars,” which appeared in your last.
Towards the end of the report Mr. A. Murray refers to a hairy
caterpillar which he received from Brazil, and remarks that ‘‘ if
the caterpillars have a special venom, then, as in the nettle,
there should be a gland at the base of each hair, which should
be hollow.” I think I know the caterpillar to which he refers,
and if I am right, its hairs are not exactly venomous, but pro-
duce a considerable amount of irritation in the skin. When in
Brazil in 1859, I collected some of these caterpillars. They are
very similar in appearance to the larvze of the British Arctia, but
when their hairs are examined under a microscope, they are
found to consist of a series of barbed points, the point of each
succeeding barb fitting into the divergence of the preceding
barbs ; at least, that is my recollection, for I have not examined
them since then, and cannot find any specimens to do so now.
The caterpillar is called in Maranham, “‘largata de fogo,” that
is, ‘‘fire caterpillar.” After these hairs have afforded their pro-
tection to the caterpillar during its life, it carefully removes them
from its body and weaves them in its cocoon, so that the pupa
is thus as safe from intruders as the larva itself was. Whena
child, I recollect that Maranham was occasionally visited by great
numbers of a particular kind of moth, the dust of whose wings
produced a very great irritation on the skin, the least touch of
one being sufficient to render you miserable for the rest of the
evening. I perfectly remember a drove of these putting a quick
temination to a small dance at home, as you may easily conjecture
that ladies in evening costume are not well protected against such
visitors. When in Maranham in 1859, I heard that these moths
had not been seen there for many years. I believe their visits
were during the rainy season. Some of the British Bombices,
&. quercus, for example, and some of other genera, are said to
possess irritable hair. But in 4. guercus the hairs are not
barbed, and, not being an entomologist, I can give no informa-
tion respecting the others. Henry S. WILSON

Anatomical School, Cambridge, May 5 ;

On some Errors of Statement concerning Organ-pipes
in Recent Treatises on Natural Philosophy

THAT our best teachers of science, both in their books and lec-
tures make statements which are erroneous in fact, and inferences
which are misleading whenever they touch upon the subject of
wind instruments is not a little surprising, considering that in-
tellects so highly trained hold in aversion any approach to inex-
actness, and the strangeness of it is that the errors arise through
an ancient human custom, now supposed obsolete among philo-
sophers, of ‘‘ speaking without knowledge.”

The evidence, if tendered, would fill some few pages of this
paper, and if names were appended to the quotations the list
would include authors most esteemed and honoured,

To cite two instances among many—and they are from works
of unquestioned value and authority, and supposed to bring down
sciences to the latest date—in the recently completed translation
by Prof. Everett of Prof. Privat-Deschanel’s ‘* Natural Philo-
sophy,” the following passage occurs in explanation of the
organ-pipe :—“* The air from the bellows arrives through the
conical tube at the lower end, and before entering the main body
of the pipe has to pass through a uarrow slit, in issuing from

which it impinges on the thin end of the wedge placed directly
opposite, called the lip. This lip is itself capable of vibrating
in unison with any note lying within a wide range, and the note
which is actually emitted is determined by the resonance of the
column of air in the pipe.” In another equally valuable work,
the ‘‘ Physics,” by Prof. Ganot, translated by Prof. Atkinson,
thisdescription is given respecting the free-reed—“ the tongue
which vibrates alternately before and behind the aperture, merely
grazing the edges as seen in the harmonium, concertina, &c.,
such a reed is called a free reed.” Four professors responsible
for statements so perversely at variance with facts that it is not
possible either writer can have even attempted to ascertain, still
less to demonstrate that the facts are as asserted. Practical ex-
perience affirms that the lip of the organ-pipe does not vibrate ;
press it with your hand or hold it in a vice to deaden the
assumed vibration, and you will not alter one iota of the pitch
of the sounding note: that the free-reed does not in its vibra-
tion ** merely graze the frame ;” it would be fatal to its proper
speech if it did, and its vibrations would be checked in a jarring
rattle. The facts are too simple to need argument ; all that was
required was observation.

When Ganot, describing a metal free reed, affirms as a law
that when the force of air 1s increased the pitch of the reed rises,
his statement is inexact, for it depends entirely on the accident
of taking up a reed more or less rigid in proportion to scale,
whether the experimentalist shall prove his assertion or prove
the reverse. In the harmonium, of a set of five octaves of reeds,
half will go more or less sharp, and half will go more or less
flat, as the force of wind is increased, a fact which, if
more generally known, might induce players to mitigate
some of the insufferable harshness and jangling inflicted on
listeners. That ‘‘a sharp edge” is essential to the functions of
the flue organ pipe is one of the commonest errors entertained
by philosophers, and it forms the groundwork for whole pages
of false theory. In treatise after treatise it is stated “‘the air is
driven against the sharp edge,” ‘“‘is split upon the sharp edge,
and by concussion caused to proceed intermittingly,” ‘‘the air
strikes the sharp edge,” “ is divided,” ‘*is lacerated,” ‘‘strikes
against the upper lip, and a shock is produced which causes the
air to issue in an intermittent manner.” Another equally com-
mon misstatement, and important because so strongly influencing
theory, is that “a closed pipe gives a note an octave in pitch lower
than an open pipe of the same length; the length of a closed
organ-pipe is one-fourth that of the sonorous wave it produces in
the air.” Proved facts give different results. At my hand this
morning there stood a sounding-pip2 perfect in finish, its lip
quite blunt, by measurement at the edge half an inch in thick-
ness ; and whole ranks of pipes were there in various grades of
conformation, showing that the sharp edge was immaterial to the
functions of a speaking-pipe. Sometimes the chamfering of
the lip is desirable, sometimes not, and the builder decides ac-
cording to the quality and character of each stop. ‘The art in
“voicing ” a pipe consists in so directing the stream of air that
it shall avoid striking the lip, and shall smoothly glide past with-
out shock or noise, or concussion ; you get no tone until it does.
Actual experiment will show that a closed pipe gives a note only
a major seventh below the note it gives as an open pipe, not an
octave below ; indeed, in the higher range of pipes it will be a
whole tone short of the octave, to sound which the pipe would
need to be made considerably longer. As having some signifi-
cance in connection with this, it may be mentioned that there is in
an open pipe, whilst sounding, a centre of equilibrium of pressure ;
it does not occur, as supposed, at the true half of the length,
but somewhat below that division; as evidence, take the Flute
Harmonique, when desiring to strike the node, it will always be
found below the half. Further, as to length. If the open
diapason pipe beside me, giving as fine a tone (CCC) as musi-
cian can desire, measures 14 ft. 1oin. in length, and its corre-
sponding sound-wave claims 16ft. or nearer 17ft., the wide
divergence merits better investigation than it has hitherto re-
ceived. The experiments of Regnault and Seebeck are highly
important to this question, but do not reach the conditions
pressing for explanation in a speaking organ-pipe. To attempt
to demonstrate the laws of organ-pipes with a tuning-fork is as
inconclusive as sending galvanic electricity through a dead body
and calling the movement life.

There is little difficulty in understanding how it happens that
errors respecting wind instruments arise and are perpetuated.
Experimental philosophers are occupied with the weightier mat-
ters of science, are rarely musicians or familiar with wind instru-

46

ments ; of the trouble and anxiety their caprices give at home
and in the workshop they have no knowledge. The organ-pipe
is brought into the lecture-room, it is caused to prove what is
wanted, more is not looked for; it comes like a beauty in a
ballroom, dressed up to play a part and be amiable and gra-
cious : the practical man knows that organ-pipes are very like
human beings, of whom Goethe says, “ We do not learn to
know people when they come to us; to learn their real pecu~
liarities we must go to them.”
April 18

HeaMann SMITH

Rock Inscriptions of Brazil

BEING unable to attend the reading of Mr. Whitfield’s paper,
at the Anthropological Institute, April 22, the following ob-
servations are offered.

The rock inscriptions of Brazil are worthy of attention, be-
cause they appear to belong to a vast series, to which Mentone
affords a large contribution. The suggestion that in the very
earliest epochs tally records existed, lends interest to the inves-
tigation. It appears probable that military tallies of the levy of
men preceded the registers in the historical period of the tribute
of men, arms, and money by provinces, such as we find in
Herodotus with regard to Persia.

In reference to the possible general connection of such in-
scriptions as these with the eastern world, it may be observed
that Brazil has participated in at least two great migrations.

The Kiriri and Sabuyah of Bahia are allied by language to
the ancient Pygmean or Negrito stock. This race is everywhere
very low, and cannot have produced even these inscriptions.

The greater part of Brazil is covered by the Guarani or Tupi
(Agua) languages allied to the Agau of the Nile region, the
Avkhass of Caucasia, &c, It is worth inquiry whether the
Mentone inscriptions may not belong to this epoch.

HYDE CLARKE

Abnormal Coloration in Fish

SEEING Mr. W. S. Kent's letter on this subject in NATURE of
the Sth inst., a similar instance was recalled to my memory.
About three weeks ago I observed in a fishmonger’s shop a
plaice, nearly one third of the under side of whose body (at the
tail) had the usual colour and orange spots of the upper. In
this specimen the spots were more numerous and brilliant than
usual, The line of demarcation was irregular, but abrupt. The
circumstance struck me because I have seen great numbers of
Pleuronectide, but never one marked thus. The fishmonger
told me that he had never seen a like specimen.

ARTHUR NICOLS

Phosphorescence in Wood

From the description given by your correspondent, Richard
M. Barrington (vol. vii. p. 464) o! phosphorescence in coniferous
wood, I should imagine it to be extremely probable that the
pieces of Scotch fir in question were infested with the spawn of
Polyporus annosus Fr., a fungus very common on the Coniferz.
The mycelium of this plant (as well as the perfect fungus) is
well known to be at times highly phosphorescent, and in the
* Gardener's Chronicle for September 28, 1872, I have figured the
perfect state of it as seen so commonly in a luminous condition
in the coal mines of Glamorganshire. In these deep pits the
spawn of this fungus ramifies about the old shoreing timber,
and is so highly phosphorescent as to be clearly seen from a dis-
tance of twenty yards. Many other fungi with their mycelia are
known to be at times phosphorescent, as Fo/yporus sulfureus Fr.
and Corticium ceruleum Fr., both common on decaying wood.

In the Gardener's Chronicle for September 21, 1872, the Rev.
M. J. Berkeley has published a remarkable case of phosphor-
escence in logs of larch. Here the most luminous parts were
where the mycelium was most developed, and the wood gave out
such a blaze of white light that although the pieces were wrapped
in five folds of paper, yet the light shone through as if the speci-
mens were exposed. The phosphorescence appears to accom-
pany the decomposition of the wood on which the fungi at the
same time prey. W. G. SMITH

Coincidence of the Spectrum Lines of Iron, Calcium,
and Titanium :

In Prof. Young’s letter published in NATURE, vol. vii., p. 17,

some coincidences of the lines of different substances which

NATURE

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| May 15, 1873

‘are toomany and too close to be all the result of accident”
are referred to, those of iron with calcium and titanium being
especially cited. Two explanations are offered, first that “the
metals operated upon by the observers who first mapped out the
spectra were not absolutely pure,” and second, that ‘‘ there is
some such similarity between the molecules of the different
metals as renders them susceptible of certain synchronous periods
of vibration.” - ’

If we are driven to this second explanation the received induc-
tions of spectrum analysis and tae deductions of celestial
chemistry based upon them are shaken at their foundation, for if
more than one known terrestrial element can display identical
lines in the spectrum, the suggestion that other unknown celestial
elements may do the same is freely opened. It is there-
fore very desirable that the spectroscopist should receive all the
aid which the studies of chemical specialists can afford him
towards the solution of this problem.

I may venture to speak to the instances quoted by Prof.
Young. First as regards calcium and iron, In making ana-
lyses of a large number of brands of pig iron I found that
they all contained calcium, but in very variable proportions, and
endeavoured by observing their properties, and by further exa-
mination of finished iron, to learn how the presence of calcium
affected the quality of iron, but failed to solve this problem.
In the course of these investigations, I found that the
finished iron, like the pig, presented considerable varia-
tions as regards the quantity of calcium contained in it,
but I never found a saniple of iron or steel quite free from some
trace of calcium. As I was operating for the most part on
superior qualities of iron which had been submitted to the ut-
most practicable degree of commercial purification, this experi-
ence renders it extremely probable that Prof. Young’s first
explanation is the correct one, so far as iron and calcium ars
concerned,

The want of any chemical reagent by which minute traces of
titanium can be detected in the presence of large quantities of
iron, or of a means of completely separating these metals, places
a serious difficulty in the way of directly answering the question
whether iron is usually associated with traces of titanium; but
there are indirect evidences of its very common existence in
ordinary iron. The most decided of these is afforded by the
common, almost universal, occurrence of the beautiful copper-
coloured crystals of cyano-nitride of titanium in the hearth
bottoms of blast-furnaces. In many cases their concretions form
large masses, where the ores that have been used are not sup-
posed to be titaniferous,

Metallic iron obtains impurities, not only from its ore, but also
from the fuel and flux used in reduction, and besides these from
the furnace or crucible in which it has subsequently been fused
or raised to its welding point. The difficulty of completely puri-
fying iron is so great that many such coincidences as those re-
ferred to may be expected @ frior?,

W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS

Musical Stones

WHEN roaming over the hills and rocks in the neighbourhood
of Kendal, which are composed chiefly of mountain limestone, I
have often found what we call here “ musical stones.” They
are generally thin flat weather-beaten stones, of different sizes
and peculiar shapes, which when struck with a piece of iron or
another stone, produce a distinct musical tone, instead of the
dull heavy leaden sound of any ordinary stone. The sound of
these stones is, in general, very much alike, but I know gentle-
men who possess sets of eigit stones which are said to produce,
when struck, a distinct octave. Being only an amateur geologist,
Iam unable to account for this fact, and would be glad if any
of your numerous readers would take the trouble to explain to
me, through the medium of your columns, the peculiar com-
position of the stone in question, and the distinct qualifications
nencessary to form a musical stone.

RICHARD J. NELSON

Acquired Habits in Plants

In NaTuRE of May 1, p. 7, which I chance not to have seen
till now, Mr. Babbington puts a question on the subject of my
climbing specimen of violet which I fear I am not botanist
enough to answer.

a? ae a
ene oe
+ ae :

4
|

May 15, 1873]

NATURE

47
I described it as a “dog” violet simply because it bore leaves | sentative Government.” One feature of Mr. Mill’s cha-
and flowers on the same stem, which in my simplicity I supposed | racter deserves special notice in this connection. He

was enough to settle its species. But though the subdivisions of
V. canina be new to me, a word or two of remark and descrip-
tion may elucidate the required point to other eyes. I would
add that the specimen, such as it is, is very much at Mr.
Babbington’s service should he care to see it. It is still recog-
nisable, no doubt, though it suffered considerably from having
no better protection for some hours than a fly-book.

In the first place it was not growing in a moist situation or
one to account for luxuriance. Though near the river, it was
many feet above the water, and was on the further side of a
small high road. In this position it had, as I before mentioned,
attained a height of two feet and a half, and the flower which
first attracted my eye was almost on a level with my waist. The
plant had climbed through the hedge like a vetch or a fumitory.
On comparing it with the most robust specimens of /. canina
which I can find this spring, the following points of resem>lance
and of divergence present themselves. The stem of mine is
channelled in the ordinary way, and the leaves tolerably like in
shape though rather more pointed. On the other hand, the
leaf-stalks and peduncles are in mine much shorter, the upper
leaves being almost senile. The position of the bracts is similar,
but instead of the conspicuous stipules of V. cazina, mine has
those parts so small as almost to escape notice. Again, while
the stem of canina does not in my experience branch, the
stem of mine has, in two places, thrown off a small branch
bearing leaves and flowers. Also there was not, as far as I
remember, any trace of any shoot from the root except the one
stem, while V. canina, as ordinarily found, sends up a greater
and a lesser flowering stem and a bunch of leaves besides.

I hope that these particulars will shed more light on the
subject than I can myself. _-ss J. G.

St. Asaph, May 10

FOHN STUART MILL
[Born May 20, 1806; Diep May 8, 1873

mee AGH it has not been the custom among specialists

to regard Mr. John Stuart Mill as a scientific man,
yet we venture to say that he has not left behind him in
this country any man who has done more for the general
advancement of science. Before Mr. Mill’s time men
found their way to great discoveries, and succeeded in
proving to each other that what they had discovered was
scientific truth, But they could tell each other very little
about the method of scientific investigation. Indeed
Whately, the then greatest authority in logic, pronounced a
theory of induction impossible. Mr. Mill, however, did
formulate the canons of induction, and in so doing he lit
a lamp which will for ever burn a steady guiding light in
the path of the scientific inquirer. And the value of this
light need be regarded as none the less even if we con-
sider that its chief service lies in guiding us past the
snares and pit-falls of error, and the entrances to those
mazes and endless labyrinths of unreality in which so
many powerful intellects have toiled and spent their
strength for nought ; nay, worse than in vain, for their
brilliant struggles have fascinated thousands and drawn
them from the sober highway of truth, which alone is the
road to usefulness—to happiness. The vast and still
growing influence that Mr. Mill has exerted in this direc-
tion is fully recognised by those who regret it most,
because they believe that Truth may be reached by other
and nobler paths, We are content to note the fact that
among the great men of our day no one has done so
much as he, to widen the domain of science and to
subdue to its methods all subjects of human inte-
rest. Choosing for the field of his more serious
labours several of the most difficult subjects of research,
those that had most eluded the grasp of the understand-
ing, he has enriched the world with works that will long
remain monuments of science. His “ Logic” is our text-
book of the science of evidence. His “ Political Econo-

had the true scientific temper, a disinterested love of
truth, in a degree not to be surpassed. If it could be
shown that in any particular his teaching was unsound,
and none were ever able to do this so well as his own
disciples, the men whom he had trained to think, no one
was more glad that error had been detected than was
Mr. Mill himself, It will be enough to remind our readers
of one notable example of this. When Mr. Thornton
showed that the universally accepted doctrine of the
wage-fund was a huge fallacy, Mr. Mill came forward
with alacrity to acknowledge that he in common with all
other political economists had fallen into a grave error,
and that Mr. Thornton had made a most valuable con-
tribution to economic science. If all scientific men
could as completely subordinate their personal vanity
to the pursuit of truth, progress would be more rapid
than at present. The daily papers have already made
the reader familiar with the many-sided richness and
beauty of Mr. Mill’s character. He was an object of
loving admiration to all who had the happiness to enjoy
his personal acquaintance. The world, while it mourns
his loss, does not, cannot know how great and how good
a man has been taken away ; and still less does it know
how ill it can afford to lose such a man.

MINERS’ RULES IN THE SEVENTEENTH
CENTORY

ON looking over a packet of old papers I have found
some documents, of which I enclose copies, written
by a German miner, named Brandshagen, who was
employed by my ancestor, Sir Philip Egerton, to super-
intend the attempt to work copper in the New Red
Sandstone strata of Cheshire in the year 1697. As the
vudes for miners of that age afford so strong a contrast
to the w#rudy behaviour of that class at the present day,
they may perhaps interest some of the readers of
NATURE. P. DE M. GREY-EGERTON

Worthy & most honourable Sir,—

Your worship give most humbly thanks for em-
ployment meself and my countrymen about your Worship
mines, which I have enjoyed now above 4 weekes, & not
to be att all further unacquainted unto your Worship, I
could not forbeare to give a true & plain account of what
I have observed in this time about these mines, as good
as my smal understanding in y® English linguage would
permit, & if it was in any way acceptable then my wishes
& desires where fullfilled. I have this time also endea-
vored to blow up y* rocks by guns powder, as the best
way to kill them, butt in y* first time I found y* elements
as aire & water where against my designe, y* last I have
conquered, & I hope I shall doe so y* other next time
when I have occasion for it. I found also some other
smal things which would not so soon agree with my
hands, for there are many years past, that I did work
under ground with my owne hinds, butt all these things
are now disceased, onely that I was lately too covetous
& would have more rocks blown up then my powder was
able to; what other blasts for effect have done, your
Worship can be informed of it by Mr. Smith. I shall
endeavour all what is in my power to serve your Worship
with that understanding I have about mines to which I
have employed meself now above 15 year, in spending a
great deal of money as well for learning as travelling in
many places in Europe where good mines where, to come
to any perfection in this art. I have received now my
things for examination of y* oare, which I will doe as
soon as possibly I can come to it in this desolate place,
where nothing in y* world is to be had for any commodi-
ties what soever it may be, & whilst we are strangers

my” is our text-book of the science of wealth. And if | here, & must buy ali things for ready, it is impossible to

there is a scientific work on politics it is Mr. Mill’s “ Repre-

life of what your Worship has allowed unto us & there-

48

fore I doubt not your Worship will make a distinction
between workmen & workmen, with which I recommen«t
me into your Worship’ favour ailways remaining
Your Worship most humble Servant,
J. A. BRANDSHAGEN
Bickerton, Sept. y° 24th, 1697
For the Right Honourable S* Phillipp Egerton, Knt., these.

Rules for all Workmen in general

One of every Workmen he may be of what sort he will
shall come half an hour before y* duely time & give a
certain number of strucks with a hammer on an Iron
plate, erected to this purpose, to give a Signe to y* other
workmen to come att work, half an hour after he shall doe
so att a second time by an other number of strucks &
shall streike no more then y* duely strucks by forfeiting
2d., he has y* same signes to give all day when y* miners
shall come out & goe under ground again, & this shall
doe one workmen after an other from day to day, & he
who has done y* businesse this day shall remember to
his follower that he has to doe y® same next day, & he
that wilfully neglected these remembrance shall be
punished together with him that shall doe this businesse
next day (if he neglect it) for he himself must be carefull
about y° time & day to doe this, & he that shall give y*
signs too late, has forfeited 6¢., & he that shall not doe
it att all shall loose all his wages, due to him, & by
consent of y° mines Lords shall be turned of from y¢
work,

In y® morning before y* last struck is done on y* Iron
plate every workman belonging to y® mines must appeare
to y° appointed place near y° work, or he has forfeited 27¢.,
& he that comes half-an-hour after, 2d. more, & so follow-
ing for every half-an-hour 2d., & this is understood of all
times when y° signe is given.

When they are together they may doe a short prayer
that God may give his blessing to their work, that it may
raise to y° honour & glory of him, & to y* benefit &
blessinesse of y* mines Lords & their whole familie.

After this every one must goe to his post, & diligently
performe to what y° steward shall order him, in doing y*
contrary he shall be duely punished, & he who shall leave
y® work within y® duely hours & before y* signe is given,
shall loose 6d. or for every half-an-hour 2d. as y° steward
shall think fitt, & he that is found neglectfull shall every
time have forieited 2d.

When it is pay-day, every workmen before he gett
money must shew to y° steward his tools & other things
what is trusted in his hand by y® lost of all his wages,
& if there should want any of such things, he must leave
so much money of his wages as it is worthy in y® stewards
hand, till he restores y° same.

He that hindered one an other in his work it may be in
what way it will, either by ill words, quarreling or in other
ways, must duely be punished as y® steward thinks fitt,
because every one must be quiet with his work ; have they
any thing one against ar _ er, they may bring it before y*
steward, or cleare their wings after y® work is done att
an other place.

No body shall be permitted without leave of y* steward
to take any oare away for a shewing piece, or under any
other pretext, butt he may y* same aske from y* steward
& be content with that he gives him, and if any should
doe y® contrary, he is so heigh to punish as y° steward
shall think sufficient.

No body shall bring any person or persons not belong-
ing to y* mines, either under ground or at any other place
where y° oares or other things are, without permission of
y® steward, & that by y* penalty of one shilling.

Every man must be in a Christian-like beheaviour, and
he that speekes blasphemes, or gives scandales, or does
other things near y* mines with which God is offended,
shall every time be punished with 4d, or more according
to his crime, |

NATURE

| May 15, 1873 |

When it is pay-day every one must be of a modest be-
haviour against ye steward, and must not murmer against
him when his wages is decurted for punishement, butt
must bring his complaints (if he has any against it) before
y® mines Lord, if neverthelesse that he has gotten his
wages, he must not goe from y° steward away, till y° whole
payment is done, & can give witnesse that every one has
received his due.

No workmen shall make more holy days in y® year be-
sides y* Sunday, then y® Lords of y® mines shall allow
them, or shall be punished as one that leaves y* work for
a whole day.

He that turned

y® hour glasse in a wrong way shall
loose one shilling. ;

SUPPRESSION OF SCENT IN PITEASANTS*
eS pheasant, from nesting on the ground, is pecu-
“| liarly exposed to the attacks of four-footed or
ground vermin, and the escape of any of the sitting birds
and their eggs from foxes, polecats, hedgehogs, &c., ap-
pears at first sight almost impossible. This escape is
attributed by many, possibly by the majority, of sports-
men to the alleged fact that in the birds when sitting the
scent which is given out by the animal at other times is
suppressed ; in proof of this statement is adduced the
fact that dogs, even those with the keenest powers of
smell, will pass within a few feet, or even a less distance,
of a sitting pheasant without evincing the slightest cogni-
zance of her proximity, provided she is concealed from
sight. By others this circumstance is denied, they reason
@ prior’ that it is impossible for an animal to suppress
the secretions and exhalations natural to it—secretion
not being a voluntary act. I believe, however, that the
peculiar specific odour of the bird is suppressed during
incubation, not, however, as a voluntary act, but in a
manner which is capable of being accounted for physio-
logically. The suppression of the scent during incuba-
tion is necessary to the safety of the birds, and essential
to the continuance of the species. I believe this suppres-
sion is due to what may be termed vicarious secretion.
In other words, the odoriferous particles which are usually
exhaled by the skin are, during such time as the bird is
sitting, excreted into the intestinal canal, most probably
into the caecum or the cloaca. The proof of this is acces-
sible to every one; the excreta of a common fowl or
pheasant, when the bird is not sitting, have, when first
discharged, no odour akin to the smell of the bird itself.
On the other hand, the excreta of a sitting hen have a
most remarkable odour of the fowl, but highly intensified.
We are all acquainted with this smell as increased by
heat during roasting ; and practical poultry keepers must
have remarked that the excreta discharged by a hen on
leaving the nest have an odour totally unlike those dis-
charged at any other time, involuntarily recalling the
smell of aroasted fowl, highly and disagreeably intensi-
fied. I believe the explanation of the whole matter to be
as follows : the suppression of the natural scent is essen-
tial to the safety of the bird during incubation ; that at
such time vicarious secretion of the odoriferous particles
takes place into the intestinal canal, so that the bird
becomes scentless, and in this manner her safety and that
of her eggs is secured. This explanation would probably
apply equally to partridges and other birds nesting on
the ground, :

The absence of scent in the sitting pheasant is most
probably the explanation of the fact that foxes and phea-
sants are capable of being reared in the same preserves ;
at the same time the keepers are usually desirous of
making assurance doubly sure, by scaring the foxes from
the neighbourhood of the nests by some strong dnd
offensive substance.

* From Mr. Tegetmeier’s forthcoming work on ‘‘ Pheasants for the Covert
and the Aviary.”

: May 15, 1873]

NATURE

49

THE NEW PROFESSOR OF ENGINEERING
AT GLASGOW

ve has already been announced in NATURE that

the Crown authorities have appointed Prof. James
Thomson, C.E., LL.D., to succeed the late Prof. W. J.
M. Rankine in the Glasgow Chair of Engineering
and Mechanics ; and as that gentleman has been deemed
worthy to occupy the Chair that was long filled by a man
of world-wide eminence, it may not be undesirable to give
a brief sketch of his professional and scientific career.

Prof. Thomson is the elder brother of Sir William
Thomson, and son of Dr. James Thomson, a former
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow.
The early part of his education was obtained in the Royal
Belfast Academical Institution, and he completed his
studies in Glasgow, where he obtained the degree of M.A.
in 1840, with honourable distinction in Mathematics and
Natural Philosophy. During the year 1841—42, he was a
student in the class of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
under Prof. Lewis D. B. Gordon, C.E., Rankine’s prede-
cessor, and even then he was distinguished for his accu-
rate mathematical and physical knowledge, and for his
ready appreciation of the principles of applied mechanics.
Heafterwards became an industrious pupil in the Horseley
Iron Works and Manufactory, near Tipton, in South
Staffordshire, and subsequently he entered the service of
Mr. (now Sir) William Fairbairn, in whose workshops on
the Isle of Dogs and in Manchester he had the benefit of
assisting to execute engineering works of the greatest
magnitude, and of great variety. After prosecuting his
profession for several years in England and Scotland, he
ultimately settled down in Belfast as a civil engineer.

When the Professorship of Civil Engineering in Queen’s
College, Belfast, became vacant in the year 1857, Mr.
Thomson obtained the appointment. He has now occupied
that position for a period of fifteen years.

Besides attending to the duties of his class, Prof.
Thomson carried on an extensive practice as a consulting
engineer, both at home and abroad, chiefly in connection
with water supply, irrigation, the drainage of sugar plan-
tations in Demerara and Jamaica, and other swampy
lands, and in designing machinery for the same, and in
other hydraulic works. One of his earliest inventions was
the well-known Vortex Turbine, which affords an admirable
example of an unusual combination of great scientific
knowledge and practical skill in the same person. This
application of mechanical principles is one of the most
successful means of turning water power to advantage
that has hitherto been placed at the service of the engi-
neering profession. Many examples of the Vortex Wheel
are now in successful operation in various parts of the
world, and the invention was deemed to be so important
that the Privy Council renewed the patent when the
ordinary period of fourteen years had expired. Another
of his useful inventions is the Jet Pump and Intermittent
Reservoir for the drainage of swampy lands.

Among Prof. Thomson’s inquiries in the domain of
pure physics a prominent place must be given to
those which he instituted regarding the lowering of the
freezing temperature of water hy pressure. This he
determined by theoretical considerations entirely, and
the result announced by Prof. James Thomson was after-
wards exactly confirmed by the experiments instituted by
his distinguished brother. The “arrival by theory with-
out the aid of experiment at so extraordinary a physical
fact, calls to my mind most forcibly,” says Joule, “the
discovery of Neptune by Adams and Leverrier, and is
one great step towards the position to which we may
eventually hope science to attain, when a perfect ac-
quaintance with theoretical principles will enable us to
dispense with the appeal to experiment so necessary, in
most cases, at the present time.” This discovery and its
experimental verification immediately suggested a perfect

solution of the problem of the descent of glaciers, and it
has since led to many kindred discoveries in pure science,
Like his predecessor, Prof, Thomson has extensively
contributed to the advancement of science through the
medium of the British Association. On five: separate
occasions he has been selected as the Secretary of the
Mechanical Section of that body, and he has beenanum-
ber of times specially deputed to make reports and con-
duct experimental researches for the solution of questions
in practical engineering. The tendency of Prof. Thom-
son’s mind may be, to some extent, judged of by the
character of the papers on physical, mathematical, and
mechanical subjects which he has published or commu-
nicated to various scientific bodies. They are nearly forty
in number, and are published in full or abstract in the
Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Fournal, the Edin-
burgh New Philosophical Fournal, the Transactions of the
Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, the Proceed-
ings of the British Association, and the Transactions of
the Institution of Engineers in Scotland.

Prof. Thomson’s honorary degree of LL.D, was ob-
tained from the University of Glasgow about two years
ago. His formal induction by the Senatus of the Uni-
versity took place last month, and his professional duties
in his ama mater will commence in the ensuing winter
session. JOHN MAYER

THE FERTILISATION OF THE WILD PANSY

MONG the accurate and acute observations of C. C,
Sprengel towards the close of last century,* which
have received but scant attention from his successors,
even down to our own day, was one on the subject of the
colouring of variegated flowers. This botanist, with an
insight into the mutual relationships of animal and vege-
table life far in advance of his age, suggests that this
colouring may serve as a guide to insects in seeking for
the honey which serves for their food, and the search for
which is so powerful an agent in the conveyance of the
pollen, and the consequent fertilisation of the flower.
Sprengel pointed out that in almost all variegated flowers
the variegation follows a regular pattern, and that when
it consists of streaks or stripes, these streaks almost in-
variably point to the nectary, or the receptacle of the
sweet secretions which form the food of insects, in what-
ever part of the flower it may be situated. With this idea
as a starting point, an interesting line of inquiry may be
carried out as to the connection between the presence of
scent and the absence of variegation in flowers. It will
be found as a general rule, though not without exceptions
—and it would be very interesting to attempt to trace the
reason of these exceptions—that those flowers which pos-
sess a powerful odour are (in the native state) self- or
whole-coloured, while brilliantly variegated flowers are,
as a rule, scentless, On the hypothesis that each of these
properties has for its object the attraction to the flower
of the insect necessary for the fertilisation of its seeds, it
is easy to be seen that the presence of both in the same
flower is needless ; and hence we find that Nature is in
the habit of husbanding her resources, and not supplying
needlessly to the same flower two different provisions for
securing the same end.

Having had an opportunity during the present spring of
observing the structure, with reference to the phenomena of
fertilisation, of the flower of the common Wild Pansy (Vola
tricolor sub-sp. arvensis of Hooker’s “Student’s Flora”)
I have thought a description of it might be of interest to
the readers of NATURE, and especially to anyone who is
able to contrast the phenomena in the variegated and
scentless pansy with those in the scented and almost
whole-coloured sweet violet.

The corolla of the wild pansy consists of five petals

* Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau und in der Pefruchtung
der Blumen; von Christian Konrad Sprengel, Berlin, 1793.

50

NATURE

[May 15, 1873

(Figs. 1, 2), the two upper ones of which, a, 4, have no
colouring, the two lateral petals c, d, have each one con-
spicuous broad streak, and are furnished near the base
with a tuft of hairs ; while the lowest, ec, has a number of
streaks, usually either 5 or 7, and is also provided with a
tuft of hairs near the base ; this petal is prolonged below
into a spur, All the streaks, on both the lateral and the
lowest petal, point exactly towards the centre of the flower
J, where are the stamens and pistil. The stamens (Figs.
3, 4, 5) are also five in number ; the filaments, a, are very
short ; the anthers, 4, form a circle surrounding the pistil,
closely applied to it, and also closely touching one
another at their edges ; each anther has the connective,
¢, prolonged above into an orange-coloured appendage ;
and these also, somewhat overlapping one another, form
a complete ring round the pistil. Two of the stamens are
prolonged below into remarkable kneed appendages, both
of which project down into the spur of the lower petal,
partially filling it up. The pistil (Figs. 6, 7) consists of a
nearly globular ovary, a, an irregularly curved style, 4,
much narrower below, and furnished in front with a re-
markable wedge-shaped black line, c, and of a single
stigma, @, hooded in shape, the viscid stigmatic surface of
which is contained in a deep cavity near its summit. In
the open flower, this stigma (e, Fig. 3) has a most gro-
tesque resemblance to a monkey’s or old man’s face. The
anthers open laterally and rather within, for the discharge
of the pollen, so that it falls naturally on the lower part

Fic. 1.—1, Flower of Viola arvensis a,, wpper petals ; c, d, lateral petals
¢, lower petal ; f centre of flower. 2, The petals separat-d ; c, d, lateral
petals ; ¢, lower petal.

of the style, which they completely invest, and it is diffi-
cult to see how, without artificial means, any of it will
reach the stigma; the flower is also distinctly pro-
tandrous, the stigmatic cavity not being fully matured till
the flower has been some time open and the pollen fully
discharged. The “nectary,” or part specially devoted to
the secretion of the honey, is the termination of the two
appendages of the stamens which project into the spur of
the corolla (indicated at 7, Figs. 3.and 5). When the
sweet juice is collected here in sufficient quantities, it
drops down into the bottom of the spur, to which all
access of rain is prevented by the hairs that fringe the
petals around the entrance of the passage to the spur.
With regard to the fertilisation of the violets, which, as
has been mentioned, can obviously scarcely take place
without foreign aid, Sprengel gives a long and very full
description of the manner in which the sweet violet is
visited by bees and humble bees, the insertion of whose
proboscis into the spur of the corolla, and then its with-
drawal, will necessarily remove some of the pollen, and
bring it into contact with the stigma either of the same
or of a different flower. It seems hence to have been
assumed rather than observed that the wild pansy is
fertilised in the same manner ; although Sprengel states
that he has not usually seen this species visited by bees, and
Miiller’s observations* are by no means decided. My own

* Die Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten und die gegenseitigen
Anvpassungen beider : von Dr. Hermann Miller, Leipzig, 1873.

view is that the wild pansy is fertilised chiefly, if not en-
tirely, by very minute insects of the Thrips kind. During
a long observation one morning this spring of a field in
which these flowers were very abundant, I never once
saw them visited by a humble-bee or other large species,
and the only insect observed to frequent them was a little
species of Thrips, and these only in small numbers, which
I attribute to the circumstance that my only opportunity
was the first warm sunny morning after a long period of
cold weather, when but few insects had yet left their
winter retreats. Sprengel indeed says that the wild pansy
is greatly frequented by Thrips, although he believes the
fertilisation to be effected by bees.

If this view be correct, the markings of the flower
furnish the insect with a most remarkable series of guide-
posts (or, as Sprengel terms it, “Saftmaal”) to the nectar
which serves as its food. The streakings on the lateral
and lower petals form a sure guide, as soon as the little
visitor reaches the flower, all converging (as shown in
Fig. 1) to the centre of the flower and summit of the ring
formed by the connectives of the anthers. Here even a
minute Thrips can with difficulty force its way between
the style and the closely adjacent ring of anthers, the
deep orange tips of which would naturally attract it; but
here it meets with a most curious and valuable assistance

Fic. 2.—3, Pistil and stamens ; a, filaments; 2, anthers; c, connectives; d,
appendages to lower stamens; e, stigma; 7, honey-glands. 4, Lower
stamen (enlarged); 4, anther; c, connective; d, appendage 5, The
same, seen within the spur of the corolla. 6, Pistil; a, ovary ; 4, style ;
c, wedge-shaped streak; 2, stigma. 7, The same, seen laterally ata
later stage.

in the wedge-shaped streak on the front side of the style
(as seen at cin Figs. 6 and 7), the broad upper end of
which is distinctly visible above the anther-ring, tapering
downwards to a sharp point near the bottom of the style,
where the insect would be at once landed on the upper
part of the kneed appendages, along which it has now
simply to descend until it reaches the nectar, the object
of its journey. The style is much narrower towards the
base than above, and hence there is room for a con-
siderable accumulation of pollen here, as it escapes from
the anthers. The insect must necessarily carry away a
considerable quantity of the pollen in its descent and
ascent of the style ; whether for the purpose of pollenising
the stigma of the same or of a different flower is not at
first sight clear. The heteracmy of the flower (é¢. the
male and female organs being mature at different periods)
favours the idea of cross-fertilisation, which may very
well happen from the active little Thrips visiting many —
flowers in the course of a day. The ovules of the wild
pansy are indeed abundantly fertilised, much more gene-
rally, in fact, than those of the sweet violet, the mature
capsules of which frequently result from the unopened,
self-fertilised, “ cleistogenous” flowers, which have not,
as far as I am aware, been observed in the pansy.

ALFRED W. BENNETT

ae) i iat

May 15, 1873]

NOTES FROM THE “CHALLENGER” *
ir.

ee Sunday, March 2, we saw the first patches of gulf-

weed drifting past the ship, and flying-fish were abun-
dant. Our position at noon was lat. 22° 30’ N., long. 42° 6’
W., Sombrero Island distant 1,224 miles. At night the phos-

horescence of the sea was particularly brilliant, the sur-
face scintillating with bright flashes from the small
crustaceans, while large cylinders and globes of lambent
light, proceeding probably from Pyrosoma and some of
the Medusz, glowed out and slowly disappeared in the
wake of the vessel at a depth of a few feet.

The next morning we sounded at 7 A.M. in 2,025
fathoms with No. 1 line, the “Hydra” machine and
3 cwt., a slip water-bottle, and one thermometer ; a stop-
cock water-bottle was bent on at 925 fathoms from the
bottom. The corrected bottom temperature was 1°°9 C,
the temperature of the surface being 22°8 C. During

the morning the naturalists were out in a boat with the |

way with 13 cwt. 500 fathoms in advance. The dredge came
up about 4 o'clock with a small quantity of ooze contain-
ing some red clay, a large proportion of calcareous débris,
and many foraminifera, chiefly O7dudina and Rotadia.
Warped in the hempen tangle there was a fine specimen
of a handsome decapod crustacean, having all the
principal characters of the family Astacida, but differing
from all the typical decapods in the total absence of eye-
stalks and eyes. Dr.v. Willemoes-Suhm has given this
interesting deep-sea form such a preliminary examination
as is possible in the absence of books of reference. I quote
from his notes. Deidamia leptodactyla, n.g. and sp.
(Fig. 2). The specimen, which is a male, is 120 mm. in
total length and 33 mm. in width across the base of the
cephalo-thorax, which is 60 mm. in length. Three rows
of spines, one in the middle line and one on each side,
run along the cephalo-thorax, which is divided by a
transverse sulcus into an anterior anda posterior part,
the former occupied by a central gastric and lateral
hepatic regions, and the 1atter by a central cardiac and

* Continued from p F30.

NATURE

5i

towing-net, and they brought back a number of
fine examples of Porfzta, several of Glaucus.atlanticus,
some shells of Spzru/a bearing groups of small stalked
cirripeds, and many large radiolarians, One of the
Spirula shells was covered with a beautiful stalked
infusorian.

We proceeded in the evening underall plain sail. The
soundings on the chart in advance of us seemed to-
indicate an extensive rise, with a depth of water averaging
not much more than 1,700 fathoms, and it was determined
to dredge again on the following day.

Onthe morning of March 4 we sounded in lat. 21°
38’ N., long. 44° 39’ W., in 1,900 fathoms, with No. 1
line, the “ Hydra” and 3 cwt., the slip water-drop, and a
thermometer. The bottom was grey ooze, as on the day
before, and the bottom’ temperature 1°99 C. The dredge
was put over at 8 A.M. It was intended to attach a
“ Hydra” tube with disengaging weight a little below the
bottom of the dredge ; the weight slipped, however, close
to the surface, and the dredge was lowered in the ordinary

Fic, 2.—Demamii Lerropactyza, R. v. S.

latent bronchial regions. The abdomen, which consists
as usual of seven segments, has the central series of
spines of the cephalo-thorax continued along the middle
line. The sixth segment bears the caudal appendages,
and in the seventh, the telson, we find the excretory
opening. The lateral borders of the body, and all the
appendages with the exception of the first pair of ambu-
latory legs, are edged with a close and very beautiful
fringe of a whitish-yellow colour.

There are two pairs, the normal number, of antenna,
thea come mandibles, then maxille; three pairs of
maxillipeds, five pairs of ambulatory legs, and five pairs
of swimmerets. As most of the appendages differ from
those usually met with in the Astacidze only in detail,
I need here only mention that the anterior antennz have
two pairs of flagella, one of which is very long, longer
than the external flagellum of the external pair.

The form of the first pair of ambulatory legs is singu-
larly elegant. They are 155 mm, in length—considerably
longer than the body ; they are very slender, and end in
a pair of very slender denticulated chelze, with a close,

52

velvet-like line of hairs along their inner edges. The
rest of the ambulatory legs are much shorter, and all
bear chelze, a character which will demand a certain re-
laxation of the diagnosis of the Astacidze if Deidamia is
to be placed in that family.

The specimen captured being a male, the first pair of
swimmerets are somewhat modified. The four other
pairs of swimmerets, which are 33 mm. in length, bear
each two narrow swimming processes richly fringed with
hair, and a short flagellum.

The absence of eyes in many deep-sea animals and
their full development in others is very remarkable. I
have mentioned (“The Depths of the Sea,” p. 176), the
case of one of the stalk-eyed crustaceans, Ethusa
granulata, in which well-developed eyes are present in
examples from shallow water. In deeper water, from 110
to 370 fathoms, eye-stalks are present, but the animal is
apparently blind, the eyes being replaced by rounded
calcareous terminations to the stalks. In examples from
500 to 700 fathoms in another locality, the eye-stalks have
lost their special character, have become fixed, and their
terminations combine into a strong pointed rostrum. In
this case we have a gradual modification, depending ap-
parently upon the gradual diminution and final disappear-
ance of solar light. On the other hand, Wznzda, from
equal depths, has its eyes unusually developed and appa-
rently of great delicacy. Is it possible that in certain
cases, as the sun’s light diminishes, the power of vision
becomes more acute, while at length the eye becomes
susceptible of the stimulus of the fainter light of phos-
phorescence? The absence of eyes is not unknown
among the Astacide. Astacus felluctdus, from the
Mammoth Cave, is blind, and from the same cause—the
absence of light ; but morphologically the eyes are not
entirely wanting, for two small abortive eye-stalks still
remain in the position in which eyes are developed in all
normal decapods. In Deidamia no trace whatever
remains either of the eyes of sight or of their pedicels.

On Thursday the 6th we sounded in 2,325 fathoms,
sending down a thermometer and the slip water-bottle.
The temperature registered was 1°°7 C., and the specific
gravity of the sample of water was 102470 at 21° C., that
of the surface water being 1'02556, at 23°°3 C.

A good deal of gulf-weed drifted past during the day,
and a boat was sent out to collect some. About half a
dozen closely twined bundles were procured, and on
examining them it was found that the bundle was bound
together by strings of the viscid secretion of Antennarius
marmoratus, and formed a nest containing the eggs of the
fish. Several young examples of this grotesque little
animal have been from time to time brought in among
the gulf-weed ; also many crustaceans, several of the
nudibranchiate mollusca characteristic of the gulf-weed
fauna, suchas Scz//@a pelagica p., and many planarians,

The dredge came up at 4.15 P.M. with a small quantity
of red mud, in which we detected only one single but per-
fectly fresh valve of a small lamelli-branchiate mollusk.
In the mud there were also some sharks’ teeth of at least
two genera, and a number of very peculiar black oval
bodies about an inch long, with the surface irregularly
reticulated, and within; the reticulates closely and sym-
metrically granulated the whole appearance singularly
like that of the phosphatic concretions which are so
abundant in the greensand and trias. My first impres-
sion was that both the teeth and the concretions were
drifted fossils, but on handing over a portion of one of the
latter to Mr. Buchanan for examination, he found that it
consisted of almost pure peroxide of manganese.

The character both of the exterior and interior of the
nodule strongly recalled the black base of the coral which
we dredged in 1,530 fathoms on the 18th of February ;
and on going into the matter, Mr. Buchanan found not
only that the base of the coral retaining its external or-
ganic form had the composition of a lump of pyrolusite,

NATURE

[May 15, 1873

but that the glossy black film covering the stem and
branches of the coral gave also the reaction of manganese,
There seemed to be little doubt that it was a case of slow
substitution, for the mass of peroxide of manganese form-
ing the root showed on fracture in some places the con-
centric layers and intimate structure of the original coral,
The coral, where it was unaltered} had the ordinary com-
position, consisting chiefly of calcic carbonate. Whether
the nodules dredged on March 7th are pieces of rolled
coral, the ornament on their surface being due to an im-
perfect crystallisation of the surface layer of the peroxide
of manganese, or whether they form another case of
pseudomorphy, the peroxide of manganese replacing some
other organism, we have not the means of determining.
The whole question is a very singular one,

Some of our party, using the towing-net and collecting
gulf-weed on the surface from a boat, brought in a num-
ber of things beautiful in their form and brilliancy of
colouring, and many of them strangely interesting for the
way in which their glassy transparency exposed the work-
ing of the most subtle parts of their internal machinery ;
and these gave employment to the microscopists in the
dearth of returns from the dredge. Our position was
now lat. 19° 57’ N., long. 53° 26’; Sombrero distant 558
miles.

Sunday was a lovely day. The breeze had fallen off
somewhat, and the force was now only from 2to 3. The
sky and sea were gloriously blue, with here and there a
soft grey tress on the sky, and a gleaming white curl on
the sea. A pretty little Spanish brigantine, bright with
green paint and white sails, and the merry, dusky faces
of three or four Spanish girls, came in the morning within
speaking distance and got her longitude. She had been
passing and repassing us for a couple of days, wondering
doubtless at the irrelevancy of our movements, shortening
sail, and stopping every now and then in mid ocean with
a fine breeze in our favour. On Monday morning we
perted from our gay littlecompanion. We stopped again
to dredge, and she got far before us, and we saw with
some regret first her green hull and then her white sails
pass down over the edge of the world.

The sounding on Monday the toth gave 2,675 fathoms,
with a bottom of the same red clay with very little cal-
careous matter. The bottom temperature was 176 C.,
that of the surface being 23°°3C. We had been struck
for some time past with the singular absence of the
higher forms of life. Not a bird was to be seen from
morning to night. A few kittiwakes (Larus tridactylus) —
follewed the ship for the first few days after we left Tene-
rifie, but even these had disappeared. A single petrel
(Thalassidroma pelagica) was seen one day from one of
the boats on a towing-net excursion, but we had not seen
one of the southern sea-birds. For the last day or two
scme of the larger sea-mammals and fishes had been
visible. A large grampus (Orca gladiator) had been
moving round the ship and apparently keeping up with
it. Some sharks hung about, seeking what they might
devour, but we had not yet succeeded in catchin
any of them. Lovely dolphins (Coryphena Perot)
passed in their varying irridescent colouring from the
shadow of the ship into the sunshine, and glided about
like living patches of rainbow. Flying-fish became more
abundant, evidently falling a prey to the dolphins, which
are readily deceived by a rude imitation of one of them,
a white spinning bait, when the ship is going rapidly
through the water.

On Tuesday the 11th we pursued our course during the
forenoon at the rate of from six to seven knots, with a
light breeze, force 3 to 4. The dredge-line was veered to
over 4,000 fathoms, nearly 5 statute miles. The dredge
came up at about half-past five o’clock, full of red mud of
the same character as that brought up by the sounding
machine. Entangled about the mouth of the dredge and
embedded in the mud were many long cases of a tube-

7

May 15, 1873]

NATURE

53

building annelid, evidently formed out of the gritty matter
which occurs, though sparingly, in the clay. The tubes
with their contents were handed over to Dr. v. Willemoes-
Suhm, who found the worms to belong to the family
Ammocharidz (Claparéde and Malmgren), closely allied
to the Maldania or Clymenidz, all of which build tubes
of sand or mud. The largest specimens dredged are 120
mm. in length by 2 mm. in width. The head is rounded,
with a lateral mouth. There is no trace of cephalic
branchiz. The segments are not divided from one
another ; but the forz wucinigeri, which are occupied by
the hair-like setze, and the elevations bearing small wcinz,
indicate the beginning of a new segment.

There is no doubt that this annelid is closely allied to
the genus Owevnza, but it differs from it in the absence of
cephalic branchiz. Malmgren, has, however, already
proposed the name of AZyriochele for a form in which this
absence of branchiz occurs. The description of the
northern form on which Malmgren’s genus is founded is
not at hand, so that it is impossible in the meantime to
determine whether the two forms are identical or specifi-
cally distinct.

As bearing upon some of the most important of the
broad questions which it is our great object to solve, I do
not see that any capture which we could have made could
have been more important and more conclusive than that
of this annelid. The depth was 2,975, practically 3,000,
fathoms—a depth which does not appear to be greatly
exceeded in any part of the ocean. ‘The nature of the
bottom, which consists of a smooth red clay with a few
scattered sand grains and a very small number of fora-
minifera shells, was very unfavourable to higher animal
life, and yet this creature, which is closely related to the
Clymenidz, a well-known shallow-water group of high
organisation, is abundant and fully developed. It is
fortunate in possessing such attributes as to make it im-
possible even to suppose that it may have been taken
during the passage of the dredge to the surface, or have
entered the dredge-bag in any other illegitimate way ;
and its physiognomy and habits are the same as those of
allied forms from moderate depths. It affords, in fact,
conclusive proof that the conditions of the bottom of the
sea to all depths are not only such as to admit of the
existence of animal life, but are such as to allow of the
unlimited extension of the distribution of animals high
in the zoological series, and closely in relation with the
characteristic faunze of shallower zones.

On Thursday the 13th our position at noon was lat. 18°
54 N., long. 61° 28’ W.

On the forenoon of the 14th we were still 35 miles from
land, and we sounded in 1,420 fathoms. The bottom
had altered greatly in character: it now consisted chiefly

‘of calcareous foraminifera of many species, mixed with a

considerable portion of the broken spicules of siliceous
sponges. The bottom temperature registered was 3° C.
The water-bottle was accidentally broken in taking in, so
that that observation was lost. As we were now within
sight of land, and all our results were evidently modified
by its immediate proximity, we regarded our first deep-sea
section as completed. WYVILLE THOMSON

A MODERN STERNBERGIA

At a time when botanists of some repute are not

ashamed to confess their inability to deduce satis-
factory characters for the determination of plants from their
internal anatomy, old workers in this field may well turn
back to refresh their memories on such points, and to in-
quire whether their eyes may not have deceived them in the
investigations of former years when microscopes were not
what they now are. In doing this a few days ago in con-
nection with the examination of a carboniferous conifer, I
was surprised to find that I had overlooked or omitted to
note the fact that the Balsam Fir of Canada (Adzes Lal-

samea), which affords the well-known Canada-balsam, has
that curious structure of pith well known in Palzeozoic Co-
nifers, and which has been named Sterndergia. It is well
seen in young twigs one or two years old, and though on
a smaller scale, is very similar to that of Dadoxylon mate-
riarium of the upper coal-formation of Nova Scotia and
Prince Edward Island, as I have figured this in my recent
report on the geology of the latter province.

This modern Sternbergia is not produced by the mere
breaking of the cellular tissue transversely by elongation
of the fibre ; but, as I pointed out many years ago in the
case of the coal-formation Sternbergiz,* is a true organic
partitioning of the pith by diaphragms of denser cells
opposite the nodes, as in Cecropia pellata, and some
species of Ficus, &c. The pith of the Balsam Fir is, like
that of many other conifers, composed of dotted or trans-
versely marked cells elongated vertically, and reminding
one of the pseudo-vascular pith of some Lepidodendroid
trees. The transverse diaphragms are composed of denser
cells flattened horizontally, and they are, as in Sternbergia,
accompanied by constrictions of the medullary cylinder.
As in some fossil conifers, the diaphragms are not per-
fectly continuous.

The plan of growth of the modern fir does not permit its
pith to increase in diameter. This was different in the
Palzozoic conifers, in which the Sternbergia pith is
sometimes nearly two inches in diameter.

In Palzozoic, as in modern times, Sternbergia piths
were not confined to one family of trees. Corda has
shown this structure in Lomatophloios, which is equiva-
lent to Lepidophloios or Ulodendron. 1 have shown that
it exists in several species of Lepidodendroid and Sigilla-
roid trees and in Leftophleum.+ Williamson, who first
established it in the Conifers, has also found it in Décty-
oxylon. Still I have nowhere found these remarkable
fossils so abundant as in the upper coal-formation, and
either in the interior of calcified or silicified trunks of pine
or with fragments of wood attached to them sufficient to
indicate their coniferous character.

I may add, that the microscopic structure of young
twigs of modern conifers presents many interesting points
for comparison with fossil trees, and that in making lon-
gitudinal slices of the pith of recent specimens, care
should be taken not to be misled by the mere crumpling
of the celiular tissue sometimes caused by the pressure of
the knife. J. W. Dawson

NOTES
ProressoR Carus, the well-known naturalist of Leipsic
University, who is to fill Professor Wyville Thomson’s chair
during the absence of the latter with the Cha//enger, commenced
his duties on May 2 last, by an able and eloquent address on the
study of zoology. He is fully convinced that ‘‘ the final form
of our (zoological) system will be a pedigree.” i

THE Challenger arrived at Halifax on May 9, all well. She
had a successful passage from Bermuda, the dredgings and
soundings being very satisfactory. On the 18th inst. she will
leave this port on a return voyage to Bermuda.

WITH great regret we record the death of Mr. John Stuart
Mill, at the age of 67 years, on May 8, at Avignon, from asudden
attack of erysipelas, which cut him off in four days. He has
been buried beside his wife at Avignon. A meeting of the friends
of Mr. Mill has been convened, at Willis’s Rooms, for Tuesday,
2oth inst., to consider in what manner the national respect for
his memory may be most fittingly testified.

A CoMMITTEE for the erection of a monument to Liebig has
been constituted at Munich. Councillor yon Niethammer is the
chairman, Prof. Von Bischoff the vice-chairman, and Professors

* Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, 1857.
+ Jou-na! ef the Geologica! Society, May 1878.

eel

54

NATURE

[May 15, 1873

Vollhard and Von Jolly are the secretaries.
Bavaria has subscribed 1,000 florins,

The King of

TuE purchase for the National collection, by the Trustees of
the British Museum, of Mr. A. R. Wallace’s splendid collection
of birds from the Malay Archipelago, will be gratifying to all
who are interested in science. Mr. Wallace being so thoroughly
acquainted with ornithology, and having obtained so many of
the speciniens himself from localities recorded by himself at the
time, makes the collection much more valuable than the skins
alone would have been, if they had been accumulated by a less
thorough master of the subject. That such is the case, is proved
by the great value of Mr, Wallace’s paper on the Parrots of the
Malay Archipelago, which appeared in the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society, nearly ten years ago; and another on the
Pigeons of the same region, published in the /é/s, at about the
same time. It is also not to be forgotten, that the discovery of
one of the most important of recent points in physical geography,
namely, the situation of the line which separates Asia from
Australasia, in other words, Wallace's line, was made in great
measure from the observations by the author,—whose name is
thus deservedly immortalised, —of the differences in the avifaunas
of Bali and Lombock.

THOSE of our readers who are interested in University science
teaching will be glad to learn that Dr. Michael Foster’s course
of Elementary Biology at Cambridge, which commenced last
week, is attended by more than 30 students. This unexpectedly
large attendance has taxed to the utmost the space at disposal.
However, such arrangements haye been made as will enable every
student to have a fair though not large amount of space at his
disposal, each set of reagents, &c., being used in common by
two or three men. Nothing could illustrate more strongly the
urgent need for further provision of working-room for biological
students at Cambridge ; as scarcely any space is now available
for advanced histological, embryological, or physiological re-
search. Dr. Foster’s course this term is very similar to that
given to science teachers in the summer at South Kensington,
and is the first that has been held in term-time at Cambridge, a
few students having gone through a like course last long vaca-
tion. Itis probable that there may be a still larger attendance
at future courses of this kind, as Dr. Foster announced that he
should require students to have received this or similar teaching
before admission to the winter courses of practical physiology.
Dr. Foster is assisted in the work of practical demonstration by
Mr. H. N. Martin, D.Sc., M.B. of Christ’s College, Mr. C.
Yule, B.A. of St. John’s College, and Mr. T. W. Bridge, of
Trinity College, the newly-appointed Demonstrator of Compara-
tive Anatomy.

Mr. JOHN ARROWSMITH, the well-known geographer, died
on May 2, at the age of eighty-three years.

A GENTLEMAN writes us that he was invited by the Royal
Commissioners to act as a juror at the Vienna Exhibition, but
was at the same time coolly told that our Philistian Government
had placed no funds at the disposal of the Commissioners where-
with to defray the necessary expenses of those who are willing to
devote their valuable time and experience to the service of their
country, Our readers will not be surprised }at this. Other
Governments have discovered that even in the most commercial,
as well as in the highest light, the encouragement of science
“pays.” The British Government, with five millions on the
right side of their account, still regard science as a beggarly
Lazarus, to whom, for mere shame’s sake, they are compelled
to throw an occasional crumb. As our correspondent says, poor
little Switzerland has devoted two and a half times the pittance
our Government have allowed to defray the expenses of the
Vienna Commission ; while the amount expended by Austria in

their department of former exhibitions was at least four times as
much as we have devoted to theirs.

Cart. F. J. OWEN Evans, R.N.,F.R.S. Chief Naval Assistant
in the Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty, and in
charge of the Magnetic Department, has been appointed Com-
panion of the Most Honourable Ordemof the Bath.

THE publication of the eighth volume of the Zoological
Record which, as we announced some time since, has
been so long delayed through the unfortunate indisposi-
tion of one of the contributors may now be shortly expected.
The ninth volume containing the zoological literature of 1872 is
now in hand, the}recorders being the same as in the eighth
volume, with the}exception of Prof. Traquair, whose place is
supplied by Prof. Liitken of Copenhagen. The Editor will be
glad to receive separate copies of papers published in journals
(especially those which have not a very wide circulation) addressed
to the care of the publisher, Mr. Van Voorst, 1, Paternoster Row,
London. Such separate copies, however, to be of use, should
have thejoriginal pagination indicated,

THE Society of Antiquaries of Scotland has just come into
the enjoyment of an estate in Caithness, of which the reversion-
ary interest was bequeathed to it for the purpose of founding a
Lectureship of Archzeology.

Mr. BESSEMER intends to found a gold medal, to be given
annually to any member of the Iron and Steel Institute who may
have displayed literary capacity, or promoted the progress of
metallurgical science by original research.

PRoressoR NeEwcoms’s ‘ New Tables of the Motions of
Uranus,” are announced as already in the press, and may be
expected to be published during the approaching summer. They
have been prepared and will be printed at the expense of the
Smithsonian Institution. Prof. Newcomb has already, by
using all known observations of Neptune, compiled the very
accurate tables for computing the motions of that planet that
have been used in the “ American Nautical Almanac.” Having
thus provided for the most distant member of our system, he has
now returned to Uranus, and finds that his present tables (which
will complete the survey of the solar system) represent quite
completely the hitherto inexplicable movements of that body.

THE Cincinnati Observatory, founded by Prof. Mitchell,
is, we learn, to be removed, and established in a manner worthy
of the wealth of Cincinnati. From the drawings it may be
judged that the dome of the new building will be thirty-five feet
in diameter in the inside. The new site was highly approved
of by Prof, Abbe, who continued until lately to be the director
of the observatory at Cincinnati, and was presented by John
Kilgour, Esq., who also added thereto the sum of ten thousand
dollars to provide for the new building.

Amonc the resolutions adopted by Congress at its last session
was one authorising the President to invite the International
Statistical Congress to hold its next, or ninth, session in the
United States. The invitation is to be formal and cordial, and
it is provided that should this be accepted the President is au-
thorised to appoint the usual organisation commission, and to
take the other preliminary and necessary steps for the meeting of
this body, and for holding its session at such time as may be
deemed expedient by the Statistical Congress.

A TELEGRAM announces that some of the crew of the Arctie
exploring ship Po/avis, which left New York under the command of
Captain Hall in 1871, have been landed in Newfoundland, They
were picked up in an open boat 40 miles from the coast of
Labrador. It seems, by their statements, that in August 1872,
the ship, being beset with ice, commenced landing provisions,

a aid on ,

May | 15, 1873]

NATURE

55

Suddenly the ice broke, and the men who were upon it were
carried away. They drifted southward for 196 days—more than
six months—and the ice, which originally was five miles in
circumference, was gradually reduced to a few feet. They then
took to the only remaining boat. Captain Hall, they report,
died of apoplexy in November 1871. These statements have
been received with distrust.

Mr, LAMoNtT’s beautiful steam yacht Diana, which has been
chartered by Mr. Benjamin Smith, of London, for a voyage of
exploration in the Northern Seas, left Dundee on Saturday.
The yacht is manned by a crew of twenty, and although there is
a sailing master, Mr. Smith will have complete control. The
first point of rendezvous will be Cobbe’s Bay, on the north-west
of Spitzbergen, where Mr, Smith expects to meet his own
sailing yacht, the "Samson, which was despatched from Hull
with stores on May 1 under the command of Captain Walker,
for many years connected with the Dundee whaling fleet. Every
effort will subsequently be made to push as far northward as
possible. During the voyage marine and land plants will be
gathered and observations of the tides and currents made. The
Diana is provisioned for a year, but the object contemplated is
expected to be realised in about six months.

At the recent meeting of the Delegates of the French Learned
Societies, gold medals were awarded to the following :—M.
Leymerie, for his geological studies in the Pyrenees;
M. Bleicher, military surgeon, for his interesting geo-
logical observations on the central plateau of France and
the environs of Montpelier ; M. Guillier, for his researches on the
geology and industrial products of the department of Sarthe ;
M. Pomel, for his investigations on the geology of the Sahara;
M. Sirodot, for his work on the algze (Lemanea), which grow in
fresh running water. Silver medals were awarded to M. Cauvet
for various observations on vegetable anatomy and physiology ;
to M. Verlot, for his catalogue of the vascular plants of Dau-
phiny; M. Gassies, for his investigations on the terrestrial
and river shells of New Caledonia ; to M. Villot, for his obser-
vations on the curious metamorphoses and strange migrations of
certain worms found in wells and in standing water.

In 1859, an attempt was made to start a Zoological Garden
in Philadelphia, which fell to the ground during the subsequent
war. A fresh company is now being formed to carry out the ori-
ginal intention, though on a larger scale. A site has been secured
in Fairmount Park, and capital is to be obtained in the following
manner :—Certificates of stock are to be issued of not less than
fifty dollars each, All receipts derived from the Gardens and
collections of the Society, are to be applied annually—first, to
the maintenance of the establishment ; secondly, to the payment
of six per cent. on the stock ; and third, any balance remainiag
to go to the gradual extention of the collection of the Society
and the improvement of its grounds. Many influential citizens
are supporting the project.

Tue Annual Report of the Visitors of the Royal Institution
shows a considerable increase in the number of members, and is
otherwise very satisfactory.

THE Rey. Thomas Fowler, M.A., Fellow, Sub-Rector, and
Tutor of Lincoln College, has been elected to the Professorship
of Logic at Oxford, vacant by the death of Prof. Wall.

Mr. HybE CLARKE will on Tuesday, the 2oth instant, read a
paper at the Anthropological Institute, on “‘The Egyptian
Colony and Language in the Caucasus.”

Tue Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, has published its
list of prizes for 1873. The largest sums, varying from ten
guineas to one guinea, are offered for improvements in mine
ventilation, mining, boring machinery, and similar depaxtments.

rn nn nn nn Ue EEE yy Unt SI SSnn NSU

Small premiums are offered for essays, local observations, and
collections of Natural History, especially such as illustrate the
Natural History of the county.

WE have received the ‘‘ Report on the Condition of the Sea
Fisheries of the South Coast of New England in 1871-2,” by
Prof. S. F. Baird. As the result of a thorough investigation,
Prof, Baird comes to the conclusion that during the last few
years there has been a decided decrease in the number of food-
fishes in these waters : the decrease being mainly due to the com-
bined action of the fish-ponds or weirs and the blue-fish, the
former destroying a large percentage of the spawning fish before
they have deposited their eggs, and the latter devouring im-
mense numbers of young fish after they have passed the ordinary
perils of immaturity.

From the “‘ Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of the
State of New York,” we learn that the rivers of that State are
being plentifully stocked with useful fish, especially shad ; and
the Commissioners are confident that the people of the United
States will in a short time rely upon restocking their waters, and
not upon game laws, to keep up a full supply of fish for their
markets.

WE have received the first two parts of Mr. Tegetmeier’s
magnificent work on ‘‘ Pheasants for the Covert and the Aviary.”
We shall notice it fully when completed.

THE much-vexed question as to whether seals are fish or not,
as regards the oil to be obtained from them, has recently come
up in a practical shape between the governments of the United
States and Newfoundland. The fishery treaty lately entered into
between the United States and Great Britain, and about to go
into actual operation in the course of the present summer, pro-
vides that fis# oil shall be admitted free, but that other oils shall
pay a duty of ten percent. This question is one that would be
very easy of solution if it were purely zoological in its character,
since, as every one does or should know, the seal and porpoise,
as well as the whale, are warm-blooded mammalia, having
nothing in common with the fish any more than has the man
who, for the time being, goes into the water for the purpose of
bathing. It appears, however, to be the general practice with
commercial nations to class all oils obtained from marine objects,
whether cetaceans, birds, or fishes, as fish oil, and on this
ground it is probable that the claim of the Newfoundland
authorities to have seals recognised as fish will be accepted.

THE following addition; to the Brighton Aquarium have been
made during the past week :—Two young Seals (/oca vitulina)
from Jan-Mayen Island, Arctic Sea, presented by Mr. John
Clark; two Porpoises (Phocena communis), from Rye Bay,
purchased ; one Angler (Lofhius piscatorius), from Cornwall ;
Bass (Labrax lupus); Guroards (7rigla lineata) ; Grey Mullet
(Mugil capito); Conger-eels (Conger vulgaris); Sand Smelis
(Atherina Presbyter); Pollack Whiting (Gadus pollachtus) ;
Rocklings (Afotella mustela) ; Sand Launce (A mmodytes lancea) ;
one Octopus (Octopus vulgaris), from the French coast; two
cuttle-fish (Sepia officinalis); Prawns (Pakemon serratus); Foli-
aceous Coralline (Zschara foliacea) ; Anemones, numerous.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during
the past week include a Chinese Water Deer (Aydropotes iner-
mis), from China, presented by Mr. R. Swinhoe ; four Peafowl
(Pavo cristatus), from India, presented by Mrs. Stern; two
Koodoos (Strepsiceros kudu), and a Pluto Monkey (Cercopithecus
pluto), from Africa ; a Weeper Capuchin (Cebus capucinus), from
South America, deposited ; three Cole Tits (Parus ater), from
the British Isles ; four Spix’s Cavies (Cavia spixii), from Brazil ;
a tawny Eagle (Aguila nevioides), from Africa, purchased ; 2
Markhoor (Capra mezaceros); five Peacock Pheasants (/ozy-
plectron chinguis) ; and five Chilian Pintails (Da/ila spinicauda),
born in the Gardens.

NATURE

[May 15, 1875

THE BIRTH OF CHEMISTRY
X.

The Theory of Phlogiston—Comparison with Hooke's Theory of
Combustion.—Early Ideas regarding Calcination.— Stephen
Hales—His Pneumatic Experiments,—Boerhaave.— Conclu-
Sion.

AvouT the year 1669 we find the first dawnings of a theory

which was proposed in order to connect together various
chemical phenomena, and notably for the explanation of com-
bustion, the common and most obvious of all chemical actions.
This theory, known as the ‘‘ Theory of Phlogiston,” powerfully
influenced chemistry for a century; indeed upon its ruins the
structure of modern chemistry was raised by the labours of
Lavoisier, Priestley, and Scheele. The proposers of this theory
—John Joachim Becher (b. 1625, d. 1682) and George Ernest
Stahl (b. 1660, d. 1734) endeavoured to trace the cause of
various phenomena of chemical change to the assimilation or re-
jection of what they called ‘‘ materia aut principium ignis, non
ipse ignis”’—not actual fire, but the principle of fire; a some-
thing not much unlike the pure, elemental, celestial fire which a
few ancient and many Middle Age writers had feigned to exist.
Stahl believed this #a/erta ignis to be a very subtle, invisible,
substance, which neither burns nor glows ; its particles penetrate
the most dense substances, and are agitated by a very rapid mo-
tion. When a body is burned it loses phlogiston ; when a body
is un-burned, if we may use such an expression, or de-oxidised,
it assimilates phlogiston (pAoyiords, burnt). Thus if lead is
heated for some length of time it is converted into a powdery
substance which they called ca/x of lead, and we, lead oxide ; the
lead has lost Phlogiston, said Stahl. On thie other hand, if this
same calx of lead is heated with red-hot charcoal, it is deoxi-
dised and becomes lead again. It has now assimilated the
Phlogiston, which it had before lost.

But here arose a difficulty. A metal was found to be heavier
after calcination than before; thus loss of Phlogiston lead to
gain of weight, which was altogether anomalous, and apparently
incapable of explanation. But the Phlogistians were equal to
the occasion ; the supporters of a pet theory will create any
number of the most vague and impossible hypotheses, rather
than yield up their darling to destruction: so, said they, Phlo-
giston is a principle of levity; it confers negative weight ; it
makes bodies lighter, just as bladders attached to a swimmer
lighten him.

The theory was applicd as generally as possible :—thus sul-
phuric acid is produced by burning sulphur under certain condi-
tions of oxidation ; the sulphur loses Phlogiston, and becomes
heavier like the metallic calx ; hence sulphuric acid is sulphur
minus Phiogiston, while sulphur is consequently sulphuric acid
plus Phiogiston. In fact /oss of phlogiston was synonymous with
what we call oxidation ; and gain of phiogiston with deoxidation,
The existence of Phiogiston was so utterly unsupported by
experimental proof that the theory could s-arcely exist with-
out many opponents. The endurance of the most false chi-
merical theory is ofien really wonderful. The Phlogistians were
attack<d first in one direction, then in another, yet the theory
continued to find supporters. At last, as a last resource, hydrogen
gas—recently investigated by Cavendish—was said to be Phlo-
giston, but this was so entirely different from the Phlogiston of
Stahl that the theory was now seen on all sides to be fast giving
way. At length Lavoisier, a century ago, conclusively disproved
the theory by means which cannot be discussed here, because
they belong to the more advanced history of the science.

How the crude, unscientific, illogical theory of Phlogiston
could have arisen in the face of Hooke’s admirable theory of
combustion, and Mayow’s experiments in support of it, must
always remain a mystery. _It is probable that if Mayow had not
died a young man, or if Hooke had found leisure to prosecute
his views, the theory of Phlogiston would never have been pro-
pounded. The theory has been much over-praised. The only
service which it rendered to the science was that it introduced a
certain amount of order and system, which was hitherto wanting.
It led to the grouping together of certain classes of facts, and, to
a slight extent, to the application of similar modes of reasoning
to similar chemical phenomena. And although that reasoning
was altogether wrong, it seemed to indicate the means by which,
with a more perfect and advanced system, chemistry might
become an exact science subject to definite modes of treat-
ment,

We have more than once spvken of calcination, which was

indeed one of the most prominent operations of old chemistry.
Since the examination of the process led to the proposal of just
ideas concerning the materiality of the air—most often denied by
ancient and middle-age writers—it may be well to glance at the
early ideas regarding calcination. Here then was the dominant
experiment in this direction : I take a bright lustrous metal, tin
or lead, melt it, keep itin a molten state for awhile, and it is
converted into powder, which weighs more than the original
metal. Again I heat this same powder with charcoal, and it
becomes metal again $ yet nothing that can be seen has been
added to the metal, or taken away from its calx. Geber defines
calcination as ‘‘ the pulverisation of a thing by fire, by deprivi

it of the humidity which consolidates its parts.” He observ

that the metal increases in weight during the operation, although
‘* deprived of its humidity.” Cardanus asserted that the increase
of weight in the case of lead amounted to one-thirteenth the
weight of the metal calcined ; and he accounted for it on the
supposition that all things possess a certain kind of life, a celestial
heat, which is destroyed during calcination; hence they become
heavier for the same reason that animals are heavier after death,
for the celestial heat tends upwards. This idea was almost
similar to that of the Phlogistians, although published more than
a century before Becher wrote his Z/ysica Subterranea. In

Fic. 21.

Fic. 22,
Fic. 2t.—Hales’ method of measuring a gas. Fig 22.—Measurement
cf the elastic force of the gas produced by ferm snting peas.

1629 Jean Rey, a physician of Bergerac, attempted to discover the
cause of increase, and attributed it to the absorption of “ thick-
ened air” (/’air espessi) by the metal during calcination. Lemery,
as we have seen, attributed the gain to the absorption of corfus-
cules de feu. Afterwards came the nitre-air of Mayow, then a
century later the increase was proved to be due to the union of
the body with a constituent of the air which Lavoisier named
oxygen gas ; and this gas was first discovered by heating one ot
the calces (calx of mercury), about which so much speculation
had been wasted, and so little experiment bestowed, by earlier
writers.

We are drawing towards the end of our subject, but we think
any account of the earlier history of chemistry would be very in-
complete without a notice of the work of Dr. Stephen Hales
(Lorn 1677, died 1761). Ina number of papers communicated

Re

eS ee

to the Royal Society, and afierwards published in a work -

entitled Svatical Essays, we findsa variety of experiments by
Hales, c} iefly relating to pneumatic chemis'ry. Herein we find
an account of ‘a specimen of an attenipt to analyse the air by a
great variety of chymico-statical experiments, which show in how
great a proportion air is wrought into the composition of animal,
vegetable, and mineral substances, and withal how readily it
resumes its former elastick state, when in the dissolution of those

Ray

May 13, 1873)

substances it is disengaged from them.” In order to determine
the quantity of air disengaged from any substance during distil-
lation or fusion, Hales placed the substance ina retort, and luted
the retort to a large receiver with a small hole, at the bottom ;
water was caused to occupy a known space in the receiver, and
the amount of air expelled was estimated by noting the amount
of water remaining in the receiver at the conclusion of the
experiment, after cooling. Hales employed the following ap-

aratus (Fig. 21) to measure the volume of air generated by any
kind of fermentation, also by the reaction of one body upon
another.

The substances undergoing fermentation were placed in 4, and
over the whole a vessel, @ y, was inverted, closed below by the
vessel x x, and containing above a certain amount of air, to the
level y. If air were generated, the water in a sank (say to y) ;
while if air were absorbed by the bodies in 4, the water rose
(say to z). Sometimes he placed different substances on pede-
stais in a jar of air, and ignited them, as Mayow had done, by a
burning-glass, and noted the alteration in the bulk of air. He
did this with phosphorus, brown paper dipped in nitre, sulphur,
and other substances, If he required to act upon substances by
means of a strong acid, he would place the substance in a

Fic. 23.—Hales’ pneumatic experiments,

suitable vessel on a pedestal in a known, v.lume of air, standing
over water, and would suspend over it a phial which could be
emptied by pulling a string. ‘Lhese devices were closely copied
by Priestley and Lavoisier in their experiments upon gaseous
bodies. If a substance required to be heated violently, it was
placed in a bent gun-barrel, x x (Fig. 23), one end of which was
placed in a furnace, while the other was placed under a bell jar,
a b, full of water, inserted in the pail of water x x. He dis-
tilled a number of substances, apparently taken at random, and
determined the amount of gas evolved, but he appears to have
been at no pains to determine the nature of the gas, assuming it
to be ordinary atmospheric air. Thus he distilled 1 cubic
inch of lard, and collected thirty-three cubic inches of gas as the
products of decomposition. Tallow, horn, sal ammoniac,
oyster shells, peas, amber, camphire, and many other substances,
were similarly treated.

Two grains of phosphorus ignited in a closed vessel of air,
were found to absorb 28 cubic inches of air. 211 grains of
nitre mixed with bone-ash yielded 90 cubic inches of gas; 54
cubic inches of water on boiling yielded 1 cubic inch of air. In
order to measure the elastic force of the gas produced by fer-
menting peas, Hales filled a small, strong bottle, ¢ (Fig. 22) with
peas, filling up the interstices with water ; mercury to a depth

NATURE

57

of half an inch was then poured in, and of course remained at
the bottom of the vessel c. A long tube, a z, the lower end
of which dipped beneath the mercury, was securely fastened
into the mouth of the bottle 4, and fixed air-tight. In a few
days’ time the peas were in a state of fermentation, and the
generated gas had forced the mercury to ascend in the tube @ z
to a height of 80 inches, hence the gas in ¢ was existing under a
pressure of about 35 Ibs. on the square inch.

Hales also produced gases by various reactions. Thus he
poured a cubic inch of sulphuric acid on half a cubic inch ot
iron filings: no effect took place until he had diluted the acid
with water, when forty-three cubic inches of azr (as he calls it—
in reality hydrogen gas) came off. Iron filings mixed with nitric
acid, or with ammonia, or sulphur, were found to absorb air. A
cubic inch of chalk treated with dilute sulphuric acid produced
thirty-one cubic inches of az (in reality carbonic anhydride gas).
If space permitted, we could say much more of Hales’ works.
His experiments on respiration, and on various principles of
vegetation, are exceedingly ingenious, and often accurate. It
has often been said that Lavoisier created modern chemistry by
the introduction of the balance into chemical experiments, but
here we find Hales weighing his substances, and measuring his
gases, years before Lavoisier was born. Hales did not suffh-
ciently investigate the nature of the various gases which he pro-
duced in the course of his experiments, but he assuredly paved
the way for many of the after discoveries of Priestley, Cavendish,
and Lavoisier.

Dr. Hermann Boerhaave, of Leyden (b. 1668, d. 1738), was
a contemporary of Hales. He was the author of the first com-
prehensive system of chemistry :—a bulky quarto in two volumes,
entitled Z/ementa Chemie, which appeared in 1732, and which
for many years was the chemical text-book of Europe. In it he
defines chemistry as ‘‘an art which teaches the manner of per-
forming certain physical operations, whereby bodies cognizable
to the senses, or capable of being rendered cognizable, and of
being contained in vessels, are so changed by means of proper
instruments, as to produce certain determinate effects, and at
the same time discover the causes thereof for the service of
various arts.”

But hold! our task was to give some account of the é27th of
chemistry, while a science with such a ponderous definition as
the above, is no longer infantile. The babe has grown up about
us until it has assumed a tremendous individuality. The great ©
discoveries of the fathers of modern chemistry, Lavoisier,
Scheele, Priestley, Cavendish, Davy, need not be told here; they
belong to the later history of chemistry. We have traced the
science from its commencement in the crude metallurgical and
other operations of the ancients, to the time when a comprehen-
sive system of the science appeared. And when we think of
the vast dimensions of the science of to-day, the numberless text-
books in every language, the great laboratories springing up in
every country, the immense amount of original research, we are
carried back in spirit to those mistaken—but often grandly
energetic men—who said to the disciples of their art :—

Ora!
Lege, Lege, Lege, Relege, Labora!
Et Invenies.

G. F. RoDWELL

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Bulletin Mensuel de la Socitté d@ Acclimatation de Paris.
The April number contains much interesting information as
to the work done by the Society, which besides gratuitously dis-
tributing specimens of various useful animals or plants wherever
they are likely to thrive, also lends or lets to those persons, whose
tastes or knowledge fit them for the charge, some of the rarer
species of animal or vegetable life, thus sowing the seeds
of miniature jardins d’acclimatation throughout the country.
During the last 12 months 3 monkeys have been born at
the Paris Gardens, one of them in March last. In that month
75 mammalia and 1,669 birds of various sorts were received,
while the Society was able to distribute 62 mammalia and 1,731
birds. The Society aims at encouraging the reproduction of all
sorts of useful animals, not merely confining its efforts to the
maintenance of a stock for exhibition. An interesting account
is given of an oyster breeding establishment and aquarium at
Biarritz, and of the cultivation of silkworms in France generally,
Our French neighbours have set us the example of cultivating

58

NATURE

[May 15, 1873

our oysters; we may learn some day to follow in their steps?
and turn our attention, so far as our climate will allow of it, to
the “education” of silkworms. This art is becoming quite a
recognised industry in France, and the success that has attended
its adoption is very gratifying. Bamboos, Spanish broom (Stipa
zencaissima), China grass or China nettles, Californian pines (Pizzs
sabiniana), are among the plants which are referred to as proper
to be introduced into France.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Mathematical Society, May 8.—Dr. Hirst, F.R.S., in
the chair. Prof. Cayley communicated an extract from a letter
he had received from M. Hermite ‘‘On an application of the
theory of unicursal curves,” and then gave accounts of the two
following papers, ‘‘ Plan of a curve-tracing apparatus,” and ‘On
arational quintic correspondence of two points in a plane:”
another paper entitled ‘‘ Bicursal curves” (z.e. curves with a
deficiency ove) by the same gentleman, was taken as read.—Mr.
S. Roberts read a short ‘* Note on the Pliickerian characteristics
of epi- and hypo-trochoids,” &c., showing that the curves were
unicursal: he gave also the orderand class. In connection
with these curves Mr. J. L. Glaisher advocated the use of Mr.
Perigal’s term ‘‘bicircloids.” Amongst the presents received
were twenty-two memoirs, &c., by the late Prof. de Morgan,
presented by Mrs. de Morgan.

Geological Society, April 30.—Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair.—On the Permian Breccias and
Boulder-beds of Armagh, by Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland. In this paper the
author described certain breccias occurring in the vicinity of
Armagh, which he referred, both on stratigraphical and physical
grounds, to the Lower Permian series, considering them to be
identical with the ‘‘ brockram ” of Cumberland, and the Breccias
of Worcestershire and Shropshire, The author further referred
to the extensive denudation which the Carboniferous beds have
undergone in Armagh, and also alluded to the occurrence of
beds of Permian age near Benburb, between Armagh and Dun-
gannon,—Geological Notes on Griqualand West, by G. W.
Stow. The geological results of a journey made by Mr G. W.
Stow and Mr, F, H. S. Orpen from the Orange Free State into
Griqualand West are communicated by Mr. Stow in this paper,
with numerous carefully executed sections and a geological map
based on the survey map prepared by Mr. Orpen for the Govern-
ment. From the junction of the Riet and Modder Rivers (south
of the Panneveldt Diamond-fields) to Kheis and the Schurwe Ber-
gen, the track traversed three degrees of longitude. The return
route north-east to Mount Huxley and Daniel’s Kuil, and eastward
to Likatlong, on the Hart or Kolang River, was nearly as long,
From the Modder, first south-westward and then westward, to
the junction of the Vaal and Orange, the olive shales of the
Dicynodon- or Karoo-series, traversed frequently by igneous
rocks, form the country, and are seen in some places to lie un-
conformably on older rocks, The shales reach to theend of the
Campbell Randt, on the other side of the Orange River, and
have been, it seems, formed of the débris of those old hills to a
great extent, The oldest rocks of the locality are seen cropping
out here and there in the gorges at the foot of the Randt, andconsist
of metamorphic rocks, greatly denuded, on which the massive and
extensive siliceo-calcareous strata of the Great Campbell Plateau lie
unconformably. These latter and the breccias of their slopes are
coated thickly with enormous travertine deposits. Igneous rock-
masses occur around Ongeluk, west of the Jasper range, and then
bright-red jasper rocks crop up near Matsap, succeeded to the
west by the parallel quartzite range of Matsap, and again by
other bedded jaspers, which seem to lie in a synclinal of the
quartzite rocks, which come up again in the Langeberg. These
are succeeded by lower rocks, consisting largely of sandstone,
grit, and quartzite, with more or less pervading mica, as far as
the journey extended in the Schurwe Bergen, also parallel to the
former ranges. The maximum thickness of the successive strata
is calculated by the author at 24,000 ft. ; allowing for possible
reduplications, the minimum is regarded as not less than 9,000 ft.
—On some Bivalve Entomostraca, chiefly Cypridinidie, of the Car-
honiferous formations, by Prof. T. R. Jones, F.R.S. The larger
forms of bivalved Entomostraca are not rare in the Carboniferous
limestone, and some occur in certain shales of the Coal-measures.

Geologists’ Association, May 2.—H. Woodward, F.R.S.,.
president, in the chair.—On the valley of the Vézére (Perigord),
its limestones, caves, and pre-historic remains, by Prof, T.
Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S. The river Vézére, rising in the
department of Corréze, traversing the department Dordogne, and
joining the river Dordogne near Larlat, runs from the old meta-
morphic rocks of the central plateau of France, through carboni-
ferous, triassic, jurassic, and cretaceotis strata. The last men-
tioned are chiefly limestones, nearly horizontal, presenting steep
and often high cliffs, either washed by the river, or bordering its
broader and older valley. The softer bands of limestone have
been hollowed out along the valley by frost and water, and here
and there present recesses and caves. These in several instances
have been artificially enlarged, and in very many cases have
afforded shelter to pre-historic people, and still retain heaps ot
bones and hearth-stuff, with flint implements of numerous kinds,
carved bones and antlers, and occasionally human bones. The
most common bones and antlers are those of reindeer, which
must have abounded in southern France, whether remaining all
the year round or migrating from plain to mountain and back
again in their season, for the cave-folk killed them of all ages
in vast numbers. The cold climate necessary for the reindeer
has long passed away; the musk-ox and the hairy mammoth
disappeared also with the reindeer; and looking at the great
changes in geographical outlines and contours that have taken
place since the extinction of the European mammoth, the author
thought that some eight or nine thousand years would not be
too long for the bringing about of such changes, That the Old
cave folk of Périgord saw the living mammoth, a lively outline
sketch of its peculiar and shaggy form, on a piece of ivory, found
in the Madelaine Cave, is satisfactcry evidence. The special
geology of the district, the characters of the several caves and
their contents, and the most striking of the implements of stone
and bone were described in this paper ; the human remains found
at Cro-Magnon, a gigantic chief and his more ordinary com-
panions, were specially treated of; and the high probability of
their belonging to the same race of men as the older Cave-folk
was discussed at some length. (For details on this subject see
NATURE, vol. vii. p. 305 ef seg.)

Anthropological Institute, May 6.—Col. A. Lane Fox, V.P
in the chair. A paper was read on ‘‘ Eastern Coolie Labour,”
by Mr. W. L. Distant. The aim of the paper was to show the
dissimilarity in the capacity and aptitude for certain work which
exists among different peoples under the same conditions. The
working of a large sugar estate by means of European capital,
European appliances, and European superintendence, with the
manual labour of some hundreds of Asiatics, including Klings,
Chinese, Javanese, and Malays, was taken as an example. In
describing the labours of these peoples, the differences were
examined in their capacity for work in general, their ap-
titudes and dislikes for certain work, and also in their methods
of working, viz. by task or otherwise, taken in conjunction with
their social condition, and the terms under which they are en-
gaged. In contact with the European the Chinaman seems to
prosper ; he bargains with him, whilst the Javanese sullenly
works for him, and the Kling sinks to a crouching menial in his
presence. The European seems affected in the same way ; he
can chat with the Chinese, tolerate the Javanese, but despises
the Kling. Europern civilisation and prejudice are confronted
with Eastern ignorance and prejudice. It is the need of money
that has brought these different peoples together. English,
Scotch, Portuguese, Klings, Javanese and Chinese are only
attracted together in the hope of gain, and under this creed
progress and civilisation generally remain in the hands of the
strongest and richest party.—A paper by Mr. Howorth was read
on ‘* The westerly Drifting of Nomads from the fifth to the nine-
teenth century, Part x. : the Alans or Lesghs.” Col. Lane Fox
exhibited two beautifully chipped flint bracelets, four iron brace-
lets, and other articles found in a tomb in the valley leading to
the tombs of the Kings of Thebes; also a large and finely worked
flint knife from a tomb inthe same neighbourhood. Lieut. S.
C. Holland, R.N., exhibited a series of photographs of Ainos,
and various articles of Aino manufacture.—The Rev. Dunbar
I. Heath has been elected Treasurer in the place of the late
Mr. Flower.

Zoological Society, May 6.—Prof. Newton, F.R.S., vice-
president, in the chair. The secretary read a report on the
additions that had been made to the Society’s menagerie during
the months of March and April, 1873, and called particular
attention to an example of the Broad Banded Armadillo (Xenu-

Muy 15, 1873]

NATURE

59

rus unicinctus), which was new to the Society’s collection ; also
to a pair of White-necked Cranes (Grus wipio) from Japan.
No example of this fine species, so far as was known, had pre-
viously been brought alive to Europe.—Mr. Sclater exhibited
some photographs of, and made some remarks on, a young spe-
cimen of the Liberian Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus liberiensis)
which had recently been received alive by the Zoological
Society of Ireland, but had died shortly after its arrival.—A
communication was read from the Rev. 0. P. Cambridge on
some new species of Araneidea, chiefly from Oriental Siberia.—
A communication was read from Mr. G. B. Sowerby, jun., on
three species of land shells from Madagascar, which he proposed
to call Cyclostoma suffusum, C. vexillum, and C. perspectivum,
sps. nov.—A communication by Messrs. P. L. Sclater and O.
Salvin contained notes on the range of certain species of Ameri-
can Limiocole in the southern part of the New World. Two
distinct species of Stilts (imantopus) were shown to occur in
the Neotropical region—namely, ZH. nigricollis Viell., and 1.
brasiliensis Brehm.—Mr. A. H. Garrod read a memoir on the
variations of the carotid arteries of birds, in continuation of the
labours of Bauer, Meckel, and Nitzsch upon this subject. Mr.
Garrod’s observations were based principally npon specimens
that had died in the Society’s gardens.

Entomological Society, May 5.—Mr, H. T. Staunton,
vice-president, in the chair.—Mr. Higgins exhibited a speci-
men of Langia zeuzercides (one of the Sphingidz), from the
Himalaya, bred by Major Buckley.’ He also exhibited a female
specimen (the first that he had ever seen) of Goliathus albosig-
nata, from Limpopo.—Mr. McLachian exhibited a coloured
plate of butterflies as a sample of a work on the “ Natural
History of Turkestan,” about to be published at the expense of
the Government of that place, and founded on the entomological
collections made by M. Alexis Fedtscheuko during the years
1869-71. The work is to be published in the Russian language,
with Latin diagnoses of the new species.—Mr. Bates pointed out
a figure in the plate of Cocandica, a variety of Colias nastes, an
insect belonging to Lapland, and remarked that it was an in-
teresting fact that many species of insects belonging to Arctic
regions were also found in mountainous districts much farther
south, though not in the intervening plains. He mentioned also
Colias paleno, which was found near the snow-line, in the Alps,
and in Lapland.—Mr, Miiller also remarked on the close con-
nection between the Arctic and Alpine insect faunas, referring
particularly to Parnassius apol/o, which occurred in the north
of Europe, but in Switzerland was confined to the Alps and the
opposite Jurassian range, carefully avoiding the intervening
alluvial plains, which in the glacial period had been covered with
the glaciers of the Rhone, the Reuss, the Rhine, and minor tri-
butaries. He added that if the actual stations of the species were
mapped, they would all be found to exist outside, but along the
moraines left by the ancient glaciers. —Dr. Sharp communicated
a paper on the Staphylinidze of Japan,” principally from the
collections formed by Mr. George Lewis.—A paper was read,
entitled ‘‘ Notes on the Ephemeride,” by Dr. H. A. Hagen,
compiled by the Rev. A. E. Eaton.

Royal Horticultural Society, May 7.—General Meeting.
—Viscount Bury, M.P., having been nominated by the Council,
pending the Queen’s approval, to the office of president, took
the chair.—The Rey. M. J. Berkeley commented upon the show.
Prof. Thiselton Dyer called attention to the first appearance at
the meetings of Odontoglossum vexillarium, a lovely orchid, with
flat rose-coloured flowers, four inches across. It had flowered
for the first time in the old world on April 19.* The late Mr.
Bowman discovered it in New Grenada, on the western slopes
of the Andes. It was more nearly allied to O. phalenopsis than
to the type generally prevailing in the genus,

Scientific Committee—Dr. J. D. Hooker, C.B., F.R.S.,
in the chair.—The Rev. M. J. Berkeley exhibited a shoot of
Araucaria imbricata, illustrating the injury suffered by this plant
from the punctures of the young leaves by the prickly points of
those on the other branches.—Dr. Masters exhibited a drawing
of a flower of Mr. Ware’s Primula veris var. chlorantha. It
consisted of a mass of small leafy scales, the innermost of which
were prolonged into styles and had ovules upon the edges.
—Prof. Thiselton Dyer, adverting to some statements about the
cultivation of fungi, stated that, according to: Thore, cited by
Duchartre, Agaricus Palomet and Boletus edulis are sown in the
Landes by watering the soil with water in which these species
had been boiled. The spores of various other species will, it is

said, endure a temperature of 212° F., and those of Pesiza repanda |

even, according to Schmitz, 230° F.—The Rev. M. J. Berkeley
said there was no doubt that fungus spores would bear a high
temperature. The development of a Penicillium in the interior
of loaves of the Zatz de munition almost immediately after they
were drawn from the oven to the temperature of which the spores
must have been fully exposed, was a case in point. Specimens
of Cytinus hypocistis, the only European spécies of Raffiesiacee,
were shown. They had been sent from Cannes by the Hon R.
Bailie Hamilton,

Institution of Civil Engineers, May 6.—Mr. T. Hawksley,
president, in the chair.—The paper read was a history of the
River Clyde, by Mr. James Deas, and gave an account of the
various works carried out for improving it as a navigable river,
and of the modes and cost of dredging and depositing followed
in the deepening and widening of it. It was remarked that for
no river in the kingdom had so much been done “‘ by art and
man’s device” as for the Clyde above Port-Glasgow ; that the
river from Glasgow, for twelve miles seaward, was nearly as
much an artificial navigation as the Suez Canal. One hundred
years ago the river was fordable even on foot twelve miles below
Glasgow. The engineering works carried out in the Clyde,
combined with the mineral resources of the district, had raised
Glasgow from an insignificant provincial town, with a population
in 1771 of only 35,000, to be the second city in the empire,
with a population (including suburbs) of 566,150, according to
the census of 1871.

Royal Microscopical Society, May 7.—Dr. Millar, V.P.,
in the chair.—A paper by Dr. Maddox was read, ‘On a
parasite (believed to be a species of Zama) found encysted in
the neck of a sheep.” The general characteristics of the cyst
and the appearance of sections of it under the microscope were
fully described, as were also such portions of the parasite as
could be separated from the general mass, and in which the
presence of immature ova was particularly noted. The circum-
stance of finding ova during the encysted condition of the
creature was believed to be unique.—A paper was also read by
Mr. W. K. Parker ‘‘ Onthe Development of the Facial Arches
of the Sturgeon,” in which the formation and development of
the mouth was minutely described, and the relation which it
bore to that of the osseous fishes and to mammals pointed out.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, January 14.—Dr. Ruschen-
berger, president, in the chair.—Prof. Cope made some observa-
tions on the structure and systematic position of the genus
Eobasileus Cope. Uintatherium Leidy and Dinoceras Marsh
were names applied to allied mammals, so that the same would
probably apply tothem also. Until further evidence is presented,
he adheres to his original position, that these animals are true
Proboscidia, and cannot be referred to any other order.—‘‘ On
the Forms of Artificial Oxide of Zinc,” by George A. Koenig,
Ph. D.—‘‘On a Boiler Incrustation from New Jersey,” by George
A. Koenig, Ph.D.

January 21.—Dr. Bridges in the chair.—Notice of Fossil Ver-
tebrates from the Miocene of Virginia. Prof. Leidy directed
attention to some fossils, part of a small collection recently
received. They were found imbedded in blue clay containing
an abundance of fossil diatomes, among which Coscinodiscus is
especially conspicuous. The fossil vertebrate remains consist
mainly of vertebrze and teeth of cetaceans, vertebrze of bony
fishes, teeth of sharks, and spines of rays. Among them also
there is a portion of a humerus of a bird, and several worn teeth
of apeccary. Besides these there are specimens which may be
regarded as characteristic of the following undescribed species :
Protocamelus virginiensis, Tautoga (Protautoga) conidens, Aci-
penser ornatus.—Mr. Thomas Meehan offered to the Academy
some facts in regard to the fertilisation of flowers which con-
firmed the popular view that pollen of one variety had an
immediate influence on the structure of the fruit of another
variety, as well as on the progeny; and also furnished some
entirely new facts in regard to the ability of a seed germ to receive
impregnation from two distinct sources. Mr. Arnold of Paris,
Canada, determined to observe the effect of cross fertilisation
on Indian corn. He procured a very peculiar variety of which
Mr. Meehan exhibited an ear, not known in the vicinity—a
brown variety, with a circular dent at the apex—and raised one
plant from it. The first set of flowers were permitted to be
fertilised by their own pollen in order to test whether there was
any reyersionary tendency in the plant, or the pollen of any other
variety in the vicinity. The ear now produced was the result

60

—every grain being like its parent. The corn plant produces two
ears on each stalk. As soon as the ‘‘silk”’—the pistils of this
second ear—appeared, the pollen—ina “tassel ”—of the common
yellow flint corn was procured, set in a bottle of water tied near
the developing ear, the plant’s own tassel having been cut away
sometime previous. After a short time this set of male flowers
was removed, and a panicle of male flowers from a white variety
was introduced to the same bottle in order to afford it the oppor-
tunity of operating on the same female flowers. The result was
the ear now presented. The base of cach grain was of the
yellow flint corn, but the «fer half of the white variety. The
result was he thought no escape from the conclusion, not only
that there was an immediate influence on the seed and the
whole fruit structure by the application of strange pollen ; but
the still more important fact, hardly before more than suspected,
that one ovule could receive and be affected by the pollen of
two distinct parents, and this too after some time had elapsed
between the first and seconde impregnation,

February 4.—Mr. Vaux, vice-president, in the chair.—The
following papers were presented for publication :—‘‘ On the
Lingual Dentition of certain Terrestrial Pulmonata from the
Unired States, with remarks on their systematic value,” by
Thos. Bland and Wm. G. Binney; ‘*Catalogue of the recent
species of the Class Brachiopoda,” by W.H. Dall, U.S.C.S.;
‘Descriptions of Mexican Ichneumonide,” by E. T. Cresson,
_** Notices of Remains of Fishes in the Bridger Tertiary Forma-
tion of Wyoming.’ Prof. Leidy remarked that among the
multitude of fossils which had been collected from the tertiary
clays and sandstones of the Bridger Group of Wyoming, there
were comparatively few pertaining to fishes. Nevertheless the
remaias of these are not unfrequent, but they are not so com-
plete as one might have expected from the nature of the beds
containing them. They usually occur as isolated bones, scales,
and teeth, and mostly indicate fishes related with our living
Gars (Lefidosteus) and Mud Fish (Amia). Many of the frag-
ments appear to indicate the following extinct species previousiy
undescribed :—Lefidosteus atrox ; L.simplex ; L. notabilis; Amia
(Pretamia) uintaensis; A. (Protamia) media A. (Protamia) gra-
cilis); Fypamia elegans ; Pimelodus antiquus ; Phareodus acutus,

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, May 5.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dent, in the chair.—The deaths of Baron Liebig, foreign associate
of the Academy, and of M. Hausteen, correspondent, were
announced.—The following papers were read:—On the heat
p:oduced by the reactions between water and ammonia, calcic,
baric, and strontic, oxides, by M. Berthelot. The author had
estimated the heat produced by the solution of dry NH, in water,
and also on the dilution of the former solution with more water ;
he has found that as regards the latter case the heatis in inverse
ratio to the water already combined with the ammonia. The
determinations of the heat in the case of calcic, baric, and
strontic oxides, was made by dissolving them in HCL,
and from the result obtained the heat for their combi-
nation with water was calculated.—On the separation of
potash and soda in vegetables, 5th memoir, by M Eug.
Peligot. The author finds that in those cases where plants
growing near the sea contain sodium salts, this fact is to be
attributed to their absorption of them, through their leaves,
from the spay in the air, and not from the soil.—A report on
M. Bertin’s memoir on the resistance opposed to rolling by the
keel of a vessel, by MM. Paris, Jurien de la Graviére, and
Dupuy de Léme.—On the conditions of the integrability of
simultaneous equations, &c., by M. Collet.—On the use of
the meat of tuberculous animals for food; can this meat
c-use the development of pulmonary phthisis? by M. G,
Colin. The author, from the results of thirty experiments
where as many animals were fed on every kind of tuberculous
fl sh, answers the question in the negative. Where other
experimenters have obtained opposite results, he believes
tbat they have either experimented on animals already dis-
sased, or have allowed portions of the tuberculous matter to
find admission to the lungs of the animals in the air they breathed.
—On the action of ezone on absolute alcohol: on the combina-
tion of hydrogen and cyanogen under the influence of the silent
electric discharge, by M. A. Boillot.—.A new observation of
comet il., 1867, by M, Stephan.—On the effects produced by
_clectricity on mercury immersed in different solutions, by M.

Th. du Moncel.—On the purification of hydrochloric acid by
M. Engel.—On the estimation of sugar by Barreswil’s method by

NATURE

[May 1 *,

M. E. Feltz.—Experiments on the respiration of fish, by M.
Quinquand.—Contribution to the history of microzymes and
Bacteria : physiological transformation of Bacteria into micro-
zymes and of mycrozymes into Bacteria in the digestive tube of
the same animal, by MM. Béechamp and Estor.—On the remains
of Ziephas priscus found in the quaternary formation of the en-
virons of Paris, by M. J. Reboux. .

DIARY

THURSDAY, May 15.

Royat Society, at 8.30.—On the Periodicity of Rainfall in Connection
with the Sun-spot Periodicity: C. Meldrum.—On the Heating of a Disc
by rapid Rotation in Vacuo: B. Stewart and P. G. Tait.—Ono Jere
rite: Major Ross.—Determination of the number of Electrostatic Units
in the Electromagnetic Unit made in the Physical Laboratory of Glasgow
University: D. McKiehan. .

SocteTy OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Remarks on some Pictures by Quintin
Matsys and Holbein, in the Collection of the Earl of Radnor, at Longford
Castle, lately exhibited at the Royal Academy: J. G. Nichols.

CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—On Isomerism: Dr. H. E, Armstrong.

NouMIsMaATIc Society, at 7.

Roya Institution, at 3.-—Light: Prof. Tyndall.

FRIDAY, May 16.

Roya InsTITUTION, at 9 —Limits of Certainty in Taste: Sidney Colvin,
HoRTICULTURAL SOCIETY, at 3.—Lecture.

SATURDAY, May 17.
Royat InsTITUTION, at 3.—Ozone: Prof, Odling.

MONDAY, May 19.

Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 4.—Elementary Botany: Prof, Bentley,

Asiatic Society, at 3.—Anniversary.

Victoria INSTITUTE, at 8.—Anniversary. s y

Society oF ArTS, at 8.—Cantor Lectures. On Wines; their Production,
Treatment, and Use: J. L. W. Thudichum, M.D.

TUESDAY, May 20.

Rovat InsTITUTION, at 3-—Early Roman History and Architecture,

INSTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.

STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 7-45-

ANTHROPOLOGICAL InsTITUTE, at 8.—On the Egyptian Colony and Lan-
guage in the Caucasus: Hyde Clarke. ie

ZooLoGIcAL Socizty, at 8.30.—On African Buffaloes: Sir Victor Brooke,
Bart.—Remarks on varieties of the Carp: Lord Arthur Russell.—On
Lepilemur cheirgaleus, and on the Zoological rank of the Lemuroidea:
St. George Mivart.

WEDNESDAY, May 21. ,
METEOROLOGICAL Society, at 7.—Discussion on Proceedings of Meteoro-
logical Conference at Leiozig—On Land and Sea Breezes: J. K. Laughton.
—Notes on aa Double Rainbow observed at Kirkwall: R. H Scott.—On
some Results of Temperature Observations at Durham: J. J. Plummer,
HorticuLtTurat Society.—Exhibition of Ericas, Pelargoniums, &c.
SocreTy oF ARTS, at 8.—Recent Processes for the Production of Gas for
Iluminating Purposes : Thomas Wells
Lonpon INsTITUTION, at 7.—Fourth Musical Lecture.

THURSDAY, May 22.

Royat InstitvTion, at 3.—Light: Prof. Tyndall.
Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.

CONTENTS Pits

A Voice From CAMBRIDGE, IT. (2°. 1s © 6 ess) ss
LoncoMANs’ TEXT-BooKS OF SCIENCE . 2. 2. + + © © © © «© «© © 42
ZoOLOGICAL MYTHOLOGY. 0. - «0 ss # 6 + © 8 « “els sg
Our Book SHELF «(0 scsriesss we ee 8s * 6) ww so) ene
Lerrers TO THE EpiTor :—
Agassiz and Forbes.—G. Forges © ie ee _e) son gl
Venomous Caterpillars. —Dr. Fayrer: H.S.WiLson. . . « . 44
Onsome Errors ot Statement concerning Organ-pipes in recent
Treatises on Natural Philosophy.—HrerMANN SMITH . . « » 45
Rock Inscriptions of Brazil—Hype CuarKE . . . . « « «© « 46
Abzormal Coloration in Fish—A. Nicots . . . + . + - » 46
Phosphorescence in Wood.—W. G. SMITH . . « « « « es « 46
Coincidence of the Spectrum Lines of Iron, Calcium, and Titanium.
—W. Mattieu Wititiams F.C.S. . . « « + « 6 6 2 e 2 46
Musical Stones.— R. J. NELSON. . . . 2 « © © © « © @ « 40
Acqu-red Habitsin Plants. . . . « « «© «© + © © © «© « « 46
Joun SrvartT Mine. See! - «© ical os a a
Miners’ RuLEs IN THE 17TH CENTURY. By Sir P. pe M. Grey-
Ecerton, Bart. F.R'SJ2e 7, 2s we 8 a
Suppression oF SCENT IN PHEASANTS. By W. B. TEGETMEIER. . « 48
Tue New Proressor oF ENGINEERING AT GLasGow. By. J. MAYER. 49
‘THe FERTILISATION OF THE WILD Pansy. By A. W. Bennett, F,L.S.
(With Illustrations). Webs (ese os + sw + 5 sp ea
Nores From THE Chadlenger, 11. By Prof.Wyvitte Tomson, F.R.S.
(With Illustration) i ec I ee
x MopeErN STERNBERGIA. By Principal J. W. Dawson, F.R.S . . 53
OTEs ee Po
Tue Birra or Cuemistry, X. By G. F. Ropwe tt, F.C.S. (ith
Ldlustvations.) ~~ 2° ies? = os 0 a = sike) sen
ScrenTIFIC SERIALS . . 6 © s+ © © « oe @ a) (ole) Kenan emer,
SocieTIzs AND ACADEMIES « - + + + + + © ee # @ wth Jere
DIARY . 0 t 0 0 RUNS Rh Ae 0 eo on) oe

NATURE

61

THURSDAY, MAY 22, 1873

THE FUTURE OF THE ENGLISH UNI-
VERSITIES

AN ECHO FROM OXFORD

<4 eng Association for the Organisation of Academical
Study has inaugurated a good work, which must
in the end have an important result. But in the ex-
pressions of policy as yet put out by that body we notice
an omission which perhaps is intentional, but in any case
a very serious, indeed a fundamental one. It is well
enough to declare that the collegiate and other revenues
of Oxford and Cambridge should be devoted to the
encouragement of research, and to placing the highest
kind of teaching in all subjects within the reach of the
people of this country. It is most true that to this end
prize-fellowships and non-resident sinecures must be
abolished, and in their place we must have carefully-
chosen professors, assistant-professors, and lecturers,
teaching and carrying on original research in all depart-
ments of knowledge. With such a programme in hand
the members of this association can very plausibly de-
mand for the old Universities that they be not despoiled of
their excessive wealth, but that this wealth be made
operative and productive within the limits of the Uni-
versities themselves. Nevertheless there is a question
which necessarily arises—whenever the future of the
English Universities is mentioned—which the Asso-
ciation has not discussed, and which we think it
ought boldly to meet, even though it should lead
to a split in the ranks. That question is this—Are
Oxford and Cambridge to remain as institutions exclu-
sively for the elegant education—the “ culture ”—of the
upper classes who may choose and can afford to allow
their sons to while away certain years there? or are they
to be made engines of national education where a poor
man may go with as much reason as a rich one; and
profitably spend his time in acquiring knowledge and
training which have a real value in the world and place
their possessor in the position to earn his bread and his
standing among men?

It is a fact that at this moment a youth entering a
college at either Oxford or Cambridge and taking his
degree after four years of a very pleasant life, having
spent during the process at least 800/. (é.¢. 200/, a-
year) comes away, not a whit further on in the battle of
life than he was cn entering. He has acquired some
good habits, many very bad ones, but has received no
training nor instruction which will render him useful to
other men, excepting—the exception is a very significant
one—as a clergyman or as a schoolmaster.

The state of things is neither more nor less than this—
that a young man cannot study at the English Universities

" and associate with even the most steady-going of his fellow-
students at a less expense than that named above ; and
that the University cannot, at any rate does not, teach
him anything in a practical or professional way. It is
useless for Cambridge and Oxford to open their classes
to non-collegiate students, as long as those classes are
not something more systematised and practically-pointed

No, 186—Vot. vit.

than they can be, when exclusively designed as parts of a
so-called elegant or “ liberal” education. Men who are
intending to work hard in life cannot afford to pass
through such a course after leaving school ; and hence
our University students are, with a few exceptions, drawn
from the richer classes ; hence, too, the amount of luxury
and rarity of earnest study amongst them, which re-
acts on many of their teachers. The present posi-
tion of the Universities with regard to education for
the business of life is merely that of a preparatory
school. The same limitations of subjects—the same
books are in force here, with some small additions for
the few “honour men,” as in our public schools, such as
Eton, Harrow, and Rugby. The B.A. degree—the ordi-
nary examinations for which any average boy on leaving
school at sixteen or eighteen years of age could easily
pass—absorbs nearly all the activity ; is, in fact, almost
the highest effort of each University. Almost all the
teaching, certainly all the college work, is directed and
governed by the requirements of this preparatory course
which prepares for nothing. Whilst the intellectual
standard thus held up is childish enough, it is necessarily
accompanied by a system of tutorial superintendence
and direction as wearisome as it is injurious.

In fact, the best effort in Oxford and Cambridge—the
most striking movement in recent times—as compared
with the dead]calm of some fifty years since, has been
rather a retrogression than an advance; we are less of
Universities now than then, and have become more like
—and are daily becoming more like—the great public
schools, such as Eton and Harrow. The greater part
of all the college-teaching staff is employed in doing the
very same work as that done in the schools, which ought
never to be required at a University at all. As the
arrangements and innovations of the various college-bodies
are watched, it becomes obvious that}the schoolmaster is
abroad in a very ambitious spirit with the avowed object
of making the University a great Seventh Form, similar ~
in discipline and character of instruction to his own
pedagogic institution.

This state of things is defended by a large number of
persons—among them members of the Association—with
two words chiefly in their mouths—“ culture ” and “ tech-
nical.” It is maintained that “technical education” (an
expression which is used for the purpose of suggesting
the less intellectual side of what it is better to term “ pro-
fessional education”) is not the function of the Univer-
sities, that it cannot be conveniently undertaken in
them, that it is better; carried out in the great cities
such as London, Manchester, Edinburgh, whilst
the Universities in their academic seclusion can
administer that smattering of omniscience, dilettan-
tism,’and good manners which it is so important for
persons of a certain income to possess. To obtain this
a youth must be prepared to sacrifice time and money ;
and in offering this the University is, according to the
opinion of many resident fellows, doing its work in the
world. The selfishness of this view of University func-
tions is patent enough. Clearly it is an easier matter to
undertake this ornamental work, and to leave to others
the business of life. It appears to be overlooked by its
advocates that the Universities thus may, or rather have, _

lost all influence, all share in the life of the country, In
E

62

renouncing technical or professional education, the
University renounces all those who must have such edu-
cation at the age when she might receive them. Those
who really value, as we do above most things, breadth of
intellectual interests—who have intense repugnance to
narrow “specialism ”—cannot, upon due consideration,
defend the separation of ‘‘ ornamental” and “technical”
education, as likely to conduce to increase of culture
among our fellow-countrymen. It is by undertaking most
fully the charge of the higher education—of those for
whom without distinction such education: is necessary—
that the Universities can really do most for the cause of
culture. When Oxtord and Cambridge su ~ceed in getting
hold of all such students then only can thoroughly satis-
factory results be expected by those who are anxious
for the progress of the higher education. What we
desire. more earnestly is, that Oxford and Cambridge
may be the means of giving breadth of view and interest
to as large a number of young Englishmen as possible,
for it is this that we understand by “ culture:” not the
mere ease of manner due to luxury and the select
association of leisured men. Oxford and Cambridge
can spread true culture, and can have pretensions
to such an office only when acting up to their trust
and fully providing for the very best and fullest pro-
fessional study in all departments. There are some
to whom it appears important that the Association
should plainly declare itself on this matter, before pro-
ceeding to the question of the foundation of institu-
tions for scientific and literary research within the Uni-
versity. If on the one hand the Association were to
declare for the exclusion of professional study, and at the
same time to advocate the foundation of increased means
and material of research within the University, we should
feel at once that the policy of the Association would not be
accepted by all. There is a great deal of human nature
in the men who occupy distinguished positions in our
Universities, and in the select atmosphere of non-profes-
sional students and cultured ecclesiastics there is an
inevitable languor and repose of the mind which are in-
fectious. The most vigorous body becomes limp before

the sirocco, and in this atmosphere of luxurious culture it |

may be doubted whether even Faraday could have carried
out his investigations: probably only by investing him-
self in a kind of mental divers costume. On the other
hand, the presence of an active body of those who
for want of a better word we may call professional stu-
dents—of men who, having neither time nor money for
self-indulgence, determinedly work round their professor
—the presence of a whole lot of such professors each so
surrounded, and the association thus established between
the Universities and the progress of the body of the
country in the arts and sciences, would bring about a
gigantic change. Professors so surrounded might with
advantage be largely increased ; the purely ornamental
students would be by no means dislodged—they would
remain in numbers then as now—but beneficially influ-
enced by the example of the career-seeking and profes-
sional student. These in their turn would be benefited
by a duly proportioned infusion of those students seeking
exclusively “culture”—the amateurs and patrons of
serious pursuits.

It is, then, only on the basis of professional training

NATURE

[May 22, 1873

in the widest sense of the term, that we should care
to see a reorganisation of Oxford and Cambridge. Let
the colleges be taxed, say, to the extent of fifty per cent.
of their revenue in order to support the professoriate and
the appliances which each faculty may deem adequate,
not only for direct “student teaching,” but for pro-
gressive research. Then we may hope to see our
Universities elevated from the condition of mere finishing
schools for young gentlemen, [f such a plan cannot be-
carried out, it would seem useless to simply create
sinecures within the old places, larger and probably
less productive than those which at present exist. Sharp
and painful though the measure might be—we should in
that case have to yield to the removal of means which
have so long lain idle. The colleges would be relieved
of their excessive income to support more practical
institutions elsewhere, and Oxford and Cambridge
would collapse into the condition of mere theological
seminaries. When the Association meets on Saturday
next, it would be well that this point should be raised,
lest by the silence of the leaders of the movement, any
one should be lukewarm in its support.

FRICK’S PHYSIKALISCHE TECHNIK

Oder Anleitung zur Anstellung von phystkalischen Ver-
suchen und sur Herstellung von phystkalischen Appa-
raten mit moiglichst einfachen Mitteln. Von Dr. J.
Frick. (Braunschweig, 1872.)

HIS most useful book has now reached the fourth

edition, and has swelled to 700 pages, illustrated by

986 wood engravings. To some British physicists and

teachers the work has already proved itself serviceable,

but there are doubtless many to whom it is at present un-

known who would find} much valuable information
therein.

Dr. Frick’s work is not in any sense a manual of experi-
mental physics ; it is rather an elaborate treatise upon
physical apparatus and the methods of physical research,
Its object, we learn from the preface, is to give an intro-
duction to the methods of conducting physical inquiry, to
enumerate the precautions which it is necessary to adopt
in order to ensure success, and to give ample directions
with reference to the construction of apparatus and its
management. This field is, comparatively speaking, un-
trodden before, and we have'no hesitation in saying how
thoroughly successful Dr. Frick’s attempt to guide us over
it has proved. We shall briefly indicate the contents of
the book, and then point out the few matters in which we
think the execution of the task has fallen short of what
might have been fairly expected.

The first part contains a sketch of the arrangements
necessary for the physical laboratory, and a detailed ac-
count of the methods of manipulating glass, metals, and
other materials which are required for the apparatus de-
scribed in the second part. This portion of the book is
very interesting and useful. We find here numerous hints *
on turning, glass-blowing, and similar processes with
which it is well for the physicist to be acquainted. Inthe
second part we have in Chap. I. a description of the ap-
paratus necessary for the study of the equilibrium of
forces applied to solids, liquids, and gases ; Chap, II-
describes the apparatus used for experiments on motion

:

May 22, 1873] ©

Chap. III. is on acoustics ; Chap. IV. on light ; Chap. V-
on magnetism ; Chap. VI. on electricity; Chap. VII. on
heat. It may be remarked that the figures are drawn to
scale, and further illustrations of the details are added
whenever necessary.

As a fair specimen of the illustrations and descriptions
we may refer to Article 121, wherein is described Miiller’s
apparatus for studying experimentally the free falling of a
body. This beautiful contrivance is for the purpose of
causing a point vibrating horizontally to trace a curve
upon a board descending vertically. From the form of
the curve the law of falling bodies is deduced. In Chap.
IV. we meet with many interesting contrivances : for
example, Fig. 433 represents an arrangement for showing
the principle of the rainbow experimentally by the aid of
spheres of glass. This chapter is concluded by a practical
lesson in photography. Many of tl:e figures in Chap. VI.
will be found to represent electric instruments which are
manifestly great improvements on forms in ordinary use,
As an example we refer to the Rheostat, Fig. 775.

Considering the book has already reached such portly
dimensions we can hardly complain of omissions. We
are, however, of opinion that the space at the disposal of
the author might have been more judiciously employed if
some of the apparatus which he has described were
omitted and some instruments which he has passed over
were inserted instead. To illustrate this remark we may
refer to the chapters on mechanics. We there find a
number of ingenious contrivances generally pretty well
known, but we also meet with toys like those described in
articles 66 and 67 which could, we think, have been very
well dispensed with. On the other hand we seek in vain
in the same chapter for a full account of Willis’s system
of mechanical apparatus. To say that this ingenious
system would, with trifling additions, enable all the me-
chanical experiments described by Dr. Frick to be per-
formed is to give a very inadequate idea of its resources.
In the hands of a competent experimenter Willis’s ap-
paratus will be found to provide in a substantial form the
principal parts necessary for nearly every conceivable ex-
periment in mechanical philosophy. The framework of
this apparatus is so useful in almost any physical research
that we cannot conceive how it could have been omitted
from “Physikalische Technik,” had the author of that work
been acquainted with the writings of Prof. Willis. We
think also that some of the host of merely qualitative ex-
periments described for the purpose of illustrating centri-
fugal tendency (Article 124) might very well be omitted.
On the other hand, we miss Smeaton’s machine, which,
admitting as it does of exact quantitative results being
determined. is perhaps, next to Atwood’s machine, the
most useful instrument we have for illustrating the truths
of dynamics.

We are tempted to think that Dr. Frick is not ade-
quately acquainted with English scientific - literature.
This opinion receives some confirmation when, on turn-
ing over 238 closely-printed pages which describe
electrical apparatus, we fail to see Sir William Thom-
son’s beautiful instruments described ; nor on turning
to the Index do we even find the name of that philo-
sopher mentioned.

, Although we decidedly think this book might have been
better, yet. we decidedly think that it is very good, and we

NATURE

63

cordially recommend it to the notice of physicists and
lecturers, who will certainly find it useful.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Electricity. By R. M. Ferguson, Ph,D., F.R.S.E. (W.
and R. Chambers.)

WE regret that the Elementary Treatise on Electricity
has not been revised by its author since its first appear-
ance. For example, useful as is the chapter on the
absolute measurement of an electric current, its useful-
ness to students would be increased by a fuller and more
detailed explanation. At the foot of p. 159 it is stated
that “the heating effect (of the current) depends on
the strength of the current and the-resistance.” It should
be the sguare of the strength of the current into the
resistance, as is correctly stated ina preceding paragraph.
On p. 153 there is a mistake in the calculation of the
quantity of water decomposed by a current ; 60c.c, X tan.
514=75 c.c., and not 80 c.c., as is stated, and afterwards
assumed. A description of the sine-galvanometer ought
hardly to have been omitted, and a fuller explanation,
together with an engraving of Thomson’s reflecting
galvanometer, ought surely to be given. There is also
but a meagre account of the induction coil, and the
function of the condenser is not explained: the term
rheotom instead of contact-breaker, looks pedantic, and
may puzzle some readers. But the most faulty part of
the book in our estimation is the singularly obscure
and misleading manner in which the terms Electric
Quantity and Tension are defined on p. 64. Tension is
spoken of as synonymous with electric depth, or as the
French say, electric thickness; whereas the tension,
pressure, or power of discharge possessed by any electri-
fied point, varies as the sgware of the electric depth at that
oint. *

. The first part of this text-book relates to magnetism
and more evident care has been bestowed on this portion.
The charts of isogonic and isoclinic lines are most useful,
and so also are the chronological appendices, in which a
brief scientific history of each subject is given. But why
could not the dip and declination be given for a later
year than 1865? It is said on page 16 that two magnetic
needles are absolutely necessary to show “the power of
the earth in determining the position of the needle,” and
that “if it were possible to hang aneedle in the air so as
to leave it perfectly free to take any position, it would show
us fully the directive action of the earth.” Is it not pos-
sible to buoy a magnetic needle in water, or sink it in
mercury, so that the action of gravity may be neutralised,
and the directive influence of the earth wholly come into
play? Moreover, many dipping needles are made with a
swivel pivot, by means of which the declination and dip
are roughly shown at the same time. Two other blun-
ders we notice in the part on magnetism. On page 4,
speaking of a “small magnetic bar or needle,” Dr. Fer-
guson says that “if both poles of the needle are attracted
indifferently by any end of it [a bit of iron], it is not
magnetic.” This is as slipshod in its science as it is in
its English, for it is precisely the test of a magnetic body
that it does attract either end of the needle ; magnetic
should of course read magnetised, and so again a few
lines lower down. The other blunder is on page 14,
where it is said that “cobalt is attracted by the magnet
at the highest temperatures.” It is well known, and can
easily be shown as a class experiment, that cobalt loses
its magnetic character at a white heat. But in spite of
these errors, Dr. Ferguson’s “ Electricity” is a book that
has been of much use to both teachers and students of
science. Its obvious merits lead us to hope that a revise
edition may find it free from the defects to which we have
drawn attention.

64

NATURE

[May 22, 1873

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. }

Forbes and Tyndall

AT p. 387 of the recently published ‘Life and Letters” of
the late Principal Forbes, the following passage occurs :—

‘*T believe that the effect of the struggle—though unsuccessful
in its immediate object—will be to render Tyndall and Huxley
and their friends more cautious in their further proceedings.
For instance, Tyndall’s book, again withdrawn from Murray’s
‘immediate’ list, will probably be infinitely more carefully
worded relative to Rendu than he at first intended.”

This passage has been selected, among others, by Principal
Shairp, the editor of this portion of the ‘‘ Life,” from a letter
addressed to A. Wills, Esq., under date of November 14, 1859 : the
“struggle” to which it refers arose out of an attempt on the part
of some influential friends of Principal Forbes, who were at that
time members of the Council of the Royal Society, to obtain the
Copley medal for him ; and it took place at the Council meet-
ings which were held on October 27 and November 3, 1859.

I was not a member of the Council at this time, and there-
fore, I could take no direct part in the “‘ struggle” in question.
But, for some years before 1859, glaciers had interested me very
much ; I had done my best to inform myself in the history of
glacier research ; I had followed with close attention the contro-
versy which had been carried on between Prof. Tyndall and his
friends, on the one hand, and Principal Forbes and his supporters
on the other ; and, finally, I had arrived at a very clear convic-
tion that the claims made for Principal Forbes’s work, could not
be justified.

Under these circumstances I thought it would be a most un-
fortunate occurrence if the Council of the Royal Society, con-
taining as it did, not a single person who had made the glacier
question his especial study, should practically intervene in the
controversy then raging, and throw its weight upon the side of
one of the combatants, without due consideration of what was to
be said on the other side.

A friend of mine, who was a member of the Council, shared
these views ; and, inorder to enable him to enforce them, I under-
took to furnish him with a statement wlfich he could lay before
the Council when the award of the Copley medal came up for
discussion. :

It is not necessary to state what took place at the meetings of
the Council—suffice it to say that the Copley medal was not
awarded to Principal Forbes.

So far, therefore, as my statement may have contributed to this
result, my efforts were completely successful. Principal Forbes’s
very influential champions in the Council were left, as I am in-
formed, in a hopeless minority ; and instead of tending to make
me more cautious in my ‘‘ future proceedings,” what occurred on
this occasion should have emboldened me.

The notion expressed by Principal Forbes that I and Prof.
Tyndall’s other friends were in any way discouraged by the
results of our battle, is therefore strangely erroneous ; however, I
do not know that the error would have been worth correction, if
Prof. Tyndall had not been referred to as one of those who took
part in the fray. But, in justice to Prof. Tyndall, I am bound to
say that he knew nothing about the battle until after it was over.
My ally in the Council and I, agreed, for reasons which will be
cbvious to any honourable man, that Prof. Tyndall, though an
intimate friend of ours (and largely because he was so), ought not
to have any knowledge of the action we took ; and, in a note
dated November 4, 1859, I find myself suggesting to my friend
in the Council, that Tyndall ought to be kept in his then igno-
rance ‘‘until his book is out.” I have every reason to believe
that this suggestion was carried into effect; at any rate, Prof.
Tyndall did not see the'd:ift of my statement till a year ago” when
(on May 13, 1872) I sent it to him accompanied by some other
documents and the following note :—

** Routing among my papers yesterday I came upon the in-
closed cinders of an old fire, which I always told you you should
see some day. They will be better in your keeping than
mine.”

I am informed that there was not even an attempt to contro-
vert the leading points of my statement on the part of the advo-
cites of Principal Forbes’s claims ; and therefore the assertion
that Prof. Tyndall was led to word ‘‘ infinitely more carefully ”
what he had already written about Rendu, by anything which
occurred in the Council, is simply preposterous.

In making these remarks I have no intention of throwing the
slightest blame upon the late Principal Forbes ; who surely had
a perfect right to express to an intimate friend whatever impres-
sion was left upon his mind, by such reports as reached him of
the occurrences to which he refers, But I confess I find it diffi-
cult to discover any excuse for the biographer, who deliberately
picks the expressions I have quoted out of a private letter, and
gives them to the public, without taking the trouble to learn
whether they are, or are not, in accordance with easily‘ascertain-
able facts. T. H. Hux.ey

May 17

Forbes and Agassiz

In the review of Dr. Tyndall’s book on the ‘* Forms of
Water” which appeared in NaTuRr, vol, vii. p. 400, the follow-
ing words occur :—‘‘ But surely it was not unnecessary to rake up
again the Forbes-Rendu controversy, nor to renew the claims of
Agassiz and Guyot.” Mr. Alexander Agassiz takes exception to
this (see NATURE, vol, viii. p. 24) and makes the following asser-
tions :—That when a guest of Agassiz on the glacier of the Aarin
1841, Forbes returned the hospitality of Agassiz ‘‘ byappropriating
what he could” from the work of the latter, and ‘‘ misrepresent-
ing the nature of his intercourse with Agassiz.” This refers to
a matter of facts and may be proved or disproved by the facts,
It refers to an attack made upon Forbes in 1842, which was
immediately answered by him in a manner that left no room for
further discussion. I must necessarily be brief in stating the
facts. They may be found fully detailed in the Zdin. New Phil.
Journal, 1843, or in the ‘‘ Life and Letters of James David Forbes,
1873.” They are as follows :—In 1841 Forbes enjoyed the
pleasure of a visit to Agassiz on the Unteraar Glacier. On the
first day of their sojourn (August 9), their only companion was
Mr. Heath, of Cambridge. They were afterwards joined by
friends of Agassiz. On this first day Forbes pointed out to
Agassiz the veined structure of the ice. Agassiz had spent five
summers studying the glaciers (see Mr. Alexander Agassiz’ letter
in NaTuRE), but he replied ‘‘that it must be a superficial
phenomenon, that he had on a previous occasion noticed such
markings, and that they were caused by the sand of the moraines
causing channels of water to run.” Forbes showed him that the
structure was general, even in the body of the glacier, Agassiz
expressed a doubt “‘ whether the structure had not been superin-
duced since the previous year.” Forbes afterwards showed him that
in a crevasse three or four years old the markings extended across
the crevasse and were visible in continuation from one side to
the other. Further, Forbes insisted upon its intimate connec-
tion with the theory of glaciers. When in the ensuing winter
M. Desor wrote to Prof. Forbes denying his claims to the dis-
covery, the latter sent him a statement of the above facts, begging
that M. Agassiz should state whether they were correct or not.
M. Agassiz wrote an answer to this letter. He does not deny
a single one of the facts supplied by Forbes in connection with
the observations of August 9. This letter was printed and cir-
culated by M. Agassiz. Furthermore, when these facts were
published by Forbes, even then M. Agassiz did not deny any
of them. Moreover, Mr. Heath, the only other witness, gives
his evidence in support of the accuracy of the above facts (see
‘*Life of Forbes,” Appendix B, Extract I.), Other friends of
Agassiz, who joined them afterwards, wrote to Forbes stating
their belief that to him alone belonged the discovery. After
leaving the Aar glacier Forbes extended his observations. He
showed (1), that the structure was common to most, if not all,
glaciers (see ‘‘ Forbes’ Life,” p. 550, note) ; (2), that this was
the cause of the sand lying in lines (‘‘ Life,” p. 548); (3), that
this was also the cause of the supposed horizontal stratification
of the terminal face of some glaciers (Royal Soc. Edin., 1841,
Dec. 6) ; (4), he showed that these blue markings were the out-
croppings of blue ice that formed lamellar surfaces in the interior
of the glacier ; (5), he actually determined the shape of these sur-
faces in the case of the Rhone glacier (R. S. E., 1841, Dec. 6);
(6), he remarked that ‘*the whole phenomenon has a good deal
the air of being a structure induced perpendicular to the lines
of greatest pressure,” though he did not assert the statement to
be general. This was in 1841. In later years he extended
these observations. [ have said enough to prove (1), that
although Agassiz carried with him ‘‘a geologist, a microscopic
observer, a secretary, a draughtsman, and many workmen,” and
though he had spent five summers studying the glaciers, he did
not see these markings (or at any rate recognise them as a struc-
ture of the ice) until Forbes showed them to him ; and (2), thet
Forbes recognised this structure as an important ‘indication of

May 2°, 1873]

an unknown cause” (‘* Occasional Papers,” p. 4), and worked
out the subject thoroughly.

In the Comptes Rendus for Oct. 18, 1841, a portion of a letter
from Agassiz to Humboldt was published. Here he lays claim
to the discovery without mentioning the name of Forbes. He
speaks of it as ‘“‘le fait le plus nouveau que 7’ai remarqué.”
Forbes felt deeply annoyed at this conduct of his friend, but
contented himself with publishing his own discovery. A rupture
between the two friends now commenced. About this time
M. Guyot recollected that he had described this appearance in
1838 to the Geological Society of France, at Porrentruy
(“ Agassiz Etudes,” p. 207). Several people had seen the same
thing previously. Among others, Sir David Brewster writes as
follows :—‘‘ The Mer de Glace is like the waves of the sea, as
if they had been fixed by sudden congelation ; when the ice is
Most perfect, which is on the sides of the deep crevices, the
colour is a fine blue. There is an appearance of a vertical
stratification in the icy masses stretching in the direction of the
valley in which the glacier lies. . . . The surface of the glacier
exhibits also the appearance of veins exactly like blocks [?] of
stone” (Yournal, 1814). In 1820, M. Zummstein saw it (‘‘ Bib-
liothéque Universelle,” 1843). Col. Sabine and M. Elie de
Beaumont had also seen it (‘‘ Travels in the Alps,” p. 29).
But though seen it had not been studied, nor did any printed
description of it exist. M. Guyot did not even print an abstract
of his communication. It remained an isolated, unprinted, for-
gotten fact until Forbes appeared upon the scene. Professor
Tyndall has most justly said that neither Forbes nor Agassiz
knew of it in 1841 (‘‘ Forms of Water,” p. 187). Yet though,
as has just been proved, Forbes pointei it out to Agassiz in
1841, the latter tried to show that he had known of Guyot’s
observation (letter from Agassiz to Forbes, ‘* Life of Forbes,”
Appendix B), and endeavoured to give the credit to Guyot rather
than to Forbes (his own claims having been now disproved).
If it be true that he knew what Guyot had done, then (1) why
did he not mention it to Forbes and Heath, both of whom affirm
(in contradiction to the statements of Agassiz) that Guyot’s
Name was not mentioned? (2) Why did he not perceive the
importance of the structure? (3) Why did he say that it was
superficial? (4) Lastly, how could he reconcile it with his
conscience to describe it to Humboldt as “‘le fait /e plus nou-
veau que j'ai remarqué ?”

The facts show (1) that Forbes was seriously wronged by the
conduct of Agassiz; (2), that he discovered independently the
veined structure ; (3) that he was the first to study the subject
and give it its true place in reference to glacier theories. I have
limited myself to the accusation contained in the letter of Mr.
Alex, Agassiz. Whether he is correct in his appreciation of the
estimate put upon Forbes’ labours, in Dr. Tyndall’s last popular
work, I need not at present discuss. I know so well to what
conclusion a comparison of that book with the writings of
Forbes and other workers on glacier theories would lead, that I
leave it confidently to the judgment of those “ fair-minded in-
vestigators ” of whom Mr. Alex. Agassiz speaks.

GEORGE FORBES

P.S.—Mr. Heath’s testimony, to which I have referred, is
given in the following extract from a letter dated Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, Feb. 25, 1842 :—‘‘I will witness—tst, that
he (Agassiz) knew nothing about it; 2nd, when he did see it he
said it was superficial sand; 3rd, that he was the last to believe
that it went to any depth. I think your account very true, and
not claiming one jot more than fully belongs to you.”

Cambridge, May 20 G. F.

Perception and Instinct in the Lower Animals

THE suggestion made by me in your issue of February 20,
that animals which had been deprived of the use of their eyes
during a journey might retrace their way by means of smell, had
the effect of letting loose a flood of illustration, fact, and argu-
ment bearing more or less directly on the question ; and as the
stream now seems to have run nearly dry, I ask permission
briefly to review the evidence adduced, so far as it affects the
particular issue I brought forward. Several of the writers argue
as if I had maintained that in all cases dogs, &c., find their way,
wholly or mainly, by smell ; whereas I strictly limited it to the
case in which their other senses could not be used. The cases
of this kind adduced by your correspondents are but few. The
first, and perhaps the most curious, is that of Mr. Darwin’s
horse ; but, unfortunately, the whole of the facts are not known,

NATURE

65

As Mr, Darwin himself pointed out, the horse may have lived in
the Isle of Wight, and been accustomed to go home along that
very road. I would suggest also that the country might resemble
some tract in the neighbourhood of his own home; or that the
horse, having been brought from home by a route and toa dis-
tance of which it had no means of judging, thought its master
was riding home on the occasion in question, and therefore ob-
jected to turning back. Anyhow, the case is too imperfect to be
of much value as evidence in so difficult a matter. ‘‘J. T.”
(March 26) quotes the case of the hound sent ‘‘ from Newbridge,
county Dublin, to Moynalty, county Meath,” thence long after-
wards to Dublin, where it broke loose, and the same morning
made its way back to its old kennel at Newbridge. I can find
no ‘‘ Newbridge, county Dublin,” although there is a New-
bridge, county Kildare, which is 26 miles from Dublin, on a
pretty direct high road. That the dog never attempted to return
during its ‘‘long stay” at Moynalty seems to show that some
special facilities existed for the return from Newbridge. What
they may have been we cannot guess at in the total absence of
information as to the antecedents of the dog, the route by which
he returned, and the manner in which he conducted himself on
first escaping in Dublin,

The next case, of the two dogs returning from Liverpool to
near Derby, is vague, and also without necessary details. It
happened 50 years ago, and the only evidence offered as to the
mode of the dogs’ return is that “ it 7s said they were seen swim-
ming the Mersey.” “N. Y.’s” case (April 24) of the dog who
‘*did not make haste back,” and therefore could not have re-
turned by smell, is also most inconclusive. The distance was
only 20 miles, and we know nothing of the route the dog fol-
lowed, or the time it took. How do we know the dog did not
wait the three weeks till it saw someone it knew living at or
near its former house, and followed that person? This appears
to me to be an exceedingly probable way of accounting for
many of these returns where the distance is not very great. This
brings me to the case of Mr. Geo. R. Jebb, who seems to have
gone to the trouble of making an experiment which, with a little
more trouble, might have been very complete and satisfactory.
The dog was taken by rail very circuitously from Chester to a
place 10 miles from Chester. It ‘‘ hung about the station for
about an hour and a half,” and in three hours more arrived at
its home. But we are still left totally in the dark, both as to
the route it took or the process by which it decided on that
route. Whatis required in such experiments is, that a person
not known to the dog should be ready to watch and follow it
(on horseback), noting carefully on the spot its every action. We
should then perhaps know why it ‘‘ hung about the station” an
hour and a half before commencing its journey home, and after-
wards, whether it showed any hesitation as to its route, and
whether it followed the road or went straight across country. A
few experiments carefully made in this way, at distances varying
from 10 to 30 miles, and with a thorough knowledge in each
case of the animal’s antecedents, would, I venture to say, throw
more light on this interesting question than all the facts that
have been yet recorded. The only experiment ofthis kind I have
met with is in the work of Houzeau (‘‘ Etudes sur les Facultés
Mentales des Animaux’’), and it is so curious that [ give the
passage literally. He says (vol. i. p. 156): “I have succeeded
in making young dogs of five or six months lose themselves on
first going out with me. They would begin by seeking for my trace
by smell ; but not succeeding in this, they would decide to return
home. If there was a path, they followed the route by which
they had come. If it was an untrodden virgin country, they
shortened the circuits they had made in coming, but did not
altogether depart from them. One would say that memory fur-
nished a certain number of points which divided the route, and
they went towards these by memory of directions. Thus in-
scribing chords to the curve by which they had come, they re=
turned to the house.” M. Houzeau’s general conclusion from a
considerable body of observations made with this point in view
is, that animals find their way by exactly the same means as man
does under similar circumstances, that is, by the use of all their
faculties in observation of locality, but especially by a memory
of directions and by a ready recognition of places once visited,
which serve as guide-posts when they are again met with. This
seems to me a very sound theory, and quite in accordance with
all that is known of the manner in which savages find their way,

The more general objections to my little theory which are
made in your leading article appear to depend on the denial, to
such animals as dogs and horses, of that amount of common

66

NATURE

| May 22, 1873

sense and reasoning power which I believe them to possess, and
also to the assumption that in the case supposed they would
recollect merely the odours, not the objects the presence of which
these odours had indicated. I imagine that animals know, just
as well as we do, that some sights, sounds, and smells are caused
by permanent, others by evanescent or changeable causes. The
smell or sound of a flock of sheep would indicate to a dog the
presence of an actual flock of sheep, just as surely as the sight of
them would do, and he would no more lose his way because
those sheep were not in the same place the next day or the next
week, than he would had he travelled the road on foot with his
eyes open. The smell of a wood, of a farmyard, of a ditch, a
village, or a blacksmith’s shop, with the more or less charac-
teristic sounds accompanying these, would tell the dog that cor-
responding objects were there just as surely as the sight of them
would do. Onhis return he would recognise the objects, not
the smells and sounds only, and he would be no more puzzled by
the absence of certain moveable objects he had recognised by
smell than he would be had he seen them. I quite. believe that
mistakes would often be made owing to the discontinuousness of
sufficiently characteristic odours ; but the process of ‘trial and
error,” suggested by F.R.S., would be constantly used, and this
is in accordance with the length of time usually taken in these
journeys, often very much longer than would be required for a
return by the shortest route and at moderate speed.

. A friead has communicated to mea most remarkable fact, of
a different character from any which have been referred to dur-
ing the course of this discussion ; and as I have it at first hand
and took the exact particulars down as narrated to me, I think
it will be cf value. Many years ago, my friend lost a favourite
little dog. He was then living in Long Acre. Three months
after, he removed to a house in another street about half a mile
off, a place he had not contemplated going to or even seen
before the loss of the dog. Two months after this (five months
after the dog was lost) a scratching was one day heard at the
door, and on opening it the lost dog rushed in, having found out
its master in the new house. My friend was so astonished that
he went next day to Long Acre to an acquaintance who lived
nearly opposite the old house (then empty) and told him his little
dog had come back. *‘Oh,” said this person, ‘‘I saw the dog
myself yesterday. He scratched at your door, barked a good
deal, then went to the middle of the street, turned round several
times, and started off towards where you now live.” My friend
cannot t:ll, unfortunately, what time elapsed between the dog's
leaving the old and arriving at the new house. If every move-
ment of this dog could have been watched from one door to the
other, much might have been learnt. Could it have obtained in-
formation from other dogs (and that dogs can communicate in-
formation is well shown by Mr. A. P, Smith’s anecdote in your
issue of three weeks back)? Could the odour of persons and
furniture linger two months in the streets? These are almost the
only conceivable sources of information, for the most thorough-
going advocates for a ‘‘sense of direction” will hardly maintain
that it could enable a dog to go straight to its master, wher-
ever he might happen to be.

Not to trespass further on your space, I would venture to hope
that some persons, having means and leisure, would experiment
on this subject in the same careful and thorough way that Mr.
Spalding experimented on his fowls. The animals’ previous
history must be known and recorded ; a sufficient number of ex-
periments, at various distances and under different conditions,
must be made, and a person of intelligence and activity must
keep the animal in sight, and note down its every action till it
arrives home. If this is done I feel sure that a satisfactory theory
will soon be arrived at, and much, if not all the mystery that
now attaches to this class of facts be removed.

ALFRED R. WALLACE

The Origin of Volcanic Products

THAVE not yet had the advantage of seeing Mr. Mallet’s trans-
lation of Palmieri’s late work on Vesuvius, but have read with
interest Mr. Forbes’s review thereof and Mr. Mallet’s reply in
Nature of Feb, 6 and March 20. I have no desire to enter
into a controversy, but as I have for the past fifteen years taught
and defended a theory of the origin of volcanic products identical
with that now maintained by Mr. Mallet, I may be permitted to
say afew words. That the source of all such matters was to be
found not in the earth’s nucleus but in sedimentary strata, was
taught by Referstein in his Maturgeschichte des Erdkorpers, in

1834; and again, doubtless independently, by Sir J. F. W.
Herschel in 1837 ; while, for my own part, I was led to the
same conclusion before I became aware of the views of either of
my predecessors, solely from a consideration of the varying
composition of plutonic rocks and of the stony and vaporous
products of volcanic action. To the views of Herschel I first
called attention in the Canadian Fournal for March 1858, and
again in the Quar. Geol. Fourn. for November 1859, pp. 488-
496, § vii.). 7 ;

In the first of these I haye said : ‘If we admit that all igneous
rocks, ancient plutonic masses, as well as modern lavas, have
their origin in the liquefaction of sedimentary strata, we can at
once explain the diversities in their composition. We can also
understand why the products of volcanoes in different regions are
so unlike, and why the lavas of the same volcano vary at diffe-
rent periods. We find an explanation of the water and carbonic
acid, which ar: such constant accompaniments of volcanic
action, as well as the hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen,
&c.” The nature of the reactions between siliceous, calcareous,
and aluminous strata, holding carbonaceous matter, um, sea-
salt, &c., was then discussed, and the products of their transfor-
mations under the influence of water at an elevated temperature
considered. In both of these papers referred to, the inadequacy
of the views of Phillips, Durocher, and Bunsen, to explain the
origin of these various products, was maintained. we

In the Geological Magazine for June 1869, I returned to this
subject in a paper on ‘* The Probable Seat of Volcanic Action,”
where, after repeating and enforcing the above views, I said :
“Two things become apparent from a study of the chemical
nature of rocks ; first; that their composition presents such yaria-
tions as are irreconcileable with the simple origin generally
assigned to them ; and second, that it is similar to that of the
sedimentary rocks whose history and origin it is, in most cases,
not difficult to trace.” In what follows I endeavour to show in
the latter the source of such ‘‘eruptive rocks as peridolite,
phonolite, leucitophyre, and similar rocks, which are so many
exceptions in the basic group of Bunsen.”

Mr. Mallet has, however, madea very important advance in
this theory of volcanic action by pointing out a source of heat
independent of the cooling nucleus. Referstein had supposed
heat to be generated by chemical action in the sediments, and
his view has lately been brought forward, in a modified form,
by Leconte ; but this I have always rejected as untenable. The
chemical actions supposed to be involved in the processes would
consume rather than generate heat. I have hitherto followed
Herschel and Babbage in regarding the heat as directly derived
by conduction from an incandescent nucleus, but Mr. Mallet has
now shown that the work expended in the crushing of the strata
which takes place in certain regions of the globe where the con-
traction which attends the slow refrigeration ot the globe is dis-
played in corrugations of the crust, is more than adequate to
explain volcanic heat. To this it must be added that, inasmuch
as the crushing process takes place in strata which, from their
depth, are already at an elevated temperature, the heat developed —
by the mechanical process comes in to supplement that derived
by conduction from the igneous centre. Vose had already, in a
general manner, pointed out thesame thing, suggesting in terms
which are, it is true, wanting in scientific precision, the notion
that the mechanical force at work in the crushing of the strata
was the source of heat. This, however, in no way detracts from
the great merit of Mr. Mallet, who may rightly claim “‘to have
been the first to apply weight, measure, and number to volcanic
theory,” and we await with great interest the publication of his
quantitative results. Apart from his thermo-dynamic theory,
however, his views of volcanic action are apparently identical
with those of Referstein and Herschel, to which I have for
many years been endeavouring to give form and consistency. I
may here call attention to a paper, ‘‘On some Points of Dyna-
mical Geology,” published in the American Fournal of Science
for this month (April 1873), in which I have already alluded to
the foregoing questions, and to the endeavours which I have for
filteen years been making “to reconstruct the theory of the earth
on the basis of a solid nucleus.” I have there rehearsed the
views which I have all this time maintained as to the causes
which determine the process of corrugation of the earth’s crust,
the accumulation of sediments, and the development of volcanic
activity in certain regions of the earth ; thus giving a theory of
the geological and geographical distribution of past and present
volcanoes. T. Srerry Hunr

Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., April 25 ve

coffin 0 Sa eS
ze ° ;

May 22, 1873|

NATURE

67

Kinetic Theory of Gases

On page 300 of the second edition of Maxwell’s excellent
little text-book on the ‘‘Theory of Heat,” it is stated, as a
result- of the kinetic theory of gases therein set forth, that
“gravity produces no effect in making the bottom of the column ”
(of gas) ‘‘ hotter or colder than the top.”

I cannot see how this result follows from the kinetic theory of
gases. On the contrary, it seems obvious that thermal equi-
librium can only subsist according to the kinetic theory, where
the molecules encounter each other with equal average amounts
of work or vis viva, and in order that this may be the case, the
velocity of the molecules (and consequent temperature) of any
upper layer must be less than that of the molecules in the layer
next below; since, in order to encounter each other, the former
must descend, and acquire velocity, while the latter must ascend
and lose it. This would establish a diminution of temperature
from the bottom tothe top of a column of air at the rate (in the
absence of any counteracting cause) of 1° F. for 113 ft. of height,
as can easily be verified from the fact that on account of the
specific heat of air 1 lb. requires 183 foot-pounds to raise its tempe-
rature 1° F. Radiation may diminish this and tend to produce
equilibrium, but nevertheless it seems obvious from these two
opposing tendencies a residual inequality of thermal condition
would result, and that the top of a column would be cooler than
the bottom. That this would be the case if the air were
in general motion in the form of upward and downward
currents, will not, I presume, be disputed ; and surely molecular is
on the same footing. If the particles of air are moving in every
direction with great absolute velocity, in what respect does this
differ from air currents? In fact, all the particles which at any
epoch of time are moving in any given direction constitute an
air-current in that direction, mingled, it is true, with currents in
otherdirections, but moving with accelerated velocity if descending,
and with retarded velocity if ascending, and thus always tending
to produce a diminution of temperature with height as a condition
of gaseous thermal equilibrium. J. GUTHRIE

Graaf Reinet, Cape Colony, April 2

Kerguelen Cabbage

I woutp like to know, through your paper, whether the
naturalists of the Cha//enger have orders to attempt to collect
the seeds of the Kerguelen Land cabbage (Pringlea antiscor-
butica). It has often occurred to me that the attempt ought to
be made to introduce this plant on the seashores of Northern
Europe and America. Joun R. JoNEs

Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S. April 14

Yorkshire Terrier Story

THE anecdote of the instinct of dogs given in the number of
NATURE, May I, p. 6, is identical with one to be found in
Bewick’s ‘‘ History of Quadrupeds,” p. 367, 1800, which he
calls the well-known story of the ‘* Dog at St. Alban’s.”

The same story precisely, with some dramatic embellishments
and names, occurs in ‘‘ Bingley’s Animal Biography,” vol. 1,
p- 223. A.

Dorking

BICHROMATE PHOTOGRAPHS

A SINGULAR discovery has recently been made
touching the action of light upon substances ren-
dered sensitive by the bichromates of potash and
ammonia, which threatens to revolutionise photographic
printing altogether, at any rate so far as the production
of permanent prints is concerned. The printing by means
of silver salts in the ordinary way, which is still in vogue
with nearly all portrait photographers, will always find
application, by reason of the simplicity of the manipula-
tions and the delicate and pleasing nature of the results,
albeit all silver photographs enjoy the unenviable notoriety
of being perishable. First of all, they lose their pristine
brilliancy and freshness, then a sickly yellowness gives
place to the glossy whites of the picture, and finally the
deep bronze shadows become of a flat brownish tint,

which grows weaker and weaker as time goes on. To
secure permanent photographs, which shall possess all
the beauty and detail exhibited by silver prints, has been
for many years the aim of photographic experimenters,
and it was not until Swan and Johnson had contributed
their well-known improvements that the production of a
delicate photograph in permanent pigments became at all
possible. Mechanical photographic processes, where the
pictures are printed off in a press, are still beset with

-many difficulties of a practical nature, the most perfect

of them—Woodburytype—requiring further elaboration
before perfect prints of large dimensions can be secured.

Pigment photographs, or carbon prints, as they are
generally termed, require three elements for their produc-
tion—a pigment (such as Indian-ink, lamp-black, or some
such substance), gelatine, and bichromate of potash, or
ammonia. A compound of these three substances is
spread upon paper, and termed pigment or carbon tissue.
This tissue is printed under a transparent negative in the
sun, the light acting more or less energetically upon the
sensitive pigment, and rendering it insoluble in parts, so
that when it is immersed subsequently in warm water
certain portions refuse to wash away, and these form the
image ; during the exposure of the tissue to light, these
parts have in fact become fixed by its action. This, as
we all know, is what takes place in the formation of a
carbon print.

It has been found that the action of light upon a bi-
chromate film is very different in its nature to the result
produced by the sun upon iodide of silver. A film of
pure iodide of silver, as Dr. Reissig and Mr. Carey Lea
have abundantly shown, may be impressed with an image
which will fade out altogether if the film is afterwards
preserved for a sufficient time screened from light. In-
deed it is possible to impress iodide of silver with an
image, allow the same to fade away in darkness, and then
impress the film with a second and different picture. The
photographic image, therefore, on iodide of silver is of
an evanescent nature, becoming weaker and weaker, and,
if preserved for any time, ultimately fading away alto-
gether. Now, with a photograph upon a bichromate film,
the reverse is the case. If an impression of the slightest
kind is produced upon a film of gelatine sensitised with
bichromate, and put away in the dark, the action of the
light still goes on, and progresses until the image has be-
come a perfect and vigorous one. This continuation of
tbe solar action has been turned to good account by
carbon printers, who in winter time and busy moments
have printed their photographs in darkness instead of
light; that is to say, in lieu of exposing their sensitive
tissue in the sun under a negative for hours and hours,
they merely do so for a few minutes, the slight image
thus impressed being allowed to gain in vigour sub-
sequently by preservation for some time—half-a-day or
so—in darkness, before development in warm water. In
the ordinary way only half-a-dozen copies can be obtained
from one negative during the day, if all of them are fully
printed in the sun, whilst if only incipient prints are
produced, a score of impressions may easily be secured.

Within the last few days we have progressed a step
further in carbon printing. M. Marion of Paris has dis-
covered that if you take a bichromate image printed in
the sun, and put it into contact with another bichromate
surface, you produce upon the latter a similar impression.
You can in fact take a carbon picture fresh from the
frame and employ it as a printing block, from which any
number of impressions are procurable. It is a most
singular fact that a solarised surface should be capable of
setting up an action upon another sensitive surface
placed in contact with it. But soitis. The impression
made by light upon a bichromate film is capable of
transmission to another surface of like nature merely
pressed against it. We have, as it were, stored up in
the original print a quantity of sunlight which has been

68

NATURE

[May 22, 1873

absorbed and may afterwards be communicated to other
surfaces.

The importance of this discovery can scarcely be over-
rated, and there is no doubt but that it will work an era
in the matter of carbon printing. We need secure but
one single photograph printed in the sun in order to
obtain a large number of copies, all of which shall be as
delicate and vigorous as if they had been printed by sun-
light. A sheet of gelatine sensitised with bichromate of
potash is put under a negative and printed ; it is with-
drawn from the printing fram2 and immersed in a weak
solution of bichromate of potash which swells up those
portions of the surface that have ret been attacked by
light, and thus produces a picture in relief. The sheet
of gelatine is then put into a press and impressions from
it taken on sensitive carbon tissue, the block being
moistened from time to time with bichromate solution.
The copies thus produced upon the tissue are not fully
printed and cannot be developed at once; they are
simply incipient, or nascent, pictures, it must be men-
tioned, and they require preservation in the dark for
some hours to allow the action of the light to continue,
exactly in the same way as if the carbon tissue had been
exposed to sun-light for a few minutes. When the prints
have been kept sufficiently they are developed in warm
water, and fine vigorous copies are the result. Naturally
enough if the tissue is kept too long after, the mordant
action of the light continues rendering the film insoluble,
and then the development of the image in warm water
obviously becomes impossible.

Another application of the same principle has been
made by M. Marion, in which carbon printing is assimi-
lated to silver printing, to such a degree, that those
accustomed to the ordinary method of printing photo-
graphs on albumenised paper, would find no difficulty in
adopting it. H. BADEN PRITCHARD

CN THE METHOD OF COLLECTING AND
PRESERVING ENTOMOSTRACA AND
OTHER MICROZOA

ONSIDERING the varied interest which attaches to
the Entomostraca, it has long seemed to me that they
attract a remarkably small share of attention from micro-
scopists. In the case of so widely distributed and
numerous a group, this cannot arise from any real diffi-
culty in procuring materials for study ; but I believe it
does arise in great measure from a want of information
as to the best means of capturing and preserving speci-
mens. I propose, therefore, briefly to point out some of
the methods which in my own hands have best answered
these ends.

Classification.—The Entomostraca constitute, as all
microscopists know, a division of the class Crustacea, and
for the purposes of the present paper we may with suffi-
cient approach to accuracy consider them as forming four
groups—C/adocera, of which the common Daphnia, or
water-flea, is the type ; Ostracoda, typified by the little
hard-shelled, bivalve, mollusc-like Cyfris ; Copepoda, re-
presented by the well-known Cyclops; and the parasitic
species, Peczlopoda, commonly known under the name
“ fish-lice.”

Respecting the last-named group, I shall have nothing
to say here ; the mere knowledge of their mode of life
indicates the method of capture.

Habitat.—All collections of still-water, large and small,
from the mere road-side pool to the mountain lake and
the ocean, support, with scarcely an exception, their
quota of entomostracan inhabitants; nor is purity an
essential condition of their existence, for sometimes they
are found in great numbers when one would think the
foulness of the medium too much for animal existence of
so high a grade. Doubtless, however, a moderate purity
of water is necessary to the presence of any great variety

of species ; a luxuriant aquatic vegetation is also very
favourable to the growth of most Entomostraca, affording
them probably not only tood, but shelter. For this reason
the weedy margins of lakes are as a rule much more pro-
lific than the clear central portions, where, indeed, but
little microscopic life usually exists. Rapidly flowing
water is of course unfavourable to the existence of these
organisms, but the sea, both betwéen tide-marks and in
the open, abounds with them. Ostracoda, except the
fresh-water Cyprides, live for the most part on the bottom,
and are therefore to be obtained chiefly by dredging. The
brackish water of salt-marshes and estuaries supports its
own peculiar species, some of which often occur in pro-
digious numbers ; and even the highly saline waters of
brine springs and salt lakes have been found to contain
Entomostraca.
Methods of Collecting

1. Freshwater—An ordinary “ring-net,” made of

“hard muslin,” or “ crinoline,” from six to twelve inches
in diameter, and fitted to the end of a walking-stick, will
be found the most convenient apparatus for the capture
of such swimming species as haunt the weedy margins of
ponds and lakes. For such shallows as are matted with
a growth of Zi¢tored/a, Lobelia, or other dwarf ground-plants
a “horse-shoe” net, with a frame made after the fashion
of a Dutch hoe, is very serviceable; while in working from
a boat in the centre of a lake the ordinary ring-net on a
stick will be quite sufficient. In this way the net will,
after working for a few minutes, usually be partially
filled with fragments of weed and other débris, amongst
which there will also be found a fair sample of the Mi-
crozoa inhabiting the locality. The coarsest fragments,
such as stems of rushes and portions of water weeds, may
conveniently be picked out with the fingers, and thrown
away, while the rest of the contents of the net must be
transferred to a bottle of clear water, an eight-ounce being
a convenient size for the purpose. The Microzoa may
then be readily separated by filtering into another bottle
through a net of sufficiently wide mesh to allow of their
passage through it : “ mosquito-netting” I have found to
answer well for this purpose. Having thus obtained our
Entomostraca in a condition tolerably free from admixture
with extraneous matter, they may easily be collected in a
patch on the centre of a piece of fine muslin by passing
the whole through a piece of that material, arranged over
a funnel. They should then be transferred at once (if it
be not wished to keep them alive) to a small phial of
some preservative fluid. This may be effected easily by
a penknife, but a very convenient instrument for the pur-
pose is an ordinary quill toothpick. This process, which
appears somewhat cumbrous in writing, is in reality very
easily performed, but it may be still further simplified, ac-
cording to the fancy of the collector, by fitting an outside
funnel with a muslin net, and having a small inner one
of perforated zinc, so as to do all the filtering at one
operation, The collecting net may also be protected
from the entrance of very coarse rubbish by a light, move-
able wire grating. The species obained by these means
will often include numerous representatives of all three
orders, Cladocera, Ostracoda, and Copepoda. For the
capture of such Ostracoda as haunt the bottom in parts
too deep to be reached by a walking-stick, a small hand-
dredge is required : this will be more particularly noticed
in the marine section.

2. The Sea.—The free-swimming species, the great
majority of which belong to the order Copepoda, may be
most conveniently captured by the walking-stick net held
over the side of a row-boat in gentle motion. Care should
be taken that the lower end of the net is as wide or wider
than its mouth, and that the material, while close enough
to retain the Entomostraca, is yet open enough to allow a
free current of water through it: if those points be not
attended to the result will be a back-wash, carrying back
out of the net much which should have been retained,

¢

May 22, 1873]

NATURE

69

A towing-net dragged by means of a line from the
side or stern of the boat may be used, but is not so
much under control, and seldom produces so much spoil :
such a net, however, attached in a tide-way during the
night to some stationary object, and made with the pre-
cautions mentioned above, will often do good work, es-
pecially if its specific gravity be adjusted so as to sink
very slightly below the surface. As a rule, indeed, the
hours from dusk to midnight seem to be the best for cap-
turing pelagic species near the surface. In tidal pools on
the shore the same appliances are required as for fresh-
water ponds, :

Ostracoda and other deep-dwelling species’ require, of
course, the use of the dredge ; and where Microzoa only
are the objects sought, the dredge may conveniently be
made of a size much smaller than those in ordinary use.
The mouth need not be more than 6in. in its largest
diameter, the bag being made of coarse canvas or “ cheese
cloth,” and from 18in. to 2ft. long. The material so
dredged up, after having been passed through suitable
sieves, so as to separate the coarser portions, should be
washed in a muslin bag for the purpose of removing all
the impalpable mud, which often constitutes a very con-
siderable proportion of the bulk : this operation may most
easily be performed over the side of the boat in the sea,
or in some large vessel of sea-water. The washed mate-
rial is then to be put up in canvas bags, duly labelled, and
hung up in a warm position to dry ; the more rapidly this
part of the process is conducted the better chance will
there be of preserving the internal parts, as ‘well as the
valves of the Ostracoda, in good condition. But should
it be wished to secure the animals actually alive, the best
plan will be, after washing the mud as above explained,
to immerse a quantity of it in a basin of sea water, allow-
ing it to stand for an hour or more, when many of its
inhabitants will have made their way to the surface of the
water. They will, indeed, continue to come to the surface
for many hours, but the later ones will probably be sickly
or dead.

But besides Ostracoda, there are often great numbers
of Copepoda in or on the ooze and sand of the sea-bed.
These require for their separation a different method of
procedure ; the following, so far as I know, being the
most convenient. After the process of sieving described
in the preceding paragraph, all the minute swimming
animals will be found in the water in which that operation
has been conducted ; all that is necessary, therefore, is to
pour the water off through a muslin net in which the
Microzoa will be retained—in a dirty state, however,
which will render careful washing desirable, or still
better, the transference of the whole to a bottle of clean
sea water for an hour or two; in this way the little crea-
tures will clear themselves of adherent dirt better than we
can do by any amount of washing.

Avery rich field for the collecting of Copepoda is found
in the groves of Fuci and Laminariz so common on rocky
shores at and beyond low-water mark. The fronds of
these weeds having been dragged up in any convenient way,
are to be .washed, a handful or two at a time, by brisk
agitation in a tub of sea water, after which the water is to
be filtered as directed above. It is best not to macerate
weeds in the water for any great length of time, because
much mucus exudes from the Laminariz, enveloping the
Entomostraca, and rendering it an extremely difficult and
tedious matter to examine the gathering properly. It
should be mentioned that, although all weeds harbour
numbers of Entomostraca, Laminaria saccharina is, as
a rule, by far the most productive, apparently on account
of the rugosities of the frond affording more efficient shel-
ter to their minute inhabitants ; sheltered pieces of coast
and land-locked bays are much the most productive
hunting grounds,

Treatment of Dredged Material—The separation of
Ostracoda, Foraminifera,and other Microzoa from dredged

sand or mud, is best accomplished by the process of
“floating.” For this purpose the material should be
thoroughly well dried and sifted, so as to insure the fine
division of the whole mass, then placed in a vessel of
water and thoroughly stirred. By this means all the
lighter organised particles—chiefly Ostracoda, Forarnini-
fera, minute Mollusca, fragments of Polyzoa, &c.—will,
owing to their contained air, be brought to the surface,
and may be removed in any convenient way, but best,
perhaps, by pouring off the supernatant water through a
very fine gauz2 sieve. Some of the larger and heavier
species will, however, sometimes remain at the bottom,
and must be picked out with the help of a hand lens.

Fossiliferous Clays and Shales.—These, after repeated
maceration in water, should be passed, time after time,
through fine sieves, so as to wash out the impalpable sus-
pended mud ; at last drying the residuum and floating
out the organic particles, as previously directed. When
much fossilised, however, the Microzoa will not float. In
this case they must be picked out one by one from the
residuum left after the repeated washings.

Preservation of Specimens,—Soft-bodied species, ¢.g.,
Copepoda, Cladocera, &c.,are best preserved in methylated
spirit, either of full strength or diluted with anequal quantity
of water, the latter, in my opinion, being preferable, as it
does not so readily evaporate entirely if left unattended to
in small bottles fora length of time. . The great disadvan-
tage of alcohol is that it coagulates the albuminous tissues,
rendering the animals almost opaque, at the same time
destroying the natural colour ; but most other preserva-
tive solutions possess these properties to a greater or less
extent, and have likewise other drawbacks, such, for
instance, as becoming cloudy, permitting the growth of
fungi, &c. When, however, it is especially wished to
preserve the colours, a mixture of equal parts of glycerine
and distilled water answers admirably. Indeed, the only
hindrances to its general use as a preservative for Micro-
zoa are its strongly solvent action on calcareous tissues
and its inconvenient stickiness. For microscopic mount-
ings (of non-calcareous objects) some kind of “ glycerine
jelly” answers admirably ; especially that described by
Dr. Carpenter in his book on the microscope, which
preparation is, however, improved by saturating with
arsenious acid the water used in its manufacture. Ostra-
coda and other dry specimens require, of course, no
preparation beyond mounting on slides of wood or card-
board. An excellent plan of mounting, so as to show at
one view all the Ostracoda or Foraminifera obtained in
any locality, is shown in the accompanying diagram, the

Orr MarspDEN, 10 FATHOMS.

Muppy Sanp.

slides being made of the ordinary size, of stout card-
board or millboard. The central part of the slide is cut
out, and the marginal portion mounted on another slide’
having a dull black ground. The slide is ruled trans-
versely, so as to divide it into any convenient number of
spaces, and if needful, ruled also with one line length-
wise down the middle. Each space is marked with a.
figure or letter of the alphabet referring to the species
mounted within it, and an index to the whole kept in a
book of reference. The diagram is a facsimile of a
mounting so prepared in my collection.
GEORGE S, BRADY

70

NATURE

[May 22, 1873

ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF
af INSECTS *
IV.
ON THE NATURE OF METAMORPHOSES

13 the preceding articles we have considered the life
history of insects after they have quitted the egg. It
is obvious, however, that to treat the subject in a satis-

(Sapper!

Fic. 30.—Egg of Phryganea (Mystacides). A!, mandibular segment; C*
to C5, maxillary, labial, and three thoracic segments; D, abdomen.
(after Zaddach). 31, Egg of Phryganea somewhat more advanced. 4,
mandibles ; c, maxillze ; c fs, rudiments of the three pairs of legs 32.
Egg of Pholcus opilionides (atter Claparede). 33, Embryo of Julus

after Newport).

factory manner we must take the development as a whole,
from the commencement of the changes in the egg, up to
the maturity of the animal, and not suffer ourselves to be
confused by the fact that all insects do not leave the egg

Fic. 34.—Colony of Bougainvillea fruticosa, natural size, attached to the
underside of a piece ot floating tiinber (after Allman). 36, The medusa
from the same species.

in the same stage of embryonal development. For
although all young insects when they quit the egg are
termed “ larvz,” whatever their form may be (the case of
the so-called Pupipara not constituting a true exception),
still it must be remembered that some of these larve are

* Continued from p. 31.

much more advanced than others. It is evident that the
larva of a fly, as regards its stage of development, cor-
responds in reality neither with that of a moth nor with
that of a grasshopper. In fact, insects quit the egg in
very different stages. The maggots of flies, in which
the appendages of the head are rudimentary, belong
to a lower grade than the grubs of bees, &c., which
have antennz, mandibles, maxilla, labrum, labium, and,
in fact, all the mouth parts of a perfect insect. The
caterpillars of Lepidoptera are- generally classed with
the vermiform larve of Diptera and Hymenoptera, and
placed in opposition to those of Orthoptera, Hemiptera,
&c. But, in truth, the possession of thoracic legs places
them, as well as the similar larve of the Tenthredinide,
on a decidedly higher level, while in the development of
the cephalic appendages there is, as already mentioned,
a marked difference between the maggots of flies and the
grubs of bees. Thus, then, the period of growth (that in
which the animal eats and increases in size) occupies
sometimes one stage in the development, sometimes an-

Fic. 35.—Portion of Colony of Bougainvillea fruticosa, more magnified.

other ; sometimes, as for instance in the case of Chloéon,
it continues through more than one, or, in other words,
growth is accompanied by development. But, in fact, the
question is even more complicated than this. It is not
only that the larvz of insects at their birth offer the most |
various grades of development, from the grub of a fly to
the young of a grasshopper or a cricket ; if we were to”
classify larvee according to their development, we should
have to deal not with a simple case of gradations only,
but with a series of gradations, which would be different
according to the organ which we took as our test. ’
Apart, however, from the adaptive changes to which
special reference was made ina previous article, the differ-
ences are those of gradation, not of direction. The deve-
lopment of a grasshopper does not pursue a different
course from that of a bee or wasp, but the embryo attains
a higher state before quitting the egg in the former than
in the latter ; while in most Hymenoptera the body-walls
and internal organs are formed before the thoracic ap-
pendages ; in the Orthoptera, on the contrary, the legs

| May 22, 1873]

NATURE

71

make their appearance before the body-walls have com-
pletely closed round the yolk.

- Prof. Qwen,* indeed, goes so far as to say that the
Orthoptera and other Homomorphous insects are, “at
one stage of their development, apodal and acephalous
larve, like the maggot of the fly ; but, instead of quitting
the egg in this stage, they are quickly transformed into
another, in which the head and rudimental thoracic feet
are developed to the degree which characterises the hex-
apod larve of the Caradi and Petalocera,”

I quite believe that this was originally true of such
larve, but from the tendency which large and important
organs have, to appear at an early stage of embryonal
development, the fact now appears to be, so far at least as
can be judged from the observations yet recorded, that
the legs of those larva which commence life with these
appendages, generally make their appearance before the
body-walls have closed, or the internal organs have ap-
proached to completion. Indeed when the legs first
appear they are merely short projections, which it is not
always easy to distinguish from the segments themselves.
It must, however, be admitted, that the observations are
neither so numerous, nor in most cases so full, as could
be wished.

“97

Fic. 37.— Larva of Prawn, Nauplius stage (after F. Muller). 38, Larva of
Prawn, more advanced, Zoea stage.

Fig. 30, for instance, represents an egg of Phryganea,
as represented by Zaddach in his excellent memoir,t
just before the appearance of the appendages. It will
be seen that a great part of the yolk is still undifferen-
tiated, that the side walls are incomplete, the back quite
open, and the segments only indicated by undulations.
This stage is rapidly passed through, and Zaddach only
once met with an egg in this condition ; in every other
specimen which had indications of segments, the rudi-
ments of the legs had also made their appearance, as in
Fig. 31, which, however, as will be seen, does not in other
respects show much advance on Fig. 30.

Again in Aphis, the embryology of which has been so
well worked out by Huxley,t the case is very similar,
although the legs are somewhat later in making their
appearance. “In embryos,” he says, “ ,4,th of an inch
in length (PI. xxxvii. Fig. 6), I have found the cephalic
portion of the blastoderm beginning to extend upwards
again over the anterior face of the germ, so as to con-
stitute its anterior and a small part of its superior wall.
This portion is divided by a median fissure into two lobes,

* “ Lectures on the Anatomy, &c. of the Invertebrate Animals.”

+ “ Untersuchungen uber die Entwickelung und den Bau der Glieder-
thiere,” 1854.

t ‘* Linnean Transactions,” vy. xxii 1858.

which play an important part in the development of the
head, and will be termed the “ procephalic lobes.” I have
already made use of this term for the corresponding parts
in the embryos of Crustacea. The rudimentary thorax
presents traces of a division into three segments; and
the dorso-lateral margins of the cephalic blastoderm,

Fic. 39.—Larva of Echinocidaris, seen from above x 3% (after J.
Muller).

behind the procephalic lobes, have a sinuous margin. It
is in embryos between this and ;3oth of an inch in length,
that the rudiments of the appendages make their appear-
ance, and by the growth of the cephalic, thoracic, and
abdominal blastoderm, curious changes are effected in
the relative position of those regions.”

In Chrysopa oculata, one of the Hemerobiide, Packard
has described* and figured a stage in which the body
segments have made their appearance, but in which
“there are no indications of limbs. The primitive band,”
he says, “is fully formed, the protozorites being dis-

Fic. 40.—Larva of Echinus, x roo. A, anus; ¥, mouth process; 3, pos-
terior side arm; /;, accessory arm of the mouth process; a, mouth ;
a", cesophagus ; 4, stomach ; 41, intestine ; 0, posterior orifice; d, ciliated
bands ; /, ciliated epaulets ; c, disc of future Echinus (after J. Muller).

tinctly marked, the transverse impressed lines indicating
the primitive segments being distinct, and the median
furrow easily discerned.” Here also, again, the dorsal
walls are incomplete, and the internal organs as yet
unformed.

* “‘Embryological Studies on Hexapodous Insects," Peabody Academy

Science. Third memoir.

72

In certain Dragonflies (Calypteryx), and Hemiptera
(Hydrometra), the legs, according to Brandt,* appear at a
still earlier stage.

According to the observations of Kollikert it would
appear that in Donacia the segments and appendages
appear simultaneously. Kolliker himself, however, admits
that “ mez de hoc insecto observationes satis sunt manca,”
and it is possible that he may never have met with an
embryo in the state immediately preceding the appearance
of the legs.

On the whole, as far as we can judge from the observa-
tions as yet recorded, it seems that in Homomorphous
insects the ventral wall is developed and divided into
segments before the appearance of the legs, but that the
latter are formed simultaneously, or almost simultaneously,
with the cephalic appendages, and before either the dorsal
walls or the internal organs,

As it may be interesting from this point of view to
compare the development of other Articulata with that
of insects, I give a figure (Fig. 32) representing one of
the early stages in the development of a spider (Pholcus)
after Claparede,t who says, “Cest 4 ce moment qu’ a
lieu la formation des frofozorites ou segments primor-
diaux du corps de lembryon. Le rudiment ventral
s’épaissit suivant six zones disposées transversalement
entre le capuchon anal et le capuchon céphalique. L’ceuf
considéré par sa face ventrale offre alors un contour 4 peu
prés circulaire et on peut le croire sphérique. Les zénes
se montrent alors comme six circles d’un blanc plus
éclatant, tracés sur la sphére.”

Among Centipedes the development of Julus has been
described by Newport.§ The first period, from the de-
position of the egg to the gradual bursting of the shell,
and exposure of the embryo within it, which, however,
remains for some time longer in connection with the shelf
by a distinct funis, lasts for twenty-five days. The seg-
ments of the body, originally six in number, make their
appearance on the twentieth day after the deposition of the
egg, at which time there were no traces of legs. The
larva when it leaves the egg is a soft, white, legless grub
(Fig 33), consisting of a head and seven segments, the
head being somewhat firmer in texture than the rest of
the body. It exhibits rudimentary antennz, but the legs
are still only represented by very slight papilliform pro-
cesses on the undersides of the segments to which they
belong.

As already mentioned, I believe that at one time the
vermiform state of the Homomorphous insects, which, as
we have seen, is now so short, and passed through at so
early a stage of development, was more important, more
prolonged, and accompanied by a more complete condi-
tion of the internal organs. The compression, and even
disappearance, of embryonal stages which are no longer
adapted to the mode of life, which do not benefit the
animal, is a phenomenon not without a parallel in other
parts of the animal and even of the vegetable kingdom.
Just as in language long compound words have a tendency
to concision, and single letters sometimes linger on, in-
dicating the history of a word, like the “1” in “alms,” or
the “b” in “debt,” long after they have ceased to in-
fluence the sound; so in embryology useless stages,
interesting as illustrations of past history, but without
direct advantage under present conditions, are rapidly
passed through, and even, as it would appear, in some
cases altogether omitted.

For instance, among the Hydroida, in the great
majority of cases, the egg produces a body more or
less resembling the common Hydra of our ponds, and
known technically as the “trophosome,” which develops
into the well-known Medusz or jelly-fishes. The group,
however, for which Prof. Allman has proposed the term
* Mem de !’Acad. Impé. des Sci. de St. Petersburg.” 1869.

+ Observationes de Prima Insectorum Genesi, p. 14.

t Recherches sur I’ Evolution des Araignées,
§ Philosophical Transactions, 1847. Re

NATURE

aa ea a a a

—LeeTn s i
s
q

[May 22, 1873

Monopsea,* and of which the genus AZgina may be taken
as the type, is, as he says, “ distinguished by the absence
of a hydriform trophosome, the ovum becoming developed
through direct metamorphosis into a medusiform body,
just as in the other orders it is developed into a hydriform
body.” Figure 34 represents, after Allman, a colony of
Bougainvillea fruticosa of the natural size. It is a British
species, which is found growing om buoys, floating timber,
&c., and, says Allman,t when in health and vigour, “ offers
a spectacle unsurpassed in interest by any other species—
every branchlet crowned by its graceful hydranth, and
budding with Medusee in all stages of development (Fig.
35), some still in the condition of minute buds, in which
no trace of the definite Medusa-form can yet be detected ;
others, in which the outlines of the Medusa can be dis-
tinctly traced within the transparent ectotheque ; others,
again, just casting off this thin outer pellicle, and others
completely freed from it, strugzlinz with convulsive efforts
to break loose from the colony, and finally launched
forth in the full enjoyment of their freedom into the
surrounding water. I know of no form in which so
many of the characteristic features of a typical hydroid
are more finely expressed than in this beautiful
species.”

Figure 36 represents the Medusa form of this species,
and the development thus described may be regarded as
typical of the Hydroida; yet, as already mentioned, the
Eginidz do not present us with any stage corresponding
to the fixed condition of Bougainvillea, but on the contrary
are developed direct from the egg.

But on the other hand there are groups in which the
Medusiform stage becomes less and Jess important.

Among the higher Crustacea again the great majority
go through well-marked metamorphoses. Figs. 37 and
38 represent two stages in the development of the prawn.
In the first (Fig. 37), representing the young animal as it
quits the egg, the body is more or less oval and unseg-
mented, there is a median frontal eye, and three pairs of
natatory feet, the first pair simple, the two posterior bira-
mose. Very similar larvz occur in various other groups
of Crustacea.

They were at first regarded as mature forms, and O. F.
Miiller gave them the name of Nauplius. So, also, the ©
second or Zoea form (Fig. 38) was at first regarded as a
mature animal, until its true nature was discovered by
Vaughan Thompson.

The Zoea form of larva differs from the perfect prawn
or crab in the absence of the middle portion of the body
and its appendages, The mandibles have no palpi, the
maxillipeds or foot-jaws are used as feet, whereas in the
mature form they serve as jaws. Branchie are either
wanting or rudimentary, respiration being principally
effected through the walls of the carapace. The abdomen
and tail are destitute of appendages.. The development
of Zoea into the perfect animal has been well described
by Mr. Spence Batef{ in the case of the common crab
(Carcinus menas).

All crabs, so far as we know, with the exception of a
species of land crab (Gegarcinus), described by West-
wood, pass through a stage more or less resembling that
shown in Fig. 38. On the other hand the great group of
Edriopthalma, comprising Amphipoda (shorehoppers,
&c.) and Isopoda (woodlice, &c.), pass through no such
metamorphoses ; the development is direct, as in the
Orthoptera. It is true that one species, Tanazs Dulongii,
though a typical Isopod in form and general character, is-
said to retain in some points, and especially in the mode
of respiration, some peculiarities of the Zoea type ; but
this is quite an exceptional case. In Mysis, says F.
Muller,§ “there is still a trace of the Nauplius-stage ;

being transferred back to a period when it had not to
* Monog. of the Gymuoblastic or Tubularian Hydroids. By_,G. J.
Allman, F.R.S., &c., Roy. Society. tle, p. 315. -
t Philosophical Transactions, 1859, p. 589.

§ *‘ Facts for Darwin,” Eng. Trans., p, 127.

&

a ( 5 e

NATURE

May 22, 1873]

_ provide for itself, the Nauplius has become degraded into
a mere skin; in Zz<za this larva-skin has lost the traces
of limbs, and in Phi/oscia it is scarcely demonstrable.”
- Once more, the Echinodermata in most cases “go
through a very well-marked metamorphosis, which often
has more than one larval stage. The distinctive charac-
ter of the metamorphosis appears to be the possession by
the larve of at least a mouth and pharynx, which, whether
absorbed or cast off, is never converted into the corre-
sponding organs of the perfect Echinoderi developed
inside of the provisional organism. The mass of more or
less differentiated sarcode, of which the larva, or pseud-
embryo, as opposed to the Echinoderm within it, is made
up, always carries upon its exterior certain bilaterally-
arranged ciliated bands, by the action of which the whole
organism is moved from place to place, and it may be
strengthened by the superaddition to it of a framework of
calcareous rods,”*

Thus Fig. 39 represents a larva of Echino-cidaris, after
Muller;+ The body is transparent, ,5; in length, shaped
somewhat like a double easel, but with two long horns in
front, which, as well as the posterior processes, are sup-
ported by calcareous rods. These larve swim by means
of minute vibratile hairs, or cilia. They have a mouth,
stomach, and in fact, a well-defined alimentary canal, but
no nerves or other organs have yet been discovered in
them. After swimming about in this condition for

- awhile, they begin to show signs of change. An involu-
_ tion of the integument takes place on one side of the
_ back, so as to form a pit or tube, which continues to

deepen till it reaches a mass or store of what is called
blastema, or, as we may say, the raw material of the
animal body. This blastema then begins to grow, and
gradually assumes the form of the perfect Echinoderm.
In doing so it surrounds and adopts the stomach of the
larva, but forms for itself a new mouth or gullet, throwing
off the old mouth, together with the intestine, the cal-
ee rods, and in fact all the rest of the body of the
a.

Fig. 40 represents a larva probably of Echinus lividus,
from the Mediterranean, and shows the commencement
of the sea egg within the body of the larva. The capital
letters denote the different arms, a is the mouth, @’ the
zsophagus, 4 the stomach, J’ the intestine, f the ciliated
lobes or epaulets, ¢ the young sea-egg.

JouHN LuBBOCK

(To be continued.)

EXTIRPATION BY COLLECTORS OF RARE
PLANTS AND ANIMALS

» ee Legislature, having very properly provided for the

preservation of small birds, might extend its protec-
tion to other animals and to plants ; for although it would
be inexpedient to prevent individuals from taking rare

insects and botanical specimens, it is surely expedient to
deter persons or societies from offering premiums which
are leading to the extirpation of such species.

Some years ago a judicious and formal protest against
this culpable practice was published by many of the most
eminent British botanists, and it has constantly been de-
plored by all true lovers of natural science. The respected
president (the Rev. Dr. Mitchinson) of our East Kent
Natural History Society, in his address at the last annual
meeting thereof at Canterbury, made such strong observa-
tions on the subject as might raise the question whether local
societies may not do as much harm by promoting the extir-
pation of rare plants and animals as good in other respects ;
and I have always been insisting, at the meetings of the
same society and elsewhere, that it is our duty to cherish,
and not destroy the precious plants and animals of the

* “ Rolleston—“ Forms of Animal Life,” p. 146.

+ Uber die Gattungen der Seeigellarven. Siebente Abhandlung. Kon.
~ Akad. d Wiss, zu Berlin. Von Joh. Miiller, 1855, Pl. iii. fig. 3.

2

73
district. Whenever a rare plant or win sexi bired 4
those meetings, we have alw+ys a wai! 2 out its haviag
been “not long since often se n, thougt 0 as

pearing.” A chief cause of this is the de» lorable rapaciy
of collectors of and traffickers in specimens; since the
preposterous notion prevails that botany and entumolozy
consist in a recognition of the mere physiognomy, without
the least regard to the physiology, of species, and being
able to call them by their scientific names.

And so it will be while local societies continue to en-
courage such errors, instead of promulgating the essential
principles of botanical or entomological science, and ob-
structing the injurious operations of mere collectors or
pretenders. And this desirable end, so far as regards
taxonomy, might be easily attained without the least
harm to rare species, Prizes for the best display, illus-
trated by microscopic drawings and preparations of the
generic and specific characters of sections or the whole
of many natural orders would afford really good tests of
the industry and attainments of the candidates. For
example, why not try for this purpose the Willows, Grasses,
or Sedges? Two of these orders have the further recom-
mendation of being of great economic value. Again, as
specific distinctions seem to be the ultimate aim of these
societies, certain cells or tissues, such as the pollen, epi-
dermis, hairs, and stomata, would afford good subjects
for investigation in this point of view, as would also
raphides and other plant-crystals, and very likely disclose
valuable characters not yet recognised in the books of
systematic botany.

I have been led to these remarks by the increasing fre-
quency of the practice now deplored. As the “ West
Kent Natural History, Microscopical, and Photographic
Society” is much and deservedly respected, and exercises
justly considerable influence in its department, an extract
from its last “ Council’s Report,” p. 19, will suffice as a
sample of the mischief :— With a view to promote the
study of Entomology and Botany among the members of
the Society and their families, the Council, in the early
part of the year, announced their intention of giving two
prizes of 5, 5s. each, one for the best Botanical collection,
the other for the best collection of Lepidopterous Insects ;
all specimens to be gathered or taken within the West
Kent district.” This quotation is by no means intended
for blame to any particular society, but merely as an
example taken from one of the printed “ Reports” that has
lately reached me of what is still being sown broadcast
generally throughout the country.

And here we have plainly not only a reward of money
for the best collection of plants and Lepidoptera in a given
district, but a temptation or inducement to unscrupulous
collectors, in their anxiety to win the prize and defeat
their competitors, to destroy such rare specimens as they
may not take away. Such nefarious conduct is not meant
to be insinuated of the West Kent Society ; but my ob-
ject is simply to assert that which I know has too often
been the effect of such prizes, and to invoke the aid of
NATURE in suppressing the evil,

- GEORGE GULLIVER

A FRENCH PAYSICAL SOCIETY

HE scientific movement increases in France; it
began about the end of the Empire, under the
ministry of Duriiy, and has since taken greater propor-
tions, especially after the last war. The new French
Association for the Advancement of Science,* it is well
known, is modelled after the British Association, the suc-
cess of which has surpassed expectation.

The physicists of Paris have assembled for several years
in the laboratories of the Superior Normal School, placed
at their disposal by M. Berlin, the director of the scientific
studies of this school. They conversed about physics,

* See NaATuRE, vol. v. p. 357-

74

recent theories were set forth, the new or little known
instruments were shown and explained. Thus Sir Wm.
Thomson’s electrometer, and several experiments of Prof.
Tyndall called forth the curiosity and attention of the
assistants. But those amicable meetings are no longer suf-
ficient ; the necessity of a more formal gathering was
felt, as well as of writing and publishing Transactions,
that the notes and observations might not be completely
lost. The members of the Institute of the physical
section encouraged the new society by their warm
approval.

On the 17th of January of the present year, in the
Salle Gerson, an aznexé of the Faculté des Sciences
of Paris (.Sovéonne), a number of physicists met. They
accepted provisional statutes and elected a board. The
provisional statutes proposed by a committee composed
of MM. d’Almeida, Alfred Cornu, Gernez, Lissajous,
Mascart, expressed, in a few articles, the basis of the new
association.

The purpose of the society is to promote physics ; it
will have two sittings a month alternately with the
Chemical Society, and will publish transactions that will
be sent to the members. The members are divided into
resident, non-resident, and honorary members, the last
chosen by election from among the most eminent men in
France and abroad. In the first year six will be elected,
and two only in each following year,

The society will be glad to receive such gifts as will
facilitate its work, and will inscribe in its Transactions the
names of the givers.

The board is thus composed :—President, M. Fizeau,
Member of the Institute; Vice-President, M. Bertin,
Director of the Scientific Studies to the Superior Normal
School; General Secretary, M. d’Almeida, Director of
the new Journal of Physics; Secretary, M. Maurat, Pro-
fessor of Physics to the Lycée St. Louis, of Paris ; Vice-
Secretary, M. Alfred Cornu, Professor of Physics to the
Polytechnic School; Treasurer-Archivist, M. Philippon,
Secretary of the Faculté des Sciences of Paris.

The venerable M. Becquerel, who, notwithstanding his
89 years, assisted at the meeting, in order to give by his
presence a proof of his adhesion to the new society, has
been designed, by acclamation, an honorary member.

MAXIME CORNU

NOTES

Pror. OWEN has been appointed to a Civil Companionship
ofthe Bath. If this is intended as an acknowledgment of Prof,
Owen’s services to science, it is not to the credit of Government
that the honour was not conferred years ago.

Pror. TAtt’s Rede Lecture on Theimo-dynamics will be
delivered to-morrow.

HITHERTO the London ‘‘ Companies,” whose “fatness” is
notorious, have done little or nothing for the promotion of scien-
tific researches or education. It is therefore with the greatest
pleasure we record that the Fishmongers’ Company have hand-
somely presented to Mr. W. K. Parker, F.R.S., so well
known for his valuable researches on the shoulder-girdle and
skull in vertebrated animals, the sum of 50/., in addition to an
allowance of 20/. a year for the next three years in order to enable
him to pursue such parts of his work as relate to the Anatomy
of Fish. This we certainly think a step in the right direction,
and the Fishmongers’ Company deserve all praise for having
been so original and generous as to be the first to take it. We
hope their award to Mr. Parker is only an earnest of what
they will do in the future, and that their example will not
be lost on the other notoriously wealthy companies of the
City of London. A few thousands a year would never be missed
out of their enormous revenues, and would not diminish by a
single dainty the sumptuousness of their numerous feasts ; where-

NATURE

| May 22, 1873
as the amount of original and practically beneficial scientific work
that could be done with the money, would yield them and the
country generally a rich return. We daresay those who haye the
management of the funds of the various companies would be
willing enough to divert a portion into scientific channels if they
only knew how to go about it; the example of the Fishmongers’
Company may afford thema hint. Moreover they need be at no
loss, for there are plenty of eminent}m€n of science competent and
judicious enough to lend advice to the companies in this matter.
Commerce, with which these companies are all more or less con- —
nected, owes much of its present gigantic dimensions and great
prosperity to the discoveries and advances of science ; gratitude
and self-interest ought to urge our London merchants not to be
indifferent to scientific progress. Let us also add, that their
award to Mr. Parker is on a scale which shows a very slight
acquaintance on the part of the City magnates with the value of
time,

A rusIon has taken place between the local committee at
Munich for erecting a statue to Justus von Liebig, and the com-
miltee appointed by the German Chemical Society at Berlin ;
the latter, in order to insure unity of action, giving way in the
question as to where the statue should find its place. Notwith-
standing the serious nature of the claims of Giessen, it was
generally thought that the resting-place of the great chemist
would unite the majority of votes of his admirers. A consider-
able number of leading German statesmen and foreign ambassa-
dors have joined the committee, the full list of which will shortly
be published. :

FRESENIUS, who twenty-five years ago founded a school of
chemistry at Wiesbaden, has celebrated the anniversary of its
foundation amidst the festive concourse of his friends and pupils,
and of the Government and learned societies of his country. A
gloom was unfortunately cast over this event by the death of
Mrs. Fresenius, which almost coincided with its celebration.

WE regret very much to announce the death of Emanuel
Deutsch, at Alexandria. His premature death is a very great
loss to Eastern scholarship.

THE Alexandra Palace, under new management, reopens on
Saturday. We hope the managers will not neglect the interests
of science.

WE recently announced that the French Society for the En-
couragement of National Industry had awarded its grand medal
to Sir Charles Wheatstone. The following is an extract from
the report of the Committee on the Economic Arts :—While the
kaleidophone of Sir Charles Wheatstone has been the point of
departure of the method which permits sounds to be studied by
the aid of the eye ; while his researches on the qualities of sound,
on the production of vowels, while the creation of his speaking
machine, have elucidated many points in the theory of the voice ;
while his ingenious apparatus, illustrating the propagation and the
combination of waves, has facilitated the understanding of these
delicate phenomena, and contributed to throw light on the
mechanism of the undulatory motions, his numerous researches
on the applications of electricity, in which he has shown, at the
same time, profound science and a genius marvelously inspired,
occupy a great place in the history of the electric telegraph. It
is he who first realised, under conditions really practicable, this
admirable means of communication between men and between
nations, and we ought not to forget that, more than once, he has
come Zersonally among us to prepare its organisation and stimu-
late success. The unanimous choice made by the committee of
the economic arts and cordially ratified by the Council honours
our society as much as him who is the object of it. We
are happy to give, on this occasion, a testimony of sympathy to
a nation in which science is held in such high esteem, Those
among us who have had the good fortune to visit the scientific

— May 22, 1873]
men of England in their own country have not forgotten that
we have always received from them the most cordial and the
most generous hospitality. In conferring on Sir Charles Wheat-
stone a reward rendered valuable by those who have already
received it, the Council performs a pure act of justice, and
acquits, at least for some among us, a debt of gratitude.

Dr. VON DOLLINGER has been appointed President of the
Bavarian Academy of Science and Conservator-General of Scien-
tific Museums in Bavaria, which became vacant by the death of
Baron Liebig. King Louis advised the doctor of his appoint-
ment by an autograph letter.

THE Institution of Civil Engineers hold a conversazione in the
- West Galleries of the International Exhibition, on ‘Tuesday,
* the 27th inst. i
_ Mr. Artuur GAmGgE, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Physio-
Togy at Surgeons Hall, Edinburgh, and Examiner in Forensic
Medicine in the University of London, has been appointed Brack-
enbury Professor of Practical Physiology and Histology in
Owens College, Manchester.

Prog. H, pr Lacaze-DurHters, member of the French Insti-
tute, Professor of Zoology at the Faculté des Sciences of
Paris, and Director of the Zoological Station of Roscoff, will
accompany Commander Mouchez, in the Warval, that officer

_ béing engaged in completing the hydrographic map of the
Algerian shores. The professor will make frequent soundings,
and study the fauna of the Mediterranean. He will be assisted
in the geological determinations by a distinguished young geo-
logist, M. Vélain, Répétiteur of the Faculté of Sciences of Paris.
The cruise will last five months. The ship left Lorient on May
1. M. de Lacaze-Duthiers will join them in July, at the termi-
nation of his lectures at the Faculté. Let us hope that these
new explorations, under the guidance of an ardent, learned, and
experienced man, will procure materials as valuable as those
which were obtained by Agassiz, Wyville Thomson and others.

a ee

WE understand that there is a plan in hand for building a new
museum at Vienna, to which the contents of the Imperial Zoolo-
gical Cabinet, including the important collections of Natterer
and other well-known naturalists, are to be transferred.

THE following telegram was received on Saturday at the
Foreign-office from Colonel Stanton :— Alexandria,J May 17,
1873.—The Egyptian Government has just received a despatch
from the Governor-General of Southern Loudan, dated 15th
March, reporting the arrival at Gondokoro of the reinforce-
_ ments sent to Sir S. Baker, confirming the private intelligence
recently forwarded to your lordship as to the safety of the party,
and adding that in compliance with Sir S. Baker’s demand, 200
soldiers, with a supply of salt and ammunition, had been sent
onto him. Sir S. Baker had not reached the lake.

Dr. PETSRMANN has recently ‘received a letter from Dr.
Nachtigal, who in 1869 was sent out to Africa on a mission
from the Emperor of Germany to the Sultan of Borneo. The
letter is dated February 1872, and gives some brief details of
Dr. Nachtigal’s visits to the countries lying tothe N.E. of Lake
Tchad, the greater part of the region visited being new to Euro-
pean. exploration. A most important discovery made by Dr.
Nachtigal is that Bahr-el-Gazal, put down on some maps con-
jecturally as flowing into Lake Tchad, really flows out of that
lake north-eastwards for about 300 miles. He has also disco-
vered a range of mountains extending prubably a distance of
upwards of 800 miles from Tibesti to Darfur ; one of the passes
is at least 7,878 ft. above sea-level. At the date of the despatch
of his letter, Dr. Nachtigal was about to undertake a journey
into {Bagirmi, the country lying to the south-east of Lake Tchad.
It will thus be seen that this traveller is collecting materials
_ which will add greatly to our knowledge of Central N. Africa.

7s
a a fi

NATURE

75

A MESSAGE has been received by the Daily Telegraph from
Mr. George Smith dated Mosul, May 19. “Since my last
message,” he says, “ I have come upon numerous valuable inscrip-
tions and fragments of all classes, including very curious sylla-
baries and bi-lingual records. Among them is a remarkable
table of the penalties for neglect or infraction of the laws. But
my most fortunate discovery is that of a broken tablet containing
the very portion of the text which was missing from the Deluge
tablet. Immense masses of earth and débris overlie whatever
remains to be brought to light in this part of the great mound.
Much time and large sums of money would be required
to lay it open. I therefore await instructions from yow
and the Museum, as the season is closing.” Tae Daily
Telegraph and the British Museum Lave now an opportunity,
of showing that they have really at heart the advancement
of historical research, and we are sure Mr. Smith’s hint will ba
met by a hearty response. We feel confident that the liberality
of the Dazly Telegraph will be continued until Mr. Smith’s re-
searches are completed to his own satisfaction.

SoME time ago we were able to give authentic news of the
safety of the Russian explorer of New Guinea, Dr. N. yon
Miklucho-Maclay, who had been reported dead in several
newspapers. Dr. Maclay has himself sent a letter to Dr.
Petermann, dated on board the Russian clipper, Asuwmrud,
March 11, with a postscript dated Manilla, March 22, saying he
is alive, though not very well, and was about to despatch to the
St Petersburg Geographical Society an account of his explora-
tion of New Guinea, his main object in visiting that country
being to collect material for its ethnology. He intended to
visit Luzon and the Sunda Islands, and then return to New
Guinea.

AN important step has been taken in the carrying out of the
decisions of the International ,Metric Commission which met
at Paris in October last year. The form and mode of execution
of the standard-metre having been settled, the Commission en-
trusted to the French Section the manufacture and comparison
of the new metres with the original standard in the Archives
of France. We learn from Les A/ondes that before proceeding
to cast the definitive metres, the French Commission has thought
it advisable to execute the first types, with which to test succes-
sively all the methods that will ultimately be applied to the
definitive metres. This first experiment took place in the labo-
ratory of M. EI. Sainte-Claire Deville, who, with the assistance
of M. Debray, has succeeded in obtaining the iridio-platinum
alloy perfectly pure. The operation of casting this first inter-
national metre was considered of so much importance, that the
President of the Republic and some of his Ministers, and other
eminent Frenchmen, ‘‘assisted” at it. Nine kilogrammes
of platinum, with one kilogramme of iridium, were melted under
the action of an oxyhydrogen flame from a blow-pipein three-
quarters of an hour. The ingot was then cast, perfectly limpid,
ina mould formed, like the furnace itself, of a block of car-
bonate of lime, whose interior walls alone were burned under the
influence of the excessive temperature which was developed ;
consequently with this substance there is no risk of breakage.
The metal was allowed to cool in the mould, and preserved its
bright surface ; in this condition it will be submitted to all the
processes necessary to give it the definitive form which it ought,
to possess. The operation was considered, by all who witnessed

| it, as perfectly successful.

Tue following further particulars with reference to the Ame-
rican Arctic exploring ship FPo/aris, Captain Hall, have been
obtained by the correspondent of the Mew York Herald ; they
are dated Bay Roberts, va St. John’s, N.F., into which the
steamer 7igress had come, having on {board nineteen survivors,
including H. C. Tyson, assistant-nayigator of Captain Hall’s

76

expedition. This party, which had been landed from the Polaris,
were driven from her by a gale which burst her moorings on
October 15, 1872, in latitude 72°35. When they last saw the
Polaris she was under steam and canvas, making for a harbour
on the east side of Northumberland Island. She had no boats
left of the six which she brought with her from the port of New
York. ‘Two were lost ina northern expedition, two were landed
on the ice with Captain Tyson’s party, one was burnt as fire-
wood to make water for the crew, and the other is on board the
Tigress. The Polaris was in command of Captain Buddington,
who had thirteen of a crew along with him, and a plentiful
stock of provisions. She was making a good deal of water,
but, as Captain Tyson informed the Herald correspondent, she
was not more leaky than when he was on board all the previous
fall and winter. Her bow was somewhat damaged, and it is the
opinion of the survivors they will be unable to get clear until
July, and even then, if the ship is unseaworthy, they would have
to make new boats to effect an escape. On October 8, 1871,
in latitude 81°38, longitude 61°44, Captain Hall died of apo-
plexy, and was buried on shore, where they erected a wooden
cross to mark his grave. He had recently returaed from a
northern sledge expedition, in which he had attained the latitude
of 82°16. In September 1871, the Po/aris entered winter quar-
ters, and left August 12, 1872. The ice was very heavy, and
set ina southern direction. She was forced south, and so con-
tinued drifting till Captain Tyson and party were driven from
her. The sledge party crossed Kane’s Polar Sea, which they
pronounced to bea strait about 15 miles wide. There was an
appearance of open water to the north.

Tue Education Department propose to send on loan, to local
schools in which it will be useful, what they call Travelling
Apparatus for illustrating Instruction in Naval Architecture.
The following is the list of articles included under that title :—
1. Model of a half-midship section of aniron-clad ship, showing
the mode of forming and combining the keel, frames, beams,
&c., &e. 2. Ditto of an ordinary wooden ship. 3. Block-
model, showing the lines used in laying off the fore-body of a
ship. 4. Ditto, after-body. 5. Diagram showing the lines used
in laying-off. These models and diagram are intended to be
placed in the school or class-room for reference during the hours
of study, in order that the students may better understand the
nature of the work under consideration, and also to aid the
teachers in illustrating their ideas when imparting instruction to
their classes.

Pror. MaRsH, in the current number of the American Four-
nal of Science and Art, describes several new species of mam-
malia from the tertiary deposits of the Rocky Mountains region.
Orohippus agilis is a new species of a genus intermediate between
Anchitherium and Palaotherium, which has four functional digits,
the first premolar tooth nearly as large as the second, no antor-
bital fossa, and an incomplete bony orbit. Co/onoceras, a new
genus, nearly allied to Hyrachyus (Leidy) and He/aletes (Marsh),
is peculiar in having a pair of rugosities on the nasal bones, to
support dermal horns. It was about thesize of a sheep. Prof.
Marsh separates the genus Dinoceras from Tinoceras, onaccount
of the maxillary horn-cores being more anteriorly situated, and
the parietal crests more elevated in the former, at the same time
that the canine tusks are more compressed and trenchant. A
new species of Oveodon, and two others of Rhinoceros, are also
described.

A résumé of our knowledge, strikingly incomplete as it is,
on the subject of sneezing, is given by Dr. Seguin in the third
number of the new and excellent Archives of Scientificand Frac-
tical Medicine. The author's attention was drawn to the subject
from his observing a fact, previously well known, that sneezing
may be frequently stopped by pressing the fingers on the lips or

NATURE

nn ne Erne Ens ririrnes=yEpUI UD nnTnEED nsnnnnnnnnnIE

[May 22, 1873

sides of the nose. No new theory is given to explain the
physiology of the phenomenon, and it is stated that naturally
most of the air expired during a sneeze escapes through the nose,
but that custom has brought about the discharge of a part
through the mouth. This we cannot agree with, as it is difficult
to believe that custom has much influence on so abrupt an act.

WE learn from Ocean Highways that Major Branfill, of the
great Indian Trigonometrical Survey, has discovered that a
peak of the Anamully Range attains a height of 8,837 ft. above
the sea, 5ooft. higher than Dodabetta, in the Nilgiri Hills,
hitherto supposed to be the loftiest peak in Southern India.

A FEW of the members of the Anthropological Institute,
who did not approve of the proceedings at the annual meeting, have
formed themselves into a separate society, under the name of
the London Anthropological Society, with Dr, Charnock as
president, and Captain R. F. Burton and Mr, Staniland Wake
as vice-presidents. ‘‘ This society,” the prospectus says, ‘* has
been formed for the study of the science of anthropology in all
its branches. The society, while adhering to the usual practice
of conducting its transactions at meetings attended only by Fel-
lows and gentlemen introduced by Fellows, contemplates placing
the results of its investigations before the non-scientific portion
of the community, by holding from time to time special meetings,
to which the general public will be admitted.”

AnpITIONs to the Brighton Aquarium during the past week :
—One Alligator (Adligator mississipiensis), 8 feet long, from South
Carolina, purchased ; one Australian Monitor (Monitor gouldit),
purchased ; 500 salmon, Great Lake trout, common trout, and
hybrid fry (Salmo salar, lacustris, et fario), presented by Mr.
Frank Buckland ; larger and lesser Spotted Dog-fish (Scy/iium
stellare et carnicula) ; Skate-toothed Shark (Afustelus vulgaris) ;
Picked Dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris) ; Monk-fish (Rhina squa-
tina), one specimen 5 feet long; Sting Ray 7rygon pastinaca) ;
Common Skate (Raia Jbatis); Spotted Ray (R. maculata) ;
Thornback (2. c/avata) ; Three-spined Sticklebacks (Gasterosteus
spinulosus) ; Bass (Labrax lupus); Streaked Gurnards (Zrigla
lineata); the Piper (Zrigla lyra) ; Greater Weever ( Trachinus
draco); Lesser do. (7. vifera); John Dorée (Zeus | fader) ;
Dragonets (Cadlionymus lyra) ; Land Smelts (Atherina presbyter);
Grey Mullet (A/ugil capito) ; Carp (Cyprinus carpio); Roach
(Leuciscus rulilus) ; Minnow (LZ. phoxinus) ; Loach (Nemachilus
barbatula); Tench ( 7inca vulgaris) ; Herring (Clupea harengus);
Sharp-nosed Eel (Anguilla vulgaris) ; Greater Pipe-fish Syng-
nathus acus) ; Snake Pipe-fish (Verophis equoreus); Branched
Seahorse (Hippocampus ramulosus), Mediterranean; Squids,
(Zoligo media) ; Masked crabs (Corystes cassivelaunus) ; Spider
Crabs (Mata sqguinado).

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a Cashmere Monkey (A@acacus pelops), pre-
sented by Rear-Admiral Davies; a Savannah Deer (Cervus
savannarum) from South America, presented by Capt. Bennett ;
a Suricate (Suricata zenik) from South Africa, presented by Mr-
A, Benyon ; a Palm Squirrel (Sciurus palmarum) from India,
presented by Mr. W. Lovegrove ; a Mocking Bird (A/imus poly-
glottis) from North America, presented by Mr, P. Frank; an
Indian Eryx (Zvyx johnii), presented by Dr. Anderson; two
pied Crow Shrikes (Strepera graculina) from Australia ; an Ursine
Colobus (Colobus polycomus) from Sierra Leone; a Hocheur
Monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans) from West Africa ; a Wander.
ing Tree-pie (Dendrocitta vagabunda), two pied Mynahs (Sterno-
pastor contra), and two rose-coloured Pastors (Pastor roseus) from
India, purchased ; two Hoffmann’s Sloths (Cholopus hoffmannit)
from Panama; two black Vultures (Cathartes atratus) from
South America ; a black-handed Spider Monkey (Aéeles melano-
chir) from Central America, and a Crocodile (Crocodilus ameri-
canus) from Mexico, deposited.

a

-

NATURE

77

COMPARISON OF THE SPECTRA. OF THE
LIMB AND OF THE CENTRE OF THE SUN*

if: COMPARISON of the spectrum of the edge of the sun
with that of its centre is of great theoretical interest; but
any comparison other than by direct juxtaposition must be very
unsatisfactory, and the more so as the differences are less. In
order to obtain spectra of two different portions of the sun side
by side, where the slightest variations may be detected, I have
constructed a small prism with four polished sides, its bases
being parallelograms. This is so placed that one face rests upon
the slit plate of the telespectroscope, and has its acute edge per-
pendicular to the slit at its middle point, The instrument may
then be directed so that the image of the sun falls with its centre
on the uncovered portion of the slit, while the light which forms
the edge of the sun, falling perpendicularly upon the first sur-
face of the prism, suffers two interior total reflections and a dis-
placement depending upon the form of the prism. A glance at
the figure, in which ss’ is the slit, L L’ the diameter of the sun’s
image, and P the prism, shows that no light from the covered
of the slit will reach the collimating lens except that which
been reflected from the two sides of the prism. The relation
of the acute angle (v) and the distance between the reflecting
sides (¢) to the focal length of the great telescope (7) and the
width of the spectrum (a) is given by the formula,
2¢ sin v = F tan 16' — a.
The sides of the prism not fixed by the equation admit of con-
siderable latitude, but should be made to approach the lower
limit in order that the planes of the direct and transmitted
images may be as little separated as possible. Of course ¢
saad should be so proportioned that the reflections may be
total.

The instruments with which the following observations have
been made are those belonging to the observatory of the Sheffield
(U.S.) Scientific School, consisting of an equatorial telescope of
gin. aperture, and 118 in. focal length, by Clark, and a spectro-
scope of Young’s form by the same maker. The spectroscope
has a dispersive power of 12 prisms of 60°. In most of these
observations an eye-piece of high power has been adapted to it,
which gives a separation of the D lines equal to 64 minutes
nearly. In the small prism placed before the slit, @ is equal to
*o4in., a quarter of the length of the slit.

When the instrument is properly directed and in adjustment,
we see a very narrow black line dividing the spectrum longitu-
dinally into two parts of widely different intensity ; the fainter,

belonging to the limb of the sun, is marked on its edge by
the bright chromosphere lines. Upon comparing these two
spectra, certain differences are recognised besides that of in-
tensity, by far the most marked of which are exhibited by the
lines 4, and 4,, which become sharper and less hazy near the
limb. The line 4, possesses the same characteristic, but toa
less degree ; C and F also become sharper in the same region.
Excepting these and the D lines it requires very close examina-
tion to detect any variation. There is, however, a line in the
red at 768°: of Kirchhoff’s scale which is strongly marked near

- the centre of the sun’s disc, but disappears entirely, to my

wer at least, within 16’ to 20" from the limb. Two other
ines below F, at 1828°6 and 1830°9 of the same scale, exhibit
nearly complementary phenomena, #.c., they are strongly marked
near the edge, but much fainter at the centre. These latter lines
also become greatly strengthened over the penumbrz of spots.
The line 768°1 is not thus affected. These areall the differences
which I have invariably seen in repeated examinations since
February 17.

Others have, however, been suspected. Certain lines, which
are strengthened in a region of spots like those above men-
tioned, appear to be strengthened also near the edge, but do not

* Made at the Sheffield (U.S.) Scientific School, Communicated by
Prof. Newton.

undergo so marked a change. It is obvious that the differences
should be most pronounced in the clearest sky, and such is the
case. The closest examination has extended only from B to a
short distance above F, as the plate glass of which the small
prism is made has a decided yellow tint and absorbs the blue
rays strongly.

Since the light from the border of the sun undergoes a gene-
ral absorption, which reduces its intensity to much less than
one-fourth that at the centre, according to Secchi’s measure-
ments, and yet the spectroscopic character is changed so slightly,
it is impossible for me to escape the conviction that the seat of
the selective absorption, which produces the Fraunhofer lines,
is below the envelope which exerts the general absorption. But
the phenomena of the faculze prove not only that this envelope
rests upon the photosphere, but also that it is very thin, The
origin of the Fraunhofer lines, then, must be in the photosphere
itself, which is in accordance with Lockyer’s views.

Any effects which the chromosphere might produce, we would
anticipate finding most evident in the lines of those gases which
are readily detected there. A reference to the observations
shows at once a compliance with this anticipation in the lines of
hydrogen, magnesium, and sodium. The line 768-1 is not less
strikingly in concordance, if it be regarded as 768-?* (the ? in-
dicates doubt as to the tenths of the scale, and * absence of a
corresponding black line) of Young’s Catalogue of Chromo-
sphere Lines. The lines 1828°6 and 1830°9, with others of the
same class, probably have their origin in the medium which ex-
erts the general absorption, and thus are allied to our telluric
lines. It also seems probable that the chromosphere is too
transparent to reverse many of its lines. That this is the case
in the helium lines is tolerably certain.

In the apparatus described, two similar prisms were also placed
over the slit in a symmetrical position. The spectra of two
opposite edges of the sun were thus brought together, and the
change in refrangibility due to the sun’s rotation was very clearly
shown. Cuas H. Hastincs

Newhaven, April 3

THE “INSTINCT” QUESTION

pew the many additional communications we have
received on this subject, we make the following
selection.

With regard to a sense of direction, Mr. George C.
Merrill, of Topeka, Kansas, writes as follows :—

I have learned from the hunters and guides who spend their
lives on the plains and mountains west of us, that no matter

‘| how far or with what turns they may have been led in chasing

the bison or other game, they on their return to camp always
take a straight line. In explanation they say that unconsciously
to themselves they have kept all the turns in their mind.

Mr. C. Bygrave Wharton, of Bushey, Herts, writes :—

As a left-handed and left-legged man*who has more than once
been lost in the bush in New South Wales, my experience may
possibly be of interest to Mr. George Darwin and others. In-
variably I unintentionally bore to the left ; and once, after wan-
dering for about six hours, just as I was giving myself up for
lost, I discovered that I was within a hundred yards of the place
from which I had started having performed a large circle to the
left. It will thus be seen that though my left leg and arm are the
aap there is always a tendency to walk in a circle to the
left.

Mr. William Earley, of the Gardens, Valentines, sends
the following interesting observations on the habits of
wild rabbits :—

As is well known, the doe rabbit does not produce her young
in any ordinary rabbit warren, or ‘‘run,” but invariably selects
a quiet out-of-the-way situation wherein to form a nursery for
them. Now the reason for this peculiar practice has always
been attributed to the fact that they leave their legitimate homes
at this all-important period, simply because the male parents
invariably destroy the offspring if an attempt be made to breed
them in the permanent home or warren. I incline to believe we
must look elsewhere for the explanation.

Firstly, then, a close atmosphere seems all-important to their
development, as the old doe rabbit not alone denudes her breast
of its natural fur covering wherein to ensconce them warmly all

78

around, she also closes up the usual entrance to the nursery
firmly, even patting the soil down to exclude the colder outer
air. In due time, as the young increase in size, &c., she makes
‘‘air-holes,” commencing with very minute ones, which are
gradually enlarged as the inmates gain strength and size.

These are known facts, to which I add one not heretofore
noticed, which seems important ; it has reference to the form-
ation of the subterranean nursery, in regard to its shape and the
evident ‘fend in view.” These minor tunnels, or nursery
* stops,”’ are invariably formed by starting a downward curve,
at an angle of about 45°, which is continued beyond any line of
sight the eye can be guided by on the outer side. They subse-
quently curve abruptly upward, with almost double this initial
acuteness, ending in a shelved enlargement, with the roof
boundary nearly uniformly three inches from the surface of the
ground above and without.

What I feel constrained to uphold in regard to these first facts
is, that herein exists a most subtle sanitary arrangement ; that
by these means a subdued genial air is admitted, the only fresh
air the nursery receives, and whereon the nurselings thrive,
strengthen, and grow. ‘The facts would seem to support the
theory that the mother-parent continues what must be its hard
work—doubly hard and severe in these finishing overhead exca-
vations—until the very keen power of scent they possess assures
them that the outer air is slightly admitted through innume-
rable interstices in the soil above. ia

My second proposition, or indeed belief, based upon distinct
observation, is, that the parent doe rabbit does not visit its young,
even nocturnally, at certain times oftener than once in each
7z hours! Certainly sometimes not more frequently than
once during the 48 hours comprising two days and two nights.
The latter fact I have ascertained by carefully marking and
observing the neatly closed entrance to the stops, and also by
marks beneath an iron garden-gate, in freshly Jaid gravel, which
the rabbits had to scratch aside before they could enter. Fur-
thermore, I have every reason to believe that the parent rabbit
ceases to transmit the customary natural scent at the time she
approaches or acts about the “stop ;” if, indeed, as is the case
with some kinds of game birds, during the period of incubation,
she does not lose it altogether. Certain is it no appreciable
amount of scent remains about the stop in the early morning
after the parent rabbit has visited its nursery during the past
night.

fOn the question whether animals have the power of ceasing
to emit a scent at certain times, see ,the article on Pheasants in
this week’s number.—ED. ]

Mr. J. D. Bell, of the World office, New York, writes
as follows on the consciousness of time in horses :—

_ My own experience will not allow me to speak positively as to
smell, but horses that I have met and carefully observed, were not
peculiarly gifted in this respect. It was a common saying on “the
plains” and in the mining regions of California, that mules, by
the way very sagacious animals, which would well repay observa-
tion, ‘scent the redskin a mile away.” I have made some in-
quiry on this point, but have been unable to find that the
olfactories of the mule are really thus acute. I can bear
testimony to the extraordinary powers of sight in horses.
And I am inclined to think that they take more notes
by the way through their eyes than through the nose, As
none of your correspondents have called attention to it,
I desire to recall the fact that horses have ears as well as
eyes and noses. Their hearing is very acute, and I am inclined
to think that the explanation of the detection of red-skins by
mules, will be found in the educated ear rather than
in the educated nose. It used to be said in the cavalry
service of the United States during the war that ‘‘ horses
were the best pickets.” I have seen them again and
again in the dead of night prick up their ears when the men on
their backs heard nothing. I have never seen them sniff or
smell first. Listening was invariably the first movement. Then
came sight. Horses have scanned the woods and chapparall
with a care that no mancould surpass. If the moving thing first
heard and then seen was an unfamiliar object—more especially
if it was moving along the ground—then I have seen horses
sniff, smell, and snort. In horses the snort is expressive of
aversion rather than fear, or perhaps of a sentiment compounded
of both.

Horses learn the notes of the bugle, and I have often
seen a trained horse turn in a direction opposed to that

NATURE

[May 22, 1873

indicated by the pressure of his less experienced rider’s
leg. I have known horses which, after detecting the pre-
sence of moving objects by hearing and then by sight, during
which time they remained perfectly quiet, change feet, and even
paw the ground if the rider did not by his movement show re-
cognition of the presence of what might be an enemy.

And what, it will be asked, has this to do with the question
at issue? Simply this—horses think, horses reason, horses
classify, horses remember, But I desire to offer a few remarks
on Darwin’s letter about the blind mare that stopped at
every public-house on the road. My own explanation of
the fact, and there must be hundreds of similar instances—
is that the mare, by long-continued custom, became conscious
of the time which should elapse between the respective stop-
ping places. Horses have a great memory for time. What
is the interpretation of the existence and improvements of our
racing and trotting horses but that these animals have the power
of remembering time, and the power of transmitting this im-
proved registering and transmitting cerebral apparatus to their
progeny. I will close this letter by relating a couple of incidents.
I was speaking of my belief in this equine memory for time to an
enthusiastic horseman of my acquaintance, the other day, and
at the same time showed him Mr. Darwin’s letter. He said that
in his youth he had driven a horse, sound in every respect, on a
‘‘hread” route. He always served his cu-tomers in a certain
order. After a while his animal knew all the places, and
stopped in front of the store or residence where bread was to
be delivered, without a signal from his master. If the master
remained in any place longer than usual, his horse started off,
but instead of going to the next customer, returned to the stable.
This, said he, occurred again and again, not at one place, but at
many places. : ‘

I served, during the recent war, in a cavalry regiment in the
United States’ service. The horses knew the time for ‘‘ the
relief,” and if the relief did not come they became restive. On
one occasion we changed the time of remaining on post from
two tofour hours. For the first two hours the horses behaved
admirably ; after that they were in constant motion, and had to
be constantly restrained. Horses recognised the time for stable
call—not merely ‘‘ hunger”’-call, but the proper time-call.

A gentleman in the north of Ireland, who gives us his
name and _ address, sends us the following story of a
dog :—

He was a terrier—a cross upon the skye—very intelligent, like
all of his kind. He was given to me by Mr. C——, a gentle-
man residing upon Lough Foyle near Moville. He was brought
from that to Derry in asteamer up the Lough, and from Derry
to Buncrana down Lough Swilly by train. He therefore
travelled two sides of an acute-angled triangle, about thirty
miles in all by conveyance. ‘The third side being about filteen
miles, but a mountainous and unfrequented route. He appeared
at first very happy and reconciled, but one fine morning he was
seen taking the road parallel to the railway back to Derry, and
after my searching for him for some days and making every
inquiry, we found he had returned, tired and worn out,
to his old master, Mr. C., near Moville. It was evidently hard
work, and he was two or three days on the road. This I
consider an interesting case.—Here the dog did not go by the
third side of the triangle—which if he knew how to do he would
have done instead of exhausting himself by the long route he
took—following the direction along which he came by steamer
and train. :

My theory is that the dog does preserve a very distinct, or
at least tolerably distinet, notion of the route he was brought
from home by, and that it is forcibly impressed upon him ; but
the great aid to his return is the direction of the sun or light.
He knows that if he travels in a ce:tain direction—say E.—
he is going towards the morning sun, anl W., towards the
evening sun. :

- A correspondent, Mr. R. A. Pryor, Hatfield, sends us
the following extract from the Rev. A. l’Estrange’s edition
of Miss Mitford’s “ Life and Letters ” :—

Miss Mitford (Letter of October 16, 1829, vol. ii. p. 277),
had been dining in company with the late Dr, Routh, president
of Magdalen College, Oxford, who “had a spaniel of king
Charles's breed, who, losing his mamma by accident when a pup,
was brought up by a cat: well, he and his brother, for there
were two pups, orphans of three days old, were nursed by this

|

|

May 22, 1843)

NATURE

79

cat. But what I mention him to you foris to tell you the

curious account which the doctor, a man of gee veracity,

gives of his habits—he is as afraid of rain as his foster mother,
will never, if possible to avoid it, set his paw ina wet place;
licks his feet two or three times a day, for the purpose of washing
his face, which operation he performs in the true cattish position,
sitting upon his tail ; will watch a mouse-hole for hours together ;
and has in short all the ways, manners, habits, and dispositions
of his wet nurse, the cat. “Is not this very singular? But it’s
puzzling as well as amusing, and opens a new and strange view
into that mysterious subject, the instincts of animals. Mrs.
Routh, and Mrs. Blagrove (the mistress of the cat, who was

resent at dinner to-day), confirmed all the facts of the case.
They say that one can hardly imagine how like a cat Romulus
(the dog’s name) is, unless one lived with him.” :

The following is from a letter of October 29, 1835 :—
* Another characteristic of this hot dry summer (1835) has

been the manner in which the large humble bees have forced

open, torn apart the buds of my geraniums; an operation I
never saw them perfi rm before. Z

* Another novelty of this season has been that the splendid
new annual, the Sa/piglossis picta, has, after the first crop of
blossoms, produced perfect seed without flower petals, a proof
(ifany were needed), that the p.tils which constitute the beauty
of a flower, are not necessary to its propagation.”

_ We may mention that Mr. C. H. Jeens has a cat anda

dog, the litter now twenty months old, which, from the
time the dog was a month old, have been in a relation
similar to the cat and the pups in Miss Mitford’s story,
with a result somewhat similar. When the dog catches
a mouse he treats it after the well-known manner of cats,
pawing it, allowing it to run a distance, then pouncing
upon it, and so on for many minutes.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Tue Monthly Microscopical Fournal commences with the
paper on ‘‘a new Callidina ; with the results of experiments on
the Desiccation of Rotifera,” by Mr. H. Davis, which was read
before the Royal Microscopical Society in April, and in which
the author, by means of several carefully performed experiments,
proves that Rotifera, which survive after being exposed to a
temperature of 200° F., orin a vacuum for some time, do not get
desiccated, but only covered with an impervious gelatinous cover-
ing which retains a certain amount of moisture in them. This
Mr. Slack shows to have been previously proved. Mr. Parfitt
describes a new form apparently related to the Rotifera and the
Annelida, named by him Agehisteus plumosus, with the oral
aperture lateral and inferior. Dr. Braithwaite describes Sphagnum
papillosum and S. austini in his paper on Bog Mosses ; and Mr. F.
Wenham has another valuable paper on ‘Binoculars for the
highest powers.” A new slide for the microscope, designed

by Mr.’ D. S. Holman; is described. It is a current cel
or moist chamber for studying the blood and other organic
fluids. The accompanying illustration will assist in explaining it.
Two shallow circular cavities are excavated in a very flat thick
glass slide, not far from one another. They are united by two
orthree grooves, which are cut as triangles in order that they
may be of unequal depth in different parts. When the apparatus
is to be used, each of the shallow cavities and the intermediate
grooves are partly filled with the fluid to be examined, after the
slide has been warmed by the hand, and a glass cover is laid over
the whole, which soon becomes fixed from the cooling of the slide
and the consequent rarification of the enclosed air. ‘The grooves
between the cavities form the field for inspection, and any degree

of movement may be produced in the fluid which they contain
by approaching the warm finger to the top of one of the cavities,
as the air inside is thus made to expand and drive some of the
fluid into the other which is not heated. There is scarcely any limit
to the degree of delicacy of movement which may be attained
with this instrument ; the slightest movement, not sufficient to
remove a body from the field of vision, being produced without
difficulty after some practice,

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNnDON

Chemical Society, May 15.—Dr. Odling; F.R.S., president,
in the chair.—Dr. H. S. Armstrong delivered a most able and
comprehensive lecture on ‘‘Isomerism,” pointing out that the
generally received position theory was incompetent to explain
many reactions which took place in the formation of metameric
and isomeric substances. He suggested that the investigation
of the thermal properties of compounds would establish facts
which might ultimately enable us to obtain some insight into the
matter,

Anthropological Institute, May 20.—Prof. Busk, F.R.S.,
in the chair.—A paper was read by Mr. Hyde Clarke on the
Egyptian Colony and Language in the Caucasus. This was de-
voted to a part of a series of investigations to ascertain the com-
parative chronology of prehistoric races by the correlation of
comparative philology with the study of physical features, monu-
ments, weapons, &c. It identified the Ude language of the
Caucasus, that of an expiring population, with the Coptic, and
still more closely with the Hieroglyphic in minute and numerous
details of roo!s, grammar, and structure. The resemblance of
the Bzyb dialect of Ude with the Bashmurie Coptic illustrated
the differences between Hieroglyphic and Coptic. The paper
then proceeded to point out the conformity of strata in the
linguistic topography of Caucasia and the Nile regions, particu-
larly in the earlier epochs of Agaw and Abkhas, and of Furian
and Akush. Hence the conclusion was drawn that the sources
of Egyptian grammar were not in the late Semitic, but in the
prior epochs, and that Egyptian grammar and civilisation belong
to a remote period in the annals of civilisation, but still to a re-
latively modern period in the history of man. The author, ac-
cepting the history of Herodotus as to the conformity between
the Colchians of Caucasia and the Egyptians, did not accept his
theory that the Colchians were a colony of Lesodites. In the
time of Herodotus and Pindar, the Colchians, now light, were as
dark as the Egyptians,

GLASGOW

Geological Society, April 24—Mr. John Young, vice-
president, in the chair—Mr. David Robertson, F.G.S., read
a note on the ‘“‘ Precipitation of Clay in Fresh and Sea
Water.” He stated that in making some observations on
the gradual deposition of particles of clay held in solution
by water, he found that in fresh water these were held
suspended for a long time before wholly subsiding, while
salt water, or a mixture of salt and fresh, became comparatively
clear in the course of a few hours, The results showed that
water only slightly brackish had a great power in precipitating
the clay, and from this he concluded that the great bulk of the
clay carried down in solution by rivers must be deposited before
it could reach any great distance from the sea shore. This
might throw some light on the formation of deltas, and on the
silting up of river courses within the influence of the tides, It
might also assist in determining how far the glacial mud, for
example, could be carried into the sea by tides and currents.—
The chairman read a paper which he had prepared in conjuncticn
with Mr. Robertson, ‘‘On the Composition of the Boulder and
Laminated Brick Clays of the West of Scotland.” The authois
stated that their object was to ascertain, if possible, the con-
ditions under which these clays had been deposited, and how far
any of them were fossiliferous. For this purpose they had col-
lected samples of clays from upwards of fifty localities. These,
after being dried, were weighed, and then carefully wasled.
The results led them to regard as most probable the cn-
clusion that the till or unstratified boulder clay was a deposit
that had been laid down in water and formed from materials
which land ice had carried seawards, the ice extending over
the submerged tracts now covered by the boulder clay. This
seemed to be borne out by the large percentage of fine glacier

80

NATURE

[May 22, 1873

I
mud found in all the boulder clays, and which they thought

could not have been retained in thedeposit had it been formed
under a sheet of land ice above sea level, seeing that streams of
. muddy water continually issue from under all existing ice sheets.
The laminated brick clays they viewed as having been formed
by rewashings out of the boulder clay, and from the flow sea-
wards of the muddy water from under the melting ice-sheets
that bound the shores; the sea, however, being then com-
paratively free of ice. In nearly all the brick clays of the mari-
time districts they had found organisms, chiefly marine; but a
few indicated brackish and fresh water conditions. Only in one
or two instances had they found organisms in the boulder clay.

BERLIN

German Chemical Society, May 12.—President, A. W.
Hoffmann. C. Engler spoke on the simultaneous action o
ammonia and phosphoric anhydride on ketones, especially on
acetophenone, CsH,O. The results are two bodies, NC,,H,,
and a hydrocarbon. The former crystalline, and a weak base is
formed according to the formulz,

2C,H,O + NH, — 3U,0 = NC,,H,,
2NC,4H», + 30 = 2NC,,H,»

The hydrocarbon simultaneously formed is beautifully crystallised
triphenylated benzol, C,H, (CgsH;); = C,,H,,. The reaction
corresponds therefore to the formation of mesityline from
acetone. Phosphoric anhydride and aniline seem to transform
acetone into a base of the formula CH, (C = NC,H;) — CH,
a liquid boiling between 210° — 220°.—C. Rammelsberg has
investigated a so-called ozone-water, an article of trade, much
advertised and praised for its medical properties. He has found
no trace of ozone, but a small proportion of chlorine in it.
Pursuing his researches, he found water of ordinary temperatures
unable to absorb ozone without the application of pressure. The
ozone was produced by Siemen’s tube. Referring to a popular
error : he explains what is generally considered as the production
of ozone by mixing potassic permanganate with sulphuric acid, by
the unavoidable presence of potassicperchlorate.—C. Scheibler
referred to a gum, C,.H,,O,, (isomeric with arabine) which he
found in beetroot, and which is identical with metapectic acid.
It occurs in two modifications turning the plane of polarisation
to the right or to the lett. The latter is transformed by sulphu-
ric acid into ‘‘arabin sugar” identical with the sugar he ob-
tained by the same process from arabine. Both crystallise in
identical rhombic prisms, turn the plane of polarisation to the
right (2 = + 116), reduce solutions of copper, and do not
ferment.—N. Michaelis has made the interesting discovery that
aliquid phenylic phosphide is obtained by passing benzole and ter-
cloride of phosphorus through red hot tubes. It corresponds
to the formula, C,H;. P. Cl;, and boils at 222°.—A. Briickner,
comparing two various mononitrophenoles, has found erroneousthe
supposition that there are four bodies of this formula, which he
has reduced to three.—N. Baumgarten refutes the generally
adopted opinion that bromine replaces chlorine in chloric acid.
His experiments corroborate the doubt expressed by J. Thom-
son, and founded on his thermochemical researches.—C. Schor-
lemmer continued his valuable communications on hephylic acids
and alcohols, as derived from hepian and from cenenthol.—
V. Meyer recommends, for analysing commercial chloral, to
heat it with a certain quantity of potassa of known strength,
and to determine volumetrically the quantity of potassa that
remained uncombined with formic acid.

PaRIS

Academy of Sciences, May 12,—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
-dent, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—Cn the
portative force of magnets, by M. Jamin. The author thus de-
nominates the carrying power of magnets, He exhibited two :
an ordinary one weighing 6 and carrying 80 kilos, and one made
on his principle, weighing 600 grammes and carrying 500 kilos ;
the paper described their construction.—On the causes which
produce the tumefaction of obsidian at a high temperature, by
MM. Boussingauld and Damour.—New researches on aldol, by
M. Ad. Wurtz. The author thus names a condensed aldehyde
partaking of the properties of that body and of an alcohol,—
Hydrologic studies of the Seine, by M. Belgrand.—The Academy
then proceeded to elect a member of the physical section in
the place of the late M. Babinet. M. P. Desains obtained
32; M. Cornu, 13; M. Le Roux, 7; and MM. Bourget, Gau-
gain, and Lucas I vote each. M. Desains was therefore declared
duly ¢lected.—A report on MM. Troost and Hautefeuille’s

paper on isomeric and allotropic !transformations was then read,
and also one on a memoir on the proximate analysis of rocks,
&c., by M. Fouqué.—On the water supply of Versailles during
the first half of 1873, by M. E. Decaisne.—On the algebraic
representation of bright lines in space, by Mr. W. Spottiswoode.
—On the regulation of compasses, by M. Casparii—On an
electro-diapason of continuous,movement, by M. E. Mercadier.
—An answer to an observation of M. Raynaud on the conditions of
maximum resistance in galvanometefs, by M. Th. du Moncel.—
Observations on the notes of MM. du Moncel and Thenard on
the decomposition of carbonic anhydride by the silent electric
discharge, by M. G. Jean.—Observations on a paper by M.
du Moncel on the condensed induction spark, by M. Houzeau,
—On the action of sulphur on arsenic, by M. Angélis,—On the
action of gaseous hydochloric acid on the compound ammonias,
by M. Ch. Lauth.—On a modification of the optical sacchari-
meter, by M. Prazmowski.—On the action of the dissolved
oxygen of water on reducing agents, by MM, Schiitzenberger
and Risler.—A new classification of the fresh-water algz of the
genus Batrachospermum, by M. Siroclot—On spring and winter
frosts, by;M. Martha-Beker.

DIARY

" THURSDAY, May22
Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Miscellaneous Antiquities.
Royac InstiTuTion, at 3.—Light: Prof. Tyndall.

FRIDAY, May 23. _ | ee
Rovat InstiTuTION, at 9 —Spectra of Polarised Light : Mr. Spottiswoode,
GgoLucists’ AssociaTion.—Excursion to Eastbourne and St, ards.

SATURDAY, May 24.
Royat INsTITUTION, at 3.—The Historical Method: John Morley.
LINnNEAN SOCIETY, at 3.—Anniversary.

MONDAY, May 26.
GEOGRAPHICAL Socigty, at r.—Anniversary.

TUESDAY, May 27. |
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, at 9.—Conversazione.
Roya InsTiTuTION, at 3.—Archzology of Rome: J. H. Parker,

WEDNESDAY, May 28.

Society oF Arts, at 8, e

Grotocicau Society, at 8.—On the Glaciation of the Northern part of the
Lake District’: J. Clifton Ward.—Alluvial and Lacustrine Deposits and
Glacial Records of the Upper Indus Basin: Frederic Drew.—On the
Nature and probable Origin of the superficial Deposits in the Valle:
Deserts of Central Persia: W. T Blanford.—On the Cephalopo:
and the Oolite Sands of Dorset and part of Somerset : James Buc!

ARCHASOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, at 8.

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED,

EncuisH.—The Method of Quantitative Induction in Physical Science:
Dr. G. Hinrichs. —Two Essays diawn up for the Official Record of the Ex-

hibition held in Melbourne, 1872-3. 1. On Preserved Meats. 2. OnColonial —
Wines: Rev. J. I. Bleasdale, Melbourne.—Solar Radiation ; an Account of

the Experiments made at Harpenden, Herts, by the Rev. F. W. Stow, M.A.
—Report of the Entomological Society of Ontario, 1872.—The Geological
Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1871-2.—The Fourth Annual
Report of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts, January, 879—
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Pt. 1, No. 17, Vol x.
(Murray).—Local Biology : Rev. L. Blomfield (Bath).—Report of the Com-
mittee on the Treatment and Utilisation of Sewage, 1871 (Taylor and
Francis)

CONTENTS pres
Tue Future oF THE ENGLISH UNIverRsiTIESs. An Echo from Oxford. 61
Fricx’s PHYsIKALISCHE TECHNIK » » + + » © © +» ©» » 8 = «© 02
Our Book SHELF . 2.205 sss « s 6 0 6 s 0 sg meee

LETTERS TO THE EpIToR :--
Forbes and Tyndall.—Prof. T. H. Huxtey, F.R.S.. . . . . .
Forbes and Agassiz.—Prof.G, FoRBES . . . « « 6. . «
Perception and Instinct in the Lower Animals.—A. R, WALLACE,
The Origin of Volcanic Products.—Prof. T. Srgrry Hunt . .
Kinetic Theory of Gases.—J. GUTHRIE . . . . fara le Me
Kerguelen Cabbage.—J. R. Jones. « . e+ ss + et @
Yorkshire Terrier Story< 4s. . + = 0.0 s 9) cud) ouisiie

BicHroMaTE PuotoGRAPHs. By H. BADEN PRITCHARD « . + «+

On THE METHOD oF COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ENTOMOSTRACA

B LQISLSR LL

AND OTHER Microzoa. By G. S. Brapy (With Diagram) ._. .
On THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF INsECTS, IV. By Sir JoHN

Lussock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. (With [dlustrations.) . . + . « . 70
EXxTIRPATION BY COLLECTORS OF RARE PLANTS AND ANIMALS. By

Dr. G.Guitiver; F.RiSieete el ee. fe. 5
A FRENCH Puysicat Society. By M. Cornu. . . . 6 « + « « 93
Notes <1 )0 a> Oped aaa gee 2600 fe (0) alien! «ine
CoMPARISON OF THE SPECTRA OF THE LIMB AND THE CENTRE OF THE

Sun. By C.S. Hastines (With Illustration). . 1... « «+ 77
THE/INSTINGT. QUESTION Meets bof S~. “ej. 6. Mele Tl ne
Screntiric SERIALS (With Ldlustration) . . . 1 + «1 © © ss 79
SocreTIEs AND ACADEMIES «+ + + + + + ©» s @ ae yee |
PAMPHLETS RECRIVAD “Goss. + 6 + 8 6s re
Diary , . on <M!

and
Bed

i ia 1s ee

THURSDAY, MAY 29, 1873

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES”

OME was not built in a day, says the proverb,—
and so far, at least, the Zoological Station re-
sembles the Eternal City,—for it is not yet quite finished.
The difficulties have been sufficient to explain this delay.
The complexity of a building of this kind, which had to
combine so many technical arrangements with scientific
requirements without neglecting beauty of appearance and
the comfort of a dwelling-house for the principal, assis-
tant naturalists, and other officials, will easily be con-
ceived by those who have ever attempted to carry out
the plan of an establishment svi generis. Add to this,
that the dimensions of the building were limited before a
stone was laid, that the sums allotted for the construction
were by no means unlimited, that all had to be done in
so difficult a place as Naples, by a foreigner who never
had experience in practical pursuits of this intricate
nature, but is a naturalist, and not a business man.

At the same time, one must not believe that this
delay has been altogether a misfortune. Though the
Zoological Station had to pass through more than one
“crisis,” it has been particularly lucky: dangerous as
the aspect of all these critical situations seemed, never-
theless it has always escaped, and now finds itself
in better circumstances than it would have been with-
out them. This seems principally due to the fact

that in struggling against difficulties and enemies, one is

forced to strengthen and augment one’s auxiliary troops,

- and thus the army of supporters gets greater and greater,

and triumph is more easily secured than before.

As the outlay had been considerably increased in con-
sequence of greater dimensions, and some internal ar-
rangements, it became necessary to find additional funds.
I am happy to say, that on my application, the German
Empire, after having consulted the Berlin Academy
of Sciences, consented to contribute 1,500/. The
Italian Government likewise promised, on my personal
application to the Minister of Finances, Dr. Sella, to
remit the not unimportant sums that had to be paid as
duties on the importation of the machinery and the great
glasses.

On the other hand, I formed a new scheme for keeping
up the establishment. Some of the readers of NATURE
may remember, perhaps, that the whole place was founded
upon the income of the Aquarium, which is combined with
the Zoological Station. The bulk of the capital being
augmented, and the whole establishment in all its parts
increased, the sums necessary for supporting it likewise
must increase. Instead of ten places to be given to
foreign naturalists, who come to work in the Zoological
Station, there are now twenty. The number of officials,
scientific and unscientific, will increase at the same rate,
and everything else, too. Desirable as such an event
must be for science’ [sake, much as it would increase
the importance of the new Institution, there can be no
doubt that it would also greatly increase its annual
wants.

I pursued, therefore, as much as I could, the plan for
letting the tables in the laboratories,—a plan which has

No, 187—VOL, viit,

NATURE 81

been spoken of in NATURE (vol. vi. p. 362). I am happy
to say that at present Italy as well as Prussia has con-
sented to hire each two tables. Bavaria, too, is likely to
take one table, and further applications have been made
to Saxony, to Baden, and some other places, which at
present cannot be indicated, as negociations are still
impending.

The Library of the Station has made very important
progress. The Zoological Society of London has gene-
rously granted the complete set of their Proceedings ; the
British Association the complete set’of their Transactions.
Dr. Engelmann, the Leipzig publisher, has again made a
splendid gift of all that he has published since 1870 ; Viet
and Co., of Leipzig, have given the eight last volumes of
the Archiv fiir Anatomie und Physiologie : Friedlander,
of Berlin, has sent some of his most valuable books ;
and single naturalists constantly send in their publi-
cations. The Catalogue of th: whole Library will
soon appear, and be delivered to the scientific public
as Appendix to the Zeitschrift fiir wissensch:ftliche
Zoologie.

The Station has already made its presence felt in the
world of Zoology, by sending to Universities and Labo-
ratories collections of Mediterranean animals. What
makes this especially valuable is, that by the careful way
in which the required specimens have been prepared and
preserved, they are always capable of being dissected and
even studied in a histological way, which seldom is the case
with museum specimens. Thus the Universities of Mar-
burg, Géttingen, Munich, Strasburg, Jena, and others,
have received such collections as were asked for by the
Professors of Zoology; b2sides this, the zoologists that
passed during the last winter to Naples or Messina, have
been always assisted by the scientific staff of the Station.

We have also succeeded in sending animals alive to
distant places. Thus it has become very generally known
that a small parcel containing some specimens of Am-
phioxus has been received as a charged letter in the
Crystal Palace Aquarium; and I hear from Mr. Lloyd
that the small animals are still alive. We succeeded also
in sending some large crabs over by steamer.

It is my intention to develop as much as may be this de-
partment of the activity of the Station, and I take this
opportunity of stating that the Station will send Mediter-
ranean animals of every kind and in any state of pre-
paration to those who make application for them. The
charges will be as moderate as possible, always in accord-
ance with the self-supporting principle, so as to enable
every part of the establishment to provide for its owa
wants. ANTON DOHRN

Naples, May 8

GAUDIN’S “ WORLD OF ATOMS”

DL Architecture du Monde des Atomes, devoilant la

structure des composés chimiques et leur cristallogénie.

Par Marc-Antoine Gaudin. (Paris : Gauthier-Villars,
1873.)

T is now more than forty years since Ampére, in his

lectures at the Collége de France, was discussing

the evidence in favour of the existence of atoms, and the

difficulties of any scientific investigation of their properties

and relations. M. Gaudin, one of his hearers, was struck,

F

82

as he tells us, with the importance of this investigation,
and then and there devoted the efforts of his whole life
to carry it out. Accordingly, in 1832 he presented a very
extensive work to the Academy of Sciences, a report on
which, by MM, Gay-Lussac and Becquerel, is annexed to
the volume before us.

The ideas developed in this work were derived from
two sources—crystallography and chemistry. Haiiy had
endeavoured to explain the regularity of the forms of
crystals by regarding them as built up of molecules, the
form of each molecule being similar to that of the simplest
solid which can be obtained from the crystal by cleavage.
The absolute size of these integrant molecules, as they
were} called, was left, of course, indeterminate.

Wollaston preferred to regard the arrangement of the
ultimate molecules in a crystal as resulting, not from
their accurately fitting one another as bricks doin a
wall, but from their tendency to crowd together into the
smallest possible volume as peas doin a bag. The form of
the molecules, according to Wollaston, was not polygonal,
but spherical or ellipsoidal.

At this point Ampére took up the theory. His atoms
were no longer either closely fitted together, or even
touching one another at isolated points, but were main-
tained by attractive and repulsive forces at distances
exceedingly great compared with their own dimensions.
The forms of the atoms themselves were therefore no
longer considered as of any importance ; the molecules,
formed of groups of these atoms, were represented
in diagrams as systems of points; and the explanation of
the geometrical properties of the substance in the crys-
talline form was sought in the geometrical arrangement
of these atoms.

The proportions in which the atoms of different kinds
were to be represented in the molecules were determined
in accordance with the atomic theory of chemistry, esta-
blished by Dalton, and the absolute number of such
atoms in the molecule was arranged so as to satisfy the
law of gases, recently discovered by Gay Lussac, which
asserts that the mass of every gaseous molecule is pro-
portional to the specific gravity of the gas at the standard
pressure and temperature.

The theory of M. Gaudin may be regarded as founded
upon that of Ampére, with certain modifications. Instead
of assuming with Ampére, that when two molecules com-
bine, the form of the compound molecule is the resultant
of the forms of its components, he supposes that the atoms
of the combining molecules are all thrown into a common
stock, to be arranged, according to some principle of
equilibrium or of symmetry, in a form having no neces-
sary relation to the forms of the combining molecules.

In the work before us M. Gaudin gives us, as the
result of his long-continued meditation on compound mole-
cules, actual diagrams of their supposed forms, showing
not only their outward shape, but the arrangement of the
molecules in each of the layers in which they are dis-
posed. The ingenuity with which he has arranged in a
symmetrical manner groups sometimes amounting to
279 atoms must be seen in order to be appreciated. But
the merit of these arrangements as an explanation of
facts must be tested, first by a careful comparison of
those forms whose chemical relations are similar, and then
by a comparison of each diagram with the crystallo-

NATURE

| May 29, 1873

graphic properties of the substance which it is supposed
to represent. The author has, to the best of his ability,
applied both these tests, and we shall not here pro-
nounce sentence upon the result of such an examina-
tion.

We may remark, however, thatwM. Gaudin began his
labours forty years ago, using the methods of investiga-
tion which we have briefly described. Since that time
he has been patiently arranging his atoms by rows and
groups, and representing them in models by means of
pearls of various hues. He has shown no symptom of
being attracted towards any of those newer paths which
Joule, Clausius, and others have opened up into the
higher regions of kinetic molecular science. Indeed we
not only find no mention of the names of any of these
men, but we look in vain for any indication of a desire to
pass beyond mere geometrical arrangements of atoms,
and to inquire into the forces with which they act on
each other or the motions with which they are agitated.
There is a chapter, indeed, entitled “ Hémiédrie et pou-
voir rotatoire,” but though there is something about
hemihedry, there is nothing there at all about the power
of rotating the plane of polarisation of light. The only
piece of dynamics in the’ book is the theory of capillary
phenomena at p. 197, about which the less we say the
better.

M. Gaudin is favourably known to science as an adept
in the management of the blow-pipe. He has melted the
most refractory bodies, and compounded the oriental ruby
from its elements. He has not only established the
chemical formula of silica and modelled its molecule, but
he has fused quartz into beads, and drawn it into threads
like spun glass.

His experimental researches have displayed great in-
genuity and manipulative skill, but have often been
brought to an untimely end for want of funds to carry
them on. In his theoretical speculations he has been
guided by geometry alone, without the powerful if not
absolutely necessary aid of dynamics ; and in the great

work of his life he has met with very little encouragement,

and has been sustained only by his conviction of the
scientific value of the treasure of which he is in search.

OUR BOOK SHELF

A Manual of Photography. By George Dawson, M.A.
Eighth edition. (J. and A, Churchill.)

THE new edition of this excellent manual of photography,
which is founded on and incorporates as much of Hard-
wick’s “ Photographic Chemistry” as is valuable in the
present further advanced stage of the art, retains its
position as the best work on the subject for amateurs, as
well as professionals. The many new methods and
materials which are so frequently being introduced, make
it essential that any book professing to keep up to the
times must be frequently revised, and Dr. Dawson has in
this work presented the subject in its most advanced posi-
tion. The earlier chapters, after giving a short sketch of
the history of photography, enter into a description of the
most important experiments, the expansion of which make
up the subject itself. This is followed by a review of
the various lenses required for the many different purposes
to which photography is applied, and their peculiarities
are rendered more evident by the introduction of very
clear diagrams of them in section. After a full descrip-
tion of the various points connected with the wet-plate

as

Fe

3

x

May 29, 1873}

NATURE

83

collodion process, considerable space is devoted to the
more modern subject of dry-plate photography. The
many precautions necessary in the employment of the
collodio-bromide negative process, as introduced by
Messrs. Sayce and Bolton, and improved by Mr. Carey
Lea and Colonel Wortley, are fully entered into ; and the
very rapid method introduced by the latter gentleman, in
which the collodion is saturated with nitrate of silver, is
given with some very recent formule, The subject of
printing in pigments, so important in the present day,
which “ doubtless would become universal were the pro-
cesses unfettered by patents,” is fully described, with the
difficulties attending the “double transfer” of the gelatin
film. Following the details of photolithography, photo-
zincography is that of collotype printing, which has
become so prominent of late. A vocabulary of chemicals
ends this valuable and suggestive work, of which, from
want of space, we have had to omit the mention of many
points.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymcus
communications. }

Science at Cambridge

THERE are some points in two articles which have lately ap-
peared in your periodical upon which I should like to make a few
remarks. First, however, allow me to congratulate the author
upon having deprived the opponents of ‘*Science” of a time-
honoured monopoly. For a certain quiet insolence of conscious
superiority and an inability to see more than one side of a ques-
tion, his articles equal any diatribes that I have heard or read
from the most intolerant supporter of ‘‘ the old ecclesiasticism
and false culture.”

Let that pass, however, and let us proceed to examine one or
two statements in detail. ‘‘ Science is all but dead in England,
. . . perhaps deadest of all at our Universities.” Now on
reading the word science, one has always to ask what a writer
means, and the probability is that he means what is commonly
called natural science; our writer, however, kindly gives us a
definition—“ that searching after new knowledge which is its
own reward,”

Most certainly the more eminent among our Professors and
resident Fellows (and some of them are known even in Ger-
many) cannot be said to have followed learning for any other
reward ; or if so they have taken their pigs to a very poor
market. Ie will, perhaps, say that they have fellowships and
professorships. Yes, the aggregate value of which will vary
from probably six to nine hundred a year, coupled, in some
cases, with conditions which seriously diminish their value. Is
this so great a prize?

Again, we are represented as encouraging by prize fellow-
ships and “ that kind of liberal education which softens the cha-
racter and prevents it being strong.” I hardly know what the
writer means ; however, the following are the studies which we
do endeavour to encourage :—

(1.) Mathematics.—Does the writer seriously mean to apply
his remark to this study? If so, I can only say that to those
who can appreciate sound and unsound reasoning, there is a
marvellous difference between the work of (say) such a geologist
as the late Prof. Sedgwick, trained in the school of mathe-
matics, and not a few, whomit would be offensive to name, who
have never had that advantage.

(2.) Language.—Perhaps in comparison with looking at mites
in a microscope, or analysing some very rare but useless mineral,
the attempt to enter into communion with the thought of the
master-minds of our race in the past time is a contemptible
pursuit ; but though with a great regard for both the above
pursuits myself, and with no pretension to refined scholarship,
i cannot—and hope but few can—agree with this opinion.

(3.) The moral sciences.—If this is meant, I give the writer
over to the tender mercies of the philosopher, who, I think, will
be able to give an account of him: so also as regards legal
studies.

(4.) Natural Sciences.—These are encouraged in precisely the
same way as the others (in the case of most colleges), Is this
then culture which produces effeminacy ?

But perhaps the writer will say that only classics and mathe-
matics are encouraged. To this I reply that the other studies
are of recent growth in the University—I admit that they ought
to have taken root long ago—that however is not our critic’s
charge—he is dealing with the present—and I have no hesita-
tion in affirming that in all the important colleges the students of
natural science have just as good a chance of honour and rewards
as those of other branches of learning. The number of rewards
that have been given is small, because the number of really first-
class students has hitherto been small. The number of
students (and their quality) increases year by year. I have no
fear that as a rule they will meet with their deserts.

Or does the writer mean to say that our fault is teaching and
examining, that we ought to open laboratories (for notwith-
standing his definition, I think his science means only one thing)
and simply exercise a general superintendence over students ?
After an experience of some years I can only say that though I
do not worship either lectures or examinations (especially the
latter), with a blind ‘‘ idolatry,” I believe without them the
majority of young students are very apt to become slipshod and
slovenly in their work.

But the trumpet’s sound is so uncertain that I know not
exactly what the writer does mean, I have read over and over
again his dertinm guid (p. 41), in supporting which he confesses
he is with a select few—doubtless the salt of the earth—and I
stillam doubtful. They be very ‘‘ brave words”—but ‘to
make the University a place where anyone and everyone may
be trained for any and every respectable path of life,” is just
the aim of every change that has been made since I have known
the place. Our students—of subjects not classical—certainly
increase yearly, and I have not heard of any marked deportation
to the Elysian fields of either Manchester, London, Newcastle,
or Germany. Neither have I found that such ‘‘ master minds
of the age” as are within our walls (and I think, subject to the
writer’s approval there are some) inaccessible to students.

In conclusion I must state in self-defence that I am not usually
considered a conservative. I have done all that was in my
power to help the cause of University Reform, and especially
of Natural Science. But much as I delight in the latter I de-
cline to regard it as the only culture, the only training worthy of
respect. I trust to live to see yet greater changes. These how-
ever will not be obtained by vague declamations or reckless
accusations—such as ‘‘long years of misrule have left suckers of
jobbery, like bind-weed in an old garden, which come up re-
freshed with every stirring of the soil.” After twelve years of
active life in the University—and often failing to obtain what I
wanted—I unhesitatingly assert that there is no place where
there is so little jobbery, or where the motives that actuate men,
even if mistaken, are so generally pure as here. There are
jobs everywhere now and then, even in scientific societies or
coteries.

There are indeed difficulties in the way of reform, but the writer
of the articles, I venture to think, has not hit the nail on the
head. May I, before ending this long letter, in a few words
indicate one or two—1. The workers in the University should
govern it. At present a body called the Senate, ‘consisting
chiefly of non-residents, has the final decision of everything.
Throw all the power into the hands of the working bees, and we
will reform ourselves fast enough. 2, The waste of money in
non-resident fellowships. There are very few here who would
defend the present system, but we have no power to change it
ourselves. 3. The poverty of the Universities. To relieve this
we must have power given to colleges to alter their statutes, and
so long as the University is governed by the Senate, we in the
colleges do not care to put beyond ovr control funds which
might then even be applied to political or theological squabbles.
4. An improvement of the Professorial System—more teachers
and rather less routine work, with greater unity of action between
the former. Give us powers, and we will soon settle that. We
are bound, like the Jews, ‘‘ by a chain of ordinances,” and till
that is broken cannot help ourselves, T. G, BONNEY

St. John’s College, Cambridge

Arctic Exploration

THE news of Mr, Hall’s Arctic Exploration is important from
two points of view, and I shall be obliged if you will allow me
the space to point out the lessons to be derived from it, and the
way in which the new facts strengthen the arguments for Polar
exploration.

84

But first it is most important that the attempt of the Times to
injure the cause of Arctic discovery, in an article published last
Saturday (May 24), should be examined ; for if all the argu-
ments of the enemies of knowledge are summed up in that
article, they are weak indeed. Such asthey are, these arguments
are propped up by three incorrect statements which must, in the
first place, be knocked away. FFirst it is alleged that “men of
science cannot tell us what are the problems they hope to clear
up” by Arctic discovery. This assertion is disproved by the
documents published by the Zimes itself on December 16, in
which the objects of Arctic exploration are clearly and distinctly
enumerated. That this enumeration may be, and should be
made more exhaustive, you pointed out at the time, and
your suggestions have been adopted. But the objects are clear
enough, and have been clearly stated. Briefly they are the in-
vestigation of the geography, hydrography, geology, meteoro-
logy, fauna, flora, and ethnology of an unknown ‘area covering
several million square miles of the earth’s surface. Secondly, the
Times alleges that Arctic Explorers ‘made little of the dangers
of the proposed expedition.” This is a mistake. Arctic Ex-
plorers have done nothing of the kind. They are perfectly
aware of the extent and scope of the dangers, and how they can
be reduced to a minimum, and they have furnished the Govern-
ment with the results of their experience. Thirdly, it is asserted
by the Z#mes that geographers **confidently cited the pending
close of Mr, Hall’s Expedition as a conclusive fact to be argued
from.” This also is incorrect. Mr. Hall’s expedition was
simply mentioned in their address, without any comment, and
no argument whatever was derived from it ; for the very good
reason that its history was then unknown. Very strong argu-
ments, however, will now be based upon the facts stated by the
boat’s crew of the Polaris.

These erroneous statements being refuted, the whole argu-
ment in the Zimes article, falls to pieces. There remains a
highly-coloured version of the story told by the boats’ crew of
the Polaris, garnished with sensational sentences, of which the
following are examples :—‘‘ Death, t a hundred ghastly shapes,
dogs the shadow of this phantom ship”... “ Are we morally
justified in exposing human beings to the slow torture of a solitary
death by famine or by cold?” and the like ; the moral being, that
because the writer in the 7#es has imagined some fanciful night-
mare, therefore no Englishman is again to venture into the

ic Regions.

ae us 2 to the plain facts. The /o/aris is a vessel wholly
unsuited for ice navigation ; she was commanded by a landsman,
and her crew was undiscipl’ned and not under proper control.
Yet she passed safely through Baffin’s Bay and far up Smith
Sound, where at least two exploring parties made journeys to
the north ; she wintered, and was drifted out into Baffin’s Bay
last summer, where part of the crew deserted with all the boats.
But she had plenty of provisions, could easily winter in Whale
or Wolstenholme Sounds, where there are friendly Esquimaux,
could construct a boat if necessary, and a fleet of whalers will be
in the ‘‘ North Water,” ready to give assistance, this summer.
Obyiously the blame of any disasters that may have befallen her
cannot be imputed to the Arctic Regions. Under the circum-
stances, she would have been leaky, her crew would have been
mutinous, and she would have lost her boats in any other climate.
These events are due to the way in which the expedition was
organised, not to the temperature. re

An English Arctic Expedition, consisting of two vessels

adapted for ice navigation with a picked crew under naval

discipline, and commanded by an experienced seaman, will
run no such risks. One vessel, asa depdt, could be stationed
near the entrance of Smith Sound, while the other pressed to
the north; so that, in the improbable event of the advanced
ship being lost, her crew could retreat to the consort. The
dangers of Arctic exploration are involved in the travelling and
boat-work, and in exposure to frost-bites and over-fatigue.
They are not such as Englishmen may not freely and prudently
encounter in the cause of science and discovery. They are such
as our ancestors were eager and anxious to meet and overcome,
and as their descendants, in spite of the 7Zizzes, intend to en-
counter again and again. They apply to individuals, not to the
expedition as a body, and have been reduced toa minimum hy
modern science and experience. The climate is the healthiest in
the world, the scenery enchanting, the work most interesting
and fruitful. The Zimes alleges that former Arctic expeditions
have brought back nothing but ‘‘a few insignificant facts, and a
multitude of barren conjectures.” This is the exact reverse of

NATURE

[May 29, 1873

Di ee ———e—eeee eee

the truth. They have brought back a multitude of importan|

facts in all branches of science, and priceless collections, To
them is due the lucrative whale and seal-fisheries, great stores of
knowledge, the materials for such papers as that by Dr. Hooker
on the Arctic fora, and for many others of similar value.

The news brought by the boat's crewJof the Po/aris, ifat all
accurate, is veryimportant. It proves that even such a vessel as
the /olaris may advance up Smith Sound, in one season, to
82° 16’ N. Itisstated, also, that at, or near this point, the land,
both of Greenland and Grinnell Land, was still trending north-
ward. From such a point, an extended party, with depdt
parties, organised on McClintock’s principles of sledge
travelling, could reach the North Pole and return to the ship.
Another important fact is that the o/aris was beset in 80° 2’ N.
and drifted out into Baffin’s Bay. This shows that there is not -
a constant block of ice in the strait, but that the flces drift down
with the current, leaving, as a consequence, an occasional
navigable lane between the drifting ice and the land floe.
These facts are most satisfactory, and increase the prospect of
a successful exploration of the unknown region by way of Smith
Sound. I think that you have already announced the nomi-
nation of an Arctic Committee by the Council of the Royal
Society, to confer with the Committee of the Geographical
Society ; and we may fairly anticipate that when these bodies
again bring the subject to the attention-‘of Her Majesty's Govern-
ment this summer, the case, both as regards the important objects
to be attained by Arctic exploration, and the measures to be
adopted, will be materially strengthened,

London, May 27 CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM

Late of H.M.S. Assistance in the Arctic
Expedition of 1850 51.

Forbes and Tyndall

Pror. HUXLEY is ata loss “to discover any excuse for the
biographer” having published, at pp. 386-7 of the ‘‘ Life and
Letters of the late Principal Forbes,” a letter, with an extract
from which he heads his own letter in the last number of
Nature. For publishing that letter no excuse need be offered,
because a sufficient reason can be given.

The discussions regarding the glacier question, and the decision
of the Council of the Royal Society regarding the Copley Medal
in the autumn of 1859, are matters well known to all who take
interest in such subjects. Some further light has been thrown
upon the history of the latter transaction by the recent letter of
Prof. Huxley. Neitherinto the overt facts, nor into their secret
springs, was it my duty as a biographer to enter. But it was
my duty to record the impression made on Forbes’s mind by the
treatment he then received. This I did, not by ‘‘ deliberately
picking expressions out of a private letter,” as Prof. Huxley
phrases it, but by giving, without note or comment, nearly the
whole of a letter written by Forbes at the time to his friend Mr.
A. Wills.

Instead of objecting to the few lines on this subject which
have been allowed to appear, Prof. Huxley may rather appre-
ciate the reserve which has passed over so lightly a transaction in
which the late Principal Forbes felt that he was deeply wronged.
But it was the desire of the biographers to exclude, as much as
possible, all controversial matters, not from any doubt as to the
justice of Forbes’s claims asa glacier discoverer, but in order, as
far as might be, to avoid strife. If they have not succeeded in
doing so as completely as they wished, this has not been their
fault. When the book was almost through the Drees they found
themselves, by the appearance of Prof. Tyndall’s work on the
‘Forms of Water,” constrained to depart somewhat from their
original intention, and to include two statements which Forbes
had written on the subject of his glacier discovery, and which are
now to be found in Appendix A and Appendix B of his ‘* Life.”
These contain the gist of the whole question, as far as Forbes was
concerned. Neither the one nor the other has ever yet been refuted
inany point. If Prof. Huxley desires to justify the action of himself
and others who opposed Forbes in 1869—and to deal with the
question in the only way in which the world is at all concerned
with it—let him try to disprove the facts and refute the state-
ments contained in these two appendices. If he succeeds in
this attempt, he will have removed the grounds on which Forbes
rested his claims to be held as a glacier discoverer. ‘Till this
has been done, to discuss merely incidental personal allusions is
to miss the point, and to evade the main issue,

J. C. SHAIRP
Houston House, Linlithgowshire, May 26

|
‘
:

May 29, 1873]

NATURE 85

Clerk-Maxwell’'s Kinetic Theory of Gases

Your correspondent, Mr. Guthrie, has pointed out an, at first
sight, very obvious and very serious objection to my kinetic
theory of a vertical column of gas. According to that theory, a
vertical column of gas acted on by gravity would be in thermal
equilibrium if it were at a uniform temperature throughout, that
is to say, if the mean energy of the molecules were the same at
all heights. But if this were the case the molecules in their free
paths would be gaining energy if descending, and losing energy
if ascending. Hence, Mr. Guthrie argues, at any horizontal sec-
tion of the column a descending molecule would carry more
energy down with it than an ascending molecule would bring up,
and since as many molecules descend as ascend through the sec-
tion, there would on the whole be a transfer of energy, that is,
of heat, downwards ; and this would be the case unless the
energy were so distributed that a molecule in any part of its
course finds itself, on an average, among molecules of the same
energy as its own. An argument of the same kind, which occurred
to me in 1866, nearly upset my belief in calculation, and it was
some time before I discovered the weak point in it.

The argument assumes that, of the molecules which have
encounters in a given stratum, those projected upwards have the
same mean energy as those projected downwards. This, how-
ever, is not the case, for since the density is greater below than
above, a greater zumder of molecules come from below than from
above to strike those in the stratum, and thereforeagreater number
are projected from the stratum downwards than upwards. Hence
since the total momentum of the molecules temporarily occupying
the stratum remains zero (because, as a whole, it is at rest), the
smaller number of molecules projected upwards must have a
greater initial velocity than the larger number projected down-
wards. ‘This much we may gather from general reasoning. It
is not quite so easy, without calculation, to show that this differ-
ence betwen the molecules projected upwards and downwards
from the same stratum exactly counteracts the tendency to a
downward transmission of energy pointed out by Mr. Guthrie.
The difficulty lies chiefly in forming exact expressions for the
state of the molecules which instantaneously occupy a given stratum
in terms of their state when projected from the various strata in
which they had their last encounters. In my paper in the
Philosophical Transactions, for 1867, on the ‘‘ Dynamical Theory
of Gases,” I have entirely avoided these difficulties by expressing
everything in terms of what passes through the boundary of an
element, and what exists or takes place inside it. By this
method, which I have lately carefully verified and considerably
simplified, Mr. Guthrie’s argument is passed by without ever
becoming visible. It is well, however, that he has directed
attention to it, and challenged the defenders of the kinetic
theory to clear up their ideas of the result of those encounters
which take place in a given stratum. J. CLERK MAXWELL

Additional Remarks on Abiogenesis

SINCE my communication in NATuRE, March 20, a further
investigation of the subject has shown me that the experiments
there recorded do not yet fully prove the reality of abiogenesis.
My argumentation based on those experiments is liable to the
following objection :—

The Pepe experiment (water, potassium-nitrate, magné-
sium-sulphate, calcium-phosphate, glucose, and peptone) is
conducted in a zextrva/ solution. In the control-experiments
neutral ammonium-tartrate is used as nutritious substance for the
supposed germs. But this salt disassociates by boiling, loses
ammonia, and the reaction becomes acid. When, therefore,
Bacteria appear in the principal experiment and not in the con-
trol-experiments, this result can be explained by admitting that
the germs resist a temperature of 100° in a neutral liquid, but
are killed by the same temperature in an acid solution. This
explanation agrees very satisfactorily with the fact proved by
Pasteur, that an acid reaction is much more deleterious to living
germs than a neutral reaction at the same temperature.

This objection is very rational, but it does not throw over my
conclusion respecting the reality of abiogenesis, for the following
reasons :—

It is now obvious that in the control-experiments ammonium-
tartrate cannot be used, a nitrogenous body must be sought,
not too complex, that remains neutral by 100°. For this end
I have found urea to answer well. Pure urea is perfectly fit to
furnish nitrogen to the Bacteria, but not to furnish them their
carbon, Bacteria sown ina solution ofurea and mineral sa'ts do

not develop themselves, but when sugar is added their growth
goes forth rapidly. The following solution—roo c.c. water,
0°2 grms. potassium-nitrate, 0°2 grms, magnesium-sulphate, 004
gtms. calcium-phosphate, 1 grm. glucose, 0°5 grm. urea, is emi-
nently fit for the development of Bacteria. Also a solution that
contains, instead of the sugar and the urea, o°s grm. peptone.

These solutions were now used in the control-experiments.

For instance :

a. Principal experiment. 100 c.c. salt-solution,* 2 grms.
glucose, 0°3 grms. peptone boiled and treated in the ordinary
manner (See NATURE, vol. vii. p. 380). On the third day the
liquid contains countless swarms of Bacteria.

4, Control experiment. 100 c.c. salt solution, 1 grm. glu-
cose, 0'5 grm. urea, boiled exact. No Bacteria appear; on the
eighth day the liquid is perfectly clear.

¢. Control experiment. 100 c.c, salt solution, 05 grm. pep-
tone, boiled, &c. On the eighth day complete absence of
Bacteria.

In each of these experiments the reaction is neutral. They
are therefore fully comparable. The experiments 4 and c prove,
moreover, that the closing tiles exclude completely the atmo-
spheric germs, a fact that was also proved by direct experiments,
wherein the solutions 4 and ¢ were used and dust strewn on the
closing tile in the manner formerly described.

But is it not possible to generate Bacteria in a liquid which
has been boiled when acid?

To elucidate this point, the above-named solution a was ren-
dered acid (2-4 c.c. of a 1 per cent. solution to 100 c.c.) and
treated as usual. No Bacteria appeared, whether the liquid was,
after boiling, neutralised with soda or not.

But this negative result is easily conceivable ; for the acid alters
essentially the calcium-phosphate, changes CaHPO, into Ca,H,
P,Og. And that this alteration is not without influence, is rendered
probable by the fact, which I have recorded in the Maandblad
voor Natuurwetenshcappen, No. 7 (April 23, 1873), namely,
when in the principal experiment instead of CaHPO, is used a
mixture of Ca,P,O,, and Ca,H,P,Oy the result (the genesis of
Bacteria) is much less constant. The neutral calecium-phosphate
by boiling with water breaks up in the basic and the acid salt,
but this division must take place in the presence of sugar and
peptone.

On the other hand, the acid modifies the peptone. This is
easily demonstrated by comparing, in the polariscope, the rotating
power of a neutral peptone-solution with the power of the same
solution. After boiling with acid a notable difference is ob-
served.

The acid can, nevertheless, be employed with the following
modification :—In 100 c.c. water are dissolved 0°2 grm. potas-
sium-nitrate, 0°2 grm. magnesium-sulphate, and 2 grms. glu-
cose ; 2 c.c. of a 1 per cent. solution of tartaric acid are added,
so that the liquid has a strong acid reaction. It is then boiled
for ten minutes. Then with a red hot platinum spatule a little
soda is taken from a hot crucible and thrown in the flask. The
quantity of soda required is approximately ascertained by a pre-
liminary trial. Care should be taken not to render the liquid
alkaline. Then 0’05 grm. calcium phosphate and 0°3 grm.
peptone are added together, and the boiling continued for ten
minutes. The flask is closed as usual, and deposited in the
hatching-bath, Three days after, it swarms with Bacteria.

When, instead of calcium-phosphate and peptone, are added
0°05 grm. calcium-phosphate and 0°5 grm. urea, nothing ap-
pears ; and the result is equally negative when the following sc«
lution is taken :—100 c.c. water, 0'2 grm, potassium-nitrate,
o’2 (grm, magnesium-sulphate, o'05 grm. calcium-phosphate,
I grm. potassium-natrium-tartrate, 0°3 grm. peptone. In this
latter case no acid is used. The addition of the tartrate is made
to have a sufficient quantity of carbon in the liquid. These con-
trol experiments prove that none of the employed materials,
neither the glucose, nor the calcium-phosphate, nor the peptone
did introduce germs. ;

By these experiments the above-stated objection is, in my
opinion, satisfactorily refuted. ‘ ‘

In concluding these remarks, I must mention an important
fact. For the above-described experiments, I employed mostly
the ordinary glucose, an amorphous, yellowish white mass, not
chemically pure. By crystallisation from strong alcohol, I puri-
fied this sugar. In three different preparations I obtained thus
three samples of perfectly white more or less pure glucose, One

* Composed of 1 grm. potassium-nitrate, 1 grm magnesium sulphate, o°z
grm, neutral calcium-phosphate in 500 ¢.c, waters 7

86 NATURE

a,

of these samples yielded, with peptone, Bacteria; not so the
other two. All three were prepared with the utmost caution re-
specting atmospheric dust, &c. That, moreover, the positive
result could not be caused by an accidental admixture of germs
was amply proved by the often repeated control-experiments.
It appears, therefore, that, besides the glucose and the peptone,
a third substance is needed for generating Bacteria, a body pre-
sent in the ordinary glucose (starch-sugar), but removed by puri-
fication. The nature of this body I have not yet been able to
ascertain. But however important, this matter has no direct
bearing upon the question of abiogenesis. For that this third
unknown body cannot be (as some will probably presume) a
germ, my control-experiments and also the above-described ex-
periment, wherein the sugar was boiled with acid, do sufficiently
prove. D. Huizinca
Groningen, May 23

Flight of Birds

Some time since I had occasion to ascend a mountain in the
neighbourhood. The wind was blowing over the ridge-like
crest of the mountain with a velocity of, I should say, ten or
twelve miles an hour, sweeping with increased rapidity through
certain transverse gorges cutting the ridge at right angles, In
one of these I observed a hawk hovering in search of prey. In
the midst of this rapid air current the bird remained apparently
fixed in space, without fluttering a wing, for at least two
minutes. After a time it gently changed its position a few
feet with a slight motion of its wings, and then came to rest
again as before, remaining apparently as motionless as the rocks
around it. From my nearness to it a change of position of an
inch would have been clearly visible, and yet except when it
seemed to desire to change its point of observation no motion of
any kind could be detected. How is this to be accounted for?
Does a bird possess the power of giving an extremely rapid
tremulous motion to its wings invisible even at a small distance,
similar in its nature to the wing vibration of certain insects,
which, as any one may have noticed, have a similar power of
apparently fixing themselves in space over a flower, for example,
notwithstanding a condsiderable amount of motion in the air in
which they are suspended ? F

If any of your correspondents would kindly take the trouble
to throw some light on these points they would greatly oblige
one who is unfortunately placed out of reach of the ordinary
means of reference. J. GUTHRIE

Graaff Reinet, Cape Colony, April 2

THERMO-ELECTRICITY

ibs subject I have chosen is one intimately connected

with the names of at least two well-known members
of this University—the late Prof. Cumming and Sir
William Thomson. It possesses at present peculiar
interest for the physicist ; for, though a great many general
facts and laws connected with it are already experi-
mentally, or otherwise, secured to science—the pioneers
have done little more ‘than map the rough outlines of
some of themore prominent features of a comparatively new
and almost unexplored region. Some of its experimental
problems are extremely simple, others seem at present to
present all but insuperable difficulties. And it does not
appear that any further application of mathematical
analysis can be safely, or at least usefully, made until
some doubtful points are cleared up experimentally.

The grand idea of the conservation, or indestructibility,
of energy :—pointed out by Newton ina short Scholium
a couple of centuries ago, so far at least as the progress
of experimental science in his time enabled him to extend
his statements :—conclusively established for heat at the
very end of last century by Rumford and Davy; and
extended to all other forms of energy by the splendid
researches of Joule :—forms the groundwork of modern
physics. ) p

Just as, in the eye of the chemist, every chemical
ehange is merely a re-arrangement of indestructible and
unalterable matter; so to the physicist, every physical

* Abstract of the Rede Lecture delivered in the Senate House, Cambridge»
May 23, 1873.

| Way 29, 1873

change is merely a transformation of indestructible
energy ; and thus the whole aim of natural philosophy,
so far at least as we yet know, may be described as the
study of the possible transformations of energy, with their
conditions and limitations ; and of the present forms and
distribution of energy in the universe, with their past and
future.

It is found by experiment that some forms of energy
are more easily or more completély transformable than
others, and thus we speak of higher and lower forms,
and are introduced to the enormously important con-
sideration of the degradation, or, as it is more commonly
called, the dissipation, of energy. The application of
mathematical reasoning to the conservation of energy
presented no special difficulties which had not, to some
extent at least, been overcome in Newton’s time: but it
was altogether otherwise with the transformations of
energy. And itis possible that, had it not been for the
wonderfully original processes devised by Carnot in 1824,
we might not now have secured more than a small
fraction of the immense advances which science has
taken during the last thirty years.

For a transformation of heat we must have bodies of
different temperatures. Just as water has no “head”
unless raised above the sea-level, so heat cannot do work
except with the accompaniment of a transference from a
hotter to a colder body. Carnot showed that to reason
on this subject we must have cyc/es of operations, at the
end of which the working substance is restored exactly to
its initial state. And he also showed that the test of a
perfect engine (ze. the best which is, even theoretically,
attainable) is simply that it must be veverszble. Ty this
term we do not mean mere backing, as in the popular
use of the word, but something much higher—viz. that,
whereas, when working directly, the engine does work
during the letting down of heat from a hot to a cold
body ; when reversed, it shall spend the same amount of
work while pumping up the same quantity of heat from the
cold body to the hot one. Asareversible engine may be
constructed (theoretically at least) with any working sub-
stance whatever, and as all reversible engines working
under similar circumstances must be equivalent to one
another (since each is as good as an engine can be) it is
clear that the amount of work derivable from a given
amount of heat under given circumstances (z.¢, the amount
of transformation possible) can depend only upon the
temperatures of the hot and cold bodies employed. In
this sense we speak of Carnot’s Function of Temperature,
which is as imperishably connected with his name as is
the Dynamical Equivalent of Heat with that of Joule.

Building upon this work of Carnot, Sir W. Thomson gave
the first adso/uze definition of temperature—that is a defini-
tion independent of the properties of any particular
substance. Perhaps there is no term in the whole range of
science whose meaning is correctly known to so few even of
scientific men, as this common word temperature. It
would not, I think, be an exaggeration to say that there
are not six books yet published in which it is given with
even an approach to accuracy. The form in which the
definition ultimately came from the hands of Joule and
Thomson enables us to state as follows the laws of trans-
formation of energy from the heat form. “

1, A given quantity of heat has a definite transforma-
tion equivalent.

2. But only a fraction’of this heat can be transformed
by means even of a perfect engine: and this fraction is
DEFINED as the ratio of the range through which the heat
actually falls to that through which it might fall—were it
possible to obtain and employ bodies absolutely deprived
of heat.

This definition has two great advantages. 1st, The
utmost amount of work to be got from heat under any
circumstances of temperature is determined by precisely
the same law as that assigning the work to be had from

}

oy j be,
f

May 29, 1873]

water under similar circumstances of level. In this case the
sea-level corresponds to what is called the Absolute Zero
of temperature. [It is well to observe here that it is the
potential energy of the water, not the quantity of water
itself, which corresponds in this analogy to the quantity of
heat. In this simple remark we have all that is necessary
to correct Carnot’s reasoning in so far as it was rendered
erroneous by his assumption of the materiality (and con-
sequent indestructibility) of heat.] 2nd, Temperatures
thus defined correspond, as Thomson and Joule have
shown by elaborate experiments, very closely indeed with
those given by the air-thermometer—the absolute zero
being about 274° of the Centigrade scale below the freez-
ing point of water. I have made this digression as I
shall have frequently to use the word temperature, and I
shall always employ it in the sense just explained.

The subject of Thermo-electricity of course includes
all electric effects depending on heat, but in this lecture
I shall confine myself to the production by heat of cur-
rents in a circuit of two metals.

The transformation of heat into the energy of current

electricity was first observed by Seebeck in 1820 or 1821.
His paper on the subject (Berlin Ac., 1822-3, or Pogg. vi.)
is particularly interesting, as he gives the whole history
of his attempts to obtain a voltaic current from a circuit
of two metals without a liquid, and the steps by which he
was led to see that heat was the active agent in producing
the currents he eventually obtained. In this paper See-
beck gave the relative order of a great number of metals
and alloys in the so-called thermo-electric series, and
showed that several changes of order occurred among
them as the temperature was gradually raised.
+ In a note attached to this paper, Seebeck recognises
that in this further discovery he was anticipated by Cum-
ming (who seems, in fact, to have made an independent
discovery of Thermo-electricity). Cumming showed that
when wires of copper, gold, &c., were gradually heated
with iron, the deflection rose to a maximum, then fell off,
and was veversed at a red heat.

[Seeheck’s original experiment and Cumming’s extension of
it were exhibited. ]

You see that, keeping one of the copper-iron junctions
at the temperature of the room and gradually heating
the other, I produce a current which increases in in-
tensity more and more slowly till it reaches a maximum,
then falls off faster and faster till at last it vanishes and
thereafter sets in the ‘oposite direction. We are still far
below the melting point of copper, yet further heating up
to that point produces but little additional effect. The
reason of this will be apparent from some facts to be
described towards the end of the lecture. At the moment
of maximum current the two metals are thermo-electri-
cally Meutral to one another.—The temperature in the
present case is about 280°C.

Seebeck pointed out that bismuth and antimony (to
the choice of which he had been led by a very curious set
of arguments) were very far removed from one another in
the series, and therefore gave large effects for small dif-
ferences of temperature. This is still taken advantage of
in the Thermo-electric Pile, which, when combined with a
sufficiently delicate galvanometer, is even now by far the
most delicate thermometer we possess. It has recently
enabled astronomers to detect and measure the heat
which reaches us from the moon, and even from the
brighter fixed stars. In the skilful hands of Forbes and

- Melloni this instrument was the effective agent in demon-

strating the identity of thermal and luminous radiations—
a step which, as regards the simplification of science, is
as important as the discovery of magneto-electricity ; and
which was completed by Forbes when he succeeded in
polarising radiant heat.

But when we come to look at this question from the
point of view of transformation of energy, we have to ask

NATURE

be Ie

87

where is the absorption, and where the letting-down of
heat, to which the development of the current considered
as a rise of energy is due. Very remarkably, an experi-
ment of Peltier supplies us with at least part of the
answer. Peltier showed that, given a metallic junction
which when heated would give a current in a certain
direction, then provided a battery were interposed in that
circuit (initially at a uniform temperature) so as to senda
current in that direction, the passage of the current cooled
the junction, while a reversal of the current heated it.
This, considering the circumstances under which it was
made, and the deductions since drawn from it, is one
of the most extraordinary experimental discoveries ever
made. Water was frozen, in an experiment by Lenz, by
means of the Peltier effect.

Here then is a reversible heat effect, and to it we may
reasonably assume that the laws of thermodynamics may
be applied ; although from the very nature of the experi-
ment the reversible effect must always be accompa-
nied by non-reversible ones, such as dissipation by heat-
conduction, and by heat generated in consequence of the
resistance of the circuit. The latter of these is in general
smallin thermo-electric researches, but the former may
have large values.

It is known from the beautiful experiments of Magnus
that no thermo-electric current can be produced by un-
equal heating in a homogeneous circuit, whatever be the
variations of section—a negative result of the highest
importance. Sir W. Thomson, to whom we are indebted
for the first and the most complete application of thermo-
dynamics to our subject, showed that the existence of a
neutral point necessitates the existence of some other
reversible effect besides that of Peltier. And even if the
circuit varied in section, the result of Magnus, just referred
to, showed that this could only be of the nature of a
convection of heat by the current between portions of the
same metal at different temperatures. Thomson’s reason-
ing is of the very simplest character, as follows :—Sup-
pose the temperature of the hotter junction to be that of
the neutral point, there is no absorption or evolution of
heat there ; yet there is evolution of heat at the colder
junction, and (by resistance) throughout the whole circuit.
The energy which supplies this must be that of the heat
in one or both of the separate metals; but reasoning of
this kind, though it proves that there must be such an
effect, leaves to be decided by direct experiment what is
the nature and amount of this effect in each of the metals
separately. By an elaborate series of ingenious experi-
ments Thomson directly proved the existence of a current
convection of heat, and (curiously enough) of opposite
signs in the first two metals (iron and copper) which he
examined. In his own words, “ Vitreous Electricity carries

- heat with it in an unequally heated copper conductor, and

Resinous Electricity carries heat with it in an unequally
heated iron conductor.” This statement is not very easy to
follow. It may perhaps be more intelligible in the form :—-
In copper a current of positive electricity tends to
equalise the temperature of the point it is passing at any
instant with that of the point of the conductor which it
has just left, z.c., when it passes from cold to hot it tends
to cool the whole conductor ; when from hot to cold, to
heat it, thus behaving like a real liquid in an irregularly
heated tube. The effects in iron are the opposite ; and
Thomson therefore speaks of the specific heat of electricity
as being thus positive in copper and negative in iron.
He givesavery remarkable analogy from the motion of water
in an endless tube (with horizontal and vertical branches),
produced by differences of density, due to differences of
temperature. Here the maximum density of water plays
a prominent part. Neumann has recently attempted, by
means of the laws of motion of fluids, and the unequal
expansibility of different metals, to give a physical ex-
planation of thermo-electric currents. But, not to speak
of the fact that positive electricity is by him considered

88

NATURE

| May 29, 1873

as a real fluid, there are the fatal objections that his
method makes no provision for the explanation of the
Peltier, or of the Thomson, effect ; and therefore cannot
be looked upon as having any useful relation to the
subject. Similar remarks apply to the attempt of Aven-
arius to account for thermo-electric currents by the
variation with temperature of the electrostatic difference
of potentials at the points of contact of different
metals.

By employing the thermo-electric pile instead of the
thermometers used by. Thomson, Le Roux has lately
measured the amount of the specific heat of electricity
in various metals, and has shown that it is very small, or
altogether absent, in lead. Strangely enough, though he
has verified Thomson’s results, he does not wholly accept
the theoretical reasoning which led to their prediction
and discovery.

One of Thomson’s happiest suggestions connected with
this subject is the construction of what he calls a thermo-
electric diagram. In its earliest form this consisted
merely of parallel columns, each containing the names of
a number of metals arranged in their proper thermo-elec-
tric order for some particular temperature. Lines drawn
connecting the positions of the name of any one metal in
these successive columns indicate how it changes its place
among the other metals as the temperature is raised.
Thomson points out clearly what should be aimed at in
perfecting the diagram, but he left it merely as a pre-
liminary sketch. The importance of the idea, however,
is very great ; for, as we shall see, the diagram when
carefully constructed gives us not merely the relative
positions of the metals at various temperatures, with the
temperatures of their neutral points, but also gives graphic
representations of the specific heat of electricity in each
metal in terms of the temperature, the amount of the
Peltier effect, and the electromotive force (and its direc-
tion) fora circuit of any two metals with given tempera-
tures of the junctions. In short, the study of the whole
subject may be reduced to the careful drawing by experi-
ment of the thermo-electric diagram, and the verification
of Thomson’s thermo-dynamic theory will then be effected
by a direct determination either of Peltier effects or of
specific heat of electricity at various temperatures, and
their comparison with the corresponding indications of
the diagram.

The diagram is constructed so that abscissze represent
absolute temperatures, and the difference of the ordinates
of the lines for any two metals at a given temperature is
the electromotive force of a circuit of these metals, one of
the junctions being half a degree above, the other half a
degree below, the given temperature.

It will be seen by what follows that nothing but direct
measurement of the value of the specific heat of electricity
at various temperatures can give us the actual form of the
line representing any particular metal ; but if the line for
any one metal be assumed, those of all others follow from
it by the process of differences of ordinates just described.
So that it is well to begin by assuming the axis of abscissze
as the line for a particular metal (say lead, in consequence
of Le Roux’s result) ; and if, at any future time, this
should be found to require change, a complex shearing
motion of the diagram parallel to the axis of ordinates
will put all the lines simultaneously into their proper
form.

Thomson’s theoretical investigation may be put in a
very simple form as follows :—Let us suppose an arrange-
ment of two metallic wires, one end of each of which is
heated, their cold ends being united, and in which the
circuit can be closed by a sliding piece or ring, always so
placed as to join points of the two metals which are at the
same temperature 7. Let E be the electromotive force in
the circuit, II the Peltier effect, and o,, o, the specific
heats of electricity in the two metals. Then, if the sliding
piece be moved from points at temperature ¢ to others at

t+ 64, the first law of thermodynamics gives by inspec-
tion the equation pes.

sE=J (81 + o, - oy 82),
and the second law gives

o = 8(%) 4 te,

These equations show at once that, if there were no
electric convection of heat, or if ituvere of equal amount
in the two metals, the Peltier effect would always be pro-
portional to the absolute temperature ; and the electro-
motive force would be proportional to the difference of
temperatures of the junctions ; so that there could not be
a neutral point in any case. In fact, the lines in the
diagram for all metals would be parallel: and, on the

former of the two hypotheses, parallel to the axis of

abscissee.
Eliminating o,—c, between the equations, we have

oE=J 8

Now, by the construction of the diagram, is the

difference of the ordinates of the lines for the two metalS
at temperature 7 Hence, whatever be the form of the
lines for two metals, the Peltier effect at a junction at
temperature ¢ is always proportional to the area of the
rectangle whose base is the difference of the ordinates,

and whose opposite side is part of the axis of ordinates

corresponding to absolute zero of temperature. This area
becomes less and less as we approach the neutral point,
and changes sign (i.e., 7» ¢usned over) after we pass it ;
the current being supposed to go from the same one of
the two metals to the other in each case.

The electromotive force itself, being the integral of
aE
at
to the area intercepted between the lines of the two
metals, and ordinates drawn to correspond to the tempe-
ratures of the junctions respectively.

between the limits of temperature, is proportional

Again, the second of the preceding equations shows .

us that the difference of specific heats in the two metals
is proportional to the absolute temperature and to the
difference of the tangents of the inclinations of the lines
for the metals to the axis of abscissz. If we assume
this axis to be the line of a metal in which the electric
convection of heat is wholly absent, the measure of this
convection in any other metal is simply the product of
the absolute temperature into the tangent of inclination
of its line to the axis. ‘Thus, if the thermo-electric line
for a metal be straight, electric convection is in it always
proportional to the absolute temperature; and it is
positive or negative according as the line goes off to
infinity in the first or in the fourth quadrant. If the
lines for any two metals be straight, and if one junction
be kept at a constant temperature, the electromotive force
will be a parabolic function of the temperature of the
other juncticn—the vertex of the parabola being at the
temperature of the neutral point of the two metals, and
its axis beizg parallel to the axis of ordinates,

For the benefit of such of my audience as are not
familiar with mathematical terms, I may give an illus-
tration which is numerically exact. Let time stand for
temperature, years corresponding say to degrees. Let
the ordinate of one of the metals represent a man’s in-
come, that of the other his expenditure. The difference
of these ordinates represents the rate of increase of his
capital or accumulated savings, which here stands for
electromotive force. As long as income exceeds expen-
diture, the capital increases ; when income and expen-
diture are equal (¢.c.) at a “neutral point,” capital remains
stationary, indicating, in this case, a maximum value ; for
in succeding years expenditure exceeds income, and
capital is drawn upon, P, G, TaIt

(Lo be continued.)

May 29, 1873]

NATURE

89

ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
IX,

New let me state to you how the discovery

mentioned on p. 12 was finally established by
Kirchhoff. In my notice of the spectroscope in the
earlier articles, I had so much to say that there were
several details it was absolutely essential I should
curtail. One of these details was the scale by which the
positions of the different bright or dark lines which are

Fic. 50.—A sun-spot (Secchi), showing the ‘‘straws” in the penumbra, and
the irregular masses on the general surface.

seen in the different spectra are registered, so that we
may say that such a line occupies such and such a posi-
tion, and such another line occupies such another posi-
tion, with regard to something else. When Kirchhoff
and Bunsen, two German chemists, were engaged in
mapping the spectra of the elements—a research which
at its commencement had nothing whatever to do with
the sun—they came across this difficulty of a scale. How
could they get a good scale? I have already referred to
some very obvious arrangements that might determine
the actual position ; for instance, the observing telescope
may be made to move along a graduated arc, so that by
moving the telescope for the different rays and fixing it
when in a proper position to see a particular ray, you
might read off the index placed on the arc to a great
nicety by means of a graduated vernzer working on the

D3 >

Di De

Fic. 51.—Spectrum of sun-spot. (Young.)

curve of the arc; or you may, by a modification of the
instrument, use a reduced photographic picture of a scale,
so that the thing to be measured and the actual scale
would appear in the field of view at the same time.
Kirchhoff and Bunsen tried these methods, but they did
not like them. Then it suddenly struck them that, as
they made their experiments in the day-time, they might
use as a scale the black lines in the solar spectrum, which
had not been known to change since the time of Wollas-

ton, who discovered them. When working in the day-
time, they had thus the solar spectrum visible in one half
of the field of view of the telescope, which was easily
managed by placing a reflecting prism over one half of
the slit, as is shown in the enlarged slit in Fig. 46, so as
to light one half of the slit by the sun, and the other half
by whatever substance was under examination. With
this arrangement they set to work with infinite care, and
made a map of the solar spectrum. Such was their pro-

roth J

Fic.°52.—Spectrum of r Coronz. (Huggins.)

posal : first to map the unchangeable solar spectrum, and
then, having this unchangeable scale, about which there
could be no mistake, always visible, they would be able to
refer to the dark lines in it all the unknown phenomena
they were about to investigate in the bright lines of diffe-
rent vapours and gases. Having got this idea of the
scale well into their minds, they were exceedingly anxious
to test this question, which, as I have told you, was raised
by Fraunhofer and many other men before them, of the
asserted coincidence of the bright sodium line with the
dark solar sodium lines; with a very delicate instrument,
Prof. Kirchhoff made the following remarkable experi-
ment :—“ In order,” says Kirchhoff, for these are his own
words, “to test in the most direct manner possible the
frequently asserted fact of the coincidence of the sodium
lines with the lines D”—(that is to say, of the bright
double lines of sodium in the yellow part of the spectrum,
with the double line D of the solar spectrum)—“I ob-
tained a tolerably bright solar spectrum, and brought a
flame coloured by sodium vapour in front of the slit. I
then saw the dark lines D change into bright ones.”
That is to say, in the spectrum of the sodium which was
burning in the flame were lines so exactly coincident with
the two dark lines in the solar spectrum, that the bright
lines of the sodium spectrum put these dark lines out al-
together, so that they seemed to vanish, as it were, from
the solar spectrum. He goes on :—“ In order to find out
the extent to which the intensity of the solar spectrum
could be reduced without impairing the distinctness of
the sodium lines, I allowed the full sunlight to shine

Fic. 53.—Alteration of wave-length of the hydrogen in the atmosphere of
Sirius. 1, Hydrogen at atmospheric pressure ; 2, Solar Spectrum Line
F ; 3, Spectrum of Sirius ; 4, Hydrogen in vacuum tube,

through the sodium flame.” Here he varies the experi-

ment. In the first instance he used a very feeble beam

of sunlight, but he now allows the whole glare of the sun
to enter the slit. What was the result ? “ To my astonish-
ment, I saw that the dark lines D appeared with an ex-
traordinary degree of clearness.” That is to say, the
lines which came from the sodium in the first instance,
were sufficiently bright to entirely eradicate the dark lines
from the solar spectrum, but the two lines D were now

90

so utterly powerless compared with the light of the sun,
that they actually appeared as black lines, and coinciden
with the two lines D in the solar spectrum. :
We have seen that the bright line due to the radiation
from sodium vapour can be very easily obtained by
placing some sodium in a colourless gas flame, but if we
now pass the continuous light coming from the carbon
points of an electric light, or from the oxyhydrogen lime-
light, through this same sodium flame, the result will be
that we obtain a black absorption line on a continuous
spectrum, in precisely the same position as the yellow
line was originally. This is Kirchhofi’s crucial experi-
ment, which at once determined not only that the dark
line in the sun was absolutely coincident with the bright
line of sodium vapour, but that, under certain conditions,
bright, incandescent sodium vapour could actually be
made to absorb the light coming through it, and reverse
its own spectrum. Kirchhoff goes on;—‘‘I then ex-
changed the sunlight for the Drummond or oxyhydrogen
lime-light, which, like that of all incandescent solid and
liquid bodies, gives a spectrum containing no dark lines.”
When this light was allowed to fall through a suitable
flame, coloured by common salt (or chloride of sodium),
dark lines were seen in the spectrum in the position of
the sodium lines.” You may imagine that this conclusive
experiment—perhaps the most wonderful experiment that
has been made during the century—gave Kirchhoff food
for thought, and at once his genius travelled toa possible
explanation of this strange fact he had observed ; a fact,
as you know, entirely in accordance with the previsions
of Prof. Stokes, Dr. Balfour Stewart, and Foucalt.
Kirchhoff said to himself, “I have now got the bright
lines in the spectrum of the vapour of sodium coin-
cident with the two dark lines in the solar spectrum,
What does it mean?” And again the philosopher was
not at fault. He said to himself—it is almost possible te
see the train of his reasoning in his memoirs—“ Sodium
has a most simple spectrum ; suppose I take the most
complicated spectrum I can find.” He took for this pur-
pose the spectrum of iron, which I think you will acknow-
ledge to be one of sufficient complication, for the
spectrum is traversed by lines throughout its whole
length, and I may tell you at once that no less than 460
lines have been already mapped, and their positions are
now thoroughly well known to us—as well known as the
position of any star in the heavens. Kirchhoff tried the
iron spectrum, and he found, absolutely corresponding in
position in the spectrum and in width and darkness to the
bright iron lines which he saw, black lines in the solar
spectrum. He waited no longer ; he instantly convinced
himself, and soon convinced the world, that he had dis-
covered this very remarkable fact, that gases and vapours
have the power of absorbing those very rays which they
themselves give out when in a state of incandescence.
So that, if you take sodium, and get its bright lines, and
mark their positions on the screen, and then observe a
continuous spectrum, and interpose sodium vapour in the
path of the beam, you will find black lines absolutely. cor-
responding with the bright ones ; that is to say, that the
sodium vapour has the faculty of entirely eating up,
absorbing, or stopping that light which would otherwise
go onto the screen. In the case of iron, it is worthy of
notice that when Kirchhoff made his discovery, he was
only able to obtain a spectrum of iron consisting of some-
thing like go lines, but since then the spectrum of iron
has been mapped to the extent of 460 lines, and sure
enough there are solar lines corresponding to nearly all
the 460 bright lines which we are able to get in our labo-
ratories. Not only was the bright line of sodium reversed
or changed into a dark one, but it was soon found that
the lines of other metals, such as lithium, potassium,
strontium, calcium, and barium, could be reversed in a
similar manner. This grand discovery of Kirchhoff’s
met with immediate acceptance, and with it you sce at

NATURE

[May 29, 1873 —

once the explanation of the wonderful black lines disco-
vered by Wollaston, about which I said something in my
first lecture, The riddle of the sun was read to a certain
extent, and Kirchhoff read it in this way. He said :—
“There is a solid or a liquid something in the sun,
giving a continuous spectrum, and around this there are
vapours of sodium, of iron, of calcium, of chromium, of
barium, of magnesium, of nickel, of copper, of cobalt, and
aluminium ; all those are existing in an atmosphere, and
are stopping out the sun’s light. If the sun were not
there, and if these things were observed in an incan-
descent state, we should get exactly these bright lines
from them.” Later researches by many distinguished
physicists have shown that the following terrestrial
elements are present in the vaporous condition round the
sun :— :

1. Sodium, 6, Chromium, 11. Cobalt.

2, Calcium, 4. Nickel. 12, Hydrogen.
3. Barium, 8. Copper. 13. Manganese.
4. Magnesium, 9, Zine, 14, Aluminium,
5. Iron, to, Cadmium, 15. Titanium,

Kirchhoff further imagined that he had reason to
believe that the visible sun, the sun which we see—and
we may take the sun as an example of every star in the
heavens—was liquid.

In the sun we have, first, a bright, shining orb, dimmed
to a certain degree at the edge; and here and there, over
the sun, we see what are called spots. Kirchhoff wished,
not only to connect his discoveries with the solar atmo-
sphere, but was anxious to connect them with this
dimming near the limb and the spots. He said that the
solar atmosphere, to which all the absorption lines were
due, extended far outside the sun, and formed the corona;
and that this dimming of the limb was really due to the
greater absorption of this atmosphere, owing, of course,
to the light of the sun travelling through a much greater
length at the limb than at the centre of the disc. Further-
more, he said that the sun-spots, which astronomers, from
the time of Wilson, had asserted to be cavities, were
nothing but clouds floating in this atmosphere of vapour.
Such was the very bold hypothesis put forward by Kirchhoff
—an hypothesis which you see at once explains these
strange observations from Wollaston upwards, includin:
Fraunhofer’s observation of the spectrum of the sun an
stars, and the brilliant ideas. of Prof. Stokes, Dr. Balfour
Stewart, and others in other lands. A little simple ex-
periment, made by means of a little sodium vapour and a
beam of sunlight, with the powerful aid of a little prism,
gave us this tremendous knowledge about distant worlds
so immeasurably remote that it seemed absurd for men to
try and grapple with any of the difficulties that are pre-
sented to us. Such, then, is Kirchhoff’s theory of the
sun, which I hope I have been able to make clear to you.
There is a something—Kirchhoff said it was a liquid—
which gives us a continuous spectrum, and between our
eye and that incandescent liquid surface there is an
enormous atmosphere, built up of vapours of sodium,
iron, and so on; and the reason that we get these dark
lines is, that the molecules of the substances named
absorb certain rays, because when they are in an incan-
descent state they produce them. ‘Bhis brilliant idea of
Kirchhoff's was soon carried, as you know, to the stars by
Mr. Huggins in our own country. In Fig. 34 will be seen
the spectra of two stars, Aldebaran and a Orionis (Betel-
geux), which are so distant that it is absolutely impossible
to measure their distance from us. We know a great deal
about our own sun, but these suns are so lost in the
depths of space that it is quite impossible that we can get
anything like a correct knowledge of their size, or know
much of their belongings. By means of the prism, how-
ever, we learn in a momenta great deal. In the first star
we get three lines, due to the absorption of magnesium
vapour, as we get them in the sun. We know, therefore,
that magnesium vapour is present in the atmosphere

na '
+ $e a!

7

May 29, 1873]

NATURE

9g!

around that sun (Aldebaran) in exactly the same way as

_ round our own. We also get some of the iron lines, the

lines of sodium, and the lines of hydrogen, calcium, and
a few other elements—nine in all. At the basejof the
diagram you see indications of the elements, with the
bright lines of which Mr. Huggins has compared the
black lines which you see in the spectrum of these
heavenly bodies. By means of the star spectroscope and
of the induction coil, Mr. Huggins tested these lines, as
Kirchhoff did in the case of the sun, by actually getting
the vapour of magnesium visible at the same time in the
spectroscope: and thus you see in a moment that there
is no difficulty at all in determining their coincidence,
you have the two things brought so closely side
by side. If I had time I might remark on the
presence of some elements here and the absence of
others ; but there is one remarkable fact about this lower
star (a Orionis) which I must mention. As far as its
spectrum goes, it appears that the gas hydrogen, which
is a very important element in our sun’s atmosphere, as
we gather from the great distinctness of the hydrogen
lines in the solar spectrum—and not only in our sun, but
in a great many others—is absolutely absent, whilst mag-
nesium, sodium, calcium, &c., are present.

So far, then, you see that this little prism has enabled
us to read a great many secrets of the sun and of the
more distant stars; and we must acknowledge that
Stokes’ and Kirchhoff’s hypothesis is a very magnificent
one, and we can but wish that there were more men like
them, who, undismayed by the failure of those who, for
nearly a century before their time. had been endeavouring
to unravel these secrets, were still prepared to go on, and
endeavour to find them out by means of a prism and a
simple sodium flame.

Now, astronomers—who, as I told you, from the time
of Wilson had imagined that the sunspots were cavities—
very soon began to quarrel with this hypothesis of Kirch-
hoff’s, who said that the sunspots, instead of being
cavities, were really clouds floating in the atmosphere.
They remarked, and I think with truth, that to make
such an assertion was altogether opposed to the evidence
of the telescope. And I think I may say that the as-
tronomers have now carried the day, for another line of
independent research altogether—I mean the researches
into the constitution of the sun by means of the spectro-
scope—has come to the aid of the astronomers, and it
looks very much as if we must still hold to the opinion
that Wilson in his observations, now more than a century
old, was perfectly right, and that Kirchhof’s analysis, as
far as it deals with the sun-spots, is susceptible of im-
provement. In the remarks I made in my former lecture
on radiation in connection with the red prominences
visible during eclipses, I drew your attention particularly
to the hydrogen lines, and told you that the red flames
are, for the most part, composed of hydrogen. There the
prism comes to our aid in a very remarkable way indeed.
It is clear to you, I think, after what I have said about
absorption, that the darkening of the sun’s surface, which
we call a spot, is really a thing about which the prism can
tell us a great deal. For instance, take a sun-spot, in
which the usual brilliancy of the sun inthe other parts of
its disc is altogether wanting. There is not only great
darkness here and there, but wonderful turnings and
twistings and bendings of this solar envelope, which I
have already told you Kirchhoff asserts to be a liquid
one, but which I think a little consideration of Fig. 50
will show you is more probably gaseous, or cloudy, than
liquid. It is obvious, I say, in this case that there was a
great probability of the spectroscope being able to tell us
something about this absence of light, for an absence of
light means one of two things ; it means either that there
was a defect in radiation, or that there was some excess
of absorption, and I miay say that this difference—which
I hope you now all thoroughly understand—really formed

the battle-ground between the English and French as-
tronomers until a few years ago. Long after Kirchhoft’s
experiment, M. Faye, a distinguished member of the In-
stitute of France, went all over the work again, and de-
clared that the sun-spot was dark, because we there got
the light, not from the brightly shining envelope, but from
some feebly radiating gas inside the sun; that the sun
was a gigantic bubble, the bubble being nothing else than
the photosphere—the liquid sphere of Kirchhoff—the
interior being composed of gas, glowing at such an
enormous temperature that the light we got from it was
extremely feeble. You will see in a moment that, if the
sun-spot were really due to the radiation from gas, we
should get from that sun-spot a selective spectrum, that is
to say,a spectrum with bright lines. The English as-
tronomers said: “No; a sun-spot is not due to de-
fective radiation at all ; there is something over the bright
portion of the sun which eats away the light :” whether
the light'was eaten away generally—whether, in fact, we
had an instance of general or selective absorption—was
not stated, but what they did distinctly state was, that the
sun-spot was simply an indication of absorption. So
that, you see, here was a thing which a spectroscope
might settle almost at once, provided always that a good
sunspot could be obtained for the experiment. This was
done in 1866. Fig. 51 gives an idea of what is seen when
we observe a small sunspot, and it is one which is full of
meaning. Here is a very clear image of the solar spec-
trum near the double line D, and also the double D itself,
If it were possible to have given you the whole of the
sun’s spectrum on the same scale as this, it would require
an engraving yards in length, but it would be almost
impossible to make my meaning clearer than I hope I
can do by this small portion ; and~I must therefore ask
you to take for granted that the dark line which you see
running along this yellow portion of the spectrum would
really run along the whole length of the spectrum, from
the extreme red to the extreme violet. This, then, you
see in a moment, was an indication of general absorption;
that is to say, in the way in which the light is affected by
its passage through the prism, we have the problem
settled in an instant, that a sunspot is due to general
absorption at all events. Further, in observing the
spectra of different sunspots, it was found that the spec-
trum of the middle of the sunspot is much darker than
the outside. So that you see this simple experiment tells
us not only that the sunspot is due to general absorption,
but that there is more general absorption in the middle of
the spot than at its edge. This is the way in which this
little prism is able to deal with these great problems.
J. NORMAN LOCKYER

(Zo be continued.)

MIND IN THE LOWER ANIMALS

RECENTLY received a letter from Mons. J. C.

Houzeau, the author of the “ ctudes sur les Facultés
Mentales des Animaux comparées a celles de Homme,”
published at Mons, Belgium, in 1872, and reviewed by
Mr. Wallace in NATURE of October 10, 1872. The latter
eminent writer asserts that M. Houzeau’s work “ contains
a mass of curious facts, acute observations, and sound
reasoning, which fully entitle its author to take high
rank among philosophical naturalists” (p. 471). I quite
agree with him in his estimate of M. Houzeau’s labours,
being disposed to place his two volumes of “Etudes” on
a par with the works of Mr. Darwin; and with another
work, which, while little, if at all, known in this country,
deserves, nevertheless, the highest consideration at the
hands of all interested in comparative psychology—the
“Traité de la Folie des Animaux de ses Rapports avec
celle de ’!Homme,” by Dr, Pierquin, published in Paris
(in 2 vols.), so long ago as 1839, -

92

I need not say that any suggestions coming from an
observer of such experience as M. Houzeau deserve the
attention of the now many earnest students of the subject
of “ Mind in the Lower Animals ;” and I therefore make
no apology for bringing under the notice of your readers
certain remarks contained in the letter aforesaid.

In the first place, M. Houzeau begs to direct attention
to “the high importance of sparing—at least for observa-
tion—what remains of anthropoid animals in Asia and
Africa. It is my deep regret that there are none in the
country where I live” (Jamaica) ; “and that I am thereby
deprived of an opportunity to study them. They should
be tamed, domesticated, and studied in their own climate—
athome. The gorilla, for instance, should be perpetuated
in Guinea in domesticity. As I stated in my book, it
does not appear impossible that apes might Icarn to talk.
Should the attempt succeed even partially, what would
not be the bearing and importance of it physiologically
and historically? Could not some means of study be
devised in the English colonies? To save the Anthro-
poids from destruction, and to promote the study of
their mental capacity, is worthy surely.of the earnest
exertions of naturalists.” ‘ Wey

I quite concur with him as to the desirability of edu-
cating by domestication—so far as possible, and studying
the results of such education in the anthropoid apes, and
indeed the whole group of the Quadrumana. We know
what has been the result in the dog of centuries of asso-
ciation with, and training by, man ; though even in that
familiar animal we do not yet know the extent of his
capabilities, because training in certain directions has
scarcely been attempted. Man has, for his own ends,
directed special attention and effort to the development,
in the dog, of his power of scent, swiftness, vision, courage,
watchfulness, and other qualities that render him useful in
the chase, as a watch-animal, as a companion, and so
forth. But no similar persistent efforts have been made
to cultivate, for instance, his moral sense—to produce
an animal good in a moral point of view—honest, affec-
tionate, benevolent, conscientious, in the highest degree.
And yet that it is quite as possible to produce or educe
moral greatness or goodness as physicalswiftness or muscu-
lar strength, I am firmly persuaded. Notwithstanding all
that has been said of the superior intelligence of the dog,
horse, elephant, ant, and bee, I believe that were as much
care bestowed on the training of the moral qualities of
many monkeys or apes as is given to the instruction of the
pointer or setter, the homing pigeon, piping bullfinch,
or talking parrot, or to the training of the race-horse, re-
sults of a startling kind would be attained, or would be
shown to be attainable. There are certain respects in
which apes and monkeys approach more closely to man
than do the dog or the other animals just mentioned :
they possess potentialities or capabilities of which some
of the almost marvellous stories told us by reputable
traveller-naturalists give us but a glimpse.

I cannot, however, discuss that or other subjects in
comparative psychology here, hoping, as I do, to have
fuller and more fitting opportunity in a forthcoming
volume of the “International Scientific Series ” of Messrs.
H. S. King and Co.

M. Houzeau expresses surprise that, at the present day,
the belief should be almost universal that, while all
races and conditions of man have souls, the best of other
animals have none. This is obviously a matter of pure
speculation, which I must not now discuss. ButI may
direct the attention of your readers to a curious book pub-
lished in Aberdeen in 1824, by Peter Buchan, entitled,
“Scriptural and Philosophical Arguments or Cogent
Proofs from Reason and Revelation that Brutes have Souls,
and that their Souls are Immortal.” The workin question
is, however, now so rare, that it may be difficult to obtain
even a perusal of it. The reader of German literature
may also refer to a book on the same subject by

NATURE

[May 20, 1873

Schmarda, to which my attention was called some time
ago by the late Professor Day, of St. Andrews.

M. Houzeau animadverts on the anomaly that the
persons, from whom we should expect the most valuable
evidence regarding the mental acquirements or capacities
of the lower animals—those who are habitually and in-
timately associated with them—drovers and drivers,
horsemen and huntsmen, shepherds and _ sportsmen,
jockeys and grooms, butchers, and even veterinarians, are
those, on the contrary, in whom we too frequently meet
with the strangest ignorance or prejudice. They would
seem to be, as a rule, incapable of honestly observing and
of making logical inferences from facts observed ; instead
of using their own eyes and reason, they permit themselves ©
to be blinded and befooled by obsolete tradition or fable.

Notwithstanding the perfectly overwhelming bulk and
variety of the literature of comparative psychology—or at
least of the data on which it may be founded, there are
many points in the mental history of the lower animals
that require and admit of elucidation by observation and
experiment. If any person of ordinary intelligence—
either abroad or at home—feels inclined to plead, as an
excuse from contributing to the progress of comparative
psychology, the want of proper opportunity, I would
commend to his consideration the example of M. Houzeau
as a noble one of the successful “pursuit of knowledge
under difficulties.” He modestly describes himself as a
traveller-naturalist ; and in the letter above referred to
thus refers to the circumstances under which he collected
the materials for the two bulky volumes of Etudes, that
constitute one of the most important contributions yet
made to the science of comparative psychology. “It
was rather occasionally that my attention was called to
the subject of the ‘Mental faculties of animals,’ having
been almost exclusively engaged, previous to my sojourn
in America, in astronomical and geographical pursuits.
Still the subject was pressed upon me when, in the wil-
dernesses of Texas and Northern Mexico, I had to live
in the open air, in the constant company of domestic
animals and in close proximity to wild ones ; far away,” as
he says, “from the European field of labour and even
from intellectual resources,” in a foreign wild land, without
the means of literary or scientific reference. Under cir-
cumstances, in a word, most unfavourable to such a publi-
cation, he has nevertheless produced a work that would
do honour to any of our own savazs, with all the appliances

-of our large cities, large societies, and large libraries at

their command. W. LAUDER LINDSAY

NOTES
FREE admission to the lectures and courses of practical in-
struction in Chemistry, Physics, Mechanics, and Biology at
South Kensington will be granted to a limited number of Teachers
and Students of Science Classes under the Science and Art De-
partment, who intend to become Science Teachers, The selected
candidates will also receive a travelling allowance, and a main-
tenance allowance of 1/, Is. per week, while required to be pre-
sent in London. The course in Chemistry will commence in
October, and end in the following June. The course in Biology
will commence in October and close in February or March.
The course in Physics will commence about February and close
in June. The course in Mechanics will probably commence
about February and close in June. Students are required to
attend from 9 or 10 A.M, to 4. or 5 P.M. daily, in addition to the
time required in the evening for writing up their notes, &c.
Candidates for these Studentships must send in their applica-
tions on Science Form No. 400, copies of which may be
obtained on application to the Secretary of the Science and Art
Department. For the courses in Biology and in Mechanics some
power of drawing is essential, and no candidate will be ad-
mitted who cannot show that he has acquired sufficient power.

7
’
7

4

i
|
:
:

1873]

_ THE following courses of instruction of Science Teachers in
connection with the Science and Art Department will probably
be organised this summer :—1. Chemistry, Inorganic, 2. Che-
mistry, Organic, 4 weeks, commencing July 1, Prof. Frankland,
F.R.S. 3. Magnetism and Electricity, 3 weeks, commencing
June 24, Prof. Guthrie, F.R.S. 4. Heat and Light, 3 weeks,
commencing July 17, Prof. Guthrie, F.R.S. 5. Botany, 4 weeks,
commencing June 24, Prof. Thiselton Dyer. 6. Mechanics,
4 weeks, commencing June 25, Prof. Goodeve. 7. Geometrical
Drawing, 3 weeks, commencing June 26, Prof. Bradley. Before
definite arrangements can be made, however, it is necessary to
know how many Teachers can and will take advantage of the
courses ; and therefore all Teachers who wish to attend are
required to fill up and return a form (Science Form, No. 500),
which may be obtained by application to South Kensington. If
more Teachers apply to attend than can be accommodated at
any course, those will be selected who have passed the highest
examinations—in which the result of the present May Examina-
tion will be counted—and have had the most successful classes.
The Teachers who are selected, and who attend one or more of
the courses, will receive 2nd class{railway fare and 30s. a week
while in London.

In connection with St. John’s College, Cambridge, there will
be offered for competition, in December 1873, an Exhibition of
50/. per annum for proficiency in Natural Science, the Exhibition
to be tenable for three years in case the Exhibitioner have passed
within two years the previous examination as required for can-
didates for honours ; otherwise the Exhibition to cease at the
end of two years. Candidates will have a special examination
in (1) Chemistry, including practical work in the laboratory ; (2)
Physics (viz., Electricity, Heat, Light) ; (3) Physiology. They will
also have the opportunity of being examined in one or more of
the following subjects:—(4) Geology ; (5) Anatomy; (6)
Botany ; provided that they give notice of the subjects in which
they wish to be examined four weeks prior to the examination,
No candidate will be examined in more than three of these six
subjects, whereof one at least must be chosen from the former
group. It is the wish of the Master and Seniors that excellence
in some single department should be specially regarded by the
candidates. They may also, if they think fit, offer themselves
for examination in any of the classical or mathematical subjects.
Candidates must send their names to one of the tutors fourteen
days before the commencement cf the examination, The tutors
are the Rev. S. Parkinson, D.D., Rey. T. G. Bonney, B.D.,
and J. E. Sandys, Esq., M.A.

From Prof. E. D. Cope we have received the description of
two apparently new fossil mammalian forms from the Eocene of
Wyoming, which he places among the Carnivora. JMesonyx
oblusidens forms, according to the author, a distinct family of the
fissiped Carnivora, most closely related to the Canide, with
weakly sectorial teeth, four of them being true molars (a marsu-
pial character), and short, flattened, ungual phalanges in which
there are no indications of collars for the reception of the nails
themselves.- Syxoplotherium lanius may be a Carnivore, but
the claws were flat, and the scaphoid of the carpus did not
anchylose with the lunare, which shows that it belongs to a more
generalised type. It must be remembered that Prof. Marsh has
described very similar forms from the same strata.

MEssrs. WILLIAMS AND NorGATE have just issued the
prospectus of a unique and most elaborate work by Mr. Herbert
Spencer, consisting toa large extent of the tabulated material
which he has accumulated for his ‘‘ Principles of Sociology.”
In preparation for the latter work, requiring as bases of induction
large accumulations of data, fitly arranged for comparison, Mr.
Herbert Spencer, some five years ago, commenced, the col-

NATURE

a2 obs ard bie gi sy 2d Les By . Py s

93

lection and organisation of facts presented by societies of
different types, past and present. Though this classified
compilation of materials was entered upon slowly to facilitate
his own work, yet, after having brought the mode of classifi-
cation to a satisfactory form, and after having had some of the
tables filled up, the results appeared likely to be of such value
that Mr. Spencer decided to have the undertaking executed
with a view to publication: the facts collected and arranged
for easy reference and convenient study of their relations, being
so presented, apart from hypotheses, as to aid all students of
Social Science in testing such conclusions as they have drawn
and in drawing others. The work consists of three large divisions.
Each comprises a set of tables exhibiting the facts as abstracted
and classified, and a mass of quotations and abridged extracts,
otherwise‘ classified, on which the statements contained in the
tables are based. The condensed statements, arranged after a
uniform manner, give at one view, in each table or succession
of tables, the phenomena of all orders which each society
presents—constitute an account of its morphology, its physiology,
and (if a society having a known history) its development. On
the other hand, the collected extracts, serving as authorities for
the statements in the tables, are (or rather will be, when the
work is complete) classified primarily according to the kinds of
phenomena to which they refer, and secondarily according to
the societies exhibiting these phenomena; so that each kind of
phemonenon, as it is displayed in all societies, may be sepa-
rately studied with convenience. The three divisions, each
thus constituted, comprehend three groups of societies :—
(1) Unetvilised Societies ; (2) Civilised Societies —Extinct or De-
cayed ; (3) Civilised Societies—Recent or still Flourishing. Several
sample tables have been sent us, and as a specimen of the classi-
factory headings under which the immense array of facts are
grouped, we shall give those belonging to Table IX. of Division
I. (“ Uncivilised Races”), the Sandwich Islanders, one of the
Malayo-Polynesian Races. First are given their Inorgunic En-
vironment (Climate, Surface); Organic Environment (Vegetal,
Animal) ; Sociological Environment (adjacent tribes), Physical,
Emotional, and Intellectual Characters. Then follow the tables,
divided into Structural and Functional, each of which is sub-
divided into Operative and Regulative. The S:ructural Opera-
tive is again subdivided into Operative and Regulative; the
Structural Regulative is subdivided into Political (Ciz/, [Do-
mestic, (Marital, Tilial), Public], AZ#tary), Ecclesiastical, and
Ceremonial (AZutilations, Funeral Rites, Laws of Intercourse,
Habits and Customs). Under Functional, the Regulative is sub-
divided into Sentiments (Zsthetic, Moral), Ideas (Superstitions,
Knowledge), and Language ; the Operative into Processes (Dis-
tribution, Exchange, Production, Arts, Rearing, &c.), and Pro-
ducts (Land-Works, Habitations, &c., Food, Clothing, Imple-
ments, Weapons, esthetic Products), Under each final sub-
division ample details are given, The value of such a work to
all students of sociology, and of mankind generally, will be in-
estimable,

Srr Jostau MAson, who has already built and endowed an
orphanage at Erdington, near Birmingham, at a cost of more
than a quarter ofa million, has now arranged to erect and endow
a Scientific College in Birmingham, for which will probably be
expended atleast an equalamount. The Zimes gives the follow-
ing details :—During his long experience as a manufacturer, Mr.
Mason became deeply convinced of the want of and necessi y for
“thorough systematic scientific instruction, specially adapted to
the practical, mechanical, and artistic requirements” of the
Midland district, and to this want he has determined to devote
a portion of his remaining property to supply. ‘The institution
is to be called “ Josiah Mason’s College,” or ‘Josiah Mason’s
College for the Study of Practical Science.” Regular systematic
instruction is to be given in mathematics, abstract and applied phy-

94

NATURE

[May 29, 1873

sics, both mathematical and experimental ; chemistry, theoretical,
practical and applied; the natural sciences, especially geology and
mineralogy, with their application to mines and metallurgy;
botany, and zoology, with special application to manufactures ;
and physiology, with special reference to the laws of health.
The English, French, and German languages will also be taught.
The trustees have power to include mechanics and architecture
and all other subjects necessary to carry out the objects of the
founder. Mere literary education and instruction are excluded,
as well as all teaching of theology and subjects purely theo-
logical, No principal, professor, teacher, or other officer of the
college is ever to be called upon to make any “‘ declaration as to
or submit to any test whatever of their religious or theological
opinions,” nor are these in any wise to be considered either as
qualifications or disqualifications for holding any office, fitness to
give the instruction required being the sole and only test. Pro-
vision is also made for giving lectures and opening classes for
popular or unsystematic instruction, at which the attendance
shall be open to all persons, ‘‘ without distinction of age, class,
creed, race, or sex.” The founder’s object being to pro-
mote the prosperity of the manufactures and industry of
the country, especially of the two towns so frequently named,
the college will be open to qualified persons of all classes who
have to rely on science, art, or manufactures for a liveli-
hood, ‘‘ especially the more intelligent youth of the middle
class.’ Provision is also made, when the funds permit it,
to provide instruction for females as well a3 males. The
site selected for the college is in the centre of the town, and
the land is therefore of the greatest value, and the generous
founder has already laid out upwards of 20,000/. on the site.
He has also conveyed landed property producing about 600/. a
year, and thereisa clause in the deed in which he states it to
be his intention to devote by his will additional funds for the
use of the college. The total amount of this noble endowment
cannot, therefore, be positively stated, asit will, of course, depend
upon circumstances. Enough, however, has already been done
to render the ‘‘ Josiah Mason College” one of the most princely
gifts yet made to posterity-in England by any of her wealthy
sons.

THE forthcoming number of Petermann’s JZittheilungen will
contain an interesting article compiled from the Australian
papers, giving an account of a three months’ journey during
August, September, and October of last year into the interior of
Australia, by Mr. Ernest Giles, accompanied by Messrs. Car-
michael and Robinson. They struck off from the route of the
overland telegraph at Chambers’s Pillar, about 133° 55’ E. long.,
and 24° 53’ S. lat., and journeyed in a north-west direction
along Finke Creck, traversing ground which has not hitherto
been explored. They passed among long ranges of hills, lying
in an east and west direction, and varying in height from a few
hundreds to 4,000 ft., though few of the heights are appa-
rently above 1,000 ft. At about the 24th parallel, in 133° N.,
they came upon multitudes of magnificent fan palms growing
along the bed of the creek; they named the place the
**Glen of Palms.” Their journey in this direction extended to
129° 55’ W., and about 23° 10’ S., the utter sterility of the region
and the want of water compelling them to turn back. It was
only during the last few days, however, of their western journey
that water became scarce. The most characteristic vegetation
throughout was Spinifex ; Casuarina was also of frequent occur-
rence. Travelling for about 100 miles in a southern direction,
the explorers came upon an extensive salt marsh, apparently from
Petermann’s map upwards of 100 miles long and from 6 to 7
miles broad ; Baron von Miiller has named this Amadeus Lake,
After staying here for a few days, Giles and his companions
struck northwards for about 40 miles, and then south-eastwards,
passing numerous creeks and a range of hills, ‘‘Gill Range,”

and meeting the Finke again on November 16, not far from
their starting-point. Altogether these plucky explorers travelled
1,300 English miles, and have added considerably to our know-
ledge of the interior of Australia. _

UNDER the name of ‘* Herbarium Mycologicum Giconomi-
cum,” F, Baron Thiimen proposes to form a collection of those
parasitic fungi which are injurious (including, also, any that are
useful) in forestry, agriculture, horticulture, or in any other
branch of industry. The specimens of each species will be

labelled with the scientific name, diagnosis, and any needful re-

marks, and, where possible, will be sufficiently numerous for a
portion to be submitted to microscopic examination. The col-
lection will be issued in fasciculi of fifty species, at the price of

three thalers each, and may be obtained of the collector, at .

Teplitz, in Bohemia.

WE regret to learn that Mr. Louis Fraser, at one time promi-
nently connected with the Zoological Society of London, author
of the ‘* Zoologia Typica,” and a professional taxidermist of
high repute, is suffering from destitution, in his old age, in
British Columbia. On April 7 last a communication was pre-
sented before the meeting of the Academy of Sciences of San
Francisco on this subject by Mr. Henry Edwards, one of the
members, and an appeal for assistance was made to the friends
of science. This was answered by contributions on the part of
several persons, but it is not stated to what extent.

THE anniversary meeting of the Royal Geographical Society
was held on Monday, Sir Henry ‘Rawlinson in the chair. Sir
Bartle Frere was elected President, and the Earl of Derby, Sir
H. Rawlinson, Sir R. Alcock, and Admiral Richards, vice-
presidents. The retiring president, in his valedictory address,
reviewed at some length the progress of scientific exploration
during the past year,

AT the special request of Rear-Admiral Sands, the U.S
Congress, at its last session, allowed an ‘appropriation for the
purpose of completing and publishing the catalogue of southern
stars, observed by Gilliss in 1850-52, and the work is now being
put in the hands of computers for publication as soon as
possible.

A sLIGHT shock of earthquake was felt on the morning of
April 14, at Goalparah, Assam.

AnpITIOons to the Brighton Aquarium during the past week :
Smooth Hound (Afustelus vulgaris); Skate (Raja batis); Gur-
nards (Zrigla Lyra); John Dorée (Zeus faber) ; Scad, or Horse
Mackerel (Zvachurus trachurus) ; Lump-fish (Cyclopterus dum-
pus); Turbot (Rhombus maxinus) ; Common Carp (Cyprinus
carpio); Gold and Silver ditto (Carassius auratus); Tench
(Zinca vulgaris); Herrings (Clupea harengus) ; Sharp-nosed Eels
(Anguilla vulgaris); Sand-launce (Ammodytes lancea); Gar-
fish (Belone vulgaris); Zoophytes, Actinoloba dianthus, Tubu-
lavia indivisa, Sertularia cupressina, Obelia geniculata, Pleuro«
brachia pileus.

THE additions to the Zoological Soziety’s Gardens during the
past week include two Cretan Ibexes (Cara ficta), presented by
Mr. T. B, Sandwith; a Macaque Monkey (AZacacus cynomol-
gus); a Rhesus Monkey (JZ erithracus) from India, and a
Vervet Monkey (Cercopithecus lalandiz) from South Africa, pre-
sented by Mr. H. N. Hewett; a dark-green Snake (Zamenis
atrovirens). and a four-lined Snake (Coluber quadrilineatus) from
Malta, presented by Mr. C. A. Wright; a pig-tailed Monkey
(Macacus nemestrinus) from Java ; a Malabar Parrakeet (Palae-
ornis columboides) from South India; an olive Weaver Bird
(Ayphantornis capensis), from South Africa, purchased; a Bra-
zilian Tapir (young) (Zapirus terrestris) from South America ;
a Harpy Eagle (7 /rasaétus harpyia) from South America, depo-
sited ; four variegated Sheldrakes (Zadorna variegata), and
four ruddy Sheldrakes (Z. vwét/a) hatched in the Gardens,

eis

Ge

ee

_ mum of over f

May 29, 1873]

NATURE

95

‘ SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und der Chemie. No. 3,
-1873.—This number commences with a paper by Dr. Oudemans,
_ jun, on the influence of optically inactive solvents on the rota-
tory power of optically active substances. The author, employ-
‘ing a Wild polaristrobometer and lime-light, experimented with
_cane-sugar, cinchonin, brucin, phlorizin, and other substances,
with water, chloroform, alcohol, ether, &c., as solvents. He

unexpectedly found that the specific rotatory power of cinchonin

in various mixtures of alcohol and ehloroform had not values
entirely intermediate between those of cinchonin in either solvent
separately (which are f 212° and f 228°). It rises to a maxi-
237° in a mixture of 10 per cent. alcohol and
90 per cent. chloroform. He further compared theinfluence of
different solvents on the specific rotatory power of active sub-

_ stances, with their solvent action, and he considers the greater

values of the former property correspond with a greater solu-
bility of the active substance. The numerical results are given

in full.—Julius Thomsen continues his ‘ Thermochemische

Untersuchungen,” examining, in this paper, the affinities. of
the constituents of water, of sulphuretted hydrogen, of
ammonia, and of carburetted hydrogen. He finds that while
there is development of heat in the formation of marsh gas,
there is absorption in the formation of ethylene and acetylene,
from carbon and hydrogen. The author gives a résumé of re-
- sults from the series of researches here terminated (the affinity of
hydrogen to the metalloids), which presents some points of con-
siderable interest.—In the next paper Prof. Lubimoff of Moscow
calls attention to an error current in most text-books on physics.
The field of view in a Galilean telescope is stated to depend on
the size of pupil of the observer’s eye, and to be measurable by
the angle under which this will appear from the centre of the
object-glass. This, he says, gives a value five or six times
smaller than the actual, which is directly dependent on the size
of aperture of the object-glass. He explains and illustrates his

new theory at some length.—F. Riidorff contributes the first

part of a paper on the solubility of saline mixtures, and Ed.
‘Ketteler continues his mathematical inquiry into the influence of
astronomical motions on optical phenomena.—Among the ex-
tracted papers may be specified those by Edlund on galvanic re-
sistance, by Braun on direct photography of the solar protube-
rances, and by Baumhauer on hygrometry in meteorological
observatories.

Der Naturforscher for April 1873, contains a large amount of
varied and interesting scientific matter. In Physics and
Chemistry, there are short accounts of M. Jamin’s researches on
condensation of magnetism, Dr. Mayer’s on measurement of
sound, M. Cornu’s new method of determining the velocity of
light, Herr Feddersen’s paper on thermo-diffusion of gases, Herr
Nasse’s on the nitrogen in albumenoids, Clerk-Maxwell’s
lecture on action at a distance, &c. Herr Nasse finds that, in
the albumen-molecule, one portion of the nitrogen is combined
loosely, another much more intimately, and he sets himself to
determine the proportion of loosely-combined to the entire
nitrogen-contents, in various albuminous substances. His obser-
yations have an important physiological bearing. In biology
proper, we may note a paper giving the results of Herr
Stohmann’s recent study on animal nutrition. This author en-
deavours to formulate mathematically the digestibility of food
stuffs. P. Secchi’s recent communication on the solar pro-
tuberances and spots is given, and there is a meteorological
paper on the temperature of air in woods and in the open, de-
scribing experiments by Herr Ebermayer. We may further call
attention to a note on Baranetzky’s experiments on the period-
icity of outflow of sap in plants, a phenomenon he finds based
on tlie periodical action of light. Geology, geography,
technology, &c., are also represented in this serial, and the
weekly ‘‘ Kleinere Mittheilungen” furnish a number of well-
selected scientific data. %

. | SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNDON

Geological Society, May 14.—Mr. Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair.—The following communications
were read.—‘* On the genus Paleocoryne, Duncan and Jenkins,
and its affinities,” by Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S.—In this
paper the author referred to certain minute fossils from the Car-
boniferous rocks of Scotland, described by himself and Mr.

.
3 Py 7

Jenkins in a paper read before the Royal Society, as belonging
to the Hydroida, and most nearly resembling the recent genus
Bimeria, Wright. He stated that numerous specimens since
received threw some further light on the nature of these fossils,
and showed especially that in all probability the base is not
really cellular, but that the cellular appearance is produced by
the growth of the real base of the polype over the cells of the
Fenestella on which it grows.—‘* Notes on Structure in the Chalk
of the Yorkshire Wolds,” by Mr. J. R. Mortimer.—In this
paper the author described a peculiar structure observable in
chalk from Yorkshire and elsewhere, giving it a striated appear-
ance. This structure had been ascribed by Dr. Mackie and
others to slickensides. The author adduced reasons for doubt-
ing the mechanical origin of these striations, and argued that
they are of an organic nature. He ascribed them to corals, and
remarked that similar strice occur in all limestone formations. —
“ On Platysiagum sclerocephalum and Paleospinax priscus,
Egerton,” by Sir P. de M. Grey-Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
—The two species of fossil Fishes noticed in this paper were
described by the author in the 13th Decade of the Memoirs of
the Geological Survey, published in 1872. They are both from
the Lias of Lyme Regis. He now described some new specimens
which add to our knowledge of their characters. An example of
Platysiagum shows the position of the dorsal fin, which is placed
very far back, occupying a place opposite to the ihterval between
the ventral and anal fins, and the form of the trunk, which is
of nearly uniform depth from the occiput to the base of the
dorsal fin. The structure of the dorsal fin was described in
detail, The new specimen of Paleospinax priscus shows espe-
cially the position of" the second dorsal spine, which is placed
over the 50th.vertebra, the first being on the 16th, the fish thus
most nearly approaching the existing Cestracten, which it also
resembles in its dentition. In other respects it seemed to be most
clearly allied to Acanthias.—‘‘ On a new genus of Silurian Aste-
riade,”. by Mr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.—The specimen
described showed the outline of a small Starfish, with a large
disc and short rays, in a slab of Wenlock Limestone from Dud-
ley. The outline of the ten rays was described as marked
out by the border of small triangular spines, the other plates of
the disc and rays being absent. Each ray was terminated by a
stemlike multiarticulate process as long as the ray, from towards
the extremity of which spring slender lateral processes, giving it
a tufted appearance. This Starfish, which is in the collection of
Dr. Grindrod, is named by the author Zrichotaster plumiformis,

Zoological Society, May 20.—Dr. E. Hamilton, vice-pre-
sident, in the chair.—Lord Arthur Russell exhibited specimens
of, and made remarks upon, the different varieties of the Carp
(Cyprinus carpio) cultivated in the German fish-ponds.—Mr.
Sclater offered some remarks upon the most interesting animals
obseryed in the Gardens of some of the continental Zoological
Societies which he had lately visited —Dr. E. Hamilton read a
note confirmatory of the extraordinary fecundity of the Chinese
Water-Deer (Hydropotes inermis).—Mr. H. E. Dresser exhibited
some rare birds from the Ural, amongst which were the Smew
(Mergus albellus) in down, nestlings of the Rustic Bunting (Z-
beriza rustica) and several specimens of Lilljeborg’s Sa/icaria
magnirostris, which last he believed to be identical with Acroce-
phalus dumetorum of India.—Sir Victor Brooke, Bart., read a
paper on the African Buffaloes, which he considered might be
reduced into two species, Budalus caffer and Bubalus pumilus,
Of these the latter exhibited two varieties in the western and
eastern points of its range, while the former appeared to extend
from the Cape up the eastern coast to Abyssinia without any
material variation.—Mr. St. George Mivart, F.R.S., read a
memoir on Zefilemur, Cheirogaleus, and other Lemurine forms,
to which were appended remarks on the Zoological rank of the
Lemuroidea in the natural system.—Messrs. Sclater and Salvin
communicated a paper on some Venezuelan Birds collected by
Mr. James M. Spence, amongst which were examples of two
species believed to be new to science, and proposed to be called
Lochmias sororia and Crypturus cerviniventris.—A communica-
tion was read from Mr. R. Swinhoe, on the White Stork of
Japan, which he referred to a species different from the Ciconia
alba of Europe, and proposed to call C. doyciana.—Mr. H. E.
Dresser read some notes on certain oriental species of Eagles
(Aguila).

Royal Horticultural Society, May 16.—General meeting,
—Viscount Bury, M.P., president, in the chair.—The resigna-
tion of the Assistant-Secretary was announced.—The Rey. M.
J. Berkeley, who was then called to the chair, commented on the

Tt

96

plants of interest exhibited. He called attention to specimens
of Cytisus Adami, believed to be a graft-hybrid, which bears
upon the same branches, besides its own proper intermediate
flowers, the ‘dissociated very distinct flowers of its parents.—
Tillandsia tonantha and a large flowering specimen of Cycas
revoluta were also alluded to.

Scientific Committee.—Dr, J. D. Hooker, F.R.S., C.B., in the
chair.—Mr, Anderson-Henry sent cuttings from black currant
bushes, the buds of which were swollen to an unusual size, but
abortive. This was due to the presence of a four-legged acaroid,
similar to those on lime and hazel. In gardens near Greenock
it was seriously affecting the cultivation of the fruit; it is be-
lieved there to haye been imported with plants obtained from
the Low Countries.— A letter from Mr. Andrew Murray to Mr.
Berkeley was read, dated Salt Lake City. Hesent an Osci//a-
zoria, which he had found in a hot sulphuretted spring ; also
specimens of a JVostoc, with very large-celled chains, which
blackened the stones in the brooks.—Dr. Masters called atten-
tion to a mode of propagating the vine described by M. Riviere.
Cuttings were planted vertically in the ‘ground in the spring,
the uppermost bud being completely covered with 3 to 4 inches
of soil.

EDINBURGH

Royal Society, May 19.—Memoir on the placentation of
the sloths, by Prof. Turner. After referring to the absence of
any definite information on this subject in anatomical literature,
the author described his dissection of the gravid uterus cf a
specimen of that species of two-toed sloth, which Peters has
named Choloepus Hoffmanni, Wis specimen was perfectly fresh
when it came into his possession, and he had succeeded in
obtaining satisfactory injections both of the foetal and maternal
systems of blood-vessels. His dissections have led to the
following conclusions :—The placenta of the sloth is not coty-
ledonary, in the sense in which the term is employed to express
the non-deciduate placenta sub-divided into distinct and
scattered masses, as in the ruminants. In the fullest sense of the
word it is a deciduate placenta. If the inference which has
been drawn from Sharpey’s observations on the placenta in
Manis, viz. that it is non-deciduate, be correct, then it is clear,
if any value is to be attached to ,the placental system of classifi-
cation, that the scaly ant-eaters can no long be regrouped along
with the sloths in the order Edentata, which order must therefore
be broken up, The memoir concluded with some remarks on
the affinities, as regards their placental form and structure, of the
sloths to the other deciduate mammals,

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, May 19,—M. de Quatrefages,
president, in the chair.—The following papers were read.—A
note on solar cyclones, with an answer, by S. Respighi to M.
Vicaire and Father Secchi, by M. Faye. M. Vicaire in his late
critique on M, Faye’s solar spot theory had asked how that
author could compare the barometric depressions in terrestrial
cyclones which only amount to a few millimetres of mercury with
the enormous lowerings of the chromosphere which ought to take
place on the solar spots but which are inadmissible. M. Faye
now replied that these depressions are facts long and carefully
observed by Respighi, and quoted a letter from him on the sub-
ject. With regard to Secchi’s assertion that Respighi had been
deceived by the small size of his telescope (4% inches aperture)
he pronounced the objection utterly invalid, for, whatever might
be the shortcomings of the telescope as regards minute details, it
could never make the chromosphere appear very low where it
was in reality very high.—Note on the mechanical properties of
different bronzes, by M. Tresca. Hydrologic studies of the Seine
Part II., Agricultural applications, by M. Belgrand.—On the
part played by the substratum in the distribution of rock lichens,
by M. Weddell.—New observations on metallic deposits on zinc,
&c., and a new heliographic process, by M. C. Gourdon.—
On an electro-diapason of continuous movement, by M. E,
Mercadier.—On an electro-dynamic experiment, by MM. G.
Planté and Alf. Niaudet-Breguet—On the action of dry
ammonia gas on ammonic nitrate, by M. F. M. Raoult.
The author found that the liquid produced by the action
varies in composition with the temperature. At — 10° C., 100
grammes of the nitrate absorb 42°50 grammes of the gas; this
gradually diminishes as the temperature rises until at + 29° 20°9
grm. only are retained and the product is solid, at 79° only
0°5 grm. of NH; remain.—On certain peculiarities observed in
spectrum researches, by M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran,—On the

NATURE .

[May 29, 1873

preparation and properties of oxymalcic acid, by M. E. Bour-
goin.—On the acid derivatives of napthylamine, by M. D.
Tommasi.—On the different propylenic chlorides. A classifi-
cation of the absorption-bands of chlorophyll; accidental
bands, by M. J. Chautard. The author so calls the bands
produced by the action of acids, alkalies, or other re-agents
upon normal chlorophyll. —Observations on the regulation of
the magnetic compass, by M. Gaspari.—Experimental Re-
searches on the influence of barometric changes on life, tenth
note, by M. P, Bert.— Mineralogical determinations of the true
meteoric irons (Holosidéres) in the Museum, by M. Stan.
Meunier. During the meeting an election to the vacant seat of
the late M. le Comte Jaubert (Academecien libre) took place.
M. de la Gournerie obtained 44; M. Bréguet, 9 ; M. Sedillot,
5; M.Jacqmin, 2; and M. du Moncel, 1 vote. M. de la
Gournerie was accordingly declared elected.

DIARY

THURSDAY, May 209.
Rovat Society, at 8.30.—Croonian Lecture on Muscular Irritability after
Systematic Death: Dr. B. W. Richardson
Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Ballot for election of Fellows.
Royac Institution, at 3.—Light: Prof. ‘Tyndall.
FRIDAY, May 30.
Royat Institution, at 9 —On the Radiation of Heat from the Moon : The
Earl of Rosse.
HorTICULTURAL SOcIETY, at 3.—Lecture.

SATURDAY, May 31.

Rovat InstitTuTION, at 3.—The Historical Method: John Morley.
GEoLocisTs’ AssociIATION.—Excursion to Finchley.

MONDAY, June 2.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.
Royat InstiTuTion, at 2,—General Monthly Meeting.
TUESDAY, June 3.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—On a ready method of measuring the
Cubic Capacity of Skulls: Prof. Busk, F.R.S.—Flint Implements from
St. Vincent’s : Pref. Rolleston, F.R.S.—Copy of a Mural Inseription in
large Samaritan Characters from Gaza: Rev. D. I. Heath.—Strictures on
Darwinism, Part II. ; the Substitution of Types: H. H. Howorth,

ZootocicaL Socigty, at 8.30.—The Antelopes of the genus Gaseé/a and
their Distribution : Sir Victor Brooke, Bart.—The Birds of the Philippine
Islands: Viscount Walden.

Roya InsTITUTION, at 3.—Roman Archzology: J. H. Parker,

WEDNESDAY, June 4.

MicroscoricaL Society, at 8.

THURSDAY, June 5.

CuemiIcat Society, at 8.—On the Dioxides of Calcium and Strontium :
Sir John Courcy, Bart.—On Iodine Monochloride: J. B. Hannay.—A
new Ozone Generator will be exhibited by Mr. T. Wills.

LinnEAN Society, at 8.
Roya. InstiTuTIon, at 3.—Light: Prof. Tyndall.

BOOKS RECEIVED

Encuisu.—The Art of Grafting and Budding : C. Baltet (W. Robinson),—
Elementary Crystallography: J. B. Jordan (I. Murby).—The Noaic De~
luge: S. Lucas (Hodder and Stoughton).—British Rainfall, 1872: G. J.
Symons (E. Stanford).—On Coal at home and abroad: J. R. Leifchild
(Longmans).—The Olive and its Products: L. A. Bernays (J. C. Beal,
Brisbane).—The Philosophy of Evolution (an Actonian Prize Essay): B. T.
Lowne (Van Voorst).

CONTENTS

Tue Zoorocicat Station aT NapLes. By Dr. ANron Donrn . . 8&r
Gaupin’s “ WoRLD oF ATOMS” (5%. 5. 1. 1. GS sg
Our Book SHELF. . « shis/e" sl oy» (© 0 ©) 0) = soiite nes
LETTERS TO THE EpITOR :—

Science at Cambridge.—Rev. T. G. Bonney, F.G.S.

. Op wall fy
Arctic Exploration —CLemenTs R. Markuam, C.B. .

Ae ae 83
Clerk-Maxwell’s Kinetic Theory of Gases.—Prof. Te CLERK-Max-

Forbes and Tyndall.—Principal J. C. SHairr . . 84
WELL ..\ s « -« Aphiy ss 0 6 2 bes woes ee ee een
Additional Remarks on Abiogenesis.—Prof. HuiziInca. .. . . 85
Flight of Birds.—J. Guanriz™ . 4. <)).n 2 (3) sols ee ee
Tuermo-Evectricity: Repe Lecrure at Camsripce. By Prof,
P.G.TAIT . . +o Eee na cake gs es sre ee
ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS, IX. By J. NoRMAN
Lockyer, F.R.S. (With Illustrations)... .... « « « 89
Minp IN THE Lower Animas, By Dr. J. Lauper Linpsay . . . o4
NOTES. 0.0 © 6, GMIRUplle pw oe) 0 > Sie
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS . Jeaneuen sl tetas is) 2 0 > a) Ja ns
SoclETIES AND ACADEMIES . . » « + «© « « oe 6 ee 6 85
DIARY...» « «0 « Ses = 5 0) > o) see ne
BOOKS Recerven ..°. Use! we Se oe ot item ae

Errata.—P. 64, col. 1, line 13 from bottom, for “drift” read “ draft.”
Col. 2, line 14 from top, for “‘ unnecessary” read ‘‘ necessary.”

————

NATURE

‘
aan

97

THURSDAY, JUNE 5, 1873

CONDENSED MILK

HE importance of milk as an article of diet is so
great that anything offered as a substitute for it,
or that renders it more available as food, demands atten-
tion. The composition of cow's milk is so nearly like
woman’s milk that the addition of a little water and sugar
may be said to convert the one into the other ; hence the
practice of giving cow’s milk to young children, and
making it a substantial article of their diet long after they
have cut their teeth and are able to masticate bread
and meat. No inconsiderable quantity of milk is also
consumed by adults, and its nutritive effect is not ex-
ceeded by any article of diet, as it contains all the consti-
tuents that are necessary to the perfect nutrition of the
human body.

There are, however, several drawbacks in the use of
cow’s milk which diminish its utility, limit its use, and
sometimes render it dangerous. One of the great draw-
backs in milk is its liability to decomposition. The sugar
it contains becomes acid, the caseine separates in the
form of curd, and a fermentation ensues which renders it
unpleasant and sometimes even dangerous as an article
of diet. The latter effect is seen more particularly in
young children. During the summer months they suffer
extensively from diarrhoea, and there is little doubt that this
is largely due to the acidity of the milk which is given to
them. Milk bought in the morning in London is fre-
quently unfit to be used in the evening for the diet of
infants. These changes in milk are hastened by the pre-
sent system of bringing milk to London from a distance
in cans, by which means it is shaken, and its tendency to
change hastened.

Another drawback in the use of milk is its liability to
adulteration. Unfortunately the agent by which milk is
adulterated, is easily accessible and can be detected with
great difficulty. We cannot instruct cooks and poor
people in the use of Jactometers and hydrometers by
which the learned test milk: moreover, the natural
liability of milk to vary is very great. Thus the quan-
tity of cream in milk received by the Aylesbury Con-
densed Milk Company varies from 9 to 17 per cent.
Dr. Hassell states that the cream given by the milk of a
cow, the milk of which he personally inspected, was but
43 per cent. Although then all milk containing less than
9 per cent. of cream may be suspected of adulteration, yet
it may happen that a milk containing but 4} per cent.
may be really not adulterated with water at all

This varying quastity of cream also shows that even
when miik is not adulterated it is liable to great varia-
tions in the quantity of cream which may be taken as
the measure of its usefulness as an article of food.

Many attempts have been made to overcome these
objections to the use of milk, and from time to time pre-
parations of it have been sold by which freedom from
acidity and adulteration are secured. The most available
of these preparations have been those that submitted the
milk to a process of evaporation by which more or less
of the water naturally contained in milk is got rid of. By
these processes the nutritive constituents of the milk are’

No, 188—Volt, vu.

retained ; the preparation keeps for some time, is easily
conveyed from place to place, and by the addition of
water milk, so to speak, is readily manufactured. None
of these preparations, however, seemed to succeed till a
process for making what is called “ Condensed Milk” was
introduced. Whether America or Europe has the honour
of the invention we need not dispute here. It is now
made in this country by thousands of gallons daily, and
its manufacture may be witnessed on a large scale at
Aylesbury.

Although the process of evaporating milk may be
regarded as an exceedingly simple one, the attempt to
carry it out at Aylesbury on a large scale has developed
a complicated machinery in which steam power is exten-
sively used ; 200 persons are employed, and the milk
of 1,200 cows, each yielding 14 quarts, is daily eva-
porated. The milk used is brought from farms in the
neighbourhood in ordinary tin cans. Each can before it
is sent to the factory is carefully tested by the taste and
smell and the lactometer. Any doubtful specimens are
set aside for re-examination or rejection. The milk is
then passed into a vacuum pan, and the vapour thus.pro-
duced is carried off and condensed and thrown away.
When the milk has acquired a proper consistence it is
mixed with sugar. This addition of sugar is the dis-
tinguishing feature of the condensed milk process. After
this the milk is still further condensed till it reaches
the required consistence, and is run off into the little
tin cans which are so well known. The whole of
these operations are carried out with a regard for
cleanliness, which would look almost fastidious if it
were not known that a single particle of decomposing
milk allowed to get into the receiving pans might destroy
the whole mass. Every can is returned thoroughly
cleansed to the farmer who sends it, having been first
submitted to hot water, then toa jet of steam, and then
rinsed out by a jet of cold water.

The condensed milk thus prepared is of a semi-liquid
consistence, and can be taken out of a jar with a spoon.
Several analyses of this milk have been made. The late
Baron Liebig found that it contained—

Wrater™ =. <<. tenes 22°44
Solids 77°50
100700

The Zancet has more recently published the following
analysis :—

Moisture . . . . 25°10
Butter . Chae 11°73
Gascme.... sen 1517
Milk sugar. . . . 16°24
Cane Sugar . . 29°46
FUSE. 5 ,'s) oma 2°30

10000

From these analyses it will at once be seen that the
only perceptible difference between condensed milk and
ordinary milk is that the former contains more sugar
and less water than the latter. Both these things are
necessary for attaining the objects for which condensed
milk is manufactured. The diminution of the bulk of the
water from 87 percent. in ordinary milk to 25 per cent. in
the condensed secures diminution of the bulk of the milk,
and thus renders transportation comparatively easy. The
condensed milk is easily converted to the condition of ordi-

G,

98

NATURE

nary milk by the addition of either cold or hot water.
The addition of the sugar is found to be necessary, in
order to enable the other constituents to resist decompo-
sition. Milk will keep any length of time when entirely
desiccated, but by the process of drying entirely the milk
loses its flavour and many of its properties. The semi-
liquid condition of condensed milk prevents these changes,
but in this state it is liable to decompose ; hence the
necessity of additional sugar.

The question arises as to whether this added sugar in
any way interferes with the quality of the milk in its rela-
tion to the diet of infants or invalids. In comparing
human milk with cows’ milk, we find that the latter con-
tains more caseine and less sugar than the former.
Hence, when given to, children it is customary to add a
little water and a little sugar to make it like mother’s milk.
This object is really eased by the addition of cane
sugar to the condensed milk, and it may therefore be
unhesitatingly employed in the nursery as a substitute for
ordinary cows’ milk.

After a personal inspection of the Aylesbury manufac-
tory, and a full consideration of the whole subject, we are
quite prepared to say that where good fresh cows’ milk is
unattainable, as it is almost practically so in our large
towns, there is no substitute for it equal to condensed
milk. Nor is this a matter of theory ; hundreds of gal-
lons are being used every day in London, and most of it
under the direction of experienced medical men. One
medical man assures us that he has a healthy, fine-grown
child of ten months that has never taken anything but
condensed milk.

As the diet of invalids, it may in some cases require
watching when the action of sugar is injurious to the
system: but in these cases milk should be altogether
interdicted.

It is to be hoped that no disadvantage in the use of
this agent has been overlooked, as the advantages of its
use are so many and so obvious. It presents a pure form
of milk in a condition in which it may be kept for any
length of time, and is not injured by removal, It is
always at hand night and day, and by the addition of
cold or hot water can be converted into nutritious and
wholesome food. E, LANKESTER

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN

The Physiology of Man. By Austin Flint, Jun., M.D.
Pp. 470. (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1872.)

E have already had to speak in terms of high com-
mendation of Dr, Flint’s comprehensive treatise

on human physiology, as being written in a clear, methodi-
cal, and judicial style, the statements made being care-
fully weighed, and in most instances supported, by the
best, if not the most numerous, authorities ; whilst the
author has in many parts enriched it with the results of
his own important researches. The present, which con-
stitutes the fourth volume of the work, is no exception to
our remarks, It is occupied with the consideration of
the nervous system, excluding the special senses, and
gives a very complete account of that difficult and ex-
tensive section of physiology, the study of which has
engaged the attention of so many of the best workers in

all civilised countries during the past twenty years. Dr.
Flint commences by a short 7éswzaé of the principal facts
that have recently been made out in regard to the struc-
ture of the nerve-centres and cords, and the mode of
termination of the nerves in muscle, gland, and skin ;
entering into the subject perhaps as far as is necessary in
a strictly physiological work, the author taking Schultze’s
article in the recently published “ Handbook of Histo-
logy” of Stricker, Kélliker, and Robin as his guides,
The first chapter concludes with an account of the recent
observations of Voit on the regeneration of the cerebral
hemispheres after their ablation, which show that a large
portion of these bodies may be reproduced, and that the
organ may recover its functions to no very inconsiderable
extent.

The second chapter deals with the general functions of
the motor and sensory nerves, and gives a very fair account
of the history of the discovery of the difference in the func-
tion of the anterior and the posterior roots, due promi-
nence being given to the claims of Walker, Mayo, and
especially of Majendie. In speaking of the recurrent
sensibility of the anterior roots, Dr. Flint is not satisfied
with Brown-Séquard’s explanation that it results from
the compression of sensory nerves distributed to the
muscles during the spasm caused by the irritation of the
anterior roots ; but inclines to Majendie’s and Bernard’s
opinion that there are actually recurrent sensory nerves
in the anterior roots, on the ground that the pain is some-
times apparently severe when the cramps are slight.
The relations of the nervous system to electricity, and
the rapidity of nerve conduction, with the means of esti-
mating it, are well and correctly given.

The cranial nerves are next considered. In this section
we think the author fails in his account of the deep
origin of each nerve. He doesnot appear to have heard
of or seen the papers of Lockhart Clarke contained in the
Philosophical Transactions (1858-67). Yet these contain
by very far the most minute and the most accurate de-
scriptions hitherto published on these points, and the

importance of their relations to pathology would have

fully justified more elaborate details. Thus, to take one
point only, whilst speaking of the deep origin of the sen-
sory root of the fifth pair of nerves, he makes no allusion
to the very interesting facts described by Clarke of the
internal connection of this root with the vagus and glos-
sopharyngeal nerves in the grey tubercle, or caput cornu
posterioris ; of the connection of its motor root with the
glossopharyngeal nucleus and the fibres of that nerve,
and with the fasciculus teres ; or, finally, of the connec-
tion of the sensory root with the nucleus of the third
through the intermediation of the grey tubercle, into
which the sensory root penetrates. On the other hand,
his account of the functions of the various nerves and
their branches is given extremely well; the account of
the chorda tympani, for example, being excellent ; and
the conclusion at which Dr. Flint has arrived, namely,
that it is a nerve of gustation, as well as a motor or
stimulant ‘nerve for the submaxillary gland, being fully
borne out by Lussana’s observations recently published
in Brown-Séquard’s journal, and which, at the time Dr.
Flint wrote,{had not appeared. A very long section com-
mensurate with its importance is devoted to the pneumo-

gastric nerves, the action of which on the heart, larynx,

————— a

tan
. a
i * 26ers ,

aS ge ee ee ee eS ee

- Jungs, and stomach is given, with full reference to their

remarkable inhibitory and depressing powers.

In the description of the anatomy of the spinal cord,
Dr. Flint takes Gerlach’s article in Stricker’s Handbook as
his guide, and gives the following as the results of his
own experiments, and those of others which he regards
as most reliable. ‘The gray substance is probably in-
excitable and insensible under direct stimulus. The
antero-lateral columns are insensible, but are excitable
both on the surface and in their substance, zc. direct
stimulation will produce convulsive movements in certain
muscles, which movements are not reflex and are not
attended with pain. The lateral columns are less ex-
citable than the anterior columns. The surface at least
of the posterior columns is very sensitive, especially near
the posterior roots of the nerves. The deep portions of
the posterior columns are probably insensible, except very
near the origin of the nerves.” Dr. Flint then proceeds
to describe the functions of the grey matter, and of the
several columns of the white, explaining and adopting
the views generally accepted. The posterior white
columns he regards, with Todd, as containing fibres
acting as commissures between the several segments of
the cord.

The functions of the cerebrum are very briefly given,

‘indeed, except in regard to /anguage they are not given

at all, and for a reason that scarcely appears satisfactory,
viz. that though their consideration is properly a part of
physiology, the range of the subject is so extensive, that
it is only treated of exhaustively in special treatises on
mental physiology. This is much to be regretted, as we
feel sure that if Dr. Flint had attempted it, he would have
succeeded in giving a very interesting section upon it.
The cerebellum he regards as the co-ordinator of the
muscular movements, and he has collected many patho-
logical cases in support of his view. The last chapters
are devoted to the sympathetic nerve and to sleep. The
account of the sympathetic system enters freely into the
consideration of the vaso-motor and trophic nerves,
Upon the whole, this volume of Dr. Flint’s work may be
regarded as a valuable accession to physiological litera-
ture, and as giving the results of modern research with
such fulness, combined with accuracy, that the ordinary
student will not require to look beyond its pages for any
information on this important subject of medical know-
ledge. We look forward with much interest to the
next volume on the “ Special Senses,” which the author
assures us is nearly ready.

CLODD’S “CAILDHOOD OF THE WORLD”

The Childhood of the World: a Simple Account of Man
in Early Times. By Edward Clodd, F.R.A.S. (London :
Macmillan and Co.)

gad genial little volume is a child’s book as to short-

ness, cheapness, and simplicity of style, though the

author reasonably hopes that older people will use it as a

source of information not popularly accessible elsewhere

as to the life of Primitive Man and its relation to our
own, In brief chapters he states the principal points of
the modern science of civilisation, discussing the con-
dition of Prehistoric savages, the early use of stone
implements and the introduction of metals, the discovery

NATURE

99

of other useful arts, the evolution of language, the inven-
tion of writing, &c. Having laid down this as a founda-
tion, he then proceeds to his main purpose, that of
explaining the successive phases of man’s belief, the
working of inventive fancy in mythic legend, the rudi-
mentary ideas of the lower races as to souls and their
existence in a future state, the nature of deities, and the
meaning of the worship offered to them by prayer and
sacrifice. Examining the religions of the less cultivated
races of the world, he passes through them to arrive at
doctrines which, regarding them as highest and surest,
he turns all his gift of earnest eloquence to teach. This
book, if the time has come for the public to take to it,
will have a certain effect in the world. It is not a mere
compilation from the authors mentioned in the preface,
but takes its own ground and stands by and for itself.
Mr. Clodd has thought out his philosophy of life, and
used his best skill to bring it into the range of a child’s
view. Why, indeed, should not children be taught their
elementary philosophy of nature at the modern level ?
Why should they not begin to shape their lives by the
best theory of the world, and their own place and duty in
it, which their parents can accept? Thoughtful children
will take in most of the facts Mr. Clodd works on, and
his ideas will open many doors in their minds, leading
into regions to be more fully explored years later. Much
of the book, it is true, is beyond a child’s unhelped
understanding ; not that the words are too hard, but that
the ideas are. Its story is anything but “a tale of little
meaning tho’ the words be strong;” its simple lan-
guage has often to convey thoughts too abstract for easy
assimilation. Yet there is no harm in this, for the best
children’s books are those which in part engrave know-
ledge on their minds with finished accuracy, and in part
only stamp roughly impressions which willj take their
sharper lines another time.

The world is growing daily more alive to the fact that
the history of man and man’s ideas, with all the problems
of belief and duty which can be rightly treated on a his-
torical basis, have been shifted into new places and
altered into new forms by the modern sciences of the
World and Man. At this present time there are num-
bers of parents and teachers to whose views such a
modern “ Religio Medici” as Mr. Clodd offers is con-
genial, and who distinctly want a book like his to teach
out of, The need is all the more felt, because so many of
the topics treated are among those where both theology and
science put forward claims to speak with authority, while
the adjustment of these claims has been mostly attempted
by the class of writers who may be called “ reconcilers.”
But educated people now distrust the method of these
writers as vitiated by foregone conclusion, and it is more
and more felt that the great problems of humanity must
be dealt with by men who do not shape their evidence,
but let their evidence shape them. Mr. Clodd,-at any
rate, is no “reconciler.” It is evident that his religious
feeling has come into real union with his positive know-
ledge, and that this act of mental chemistry has gene-
rated doctrines which are at once his theology and his
philosophy. These doctrines it is not the office of this
journal to discuss: nor, considering how far Mr. Clodd
adopts (of course with due acknowledgment) evidence
and theories from the heavier volumes of technical ethno-

100

NATURE

logists, my own included, would it be convenient for me
to enter into detailed argument on his ethnology. I need
only mention as points to which exception is likely to be
taken, Mr. Clodd’s easy passing over of the really serious
difficulty, what became of the bones of the Drift-men and
Cave-men, and his too confident expressions as to the first
habitat of man, and the Origin of Languages. This said,
what is left for me is simply to announce his work, help-
ing to make it known to the class of readers who are
waiting for it. : E. B, TYLOR

OUR BOOK SHELF

Notes on Natural Philosophy. By G. ¥. Rodwell,
F.R.A.S., F.C.S,, Lecturer on Natural Philosophy in
Guy’s Hospital and Science Master in Marlborough
College. (London: J. and A, Churchill, 1873.)

THIS useful little work is an enlargement of Notes
which the author had prepared for the students attending
his lectures at Guy’s Hospital. The title is perhaps a
little too wide, as the book contains no reference to
Sound and but a scanty treatment of Light, polarisation,
for example, being not even mentioned. These omissions
are explained in the preface as caused by the adaptation
of the notes to the “Preliminary Scientific” Examination
at the London University. We are quite sure, however,
the author will agree with us that students for this exami-
nation will have to supplement their reading by some
rather stiffer work than we find here. As an zn¢yvoductory
text-book for this examination it is quite the best we have
seen, the author having carefully avoided that atrocious
system of giving candidates only just such knowledge as
may help them to scrape through an examination, The
evidence of conscientious labour which is conspicuous
throughout the book makes us the more regret the incom-
pleteness of these Notes, Even of the subjects treated it
is obvious that in 160 pages, only the barest outlines of
natural philosophy can be given. The “ Notes” therefore
chiefly consist of lucid and concise definitions, and every-
where bristle with the derivations of scientific terms. To
this latter point the author has devoted much labour and
thereby done good service to science; though on the other
hand we cannot help thinking Mr. Rodwell runs a fair
chance of being accused of pedantry by his frequent use
of Latin quotations. One or two little points needing
correction catch our eye. Fig. 18 is printed upside down;
amidst all the derivations we do not see the meaning of
the terms given to different thermometric scales ; here as
in some other books cobalt is erroneously stated to be
attracted to a magnet even at the highest temperature.
As this seems to be a frequent error we will give
Faraday’s own words on this matter: they are to be
found on the very last page of his “ Experimental Re-
searches in Electricity.” ‘‘ By greater elevation (of tem-
perature) nickel first loses its distinctive power at about
635° F., then iron at a moderate red heat, and cobalt at
afar higher temperature than either, near the melting-
point of copper.” There cannot be a doubt that this
little book will be of use to science teachers and science
students,

Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists
Soctely, for 1872-73. (Norwich: 1873.)

THISs little volume contains some excellent papers. The
president, Dr. Beverley, in his address, suggests, rightly,
we think, that members of such societies ought, in their
researches and papers, never to lose sight of the views
and opinions usually associated with the name of Darwin,
and very justly says that “the origin of species, the

G. Barrett. This is followed by a long, carefully com-
piled, and well illustrated list of the Fungi of Norfolk, by
Mr. C. B. Plowright, M.R.C.S. © The president, Dr.
Beverley, also contributes a paper on the edible fungi of
Norfolk, in which he draws attention to the great value
of this much neglected source of nutritive food. There
is an interesting paper on the Ot er, by Mr. T. Southwell,
F.Z.S. The two last papers are, one on the ‘“‘ Wild Birds’
Protection Act,” by Mr. H. Stevenson, F.Z.S., in which
he points out the many obvious holes in the Act and
adds a list of “ wild birds,” containing the most common
provincial names by which they are known in England
and Scotland ; and Notes on the Mammalia of Norfolk,
by Mr. T. Southwell. This society deserves the greatest
credit for the important work its members are doing,
They are making a praiseworthy, and so far a successful
effort, to publish a fauna and flora of Norfolk. Already
there have been prepared a list of the Mammalia and
Reptilia, the Land, Freshwater, and Marine Shells, and,
as we have above said, a list of the fungi.
followed by the Fishes, by Dr. Lowe; the Birds, by Mr.
Stevenson (author of “ The Birds of Norfolk) ;” the Flow-
ering Plants and Ferns, by Mr. H. D. Geldart ; Lepidop-
tera, by Mr. C. G. Barrett ; all of which, we believe, are in
hand, and will be published as the society finds funds to

print them. Such a society deserves the greatest encou-

ragement, and it is a pity that it should be hindered in its
good work for want of funds. This ought not to be ina
county like Norfolk, and we are sure that the intelligent
inhabitants of that county only need to be made aware of
the value of the work the society is doing, to come forward
and lend it a helping hand. This they will best do by
becoming members: and taking as active an interest in
the work as their circumstances permit, The society
ought to take effectual means of making its aims and the
value of its work be known throughout the county,

Birds of the Humber District.
(Van Voorst.)

Mr. CORDEAUX is so well known as a careful and trust-

By John Cordeaux.

worthy observer of nature, that any work on his favourite .

subject, from his hand, must be read with interest. A
residence of ten years in the district of which he writes,
comprising Northand Mid-Lincolnshire, and Holderness,
has enabled him to gain a thorough familiarity with the
times of appearance and departure of the birds which
visit it. These points he has noted with great pains and
precision, as is proved by the fact that he has been .able
clearly to trace the points of the district at which each
of the migratory birds enter and depart, most doing so
from the sea-coast, the grey wagtail, cuckoo, and common
dotteril, being the only exceptions. The sections, of
considerable length, devoted to the dates on which to
expect the various wading birds, and the conditions of
weather which cause these to vary, will be of great interest
to sportsmen in the locality ; the woodcock, snipe, and
plover receive the fullest attention. Among the rare
birds’ that are recorded as having been met with formerly,
or of which one or more specimens have been shot lately,
we find the cream-coloured courser, Macqueen’s bustard
(the only British example), Tengmalin’s owl, and the
tawny pipit. Most extraordinary of all is a jacamar in
the collection of Canon Tristram, which was shot in
1849 by S. Fox, a gamekeeper, near Gainsborough; as
the author remarks, “it must ever remain an ornitho-
logical puzzle how it could have reached this country.”
We recommend this excellent little work to all ornitho-
logists and sportsmen,

[Sune 5, 1873

theory of evolution, and other Darwinian doctrines, can-
not be proved or disproved by newspaper controversy or
theological discussion.” The first paper is by Mr. Howard
Saunders, F.Z.S., on the Ornithology of Spain, which is
followed by a short paper on Vanessa Antiopa, by Mr. C.

These will be

-instances as that adduced by your correspondent.

Ret awe, .

3]

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zz he Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. }

Permanent Variation of Colour in Fish

A QUESTION of some interest is raised by a letter published
by Mr. Saville Kent, in NATURE, vol. viii. p. 25. It is stated that
a Plaice, now in the Brighton Aquarium, has ‘‘the posterior
half of its under surface, usually white, coloured and spotted as
brilliantly as the upper one; the line of demarcation between
these two colours again, though sinuous, is most abrupt,” and
the writer proceeds to say that, on the Darwinian theory, this
may be considered as a remarkable instance of reversion—“‘ the
Pleuronectidze being derived from ancestors originally possessing
bilateral symmetry, and an equal degree of coloration on each
side.

First, as to the fact :—Examples of such colouring among the
Pleuronectide are not very uncommon, and they occur most
frequently in the Flounder (Pleuronectes flesus) and Plaice
(P. platessa). Sometimes it is the upper surface which is thus
affected—more or less of it being purely white. In a specimen
now before me the colouring of the upper surface occurs upon
the under one in numerous blotches of various sizes, and this
mode of distribution is not uncommon. In every instance that
I have heard ef, the line or lines of demarcation, when they
exist, are such as your correspondent describes, but, in extreme
cases, no such line is present—the whole of one surface having
unitormly assumed the colouring of the other. Such abnormal
colouring may occur either upon the upper or lower surfaces ;
the fish in the former case being entirely white, and in the latter
entirely brown.

The rationale offered by your correspondent, although en-

ing, is not unopen to criticism. For nothing can be more
evident to Darwinists than that the colouring of the Pleuronectide
has been acquired because of its protective adaptation to their
peculiar form and habits. But it is difficult to see how such
colouring could have conferred protection upon their free-
swimming ancestors, so that, unless we make the highly anti-
Darwinian supposition that the common progenitor was coloured
in anticipation of the habits to be contracted by its offspring,
there is only one hypothesis open to us, viz., that the unmodified
progenitor adopted, through natural selection, the habit of lying
on its side Jecause of its original sandy colour. As this view,
however, will be rejected by all who know how much easier
colour is to modify than habit or structure, we are compelled to
adopt the supposition, as being the most probable, that the
coloration of the P/euronectide is the result and not the cause of
their form, and has, therefore, been acquired during the process

_ of their flattening.

Although; however, we cannot, without gratuitous supposition,
imagine that the unmodified ancestor of the group in question
was coloured exactly like his progeny, there is still one other
hypothesis by which atavism might be called in to explain such
Whatever
may have been the original cause of the flattening taking place,
it is not likely that the initial variations (whether these were
sudden and considerable, or gradual and slight), presented nearly
so great a modification as that which we now observe. During
these initial stages the partially modified individuals may have
lain indifferently on either side, and so have acquired protective
colouring on both. As the flattening, however, proceeded (from
whatever cause), and the bones ‘of the skull, etc., became more
and more contorted, the new exigencies of the case might have
caused the left side to be more and more usedas a ventral
surface, until its colouring, being of no further use, was allowed
gradually to disappear. Upon this view the deviations from the
normal colouring which now occur would be reversions, not to
the bilaterally-symmetrical ancestors of the flat-fishes, but to their
partially modified offspring. And, if this view were tenable, it
might throw some light upon the otherwise inexplicable fact that
some species of Pleuronectide are normally reversed—z.e. the left
side instead of the right, constituting the upper surface—while
in both kind of species individuals often occur which are reversed
with reference to their specific type.

As however, this explanation is rather far-fetched, and, more-
over, fails to account for the appearance of the partly white
and the wholly white specimens above mentioned, it is best, I
think, altogether to abandon the reversion theory,

Another, and, to my mind, a more probable oneis open to us.

NATURE

IOI

Accepting the occurrence of abnormally reversed fish as an un-
explained fact, we might, @ Ariorv7, expect that a cross between a
normal and a reversed individual of the same species might pre-
sent the appearance described in your correspondent’s letter—the
abrupt, though sinuous line of demarcation between the two
colours, which always attends the occurrence of this variation,
being precisely analogous to that which obtains in higher
animals when piebald. Moreover, the abnormal coloration being
of most frequent occurrence in the Flounder and Plaice—fish
which are also the most frequently reversed—and the occasional
appearance of the entirely white and entirely brown varieties, are
just the facts we should anticipate were this explanation the
correct one. Of course it may be objected that abnormal
colouring is not of nearly so frequent occurrence as abnormal
reversal, but when we remember how utterly ignorant we are
regarding the causes which determine reversal in the Pleuronec-
tide, and the blending or non-blending of colours in all animals
when crossed, we should not lay too much stress upon this ob-
jection.

’ The truth or falsehood of this explanation would admit of
easy experimental test on the part of the Brighton Aquarium
authorities. Should they, however, undertake such, they must
not rest satisfied with mere simple crosses, however numerous,
but also try various complex and reciprocal ones. The piebald
fish they possess should also be crossed with several normal and
reversed Plaice. Should all their experiments prove unsuccessful,
they would still be interesting as tending to throw us back upon
the only remaining explanation, viz. that all these instances of
abnormal coloration are independent sports, and so affording us
by far the most striking of the many examples in the animal
kingdom of the tendency towards bilateral symmetry which ab-
normal colouring frequently presents.

Dunskaith, Ross-shire, May 15 GEORGE J, ROMANES

Venomous Caterpillars

THE concluding words of Mr. H. S. Wilson’s letter in your
last number only reiterate the truth of a fact. Nearly all British
entomologists who have collected Zepidopiera must have had
painful experience of the irritation caused by the hairs of some
one or other of our Bombyces that have very hairy larvae. or-
thesia chrysorrhea is the greatest delinquent in this respect ; and
some years since I suffered intense agony after collecting the
pup of this species. The hairs of the caterpillar are woven
into the cocoon and the web surrounding it, and I recommend
anyone in search of a counter-irritant to rub his face and neck
with his hands after collecting these pupz. The result, although
painful, will be edifying and admonitory. The hairs have no
effect upon the harder skin of the palm of the hand and fingers ;
and I believe (with most entomologists) that their action is purely
mechanical, 7.e. they pierce the tender skin in multitudes. A
precisely similar, though less severe, effect is caused by the hairs
of some Boraginaceous plants, ¢.g. Echium vulgare, On the Con-
tinent the extreme irritation caused by the hairs of Cnethocampa
procéssionea is well known ; and the introduction of a brood of
these larvce into a drawing-room would probably be followed by
effects similar to those caused by the king’s ‘“‘great flea” in
Faust.

At present I consider that the existence of caterpillars actually
venomous (¢.¢. with a poison-gland at the base of each hair) re-
quires confirmation. There are some pachydermatous individuals
upon whom the hairs of Bombyces have litde or no effect. I
am unhappily not one of those, but my mental hide repels the
insidious attacks of romancers in Natural History.

Lewisham, May 16 Rosert McLACHLAN

BETWEEN the years 1857 and 1862 when stationed at Be-
lozi, the capital of British Honduras, I made the acquaintance
of a so-called venomous caterpillar, which was held in very
great dread by the natives, who averred that ‘‘its die always
produced fever.”

Knowing their super-titious habits, and that, as far as my
knowledge of natural history went, there did not exist a cater-
pillar capable of producing a wound of any kind by diting, I
resolved to test the truth of the assertion, Accordingly, and to
the intense horror of the bystanders, I took one in my hand from
a tree that was literally covered with them, It was about
14 in, long, by 2 in. thick, of a blue-grey tint, and in addition
to the fine long hairs which clothed it, was armed with clusters
of short spines. These clusters were formed nto rows

102

and contained about a dozen spines each. After a careful
examination, I came to the conclusion that they were most
likely to be the seat of the venomous propensities attributed to
the insect, so I struck the back of my right hand against them
two or three times to see what would be the effect. They were
very brittle, and broke off as they entered the skin. I thought
no more about it till about an hour had elapsed, when I
experienced in the wrist adead pain which gradually extended
to the arm-pit, followed by a swelling of the glands.

For the whole day the pain was sufficient to render my arm
useless ; hence I thought that there must be some poisonous
secretion in the spines, for the irritation caused by fine points,
even if barbed, would scarcely produce such an effect. The
pain died away in the evening, unattended by any feverish
symptoms whatever, for I was in excellent health at the time.
Next day I examined several of the spines under the microscope ;
they were not barbed, but hollow, and under pressure emitted a
colourless transparent fluid, to which I attributed the poisonous
qualities which caused me so much pain. A. M, FEsTING

The Demagnetisation of Needles.

Ir may not be generally known that magnetised needles, like
those used in galvanometers and telegraphs, are easily and
rapidly demagnetised in the neighbourhood of other magnets,
when the fields of the two magnets are not coincident—that is,
when their respective lines of force are not in the same
direction. ; :

A striking instance of this has just been brought to my notice.
A tangent galyanometer used for taking daily readings of the
escape of the current to earth upon wires, when they are dis-
connected at their terminal points, was found constantly and
gradually to be losing its delicacy. This was traced to be due
to the demagnetisation of the needle. The needle was re-
hardened and even changed but with the same effect. The gal-
vanometer was fixed near some Wheatstone’s A B C instruments,
which, being worked by magneto-electric currents, have power-
ful permanent magnets within them. The galvanometer was
shifted to the other side of the office, when the effect entirely
ceased.

Hence those who have delicate galvanometers should be care-
ful to see that they are not kept in the field of permanent
magnets, unless, as in the case of the mariner’s compass, they
are free to move in the direction of the lines of forces of the
magnetic field in which they lie,

Southampton, May 20 W. H. PREECE

Microscopes—Information Wanted -

I am following up somé investigations and experiments in
which I require certain data, which, however, aE cannot at present
arrive at, not being in possession of sufficiently delicate and
exact instrumental appliances. The information which I now
desire to elicit from some more experienced observers than myself
is of such importance as to be both useful and interesting to
many of your readers, and I therefore crave your insertion of
this communication, The information I require is all the more
important as having a bearing upon many questions which are
now attracting public attention, such as spontaneous generation,
the initial stage and transitional forms of living organisms, also
various researches in experimental physics, chemistry, &c. I
desire to arrive at the following data :—

1. What is the estimated dimensions of most minute particles
of matter which can be visible, under any circumstances or con-
ditions, under the highest powers of the microscope? I leave
out of consideration (under this head) the question whether such
matter is living or dead, organic or inorganic, or in fact regard-
less of any of its properties whatever except its mere visibility as
a minute portion of matter. Some observers speak of visible
particles syaoth and gpy5yoth of an inch diameter ; this is
surely near the limit. °F

2. What is the best or most accurate method of arriving at
an estimate of the dimensions of such minute objects as are too
small to admit of actual measurement by any of the appliances
now in use? Every microscopist knows from experience that
objects may be distinctly visible, not as a mere point, but having
an appreciable diameter, and yet be too minute for actual mea-
surement to any degree of accuracy. ¢

3. Have the most recently constructed microscopic objectives,
such as the 7yth or yth, any advantages over the 7th or y'yth

[%une 5, 1873

inch objectives in the determination of the data above referred
to? and have immersion lenses any advantage in this respect?
I find some difference of opinion on this point. Some micros
scopists consider that a really first-class }yth with the use of deep
eyepieces will enable us to see anything whatever which can be
seen by any other objective of shorter focus, On the other
hand, it is evident that a great number of the most experienced
microscopists think otherwise ; and from the very fact of their
purchase of such expensive high powefS, argue that such lenses
are found to supply what other powers cannot accomplish.

It appears to me that there is too much of vague and indefinite

assertion in regard to the comparative powers and qualities of _

microscopic objectives, and it is very desirable that some more
definite results should be arrived at. With what precision and

accuracy the results of astronomical observations are made ! and

taking into consideration that many of these results are obtained
by different methods of observation, using different instruments,
and by different observers, it is astonishing that the discrepancies
and errors of observation are so small. It is generally admitted
that the microscope is, to say the least, equally perfect, if not
more so, than the telescope ; and we should therefore expect a
corresponding degree of accuracy in the results of microscopical
observations. There are no doubt many who, like myself, have
hitherto worked with only the medium and low powers, but
wish to be possessed of the improved objectives of high power,
but from want of sufficient information it is difficult to make a
suitable choice. H. H.
Melbourne, Victoria, March 27

Arctic Exploration

THE story of the American Arctic Expedition under Mr. Hall
is a wonderfully curious one ; but are we justified, from what
we have been told, in coming to the conclusion that the part of
the crew of the /o/avis, that has been rescued in so remarkable
a manner, are “‘ deserters ?”

As far as I have understood the reports which have appeared
in the papers, none of the rescued men have said they were de-
serters ; and until we hear what those who remained on board
the Po/aris have to say, it appears to be unjust and reprehensible
to bring so grave an accusation against men, possibly innocent.

Should it so happen that Mr. Tyson and his companions are
deserters, can we put faith in the correctness of any part of their
story?

There is certainly some mistake about the disposal of the six
boats of the ship. As far as I can make out, only four, or at
most five, are accounted for, namely, two abandoned in Smith
Sound, and the two on the ice with Mr. Tyson, one of which
was burnt for fuel, and the other, that in which they were when
rescued, and which was taken on board the Zigris. io

May 31 JOHN RAE

The Westerly Progress of Cities

In his work on the Atmosphere, M. Flammarion draws atten-
tion to a peculiarity in the habits of our large towns which
everyone mu:t have noticed. ‘*‘ The wealthy classes have a
pronounced tendency to emigrate westward, leaving the eastern
districts for the labouring populations, This remark applies
not only to Paris, but to most great cities—London, Vienna,
Berlin, St. Petersburg, Turin, Liege, Toulouse, Montpellier,
Caen, and even Pompeii.”

Having frequently remarked this ‘‘ westing” in many English
towns, I have lately written to several friends, asking for definite
information on th’s point, concerning the town in which they
are resident. With scarcely an exception the reply of each
showed, to alter Bishop Berkeley’s line a little, that :—‘* West-
ward the course of fashion takes its way.” This is true,
I believe, of Edinburgh, Dublin in former years at any rate,
Glasgow, Liverpool, and Manchester, to some extent, Birming-
ham, Leeds, Southamptom, and Bristol, No doubt many of
your readers can very largely extend this list ; it would be inte-
resting to collect wide information on this question, For sup-
posing it established as a general fact, what an excellent specu-
lation to buy up land in the west of a rapidly growing town like

Leicester or Bradford? I am ignorant of these things; perhaps ~

it is common to do so already.

Whence arises this tendency? It can hardly be an accident,
nor can it be due to the direction of the river beside which the
town may happen to be built, for in the towns named, many o

— »

pee uf ey. +.
June 5. 1873]
the streams, where they exist, run in different directions. M.
Flammarion thinks the westward movement is caused by the
_ direction of sunset, towards which people feel disposed to form
their gardens, build their houses, and in that direction most
inclined to walk ; the evening and not the morning being their
usual time of recreation. Is not a more probable explanation
' to be found in the general dislike of an easterly wind? And,
"moreover, it has been pointed out that a westerly wind usually
causes the greatest fallin the barometer, and thus the eastern
portion of a town becomes inundated with the effluvia which
arises on such occasions. Another and perhaps more potent
cause may be the prevalence in Europe of south-westerly winds
during the greater part of the year, whereby the smoke and
' vitiated air of a town is carried to the north-east more frequently
than elsewhere ; so that it is notorious the west end of a city
is freer from smoke than the east end. Possibly all these causes
may combine to produce this curious occidental march of the
fashionable quarter. W. F. BARRETT
Tsieworth, May 5

Etymology of Aphis

WITH regard to the etymology of Aphis, I find the following
in Lennis’ ‘‘ Synopsis der Natur-geschichte des Thier-reichs,”

“Aphis, Blattlaus, nach Fabricius von ép{ornut trennen,
abstehen ; richtiger vielleicht apucca von dévw schépfen ; musste
dann aber Aphys heissen.”

The second explanation is ingenious ; but neither seems to my
mind satisfactory. W. W. SPICER

Itchen Abbas Rectory, Alresford, May 14

Phosphorescence in Wood

ONE wet evening last autumn some pieces of phosphorescent
wood were brought to me, which had formed part of a dead
beech-tree that had been cut down during the day. They shone
brightly that evening, The next night they were dark until
dipped in water, when the light revived but was much fainter
than before. On the third night they seemed to have lost the
oS entirely, for water produced no visible effect on
them.

Your correspondent, Mr. W. G. Smith, states that the lumi-
nosity of decaying wood is due to the presence of various kinds
of fungus, but does not say what is the cause of it either in fungi
or glow-worms. There is something so striking in the light
unaccompanied by sensible heat, that an unlearned person’s
curiosity is roused to know whether phosphorescence is akin to
burning or not, Where can one learn what is known about it ?

Cc. A. M,

Tears and Care of Monkeys for their Dead

WE have heard much of late about the emotions of animals,
and might have heard it sooner had Charles Bell’s profound
work on the ‘* Anatomy and Expression,” received due attention.
The moral or psychical emotions of the brutes most resembling
man in structure are peculiarly interesting, and sufficient obser-
yations as to this point on the monkeys seem to be yet wanting.
Before I saw a picture of a weeping monkey, by Edwin Landseer,
I always thought that this animal could be moved neither to
tears nor laughter ; and I still think that more observations, by
persons most familiar with monkeys, are required on this sub-
ject, and hope to elicit them by this note in NaATuRE. But an
affectionate care of brutes for their dead has been considered
either very rare or inexistent, though it would seem to have
been shown by monkeys. At least, we have evidence to this
effectin the ‘‘ Oriental Memoirs,” 4 vols. 4to, London, 1813, by
James Forbes, F.R.S., and indeed, very likely, there may be still
better observations, with which I am unacquainted, on the sub-
ject. Here is an extract thereon from Mr. Forbes’s book :—
**One of a shooting party, under a banian tree, killed a female
monkey and carried it to his tent, which was soon surrounded
by forty or fifty of the tribe, who made a great noise and seemed
disposed to attack their aggressor. They retreated when he
presen’ed his fowling-piece, the dreadful effect of which they

, had witnessed and appeared perfectly to understand. The head
of the troop, however, stood his ground, chattering furiously ;

NATURE

103

the sportsman, who perhaps felt some little degree of compunc-
tion for having killed one of the family, did not like to fire at
the creature, and nothing short of firing would suffice to drive
him off. At length he came to the door of the tent, and finding
threats of no avail, began a lamentable moaning, and hy the
most expressive gesture seemed to beg for the dead body. It
was given him ; he took it sorrowfully in his arms, and bore it
away to his expecting companions: they who were witnesses of
this extraordinary scene, resolved never again to fire at one of
the monkey race.” GEORGE GULLIVER
Canterbury, May 24

RECENT WORKS ON ECHINODERMS

AMONG the most important of recent works on

Echinoderms may be mentioned “ The Revision of
the Echini,” by Alex. Agassiz, Of this work, which will
be completed in four parts, Parts 1 and 2 were published
early in this year, Part 3 is going through the press and
may possibly be published in August next ; it will contain
the description of species not included in Part 2. Part 4
may be published this year ; it will contain a review of
the anatomy and classification of the order. This part
will not be so well illustrated as the author had intended,
for six plates of anatomy, the results of many years’
labour, with all Mr. Agassiz’s drawings, were lost in the
great conflagration of November 9, and it will be im-
possible to supply their places, The present parts are
accompanied by an atlas of forty-nine plates. Part 1
contains, in addition to an introductory chapter, the
bibliography of the subject, a chapter on Nomenclature,
a Chronological List of Names used from 1554, a
Synonymic Index, and a chapter on Geographical Distri-
bution. Part 2 contains Description of the Echini of the
Eastern Coast of the United States, together with a report
on the deep sea Echini collected in the Straits of Florida,
by Count Pourtalés, Assistant United States’ Coast Survey
in the years 1867—1869,

The synonymic index will be simply invaluable to the
investigator of the Echini. He who investigates the life-
history of a species must surely know the name of the
species he is investigating. It is therefore, even from
this point of view, by no means an unimportant task to
unravel the complicated and tangled network ofsynonyms ;
themselves an evidence of lack of knowledge on the part
of many. Agassiz regards—and very correctly so—
synonomy as the History of the Species, not. its natural
history. His opportunities for examining the types of
those authors who have written on the subject were
immense, and he has thoroughly availed himself of them.
The great Museums of London, Paris, Copenhagen,
Vienna, Stockholm, and elsewhere, were all visited by
Agassiz; while the original specimens described by
Klein, Gray, Desor, Michelin, and others were most care-
fully examined, and it must not be forgotten that in addi-
tion the Harvard College Museum contains one of the
most perfect collections of Echini in the world.

It would serve no useful purpose if in this place we
examined in any detail the catalogue of species of Echini
given on pp. 88, 203 of this memoir ; for convenience of
reference the genera and the species in their respective
genera are arranged alphabetically, but there is added a
list of all known species arranged in their natural order,
with the name adopted by Agassiz, the original name and
the principal localities.

In treating of the geographical distribution of the
Echini, Agassiz remarks that it was a matter of great
surprise to him to find how few species, hitherto not
noticed, were to be found in the European collections,
Everywhere, although from different localities, were found
repetitions of species already well known—so that in
making a map of thelittoral regions, but short stretches
of shore were left out as unexplored. Though therefore
new species may and will undoubtedly turn up, even in

7 > 5 is a Gis a pint - rey rote ’ ian “t ti ies
fei NATURE | ¥une 5, 1873

well explored localities, we probably have even now a
very fair representation of the littoral Echini of the world.
It would of course be rash to make any predictions as to
the number of new forms that will doubtless be brought to
light by the researches of Wyville Thomson—but these
will probably be deep-sea forms. Did space allow we
would gladly have dwelt longer on this most interesting
portion of Agassiz’s memoir.

The total number of genera adopted is 90, with 207
species. The atlas accompanying these parts contains
49 plates—the first seven are devoted to charts, repre-
senting the distribution of the Echini throughout the old
and new worlds, and the remaining portion to figures of
some of the new or little known species. Some of the
plates are photographs—and very excellent ones — others
are photo-printed by the albert type process, and while
these have scarcely the brilliancy or evenness of detail
as such engravings as those of Echini in the expedition to
Egypt, yet when the enormous difference in cost is taken
into account, these photo-printed plates must be a subject
of congratulation to the working and not over-rich natura-
list. Some others of the plates are lithographed from
Agassiz’s drawings, and these we would select as being the
most useful in this atlas.

Next we would mention a very important paper by
Prof. Lovén, published in “ Ofversigt af Kongl. Veten-
skaps-Akademiens Férhandlingar,” 1871, No. 8. This
paper was read on June 14, 1871, but was not, we think,
published until the summer of 1872, and as a translation
of it in full by Mr. Dallas has been published in the
“ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” vol. x., 4th
series, October to December 1872, we will but very
briefly allude to it here. Prof. Lovén describes some
very small spheroidal button-like bodies furnished with a
short stalk, which is normally attached to a small, slightly
projecting tubercle, which he calls Spheridia; these occur
apparently in all Echinoidea except Cidaris ; they are
fully described as they occur in the different families.
Lovén next describes the order which prevails in the dis-
position of the ambulacral plates throughout the whole
class, for which he even gives a formula.

Passing from the sea urchins to the Brittle stars, we
have also, from the Proceedings of the Royal Academy
of Stockholm, a paper by Ljungman describing the col-
lection of Ophiuroids made by Dr. Goés in the West
Indies, in the Josephine Expedition, Fifty-seven species
are enumerated, of which fifteen are described as new.
Many of these latter were dredged from very considerable
depths. The author adds to his paper a conspectus of
the genera of Ophiodermatidz and a conspectus of the
Atlantic species of the genera Amphiura and Amphi-
pholis.

Liitken, in an important memoir published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Academy of Copenhagen, Part 2,
1872, entitled “ Ophiuridarum novarum vel minus cogni-
tarum descriptiones nonnullz,” describes a number of
new species from different parts of the world, as well as
gives some details of little known species. To this
memoir there is appended a chapter “ On Spontaneous
Division in the Star Fishes,” at the conclusion of which
the author sums up with the following general proposi-
tions :—(1), The most energetic manifestations of the
faculty of regeneration in animals is the power of divisi-
bility ; (2), In certain forms of Radiates, in which the
faculty of regeneration is very highly developed, spon-
taneous division takes place alone, as in Ophiuroids and
Asteroids, or together with gemmation, as in Actinia ;
(3), Actual spontaneous division or “ Schizogony,” in the
Actinia, Medusa, Asteroids, and Ophiuroids (which must
not be confounded with the disguised forms of gemmation
met with in Infusoria and certain Chetopods) may be
regarded as a peculiar form of Agamic reproduction such
as Blastogony, Sporogony, and Parthenogony.

Lastly we have to mention the appearance of a modest

catalogue of Echinodermata of New Zealand, with
diagnosis of the species, by Capt. F. W. Hutton, F.G.S.,
Assistant Geologist, Colonial Department. In it thirty-
four species are described, eighteen of them being de-
scribed as probably new to science.

E, PERCEVAL WRIGHT

ON THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS

xX.

I HAVE not yet done with the spot-spectrum re-

ferred to in last article, Not only is there gene-
ral absorption, but there are indications of increased
selective absorption in the case of the line D, as
I could also show if I were dealing with the iron
lines, the magnesium lines, or the other well-known
lines of the solar spectrum. Not only, then, have we a
general absorption, increasing as the middle of the sun-
spot is approached, but this sodium line D is also thick-
ened, so that we have, as a result of a single examination
of a single sunspot, the fact that a sunspot is due to
general absorption, #/us special absorption in some par-
ticular lines.

Now, in what I said some time since on the radiation of
hydrozen, I pointed out to you that the F line of hydrogen
was different from the C line—in fact, I showed that it
widened out towards the sun—and I also told you that
Dr. Frankland and myself have asserted that that widen-
ing out is due to pressure, and we have been able artifi-
cially to widen out this F line of hydrogen by increasing
the pressure. Now it struck us that possibly we might
find some connection between that widening out of the F
line of hydrogen and the widening out of the sodium line
in the spot which I have just shown you. There is an
experiment by which it is perfectly easy for us to repro-
duce this artificially, so that you see we can begin at the
very outside of the sun by means of hydrogen, and see
the widening of the hydrogen lines as the sun is ap-
proached ; and then we can take the very sun itself to
pieces, and, by examining the pieces, see that the sodium
lines vary in thickness in different parts of the spot, as
the hydrogen does outside the spot region altogether ; in
fact, the pressure is continually increasing down in the
spot exactly in the same way as it increases in the hydro-
gen envelope towards the sun. ;

If we take a tube containing some metallic sodium
sealed up in hydrogen, and pass a beam of light from the
electric lamp through it, by decomposing this beam with
our prisms we shall obtain an ordinary continuous spec-
trum without either bright or dark lines, but by heating
the metallic sodium in the tube which is placed in front
of the slit, we really fill that tube with the vapour of
sodium ; and as the heating will be slow, the sodium
vapour will rise very gently from the metal at the bottom,
so that we shall get layers of different densities of sodium
vapour filling the tube. Immediately the sodium begins
to rise in vapour, a black absorption line shows itself in
our spectrum in precisely the same position as the yellow
line of sodium, and you will find that the thickness of
the sodium absorption line will vary with the density
of the stratum of vapour through which the light passes.
Thus from the upper part of the tube we obtain a fine
delicate line, which gradually thickens as we approach the
bottom ; and thus we reproduce-the appearance in the
spectrum of the spot where the layers of sodium vapour
are very dense, and the very fine delicate line of the
sodium vapour when thrown up into the sun’s chromo-
sphere,

We must next speak of what happens in the case of the
magnesium lines. A very obvious magnesium line is
lettered 4 in the solar spectrum.
rated by different intervals. There is a very impor-

It is a triple line, sepa-

.

lope which I have called the Chromosphcre,

*y ioeieuen . e
: - Pe
Fune 5, 1873] _ NATURE 105
tant fact connected with these lines, which appear | are travelling over the faz» «f «re central Jumi-

when magnesium vapour is thrown up into the enve-
By
means of the new method of research, it is quite

“possible to see, as I explained to you on a former occasion,

what passes, which the eye could not possibly see. For
instance, it is quite possible, by means of the spectro-
scope, to detect the existence of magnesium vapour out-
side the sun, although you know that, except during
eclipses, we are never able to see these vapours. What
I wish to call your attention to in the present case is this.
We have there the three magnesium lines, and two of
them are much thicker than the remaining one: and
these two lines travel very much higher into the outside
region than does the third cne. Now, ycu will see ina
moment that that indicates to usa fact something like
this,—that the spectrum of magnesium, such as is gene-
rally at work, which cuts out these very black absorption
lines in the solar spectrum. while the sodium gives us
the yellow line D, is really a thing which is competent to
give us three lines. This vapcur, I say, is a thing, gene-
rally speaking, competent to give us three lines in this
position ; but if it so happens that when the magnesium
is thrown up to a particular height we simply get two
lines, the third stopping short, I think you will see that
there is some force in one’s reasoning, when one suggests
that possibly in those regions where we find the hydrogen
F line thin instead of thick, as I have shown it to you,
and where the magnesium lines become reduced to two
instead of three, the spectrum of magnesium vapour, like
the spectrum of hydrogen, becomes very much more
simple by the reduction of pressure, and therefore, that we
should be able artificially, as in the case of hydrogen, and
as inthe case of sodium, to reproduce this result. In
fact, it is perfectly easy to reproduce it, for we find by
reducing the pressure of magnesium vapour we really can
reduce that triple line of magnesium to a double one ; so
that, you see, we have three distinct lines of research, all
leading us to the fact that where Kirchhoff placed an im-
mensely dense atmosphere around a liquid sun, we really
have vapour of considerable tenuity, by no means so
dense as he supposed.

There is another point of very great interest which I
should bring before you. ;

Mr. Huggins, who has done so much in his researches
on stars, told us some few years ago that the spectrum
of that wonderful variable star + Coronz, which had
been just discovered, indicated that, over and above
the light which we got from the star generally, we
get evidence of incandesccnt hydrogen in the spec-
trum, so that the spectrum was a thing such as had
never been seen before; for we got, in addition to
the ordinary evidence of absorption visible in the
spectrum of a star, as in the spectrum of the sun, indi-
cations also of selective radiation. There are indications
of beght lines superposed above the others. Now, let
me tell you—and this is a very important part of the ques-
tion—that by observing the various changes that take
place in our central luminary, it is quite possible to see on
the sun almost any day evidence of its being violently
agitated ; that there are certain regions of the sun which
appear exactly as that variable star did—that is to say,
in addition to the ordinary absorption lines visible in the
solar spectrum, the spectrum of these regions indicates to
us that the hydrogen, instead of being black, instead of
reversing the spectrum, as you have seen it in these
spectra that I have shown you, really is bright, or else

e hydrogen lines cease to be visible altogether, as in
a Orionis.

I have to give you, as the last application of spectrum
analysis, the power which the prism gives us of inves-
tigating, so to speak, the meteorology of the sun, the
velocity with which the different stars are moving
through space, and the velocity with which the storms

nary. Many of ycu know, no doubt, that Mr. Huggins,
in his observations of the spectrum of the star Sirius,
saw that the hydrogen lines were much developed ; and
in a further examination, carried on by the method in
which the spectrum of hydrogen and other vapours which
he wished to examine were absolutely visible in the field
of view at the same time as was the spectrum of the star,
Mr. Huggins was astonished to find that the hydrogen
lines no longer occupied their usual positions, but that
they were all jerked, so to speak, a little to the side of
the place which they occupied in the spectrum of the
hydrogen which he rendered incandescent in his tubes.
The F line of hydrogen which he observed in the spec-
trum of Sirius he found did not exactly occupy the
same position in the spectrum as did the actual F line
of hydregen, the incandescent hydrogen with which he
compared it (Fig. 53). Owing to a physical law, which I
have not time to explain to you now, it is perfectly easy, by
means of the prism, to determine the velocity with which
the light-source is moving to or from us; and therefore,
if this holds good for absorption, we could determine the
velocity with which any absorbing medium is rushing to
or receding from us. In the case of Sirius, for instance,
Mr. Huggins determined that the velocity of the star in
a direction from the eye, the measure of recession, was
something like twenty miles a second. I am sorryI have
not time to fully explain this very beautiful adaptation of
the spectroscope, but I may say that the position of a
line, bright or dark, in the spectrum depends upon its
wave-length—that is to say, the length of the wave of
“light which produces that colour. Thus, the length of a-
wave of red light is about yy}o99 of an inch, and that ofa
wave of violet light is about ; 155 of an inch. I think
when I mention that, you will see at once the possibility
of determining any alteration of velocity—for an altera-
tion of wave velocity we have, or appear to have, whether
we move towards an object, or whether an object moves
towards us, just in the same way as in the case of sound,
and in the case of a wave reaching the shore. Suppose
yourself a swimmer carried on a wave; if you are going
with the wave it seems long, but if you attempt to swim
against it it seems short. So with all these waves, beating
from all these orbs peopling the depths of space on to the
earth. If by the motion of those bodies or by our own mo-
tion, the waves are crushed together, we get an alteration in
the light, which the prism alone is able to determine. If
the luminous object is approaching the eye rapidly, the
vibrations causing light will, of course, fall on the eye
more frequently in the same time than if the bodies were
at rest—or, in other words, the waves will be shortened ;
then the position of the dark or bright lines, as the case
may be, will be shifted in the direction of the most re-
frangible rays—that is to say, towards the violet ; whilst
ifthe bodies are separating, the shifting will take place in
the direction of the red or least refrangible rays. In the
case of Sirius, the star was receding from us, and we got
longer waves, and the lines are nearer the red end of
the spectrum to such an extent as to leave unaccounted
for a motion of recession from our sun amounting to some-
thing between 18and 22 miles per second. Other stars, such
as Betelgeux, Rigel, Castor, Regulus, and many of the stars
in Ursa Major, are found to be moving away from the sun.
Some, however, move rapidly towards us. Arcturus ap-
proaches us with a velocity of 55 miles per second ;
Vega and a Cygni, Pollux and @ Ursa Majoris, also ap-
proach the sun with a velocity varying from 40 to 60
miles per second. If now we take a spot-spectrum
(Fig. 54), in which, instead of the sodium line D, we
have the F line of hydrogen, this strange crookedness
which you notice is really a crookedness due to the fact
that in one place we have incandescent hydrogen rising
up with tremendous velocity, and in another we have it
rushing down cool with tremendous velocity ; again, we

106

NATURE

| Fusnz 5, 1873

ve eee
pie) > eee

have hydrogen in a different condition altogether. We
know that in this case we have a variation of velocity,
because we get distinct changes in one direction or the
other, 21a we get changes in both directions. We can
determine by the amount of crookedness of the hydrogen,
whether bright or dark, how far it is driven from its
normal condition, and then how fast per second the
hydrogen is travelling. In one case the velocity was
something like 38 miles a second; in other words, we
had heated hydrogen coming up at the rate of something

Fic. 54.—Deviation of the F line in a spot-spectrum.

like 38 miles a second, and cool hydrogen rushing down
at something like an equivalent rate. Now, we are not
only enabled, by a practical application of the prism, to
determine these up and down rushes on the sun, by which
we are enabled to learn much of its physical constitution,
but also the rate at which storms travel over the sun—
what we should call winds. The way that has been
done will be perfectly clear on an inspection of the en~
graving (Fig. 55). It may appear strange to you that we
should be able to observe a cyclone on the sun, but I
hope to be able to prove to you that this ?s really a
cyclone. Here is a spectrum of the region of the sun
near the limb, and here is the hydrogen line. It is clear,
if what I have said is true, that the incandescent hydro-
gen is there receding from us.because the line inclines to
the red. It is evident also, that in this case, when we
get the line widened out towards the violet, it is
coming towards us ; therefore we have the thing travelling
in both directions. It is obvious to you, I think, that if
the slit enabled us to take in the whole cyclone, we should
get an indication of motion in two directions ; we should
have the line diverted both towards the violet part of the
spectrum, in the case of the hydrogen rushing towards us,

Fic. s5.—Shifting of the F line in a solar cyclone.’

and towards the red in the case of the hydrogen rushing
away from us in this circular storm, and the extreme
velocity will be determined by the extreme limit to which
the hydrogen line extends. In this case, the storm was
moving with a velocity of something like 1c0 miles a
second, which, I dare say, strikes you as somethirg
terrible ; but if you compare the size of the sun with that
of the earth, I think you will see it was nothing very
wonderful after all.

In further evidence of the truth of this, the last appli-
cation of the spectroscope, I will show you two pictures
of solar prominences 27,009 miles high, drawn at an

interval of ten minutes. Here you see, first, the promi-
nence as it appeared at a particular time on a particular day
in March 1869 (Fig. 56). I wish to call your attention to the
left-hand portion of the prominence, which you see is pretty
straight. In ten minutes afterwards the whole thing

Fic, 56.—Prom‘nence observed March 14, 1869, 11h. 5m,

changed, and, as you see by the next picture (Fig. 57), the
nearly straight portionis quite gone, Thatwill give yousome
idea of the indications which the spectroscope reveals to
us of the enormous forces at work in the sun, merely as
representing the stars, for everything we have to say
about the sun, the prism tells us—and it was the first to
tell us—we must assume to be said about the stars.
I have little doubt that, as time rolls on, the spectroscope

Fic. 57.—The same prominence, rth, r5m.

will become, in fact, almost the pocket companion
of every one amongst us; and it is utterly impossible
to foresee what depths of space will not in time be gauged
and completely investigated by this new method of
research.

J. NORMAN LOCKYER

‘

a si) “ i .
\ pnt eS : rs,
© Fune 551873)

ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHO SES OF |. As this process continues the little creature gradually

NATURE | 107

loses its power of swimming and sinks to the bottom,
; : INSECTS * loses the bands and cilia and attaches itself to some
r Vv. stone or other solid substance, by its base, the knob of

‘THE development of the beautiful Comatula rosacea the club being free. The calcareous framework increases
y _ (Fig. 41) has been described in the “ Philosophical | in size, and the expanded head forms itself into a cup,

; ions,” by Prof. Wyville Thomson,” The larva quits round which from five to fifteen delicate tentacles, as
‘ shown in Fig. 44, make their appearance.

In this stage the young animal resembles the Crinoids,
a family of Echinoderms which were very abundant in
earlier geological periods, but which have now almost
disappeared, being, as we see, represented by the young
states of our existing, more advanced, species. This
attached, plant-like condition of Comatula, was indeed at

Fic. 41.—Comatula rosacea (after Forbes).

___ the egg, as shown in Fig. 42, in the form of an oval body
__ about 34; inch in length, something like a small barrel,
! surrounded by four bands or hoops of long vibratile hairs
or ciliz, There is also a still longer tuft of hairs at the
narrower posterior end of the body. Gradually a number
of minute calcareous spines and plates make their appear-
ance (Fig. 43) in the body of this flarva, and at length

ee ate

7
a |
,@
’ \ Fic. 42.—Larva of Comatula rosacea (after Thomson). 43, Larva of Coma-
. a tula rosacea, more advanced. 44, Larva of Comatula rosacea, in the
Pentacrinus state.

first supposed to be a Crinoid, and was named Pentacrinus,
though we now know that it is only a stage in the deve-
lopment of Comatula. The so-called Pentacrinus in-
creases considerably in size, and after various gradual
changes, which time does not now permit me to describe,
quits the stalk, and becomes a free Comatula.

The metamorphoses of the true star-fishes are also very
remarkable. Sars discovered in the year 1835 a curious
little creature about an inch in length, which he named
Bipinnaria asterigera, and which he then supposed to be
allied to the ciliograde Medusz ; subsequent observations
however, made in 1844, suggested to him that it was the

Fic. 45.—Larva of Starfish (Bipinnaria), x 100 (after Muller). 46, Larva of
Starfish (Bipinnaria), x 100, seen from the side, a, mouth ; 4, cesopha-
us: ¢, stomach: c*, intestine. 47, Larva of another Bipinnaria,
ywing the commencement of the starfish. g, canal of the ciliated sac;

#, rudiments of tentacles; d, ciliated band.

arrange themselves in a definite order, so as to form a

bent calcareous club or rod with an enlarged head.

* Continued from p. 70.
t Philosophical Transactions, 186s, vol. cly, . 513.

108

NATURE

‘| Fune 5, 1873 ;

- : : ;
larva of a star-fish, and in 1847 MM. Koren and Daniel-

son satisfied themselves that this was the case.

Figs. 45 and 46 represent the front and side view of a
Bipinnaria found by Muller* near Marseilles. a is the
mouth, é the cesophagus, ¢ the stomach, <’ the intestine.
Fig. 47 represents a somewhat older specimen in which
the Starfish (4) is already beginning to make its appear-
ance, ,

But while certain Starfishes thus go through metamor-
phoses, similar in character to, and not less remarkable
than, those of sea-eggs ; there are others, as, for instance,
the genus Asteracanthium, in which the organs and
appendages special to the Pseudembryo, are in abeyance,
while in Pteraster “the zooid is reduced to an investing
sheet of sarcode.” +

Even in the same species the degree of development
attained by the Jarva differs to a certain extent according
to the state of the temperature, the supply of food, &c.
Thus in Comatula, specimens which are liberally supplied
with sea-water, and kept in a warm temperature, hurry as
it were through their early stages, and the free larva
becomes distorted by the growing Pentacrinus, almost
before it has attained its perfect form. On the other
hand under less favourable conditions, if the temperature
is low, and food less abundant, the early stages are pro-
longed, the larva is longer lived, and reaches a much
higher degree of independent development. Weissmann
has observed similar differences in the larve of Flies,t
and it is obvious that these facts throw much light on the
nature and origin of metamorphoses as we see them
among insects, but the latter question we shall now pro-
ceed to consider.

ON THE ORIGIN OF METAMORPHOSES

The question still remains, Why do insects pass
through metamorphoses? Messrs. Kirby and Spence
tell us they “can only answer that such is the will of
the Creator;Ӥ which, however, is rather a general
confession of faith than an explanation of metamorphoses.
And this they appear to have felt themselves ; for they
immediately proceed to make a further suggestion. “ Yet
one reason,” they say, “for this conformation may be
hazarded. A very important part assigned to insects in
the economy of nature, as I shall hereafter show, is that
of speedily removing superabundant and decaying animal
and vegetable matter. For such agents an insatiable
voracity is an indispensable qualification, and not less so
unusual powers of multiplication. But these faculties are
in a great degree incompatible ; an insect occupied in the
work of reproduction could not continue its voracious
feeding. Its life, therefore, after leaving the egg, is divi-
ded into three stages.”

But there are some insects, as, for instance, the Aphides,
which certainly are notamong theleast voracious, and which
grow and breed at the same time. There are also many
scavengers among other groups of animals, such, for
instance, as the dog, the pig, and the vulture, which
undergo no metamorphosis.

It is certainly true that, as a general rule, growth and
1eproduction do not occur together ; and it follows, almost
as a necessary consequence, that in such cases the first
must precede the second. But this has no immediate
connection with the occurrence of metamorphoses. The
question is, not why an insect does not generally begin to
breed until it has ceased to grow, but why, in attaining to
its perfect form, it passes through such remarkable
changes. And in addition to this, we must consider,
first, the sudden and apparently violent nature of these
transitions, and, secondly, the immobility of the animal
in its pupa state; for undoubtedly the quiescent and

* 1c Zweit. Abb. Pl, 1, Figs 8 and 9. :

+ Thomson, on the Embryology of the Echinodermata, Natural History
Review, 1863, p 4r5.

t Zeits. fur Wiss. Zool, 1864, p. 228.

§ Introduction to Etymology, 6th Ed. i, p. 6,

deathlike condition of the pupa is one of the most re-
markable characteristics of insect-metamorphosis,

In the first place, it must be observed that many species
which differ considerably in their mature state, agree
more nearly when young. Thus birds of the same genus,
or of closely allied genera, which, when mature, differ
much in colour,.are often very similar when young. The
young of the lion and the puma are often striped, and
foetal whales have teeth. Leidy has shown that the milk
teeth of the genus Aguus resemble the permanent teeth
of the ancient Azchitherium, while the milk-teeth of
Anchitherium again approximate to the dental system of
the still earlier s/erychifpus. Rutimeyer, while calling
attention to this interesting observation, adds that the
milk-teeth of Eguus caballus in the same way, and still
more those of 4. /ossz/is, resemble the permanent teeth
of Hipparion. E

In fact, the great majority of animals do go through
well-marked metamorphoses, though in many cases they
are passed through within the egg, and thus do
not come within the popular ken. “La larve,” says
Quatrefages, “ n’est qu’un embryon A vie independante.”*
Those naturalists who accept in any form the theory of
evolution, consider that “the embryonal state of each ©
species reproduces more or less completely the form and —
structure of their Jess modified progenitors.”+ ‘Each
organism,” says Herbert Spencer,f “exhibits within a
short space of time a series of changes which, when <up-
posed to occupy a period indefinitely great, and to go on
in vaiious ways instead of one way, give us a tolerably”
clear conception of organic evolution in general. =~

The naturalists of the older school do not, as Darwin
and Fritz Muller have already pointed out, deny the facts,
though they explain them in a different manner—generally
by the existence of a supposed tendency to diverge from an
original type. Thus Johannes Muller says “ the idea of de-
velopment is not that of mere increase of size, but that of
progress from what is not yet distinguished, but which
potentially contains the distinction in itself, to the actually
distinct,—it is clear that the less an organ is developed,
so much the more does it approach the ty pe, and that;
during its development, it more and more acquires pe-
culiarities. The types discovered by comparative anatomy ~
and developmental history must therefore agree.” . ;

And again, “ What is true in this idea is, that every
embryo at first bears only the type of its section, from
which the type of the class, order, &c., is only afterwards
developed.”

Agassiz also observes that “the embryos of different
animals resemble each other the more the younger they
are.” There are, no doubt, cases in which the earlier
states are rapidly passed through, or but obscurely indi-
cated ; yet we may almost state it as a general propo-
sition, that, whether before or after birth, animals
undergo metamorphoses. The maturity of the young
animal at birth varies immensely. The kangaroo (Zacro-
pus major), which attains a height of seven feet, ten
inches, does not when born exceed one inch and two lines
in length; the chick leaves the egg in a much more ad-
vanced condition than the thrush ; and so among insects
the young cricket is much more advanced, when it leaves
the egg, than the fly or the bee ; and it is a familiar fact,
that in this respect, though not of course to anything like
the same extent, differences occur even within the limit of
one species.

In oviparous animals the condition of the young at
birth depends much on the size of the egg; where the
egg is large, the abundant supply of nourishment enables
the embryo to attain a higher stage of development ;
where the egg is small, and the yolk consequently scanty,
itis soon exhausted, and the embryo requires an addi-

* Metamorphoses de l’Homme et des Animaux, p. 133+
+ Darwin, Origin of Species, 4th Ed, p. 532. 5
} Principles of Biology, vi. p. 349.

Pe. :
tional supply of food. In the former case the embryo is
‘more likely to survive ; but, on the other hand, when the
ggs are large, they cannot be numerous, and a multi-
plicity of germs is, in some circumstances, a great ad-
vantage. Even in the same species the development of
_the egg offers certain differences.*
_ The metamorphoses of insects depend then primarily
‘on the fact that they quit the egg in a very early condi-
tion ; many—-as, for instance, flies and bees—before the
thoracic segments are differentiated ; others—as locusts,
dragon flies, &c., after the formation of the legs, but
_ before that of the wings.
We may now pass to the second part of the sub-
ject, that is to say, the sudden and abrupt instance
‘of the changes which insects undergo. The deve-
lopment of an Orthopterous insect, indeed —say, for
| instance, of a grasshopper—from birth to maturity is so
gradual, that but for the influence on our nomenclature
exercised by the most striking changes which occur in
insects of the Heteromorphous series, they would perhaps
never have been classed as metamorphoses. But though
the changes from the caterpillar to the chrysalis, as from
the chrysalis to the butterfly, are apparently sudden and
‘abrupt, this is in reality more apparent than real ; the
_ changes in the internal organs, though rapid, are in reality
gradual ; and even as regards the external form, though
the metamorphosis may take only a few moments, this is
but the change of outer skin—the drawing away, as it
were, of the curtain; and the new form which then ap-
= has been in preparation for days or, perhaps, weeks
before.
- Swammerdam, indeed, supposed (and his view was
adopted by Kirby and Spence) that the larva contained
within itself “the germ of the future butterfly, enclosed
_ in what will be the case of the pupa, which is itself in-
cluded in three or more skins, one over the other, that
will successively cover the larva.” This isa mistake ; but
it is true that, if a larva is examined shortly before it
is full grown, the future pupa may be traced within it. In
the same minner, if we examine a pupa which is about
_ to disclose the butterfly, we find the future insect, soft in-
deed and imperfect, but still easily recognisable, lying
_ more or less loosely within the pupa-skin.
_ One important difference between an insect and a
vertebrate animal is, that whereas in the latter, as for
instance in ourselves, the muscles are attached to an
_ internal bony skeleton, in insects no such skeleton exists.
_ They have no bones, and their muscles are attached to
_ the skin. Hence the necessity for the hard and horny
dermal investment of insects, so different from the scft-
ness and suppleness of our own skin. Moreover the
result is, that without a change of skin a change
_ of form is impossible. The chitine, or horny substance,
forming the outside of an insect, is formed by a layer of
cells lying beneath it, and, once secreted, cannot be altered.

From this it follows that every change of form is neces-

sarily accompanied bya change of skin. In some cases,

as for instance in Ch/oéon, each change of skin is accom-
panied by a change of form, and thus the perfect insect is
more or less gradually evolved. In others, as for in-
stance in caterpillars, several changes of skin take place
without any material alteration of form, and the change,
instead of being spread over many, is confined to the
last two moults.

The explanation of this difference is, I believe, to be
found in the structure of the mouth. That of the cater-
pillar is provided with a pair of strong jaws, fitted to eat
leaves ; and the digestive organs are adapted for this kind

of food. On the contrary, the mouth of the butterfly is
suctorial ; it has a long proboscis, beautifully adapted to
suck the nectar from flowers, but which would be quite
useless, and indeed only an embarrassment to the larva.

ae ee

i ie

—s

_* For differences in larvz consequent on variation in the external condi-
tions, see ante, p. 31.

NATURE.

SSS —_ ee ee

1 oo

The digestive organs also are adapted for the assimila-
tion, not of leaves, but of honey. Now it is evident that
if the mouth-parts of the larva were slowly metamor-
phosed into those of the perfect insect, through a number
of small changes, the insect would in the meantime be
unable to feed, and liable to perish of starvation in the
midst of plenty. On the contrary, in the Orthoptera,and
as a general rule, among those insects in which the
changes are gradual, the mouth of the so-called larva
resembles that of the perfect insect, and the principal
difference is in the presence of wings.

Similar considerations throw much light on the nature
of the chrysalis or pupa state—that remarkable period of
death-like quiescence which is one of the most striking
characteristics of insect metamorphosis. The compara-
tive quiescence of the pupa is mainly owing to the rapi-
dity of the changes going on init. In the chrysalis of a
butterfly, for instance, not only (as has been already men-
tioned) are the mouth and digestive organs undergoing
change, but the same is the case with the muscles. The
powerful ones which move the wings are in process of
formation ; and even if they were in a condition favour-
able to motion, still the nervous system, by which the
movements are set on foot and regulated, is also in a
state of such rapid change that it could scarcely act.

It must not be forgotten that all insects, indeed all
articulate animals, are inactive for a longer or shorter
space of time after each moult.

The slighter the change the shorter the period of in-
action. Thus, after the ordinary moult of a caterpillar,
the insect only requires rest until the new skin is hard-
ened. When, however, the change is great and gradual,
the period of inaction is correspondingly prolonged. The
inactivity of the pupa is therefore not a new condition
peculiar to this stage, but a prolongation of the inaction
which accompanies every change of skin. Most pupze
indeed have some slight powers of motion; those which
assume the chrysalis state in wood or under ground
usually come to the surface when about to assume the
perfect state, and the aquatic pupz of certain Diptera,
swim about with much activity. Among the Neuroptera
certain families have pupz as quiescent as those of the
Lepidoptera ; others, as, for instance, Raphidia, are quies-
cent at first, but at length acquire sufficient strength to
walk, though enclosed within the pupa skin, a power de-
pendent partly on the fact that this skin is very thin.
Others again, as, for instance, dragon-flies, are quiescent
on assuming the pup3 state, only in the same manner and
for a similar time as at other changes of skin.

JoHN LUBBOCK

(To be continued.)

NOTES FROM THE “CHALLENGER”
Ill.
THE MILLER-CASELLA THERMOMETER

T8A.M., on March 26, we sounded, lat. 19° 41’ N.
long. 65° 7’ W., in 3,875 fathoms. The sounding
was perfectly satisfactory, and left no doubt that the
depth was estimated within a very small error. The
“Hydra” sounding instrument was used weighted to
3 cwt. A slip water-bottle, and two Miller-Casella ther-
mometers (Nos. 39 and 42) were sent down along with
it as usual, The tube of the “ Hydra” came up filled
with a reddish clay containing a considerable quan-
tity of carbonate of lime. The two thermometers
were broken, and as the mode in which the fracture
occurred is in itself curious, and has an important bear-
ing upon the use of these instruments at extreme depths,
I will briefly describe the condition of the thermometers
when they came to the surface.
No. 39, a valuable instrument, with a small and con-
stant error, which we had used for some time whenever

I1o

for any reason we required extreme accuracy, was shat-
tered to pieces (Fig. 1).

In No. 42 this instrument was externally complete, with
the exception of a crack in the small unprotected bulb on
the right limb of the U-tube. The inner shell of the pro-
tected bulb was broken to pieces (Fig. 2).

In both of these cases there seems little doubt that the
damage occurred through the giving way of the unpro-
tected bulb. In No. 39 the upper part of that bulb was
ground into coarse powder, and the fragments packed into
the lower part of the bulb and the top of the tube. The
large bulb and its covering shell were also broken, but
into larger pieces, disposed as if the injury had been pro-
duced by some force acting from within. The thermo-
meter tube was broken through in three places ; at one
of these, close to the bend, it was shattered into very
small fragments. The creosote, the mercury, and bubbles
of air were irregularly scattered through the tube, and it
is singular that each of the steel indices had one of the
discs broken off. The whole took place no doubt instan-
taneously by the implosion of the small bulb, which at
the same time burst the large bulb and shattered the
tube.

In No. 42 a crack only occurred in the small bulb,
either through some pre-existing imperfection in the glass
orfrom the pressure. When the pressure became extreme
the crack yielded a little, and the sea-water was gradually

‘NATURE

forced in, driving the contents of the thermometer before.

it, and taking it at a disadvantage from within, breaking
the shell of the large bulb, which was unsupported on

account of the belt of rarified vapour between it and-
its outer-shell. The pressure was now equalised within.

and without the instrument, and the injury went no
farther.
mixed up inthe outer case of the large bulb, with the
debris of the inner bulb, and one of tke steel indices lay
uninjured across the centre of it. :

It now becomes an important question why the ther-
mometer should give way at that particular point, and
one still more important, how the defect is to be reme-
died. At first sight it is difficult to imagine why the
small bulb should give way rather than the outer shell of
the large one. The surface exposed to pressure is
smaller, the glass is thicker, and it is somewhat better
supported from within, as the tube is nearly filled with
fluid under the pressure of an atmosphere.
cause must be that the end of the small bulb is the last
point of the instrument heated and sealed after the tube
is filled with liquid, and that, consequently, the annealing
is imperfect at that point. It is evidently of no use to
protect the small bulb in the same way in which the large
bulb is protected. The outer shell is merely a precaution
to prevent the indications being vitiated by the action

of pressure on the elastic bulb. Against crushing, it is_

Fic. 2 3

no protection ; rather a source of weakness, from its
greatly increasing the surface. The only plan which
seems to be feasible is to thicken the small bulb itself, and,
if possible, to improve its temper. It is only fair to say
that these thermometers were tested and guaranteed to
only three tons on the square inch, and that the pressure
to which they were subjected was equal to four tons,
WYVILLE THOMSON

NOTES

Tue Albert Gold Medal of the Society of Arts has this year
been awarded to M. Chevreul, Member of the Institute of France,
and Director of the Gobelins and of the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris, for his valuable researches in connection with Saponifica-
tion, Dyeing, Agriculture, and Natural History, which, for
more than half a century, have exercised a wide influence on the
industrial arts of the world.

Pror. MuMPHRY announces that the Cambridge class for
Practical Histology will meet during the months of July and
August at the Anatomical Museum on Tuesdays, Thursdays,
and Saturdays, at 9 A.M., commencing July 1. The Class for
IIuman Osteology will meet on Mondays, Wednesdays, and
Tvidays at the Anatomical Museum at 9 A.M. during July and
August, commencing July 2, The. Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy (Mr. Newton) announces that a class for
practical work will be carried on in July and August by the
Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy, commencing July 2.
The fee for the course will be one guinea.

THE fcllowing gen lemen have been recommended by the

French Academy of Sciences to the Minister of Public Instruc-
tion for the four vacant posts in the Bureau des Longitudes :—
M. Serret, M. Mouchez, M. Perrier, and M. Janssen.

THE Council of the Society of Arts haying been informed
that Her Majesty’s Commissioners do not intend to publish re-
ports on the different departments of the exhibition of the present
year, have decided to undertake that duty, and for this purpose
have engaged the services of gentlemen specially skilled in the
subjects of the several sections, to prepare such reports for pub-
lication in the Society’s Fournal, A report on Ancient Objects,
by Mr. C, Drury Fortnum, F.S.A., and another on Surgical In-
struments and Appliances, by Mr. R. Brudenell Carter, F.R.C.S.,

| appear in the Yournal for May 30. ’
Ar a meeting of the Council of the Leeds Naturalists’ Field

Club and Scientific Association, three of its members—Mr. Wim.
Todd (vice-president), Mr. W. D. Roebuck (secretary), and Mr.
John W. Taylor—were appointed a sub-committee to consider

| the best manner of collecting information for a series of cata-

logues of the natural productions of the district. The sub-com-
mittee having taken into consideration all the facts bearing upon

the subject in hand, are of opinion that jthe following procedure ©

should be adopted :—1. That in view of the approaching meet-
ing in Bradford, in August next, of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, it is advisable that there should be
produced by this society, and under its auspices, a brief account
of the present state of our knowledge of the fauna, flora, and.
geolozical and topozraphical features of the district.
for present use the most convenient district to illustrate would

Alcohol, creosote, mercury, and sea-water were

2. That

I believe the ©

Bs ae
Fune 5, 1873]

* -

be the one produced by striking a circle of ten miles’ radius,
having the Leeds Town Hall for its centre. 3. That, as far as
practicable, the lists should be complete, and as fuli as possible
in detail as to the distribution of the species; and that they
‘should be prefaced by a good outline sketch of the physical con-
formation and geological structure of the district, In con-
formity with these recommendations, the sub-committee would
be glad to receive lists, as complete as possible, from all persons
willing to co-operate in the work. These lists, to be available
for immediate use, must be sent in before the Ist of July, 1873.
Should the amount of information received up to that date
warrant the Council in so doing, the lists will be placed in the
hands of small committees of revision, whose province it will be
to construct general catalogues combining all the information in
the possession of the Society ; and it is then hoped that during
the first week in August, a small work may be published. The
sub-committee will be very glad to receive all suggestions that
may be made ; and would be glad also to learn the names of
all persons likely to be able to supply information. All com-
munications to be addressed to the Secretaries, 9, Sunny Bank
Terrace, Leeds.

WE have received the Report, for 1872, of Mr. B. A. Gould,
superintendent of the Argentine National Observatory at Cor-
doba, and a very creditable report itjis, both to Mr. Gould and
his assistants, as well as to the [liberality of the Argentine
Government, which seems to have done all in its power to pro-
vide the necessary buildings and instruments. The buildings
are not yet quite complete, though a number of excellent instru-
ments have been acquired, and others are being provided. The
principal work of the observatory has been the preparation of a
Uranometry, which will contain a larger number of stars than
the recently published one of Heis for the northern heavens ;
Heis’s contains 5,421 stars. In the Uranometria Argentina, the
brilliancy of the stars will be determined to single tenths of a
limit of magnitude. There now remains nothing of importance
to be done in the way of observation, since each star has been
observed upon the average at least four times, and the degree of
its brilliancy determined with the greatest precision possible.
To prepare these results for publication, the position of every

_ star will be computed for the commencement of 1875, a part of
which labour has already been accomplished, and then to prepare
the maps for reproduction by the engravers. The observation of
the zones for the formation of an extended catalogue of stars
between the 23rd and 80th degree of south declination, was com-
menced in September last, and is being carried on satisfactorily ;
as also is the photographic work of the observatory, a very con-
siderable number of photographic impressions of clusters of
stars having been made, which only need a knowledge of their
zero of position to render them serviceable. Means are also
taken to spread a knowledge of the exact time at regular inter-
vals throughout the Confederation.
Observatory appears to be exceedingly efficient.

WE have received from Prof. A. Kerner, of Innsbriick, several
interesting contributions to systematic and physiological botany
—‘* Ueber die Schafgarben-Bastarte der Alpen,” an account of
the hybrid yarrows found in the Tyrolese Alps ; ‘‘ Nove Plan-
tarum Species, Decas iii.,” containing descriptions of new Rubi
of Austria and the Tyrol; and ‘‘Chronik der Pfanzen-wan-
derungen,” in which he narrates the curious circumstances con-
nected with the spread of a North-American plant, Rudbeckia
laciniata. This plant first became known in Europe early in
the seventeenth century, when it was introducediinto the gardens
of Paris ; during two centuries and a half it has gradually spread
over the gardens of nearly the whole of Europe, but appears only
within the last twenty or thirty years to have escaped, and within
that short space of time has become completely naturalised in a

“NATURE

Altogether the Argentine

1 wf
great number of places. In a communication to the Scientific
and Medical Society of Innsbriick, Dr. Kerner states, as the
result of his observations on Alpine plants, that the growth of
the stem and even of the flowers of many species proceeds at
the temperature of zero C. ; the flowers may in some cases open,
and even mature their pollen, beneath a thick covering of ice,
the surface of the glacier being penetrated in innumerable places
by their stems.

Dr. A. KERNER reprints from the Proceedings of the
Scientific Society of Innsbriick an interesting paper on the
means of protection of the pollen of plants against prema-
ture displacement or damp. As the vitality of pollen is imme-
diately destroyed by exposure to the action of either rain or dew,
he finds in nature a variety of contrivances to protect it against
these injurious influences during the interval between its escape
from the anther and its being carried away by insects, these cons
trivances being generally absent in those plants where fertilisa-
tion is effected by the pollen being conveyed at once to the stigma
by the wind. In plants with coherent pollen, fertilised by insect
agency, where some of the anthers are so placed as to be neces-
sarily exposed to the weather, these are generally found to be
barren, or destitute of pollen, and where they would interfere
with the entrance of insects into the flower, they are altogether
abortive or rudimentary. Plants with coherent pollen, which
require insect agency for their fertilisation, Dr, Kerner believes
to be of more recent geological occurrence than those with
powdery pollen, which require only the wind to convey it to the
stigma.

THE proceedings of the Asiatic Scciety of Bengal contain re-
marks on winds, typhoons, &c., on the south coast of Japan, by
Commander H. C. St. John, H.M.S. Sy/via. The most preva-
lent winds in the southern parts of Japan are from the north-east.
Throughout an entire year the proportion was as follows, taking
1,000 hours as an index: —Between N. and E., 500; between
N. and W., 200; between S. and E., 100; between S. and W.,
o’99. During April, May, June, July, August, and September,
N.E. winds prevail, hauling more easterly in June, July, and
August. In August and September S.E. winds are more fre-
quent than during any other months. In October variable winds
prevail, and the N. W. wind begins. During November, Decem-
ber, January, and February the N.W. winds prevail and blow
hard. In March the N.W. and N.E. winds are equally distri-
buted. The S.W. winds most frequently occur during the early
parts of September. It appears the winds on the southern
coasts of Japan are easterly during April (spring), and hauling
to the S. as the summer approaches, pass through S. and W.
to N.W. during winter, coming again through N. to N.E. and
E. in spring and summer. Typhoons occur between June anl
October, inclusive. From the middle of August to the middl:
of October they may be expected to occur most frequently. The
usual tracks of these storms on the Japan coasts appear very
regular; approaching from the S.E. travelling about N.W.
On reaching the hot stream in about the latitude of the Bonin
Islands, or between here and the Foochoo Islands, they begin
to curve to the north, and following the course of the Kuro Siwo,
strike the south coasts of Nipon. Owing chiefly to the high
land along the coast, the northern disc of the storm becones
much flattened in, causing more easterly wind than would occur
if the storm were in mid ocean. Retaining the course of the
stream, they pass along in a north-easterly course, and, if not
broken up previously, pass out into the Pacific Ocean on reach-
ing Inaboya saki.

Mr. JAMEs Woop-Mason has sent us a description of a
Macrurous Crustacean, which he has made the type of a new
genus, Neshropsis Stewarti, The specimen (a female) he

I12

describes was dredged in from 250 to 300 fathoms,"about twenty-
five miles off Ross Island on the Eastern coast of the Andamans.
It is clearly allied to Vephrops Norvegicus of Northem European
seas, its main difference being the absence of the squamiform
appendage of the Antennze. One of the most interesting points
about the new crustacean is the loss of its organs of vision by
disuse, a characteristic of several recently discovered crustaceans ;
this is compensated for by the great length and delicacy of the
antenne, and the great development of the auditory organs, the
animal's habits being to burrow in the mud at the depth of about
300 fathoms.

It may be recollected that M. Alphonse Pinart, the French
philologist, visited the Aleutian Islands and Alaska in the sum-
mer of 1871, for the purpose of collecting the vocabularies and
the photographs of the different tribes. This material he carried
back with him to Paris, where he has been engaged in working
it up. We learn thathe expects to revisit the United States this
month, with ample funds in his hands from the French govern-
ment, in order to effect an exhaustive collection of the antiqui-
ties of Alaska, his excursions to the different islands being made
in a vessel especially fitted up for his use. Alaska is one of the
finest fields in the world for ethnological and prehistoric re-
search,

PROFESSOR WYMAN has concluded, as the result of ex-
plorations among the shell mounds of Florida, U.S., during the
past winter, that the aborigines by whom they were constructed
must have been decided cannibals, as in eight different instances
he has found considerable quantities of human bones in the
shell heaps, the bones themselves being broken up and split, just
as in the case of the bones of other animals. This, he is satis-
fied, was not the result of burial, but was done for the purpose
of obtaining the marrow, probably after the flesh had been
devoured.

Unper the auspices of the Society of Biblical Archeology
it is intended shortly to publish a series of translations of all the
important Assyrian and Egyptian texts which exist in the various
collections of England and the Continent, and thus place before
the English student the remains of undoubtedly the oldest and
most authentic literature in the world. Nearly all the principal
translators have offered their services for this purpose, and while
each author will be alone responsible for his portion of the work,
the general arrangement of the materials will rest with the presi-
dent of the society. The selection of the records will embrace
the entire range of Egyptian and Assyrian history and literature.
Each translation will quote the authorities {upon which it is
based, or the monument from which it is taken, and all other
notes will be as few and brief as possible, to avoid controversy
and expense. ‘The first volume will be issued by Messrs.
Bagster and Sons, at a price to bring it within the reach of all
interested in such subjects.

THE conversazione of the Society of Arts will be held at the
South Kensington Museum on Friday evening, June 28.

THE late distinguished chief of the U.S. Coast Survey, by
his will, established a fund to be placed in the hands of exe-
cutors, by whom the income is to be expended, under the direc.
tion of a committee of the National Academy of Science, for
the advancement of some branch of physical research. The
first report of results achieved through this bequest was recently
made to the Academy by its President, Professor Joseph Henry.
The committee had decided that in view of the great interest
that Professor Bache had throughout his life manifested in ter-
restrial magnetism, it would be highly proper to further this
science by gradually extending over the country the magnetic
survey which, during his own lifetime, he had carried out in the
Middle States. In the execution of this design they had been so

NATURE

fortunate as to secure, at small expense, the services of Dr, Hil-
gard, of St. Louis, by whom, in 1872, chiefly in the season
most favourable for travelling, quite a large number of stations
were occupied for the determination of the magnetic elements.
These stations are mostly in the Southern States, and it is the
intention of the committee to extend the work annually, north-
ward and westward, as the income frgm the fund may allow.

THE U.S. Army Signal Office has made preparations for a
great extension of its valuable system of reports of the heights of
rivers, particularly of all those opening into the Mississippi. Over
twenty-five stations are now established at suitable points on
these rivers, especially, of course, on the Ohio, Missouri, and
Mississippi. They are provided in some instances with auto-
matic self-recording apparatus, and at all other places the obser-
vation of the height of the water is taken eight times daily when
floods are apprehended. By this most beautiful system every
wave of high water is accurately followed in its course down
stream, and the approach of dangerous high floods is easily
foretold by the repeated telegraphic reports. The system of
river reports, which has been in operation during the past year,
has given such universal satisfaction to those navigating the
Western waters that the demand for increased facilities can only
be met by this new and far more elaborate system of stations,

THE results of the explorations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
prosecuted during the months of July and August, 1872, by
Messrs. Whiteaves and Bulger, have just been published. The
area examined extended from a little above Cape Rozier to the
Magdalen Islands.
fathoms was found near the centre of the mouth of the St.
Lawrence, between Cape Rozier and the south-west point of
Anticosti ; the greatest depth actually met with was 313 fathoms»
about half-way between the east point of Anticosti and the Bird
Rocks. Large collections were made, embracing several species
new to science. Among the novelties discovered was a sponge

belonging to a genus but recently indicated in the ‘‘ Depths of the

Sea.” About thirty-five species of corallines were obtained,
large numbers of them being new. Numerous fine specimens of
Virgularia were procured, the same kind having been found by
Dr. Packard on the Georges Bank, and three species of sea-
anemones were secured in addition to those of last year’s collec-
tion. Two undescribed specimens of a coral (both dead) were
also gathered at a considerable distance from each other. The
relations of these new species are rather to the tropical forms
than to those which we already know on the coast of the
North Atlantic, |

A sHock of earthquake, lasting for several seconds, was felt
at Attok on the morning of Sunday, April 27.

WE have been favoured with a copy of the Yapan Gazelle,
from which we take the following notes:—A huge cephalopod
is now being shown in a house near the temple at Asaka, Yedo.

It seems that a fishing-boat was seized by its tentacles whilst off

the village of Kononoto, in the district of Kisaradzou, and that
the boatmen killed the creature by repeated blows. Its
length from the tail to the insertion of the tentacles is about
sixteen feet; one of the arms is from its junction with the
body to the sucker at its point nearly five feet. The
polypus has shrunk since its death, so that living, it
would probably measure considerably more.—The anoma-
lous absence of earthquakes during the past winter has ex-
cited some speculation as to the causes of such quiet, in a
country usually very tremulous towards the coming of spring.
Whatever may be the real causes, the remarkable volcanic
activity in Japan, during the past winter, and at present, is an
interesting collateral phenomenon. From nearly all parts of

the empire, during the last two months, have come tidings of ©

A depth of water somewhat over 200 —

aa: ;
Fune 5, 1873]
mountains quaking and bursting in fissures, volcanoes casting
out stones, ashes, and mud, and in some instances. flame and

- hot lava. Smoke and steam from Asamayama have been visible
from Yedo, several times this winter. In addition to the
eruptions in Yechiu, Mito and Higo, the latter being especially
severe and damaging to the cultivated land around it,—another
mountain is reported as being affected with volcanic symptoms,
Kurokami-yama, near Nikko, which has, so far as is known,
always been very quiet, was shaken with a great shock oa
March 12, at 3 P.M. The shock was accompanied by loud

noise, and a strong smell of sulphur, which remained about six
hours. :

'
,
4
4

ApDITIONs to the Brighton Aquarium during the past week :
a Porpoise (Phocena communis) from Rye Ba, ; a Sturgeon
(Accipenser sturio), 6 feet long, captured by the Bognor fi-her-
men ; Smooth Hounds or Skate-toothed Sharks (M/ustilus vul-
garis); White Hound or Toper (Gal/eus canis); Thornback
Skate (Raja clavata); Sting Rays (Z7rygon pastinaca) ; Grey
Mullet (A/zgil capito) ; Flounders, fresh-water variety (//eurvo-
mectes flesus); Butterfish or Gunnel (Centionotus gunnellus) ;

Allis Shad (C/ufea alosa) ; Salmon (Sa/mo salar); Ballan Wrasse
(Labrus maculatus) ; Crabs (Cancer pagurus) ; (Portunus puber);

(Polybius Henslowi) ; (Carcinas Menas) ; Zoophytes (Actinoloba
_ dianthus) ; ( Tealia crassicornis) ; (Sagartia miniata) ; (.S. nivea).

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a Bengalese Cat (/v/is bengalensis) and two
_ Indian Crows (Corvus splendens) from Arracan, presented by
Mr. W. Dunn ; a New Caledonian Rail (Ocydromus lafresnaya-
nus), presented by Dr. G. Bennett ; an Indian Porphyrlo (Por-
phyrio indicus) from the Navigator’s Islands, presented by Rev.
J. Whitmee ; a dwarf Chameleon (Chameleon pumilis) from
South Africa, presented by Miss Siddons ; an African Tantalus
(Zanialus ibis); three Molucca Deer (Cervus moluccensis) ; a
Vociferous Sea Eagle ( Haliaétus vocifer) from Africa ; a European
Lynx (Felis lynx), and a Glutton (Gu/o borealis) from Norway ;
a collared Amazon (Chrysotis collaria) from Jamaica ; two com-
mon Spoonbills (Patalea leucorodia) from Europe, and two
Wattled Cranes (Grus carunculatus) from Southj Africa, pur-
chased ; an American White Crane (Grws americana), received
in exchange ; three American Mocking Birds (Afimus polyglottis)
hatched in the Gardens ; and an Australian Thicknee (Oedicne-
mus grallarius) deposited.

SCIENCE IN ITALY

‘THE Transactions of the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of
Bologna for the academical year 1871-2 contains twenty-nine
memoirs read by members at the sittings of the Academy and
several communications from without. I find it quite impos-
sible to do justice to these without exceeding permissible limits,
but will briefly refer to a few.

In a paper ona probable connection between solar eclipses and
terrestrial magnetism, Dr. Michez, after describing the magnetic
phenomena observed in Italy and more especially in Sicily
during the eclipse of December 22, 1870, and pointing out the
difficulty of separating the disturbances due to the eclipse from
those otherwise produced, states the result of his laborious and
careful study of the Greenwich magnetic records in relation to
the passage of the lunar shadow over any part of the earth,
Having determined the average ordinary declination and amount
of agitation for the particular hour and season corresponding to
that of each eclipse, he compares these with the declination and
agitation observed while an eclipse was in progress, and collect-
ing all these results and averaging the deviation of the eclipse
periods from those of ordinary corresponding times, he concludes
that an eclipse of the sun exercises a real influence on the decli-
nation needle, that this influence extends through several hours

_ before and after the period of greatest solar obscuration, and
that it is manifested by a greater agitation of the needle, and an

pa
eke > .

NATURE 113

eastward deviation. Upon theoretical considerations, Dr. Michez
shows that the moon’s shadow regarded in its relations to
humidity should always produce an eastward deviation, but as
regards the magnetic properties of oxygen should produce either
an eastward or westward deviation, according to the position of
the place of observation in relation to the shadow. Assuming
that the latter, on a sufficiently large average, will neutralise
each other, the residual phenomenon should be a slight eastward
deviation.

In a paper on “The Climate of Europe during the Glacia
Epoch,” Dr. Bianconi, following De la Rive and Villeneuve,
shows that the gacial extension of that period may have been
due to greater humidity of climate rather than a lower mean
temperature. Dr. Bianconi’s conclusions are almost identical
with those I suggested about fourteen years ago when describing
a curious summer accumulation of ice in a previousiy unvisited

; Norwegian valley, where the snow line is actually lowered to an

extent of about 3,000 feet, simply by a local increase of atmo-
spheric humidity caused by the drifting spray of a double water-
fall* The subject was subsequently treated by Dr. Frankland
in a lecture at the Royal Institution.

Prof. Filopanti contributed an interesting paper on the
movements of the atmosphere, in which, after referring to the
conclusions of Maury, that on both sides of the equator up to
about the 3oth parallel constant easterly winds prevail, from the
3oth to the 35th variable winds, but still with the easterly pre-
dominating ; from the 35th to the goth, variable wind, with a
commencement of westerly prevalence ; and from the 4oth to
the Pole westerly winds decidedly prevailing. The object of
Prof. Filopanti was to find a theoretical reason for these parti-
cular limits. To do this he regards the atmosphere as subject to
the operation of two forces, viz. the resistance of the earth, and
the mixture of aérial columns due to variations of temperature
of the earth’s surface. If only the first of these influences
operated, the atmosphere would ultimately partake in every part
of the velocity of the terrestrial parallel on which it rested, and
there would be no sensible winds ; if only of the second, the at-
mosphere would ultimately acquire throughout an absolutely
equal velocity of rotation. He works out mathematically the
amount of this velocity, and finds it equal to that of the surface
of the earth at the latitude 35° 50’ 52”, which is a close approxi-
mation to the 35° of Maury. ‘This he considers would be the
uniform velocity of the air if the land and the sea were perfectly
smooth, and he therefore designates the parallels of 35° on either
hemisphere the ‘‘ neutral parallels.” Hence we are justified in
theoretically anticipating that between the neutral parallels and
the equator actual mean rotatory velocity of the air will
be less than that of the earth, that is, the prevailing
winds will be easterly, and that between the neutral
parallels and the Poles the prevailing winds should be westerly,
as there the mean rotatory velocity of the air should exceed
that of the earth. The friction of the earth will be continually
struggling to correct these differences of velocity, while the
north and south movements, due to differences of temperature,
will contest for their maintenance and augmentation. Prof.
Filopanti goes further into details of special atmospheric currents
to illustrate and confirm the above, but space will not permit
me to follow him there. I have, however, so far sketched in
abstract his leading idea as it appears to be an important
contribution to the theory of atmospheric movements, and as
far as I know is original. To some extent it is applicable to
the vexed question of ocean currents,

The ‘“ Hermaphroditism” of eels has occupied a good deal of
the attention of the Bolognese Academicians. Prof. Ercolani
described a number of his own observations and experiments,
showing that this hermaphroditism is ‘‘ perfect,” and the subject
was further discussed at two subsequent meetings, when the
results of previous researches of Vallisneri, Valsava, Allesandrini,
Mondini, and others, were stated and compared. Besides the
above and some others on subjects of general interest, are
a few purely mathematical papers, and several on pathological,
medical, and local subjects, which I must pass over.

Considering that Bologna itself is but a provincial town, and
that the whole province of Bologna contains a population about
equal to that of Birmingham, these Transactions of the Bologna
Academy of Sciences indicate an amount of scientific activity in
the highest direction of scientific research that we are unable to
tival in any corresponding provincial district of Great Britain.

W. MATTIgU WILLIAMS

* “Through Norway with a Knapsack,” Chap. xy.

114

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Bulletins de la Société d Anthropologie de Paris, 1871-72.—We
find from these reports that the French palzontologists have
been unusually active during the last eighteen months in con-
tinuing the exploration of the numerous bone-caverns of their
country and in testing the accuracy of the older classifications of
their remains, M. Barabeau has been examining with great care
the Dordogne district, which has become classic ground through
the labours of Christie and Lartet. M. Saudon believes that the
molars and maxilla recently found at Laugerie-Haute cannot be
referred to the true horse—although they may provisionally, like
similar remains found by M. Riviere in Italy—be accepted as
belonging to some form of eguwus, for he does not think that the
horse existed in Europe in pre-historic times. M. Mortillet, in
obedience to the suggestions of M. Bertrand, Conservateur du
Musée de S. Germain, has drawn up a chart of the palzolithic
age in Gaul, the only work of the kind extant : in it are recorded
5 localities in which occur supposed traces of man in the ter-
tiary ; 43 alluvial deposits in the quaternary yielding human
bones and industrial remains; and 278 caverns containing
quaternary fauna with traces of pre-historic man. M. Mortillet
thinks that we are no longer justified in assuming with E. Lartet
that there was ever a special age of the bear or reindeer, all
extinct animals having apparently lived through the whole
paleolithic period. Amongst the numerous communica-
tions of M. Hamy, we may instance papers on the ‘‘ Fossil
Human Remains of d’Engihoul, near Liége ;” ‘‘ The Anthro-
pology of Cambodia ;” ‘‘The Quaternary Deposits of cut Silex
recently discovered in the Pas de Calais ;” ‘‘ The Existence of
Brachycephalic Negroes on the Western Coasts of Africa ;” and
‘The Proportions of the Arm and Fore-arm to the different
periods of Life.” M. Doulish, from observations made at the
close of 1871, in a bone cavern at Corgnac (Dordogne), believes
that he has found incontrovertible proofs that man in the rein-
deer age had attained the art of fo/ishing no less than of cutting
stone.—M, Lagardelle communicates through M. Hamy, one of
the Secretaries of the Society, some curious information in re-
gard to the habitations of the degraded people known under
the names of Colliberts, huttiers, &c., who for many ages occu-
pied the marshy lands of Poitou, near the mouths of the Seyre,
and whose descendants were known till recently as nioleurs.
This district was occupied by Gauls before the Norman Con-
quest, and after that event it became, from its inaccessible
character, a place of refuge for fugitives. In the eleventh and
twelfth centuries the Colliberts, whose special occupation was
fishing, were dependent, as homines conditionales, on several
religious houses, but were nevertheless left in a state of heathen,
almost savage ignorance. Their huts were made of interlaced
willow twigs, and their only means of locomotion before the
formation of the network of canals, which have proved the
chief agents in rescuing them from their isolation, were their
long ash stilts and the so-called mio/es, or light boats from which
they took their name. The race is now merged in that of the
contiguous ¢erra firma.—M. Alph. Milne-Edwards has prosecuted
an extensive series of observations on ‘f The Embryology of the
Lemurians and the zoological affinities of those animals ;” and
he finds that the placental system differs so widely from that of
the Simiz, with which they have been supposed to present very
close relationships, that he is of opinion the Lemurs should take
an intermediate, but wholly distinct, place between monkeys and
carnivores.—M. Thorel’s medical notes of his observations
while serving in the exploring expedition to Meckong, in 1870,
afford curious information in regard to the immunity to certain
miasmatic affections presented by the people of Cochin China
and other parts of Indo-China.—M. Sanson has laid before
the Society his views on the Characterisation of Species, which
are diametrically opposed to the Darwinian theory of evolution.
The earlier numbers of the Bu/letins for 1872, contain an unu-
sually large proportion of papers on purely anatomical, psycho-
logical, medico-legal and similar subjects. —M. Broca considers,
in a special mongraph, the importance of nasal configuration as
a true ethnological character.—M. A. Roujou traces the analogies
of the human type with that of the more ancient mammals,
and proceeding to the length of concise definition, he fixes the
probable appearance of the first lemurians at an epoch very
remote from the secondary, and of monkeys—properly so
called—before the tertiary, at the beginning of which period he
thinks it not improbable that they engendered man.—The second
and third numbers of vol. vii. of the Bzd/etins contain the ex-

oR eS REY a ee eee Soe ee Ree Se

NATURE

haustive Treatise of M. Topinard on the indigenous races of
!

THE Lens for April commences with an analysis of the species
of the genus Amphora, by Prof. H. L. Smith, in continuation
of his Conspectus of the Diatomaceze, accompanied by three
excellent plates, and containing the description of nearly 100
species.—Dr. Danforth, of Chicago, describing ‘*The Cell,”
developes Dr. Beale’s theory respecting the nature of the nucleus,
and discusses the action of carmine upon it.—Mr. H. Babcock,
**On the Flora of Chicago and its Vicinity,” catalogues the
graminez and filices of that place very shortly.—There are also
papers by Mr. J. H. Martin, ‘‘Onthe Similarity of various forms of
Crystallisation to minute Organic Structures ;” and by Mr, E. Col-
bert, ‘‘ On the Figure of the Earth, and its Effect on Observa-
tions made in the Meridian.”—The editor criticises the test
employed by a committee of the Royal Microscopical Society of
London in their decision respecting the angular aperture of Mr,
Tolles’s sth objective, thinking it unfair.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNDON

Royal Geographical Society, May 12.—Major-General Sir
H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—The paper
read was ‘‘Journey through Western Mongolia,” by Mr. Ney
Elias. The distance travelled over was 2,000 miles, accom-
plished between July 1872 and January 1873. The route from
Kalgan (the starting-point in crossing the desert of Gobi by the
usual route vié Urga to Kiachta) was westerly to the Chinese
frontier town of Kwei-hua, thence north-westerly to the river
Onghin, and afterwards again westerly, along the foot of the
Khangai Range, to the city of Uliassutai, which his observations
showed to be 5,700 ft, above the sea-level. lis further journey
was impeded by the bands of Mahommedan Mongol rebels, the
so-called Dungans, who, although badly armed, struck terror
into the Chinese garrisons of the towns, and carried fire and
slaughter wherever they went. He narrowly escaped the band,
which a few days before his arrival destroyed the city of Kobdo,
west of Uliassutai; arriving there, he saw the charred remains
of the outer town and the unburied bodies of slaughtered people
scattered over the streets. The Chinese garrison still occupied
the fort, and received him and his party with kindness. "All his
endeavours, however, to obtain assistance for his further journey
southward and westward to Kuldja were met by steady oppo-
sition, and he finally had to cross the frontier to the Russian
town of Biisk. The president informed the meeting that Mr.
Elias had not only accomplished a wonderful journey over a tract
of Central Asia never visited by a European since the times of
Marco Polo, but had executed, unaided, a survey of the whole
route travelled. His very numerous observations for longitude
and latitude had been computed by Mr. Ellis, of the Greenwich
Observatory, and those for heights above the sea-level by Mr.
Strachan, of the Meteorological Office. For this great service
rendered to geographical science, the Council of the Society has
just awarded him the Founder’s Gold Medal for 1873.

Meteorological Society, May 21.—Dr. J. W. Tripe, pre- —

sident, in the chair. The discussion was resumed on the follow-
ing questions, which had been submitted to the consideration of
the Meteorological Conference at Leipzig in August last :—No.

18: Can uniform times of observation be introduced for the
normal observations? Remarks were made by the president,

Dr. Mann, Messrs. Glaisher, Symons, Sopwith, Scott, Bicknell,

Salmon, and Strachan, as to whether local or Greenwich time
should be used, and whether the hours of 9 A.M. and 9 P.M., or
9 A.M., 3 P.M., and 9 P.M. should be recommended to observers,

The meeting was of opinion that the hours of observation should
be 9 A.M. and 9 P.M., and that local time should be adopted.
The next question considered was No, 20: Division of the year
for the calculation of mean results. After some discussion Mr.

Sopwith suggested that a committee should be appointed to draw
up a series of questions on all matters connected with this sub-
ject, and that the same be sent to the Fellows of the Society
requesting their reply on all or any of the questions; this
suggestion was approved of and adopted by the meeting —A

[Hume 5, 1873

Australia, with the valuable contributions and discussions in
regard to the same subject by MM. Broca, Hamy, and Rochet:
These numbers give us a general exposition of the progress and
actual position of the science of Anthropology, and of the social
advancement of our civilisation and its effect in obliterating
ethnological characters and in elevating the lower type. ;

}

ane F

Fune 5, 1873)

paper was then read on “ Land and Sea Breezes,” by Mr. J. K.
“Laughton, who was of opinion that sufficient attention hed not
been paid to the subject ; and that more careful examination
would show that the ordinary recorded theory is not in accord-
_ance with the facts observed ; that these prove that sea and land
breezes are seldom strong where the land is of that arid nature
which gives rise to extreme differences of temperature, and
that they frequently are strong where, from the verdant
nature of the country, the differences of temperature are
trifling; also that the sea breeze begins out at sea, and
comes slowly in, and that the land-breeze comes, in the

first instance, distinctly off the land, sometimes as sharp
squalls. | The necessary conclusion from these observations
is that the breezes are winds of propulsion, not of aspira-
tion; and whilst it seems probable that the propelling-
_ force, in the case of the sea-breeze, is due to the rapid
formation of vapour over the sea, the land-breeze may be
the reaction, or return of the column of the air which has
previously been forced upwards by the sea-breeze. A short
paper by Rev. F. W. Stow, onthe same subject, was read,
giving an account of the observations he had made at Hawsker ;
after which Mr. R. H. Scott gave a description of a double
"rainbow observed at Kirkwall.

Institution of Civil Engineers, May 13.—Mr. T. Hawksley,
president, in the chair.—The paper read, ‘On the Delia of
the Danube, and the Provisional Works executed at the
Sulina Mouth,” by Sir Charles Augustus Hartley, was a
sequel to a previous communication by the author on March
11, 1862, It described the mutations of the Sulina Bar from
: 1861 to the present time, and referred to the changes in the Sea
outline of the Delta during sixteen years. Reference was made
to the enormous growth of the northern part of the Kilia
_ Delta in recent years, due to the greatly augmented volume of
_ water which had lately flowed to the sea by the Ochakoff branch
and New Stamboul Mouth; while a diminution in the advance
of the southern extremity of the Kilia Delta was assigned to the
‘impoverishment of the old Stamboul branch of the river.
These changes, from natural causes, in the relative volumes of
water delivered to the sea by the Kilia Mouths, were favourab'e
circumstances in considering the problem of the number of
years that would probably elapse before the Sulina Mouth would
be absorbed in the shallows of the Kilia Delta. Since 1857,
owing to the shoaling of the Toultcha and the St. George's
branches, the outflow by the Kilia had increased, so that it now
delivered two-thirds of the whole volume of the Danube to the
sea. Fortunately for the navigation by the Sulina Mouth, the
larger portion of the detritus was transported far to sea, and
_ comparatively little went to swell the shallows of the Kilia
Mouths. In the last fifteen years the advance of the 304eet line
_ of soundings had been strictly confined to the sandbanks facing
_ the mouths of the Kilia, Sulina and St. George, and it was
shown that an erosive action had been long at work on the shore
line and sea bottom to the north and south of the Sulina

Mouth.

Society of Biblical Archezology, June 3.—Dr. Birch,
F.S.A., president, in the chair. ‘lhe folowing papers were
read :—‘* The Legend of Ishtor descending to Hades.” By
H. F. Talbot, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c.—In this valuable paper the
author translates from the tablets the Goddess’s voluntary

_ descent into the Assyrian //férno. In the cuneiform it is called
the Land of No Return; and the Lord of Earth gives her a
green bough of the Zz. . .tree to protect her life (comp. Virgil’s
#Eneid). Ishtar passes successfully through the seven gates,
compelled to surrender her jewels, (1) her crown, (2) her ear-
rings, (3) her head-jewels, (4) her frontlets, (5) her girdle, (6) her
finger and toe rings, (7) her necklace. ‘the Lord of Hades
seeing her sends his messenger Namtar to greet her. But as she
cannot return of her own accord to the upper regions, the
heavenly triad Sun, Moon, and /ea or Hu (Lord of Mysteries)
consult, and Zea raises a black phantom who a alee a juggler’s
trick: before the Lord of Hades ; during which he gives to Ishtar
acup full of the Waters of Life, whereby she returns to the
upper world, receiving at each Hades-portal the jewels she had
been deprived of in her descent. The. phantom is rewarded by
the most exquisite meats, wines, &c. The Greek Fate Aérofos is
supposed by the author to mean No Return, and Hades (House
of Eternity) is compared with the Hebrew Od and Bet-Moed of

Pag xxx. 23.— On the Egyptian Preposition,” by M. P. Le

Page Renouf, F.R.S.L,—‘On a Remarkable Babylonian Brick
described jn the Bible,” by Richard Cull, F.S.A.

NATURE

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, February 11.—Dr. Rus-
chenberger, the president, in the chair. Mr. Thomas Meehan
presented an apple, which was borne by a tree at Kittaning,
in Pennsylvania, and which tree never produced any flowers
in the popular acceptation of the term ; but always yielded an
abundance of fruit. The specimen furnished a practical illus-
tration of some morphological truths which could not often be
demonstrated in the way this afforded the opportunity of doing.
It was admitted that a fruit was a branch with its accessory
leaves transformed. The apple fruit was made up of a series of
whorls of leaves comprising five each, Cutting an apple through
we found a series of five formed the carmels containing the
seeds. Several series of whorls, very much retarded in develop-
ment, probably formed the stamens, but this could not be well
seen in the apple fruit, as they seemed to be almost absorbed in
the corolla series. This was the next in order that appeared in
the divided apple—the green curved fibrous line which we find
in all apples midway between the ‘‘core” and the ‘‘rind”’ is
the dividing line between the series which forms the corolla,
and the outer series which forms the calyx. In this tree there
are no pistils, the series which usually goes to make up this part
of the fruit structure being either very rudimentary or entirely
wanting. Hence there was no core to the fruit. The result
of this want of development was that the usual calyx basin of
the apple was in this case occupied by a cavity three-quarters of
an inch across. There were no petals; but in place five gland
or rather bud-scalelike processes, at regular distances, on the
edge of the green fibrous outline before referred to. The outer
whorl, which usually forms the calyx, was almost asepalous, as
a mere scarious membrane marked the place where the calyx
segments or sepals should have appeared. It was so easy in this
specimen to trace the dividing line between the outer or calycive
whorl and the inner or corolline whorl, which, uniting and be-
coming succulent, formed the popular apple fruit, that it was
worthy of note in this connection, But the most interesting
feature in this specimen was what were probably, from their
similarity in appearance, cork cells, formed abundantly on. the
outside of the apple. It would seem that, with the lack of
development in the inner series of whorls necessary to the
perfect fruit, those which remained were liable to take on somc-
what the character of bark structure.

February 18.—Dr. Ruschenberger, the president, in the
chair.—The following paper was presented for publication :—
‘‘Description of Mexican Ichneumonide, Part II,” by E. T.
Cresson.—Mr. Thomas Meehan presented specimens of leaves
of a Begonia on which minute folioles appeared as densely as
hair all over the upper surface, while the leaf was on the grow-
ing plant. The little growths first appeared as succulent hairs,
and these hair-like processes subsequently divided or produced
the leafy blades from their apices. Mr. M. remarked*that hairs
were at any rate structurally but graded thorns, of which bristles
were an intermediate stage. Spines often bore leaves, but it was
unusual for thorns to do so. It might not be that these leaf-
bearing processes were really hairs though they had that ap-
pearance.—Mr. Thomas G. Gentry called the attention of the
Academy to what he considered to be an interesting case of a
change of habits which had recently occurred in the life of an
ordinary chickaree, the Scinus hudsonius of Pallas. During the
early part of last autumn, his attention was called to the fact that
the birds in a certain designated locality of Mount Airy, during
the hours of the night, were undergo‘ng a system of wholesale
destruction, the work of small animals which were supposed to
belong to some species of Carnivora. Labouring under this
impression, and being desirous of securing a specimen or two, he
started for the scene of slaughter, bent upon discovering the
name and character of the animal ; when within a few rods of
the place, the almost deafening noise that greeted his ears, from
the tall trees, led him to suspect that all was not right. After
reaching the spot, a few moments of anxious waiting sufficed to
reveal to him the cause of the noise and the origin of the sacri-
fice above alluded to; for, sitting upon a twig just above his
head, he observed a chickaree, holding in ils paws a bird which it
had captured, and from which it wis very contentedly sucking
the life current. It is a well-established fact, he further remarked,
as far as he bad been able to verify it, that the numerous species
of Rodents, with but two exceptions at the most, subsist princi-
pally or entirely upon vegetable matter, especially the hard parts
of plants, such as nuts, bark, and roots. This habit of imita'ing
the propensities of the A/ustelide, he thought might have arisen

116

from the habit which some squirrels possess, possibly the one |

under consideration, of sucking the eggs of birds; the blood-
sucking habit he assumed to be an outgrowth from tie other,
This adoption of another’s mode of lite by S. Azdésonius, he
thought a discovery of some note, as usurpation of habits, lead-
ing to functional and structural changes in an animal's economy,
is accounted an element of no mean weight in the development
hypothesis, according to the testimony of able writers upon
Evolution.—Prof Cope exhibited the cranium of the horned
Proboscidian of Wyoming, Loxolophodon cornutus, and made
some remarks on its affinities (see NATURE, vol, vii. p. 471).

CALIFORNIA

Academy of Sciences, April 21.—Prof. Davidson, president,
in the chair.—Dr. Blake read a paper on the connection between
the atomic weights of inorganic compounds and their physio-
logical action. In acommunication read before the Academy of
Sciences of France, February 10, Messrs, Rabuteau and Ducou-
dray state that the poisonous effects of metals is greater
as their atomic weight increases. When the different elements
are grouped according to their isomorphous relations, there
evidently exists a close connection between the zzlensity of
their physiological action and relative atomic weights, and it is
only under such conditions that the statement of Messrs. Rabu-
teau and Ducoudray is even approximately correct. That no
absolute connection exists between the atomic weight of a metal
and its physiological action is evident ; for instance, the com-
pounds of Beryllium with an atomic weight of 9° are far more
poisonous than the salts of silver with an atomic weight of 103.
As an example of the connection between the atomic weight and
the poisonous qualities of a substance, the following table, drawn
up from experiments which have not yet been published, fur-
nishes strong evidence. The experiments were performed on
tabbits, a solution of some salt of the metal being injected into
the jugular vein.

Name of substance. Atomic weight.
Linn Sees Rae Vins iiss’. 6. 4O PTS.
Sonus, fl. <) SeeR ere 0 120 5
Rubidium © 5. J > esa a Ree) (O.7,:
Cresinme os | GT nh. Sys
Mihalis i° . |. 6 BORNE Pie |S) Rss

—Mr. Edwards presented a paper on the honey-making ant of
Northern Mexico. The community is divided into three classes
—the workers, . carriers, and the honey-makers. The workers
are much larger than the others, and of a black colour ; they
guard the nest and convey to it the materials from which the
honey is made ; these they deposit in a leaf over the centre of
the nest, and from this leaf it is transported by the carriers to
the honey-makers in the interior of the nest. The carriers are
much smaller than the workers, and of a light brown colour.
The honey-makers resemble the carriers in size and colour, with
the exception of the enlarged abdomen. They are found in the
centre of the nest, generally at a depth of two or three feet from
the surface. They are supported on a sort of web made of closely
woven fibres. Each ant occupies a superficial indentation in the
web, in which it remains ; in fact all locomotion in the honey
makers is impossible, as the distended abdomen, which consti-
tutes the honey-bag, is at least twenty times as large as the rest
of the body. The honey is of a fine flavour, and much sought
after by the natives.

Quantity required to kill

Paris

Academy of Sciences, May 26.—M. de Quatrefages,
president, in the chair,—The Academy proceeded to the election
of the candidates to be recommended to the Minister of Public
{ostruction for the four vacant posts in the Bureau des Longi-
tuies. The following were the final results :—Member repre-
senting the Academy of Sciences, Ist line, M, Serret ; 2nd line,
M. O. Bonnet; Member of the Marine Department, Ist line,
M. Mouchez; 2nd line, M. Bouquet de la Grye: Member
of the War Department, Ist line, M. Perrier; 2nd line,
M. Blondel : Geographical Member, Ist line, M. Janssen ;
2nd line, M. d’Abbadie. The following papers were read :—
On the assimilability of super-phosphates, by M. Joulie.
Vhe author found that ‘‘ super-phosphate ” consists of the
following four bodies :—Free phosphoric acid, dihydric calcic
phosphate, hydric dicalecic phosphate, and tricalcic phosphate,
The first three of these can be taken up by plants;
hen:e he decides, (1) that the amount of phosphoric acid
soluble ia water is not a true estimate of the value of the

NATURE

[Fune 5, 1873

manure, but (2) that the amount soluble in alkaline ammonic
citrate is; he therefore recommends the latter as the proper
reagent for such estimations.—Rectification of a portion of the —
communication of M. Munk concerning the discovery of lunar —
variation, by M. L. A. Sédillot. This paper related to the —
disputed passage of Aboul Wefa.—On the calculus of the
luminous phenomena produced in ,the interior of transparent
media having a rapid motion of translation in those cases where
the observer partakes of that motion, by M. J. Boussinesq.—On
the electric balance and on electrostatic phenomena, by M. P.
Volcipelli.—Researches on the electricity produced by mecha-
nical action, by M. L, Joulin.—On the conditions of maximum
magnetic effect in galvanomoters and electro-magnets, by M.
Raynaud.

DIARY
THURSDAY, June 5.

Linnean Society, at 8—On the Plants of Kilmanjaro: Dr. Hooker,
F.R.S.—Un the Lecythidacez : John Miers, F.R.S.

CuemIcaL Society, at 8.—On the Dioxides of Calcium and Strontium :
Sir John Courcy, Bart.—On Iodine Monochloride: J. B, Hannay.—A
new Ozone Generator will be exhibited by Mr. T. Wills.

Roya Institution, at 3.—Light: Prof. Tyndall.

FRIDAY, Jung 6.

Roya InstiTuTION, at 9 —Lecture: Dr. Odling.

Gzovoaists’ AssociATION, at 8.—Ammonite Zones in the Upper Chalk of
Margate, Kent: F. A, Bedwell.

ARCHAOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 4.

GresHaM Lecrurgs, at 7.—On Headaches: Dr. E, Symes Thompson,

SATURDAY, June 7.

Royat InsTiTuTION, at 3.—The Historical Method: John Morley.
GresHam LecTurEs, at7.—On Narcotics and Sedatives: Dr, £. Symes

Thompson,
: MONDAY, June 9.
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.
TUESDAY, June to.

Puotocrapuic Society, at8.—On Experiments with three wet processes:
Jabez Hughes.—Notes on the Phos lense process: Capt. J. Water-
house.—On some early Photo-engravings: W. H. Fox Talbot, F.R.S.

WEDNESDAY, June 11.

Gerotoaicau Society, at 8.—On the Nature and probable Origin of the
superficial Deposits in the Valleys and Deserts of Central Persia: W. T.
Blanford.—On* Curyophyllia Brodiei, Milne-Edwards, from the Red
Crag: Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S.—On the Cephalopoda-bed and
the Oolite Sands of Dorset and part of Somerset: James Buckman,—
Cetarthrosaurus Walkeri, Seeley, an Ichthyosaurian from the Cambridge
Upper Greensand : H. G. Seeley.

ARCH0LOGICAL. ASSOCIATION, at 8.

GEOLOGISTS’ AssociaTIon.—Excursion to Brighton.

THURSDAY, June 12.

Roya Society, at 8.30.

Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.

MATHEMATICAL Society, at 8.—Some general Theorems relating to Vibra-
tions: Hon. J. W. Strutt.—Invariant conditions of three and four cun-
currence of three Conics: J. J. Walker.—Locus of the point of concourse
of tangents to an epicycloid inclined to each other at a constant angle :
Prof. Wolstenholme.

CONTENTS

Conpensep Mirx. By Dr. Lanxester, F.R.S.. . . . «+. + 97
Tue Puysiotocy oF MAN jG = 0. sic tee piel aise ee

Ciopp’s CHILDHOOD oF THE Wortp. By E. B. Tytor, P.R.S.. . 99
OuR Book SHELF... . .
Lerrers To THE Eptror:—

Permanent Variation of Colour in Fish.—G. J. RomaANES. . . . ror
Venomous Caterpiliars —R. McLacntan; A. M. FesTING. . . 104
‘The Demagnetisation of Needles.—W. H. PREECE. . « . « « 102
Microscopes—Information Wanted . . . . «ss . « « + 102
Arctic Explorauon.—JOHN RAE . .. . « »« ss » « « « 10S
The Westerly Progress of Cities.—W. F. BARRgrT, F.C.S.. . . 102
Etymology of Aphis.—Rev. W. W. SPICER. . . . . « «© « + 103

Phosphorescence in Wood. 1. +s . « «+ »5 sees
Tears and Care of Monkeys for their Dead.—G. Gu.iver, F.R S.
Sag Works on EcuHINoverMS. By Prof. E, PERCEVAL WRIGHT,
On THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS ApPLicaTIoNs, X. By J. NoRMAN
Lockyer, F.R.S. (With lilustrations). . . . « » » sss «
ON THE OrIGIN AND MeramorpPHosEs oF Insects, V. By Sir Joun
Lussock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. (W2th [ilustrations.). . . . . «
Norves FROM THE Chadlenger, III. By Prot. WyviLLz ‘Tuomson, F.R.S.

(With Iliststrations) (cis jp (eine js, > +0) 0 60) rs
Cy i or 5 TE
Science in Ivary. By W. Mattieu Wituiams, FCS. . , . . 113
Scmnwiric SERIALS . SVN whe (66 © 3s) > «el ee nn
SocieTIgs AND ACADEMIES. . « . «+. « « emer Se
ib 7S ee) ee eee

<4

NATURE

11y

THURSDAY, JUNE 12, 1873

FEREMIAH HORROX
i I,
e (3 national glory can ever be connected with a natural
phenomenon, the transit of Venus over the sun’s disc
may be said to bring peculiar distinction to England. It
is in a manner inscribed upon one of the most brilliant
pages of our naval history ; it led to some of the most
remarkable discoveries for which mankind is indebted to
our geographical enterprise, and made the renown of our
most famous navigator. A hundred and thirty years be-
fore Cook, the phenomenon itself was, for the first time in
human history, accurately observed in a corner of Eng-
land, by an English youth, self-taught, and provided with
few of the appliances of scientific research. Now that
the spectacle, so striking in itself, so sublime in the infre-
quent regularity of its recurrence, so important as the key
to numerous astronomical problems, is again attracting
the attention of civilised mankind, now that the expanse
of ocean from Honolulu to Kerguelen’s Land is about to
_ be dotted with watchers from the other side of the earth,
the occasion appears favourable for recalling the memory
of the original observer, Jeremiah Horrox, curate of
_ Hoole, near Preston, in his day one of the most insignifi-
cant of English hamlets.
_ The little that is known respecting Horrox’s family and
circumstances at least suffices to reveal the difficulties
_ with which he had to contend. The place of his birth
was Toxteth, near Liverpool. We cannot discover that
the date usually assigned, 1619, rests on any good autho-
rity, while it is rendered improbable by the fact that in
this case he must have been matriculated at thirteen, and
ordained at twenty. The first letter of his that has been
_ preserved, dated in the summer of 1636, indicates, more-
q Over, a compass of astronomical knowledge, as well as a
general maturity of mind, hardly conceivable in a youth
of seventeen; while his references to the discourage-
ments which, previous to his acquaintance with his sym-
_ pathising correspondent, had almost induced him to
renounce astronomical study, bespeak a more protracted
period of investigation than would have been possible in
such early years. The date 1616, though unauthenticated
by any external testimony, may very well be correct.
Notwithstanding a doubtful report which traces his
family to Scotland, his thoroughly Lancastrian patro-
nymic denotes a local origin. His father’s profession is
unknown ; we suspect him to have been a schoolmaster.
_ The family dwelling is usually identified with a house
_ pulled down a few years since to make room for
the railway station. The family was numerous, and
although it cannot have been indigent, Jeremiah’s
matriculation as a sizar at Cambridge, and short
stay at the University, prove that it was not rich,
His entrance at Emmanuel College, then a stronghold of
Puritanism, is conclusive as to the auspices which pre-
sided over his bringing-up. This matriculation took
place on July 5, 1632; he certainly left the university

nomical observation, June 7, 1635, having been made at
-Toxteth, is an almost certain testimony of his recession
No, 189—VOL, viii,

‘without a degree, and the fact of his first-recorded astro- |

having taken place before that date. Want of means,

and the necessity for contributing to the support of his
family, are the only assignable reasons for a step which
must have thrown the young student on his own resources,
as regarded books, instruments, and intellectual com-
panionship, The first glimpse we obtaia of him is fron
the above-mentioned letter to Crabtree, dated June 2r,
1636, From this and subsequent letters we gather that
he has been for at least a year an observer of the
heavens ; that his circumstances are narrow, and prevent
him from obtaining the books and instruments he desires ;
some, however, of the books he incidentally mentions must
have been expensive, and can hardly have been procured
by him elsewhere than at Cambridge. A list of these in
his own handwriting is preserved, and has been noticed
by Prof. De Morgan, who (“Companion to the Al-
manac” 1837) points out that not one was the work of an
English mathematician, or printed in this country. It
further appears that his time was much engrossed
by other pursuits, which no doubt bore reference
to his preparation for orders, and to his exertions to
support himself in the interim. He was, in all probability,
engaged in tuition, to which land-surveying, or some
similar occupation, may have been added. Thus three
years passed by, at the end of which time we find him
curate of Hoole, a village about five miles to the south of
Preston, the church of which was at that period a chapel
of ease to the adjoining parish of Croston. The patron
was Sir Robert Thorall, the incumbent the Rev. James
Hyatt. Horrox may be assumed to have been recom-
mended to the latter by their common Puritanism, Mr.
Hyatt having been one of the ousted ministers of 1662.
He did not, however, retain his curacy much above a
year ; the cause of his resignation is unknown.

It is now time to treat more specifically of Horrox’s
correspondence with Crabtree, the source of almost all
our information respecting him. Crabtree, a clothier of
Broughton, near Manchester, was one of a small band
of worthies by whom astronomy was cultivated in the
northern counties in those days, some particulars respect-
ing whom will be found in the notes to Sherburne’s transla-
tion of Manilius. These letters survive in the Latin version
of Prof. Wallis, who naturally omitted whatever had no
immediate bearing on science. A re-examination of the
originals, should these still be extant in the Bodleian

| Library or elsewhere, might probably result in the retrieval

of some interesting biographical particulars. As it is,
we obtain many glimpses of the scientific circumstances of
the day. Errors were inevitable in the comparative infancy
of astronomical science, and the mistakes of the master
were naturally a snare to the pupil. Horrox was for a
time not only misled, but induced to distrust the accu-
racy of his own observations by their incompatibility with
those of Lansbergius. Crabtree opened his eyes to the
errors of the latter, and thus indirectly rendered him the
still higher service of leading him to recognise the great-
ness of Kepler, which Lansbergius had disparaged. His
study of Kepler led, as we shall see, to his own great
discovery : before entering upon this, however, it will be
convenient to dispatch the minor matters of scientific in-
terest contained in the correspondence. It is curious to
learn that Horrox’s telescope cost him only 2s. 6d@., and
was nevertheless better than some more expensive ones
H

aes

118

NATURE

[Hune 12, 1843 q

which he had had an opportunity of examining. He did
not obtain even this modest instrument until May 1638,
about a year before Milton viewed the moon through
“the optic glass” of “the Tuscan artist”:

* At evening from the top of Plsole,

Or from Valdar no, to descry new lands, '
Rivers or mountains in her spotty globe.”

The “mute inglorious Miltons” of Toxteth seem not to
have been wholly incurious respecting the researches of
their fellow villager, who speaks in another letter of having
endeavoured to exhibit Venus in her crescent phase to
“sundry bystanders,” who however were unable to discern
the phenomenon owing to their inexperience in the use
of the instrument. The possession of a telescope may
have stimulated his desire to become acquainted with the
writings of its inventor. Four months later we find him
possessed of Galileo’s dialogue on the “System of the
Universe,” and anxious to procure his ‘“‘ Nuncius Side-
reus,” and treatise on the Solar Spots. He had previously
speculated upon the exact period of the creation of the
world, which he sought to determine by a combination
of seta and ‘scriptural data ; and upon the origin
of comets, which he supposed to be emitted from the sun.
The phenomena of the planetary aphelion and perihelion
had likewise engaged his attention, and elicited remarks
which almost seem prophetic of the great discovery of
Sir Isaac Newton. In observing the setting sun he had
noticed a raggedness of the margin, which he rightly
attributed to atmospheric conditions. During the last
three months of his life, when unable to bestow time on
astronomical research, he commenced an attentive study
of the irregularities of the tides, from which he hoped to
obtain a demonstration of the rotation of the earth. The
Lancashire coast, where the recess of the tide is very
considerable, is highly fayourable to similar observa-

tions,
(To be continued.)

CARUS’S BISTORY OF ZOOLOGY
Geschichte der Zoologie bis auf Foh. Miller und
Charles Darwin, von J. Victor Carus. Pp. 739.
(Miinchen, 1872.)
i lia of the most characteristic qualities of the present
time are scepticism and sympathy ; and by a happy
combination of the ability to investigate statements
instead of taking them on trust, and the power of realising
past states of knowledge and of feeling, a most important
advance has been made in history. But the historical
method is not confined to what is commonly so called.
It has been applied to philology and philosophy, and has
reformed both, while even in the physical sciences its
importance is now fully recognised. It is true that a
science like Zoology, which deals entirely with objective
facts, is more independent of history than.some others,
and its history does not realiy begin till the seventeenth
century. But aspart of the history of the human mind,
it will always be important to study the sciences of pre-
scientific ages, and when we meet with such a master-mind
s that of Aristotle, whatever he wrote becomes of the
highest interest because it was his.
The work before us, by the son of the late eminent
zoologist of the same name,* is one of the series under-

* ‘the accomplished author himself is now lecturing in Edinburgh as Prof.
W. Thomson's substitute,

taken by command of the late King of Bavaria, and
published by a Historical Commission of the Royal
Academy of Sciences in Munich, It embraces the history
of the whole body of science in Germany, and the volumes
which have already appeared have been written by men
of high eminence in their several departments.

Fortunately, however, Prof. Carus does not at all confine
himself to Germany,so that the present work is an
attempt at a complete history of zoology, from the earliest
to the present time. It naturally divides itself into two
parts, the first treating of what may be called pre-scientific
zoolozy, which is only of general historical interest, the
second tracing the develop nent of zoology, as a science
of observation and experiment, from .its foundation by
Ray and Linnzus. These two sections are handled on
a very different scale, for the former occupies more than
half the book, and is therefore sufficiently minute, while
the whole history of modern zoology is compressed into
three hundred pages. The consequence is that, while
accurate as to facts, the latter part is often little but a list
of names and dates.

We shall therefore simply direct the attention of zoolo-
gists to the second portion of Prof. Carus’s history as con-
venient and well-arranged for reference, and dwell here
on his detailed account of the less known progress made
in ancient and medizval times towards a knowledge of
the varieties and structure of animals.

The first chapter treats of the earliest animals known
to man, including those domesticated in prehistoric times.
The names of the Ox, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Dog, Horse, and
Goose, occur in allied forms in most of the Indo-European
languages, and their bones are found among the dust-
heaps of the earliest race of men known. The Cat
(atNoupos), though domesticated in Egypt, was not a
household animal till much later in Western Europe:
the “cat” of the Greeks and Romans (yeA7) being
almost certainly the whitebreasted beech-marten (Jfarfes
foina) a conclusion learnedly and perspicuously esta-
blished by Prof, Rolleston in’ a paper published in the
Fournal of Anatomy and Physiology, for November 1867.
But the Flea and the Louse appear to have been familiar
from the earliest times, and Mice, Flies, and Worms are
also among the first named by man. To the same primi-
tive group belong the Bear, the Beaver, which lived in
English rivers up to comparatively recent times, and the
Wolf and Fox, the names of which (vz/Jes, Wolf) have
evidently been confounded.

After a short account of the part taken by animals in
early mythology and in the fables common to the Indo-
European nations—a chapter which might have been with
advantage enlarged from the pages of Grimm, D sent,
and Link—our author enumerates the domestic animals
known in classical times, which include, beside those
already mentioned, the Camel (confounded with the
elephant during the Middle ages), the common Fowl
(pus mepotx) Aristoph., Av. 485), which was introduced
from the East between the date of Homer and Hesiod
and that of Aischylus, the Chenalopex, probably iden-
tical with our sheldrake (Zadorna vulpanser), pigeons of
various breeds, and birds of prey which were used for
hawking. The list of wild animals was greatly increased
by the games of the Roman circus, and many, like the
Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, and Giraffe were better

Sune 12, 1873)

(pues) exclusive of bats.

- Coorpaxodepyua).

~ . , TOR ee

known under the Empire than they have been until very
recent times. Pliny mentions the occurrence of the Plati-
nista in the Ganges, but no notice of the Hyrax, a form
so familiar to the Hebrews, is to be found in Greek or
Roman authors.

The next sections are occupied by a tolerably full
account of the knowledge of anatomy and physiology
possessed by Aristotle, and by his successors, Herophilus
and Erasistratus, and of the attempts made towards a
classification of the animal kingdom. The groups recog-
nised by the first, and perhaps the greatest, of naturalists,
are surprisingly near to what are now accepted. 1,
Viviparous quadrupeds, clothed with hair ((wordxa
terpavoda)—Mammalia, exclusive of Cetacea, 2. Birds
3. Oviparous quadru-
peds, inclusive of snakes and frogs. 4. Cetacea (kyjry),
with teats and milk (Hist. An., iii, 99). 5. Fishes
(iy@ves). Those with (red) blood are distinguished
from the remaining “blocdless” classes. 6, The Cepha-
lopodous mollusks (waddxa). 7. The testaceous mol-
lusks, including ascidians, cirripedia and echinide
8. Malacostraca—Crustacea. 9. In-
secta (évroua) including all air-breathing Arthropoda.
Lastly, Starfishes, Sponges, and some other groups, are

characterised as partaking of the nature of plants

(Zoopbyta).

On the whole, Aristotle’s zoology is less imperfect than
his anatomy. In spite of Prof. Carus’s opinion, the well-
known passage (Hist. An. i. 39) clearly states what is re-
peated in two other passages, that the back of the skull
is empty, and his views of the position and functions of
the heart, lungs, and nerves are scarcely more scientitic
than Plato’s notions of hepatic triangles. Indeed it is
difficult to believe that Aristotle can ever have com-
pletely dissected a single mammal. The digestive and
reproductive systems he understood much better. But
beside his wonderful industry in coilecting facts, the
acuteness and power of generalisation displayed by
Aristotle in other branches of science are not wanting in
natural history, Thus he remarks that insects with horny
wings have no sting. “I have never seen an animal wita
solid hoofs and two horns.” When horns are present
there are no canine teeth. Quadrupeds which bring torth
their young alive are clothed with hair, those which lay
eggs, with scales. Insects with four wings have the
sting behind, those with two, in front. Nor is it the least

_ proof of Aristotle’s greatness that he gave an impetus to
P g gave p

biological science which produced the Alexandrian school
of anatomy, and only ended at the beginning of the third
century of our era with the death of Galen.

The contributions of Roman authors to zoology, such as
those buried in the huge mass of crude and chiefly worth-
less material which Pliny called natural history, only
mark the decay of the science. During the subsequent
dark ages (the darkness of which is probably for the most
part subjective) the most remarkable work on zoology is
the famous “ Physiologus,” also called the “ Bestiarius
Theobaldi,” of uncertain authorship and date, but known
over the whole of Christendom from the eighth to the

_ thirteenth century by translations into Syriac, Armenian,
_ Arabic, Ethiopic, German, English, Icelandic, and French,

_ The Greek text is probably the original, from which the

_ Latin was taken. This long-forgotten book, like Pliny’s,

NATURE 119

includes accounts of plants, stones, and other natural
objects, and describes among more common-place ani-
mals, mermaids, unicorns, and onocentaurs. There are
mentioned, of quadrupeds, the antelope (perhaps the
Urus), beaver, elephant, hyzena, monkey, and lion, beside
common European species; thirteen species of birds,
including the ostrich ; of reptiles, several kinds of lizards,
and serpents, but only one invertebrate animal, the ant.
The original plan appears to have included only the
animals mentioned in the Bible, and the chief object of
the book is to draw moral lessons from the habits of the
creatures described. The ‘‘ Physiologus,” while of great
historical interest, is, of course, devoid of even relative
scientific value.

Passing over the Arabian naturalists, who added little
original, we come to the three writers who represent
the science of the Middle Ages when the writings of
Aristotle became generally known and the systems of
scholastic philosophy were founded—Thomas of Can-
timpré, Albertus Magnus, bishop of Ratisbon, and
Vincent of Beauvais. They were all Dominicans, and
all belong to the thirteenth century, that remarkable era
of revolution in philosophy, politics, and art. At this
time knowledge of foreign animals was greatly increased
by the travels of Marco Polo (1275-1292), who described
the wild horses, musk deer, and yaks of Tartary, the
camels and asses of Persia, and the rhinoceroses,
elephants and tigers of India,

Museums only began to be formed in the sixteenth
century when the discovery of America brought to light
so many new animals and plants; but for a long time they
were what museums still too often are, mere lumber rooms
of “ Dinge gantz seltzam und fremdi,” as Duke Albert of
Prussia wrote in 1559. All the earliest anatomical prepa-
rations, including the celebrated dissections of Harvey
still preserved in the College of Physicians, are dry.

The Lucidarius, a medley of stories; about animals,
which represents in the Renaissance what the Physio-
logus does in the Middle Ages, appeared in 1479, and like
the latter was translated into all the European languages.

The earliest attempt at a System of Zoology was by

} Wotton in his Differentiis Animalium, published at

London in 1550. It is little more than a reproduction of
the doctrine of Aristotle. Conrad Gesner’s Historia
Animalium appeared in 1551. Like Wotton, he was a
physician, and practised in Switzerland and South Ger-
many. His work is chiefly remarkable for its illustra-
tions, one of which, the figure of the Rhinoceros,
was drawn by Albert Diirer. Passing over the
names of Aldrovandi (1522-1603), Johnston (1603-1675),
and Sperling (1603-1661), the next important work on
zoology was Bockart’s Hierozoicon, published in 1663.
This work of the learned Norman Huguenot has been a
quarry which succeeding biblical commentators have con-
tinually used, but its value is almost entirely literary :
indeed it was written rather as a contribution to hermen-
eutics than to natural science. The figures in a work of
Clusius, “ Exotica,” which belongs to the early part of
the seventeenth century, show by those of the sloth, the
manatee, the armadillo, humming-bird, cassowary, dodo,
penguin, and molucca crab, how much the discoveries
made in America, Madagascar, and New Holland, were
increasing the list of known animals.

120

During the first half of the seventeenth century there
also appeared the earliest monographs. Thus Nicho-
las Tulp, the anatomical lecturer in Rembrandt’s famous
painting at the Hague, gives a description and an
almirable engraving on copper of what he calls an
“ orang-outang,” evidently a chimpanzee from Africa ;
and in the same Odservationes Medice (1641) figures a
narwhal as “Unicornis marinus.” The Lzdellus de
Canibus Britannicis (dedicated to Gesner), of our
countryman John Kay (Caius) was earlier than Tulp’s
papers. It was followed by monographs on the elephant
by Lipsius and Caspar Horn, on the stag, with an account
of its dissection, by Agricola, of the hippopotamus, from
a specimen sent in brine from Damietta to Rome, by
Columna, and of fishes in general by Salviani and
Rondelet. In 1634 was published at London Zuzsectorum
theatrum, avowedly founded on the words of Wotton and
Gesner, and on a compilation from both which had been
begun by Thomas Penn, and interrupted by his death ;
the next editor was Thomas Mouffet, but he also died
several years before it was published. This is a noble
monograph, with woodcuts so accurate and characteristic
as to compare with the best productions of modern skill.
It is also remarkable for containing a full and correct
account of the Acarus scabiet, which was afterwards so
long forgotten. Beside insects (in the Linnzean sense of
the word) it describes worms of various kinds, and among
them what is apparently a Bothriocephalus latus. This
species is still more distinctly figured by Tulpius (Obs.
Med. tab. vii), but by some strange error it is represented
with two heads. Spigelius (de dumbrico lato) gravely
discusses whether it is an animal at all.

Meantime anatomy and physiology were making rapid
progress. Vesalius (1514-1564), the father of modern
anatomy, and his contemporary Eustachius, who ventured
to oppose his own dissections to the authority of Galen,
Fallopius, and his successor at Padua, Fabricius, and the
still more illustrious pupil of Fabricius, William Harvey,
form a succession of almost unequalled eminence. The
dissections of our countryman Thomas Willis (1621-1675)
were not confined to human subjects, and the earliest
microscopical observations, by Malpighi, Leeuwenhoek, and
Hooke, were also to a large extent zoological. After the
middle of the seventeenth century the three most illus-
trious scientific societies were founded, the Academia
Nature Curiosorum (1652) incorporated as the “ Leopold-
inisch-Carolinische Academie” in 1677, the Royal Society
in 1662, and the Académie des Sciences four years later,
In 1667 Ray was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society,
and began the series of papers which mark the first steps
of scientific zoology, and surely prepared the way for his
greater successor Linnzeus. P. H, PYE-SMITH

OUR BOOK SHELF

Lehrbuch der Physik, Von Dr, Paul Reis, Zweite Liefe-
rung, Leipzig. (Quandt and Baudel, 1873.)
THE second part of this useful handbook of physics opens
with the explanation of Mariotte’s Law and the various
applications of atmospheric pressure. The next division
is devoted to the study of wave motion, which is dis-
cussed far more fully than in the ordinary run of scien-
tific text-books. This leads on to acoustics, and we are
at once plunged rather abruptly into the subject of musi-

NATURE

cal intervals. The theory of consonance, the cause of
the intensity of sound and its mode of propagation make
up the novel arrangement of this chapter. Optics occu-

pies the sixth division, and is carefully treated. Especially

noteworthy is the chapter on the theory of the absorption

and dispersion of light, in which there is an excellent —

account of spectrum analysis. The part before us breaks
off in the discussion of physiological optics, where Helm-
holtz’s researches are in part developed. It isa pity that
the engravings are not equal to those generally found in
continental text-books.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. }

Jacamar in Britain

I SEE, in your review of Mr. Cordeaux’s ‘‘ Birds of the Hum-
ber District,” mention of a Jacamar—I presume a Galbula—
having been shot by a keeper named S. Fox, near Gainsborough,
in 1849. Youand the author, Mr. Cordeaux, naturally remark
on the ‘‘ extraordinary” puzzle of the fact.

As one who has often seen the Jacamar in its own tropic
forests, and watched its flight and its feeding, I must be allowel
to suspect some mistake, unless the most “‘ startling ””—in every
sense of the word—evidence of the authenticity of the specimen
is given,

Ready to believe everything, in such a world of wonders, I
might have believed ina Jacamar being blown to south-west Corn-
wall, Ireland, or Scotland. But in the eastern counties—
“Qu’allait il faire dans ce galere 1a ?”

Harrow, June 6 C. KINGSLEY

The Use of Wires in Correcting Echo

[The following letter has been forwarded to us by Mr, J. J.
Murphy] :—

Palace, Cork, May 30, 1873

My Dear Mr. Murphy,

Having seen in the newspapers some notices of the use of
wires for correcting the echo by breaking the waves of sound in
churches and public buildings, we were anxious to try the ex-
periment in the cathedral of St. Fin Barre, Cork, the nave of
which is of great height, between 60 and 70 feet, and narrow in
proportion to its height. We were unable to obtain any reliable
information as to the placing of the wires, so that what we did
was very much in the way of experiment. I should state that
the desks for the officiating clergy and the choir are placed at
the intersection of the transepts, nave, and chancel, so that this
may be regarded as the point from which the sound starts. The
organ is placed in a gallery at the west end, and the organist
seated in this gallery has always heard much more distinctly than
the people sitting about two-thirds down the nave, particularly
those close to the pillars ; but the echo seemed to render the
sound indistinct, more especially in the transepts, the north and
south walls of which presented a large flat surface, and appeared
to us to be probably the source of the echo.

At first we tried the wires strained at a considerable height,
the level of the triforium, but they produced comparatively little
effect ; we then strained a double course of wire at about a height
of 12 or 15 feet round the large piers of the central tower, so as
to encompass the choir, and other wires completely across the
nave and side aisles, and the effect was certainly very good.
There was a greater distinctness of sound throughout the build-
ing. Our organist, who is a very accomplished musician, did

not know that the wires were put up, and remarked to me one

day after service that he did not know what it was, but that
everything seemed to him in better tune. z
This encouraged us to make further experiments. We then

strained three wires completely across from the south wall of _

the south transept to the north wall of the north transept, so as
to pass over the heads of the choir, but the effect was quite too
great, it seemed to kill the sound, every sound seemed to

stop at once, all resonance was gone, These wires we had at once —

to take down, and I should add that, as regards the organist,

the wires over the heads of the choir seemed to produce a much .

greater effect than those directly between the choir and his

[Fune 12, 1873

FF

»

Pe a ee nee

ee ee ee

a

in the matter here.

whe eee NATURE

I2!I

seat ; it appeared to lnm as if he had a bad cold and could
not hear distinctly. 5

These wires appeared to prevent the voices rising and filling
the cathedral. It seems very difficult to determine where to
place the wires so as to produce a really good effect ; but that
they have a very great effect far beyond what one would have
supposed, @ friori, is admitted by all who have taken an interest
Several members of the congregation have
remarked that they heard better in the cathedral now, without
knowing the cause. We have used very thin wire; a stranger
would not perceive it unless his attention were called to it. We
hope to make some further experiments especially with regard
to the transepts of the cathedral.

The inexpensive nature of the experiment and the important
result likely to be obtained make this a matter of great import-
ance, independently of the great interest it possesses in a
scientific point of view.

Imay add that when in Dublin I attended Divine service
in St. Andrew’s Church, and having officiated in the church at
different times I am well aware of the difficulty of filling it in
consequence of the echo, but the use of the wires appeared to
have made a very great difference, as I heard most distinctly.
It seemed to me, however, that a far greater number were used,
than my experience in Cork would have led me to suppose were
necessary.

I hope this subject will receive the attention which it deserves.
J. J. Murphy, Esq. ROBERT S, GREGG

Fertilisation of the Wild Pansy

THERE are two points in the structure of the heartsease (Vio/a
tricolor) which are not mentioned in Mr. Bennett’s interesting
article on its fertilisation, but which, I think, deserve notice.
The first of these is the lip of the stigma, which closes the en-
trance to the spur and must be pushed back by an insect trying
to reach the nectary, thereby bending down the head of the
stigma, so as to sweep any pollen that may be adhering to those
parts of the insect which come into contact with it into its re-
ceptacle ; while, in withdrawing, the insect necessarily presses
against the lower side of the lip, and raises up the whole stigma,
thus rendering self-impregnation impossible, or at least highly
improbable. Modifications of the same contrivance may be
seen in many other flowers, ¢.¢. Finguicula, Tris, &c.; it reaches,
perhaps, its greatest perfection in A/imulus and Bignonia,t
where, to the usual mechanical disposition of the parts, there is
added irritability of the stigmatic lobes, which close together
spontaneously when touched, expanding again after a while, if
not already pollenated.{

The second point to which I have alluded is the close, hairy
lining of the fore part of the spur, forming a narrow groove
at the base of the lowest petal. This groove generally contains

* Both these points have already been described by Prof. Hildebrand
(‘Die Geschlechter-Vertheilung bei den Pflanzen,” p. 53). Unfortunately,
T have not the works of Sprengel and Hermann Miiller to refer to.

+ Ihave had no opportunity of examining the latter, but from the pub-
lished descriptions it seems to correspond in its main features with Mimudus,
of the process of fertilisation of which a full account has been given by Mr.
F. E. Kitchener in the Yournal of Botany for April.

} When it becomes necessary to introduce a new word into the language
it is always well to select the most appropriate that offers itself. Some time
ago Mr. A. W. Bennett wrote to the ¥ournad of Botany (vol. ix. p. 112),
asking for suggestions for a better rendering of the German word Bestanbung
than “‘be-pollenment ’ or “‘pollenization.” I afterwards (Fourn. ot., vol.
X. p. 25) proposed the term “ pollenation,” which has since been accepted by
Mr. Bennett. He, however, continues to use the verb to “‘pollenize.” Now,
if I might be allowed the space, I should like to state my reasons for object-
ing to this expression—(z) The root fod/ex is Latin, while the termination
«{w is Greek. Of course, this objection is over-ruled by common usage, and
by itself would go for nothing, (2) The word “‘pollenize” does not in its
structure convey the idea intended. Zestduden means to “‘sprinkle with
dust,” to “dust with pollen.” The termination ‘‘ize,” on the other hand,
gives the signification of change or conversion ; thus to “‘pollenize” would
naturally mean to ‘‘ pulverize,” to “ turn to flour or pollen,” and might be
correctly applied to the processes going on in the substance of the anthers,
but not, without violence to grammar, to the application of pollen to the
stigma. Numerous precedents might be cited for the use of the word
“pollen,” unaltered, as a verb, from which would be derivable either
“‘pollenation” or ‘‘ pollenment,” but this would be at the risk of offence to
ears scientific. The same objection would apply with still greater force to
the word “be-pollen.” ‘‘Empollen” is more euphonious, but would con-
vey a slightly different meaning. On the whole, the word that I have used
in the text is the best that 1 can think of. Perhaps some of your more
classical readers might give us their opinions.

§ Morphologically speaking, this is the uppermost petal, which, by the
bending of the peduncle and consequent inversion of the flower, is made to
assume the position best fitted to afford a convenient landing-place for

EE eee eee

a quantity of pollen that has fallen from the overhanging anthers.
There is also a small tuft of hairs at the base of each of the
lateral petals, arching over the essential organs, and forcing an
insect to approach the nectary from below. These lateral tufts
are present, I believe, in all the violets, but Y. ¢ricolor (includ-
ing therein several sub-species) is the only British species which
has the spur lined with hairs, as well as the only one not known
to bear self-fertile cleistogenous flowers.

Although the flowers of the wild heartsease are quite scentless
to our blunt organs, does it follow that they are necessarily so to
an insect’s far more delicate sense?* Some of the cultivated
pansies are very sweet, and I am not aware that this quality has
ever been made an object for selection by florists. These large
garden pansies are much frequented by Bombus muscorum,
which may be watched while performing the act of pollenation,
as described by Prof. Hildebrand. W. E. Harr

Kilderry, Co, Donegal

P.S.—Mr. Farrer, in writing of Lotus corniculatus (NATURE,
vol, vi. p. 499), says :— ‘‘ Five of the stamens, viz., those of the
inner whorl, are shorter than the others, and their filaments are
dilated at the top.” Here Mr. Farrer’s usually accurate pen
seems somehow to have madea slip. It is the long outer sta-
mens, those opposite the calyx-teeth, which have their filaments
thus curiously modified for the purpose there explained.

Fertilisation of Orchids

Mr. DaRwIN, in,his ‘ Fertilisation of Orchids,” speaks of a
Madagascar orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale) with nectaries 11}
inches long, and supposes that these plants must be fertilised by
the efforts of huge moths, with probosces capable of such ex-
pansion, to obtain the last drops of the nectar which is secreted
in the lower part of these whip-like nectaries, Can any of your
readers tell me whether moths of such a size are known to in-
habit Madagascar? They would probably be Sphingide of
some kind, as no other moths would combine sufficient size and
length of proboscis. W. A. Forbes

Culverlea, Winchester, June 2

Ground Ivy

I HAVE this spring found, in many different places, specimens
of ground ivy, having flowers with undeveloped stamens. They
seem generally, though not always, to be on different plants
from those bearing perfect flowers, and below the average in
size, the tube being more slender. Also, in nearly all my speci-
mens, the stigmas diverge in a more or less horizontal direction
(across the flower) instead of remaining open in the usual vertical
one. Is this second form of the flower common? and if so,
may not the greater tendency to horizontal divergence compen-
sate for the want of stamens, by bringing the stigmas into the
position most favourable for receiving from an insect any pollen
which a previous visit to a perfect flower may have left on its
head or back ? S. S. D,

Hail Storm

i DurRING the passage across us this afternoon of a thunder-
storm moving at so great a distance above the earth that the
thunder was very feeble and the lightning very faint, we had a
great hail storm, which commenced with conical-shaped opaque
stones of the size of peas, at 42 27™ (only lasting one minute),
beginning again at 45 29™ with circular transparent stones having
a small opaque nucleus (again only lasting one minute), followed
at 45 33™ with flattened stones of the form of commonacid drops,
transparent, except a thin opaque envelope (which soon melted),
and having externally in the centre a small rugged piece of ice.
The size varied from two to three inches in circumference, and the
force with which they fell cut off the leaves from the trees and
broke 200 panes of glass in my greenhouses. These stones con-
tinued to fall for seven minutes with very heavy rain.

Twelve hailstones were gathered after the storm was over,
and on being melted yielded 0'060 inch of water when measured
in the glass of an eight-inch gauge, and the amount caught within
an eight-inch hoop measured 0°750 of an inch, and this added to
the rain, gave 1°430 inches,as the amount fallen during the
storm. E, J. Lowe

Highfield House Obsery., Nottingham, June 3

* The flowers of V. Jalustris, which are nearly unicolorous with a few
dark lines pointing to the nectary, are apparently scentless; but after
ae for a short time in water in a warm room, they become quite
swee!

Te ewe) eee oe « &- Cea et eee =
me ‘s sh 7”; ; + aa 2 Bn ee

122

THERMO-ELECTRICITY *
Il.

Sb Eote by considerations of Dissipation of Energy, I

was led some years ago to the hypothesis that specitic
heat of electricity must be, like thermal and electiic
resistance, directly proportional to the absolute tempe-
rature. If this were the case, the lines in the diagram
would be straight for all metals; and parabolas would be
the graphic representation not only of electromotive force,
but of the Peltier effect,in terms of the temperature of a
junction. And I found by actual measurement of curves
plotted from experiment, that, within the range of mercury
thermometers, the curves of electromotive force for junc-
tions of any two of iron, cadmium, zinc, copper, silver,
gold, lead, and some other metals, are pirabolas with
their axes vertical; the differences from parabolas being
in no case greater than the inevitable errors of experi-
ment and the deviation of mercury thermometers
from absolute temperature. If, then, the line for
any one of these metals be straight within these limits of
temperature, so are those of all the others. This makes
the tracing of the diagram within these limits a very
simple matter indeed. And an easy verification is fur-
nished by the fact that from the parabolas for metals
A and B, and A and C, we can draw the lines for Band C,
assuming any line for A; and we can then compare the
temperature of the intersection of these lines with that of
the neutral point of B and C as found directly. Another
verification is supplied by the tangents of the angles at
which these parabolas cut the axis of abscissze, for the
sum of two of them ought in every case to be equal to
the third.

In fact, if we assume, in accordance with what has been
said above,

o, = kt, og = he,

where /, and #, are constants, Thomson’s formule give

at once

T= — |e — baat,
or

TT = (4, — Ay)(Ty,2 — 2)¢

where T,,. (the constant of integration) is obviously the
temperature of the neutral point.
Also

E=J [Fat = 3-4) [Tye - Dat

JA 42) — 2,)(Tie

where /, is the temperature of the cold junction. This is
the parabolic formula already mentioned.

Comparing with the parabola as given by observation
we get the values of #, — #, and Ty». Similarly we obtain
ky — Ag and Ty,; Hence we may calculate #, — #,, and
(by the second equation above) the value of T,,, from the
relation

(4 - hy) Ty + (4, — ,)T 235 + (43 — Ay)T 4,3 =0.
Thus we have the means of verification above alluded
to—for the equation just written expresses the relation
between the tangents of the angles at Which the three
parabolas cut the axis of absciss@. .

[It is to be remarked that if the circuit consist of one
and the same metal, we have

ky = ky, T = &, (4, — &y)T = 7 suppose,
whence I = r/,
which shows that the electric convection of heat may be
regarded as an infinitesimal case of Peltier effect between
adjacent portions of thé same metal at infinitesimally
different temperatures. :

Also, on the same hypothesis, we have

i) eee Be Fee ee
which seems to accord with the result of some experiments |

* Abstract of the Rede Lecture, concluded from p. 88.

NATURE

| come there will be a maximum of capital, then a poi

| Sune x2, 1873 4

made for me by Mr. Durham, in which the deflection due
to the contact of the hot and cold ends of the same wire
was shown to be proportional to the difference of ternpe-
ratures and independent of the actual temperature of
either. ]

Endeavouring to extend the investigation to tempera-
tures beyond the reach of mercury thermometers, I
worked for a long time with a smull air-thermometer, of
which the principle was suggested to me by Dr. Joule.
Butthis involved very great experimental difficulties, due
mainly to chemical action at high temperatures ; and, after
much unsatisfactory work, | reselved to make one thermo-
electric junction play the part of thermometer in observing
the indications of another. In fact, an exceedin ly ele-.
gant result follows at once from the preceding formula, if
we suppose the specific h at of electricity to be propor-
tional to the absolute temperature in each of four metals,
and then draw a curve whose ordinate ani abscissa are
the simultaneous galvanometric indications of pairs of —
these metals, with their hot and cold junctions respec-
tively at the same temperatures. For if r be the diffe-
rence of absolute temperature of the junctions, we have

x= Ar-+ Br

y = Cr+ Dr
where the four constants depend upon the nature of the
metals and upon the absolute temperature of the cold
junction, These equations give

(Da — By)? = (CB — AD) (Ca — Ay)

which is the equation of another parabola, also passing
through the origin, but with its axis no longer vertical,

A simple proof of this theorem is turnished by the
motion of projectiles in vacuo, Supposea particle to move
under gravity, and subject, besides, to another constant
force parallel to a given horizontal line—its path
would have both ordinate and abscissa parabolic functions
of the time. But its path might also be found by com-
pounding into one the two accelerations, and as each of
these is constant in direction and magnitude, their
resultant will have the same property, and thus the
resultant path is a parabola. Tried in this way through
ranges of temperature up to a red heat, I found that
while some pairs of circuits gave excellent parabolas,
others were far from doing so, sometimes in fact giving
curves with points of contrary flexure. I was on the
point of recurring to the air-thermometer, when I noticed:
that in nearly every case in which the curve was not a.
parabola, tron was one of the metals employed ; and, b
the help of some alloys of platinum, I was enabled to get
an idea of the true cause of the anomaly, and afterwards
to verify it by an independent method. The cause is
this, that while, as Thomson discovered, the specific heat
of electricity in iron is zega¢ive at ordinary temperatures,
it becomes Positive at some temperature neat low ted
heat ; and remains positive till near the melting point of
iron, where it appears possible, from some of my experi-
ments, that it may again change sign. Thus the line for
iron, straight at ordinary temperatures, passes downwards
from the first quadrant to the fourth, and thence rises into
the first again. yA 4

To recur to our analogy, an income represented by the
iron line is one which for a number of yeats steadily
diminishes, reaches a minimum, and then steadily in-
creases. If this be associated with a steady expenditure,
the fluctuations of capital will depend upon the compara-
tive values of the expenditure and the minimum income,
If the expenditure be less than the minimum income, the
capital will go on increasing slower and slower to a certain.
point, then faster and faster; there will be no stationary
point, but there will be a point of contrary flexure. If
the expenditure be just equal to the minimum income,
the point of contrary flexure will be also a stationary,

point. If the expenditure be greater than the minimu

=
.
F

Contrary Aexure, and then a minimum; the maximum
and minimum being the stationary points corresponding
to the two occasions dn which the expenditure equals the
income. The maximum and minimum will obviously be
farther apart, and smaller, the larger is the expenditure
coiipaben with the minimum income.

_ The latter part of these statements is well exhibited by
the behaviour of circuits of iron, and various alloys of
platinum with Iridium, Nickel, and Copper.

[Some of these, involving two, and in on? case three, neutral
points, were shown. ]

In each of these cases there are obviously two neutral
points, at least. Now suppose the two junctions raised to
the temperatures of these two neutral points respectively,
and we have a thermo-electric current maintained ev//re/y
by the specific heat of electricity, as there is obviously
neither absorption nor evolution of heat at either junction.
Still further, suppose (as is very zedr7y the case with one of
the alloys I have just used) that the specific heat of elec-
tricity is x77 in the metal associated with iron, and we
have the very remarkable fact of a current maintained in
a circuit, without absorption or evolution of heat at either
junction or in one of the metals, but with evolution of
heat in one part of the sccond metal and absorption in
another part. This suggests immediately the idea that iron
becomes, as it were, a different metal on being raised above
a certain temperature. This may possibly have some
connection with the Ferricura and Ferrosum of the
chemists ; with the change of magnetic properties of
iron, and of its electric resistance, at high temperatures.
Dr. Russell has kindly enabled me to verify these
properties in a specimien of pure iron prepared by
Matthiessen. I find similar effects with Nickel at a much
lower temperature. The method of control which I em-

loyed to satisfy myself that these peculiarities are due to
iron and not to the platinum alloys, requires a little ex-
planation. It depends upon the fact that by the
help of two métals made into a double are (wires of
the two being stretched side by side, without contact
except at the ends) we can explore any portion of the
field between the lines for these two metals by simply
altering the ratio of the resistances in the two parts
of the double arc, Such a_ complex arrangement
gives a line passitg through the intersection of
thé lines of the two constituents, atid depending for
its position on their relative resistances. I shall not,
at this stage of my lecture, trouble you with the formula
which gives the line for the double are in terms of the
resistances of the two metals and their lines, but simply
show the experiments with the help of a gold and a
palladium wire, the one having the specific heat of elec-
tricity positive, the other riegative; while their neutral
point is considerably below the temperature of the room:
Between their lines is included the peculiar portion of the
iron line, and by making shots at it, as it were, in various
directions from the neutral point of gold and palladium,
we shall be able to study its bearings.

[Several of these experiments were showy till finally the gold
wire was melted.]

I have heté Wires of iron, gold, and palladium, bound
together at oné énd, which is to be the hot junction. One
eta of the galvanometer coil is connected With the free
end of thé ifon wire, the other slides along 4 long coppet
wiré which Conriects the free ends of thé gold and palla-
diffi wires. By sliding it towards either I diminish the
resistatice of that branch of the double arc and iticrease
that in the 6ther—.e, I give that brarich of thé double
arc thé greater importance in the combination.

Throwing the greater part of the resistance into the
palladium branch, I find a neutral poitt at a moderate
ie ature; btit I caftiot reach 4 Secotid without pouee

d. Throw tote resistance into old, the fit
Soiat seours at & pear tenet tha Before:

NATURE

123

but a second is attainable. By still further increasing
the resistance in the gold the two neutral points gradually
approach one another, one rising in temperature the other
descending, until at last we reach a maximum-minimum,
the result of the confluence of the two points. The line
for the double arc is now such as to ‘ouch the iron line.
Still further increase the resistance of the gold, and we

find a mere poiat ef inflexion, the galvanometer indica-

tions having constantly rzsex, though at a retarded and
then accelerated rate, during the heating of the junction.
Two of the platinum alloys which I employed with iron
seem to give lines almost exactly parallel to thé léad line
—i.¢. in them the speciiic heat of electricity is practically
nil. When a circuit is formed of these alloys the current
therefore depends upon the Peltier effects at the junctions
alone, and is sensibly proportional ti the difference of
their absolute temperatures, thus furnishing a very
convenient thermometer for the approximate estima-
tiori of high temperatiires. [ am at préSent engaged in
drawing the thermo-electric diagram in terms of tempera-
tures as given by this coibination, and thé reduction to
absolute temperattires will finally be effected by a com-
parison of this temporary but very cohveitiént standard
with an air-thermometer. P. G. Tair

Nore.—The following rude sketch of a part of the thermo-
electric diagram will perhaps render some of the pre-
ceding remarks more intelligible. It is drawn to
illustrate qualitative effects alone,

; ‘ MY ocd «a
The following diagram exhibits the amount of the

Thomson and Peltier effects, and of the electromotive
force, in a copper-iron circuit, the temperatures of both

Junctions being under that of the neutral point,

on

el

Peltier efféct at cold junction = Atea A Dda (heating)

” ij. . HOE ” = 35 BCcéd (cooling)
Thomson effect in capper ZR Deve 55
Pas Fa { ton So “ i
Electrombtive atte a Reep ”

, eT.

124

The arrows show the direction of the current ; and
Euclid’s proposition as to parallelograms about the
diagonal of a parallelogram shows at once the application
of the first law of Thermodynamics to the figure, as the
Electromotive force together with the Peltier effect at the
cold junction obviously amount to the sum of the two
Thomson effects and the Peltier effect at the hot junc-
tion.

Also, if we suppose the lines AD, BC, to be very

close to one another, since we have always A D =7

we get(BC—AD)¢= #a(7) = — (a, — o,)8¢, whose appli-

cation to the second law is obvious. The reader may
easily construct for himself diagrams for other cases of
relation of the temperatures of the junctions to that of
the neutral point.

Thomson’s original paper will be found in the
Transactions of the foyal Society of Edinburgh,
and farther details of my experimental work in recent
numbers of the Proceedings ofthe same society. I
may avail myself of this opportunity of asking assis-
tance from men of science in procuring wires or foil
of the more infusible metals, such as Cobalt, Chromium,
Tungsten, &c,

Ps Gk,

THE LAW OF STORMS DEVELOPED*
th

ETEOROLOGISTS tell us that their science is as
old as Aristotle. If we should judge by its pro-
gress up to the middle of the present century, its antiquity
furnishes little to boast of ; for, in the long lapse of cen-
turies, it must have proved an incorrigibly dull scholar,
Within the past few years, however, it has greatly im-
proved, and, especially since it became identified with the
popular and important systems of storm-warnings and
weather-forecasts, it has been rapidly developed. This is
peculiarly the case in America, and it is not wonderful,
when we consider the comprehensive observations of our
meteorological bureau, and the many beautiful phenomena
which its publications disclose.

If Vasco Nunez, the discoverer of the great South Sea,
was so awed by the grandeur and expanse of its waters,
as seen with the naked eye, how much more may we be im-
pressed as telegraphic meteorology enables us to discover,
at a glance, the tossings and undulations of the aérial
ocean over the larger part of the hemisphere !

It is to some of the deductions, that may be justly
made from the extensive and synchronous observations
of the modern weather-systems, as they bear upon those
weather-problems, which, from time immemorial, have
interested mankind, that we now ask attention.

Until the year 1821, “the law of storms,” simple as it
is, was unknown to the most profound meteorologists and
expert seamen of the world. It was then first discovered
and announced by Mr. William C. Redfield, of New York,
and established by the labours of that great mind, against
the constant perversions and opposition of the scientific
empirics of his day. It can be easily comprehended in
its great outlines, and as far as our present purposes re-
quire, It assumes nothing, supposes nothing ; but, from
thousands of actual and actually recorded observations,
presents the phenomena of spiral currents of air seeking
a common centre of depression, and, in the attempt to
find that centre, acquiring a vorticose or rotatory motion,
The direction of this rotation Mr, Redfield found to be
uniformly, in our hemisphere, contrary to that of the
hands of a watch, with its face turned upward ; and, in

* From the Popular Science’ Monthly. Communicated by the author,
Prof. Thompson B. Maury, of the Signal Office, Washington.

Se Re CPE > eT Me Te

NATURE

[Fuse 12, 1873 ;

the Southern Hemisphere, the rotation is with those
hands, or with the sun in its diurnal round. It is easy to
see that, if the atmospheric column, resting over any
given area of the earth’s surface, should, from any cause,
be suddenly diminished, or its pressure and intensity be
reduced, the gaseous fluid would rush in from all sur-
rounding regions to restore the disturbed equilibrium ;
and if the earth was not whisling around on its axis,
every particle of the centre-seeking air would endeavour
to move on the shortest, or the straight line. It is known,
from the principles of mechanics, that this endeavour can
never strictly be executed, because the axial rotation of
the globe incessantly so acts as to throw every body,
while in motion, in our hemisphere, to the s7g/#¢ of the
line on which it is moving, no matter whether that line be
from east to west, north to south, or at any conceivable
angle with the meridians or the equator. Obeying, in
part, this tangential impulse, every particle of wind must
take up a resultant motion. If it begins to blow toward
the depressed centre of the storm as a north wind, it
trends to the west, and is felt as a northeaster ; if it
begins as a south wind, it diverges as a southwester ; if
as an east wind, it becomes a southeaster ; and, if as
a west wind, it soon changes into the boreal northwest
wind.

It has often been asked whether the storms of our lati-
tudes attain the immense size formerly attributed to
them ; and many eminent writers have denied the possi-
bility of their reaching a diameter of more than two or
three hundred miles. Mr. J. K. Laughton, in his recently-
published “ Physical Geography,” would have us believe
that cyclones “do not attain the enormous magnitudes
which have been assigned them.” But this opinion rests
merely upon conjecture, not yet upon a correct physical
theory.

It is a well-known fact that the monsoons generated
on the central plateau north of the Himalaya Moun-
tains, and the whole system of Asiatic wet monsoons,
may be regarded as an immense and prolonged cy-
clone; extend their “backing” influence into the
Indian Ocean, and reach far to the south, through
more than forty degrees of latitude (a radius of 2,500
geographical miles), and from the 60th to the 14oth |
meridian of east longitude, far out into the Pacific, |
beyond the Bonin and Ladrone Islands, southeast of
Japan. The whole system of wet monsoons may also
be justly regarded as a grand cyclone, whose centre
is stationary over the heated plains of Central Asia,
whose intro-moving winds, bearing the evaporations of
the Asiatic seas and oceans, feed it with meteoric fuel for
six months in the year, and whose periphery may be re- ;
garded as embracing nearly one-third of the entire eastern
hemisphere. Analogy, therefore, warrants the idea of a
great cyclone. But, apart from all this, actual observa-
tions in different parts of the globe prove the frequency of
storms of enormous magnitude. Thus, in the celebrated
Gulf-stream storm of 1839, as Sir David Brewster long
ago pointed out, several staunch merchantmen were foun-
dering off the coast of Georgia, near Savannah, in the
very heart of the gale, at the same hour that the winds in
its north-west quadrant were taking the roofs off houses
in New York and Boston, more than 800 miles distant—
clearly revealing a cyclone whose formation was symme-,
trical, and whose diameter must have been nearly 1,300
miles. But, not to go back to old data, the West-Indian
storm of August 18, 1871, before its centre had moved
north of Florida, had begun to draw upon the regions of
high barometer in the Northern States, had exerted its
influence as far north as New London, Connecticut, and
gave us the north-easterly cyclonic winds in the north-
west quadrant of the whirl, on the entire Atlantic coast.
The more furious cyclone of August 24, 1871, discovered
to be then south-east of Florida, and telegraphically fore-
announced as likely to endanger the coasts of the Southern

q

States in less than forty-eight hours, appeared on the 26th
in full force in Northern Florida, but not until some eight
or teh hours after it had set the atmosphere all around it
(as far north as Boston) in cyclonic motion, and had
caused the storm-cloud to spread itself over the entire
region of the United States on the eastern slopes of the
Alleghanies, and as far westward as Knoxville, Tennessee.
It is no uncommon thing, as Redfield, Espy, Henry,
Loomis, and others, long ago showed, for an area of de-
pression on the upper lakes to make itself simultaneously
felt as far south as the Gulf of Mexico, and as far east
as New England.

If it fell within the scope of the design of this paper
to consider the final cause of storms, it~ would be
easy to show that, unless the law of storms ordained a
large area, and a far extended path for the meteor, in
some degree commensurate with the area of our immense
continent, the meteor could not fulfil its office in the
terrestrial economy—an office which, apparently, imposes
upon it the task of gathering to its centre, through the
agency of its intro-moving winds, the idle and inappre-
ciable moisture scattered over the surface of the earth,
condensing it into rain and snow, and diffusing it in these
forms over immense districts of country.

. It is of incalculable importance to observe, and care-
_ fully digest the fact, that when a storm-centre or area of
i low barometer is once formed, it is the nucleus for a vast

:
:
i

aggregation and marshalling of meteoric forces. No
matter how small at first, under favourable atmospheric
conditions, the courant ascendant is formed, condensation
aloft sets in, and the precipitation only serves to add
“fuel to the flame” of the cyclonic engine. This process
widens in geographical area, and after a few hours have
elapsed, the storm may so develop as to cover a continent
_ with its portentous canopy of cloud, while simultaneously
strewing an ocean with wrecks, and throwing out in the
upper sky, more than a thousand miles in its front, the
fine filaments of the premonitory cirrus and cirronus.

In close connection with the size and magnitude of
cyclones must be considered the distance over which they
pass from their initial point. Much has been said on this
part of our subject, and not a few writers have accepted
the doctrine of Admiral Fitzroy, that they progress over
but comparatively short distances. For such a view,
however, it is impossible to find, either in the hature or
physical office of the cyclone, any support whatéver. The
storm once engendered, ho matter in what fart of the
world, thay be stationary or progressive. There are well-
alithehticdted instances of alitiost stationary cyclones
and Aliiiost stationary typhoons, of which latter will
‘be reniembered the famous gale of the ship Charles
‘Heddle—an (ndiaman, carried round and round the storm-

- centre for five days—which progressed not more than 90
miles a day. Indeed we may, as has been said, regard every
wet-imonSoon region as a stationary and semi-perennial cy-
clone. Such a meteor has been shown to resemble an eddy
moving in the current of a rapid river. The latter may
be large or small, while it does not determine, but is
determined by, the course of the on-flowing stream, It
is true the centre of an eddy or water-hollow may soon
be filled up and the whirl disappear ; but it is because
the depression is not maintained. If the depression
could be maintained, it is easy tosee that the eddy
would continue, arid pursue its way, as long as the current
in which it is embodied continues to flow ; it might be
through the length of an Amazon or a Mississippi River.
In the case of a cyclonic eddy or whirl, we know the
atmospheric depression is maittained as long as the
centre moves ina region sufficiently supplied with aqueous
vapour to feed it. It is a physical impossibility, as has
been Often showwii, that any storm, however vast or how-
evét Violent, can prolong its advance or sustain its fury
over a dry and desiccated surface. Thé most extended
typhoons of the East, upém enteting the dry and rainless

continental regions, dwindle into the well-known and
diminutive dust-whirlwind, such as Sir S. W. Baker
describes as witnessed in Nubia, and as here illustrated,
from the admirable pages of Mr. Buchan. The Sahara
is amore formidable barrier to the passage of a storm
than the majestic mountain wall of the Alps, and the
simoom is, notwithstanding the stories of travellers and
the legend of swallowing up the army of Cambys2s on
the African desert, a wasted and worn out cyclone. In
his “ Desert World,” Mangin, compiling the more accurate
observations of the phenomenon, says: “It never prevails
Over any considerable area, and beyond its limits the
atmosphere remains serene and calin; the phenomenon
is of brief duration, the atmospheric equilibrium is
speedily restored ; the heavens recover their serenity ;
the atmosphere grows clear, and the sand-columns, falling
in upon themselves, form a number of little hills or cones,
apparently constructed with great care, like those mimic
edifices of sand made by children in their pastime.”
The same writer also mentions a severe simoom which
was “ over in a couple of hours.”

Embedded in the great aérial currents, however, ‘and
supplied with abundance of moisture, there is nothing
to arrest either the rotatory or progressive movements of
the storm. Like the drift-bottles cast upon the current
of the ocean, and found after months to have been
carried thousands of miles, from the equatorial to the
polar parallels, there is every reason to suppose the
tropic-cradled gale, and the minor storms also, are borne
in the great atmospheric currents through quite as great
distances. There is an authentic and well-attested account
of a Japanese junk, lost or deserted off Osaka, drifting
through the immense arc of the Kuro Siwo’s recurvation,
and encountered (in latitude 37°, by the brig Forrester,
March 24, 1815) off the coast of California. That tiny
craft must have followed in the bands of westerly winds
and warm waters for seventeen months, Why, upon
theoretical grounds, should we reject the hypothesis which
represents the movement of storm-areas as prolonged for
many thousands of leagues, or indeed that which repre-
sents them perpetually in motion around given centres of
cyclonic or anti-cyclonic areas, keeping pace with the
great winds in their eternal circuit ?

As a striking corroboration of all this we find—what
might have been assumed on theoretical grounds—that
the logs and special observations of the Cunard steamships
show that a vessel bound from Liverpool westward en-
counters frequent advancing areas of low pressure,
indicating a number of rapidly succeeding barometric
hollows or depressions, “ each with its own cyclonic wind-
system, moving across the Atlantic as eddies chasing
each other down a river-current.” >

The word cycfone has frequently, but incorrectly, been
used as significant of an enormous or very violent meteor,
as if its applicatioh was to be confined to the devastating
hurricane of the West Indies or thé terrific typhoon of
the Chinaseas. It simply means a Storm which acts in
a circular direction, and whose winds converge by radials
or sinuous Spirals, toward a centre, Moving in our hemi-
sphere in the opposite direction to that of the hands of a
clock, and in the Southern Hemisphere in a contrary
direction. Taking this as the definition of a cycloné,
it seems clear, from observation alone, that all storms are
to be regarded as cyclonic. Volumes have been written
to prove that this is not the case. But we have only to
examine a few series of weather-maps from week to week
to see that, wherever you have an area of low barometer,
into its central hollowthe exterior atmosphere from all sides
will pour, and that in so doing a rotatory spiral or vorticose
storm is generated. The tornado, the simooms, the dust-
whirlwind, the fire-storm, even the slowand sluggish storm
which moves on our western plains as the labouring wheel of
the steamship buried in a heavy sea, all attest thata Body
cannot move on the earth’’ siface ih 4 ema Tie. Tt

is not more tru2 with us that the Gulf Stream turns to
the eastward, tte Polar Stream to the westward, and the
equatorial currents to the northward, than that every air-
current, in obedience to the same law, should turn to the
right of the line along which from any cause it is called
tomove. The metcorist has therefore only to ascertain
by observation where the barometer is lowest, to know at
once the direction of the winds from the circumjacent

126 i NATURE

districts, far and near, or at least to test the mathematical
law by a grand experiment, ,

The tangential and centripetal forces, acting at the
same time on any particle of air in the storm, may be
equal or very unequal, and the cyclonic character of the
gale may be well marked or partly concealed. In the
tornado, with a diameter of only a few hundred feet, the
tangential force may not be appreciable to an observer,

y _

sti

fic. 1.—Cirrus aad Cirronus Clouds.

but it is present, and intensely assists in communicating
vorticose motion to the storm, whose roar is heard with
awe by the stoutest heart, as it crashes through the forest
and even ploughs up the soil of the earth. If the cyclonic
or spiral feature should fail to manifest itself in any storm,
we ought to look for such failure in the tornado. It is

*Nht) ny

: a ny Wes

Fic. 2.—The Dust Whirlwind.

true that no barometric readings have ever been taken in
the narrow heart of a tornado, but abundant evidence
exists of the fearful rarefaction in the centre. While the
meteor, once set in motion, may move forward with great
velocity and destructiveness, the danger is clearly due to

the intro-rushing and gyratory winds. There is not an
instance, it is believed, recorded in which a tornado
moved as much as 100 miles an hour ; probably one-half
that velocity would be too high an estimate for its usual
and ordinary motion, But the wind, moving Straightfor-
ward at the rate of 60 or 80 miles an hour, never worked
anything like the disaster of a tornado. In the West-
Indian hurricane, blowing at the rate of 100 miles an
hour, houses have been blown down, ships innumerable

stranded ; but this is all mere child’s-play compared to.

the suction and whirl of the tornado. The conclusion
forced upon us is, that the ravages of the latter are due,
not to the weight of the atmosphere, moving as a river-
torrent in a straight line, nor to the rush of air behind the
travelling vacuum, but to the torsive, racking motion—
imparted to every object in its path—due to its gyration,
To prove that this gyration is a/ways from right to left,
or against the hands of a watch, is, of course, practically
impossible ; but such a direction has often been observed
in tornadoes,

It may, therefore, be safely concluded that, for all pro-
cesses of meteorologic calculation, the disturbance, if not
such at first, will soon become cyclonic, All daily
weather-charts demonstrate this, not by a laboratory or
lecture-room experiment, but on an infinitely wider and
grander scale, and in a manner far more conclusive than
any merely manual experiment could possibly make to
appear. As Mr. Laughton has happily said, “ Nature
makes no distinction between small and great ; the drop
of mist that lights gently down on a delicate flower, and
the avalanche that sweeps away a village, fall in obedience
to one universal law.”

(Zo be continued.)

:
:

Sune 12, 187 3]

_

ry

NATURE

127

THE CORONAL ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN*
I

I PROPOSE to bring before you rapidly the principal

results obtained by me during the last total eclipse
of the sun which I observed in Hindostan, at a point not
very far distant from the place where I observed the
great eclipse of 1868, which opened up such new horizons
with regard to the constitution of the sun.

The last eclipse took place on December 12, 1871.
The chief interest of the phenomenon is connected with
the problem of the luminous corona which surrounds the
sun during total eclipses. When that body is eclipsed by
the interposition of the moon, you know that indepen-
dently of those jets and luminous expansions which are
known as protuberances, there is seen around the dark
disc of our satellite a magnificent luminous phenomenon,
resembling a glory or crown, which extends to 8’, 12’, 15’,
and more from the lunar limb, and the frequent strange

forms of which are variable at each eclipse. The obser-
vation of the eclipse which now occupies our attention,
had for its object to definitely fix for us the nature of this
_ singular phenomenon,
The corona is the luminous manifestation which is
| predominant during a total eclipse, and thus it must, at
all times, attract the attention of observers. We possess,
indeed, descriptions by Plantade, by Halley, by Louiville, _
and by others, which go back to the commencement of
| the 18th century ; of course these observers did not indi-
cate the cause of the phenomenon,
| Arago and his school forma period in the history of
_the attempts which have been made to discover the
| nature of the corona. Our great physical astronomer

applied the polariscopic methods to these investigations,
| but he as well as his successors were baffled. In the
“ Astronomie Populaire,” published in 1856 (tome iii.
p- 604), we read the following conclusion upon this

subject ; “I regret to say that the disagreement which

has been found to exist between the observations made |
in different places by astronomers equally competent, on |

the luminous corona, in one and the same eclipse, has
covered the question with such obscurities, that it is in
the meantime impossible to arrive at any certain conclu-
sion on the cause of the phenomenon.”

By means of spectrum analysis the question has |

entered on a new phase. In 1868, while the nature of

the protuberances was discovered, the spectrum of the |

corona was also obtained; it is true the observers found it
continuous, not an exact observation according to me,
which retarded the solution of the question.
In the following year the Americans took up the
* Translation of paper'read by M. Janssen at the Bordeaux meeting of
the French Association for the Advancement of Science.

+ Let us mention the observation of M. Rayet, who found luminous pro-
longation on the principal lines of the spectrum of a protuberance.

| matter.* They still found the continuous spectrum, but
they established the existence of that celebrated green
line (1474 in Kirchhoft’s scale) which is the prevailing
manifestation in the spectrum of the corona, and the
meaning of which has yet to be discovered. We owe,
moreover, to the Americans some very beautiful photo-
graphs of the protuberances, which show also the actinic
power of the coronal light.

The eclipse of 1870 was marred by the bad weather.
The few observations which could be made confirmed in
general the observations of 1869.+

Thus, in 1871, we already possessed some very im-
portant data on the corona. Unfortunately these data
were as yet incomplete, and above all inconsistent ; for

* The total eclipse of August 7, 1869, visible in N. America.
+ We should mention, nevertheless, the beautiful observations of Mr.
Young on the reversion of the lines at the base of the chromosphere.

128

NATURE

example, the continuity of the coronal spectrum, on the
one hand, was inconsistent with the observations of
polarisation of the corona, and on the other hand, led to
the scarcely admissible conclusion of a corona formed of
solid or liquid incandescent bodies. Thus the new
eclipse, which presented a new opportunity of attacking
this great question, the calculation, of which, it was felt,
must now be near, excited a general rivalry.

England took the most considerable shate in these
observations. The[British Association, the] Royal Society,
the Royal Astronomical Society, the Indian Government,
worked harmoniously together. Among the noted men of
science sent out, we shall mention specially Mr. Norman
Lockyer, Colonel Tennant, Lieut. Herschel, Mr. Pogson,
Capt. Fyers, &c. Italy was represented by M. Respighi,
who was destined to make, on this occasion, some very
beautiful observations ; Holland by M. Oudemans, &c.
At the request of the Academy and the Bureau des Longi-
tudes, I was appointed by the French Government to
represent France. It was a glorious.charge for me, but
at the same time a heavy one, which made ine regret
that circumstances did not permit of My having any French
rivals.

The voyage being decided, it remaitied for ie to settle
the plan of my observations, the plan on Which to set
about to choose instruments, aid to chodse the place
of observation, These points were of prime import-
ance.

With regard to the plan of investigation, I knew very
well that, coming after sé matty able ten, I could Hot
hope to solve the problem by sitiply adding to the huine-
rous observations already made, 4 few similat obsetva-
tions. It was necessary to study the collectish 6f kioWh
facts, to fix the obscure or contradictory poilts, ald td
secuwe a number of rapid observations (thé tStality ve
last only about two minutes in India) Which shoul
enable us to correct what was inaccutate, t6 cdtiplete
what was insufficient, arid to form, aldig With previolls
observations, a collection of data from Which té dedtice
the true nature of the phehuimenon, Fot exatiple, I had
no doubt, in spite of contrary observations, that the spec
trum of the corona was not really discoHHANGUS, was
persuaded that it must present, as a domitaht chatactel
istic, that of a spectriim of gas, and I found aii explanation
of the contrary appearaiices recérded in the fecbléehess OF
the light of the corona which did Kot admit spectra ts be
obtained, sufficiently luminous for discerning their true
constitution. Thus, my intention was to bring my efforts
to bear upon this chief point, to Some extent the knot of
the problem. The point was to obtain a spectrim much
more luminous than those of my predecessors. For this
purpose I constructed a special telescope having a Mitror
37 centimetres in diameter, and a focus of 143, which
gave spectra about 16 times tnore lutminous than those of
an ordinary astronomical telescope.

I attached also great importatice td seeing the cordHd
at the same time as I analysed its light. A special
arrangement of the finder enabled me to attain this end.

Finally, a polarising telescope placed upon the large
telescope enabled me to join the polariscopic indications
to the other data, and to judge of their agreement. Such
were my instrumental arrangements.

The choice of a station was of no less importance.
At the point at which we had arrived, our investigations
bore upon phenomena so delicate that a sky was required
of absolute purity, if I may be permitted the expression.
Let us say a few words as to where I sought to realise

_ this second condition.

The eclipse was to be total in the south of Hindostan,
at Ceylon, Java, and Australia. Australia was too far
away. Java is, in December, subject to the rainy mon-
soon, There yet remained India and Ceylon, which
represented for the line of totality a very considerable
exentt, and offered a very great variety of stations from

- * There is a ie 4 from Magis te the Malabat boagt: 1 rotia ft ating

which to choose. To make this choice, I resolved not to

trust to the general indications which we possess in.

Europe as to the climate of India, but to set out early, to
visit all the stations, and to decide only after visiting the
places, and collecting information on the spot.

I was at Ceylon by the beginning of November, nearly
six weeks before the time of the eclipse, which would
take place on December 12. On this island I was greatly
assisted by the families Laggard and Ferguson, to whom I
here beg to express mythanks. The information gathered
in the north of the island, where the phenomenon would
take place, was not so satisfactory as I desired, and it
was agreed to seek for better fortune on the codst of
Malabar, I then left Ceylon for Malabar, doubling Cape
Comorin. On my way I made some magnetic determi-
nations, and I had the good fortune to find that the
magnetic equator, for the dip, passes quite close to Cochin.
It was at Telecherry, an English post situated near the
line of totality and the French colony of Mahé, that we
disembarked. 1 was received by M. Baudry, a French
merchant, who gave me a most gracious welcome and
the most active assistafice. Mahé was very valuable to
me; our governor, M. Liotant, proctired for me inter-
goer who spoke Fretich and the dialects of the districts

was to traverse.

I had, meantime, to chdose between the coast proper,
the plain, and the stations of the Ghauts and the Neil-
gherries. As the eclipse was drawing near I could not
think of sojourning at each station to make a lengthened
itvestigation. I decided to utilise the telegraph and the
railivay * for making a simultaneous inquiry as to these
statioiis. M. Baudry, whom I had instructed in observa-
tidXs td iiiake every morning at the hour of the eclipse
Gi the pilrity of the atmosphere at the coast, sent me
thesé every day by telegraph. I had a similar station on
the plait, The baggage had been taken to Coimbatoor,
at the cette of the railway, ready to be conveyed speedily
to rt statioh selected. I myself visited the Neilgherries,
atid to pail tite, I surveyed these mountains by utilising
the | ig t. The mass of information thus collected indi-
cated the great superiority of the Neilgherries. A very
careful iivestigation of this tassive mountain-range
{hited i€ to locate my station it the horth-west, where

d ji fact much finer weather than in Dodabetta, one
of the highest peaks, where Coloitel Tennant and Lieu-
eHaht Herschel were afterwards established.

It was upon a mountain near Shodlor, an Indian village,
lat. 11° 27’ 8" N., long. 74° 22’ 5" E. of Paris, that I fixed
my observatory. The ihstrutments were forwarded from
Coimbatoor (at the foot of the Neilghetries) to Ootama-
cund in ox waggohs: Frotii Ootamactind to Shoolor the
country consisted only of miouiitaii And forest, without
carriage roads, and tlie cases had to be carried on men’s
shoulders, the tiany difficlilties attetiding which were
happily overcome. “Three days Before the eclipse the
observatory was erected, the fhsttiliieht in place and
ready for observation,

The observation at Shoolor was favoured by a sky of
wonderful purity. As I have already indicated, my plan
was to examine the corona from the triple point of view
of its figure, its spectrum, and its phenomena of polari-
sation. i ’

I first examined the corona in the telescope; the pheno-
menon was seen jn all its splendour. The general form
was that of a curvilinear square (cav7é curviligne), of which
the outlines were irregular, but clearly dented, _ At its
greatest height, the corona exterided to about 14’ or 16’
from the lunar limb, and only to about half that distance
at its narrowest parts. No diagoHal was if the direction
of the sdlar equator, All around the limb of the imoon
were seen trains of light which united tdwatds the highest
parts of the corona, and which gave to the ehtire phetio-

follow thé direction of the Ie

ronet

[Kune 12, 1893

Ee

menon the appearance of a luminous and gigantic dahlia,
the centre of which was occupied by the black disc of the
moon,

The corona did not present any essential differences
of structure at the point of contact and the opposite point.
The motion of the moon did not appear to produce any

change in the structure. These facts completely con-
vinced me that the corona is a real object, situated beyond
the moon, the gradual motion of which body reveals its
various parts. Having finished this investigation, I
turned my attention to the luminous elements of the
phenomenon. My view being yet as distinct as ever, I
commenced by examining the spectrum of the highest
and least luminous parts of the corona. I placed the
slit of the spectroscope at a point two-thirds of a radius
from the moon’s limb (exviron du bord lunaire). The
spectrum was seen much more vividly than I expected
at that distance, a result evidently due to the luminous
powers of the telescope and to the whole of the arrange-
ments adopted. This spectrum was not continuous. I
recognised at once the hydrogen lines and the green ray
(1474).* “

This is one point of the highest importance; I
removed the slit, remaining always in the high regions of
the corona ; the spectra always presented the same con-
stitution.

Starting from one of these positions, I descended little
by little towards the chromosphere, examining very care-
fully the changes which might be produced. In propor-
tion as I approached the moon, the spectra became more
distinct and appeared richer, but they remained similar
to the above in general constitution. In the middle
heights of the corona, from 3’ to 6’ of arc, the dark
line D was seen, as well as some obscure lines in the
green; but these are at the limit of visibility. This
observation proves the presence in the corona of reflected
solar light, but it is seen that this light is drowned in an
abundant extraneous (¢¢7angére) luminous emission,

I then set myself to a very important observation,
which I expected would give me the spectral relations
between the corona and the protuberances. The slit was
adjusted so as to take in a portion of the moon, a
protuberance, and all the height of the corona, The
spectrum of the moon was excessively pale ; it appears due
principally to atmospheric illumination, and gives a
valuable idea of the feeble part which our atmosphere
can play in the phenomenon of the corona.

The protuberance gave a very rich spectrum and one
of great intensity; I had not time to make a detailed
examination. The main point here is the establishment
of the fact of the prolongation of the principal rays of
the protuberance through all the height of the corona,
which clearly demonstrates the existence of hydrogen in
the latter.

The green line (1474), so vivid in the spectrum of the
corona, appeared interrupted in the spectrum of the
protuberance—a very remarkable result. I then gave a
few moments to establish satisfactorily the exact cor-
respondence of the lines of the corona with the principal
lines of hydrogen in the protuberances,

There remained to me then only a few seconds for
polariscopic observation.t The corona presented the
characteristics of radial polarisation, and, it ought to
be remarked, the maximum of effect is not observed at
the lunar limb, but at some minutes from the edge. t

I had scarcely finished this rapid investigation when the
sun reappeared. JANSSEN

(To be continued.)

* My spectroscope was fitted with a very exact scale ; but it will be seen
how I afterwards made use of the lines of a protuberance as a scale.

+ Tostudy polarisation, Ihave an excellent lunette excellently constructed
of biquartz, by M. Prazmowski. This polariscope, placed upon and
adjusted to the telescope, can be consulted in an instant.

t M. Prazmowski has noted this fact in his excellent polariscopic obser-
vations of the eclipse of July 17, 1860.

129

NOTES

THE subject of the Transit of Venus in 1874 was for the
first time officially brought before the notice of the Board of
Visitors at the recent Visitation of the Royal Observatory.
After a careful exposition of the matter by the Astronomer
Royal, and a consideration thereof by the Visitors, it was pro-
posed and seconded by the Astronomical Professors of Cambridge
and Oxford, that the Government be requested to provide the
means of organising some parties of observers in the Southern
Ocean, in the hope that they may find some additional localities
for observing the whole duration of the Transit of Venus. In
other language, they recommend strongly a sort of roving expe-
dition. The meteorological and climatic difficulties both North
and South are extremely great : the practical difficulties in the
South are very peculiarly so ; in despite of the latter, the Board
of Visitors were unanimous in their advice to try what best
can be done in the sub-antarctic regions. The Astro-
nomer Royal expressed his perfect acquiescence in the
proposal of the Visitors; the final decision will rest with the
Admiralty and the Government. In coming to this decision, it
is proper to add that the Board was in no degree either ine
fluenced or assisted by certain discussions which have taken
place upon the subject out of doors ; their decision would have
been just the same whether these discussions had or had not
taken place ; and the Board came to their conclusion under a
full knowledge of the very peculiar climatic and navigational diffi.
culties which seem to attend on the roving expedition which they
recommend, It is, in fact, only a realisation of an old proposal
by the Astronomer Royal himself, which seems to have been set
aside on account of the many serious practical difficulties attend -
ing it. The Astronomer Royal also proposed to organise some
additional stations dependent on Honolulu.

Messrs. SAMPSON Low AND MARSTON are about to publish
aivolume on the subject of Arctic Exploration, by Mr. Clements
Markham, entitled the ‘‘ Threshold of the Unknown Region,”

It is intended to give a full account of all that is known of the

line which, at present, separates the known from the unknown ;
to explain the best route by which the unexplored region may be
examined ; and to enumerate the important scientific results to
be derived from Arctic exploration.

NATURALISTS will be glad to hear that the long-talked-of
new buildings for the National Museum of Natural History, at
South Kensington, have been actually commenced, and that the
contractors, Messrs. Baker, have arranged to complete them
within three years.

Mr. F. T. WARNER, of Winchester, who for some time has
been collecting materials for a Flora of Hampshire, has kindly
offered the use of his collections and materials to Mr. Frederick
Townsend with the proposal that he should complete the Flora.
Mr. Townsend has accepted the offer, and as much work
remains to be done, he invites the assistance of other botanists
in furnishing him with lists of plants or in forming these during
the present season. The value of lists will be greatly increased
if accompanied by specimens, and in all cases exact localities
and dates should be given. It is proposed to divide the country
into river-basin districts. Letters should be addressed to Shed~«
field Lodge, Fareham, but parcels to Botley Station, London
and South Western Railway. Mr. Townsend will gladly pay
postage or carriage of parcels.

PROFESSOR ROLLESTON, of Oxford, is appointed to deliver
the Harveian Oration at the Royal College of Physicians on
June 25, at five o’clock.

IT is rumoured that Prof. Tyndall is to receive the honorary
degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford during the
Commemoration,

130

NATURE

[Fune 12, 1843

THERE will be an election at Magdalen College, Oxford, in
October next, to not less than six Demyships and one Exhibition.
Of the Demyships, one at least will be mathematical, one at least
in Natural Science, atid the rest classical, The Exhibition will
be in Natural Science. Thestipend of thé Demyships is 957. per
annum, and of the Exhibition 752, inclusive of all allowances ;
and they are tenable for five years, provided that the holder does
not acéept any appointment which in the judgment of the electors
will interfere with the completion of his University studies. The
examination for the Mathematical and Natural Science Demyships
will be held in common with Merton College, at the same time
and with the Same papers. Each candidate will be considered
as standing in the first place at the College at which he has put
down his nams, and, unless he shall give notice to the contrary,
will be regarded as standing at the other College also. In
conducting the Examination for Magdalen College Demy-
ships in Natutal Science, questions will be put relating to
General Physics, to Chemistry, and to Biology, including
Human and Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, with the
principles of the classification and distribution of Plants and
Animals; but a clear and exact knowledge of the principies of
any one of the above-mentioned Sciences will be preferred to a
more general and Jess accurate acquaintance with more than one.
The Examination in Biology and Chemistry will be partly prac-
tical, if necessary. Candidates for Demyships in Natural
Science and Mathematics have also to satisfy the Electors of
their ability to pass the ordinary Classical Examinations required
by the University. Very superior excellence, however, in
Natural Science or Mathematics will be allowed to compensate
for any deficiency which Candidates may Show in thé Classical
part of the Examination, provided that the Candidate, if elected,
undertake to make up this deficiency at a subsequent period.
The next Examination will commence on Tuesday, October 7,
at 9 A.M. Particulars relating to the examinations in the vatious
subjects may be obtained by applying to the senior tutor.

THERE will be an election at Merton College, Oxford, in
October next, to three Postmasterships, value 80/. per annum,
tenable for five years, of so long as thé holder does not accept
aty appointment incompatible with the full putsuance of his
University studies. One of these Postmasterships will be
awarded for proficiency in Mathematics, two for proficiency in
Physical Science; In the examination for the Mathematical
Postmastership, papers will be set in Algebra, Pure Geometry;
Trigonometry, Theory of Equations, and Analytical Geometry
of two dimensions. Candidates for this Postmastership must
not have exceeded four terms of University standing. There is
no limit of age. In the examination for the Physical Science
Postmasterships, papers will be set in Chemistry, Physics, and
Biology ; and an opportunity will be given of showing a know-
ledge of practical work in Chemistry atid Biology. The Post-
masterships will be given either for special excellence in one sub-
ject, or for €xcéllence in two of the three subjects ; but no can-
didate will be examined in more thati two subjects. A paper
will be set ia Elementary Algebra and Geometry, which, cater?s
paribus, will be of weight in the election to the Postmasterships.
Candidates for thesé¢ Postmasterships mtist not have exceeded
six Terms of Univétsity standing. There is no limit of age.
The examination will cofiiineficé on Tuesday, October 7, at 9
A.M., iti Merton Collegé Hall. Candidatés are required to call
on the Warde on thé Sathe day BétwWeéfi 4 ahd 5 p.m. Thé
examination will be held in common with Magdalen College at
the sate tite, and with the Same papers. Each candidate will
be considered as standing, in the first instance, at the College at
which he has put down his name, and, unless he has given notice
to the contrary, will be regarded as standing at the other College
also,

From the report on the progress and conditiofi 6f thé Royal

Gardens at Kew during the year 1872, just published by Dr.
Hooker, it appears that the number of visitors to the gardens
shows an increase of 6,000 over that in 1871, very nearly half
the number being Sunday visitors. Considerable additions and
improvements have been made during the year in various paits
of the gardens; the Pinetum now numbers about 1,200 species
of coniferous plants, including almost very species that can be
grown out of doors in this climate. Seeds and living plants
have been received from various parts of the world, and a large
number of parcels serit off to our colonies and elsewhere. The
acquisitions to the Museums have been considérable, aiid tho8e to
the Herbarium quite excéptional in magnitude and importance,
including an extremely valuable presentation by the Rev. C.
New of plants collected on the Alpine zone of Kilima-njaro, the
only hitherto visited snow-clad mountain in Equatorial Africa ;
2,000 Brazilian plants from M, Glaziou, Director of the Botanic
Gardens at Rio de Janeiro; and a beautiful collection of Ap-
palachian inosses from Prof. Asa Gray of Cattibridge, U.S.
Among the publications issued during the last yeat either
officially or by private botanists working at Kew, are thé com-
mencement of the second volume of Betitham and Hooker's
“ Genera Plantarum,” the sixth volume of the ' Flora Austra-
liensis,” by Mr. Bentham; the first part of the * Flora of
British India,” by Dr. Hooker; several parts of Martius’s ee F lora
Brasiliensis ;”? Col. Grant’s account of the plants collected by
Capt: Speké and himself in Central Africa, Ke:

SPECIAL certificates of proficiency have been taken at the
recent examination for women of the University of London in.
the following scientific branches :—in Mathematics, by Miss
Black and Miss Orme ; in Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, by.
Miss Eaton and Miss Wood; in Human Physiology, by Miss
Kilgour of the Ladies’ College, Cheltenham, the first titié this
branch has been taken by a lady: and in Political Keonomy by
Miss Lord ahd Miss Orme:

Mr. GwyN Jerrreys is about to join the Challenger at
Madeira for a cruise to the Caharies, Cape de Verde Islaiids,
and Bahia.

M. P. J. VAN BeNevEN describes, in the Bulletin of the
Belgian Academy of Sciences, a fossil bird foundin the Rupélian
clay of Waes, in all respects similar to the existing Anas
Marila,

Last Saturday appeared the first number of a new French
Scientific periodical named Za Nature. The articles are all
high-class, and the illustrations ate plentiful and well executed:

Dr. Leone LEvI, the Consul-General for Paraguay, is arrdng:
ing a scientific comthissiod to inquire into the resources of
Pardguay. The commission is to consist of botanical, agti=
ctilttial, g@dlogical, iineralogital) and geographical siirveyors.
It i8 tmndéistood that thé Colsil-General las in view to Appoint
a French botanist, of great réputation, and a Scotth agticul-
turist, but has madé no drrdigement for the géologist and
geographer. Dk. Levi would be glad to givé information to
anybody who might be willing to offer liis co-operation in such a
scientific expedition.

Lertérs froii Sydney atinoiince the afrival there of the
Italian frigate, Vellore Fisani, with the naturalist D’Albertis on
board, he having been forced to leave New Guinea by repeated
attacks of fever. His companion, Odoardo Beccari, well known
for the valuable collections he madé between 1865 and 1868 in
Borneo, atid subsequently i N.E. Afiicd, 4nd Which ate now
iti the civic inugeum of Gettoay Has remained in New Guinea.
Signor D’Albertis is, coniing oyefland to Londoii, and will Bag
with him a large collection of Zool8@leal specimens! “ogee

Tue second of the two parts of Prof. C. J. Sundevall’s new
Synopsis of the Classification of Birds has just reached us from
Stockholm. This important contribution to ornithological lite-
rature, the work of so justly celebrated and painstaking an
ornithologist, will be found replete with suggestions, as its
author bases his methods of arrangement on details worked out
mostly by himself, and with a truly scientific spirit. Some of
the arrangements suggested are particularly striking, and though
they will probably not all bear the test of future inquiry, yet are
undoubtedly based on characters, the importance of which has
been too little attended to. Among these peculiarities may be
mentioned the placing of the Hoopoo with the Larks, qui‘e
away from /rrisor ; and the adoption of Strickland’s eccentric
idea that the Pratincole is only a modified Nightjar; to say the
Teast, would it not be more reasonable to call the Nightjar a
modified Plover ?

THE correspondent of the New York Herald at Khartoum
writes to that journal as follows, under date of April 30 :—
Three boats engaged in the ivory trade arrived from Gondokoro,
April 7, with direct news that Sir Samuel Baker and family were
well at Fatuka in the month of February. The reinforcement
of 2co men which went forward from Gondokoro reached Baker,
at Fatuka, February 5. It was said that with these troops
Baker would renew hismarch towards the Albert Nyanz1 and
the territory of Kaberego (formerly Kamrasi). We are hourly
expecting the arrival of a fleet of nineteen Government vessels
with mai/s, which will doubless bring full particulars of Baker’s
recent movements,

In No. 145 of the Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d’/talia, Pro’,
Lorenzo Respighi, director of the observatory at Campidoglio,
gives an account of his observations of the eclipse of May 26.
He states that though the maximum phase was so small as to be
of little importance, he considered it a good opportunity for
making spectroscopic time observations. The method is very
simple, and is well known to spectroscopists ; it need only he
said that it consists in observing accurately the moment at which
the dark body of the moon cuts out one of the chromo-
spheric bright lines. Prof. Respighi observed the C-line and
was able to perceive the moon’s approach across the chromo-
sphere about one minute before first contact, which took place
at 46°°30' from north towards the west point of the sun at
8h. 42m. 35°9s. Roman mean time. The greatest phase occurred
at gh. 7m. when 0°05 of the sun’s diameter was covered. The
last contact was observed at 10° from the north towards west at
gh. 31m. 3°4s. Roman meantime. The dark moon was seen pass-
ing over the chromosphere for about a minute after last contact.
The Sicilian expedition had before noticed the power which the
spectroscope gave of observing the first and last moments of
contact before the times given in the Nautical Almanac, and
there can be no doubt that this method is of very great value
for time observations of eclipses and transits. Unfortunately in
the latter cases it is almost or quite impossible to keep the slit
at the exact point at which the body is expected to enter the
solar disc on account of the difficulty in obtaining perfect
adjustments of the driving clock, &c. It might however be
possible to follow the body in transit across the sun and note the
exact time of last contact. .

WE have received the fifteenth report of the East Kent
Natural History Society, containing reports of the scientific
meetings for the year 1872, and various statistical reports.
The society has probably never been in a more prosperous con-
dition as to funds and members, the number of the latter being
reported as 109, and the reports of the meetings show that the
Society is in good workidig ttm: Prefixed is a brief but poilited

qi ee et SS Dede Cie " . tele * - 2G - {

131

address by the President, Dr. Mitchinson, in which he points
out the utility and some of the dangers of Provincial Natural
History Societies. He refers to one evil which is apt to result
from the labours of such societies, an evil which has with justice
been animadverted on from various quarters recently, viz. a
morbid mania for indiscriminate collecting, which is apt to lead
to the extinction of the rarer fauna and flora of a district. No
doubt, as Dr. Mitchinson says, collecting is inseparable from the
thorough study of botany and zoology; but, as he forcibly
remarks, no surer sign exists of a spurious pursuit of either or
both of these sciences than when rare plants are torn up, and
rare animals made still rarer by that selfish acquisitiveness which
passes with so many for a love of science. It is the duty of
every Natural History Society to discourage such a practice.

THE discovery of another planet, No. 131, is telegraphed from
America.

Ir has been resolved by the Unitzd States’ Government to
hold an investigation into the circumstances connected with the
loss of the Arctic exploring sbip Fo/aris and the death of her
commander, Captain Hail.

THE publication of the West Kent Natural History, Micro-
scopical, and Photographic-Society, is mainly occupied by two
va‘uable and extremely interesting addresses by the president, Mr.
J. Jenner Weir, F.L.S. The first was delivered at the annual
meeting in February last, and consists chiefly of some careful
observations and facts illustrating the doc rine of evolution in
the animal kingdom. His other address was delivered at a
soirée held at the Crystal Palace, its subject being “The Aqua-
rium and its Contents,” Mr. Weir noticing some of the most
remarkable facts connected with the organisation and habits of
the different classes of animals in the aquarium. We are glad
to sce from the Council’s report that the Society continues
prosperous and efficient.

ADDITIONS to the Brighton Aquarium during the past week :
—One Sturgeon (Accipenser sturio), from Rye Bay ; Smooth
Hounds, or Skate-toothed Sharks (AZustelus zulgaris) ; Toper,
or White Hound (Galeus canis); Gurnards (Trigla lyra et
lineata) ; Lesser Weevers (Zrachinus vipera) ; Scald Fish (4y-
noglossus laterna) ; Sea Trout (Salmo trutta) ; Surmullet (4Zudlus
surmutetus) ; Conger Eels (Conger vulgaris) ; Octopus (Octopus
vulgaris) ; Lobsters (Homarus vulgaris); Sea Crayfish (Pali-
nurus vulgaris) ; Sea Cucumbers (Cucumaria pentactes) ; Zoo-
phytes (A/cyonium digitatum, Tubularia indivisa, Pleurobranchia
pileus).

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a Grey Ichneumon (Aerfestes griseus) from
India, presented by Mrs. W. Simpson; an Eyed Lizard (Lacerta
ocellata) from S. Europe, presented by Mr. T. Blackmore; a
Loggerhead Turtle ( 7ha/assochelys caouana) from the Atlantic
Ocean, presented by Lieut. N. Clark ; a Rough-legged Buzzard
(Archibuteo lagopus) from Europe, presented by Mr. W. Stokes;
a Blotched Genet (Genetla tigrina) from W. Africa, presented
by Mr. A. B. Worthington; two Emus (Dromeus nove-hol-
Jandiz) from Australia, presented by Hon. Sir A. Gordon; a
Persian Gazelle (Gazel/a sudgutturosa), presented by Captain
Phillips ; seventeen Turtle Doves (Zurtur auritus) and a Bar-
bary Turtle Dove (Zurtur risorius), presented by Mr. Gassiot,
Jun. ; two Lions (/v?is 7eo) from Persia ; a Wapati Deer (Cervus
canadensis) from N. America, purchased; four Trumpeter
Swans (Cygnus buccinator) and a Purple Kaleege (Zuplocamus
horsefieldii) hatched in the Gardens ; four Aldrovandi’s Lizards
(Plestiodon auritus) and two Ocellated Skiuks (Ses ocellatas).
from’ N.W. Africa, depositedi ,

132

NATURE

[Fune 12, 1873

ON MUSCULAR IRRITABILITY AFTER
SYSTEMIC DEATH*

He object of the lecture was to put forward certain facts
the author had learned on the phenomenon of muscular
irritability after systemic death. Heincluded in the same study
certain examples in which muscular irritability has for a time
ceased, but has become re developed under new conditions, He
thus included the study of those states which favour the continu-
ance of irritability or which destroy it, and those coaditions
which suspend it but do not destroy it. By this method of re-
search the author thinks we may proceed backwards towards
living irritability, and may determine upon what that depends
with more facility than by experimenting on the phenomena of
irritability in the living animal. He imagines that if he knew
nothing of the construction of a watch, or why for a certain time
a watch maintains its motion, and if he had nobody to teach him
these things, he might be better able to arrive at the fact he
wanted by trying to set the motionless watch into motion than
by interfering with it while it is in motion.

The record of experimental endeavour carried out with the
design above explained, included a review of the work of twenty-
five years. The subjects brought under consideration were
arranged as follows :—

(1) The effect of cold on muscular irritability after systemic
death.

(2) The effect of motor forces, mechanical, calorific, electrical.

(3) The effect of abstracting and supplying blood.

(4) The effect of certain chemical agents, organic and in-

organic.
Effects of Cold

Previous to the time of John Hunter it was supposed that
cold was the most effective agent for destroying muscular irrita-
bility. The effects of cold employed in various ways in the
author’s experimental researches were now detailed systemati-
cally. The effect of cold in suspending the muscular irritability
of fish, reptiles, and frogs was first described. On all these
animals it was shown that cold could be made to suspend with-
out destroying the muscular irritability, for a long period of
time, and that in fish, carp (on which the author had made the
greatest number of experiments) the restoration of irritability
could be perfected to the extent of the restoration of the living
function,

Passing to warm-blooded animals, the author showed that in
the process of cooling in every animal that has been
suddenly deprived of life without mechanical injury, there is a
period in the process wie. general muscular irr.tability may be
made manifest. He demonstrates this fact by the simple ex-
periment of throwing a current of water heated to 120° Fahr.
over the arterial system of the recently dead animal. If the
surrounding temperature be high at the time of this experiment,
the operation should be performed within a few minutes after
death ; but if the temperature be below freezing-point, it may be
delayed fora long period. In one experiment the author re-
produced active muscular contraction in an animal that had lain
dead and exposed to cold, 6° below freezing-point, for a period
of three hours. In this case the muscles generally remained
irritable for seven minutes after the injection of the heated water,
while in the muscles of the limbs, by repeating the injection at
intervals, the irritability was maintained for two hours.

The author drew a comparison between these experimental
results and the phenomena of muscular irritability that have
been observed in the human subject after death bycholera. The
movements were not conscious, nor were they promoted by
electrical excitation ; but the flexors and extensors belonging to
each part in which there is movement are alternately contracted
and relaxed as if from some internal influence.

The influence of cold in suspending without destroying mus-
cular irritability was further evidenced by the experiment of
subjecting some young animals to death by the process of drown-
ing them in ice-cold water. It was shown that in the kitten the
muscular irritability may be restored to the complete re-establish-
ment of life after a period of two hours of apparent systemic
death, and although the muscles when the animal is first removed
from the water give no response to the galvanic current. This
same continuance of irritability after apparent systemic death by
drowning in ice-cold water has been observed in the human sub-
ject, not in so determinate, but in an approximated degree. An

FRE” Croonian Lecture, by Benjamin W. Richardson, M.A., M.D.,

immersed for twelve minutes in ice-cold water retained muscular
irritability so perfectly that he recovered, regained consciousness,
and lived for a period of seven hours.

Commenting on the method of restoration of irritability, the
author showed that a certain period of time is required before
the irritability is raised from a mere passive condition, in which
it responds only to external stimuli, inj the condition necessary
for independent active contractility. “The change of condition
from the passive to the active, when it does occur, is so sudden
as to seem instantaneous at first, then it is slowly repeated. This
rule holds good in respect to voluntary muscles and involuntary.
It is specially true in regard to the heart, which organ, the author
states, may perform its office under two distinct degrees of ten-
sion or pressure—a low tension, in which the organ itself is re-
duced in size, and moves almost insensibly ; and a full tension,
in which it is of larger size, and moves with a sufficient power
to impel the blood so as to overcome the arterial elasticity and
the capillary resistance. ‘

Another fact bearing on {this subject is that in rapid decline
of muscular irritability the muscles most concerned in the sup-
port of the organic functions, namely, the heart and the muscles
of respiration, are the last to yield up their spontaneous power ;
but when they have lost their power, they are the last to regain
it. To this rule there is one exception, viz., in the muscular fibre
of the right auricle of the heart. "

The author then explained that the degree of cold which sus-
pended irritability is fixed within certain measures of degree,
from 38° to 28° F’. being the most favourable degrees of exposure,

Lffect of Motor Forces

Cold, by the inertia it induces, suspends, under certain con-
ditions, but does not destroy muscular irritability.. The motor
forces, on the contrary, quicken the irritability for a brief period,
and then completely destroy it. The mode in which all the
motor forces act in arresting irritability is by the induction of a
contractile state, which, once established, remains permanent.
The author here related his experiments on the effect of the
different forces upon the right auricle of the heart, and reported
as the result of his observations that, while all the forces act
ultimately alike in producing permanent contraction, the me-
chanical excitation is much slower than the calorific ; while
electrical excitation appears to hold an intermediate place, as if
it were a combination of mere mechanical motion with an in-
creased temperature. Electrical tension may nevertheless be
increased so as to rival heat in its immediate effect on contrac-
tion.

The author here traced out the results of a series of short
sharp irritations of muscle with a needle-point, and compared
them with the effect of a blow, showing that in each case
rigidity follows, but is much slower in development when it is
excited by the needle.

The influence of heat in destroying irritability by its power in
producing permanent contraction was described from experiments
bearing on the relation of temperature to the muscular contrac-
tion of different animals—frogs, pigeons, and rabbits. It was
shown that a relative rise in temperature in each class, a rise
averaging 12° in Fahr. scale, from the natural temperature of
the animal was the efficient for producing permanent rigidity,
the cause of the ultimate rigidity being coagulation of the
myosine.

The effect of electrical excitation is in the same direction, but
is varied according to the mode in which the excitation is per-
formed. Discharge from the Leyden jar produces contraction,
which is permanent or intermittent in accordance with the mass of
the muscle and the intensity of the discharge. This fact was eluci-
dated by reference to a series of experiments with a Leyden
battery, placed in cascade, and the effect produced by the dis-
charge from 96 feet of surface upon animals of different sizes
and weights, from sheep down to pigeons, as well as on sections
of the bodies of the same animals immediately after death, The
experimental facts demonstrated that with an efficient discharge
the whole muscular system of a small animal could be fixed in-
stantly in the rigidity of death, and that the precise position of
the animal at the period immediately preceding death was re-
tained with such perfection, so sudden was the change, that
nothing but physical examination by the hand could bring to the
mind the fact that the animal had passed from life into death.

But the same shock passed through a sheep weighing 54
pounds produced only a temporary contraction of muscle,

instance was adduced in which a youth who had been deeply

cette

Sune 12, 1873]

and required repetition before the rigidity was rendered per-
manent.

By employing discharges of less tension it was found that
muscles, or special tracts of muscles, in the same animal imme-
diately after its death, could be made rigid quickly or slowly by
variation of the intensity of the discharge.

The effect of the intermittent electro-magnetic current was
next brought forward, and was shown to resemble closely that
of the simple electrical discharge from the Leyden phial,

Intensified it induces permanent contraction ; and if it be re-
peated even with low tension, so as to call forth contraction, it
destroys the irritability, ceteris paribus, more quickly than if the
muscle had been left to itself.

Parenthetically, the lecturer dwelt here on the common prac-
tice, after sudden death, of endeavouring to excite the action of
the enfeebled heart by passing through it an electrical current.
Some practitioners, said the author, have gone so far as to intro-
duce a needle into the heart itself, and to make the needle act
as one of the conductors from a battery. Such experimentalists,
before they undertake this operation on the human subject,
should at least observe the effect of the agency they are employ-
ing on the exposed heart of an inferior animal recently and
suddenly killed by drowning or by a narcotic vapour. They
would learn then with what infinite facility the muscular irrita-
bility of the heart, in all its parts, is excited for a moment only
to be permanently destroyed. They would learn that if blood
be not passing through the muscular structure concurrently with
their exciting current, they could not more effectually arrest
function than by the very method they have adopted to sus-
tain it.

The influence of the continuous current on muscular irrita-
bility was introduced by the author, together with a special
reference to the first experiments of Aldini on the bodies of
malefactors who had been recently executed ; and it was shown
from Aldini’s most noted experiment how largely the phenomena
of motion he induced in a dead man, and the recital of which
caused so much sensation in the year 1803, was due, not to the
galvanism, but to the circumstance that the dead body had been
exposed for the hour after death and before the experiments
commenced, to the action of cold two degrees below freezing-
point. On the whole the continuous current acts on muscular
fibre after the manner of heat. If the muscle, recently dead, be
exposed to cold, the current, when sufficient, restores for a
limited period the irritability, and finally destroys it by inducing
persistent contraction. If the muscle, recently dead, be left at
its natural temperature, the current simply shortens the period
of irritability by quickening contraction.

Abstraction and Supply of Blood

Under this head the author first considered the effect of ab-
straction of blood from the living muscular fibre. He showed
that when the flow of blood was very rapid, there was invariably
agiven period of muscular excitation. In sheep killed in the
slaughterhouse he found that this muscular excitement occurred
at the time when the proportion of blood removed from the
animal was equivalent to about the 320th part of the weight of
the animal. The increased ,irritability passes rapidly into
general convulsion without consciousness, and, as a rule, ceases
for a time with a temporary cessation of further loss of blood.
After this the irritability remains, if the bleeding be arrested
altogether, and can be called into action by any external
stimulus, although it is rarely spontaneously manifested when
the vessels are left divided and open. After an interval of one
or two minutes there is a recurrence of loss of blood, followed
by a muscular excitement which marks the moment of systemic
death.

The fact of the two stages of exalted muscular irritability
during abstraction of blood is important, as indicating the two
different tensions of muscle to which reference has already been
made, The first convulsive action, convulsion of syncope,
marks a definite period, when the tension of the heart and there-
with the whole vascular system is reduced to a degree of action
well defined and attended with definite phenomena. The second
excitement, convulsion of death, indicates the period when the
passive or lower tension of the muscular power ceases,

A distinction was -here drawn by the author between the
muscular conditions present during syncope and during death.

Syncope, it was urged, means the continued action of the heart-

at a low tension, from which it can be suddenly raised into full
tension with restoration of the powers of life ; death means the

NATURE

|

133

cessation of the lowest tension at which the heart can effectively
work,

It was shown that in all the cases of restored animation after
apparent death, the condition of the heart was that of a muscle
acting under the lower degree of tension.

The experiments of the author for re-establishing artificial.

respiration together with artificial circulation, and of these com-
bined with electrical excitation of the nervous centres, were
next referred to; but as they had already formed the subject
of a paper read before the Society, they were but briefly dwelt
upon.

Lffect of some Chemical Agents

In this portion of his lecture the author adduced a series of
experimental researches with various chemical substances, orga-
nic, inorganic, and intermediate, which tend to prolong the
period of muscular irritability by diffusion through the tissues of
animals recently dead. These substances, which suspend irri-
tability, act in two ways. Some, like chloride of sodium and
other soluble saline substances, act merely by holding the coagu-
lable fluid of the muscular tissue in a continued state of fluidity ;
others seem to have a different action, and to hold the nervous
function also in suspense. The nitrite of amyl and other mem-
bers of the nitrite series belong to this last-named class of agents,
and some of the cyanogen bodies exert a similar influence. In
experiments with nitrite of amyl on cold-blooded animals (frogs),
the author had suspended muscular irritability for a period of
nine days, and had then seen it restored to the extent even of
restoration of life. In one instance this restoration took place
after the commencement of decomposition in the web of the foot
of the animal. In warm-blooded animals a series of suspensions
had been effected by nitrites and also by cyanogens, not for so
long a period, but for periods of hours, in one instance extend-
ing to ten hours.

In the whole series of his inquiries no fact had impressed the
author more forcibly than this : that the muscular irritability, in
so far as it belongs to the muscle, may be sustained for hours after
the nervous excitation which calls it into spontaneous action has
ceased. Hereupon he infers that after death the nervous matter
undergoes a change of condition which, z vesz/t, is identical with
that change in muscle which we cail rigor. There is evidence,
morec ver, from some rare cases, that the final inertia of nervous
matter may be suspended and revived, so that all the muscles
may be reanimated. This point was elucidated by reference to
the phenomena that had recently been observed by Mr. Wads-
dale Watson, of Newport, Monmouthshire, on a double monster,
drawings of which were placed before the society. In this in-
stance two children were born so attached that the separation of
them was impossible. Both lived equally for three hours after
birth, and then one died and remained dead for three hours,
while the other lived. At the end of the time named the dead
child recommenced to breathe, and showed other signs of re-
stored muscular power; then it sank into a seemed deuth, but
at intervals of about four hours moved again ; at length, twenty-
three hours after its first apparent death, during a fit of crying of
the living child, it recovered sufficient power to breathe and even
to cry, and manifested evidence of life in all its muscles, exce >t
the heart, for twenty minutes, when it had a severe convulsio»,
which closed all further motion.

In this instance the author believed that the retention of spon-
taneous muscular irritability depended upon the retention in the
nervous organism of the conditions necessary for independent
action. He then concluded by giving a description of his re«
searches as to the possibility of suspending nervous changes
incident to death, so as to retain the conditions requisite for the
communication of nervous impulse to muscular fibre.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie Neue Rethe, Band xci.,
Heft 1, May 6, 1873.—The number opens with a long paper by
Oscar Jacobsen on the gases of sea-water. Notices of former
researches on this subject are given. Ina table the results of 95
analyses by the author are given with the localities of collection.
These are in the North Sea and the Baltic—On the oxidation of
allantoin by means of potassic ferricyanide, by F. C. E. van
Embden. The two bodies were mixed, one molecule of each,
in solution, and the mixture acidulated with acetic acid. A
crystalline precipitate was produced, having the formula
C,N,H,KO, This the author regards as the potassium

134

NATURE -

ae
be)

iz
7 S

salt of the new acid C,N,;H;0,, which he proposes
to call allantoxanic acid. Various other salts are de-
scribed. The acid is found to be bibasicz.—On the action
of sodium-amalgam on dinitrohephtylic acid, by H. A.
Kullhem. The result of the action appears to be the forma-
tion of a monobasic acid having the formula C,Hy,) (NO,)O,.
—On the products of the decomposition of the chlorhydrin of
glyceric acid, by Messrs. Werigo and Okulitsh.—On a new acid
from aloes, by P. Weselksy. The body in question was obtained
from Socotra aloes; its formula is, CyH,.O, when dried in the
air, and its anhydride has the formula C,,H,,0;. The acid is
apparently dibasic.—Dr. H. Sprengel communicates a paper on
the water air-pump.—On liquid carbonic anhydride, by L, Cal-
litel, is a translation from the author’s late paper in the
Comptes Rendus—On the addition of cyanamide, by Dr. FE.
Baumann, is an account of the compounds formed when this
body is added to various others.—On the combination of
bromine and ether, by P. Schutzenberger, has already ap-
peared in the Comptes Rendus.—An examination of a
new alkaloid, by Prof. Hlasiwetz. The body in question is a
product of the oxidation of cinchonin.—On the isomers of dini-
trophenol, by H. Hiibner and W. Schneider.—On the nature of
sulpho and sulphonitrobibrombenzolic acid, by H. Hiibner and
R. Douglas Williams.— On the synthesis of carbazo] and on
phenathren, by C. Graebe.—Contributions to the history of the

orcins, by J. Stenhouse, has already appeared in the Proceedings |

of the Royal Society, the present communication, No. III. of
the series, deals with the amido-derivatives of those bodies.—On
a new method of preparing carbonic tetrabromide from bromo-
form, by J. Habermann. The author acted on bromoform in
the presence of potash with bromine. The mixture exposed to
direct sunlight for 5-6 days gives a good product of tetra-
bromide. In the dark, after an exposure of three months, only
a trace was formed. The reaction occurs as follows :-—
CHBr, + Br, + KHO = CBr, + KBr + H,O.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonbDon

Royal Society, May 1.—‘‘On the Condensation of a Mix-
ture of Air and Steam upon Cold Surfaces.” By Prof. Osborne
Reynolds.

The object of this investigation is to ascertain how far the
pressure of a small quantity of air affects the power of a cold
surface to condense steam.

The conclusions which the author draws from the experiments
are as follows :—

1. That a small quantity of air in steam does very much retard
its condensation upon a cold surface ; that, in fact, there is no
limit to the rate at which pure steam will condense but the
power of the surface to carry off the heat.

2. That the rate of condensation diminishes rapidly, and
nearly uniformly as the pressure of air increases from two to ten
per cent. that of the steam, and then less and less rapidly until
thirty per cent. is reached, after which the rate of condensation
remains nearly constant.

4. That in consequence of this effect of air the necessary size
of a surface-condenser for a steam-engine increases very rapidly
with the quantity of air allowed to be present within it.

5. That by mixing air with the steam before it is used, the
condensation at the surface of a cylinder may be greatly dimi-
nished, and consequently the efficiency of the engine increased.

6. That the maximum effect, or nearly so, will be obtained
when the pressure of the air is one-tenth that of the steam, or
when about two cubic feet of air at the pressure of the atmo-
sphere and the temperature 60° F. are mixed with each pound
of steam.

As this investigation was nearly completed, the author's atten-
tion was called toastatement by Sir W. Armstrong, to the effect
that Mr. Siemens had sugested as an explanation of the otherwise
anomalous advantage of forcing air into the boiler of a steam-
engine, that the air may prevent, in a great measure, the con-
densation at the surface of the cylinder. It would thus seem
that Mr. Siemens has already suggested the probability of the
fact which is proved in this investigation, The author is not aware,
however, that any previous experiments have been made on the
subject, and therefore he offers these results as independent testi-
mony of the correctness of Mr, Siemens’s views as well as of his
own,

| ¥une 12, 1873

‘*On the effect of Pressure on the Character of the Spectra o
Gases.” By C. H. Stearn and G. H. Lee.

May 8.—‘‘Contributions to the Study of the Errant Anne-
lides of the Older Paleozoic Rocks.” By Prof. H. Alleyne
Nicholson, M.D., F.R.S.E.

In this communication the author endeavoured to elucidate
the abundant and obscure organic remains which are found so
commonly in the Paleozoic Rocks, an@ especially in the Silu-
rian strata of Britain, and which are generally known by the
vague and convenient names of ‘‘ Fucoids,” ** Annelide bur-
rows,” and ‘‘Tracks.” After expressing his opinion that the first
step towards the study of these obscure fossils lay in the pro-
visional grouping and naming of the more marked forms which
are already known to exist, the author proceeded to divide the
remains under consideration into two great groups. In the first
cf these groups are those fossils which are truly the durrows of
marine worms, as distinguished from mere trails and surface-
tracks. Some of these burrows (Scolithus) are more or less
nearly vertical in direction as regards the strata in which they
are found; and they are to be looked upon as being true
burrows of habitation. In this section are placed the genera
Scolithus, Arenicolites, and Histioderma.

The second great group of Annelide remains comprises
genuine surface-trails or ‘*tracks,” which of necessity never
pass below the surface of the bed on which they occur.

‘The Action of Light on the Electrical Resistance of Sele
nium.” By Lieut. Sale, R.E. Communicated by J. N. Lock-
yer, F.R.S.

The following were the general results of the experiments : —

I. That the resistance of selenium is largely affected by ex-
posure to light. : ‘

2. That this effect is not produced by the actinic rays, but is
at a maximum at, or just outside the red rays, at a place nearly
coincident with the locus of the maximum of the heat-rays.

3. That the effect of varying resistances is certainly not due to
any change of temperature in the bar of selenium.

4. That the effect produced on exposure to light is sensibly
instantaneous, but that on cutting off the light the return to the
normal resistance is not so rapid.

{t would seem that there exists a power in rays, nearly coinci-
dent with the heat-rays of high intensity, of altering instantaneously
and without change of temperature the molecular condition of
this particular element.

May 15.—‘On Jeypoorite, a Sulph-antimonial Arsenide of
Cobalt.” By Major W. A. Ross, R.A. Communicated by
Prof. H. Miller, Foreign Sec. R.S,

‘Determination of the Number of Electrostatic Units in the
Electromagnetic Unit made in the Physical Laboratory of
Glasgow University.” By Dugald M‘Kichan, M,A.

The object of this paper is to describe experiments made at
intervals from 1870 to 1872 in the Physical Laboratory of Glas-
gow University to determine the relation between the funda-
mental units in the two systems of absolute electrical measure-
ment, the electromagnetic and the electrostatic. A summary is
also given of the results of similar observations made by W. F.
King in 1867 and 1868,

The two systems of electrical measurement, or the units
which they employ, are founded on the fundamental units of
time, mass, and space applied to the observed effects of elec-
tricity at rest and electricity in motion, The dimensions of
quantity in the two systems are such that the ratio of the
electromagnetic and the electrostatic unit of quantity is ex-
pressible as a velocity. ;

This velocity, usually known as v, is not only of great im-
portance in all combinations of electromagnetic and electrostatic

| action, but it is also of great scientific importance in the theory

of the propagation of electromagnetic disturbances through a
dielectric medium. It occupies a very important place in the
development of the electromagnetic theory of light by Professor
Clerk Maxwell, according to whose theory this velocity w is the
same as the velocity of light.

The first experimental determination of vy was made by Weber
from a common electrostatic and electromagnetic measure of
capacity. The result of Weber’s experiments was that v was
310°74 x 108 centims, per second.

Another determination was made by Pro® Clerk Maxwell in
1868, by means of a direct comparison of el<ctrostatic at-
traction with electromagnetic repulsion, His experiments gave
v=288'0 x 10° centims, per second, ;

i ai

Sune 12, 1873)

NATURE 35

The value of v given by the experiments here described is
293 x 10° centims. per second. The method employed was that
of obtaining an absolute electrostatic and an absolute elec'r.-
magnetic measurement of the same electromotive force. wv is
defined as the ratio of the units of quantity in the two systems ;
but it follows from the definition-of electro-motive force, that v
is also the ratio of the units of electromotive force in the two
systems.

The electromotive force, or the difference of potentials be-
tween the two poles of a constant Daniell’s battery, was mea-
sured electrostatically by means of Sir William Thomson’s
absolute electrometer. The absolute electromagnetic value of
this electromotive force was giyen by the effect of the current
which it maintained in thecircuit of an electrodynamometer.
The determination of this value depended on the resistance of
the electrodynamometer-circuit, which was reckoned in terms of
the” absolute value of the British-Association standard unit of
resistance. Any correction which may hereafter be found to be
applicable to the absolute value of this standard coil, as mea-
sured at King’s College by Professors Clerk Maxwell, Balfour
Stewart, and Fleeming Jenkin, must be applied to the value of
wv give above.

The comparisons made in 1867 and 1868 by Mr. King gave
as the mean value of v, 284°6x 108 centims. per second. The
experiments made in 1870 with the new absolute electrometer
geve as the mean result v=294'5 x 10° centims. per second.
The result of the later observations made under much more
favourable circumstances was v= 292'4 x 10° centims. per second.
The latest observations (1872) furnish the most probable
value of v7, 293 x 10° centims. per second.

- Zoological Society, June 3.—Viscoun: Walden, F-.R.S., presi-
dent, in the chair. The secretary read a report on the additions
that had been made to the Society’s collection during the month of

_ May. The following, among other objects, was exhibited :—

The figure of a supposed new species of- Chelodina from the
Burnett River, Queensland.—A letter was read from Dr. George
Bennett, F.Z.S., referring to the supposed existence of a species
of Tree Kangaroo (Dendro/agus) in Northern Queensland, some
such animal being apparently well known to the blacks of Card-
weil.—A memoir was read by the Viscount Walden on the
birds of the Philippine Archipelago, founded mainly on the re-
cent collections ot Dr, A. B. Meyer, but containing a complete
account of all the known species of Philippine birds, and re-
marks on their geographical range. The total number of known
Philippine species was estimated at 215, but a large number of
the islands remained unexplored.—A paper was read by Sir
Victor Brooke, Bart., F.Z.S., on the antelopes of the genus
Gazella, of which 20 species or ‘‘ persistent modifications,” as
the author preferred to call them, were recognisable. Sir Victor
Brooke entered at full length into the questions connected with
the present geographical distribution of the group, and its sup-
posed descent from pliocene and miocene forms.—Mr. A. H.
Garrod read a paper on the pterylosis and on some points in the
anatomy of the Guacharo (Steatornis caripensis) and showed that
this singular bird must be constituted a family fer se, related in
some respects to the Caprimulgidze and their allied forms, and
in other respects to the Owls (S¢rzges),

Chemical) Society, June 5.—Dr. Odling, F.R.S., president,
in the chair.—Six communications were read before the society,
the first being “On the dioxides of calcium and strontium,” by
Sir John Conroy, Bart., in’ which the author gave the
method of preparation and properties of these substances. —Mr.
T. Wells then described a new form of ozone generator which
gives abundance of ozone and has the advantage of being easily
constructed and not liable to be broken,—The other papers,
which contained but little of general interest, were entitled ** On
the behaviour of acetamide with sodium alcohol,” by W. N.
Hartley ; ‘‘ On iodine monochloride,” by J. B. Hannay ; ‘‘ On
triferrous phosphide,” by Dr, R. Schenk ; and “ On sulphur bro-
mide,” by J. lb. Hannay.

Anthropological Institute, June 3.—Prof. Busk, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—The president exhibited and described
anew apparatus for measuring, with ease and accuracy, the
cubic capacity of skulls. _ Prof. Rolleston, while approving
generally the method of Prof. Busk, differed with him in the
nature of the material to be employed ; he thought that sand
was objectionable as being subject to hygrometric variation ffom
which rape-seed was entirely free.—Prof. Robinson exhibited a
remarkable bronze sword found in the bed of the Charwell,

_— a
elie a.

Oxfordshire, a bronze spear from Speen, near Newbury, and
other implements of bronze and stone.—The president exhibited
a series of stone implements from the Island of St. Vincent,
West Indies, and Mr. A. W. Franks exhibited a bow and
poisoned arrows lately used by the Modoc Indians, and found
in Captain Jack’s stronghold in the lava beds of Siskiyon
County, California—The Rev. Dunbar I. Heath contributed
Notes on a Mural Inscription, in large Samaritan characters,
from Gaza, and claimed for it a higher antiquity than the date
of the Moabite Stone.—Mr. H. Howorth read a paper entitled,
‘* Strictures on Darwinism, part II., the Extinction of Types.”
The substitution of species invoived two factors; Ist, the
extinction of certain types; 2nd, the introduction of certain
others. The paper dealt with the former facior only. Pre-
Darwinian naturalists, and some of those who now oppose
Darwin, have agreed that species become extinct throvg’ the
operation of causes, such as climatic change, &c., acting adextra
and operating upon whole classes at once from without. Mr.
Darwin has argued, on the other hand, that this extinction has
arisen from the mutual struggles of individuals by which a
certain strong and vigorous type has been evolved, and a certain
weak and decrepit type extinguished ; the difference between
the two theories being that one relies upon external, the other
upon internal causes for the explanation of the extinction of
certain types. In the present paper the author examined the
problem and attempted to show that the old view was the
correct one. The paper passed in review the various elements
that have gone to destroy types of life, changes in physical
geography, changes in climate, epidemics, &c., and showed how
the evidence of all of these supported the old view that extinc-
tion of type is the result of external influences, and not, as Mr.
Darwin contends, of an internal struggle for existence. brof
Rolleston, Mr. Boyd Dawkins, and the president, combated the
criticisms of the author.

Royal Microscopical Society, June 4.—Chas. Brooke,
F.R.S., president, in the chair. The secretary read a paper by
Mr. F. Kitton, of Norwich, descriptive of a new species of
Navicula, with remarks on Aulacodiscus formosus, Omphalopelta
versicolor, &c., collected in Peru by Captain Perry, of Liverpool ;
the paper was illzstrated by specimens exhibited in the room.
—A paper was also read by Mr. J. Stephenson, on the appear-
ances of the inner and outer layers of Coscinodiscus when ex-
amined in bisulphide of carbon and in air, in which the author
pointed out the different effects obtained by mounting the diatoms
in media of different refrangibility, and showed the value of such
comparisons in determining the nature of the markings, as well
as the general structure. The paper was illustrated by a number
of very carefully executed drawings by Mr, Charles Stewart, and
by specimens exhibited under the microscope. The meetings of
the society were adjourned until October.

BERLIN

German Chemical Society, May 26.—A. W. Hofmann in
the chair. Dr. Seligsohn investigating the origin of the oxalates
deposited in the human body, has found that oxamide can be
transformed into urea by ozone, and thinks therefore that
oxamide is an intermediate product of digestion between the
higher compounds of carbon and urea.—Dr, Riidorft has found
that saturated solutions of chloride of ammonium and nitrate of
potassium are not influenced in their composition by adding
either of these salts, while saturated solutions of nitrate of ammo-
nium and chloride of potassium are changed in their composi-
tion by adding either one or the other to these solutions. In
the same way behave most salts, so that the solution of one
couple is influenced, while the other couple remains uncuanged.
But when K,SO, and NH, NO, are dissolved to saturation, this
solution is influenced in the way described, and solutions of the
opposite couple show likewise the alteration mentioned. These
changes were proved by analyses and by determination of the
changes of temperatures occurring. Self-evident conclusions
offer with regard to the old question, if two salts in solution
represent two or four different compounds.—C. Bulk spoke on the
manufacture of arsenic acid from fuchsine-residues; by subli-
mation, as used in Elberfeld. The same chemist described a
simple apparatus replacing spring-clamps in volumeiric
analysis. It consists of a piece of glass-rod inserted into
an indiarubber tube. By pressing it cautiously drop
after drop can be let out of the burette,—J. Grosshaus
continued his speculation on the nature of chemical ele-
ments.—H, Vogel denied the existence of what Becquerel called

, a l« (eS <O

* 4

136

‘*rayons continuateurs.” He explains the fact that photo-
graphic negatives, exposed for a few seconds to chemical light,
and then to the red and yellow part of the spectrum, are acted
upon by these rays, by admitting that during the first exposure
chloride of silver is reduced only to the state of sub-chloride,
which in its turn is acted upon by yellow light, and thus reduced
to the metallic state. This explanation appears the more
probable, as iodide and bromide of silver do not exhibit the
same property, iodine and bromine forming but one compound
with silver.—Julius Thomsen reported on the amount of heat
yielded by mixing nitric acid and water. The result of his ex-
periments he sums up as follows :— A diluted nitric or sulphuric
acid, when further diluted with the same quantity of water it
already contains, will yield the smallest amount of heat, when
the molecular heat of the acid is equal to that of the water
which is contained in it— Henry Armstrong sent a summary of
his researches on isomeric derivatives of phenole, most of which
are familiar to the English public.—Heinrich Baumhauer pub-
lished some remarks on the natural system of chemical elements,
and the relations between atomic and specific weights.—
F. Birlstein and A. Kullberg have found that a-dinitro-naphtha-
line treated with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids yields a
new y-trinitre-naphthaline fusing at 147°, while fuming nitric
acid produces only the ordinary a-trinitro-naphthaline.—E.
Mulder obtained a yellow solid combination by precipitating
cyanamide with nitrate of silver. Its composition, CN,Ag»,
leads the author to suppose cyanamide to be constituted accord-
ing to the formula C(NH), of carbodiimide.—R. Siemens sub-
mitted sulfo-acetic acid to the action of perchloride of phosphorus
in order to investigate the chloride thus obtained as well as its
CHCl = SO,Cl
reduction. To the former he gives the formula |
Ccocl

to the compound obtained from it by the action of tin and hydro-
chloric acid, the formula of thio-glycollic acid :

CH,. SH CH..§

| forming the lead-salt Gg’ Gg ¢ Pb.

co.0OH g
The chloride is decomposed by water into the body formerly
described by Kolbe under the name of trichlor-methyl-sulfor-
chloride, CC1,.SO CL.

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, June 2.—M. de Quatrefages,
president, in the chair.—The president announced the death of
M. de Verneuil, membre libre, which occurred at Paris, May 29.
—M. de Chevreul communicated the principal results of his
researches on avic acid, which will shortly be published. The
president presented the first part of the work on the crania of the
human race upon which he and Dr, Hamyare engaged.—The
following papers were read :— Note accompanying the presenta-
tion of a work on cellular anatomy and physiology, by M. Ch,
Robin.—On the transit of Venus in 1882, by M. Puiseux.—Trial,
during an eclipse of the sun, of the new spectroscopic method
proposed for the observation of the next transit of Venus by
Father Secchi. The method consists in placing a direct-vision
system of prisms before the slit of the spectroscope, and then
observing the interruption of the chromosphere by the dark body.
The author compares observations by his method with those
of Prof. Respighi, published in the Gazetta Offciale, No. 145.
Respighi saw the approach of the moon 21.9 secs, before Secchi,
but Secchisaw the last contact 12°3 secs. before Respighi. The
Rey. Father therefore suggests the use of the ordinary method
(that used by Respighi) for first contact, and of his own for last.
—A study of the action of the principal derivatives of amylic
alcohol on polarised light, by MM. Pierre and Puchot.—De-
velopment of the freshwater alge of the genus Batrachosper-
mum, alternate generation ; second note, by M. Sirodot.—On
the nature and treatment of ear tumors (o7ed//ons), by M. Bou-
chut.—On //j/odes martinicencis, by M. A. Bavay.—Documents
relating to the short-period Comet M, 1867, by Mr. Hind,
M. Stephan, MM. Paul and Prosper Henry, M. André,
and M. Baillaud. . Communicated by M. Le Verrier.—
Discovery of a new small planet by Mr. J. Henry, at
Washington, U.S.A. — Displacement of a body subjected
to four conditions, by M. Ribaucour.—On the action of
the electric fluid on flames, liquids, and powders, ‘second note,
by M. Neyreneuf.—On the detection and estimation of plumbic
sulphate in the lead chromates of commerce, by M. Duvillier.
Toe author adds nitric acid and alcohol, the chromate is then
r-di:ced, the lead and cromic oxide are dissolved by the nitric

Were Apo e ee a hee en mee Nee “oa

NATURE

-
vets

| ¥unz 12, 1873

acid, and the sulphate, if present, remains insoluble.—On the
action of nitric acid on plumbic chromate, by the same author.—
On a base isomeric with piperidin, and on the nitrated deriva-
tives of the hydrocarbons of the formula C,mH,m, by M. H.
Gal.—On the molecular rotation of gases, by M. Hinrichs.—
Experimental researches on the pathogeny of infarctus, &c., by
M. V. Feltz.—Observations on a recent note, by M. Rabuteau,
relative to the toxic properties of the iodides of tetramethylam-
monium and tetramylammonium, by Messrs. A. Brown and
Th. Fraser.—General results of the analysis of the Geyser springs
of the island of San Miguel, Azores, by M. Fouque. During
the meeting an election to the place in the Mechanical section
left vacant by the decease of M. Ch. Dupin, was held with the
following results:—M. Resal, 31 votes; M. Bresse, 17; M.
Boussinesq, 3; M. Haton de la Goupillitre and M. Maurice
Lévy, 1 each. M. Resal was accordingly declared duly elected.

DIARY

THURSDAY, June 12.

Royat Society, at 4.—Election of Fellows.

Socrety oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—What Parts of Lincoln Cathedral are
really of the Time of St. Hugh of Grenoble, a.D. 1192-1200? J. H.
Parker, C.B.

MATHEMATICAL Society, at 8.—Some general Theorems relating to Vibra-
tions: Hon. J. W. Strutt.—Invariant conditions of three and four con-
currence of three Conics: J. J. Walker.—Locus of the point of concourse
of tangents to an epicycloid inclined to each other at a constant angls :

Prof. Wolstenholme.
FRIDAY, June 13.
ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 8.
UEKETT CvUus, at 8.
ORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, at 3.—Lecture.
Society oF Arts, at 12.—Purchase of Railways by the State: Wm. Galt.
SATURDAY, June 14.
Roya Botanic Society, at 3 45.
MONDAY, June 16.

TUESDAY, June 17.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—The Ainos: Licut. S C. Holland,
R.N.—Account of an Interview with a Tribe of Bushmans in South Africa ;
G. W. Stow.—Specimens of Native Australian Languages: Andrew
Mackenzie.

ZoovocicaL Society, at 8.30,—On the Oncol. of the Maltese fossil
Elephants: Dr. A. Leith Adams, F.R.S —On the Geographical Distribu-
tion of Asiatic Birds: H. J. Elwes.

STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 7.45-

WEDNESDAY, June 18.

METEOROLOGICAL Society, at 7.—On some Results of Temperature Obser-
vations at Durham: John J. Plummer.—On the Meteorology of New
Zealand, 1872: C. R. Marten.—On the Climate of Vancouver Island:
Robert H. Scott, F.R.S.—Meteorologicai Observations at Zi-Ka-Wei,
near Shanghai: Rev. A. M. Colombel and Rev. S. J. Perry.—Notes on the

ASIATIC SocIETY, at 3.

Connection between Colliery Explosions and Weather: R. H. Scott,

F.R.S., and Wm. Galloway.—Annual General Meeting.

HorTIcuLTURAL Socirety.—Exhibition.

THURSDAY, June 19.

Royat Society, at 8.30.

Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.

Linnean Society, at 8.

Cuemicat Society, at 8.—On the Influence of Pressure upon Fermenta-
tion. Part II. : Horace Brown.—Researches on the Action of the Copper-
Zinc Couple on Organic Bodies, III., and on Normal and Iso-Propyl
Iodides: Dr. J. H. Gladstone and A. Tribe.—On Cymenes from different
sources optically considered; Dr. J. H. Gladstone.—On the Action of
Bromine on Alizarine: W. H, Perkin.—On some Decompositions and
Oxidation Products of Morphine and Codeine Derivatives: G. L. Mayer
and Dr. C R. A. Wright.—On the Decomposition of Tricalcic Phosphate
by Water: R. Warrington.—Oa a new Tellurium Mineral, with Notes on
a Systematic Mineralogical Nomenclature: J. B. Hannay.—Communica-
tions from the Laboratory of the London Lastitution, No. XII ;—On New
Derivatives of Cresol: Dr. H. E. Armstrong and C. L. Field.

CONTENTS

Pace

JEREMIAH HORROX = . upla) aie ce wes + 2) 8) ol

Carus’s History or Zoo.ocy. By Dr, P. H. Pye-SmitH . .. . 118

Our Book SHELF. 7. Set se + 0” 0, oo) oe a
Lerrers To THE Epitor:--

Jacamar in Britain.—Rev. Canon KINGSLEY . ¥ . 120

The Use of Wires in correcting Echo.—Rey. R.S.GreGG . .

Fertilisation of the Wild Pansy.—W. E. Harr . . ... . . 421
Fertilisation of Orchids.—W. A..ForBES .... . ° « Tar
Ground Ivy: -7." 5) Spee ets 2 ae
Hail Storm.—E. J. Lowe, F.RS. .. .

APG. PM esi
Tuermo-Evecrriciry: Reve Lecture at CAMBRIDGE, II. By Prof.
P. G. Tair, F.R.S.E,. (Wit Diagrams) so ss ee ee
Tue Law or Storms Devexopen, [. By Prof. T. B. Maury (With
Litustrations) . a se ee ee ye ss a ty en
THE CoronAL ATMOSPHERE OF THE Sun,I. By M. JANSSEN (With B yw
Lldustvations). » . 3% Gi msaMe + = 0 © se toe ge
ONES oe > 8 ek « % i229

On Muscucar IRRITABILITY AFTER SYSTEMIC DEATH: CROONIAN
Lecture. By Dr. B. W. Ricwarpson, F.R.S. . . <a) oe eee

Scignriric SERIALS . . . Queens Ss 3) 6) @ s) le ee
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMINS. 4/5 © ¢ © © © s + © © 6 «lip eee
DAY. 1 7. = «os eS Se) wf oe ee «@ 6 AZO

ern,

NATURE

137

» THURSDAY, JUNE 19, 1873

FEREMIAH HORROX*
Il.

it is now time to pass to the particular incident which

has immortalised the name of Horrox, his observa-
tion of the transit of Venus over the sun’s disc on
November 24, 1639 (O.S.) It would have been sufficient
for his renown to have been the first witness of the
phenomenon, but he had in addition the honour of
supplying an omission of Kepler’s, who had indeed pre-
dicted the transit of 1631, but had failed to point out the
occurrence of another eight years subsequently. The
transit of 1631 had not been observed owing to its
occurrence at night, and that of 1639 had been foreseen
by no one save Horrox, and was watched by no one but
himself and his friend Crabtree, whom he apprised of the
forthcoming event in a letter dated on the October 26
previous.

We borrow Mr. Whatton’s account of the observation
(“ Life of Jeremiah Horrox,” pp. 44—46).

“ After having deliberated on the best method of making
the observation, he determined to admit the sun’s image
into a dark room, through a telescope properly adjusted
for the purpose, instead of receiving it through a hole in
the shutter merely, as recommended by Kepler. He
considered that by the latter method the delineation
would not be so perfect, unless it were taken at a greater
distance from the aperture than the narrowness of his
apartment would allow; neither was it likely that the
diameter of Venus would be so well defined ; whereas his
telescope, through which he had often observed the solar
spots, would enable him to ascertain the diameter of the
planet, and to divide the sun’s limb with considerable
accuracy. Accordingly, having described a circle of
about six inches diameter upon a piece of paper, he
divided its circumference into 360°, and its diameter into
120 equal parts. .. When the proper time came, he
adjusted his apparatus so that the image of the sun
should be transmitted perpendicularly to the paper, and
exactly fill the circle he had described. From his own
calculations he had no reason to expect that the transit
would take place, at the earliest, before three o’clock in
the afternoon of the 24th, but as it appeared from the
tables of others that it might occur somewhat sooner, in
order to avoid the chance of disappointment, he began to
observe about mid-day on the 23rd. Having continued
to watch with unremitting care for upwards of four-and-
twenty hours, excepting during certain intervals of the
next day when, as he tells us, he was called away by
business of the highest importance, which could not with
propriety be neglected, he was at length rewarded for his
anxiety and trouble by seeing a large dark round spot
enter upon the disc of light.”

The “business of the highest importance” was un-
doubtedly divine service, the transit having taken place
on a Sunday. Most modern astronomers of Horrox’s
profession would, no doubt, have considered the
claims of science paramount onan occasion like this.
Horrox, in accordance with the feeling of his day, judged
otherwise, and when all the circumstances of the case are
taken into account, his sacrifice on behalf of what he
esteemed a higher duty, must be regarded as an act of
extraordinary heroism. He had, it is true, almost con-
vinced himself that the transit could not occur until the
afternoon, but even this anticipation was a proof of

* Continued from p. 117-
No, 190—VOL, VIII.

courageous reliance on his own judgment, being founded

on his correction of Kepler’s Rudolphine tables, according

to the data supplied by which it should have occurred at

8.8 a.M. The phenomenon was also observed by Crabtree,

but less perfectly, owing to the cloudy state of the atmo-

sphere at Manchester. A letter from Crabtree on the

subject to another north-country astronomer, Gascoigne,

contains the remarkable expression, “ I do believe there
are as rare inventions as Galileo’s telescope yet undis-

covered.”

Horrox did not remain at Hoole much above six months
after this great achievement. In July, 1640, we find him
again at Toxteth, which he never afterwards left. He
must, accordingly, have resigned his curacy, on what
account is unknown, as is also the precise nature of his
subsequent avocations. We only gather from his corre-
spondence that his affairs were in a very unsettled
state, that the duration of his stay at Toxteth was
uncertain, and that he was continually called from home.
From his complaints of the impossibility of prosecuting
his astronomical researches, one would almost surmise
that his occupation was nocturnal, especially as he found
time for the observations on the tides already referred to.
His sustained enthusiasm for astronomy, as well as the
generosity of his temper, is touchingly shown in a letter
congratulating his friend Crabtree on the success of some
observations reported by him: “ Your letter alone,” he
says, “has enough and more than enough to transport
beyond all bounds a soul more master of itself than mine.
My emotion and gladness are such as you will more easily
understand than I express.” After several postpone-
ments, he eventually fixes January 4, 1641, for a visit to
Broughton, but the intention was frustrated by his sudden
death on the morning of the preceding day. We learn
this from an endorsement by Crabtree, who gives no
particulars respecting the cause of death, and who him-
self, according to Dr. Wallis, only survived his friend for
an extremely short period.

We are indebted to Crabtree for (the preserva-
tion of MHorrox’s extant papers, those only having
escaped destruction which were obtained by him
after the writer’s death. Of the remainder, part
were destroyed during the Civil Wars; part carried
to Ireland by Horrox’s brother Jonas, who appears
to have shared his scientific tastes, and there lost;
another portion, after having aided in the compilation of
Jeremiah Shakerley’s astronomical tables, was destroyed
in the great fire of 1666. Crabtree’s MSS., happily
including the autograph of the “Venus in Sole visa,” were
purchased after his death by Dr. Worthington, of Emma-
nuel College, subsequently Vicar of Hackney, and a copy
of the “ Venus,” lent by him to the astronomer Hartlib,
having found its way into the hands of Hevelius, was
published by the latter in 1662. The Royal Society, just
instituted in England, immediately took cognizance of
the remainder of the MSS., and having obtained these
from Dr. Worthington, placed them in the hands of Dr.
Wallis, Professor of Geometry at Oxford, whose Latin
translation was ultimately published in 1674. By a
judicious arrangement of his materials he was enabled to
digest these into a perfect treatise, to which he gave the
title of “Astronomia Kepleriana Defensa et Promota.”
To this he added a translation of the scientific portion of

I

138
Horrox’s letters to Crabtree, to which we are indebted for
most of our scanty biographical information. An inspec-
tion of the originals, should these have been preserved
would probably contribute much to clear up doubtful
points, and to complete our conception of Horrox’s in-
tellectual character. The main outlines of the latter,
however, are sufficiently apparent. They comprise a
marvellous patience and persistency, combined with wide-
reaching activity, a philosophical faculty for general-
isation, ambition, enthusiasm, and self-confidence. The
versatility of his attainments is attested by the com-
position of his “ Venus” in Latin, by the quotations in
his letters from Horace and Juvenal, and by his reference
to Raleigh’s ‘‘ History of the World.” Of his restless
energy and fertility of resource we have proof in the
promptitude with which, when debarred from his favour-
ite pursuit, he turns to the investigation of the tides. His
grasp of general principles is displayed, among other
passages, by a remarkable one in which he speaks of the
possibility of illustrating the elliptic orbits of the planets
by terrestrial analogies. “To which method of confirm-
ation Kepler is always partial, and most justly, inasmuch
as Nature throughout the universe is One, and the
general harmony of creation causes the lesser things to
be examples of the greater, as the revolution of the moon
around the earth is an emblem or imitation of that of the
stars around the sun.” We have already had occasion to
appreciate his enthusiasm ; and the self-reliance usually
associated with enthusiasm is powerfully evinced in
another letter exhorting Crabtree to undertake, in con-
junction with him, the preparation of a new set of
astronomical tables. From some expressions in this
it may be conjectured that he felt hurt at the ignorant
comments of his neighbours, and his resentment
against his false guide Lansberg, which occasionally
transgresses the limits of what would be considered
courtesy at the present day, is another indication of
a sensitive spirit. When we add to these traits the
self-denial manifested on occasion of the transit, and in
the temporary renunciation of his astronomical re-
searches in deference to the claims, as seems probable, of
his family, we must recognise in Horrox no mere man of
science, but a distinct individuality of singular force and
attractiveness. His precise place in the scientific world
must be left to astronomers to determine ; it requires,
however, no special knowledge of the science to appre-
hend that the obscure youth who, under every disadvan-
tage, was able to correct Kepler, might, if only he could
have continued at Cambridge, very probably have rivalled
him. In him England lost the promise of an astronomer
of the first class, which loss, like many a similar one,
would have remained absolutely unknown, but for the
fortunate conjunction of his name with a phenomenon of
regular recurrence and universal interest. If the com-
memoration of his great achievement cannot be equally
universal, it should at least transcend merely local limits.
Local patriotism has done its part well ; an appropriate
memorial has been erected in the church at Hoole, and
we are exceedingly indebted to Mr, Whatton for his in-
telligent memoir and valuable translation of the “ Venus
in Sole visa.” More, however, is demanded, and it would
redound to the credit of Horrox’s countrymen if, on the
December day of 1874, when English watchers scan the

NATURE

_ [Sune 19, 1873

skies of another hemisphere for the transit of Venus,
Englishmen at home were found dedicating a national
monument to the first observer of the phenomenon in
this.

FAGOR'S “PHILIPPINE ISLANDS”
Reisen in den Philippinen, von F.Jagor. Mit zahlreichen
Abbildungen und einer Karte. (Berlin: Weidmannsche
Buchhandlung. 1873.)

HE increasing importance which the Philippines are
assuming in both English and American com-
merce, the comparative insufficiency of the informa-
tion we possess concerning them, and the beauty and
productiveness of nearly the whole region, amply jus-
tify the ardour with which the author of this volume
has devoted himself to a thorough exploration of the
group, and an exhaustive study of every feature of
interest appertaining to its component islands and
their population. In this very interesting and accept-
able work he has’ given to the world the results of his
observation and inquiries, and of these it may be said
that, while in point of extent and variety they are suffi-
ciently comprehensive to embrace within their limits
every subject of interest or of practical importance to
which we should expect to find a place assigned in a book
of travels having any pretensions to completeness, they
bear the evident impress of the patient, laborious re-
search, and the careful examination and weighing of
facts, for which his countrymen are famous.

M. Jagor can hardly be said to be a recent traveller in
these islands. His journey through them was made in
the years 1859 and 1860, but unforeseen circumstances
put a sudden stop to it; and though fully intending to
resume it at a later day, that purpose has not yet been
accomplished. Although it must be admitted, therefore,
that his work does not make its appearance with all that
absolute freshness about it to which we are accustomed
in these days of ocean steam-navigation, the apparently
long interval which has elapsed since his visit has been
profitably turned to account by him in the careful study
of an immense mass of materials accumulated by himself
during his stay, or which he obtained through the Spanish
Colonial Minister, or found in the great national libraries
of London and Berlin, including a few bulky monkish
chronicles, the perusal of which last was a work both
long and tedious. In the vast labour incident to the
extraction from these various sources of their most im-
portant and most interesting details, he has been sus-
tained by a conviction that his subject was worthy of it.
He has felt, as he tells us, that few countries in the whole
world are so little known or so seldom visited as the
Philippines, while none present more agreeable attrac-
tions for the traveller, or have been more profusely
endowed by the hand of Nature, or contain a larger
store of neglected treasure for the natural historian.
So strong and so abiding is his faith on this last point,
he gravely assures his readers, that even poor travellers
would amply cover the cost of their journey by the sale
of their collections. Without going so far as to endorse
this suggestion in its full and entire significance, it is
nevertheless true that the descriptions here given con-
stitute, in the aggregate, a picture of marvellous natural

EE = ot a =

NATURE

139

wealth, of which it is on many accounts desirable that
modern enterprise should have full and trustworthy in-
formation.

The travels recorded in this volume extended through
the greater portion, certainly the most important and inter-
esting, of the Spanish Philippines. Manila was the starting
point. The author first made a short excursion north-
wards, thence into the province of Bulacan, and returning
to Manila ascended the river Pasig, at the mouth of
which it stands, to the great lake of Bay, crossing which
he made several journeys into the province of Laguna.
Returning thence to Manila, he crossed its magnificent
bay, spacious enough to hold all the navies of the world,
and proceeding by sea along the deeply indented southern
coast of the great island of Luzon, and traversing the
Straits of San Bernardino, landed at Albay, the chief
town of the large insular province of the same name.
From this point he made an excursion into the extreme
southern districts of the island, visiting the great volcano
of Balusan on his way, and returning to Albay, started
thence in a north-westerly direction on a journey through
southern Camarines. On this journey many natural
features of the highest interest engaged his attention, and
notably the great volcanoes of Mayon and Yriga, the
Bateo Lake, and the remarkable siliceous wells near
Tibi, with the great flat cones called the “ white” and the
“ved,” between which they lie—the whole of this district
presenting one of the finest examples'of calcareous de-
positions, in various states of advancement, in the whole
world. Returning westwards to his main route, he
reached Meroce Caceres, near the confines of northern
and southern Camarines, and from this point made a
considerable digression eastwards, for the purpose of
visiting the vast volcano Ysarog, of which, and of the
inhabitants of the region, he has given a full and highly
interesting description. Again returning to his main
route, he arrived at Cabusao on the Bay of San Miguel,
and from this point, partly by land and partly by coasting,
he explored about forty miles of the eastern coast of this
portion of North Camarines, making occasional journeys
inland where the prospect of reward seemed to invite at-
tention. Returning to Albay, he embarked at that place
for the next important island in this remarkable archipe-
lago, Samar. There he landed at the north-eastern point,
and crossing in a south-westerly direction to its western
coast, coasted some twenty or thirty miles southwards to
Carthalogan. From this place he traversed the centre

“ of the island, and descending the river Ulut, reached the
eastern side. He next coasted to its south-eastern
extremity, and thence returned westwards, landing
at Tacloban, the chief town of the closely adjacent
island of Leyte, on which he made a journey many miles
to the south. He then traversed the narrow Straits of
San Francisco, which separate Samar and Leyte, visiting
the ancient rock sepulchres in which the inhabitants of
Bisay and some other localities interred the remains of
their heroes and their elders. Continuing his return
journey by sea, he again reached Manila, after having
visited some minor islands, and obtained interesting in-
formation relative to them.

It would be vain to attempt, within the narrow limits of
space available for our present purpose, anything like a
substantial account of the innumerable matters of interest,

with which M. Jagor’s book deals. The mere enumera-
tion of them would very considerably extend the pro-
portions of an ordinary review, and there are many, very
many, which present attractions of the highest order for
the geographer, the geologist, the ethnologist, the natura-
list, and others who interest themselves in certain special
branches of modern science. All that can be done is to
indicate a few of the more striking portions of the work,
by which its character and completeness may be judged
of, referring to the work itself—which we venture to think
would well repay translation—those specially interested
in its subject.

In his first chapter, the author makes some re-
marks on the situations of the group, and describes a
few amusing circumstances which resulted from the
ignorance of Magellan and his followers, of the differ-
ence of time depending upon difference of longitude.
Such was the injudicious commercial policy of the
Spaniards in those dependencies, that the intercourse
between them and the Mother Country “was limited to
the conveyance of officials and ecclesiastics, and their
ordinary necessaries—provisions, wine, and other beve-
rages (Caldos), and, a few French romances excepted,
some very dull books—histories of Saints and other
similar matters.” As regards the aspect of Manila,
despite the glowing descriptions of it given by many
travellers, the author experienced considerable disap-
pointment ; his first impressions being received at a
most unfavourable moment, since he landed towards the
close of the dry season. The account he gives of the
state of society in Manila and its suburbs is anything
but inviting. “Life in the city proper can scarcely be
agreeable: pride, envy, place-hunting, caste-hatred, are
the order of the day. The Spaniards deem themselves
superior to their Creoles, who, in their turn, reproach
them with coming to the colony only to eat their fill,
The same hatred and the same grudge exist between the
whites and the half-castes.” It appears that cock-fight-
ing is the great pastime of the population. The social,
political, and commercial condition of the colony is fully
developed in the first four chapters of the book, and in
connection with this part of the subject the author ven-
tures on a few reflections on the future of the Philippines.
He says :—‘ Now that the Eastern shores of the Pacific
are at length becoming populated, and with unparalleled
rapidity are advancing towards their great future, the
Philippines can no longer remain in the exclusion which
has hitherto been their lot; because, for the western
coast of America, there is certainly no tropical Asiatic
country so favourably situated ; while as regards Australia,
it is only in certain relations that Dutch India can dispute
precedence with them. Their trade with China, on the
contrary, whose staple-market Manila originally was, as
also that with the western countries of Asia lying nearer
to the ports of the Atlantic, they must for ever renounce.”

The fifth chapter is devoted to a very clear and com-
prehensive exposition of the geography and the meteoro-
logy of the Archipelago, the political divisions of the
Islands, their various populations, and the languages
spoken in them.

On his first journey into the province of Bulacan, the
author was much struck with the fertility of the soil, a
subject upon which he has a good deal to say, as also

140

NATURE

é
F

f

”

[Fune 19, 1873

upon the contrivances used for fishing. ‘There, too, as in
other portions of his route, he became familiar with the
ways of Spanish priests, and formed his experiences of
native hospitality, besides learning something of the
system of wholesale plunder which is carried on almost
with impunity, on sea and on land, in this as in all other
portions of the islands, where it is likely to pay. It ap-
pears, from the author’s statements, that piracy is frequent
on the coast, and that the country is likewise exposed to
gangs of lawless marauders, against whom the Govern-
ment is almost powerless, while the people are generally
deprived of firearms, or, when provided with them, don’t
know how to use them, Occasionally they make
descents upon the land, plundering wherever they go,
often accompanying their rapacity with deeds of violence,
even murder, and constantly carrying away their victims
as prisoners.

Of the land and sea journeys of M. Jagor, generally, it
may be said that they are full of incident, and that he
never allows anything to escape his notice which may
appear to him to be likely to have interest in the eyes
of Europeans. From volcanic eruptions to the many odd
incidents that presented themselves to him on his journey,
nothing is unworthy of his attention, nor beyond his
graphic power. His style is at once quiet, simple, and
effective, and will delight every reader of German, by the
ease with which it portrays the grandest or the most
simple objects. He is always deeply impressed with the
grandeur of the scenery through which his path lies,
heightened as it often is by the beauty and luxuriance of
tropical vegetation, and the majesty of primeval forests
which extend their dense masses to the sea-margin. The
natural productions of the country—animal, mineral, and
vegetable—are the subject of copious mention ; and in
connection with this part of the subject he has been at great
pains to examine for himself, and put on record, the
industrial and Governmental conditions under which all
this mineral and other wealth is, or rather is not, made
available for commerce. This is remarkably seen in his
chapters on Manila hemp, and on the Government
tobacco monopoly.

One of the most curious and interesting portions of the
whole book is the twentieth chapter, which describes
some remarkable antiquities in the narrow San Francisco
strait, a locality whose picturesqueness the author extols,
questioning much “whether the ocean anywhere laves a
spot of such rich and peculiar beauty.” The substance
of this chapter, together with a few other portions of the
work, has already appeared in Bastian and Hartmann’s
“ Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie.” The remains referred to
are certain ancient sarcophagi found in cavities in a
series of marble-like rocks situated near the eastern en-
trance to the straits, and in a few other remarkable locali-
ties. These rocks rise out at seato a height of a hundred
feet. Their summits are dome-shaped, and their bases
are much worn by the action of the sea. In these cavities
the ancient Pintados, a race of tattooed Indians, and some
other natives of the Archipelago, deposited the remains
of their wives and elders as before adverted to, They
placed them in carefully closed coffins along with the
objects which in life they deemed most precious. Slaves
were sacrificed at their burial, in order that they might
not be without attendants in the next world. These spots

were regarded with superstitious awe by the natives, who
believed them to be haunted. A young Spanish clergy-
man led an expedition to some of the caves, and after
some religious ceremonies, wrecked the coffins, and
turned their contents into the sea. The superstition still
lingers about the rocks, although.much weakened. The
author had some difficulty in finding men resolute
enough to accompany him on an expedition having a
somewhat different object in view, that of bringing away
some of the relics. He succeeded, however, and the

trophies were deposited by him in the Zoological Museum

of Berlin University.

Profs. Roth and Virchow have contributed to the
scientific portion of the book—the former dealing mi-
nutely with the geology of the group, the latter with its
ancient and its more recent inhabitants. A copious ap-
pendix contains articles treating of the Islands under
every possible aspect—historical, antiquarian, commercial,
and governmental. The book is handsomely got up, and
is printed in Roman characters, now getting more and more
into use in Germany, and it is enriched with numerous
admirably executed engravings, in various styles, from
drawings made by the author on the spot, or obtained by
him during his journey. A beautifully executed map is
added, and the whole volume may be said to be an im-
portant and valuable contribution to the literature of its
class.

MILLER’S ROMANCE OF ASTRONOMY

The Romance of Astronomy. By R. Kalley Miller,
M.A. (Macmillan & Co., 1873.)
T is in days of strongly marked utilitarianism, when so
much is brought into the market that was never
intended to go there, and so much of what is there is
unfortunately rated at its marketable value only, that
corresponding efforts should be made, by those who
have the welfare of society at heart, to maintain the due
balance of the human intellect by the cultivation of its
imaginative faculty. It is here that poetry affords the
noblest aid ; and even the profusion of modern fiction
may be looked upon by the philanthropist with less
regret ; if only moderately sensible and well-guided, it
may lend important assistance in obviating that degene-
ration which would be the sure result of undue and exces-
sive mental development in any one direction.

The work now before us, a curious little book with a
curious title, may in this view of things not be without its
value. It is a reprint and enlargement of some popular
lectures which appeared in the Light Blue; and the
author tells us that his object “has not been so much to
instruct as to entertain, and possibly in some cases to
inspire a taste which might lead to the further prosecution
of a most fascinating study ; and this will be his apology
for passing over many important parts of the subject, and
simply selecting a few points here and there which seem
to afford scope for striking or amusing amplification.”
And in pursuance of this design, he brings before us a
series of speculations as to the possible condition of other
worlds, where fancy is allowed as full a range as the most
romantic of readers can desire. As an amusing instance
of his peculiar vein, the following passage may be cited :
“The part of the moon which appears bright to-us must

‘< see RD 4

.

Fune 19, 1873]

have any moisture which it may contain dried up by his
(the sun’s) vertical beams ; while on the other, or dark
side, the ground must be frozen hard to the depth of
several feet, the mountains covered with glaciers, and the
seas blocked up with icebergs. At the very margin
between the two hemispheres there will be a narrow tem-
perate zone, which will of course move round the moon,
as the latter turns round its axis and presentsits different
faces successively to the sun ; and the only way in which
we can see that life could be supported with comfort at
the moon (supposing the atmospherical difficulty sur-
mounted) would be by moving constantly round it, so as
to keep always in this temperate zone. A queer Noah’s
Ark-like sight it would be to see the whole inhabitants of
the moon, side by side, in a huge procession extending from
pole to pole, and hurrying quickly round it at the rate of
ten miles an hour—some riding, some driving, and some
travelling in slow railway trains ; beasts, wild and tame,
galloping by their side, and all the birds of heaven flying
along over their heads!” The chapter, too, on Astrology,
is of a very diverting character, and above all, Zadkiel’s
horoscope of the heir-apparent to the British throne.

In the face of such an avowal as the author has made,
anything like rigidity of criticism would be out of place :
but we cannot help expressing regret that his always
pleasing and often beautifully written descriptions should
occasionally require the support of a more accurate state-
ment of facts. We have so much respect for his ability,
and admiration more especially for the high tone of his
principle, as to hope that the book may reach a second
edition : but in that case we should hope for the removal
of several blemishes which it might seem invidious to
point out, but which will be obvious to the scientific
reader. T. W. W.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalists
Vol. vi. No. 4.

THIS is, we believe, the oldest field-club in existence, and
has all along been one of the most efficient and most
prosperous so far as numbers and funds are concerned.
Its publications, moreover, are already numerous, and
contain much valuable material for the natural history,
archeology, and antiquities of Berwickshire. There must
be already a vast amount of material shut up in the
transactions of the now numerous local societies, of
the greatest value in reference to the natural history of
this country and to students of biology generally, but
almost inaccessible except to the members of the various
societies. It is a pity that some means could not be
devised for bringing the most important contributions to
local natural history, in its widest sense, together in some
systematised form, so that they could be readily referred
to and made available to students at large. Sir Walter
Elliot refers to this point in his able address on Provincial
Scientific Societies, and it is to be hoped that the Com-
mittee appointed by the British Association will give it
their consideration. Prefixed to the Proceedings before
us is the President’s, the Rev. F. R. Simpson’s, address,
which is wholly occupied with an interesting account of
the various meetings of the club during the summer of
1872. For this society is purely a field club, meeting only
during the summer months, to explore some of the rich
vales of Berwickshire or stretch their limbs over some of
the bonny Cheviot fells, gathering rich stores of varied
knowledge, and finding a glorious appetite for the sub-

Club,

NATURE

141

stantial dinner which usually winds up the meetings.
One of the longest and most interesting papers is by one
of the secretaries, Mr. James Hardy, “On Langleyford
Vale and the Cheviots,” being a sort of survey of the dis-
trict between Wooler and the base of Cheviot, and con-
taining a wonderful amount of information on the geology,
botany, zoology, and especially the prehistoric antiquities
of the district. Mr. Hardy also contributes some valuable
entomological lists to this part of the Proceedings, and
various antiquarian papers; while Mr. Robert Hislop has
a list of the rarer Coleoptera occurring chiefly in the
parish of Nenthorn. Sir Walter Elliot contributes a list
of the diurnal birds of prey hitherto found within the
club’s limits. There are many other valuable papers in-
cluding a memoir of the late Dr. William Baird, F.R.S.,
one of the founders of this old society, appended to which
is a list of his many writings. There are two very well
executed plates of flint implements and a sculptured
stone, and a fine portrait of the Club’s late Secretary,
Mr. George Tate.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of ‘anonymous
communications. }

Dr. Bastian’s Turnip-Cheese Experiments

In a former communication* I gave an account of a series of
experiments by Dr. Bastian, in which it was established that,
“*by following his directions, infusions can be prepared which are
not deprived by an ebullition of from five to ten minutes of the
faculty of undergoing those chemical changes which are charac-
terised by the presence of swarms of Bacteria, and that the de-
velopment of these organisms can proceed with the greatest
activity in hermetically sealed glass vessels, from which almost
the whole of the air has been expelled by boiling.”

In the first paragraph of that paper I adverted to the import-
ance in every experimental inquiry of defining as completely as
possible the method by which any given result can be attained.
With this consideration in view, I now propose to give an ac-
count of additional experiments, made chiefly for the purpose of
elucidating the influence of slight variations of temperature on
the result. To guard against the possibility of mistake, it may
not be unadvisable to remark that, whereas in the experiments
previously reported upon, I took no part, excepting as a witness,
I am exclusively answerable for those now to be recorded.

Certain particulars in Dr. Bastian’s method have been objected
to as possible sources of uncertainty. Thus it has been sug-
gested that when a flask, of which the neck has been drawn out
to a capillary orifice, is boiled even for ten minutes over a lamp,
it is not certain that the whole of the liquid contained in it is
heated to the temperature of boiling ; and again, that when the
lamp is withdrawn in the act of closing the capillary orifice,
germs may enter from without. Although I do not attach much
importance to either of these objections, I have modified Dr.
Bastian’s method, so as to render them inapplicable. The modi-
fication, however, applies exclusively to the mode of heating the
hermetically sealed flasks. As regards the preparation of the
liquid, I have in no respects deparied from his instructions.

The liquid is prepared by simmering slices of peeled turnip
in a beaker containing about a pint of distilled water. The
acid infusion thus obtained, is, if necessary, concentrated by
evaporation until it possesses a specific gravity of from 1018 to
1020. It is then filtered and neutralised with sodic carbonate.
A little Cheddar cheese is rubbed up with a few drachms of
the liquid in a mortar, and the mixture strained through
calico, By adding the strained product tothe rest of the in-
fusion a turbid liquid is obtained, in every drop of which parti-
cles of cheese can be detected by the microscope, although
there are scarcely any of a sufficient size to be distinguished by
the naked eye.

In the first four sets of experiments retorts were used, in the
others flasks. In either case they were charged with the liquid
of which the preparation has just been described (their necks
having been previously drawn out), boiled over a spirit lamp,
and sealed hermetically by directing the flame of the gas blow-

* See NATURE, Vol. viii. p. 180,

142

pipe on the orifice at the same moment that the lamp was with-
drawn. The experiments of the first two sets may be regarded
merely as more exact repetitions of the former ones. Their
results are confirmatory of those previously obtained. In _ the
others the flasks were subjected to the temperature of ebullition
under pressures exceeding that of the atmosphere. Although
the excess of temperature in no case exceeded two degrees and a
half, it will be seen that it exercised a decided influence on the
results. :

The pressures employed varied from one-tenth of an inch to
three inches of mercury. According to * Wiillner’s table, founded
on those of Régnault and Magnus, an excess of 27 63 mill. over
the normal pressure (760 mill.), determines an increase of 1° C,
in the temperature of boiling, so that here 0°'924 C. corresponds
to one inch of pressure. Similarly we have 0”'88 for the second
inch, and 0°°873 for the third inch. In other words 100°92 C. isthe
temperature of ebullitionat one inch, 101°*81 at two inches, 102°°68
at three inches. Indescribing the experiments I use the expres-
sion “turnip-cheese,” liquid to denote the neutral infusion of turnip
with cheese of which the preparation has been given above; and in
recording the results the words barren and pregnant are employed
to express the absence or presence of living Bacteria. In any
liquid which has been kept five days at the temperature of fer-
mentation there is no difficulty in determining in which of these
two conditions it is, for if Bacteria are present at all they are
present in such numbers that every field is crowded with them.
Bodies which appear to be dead Bacteria are met with here and
there in every specimen. They are as numerous in liquids
examined immediately after prolonged boiling as in others.
They are probably derived from the cheese.

The retorts or flasks were examined after periods varying from
three to six days, during which they were kept in the warm
chamber at 32° C. Each was tested by observing that when the
point of the blow-pipe flame was directed on the neck of the
flask the softened part was first drawn in and then gave way
with a loud crack.

With these preliminary observations I proceed to give an
account of the experiments.

March 1.—Two retorts were charged with turnip-cheese liquid
of which the specific gravity was 1017'2, each retort receiving
25 c.c. One was immersed in boiling water in a saucepan for
an hour and then placed in the warm chamber: the other was
placed in the chamber at once, z7.é. immediately after it was
boiled and closed hermetically. Both were examined on the 4th.
The first was barren, the second pregnant.

March 4.—Nine retorts were charged with cheese-turnip
liquid, sp. gr. 1020. Each contained 35 c.c. After having been
boiled and closed hermetically, eight of the retorts were suc-
cessively subjected in couples to the temperature of boiling water
in a digester.

The construction of the digester was such that during the
ebullition, which in each case was continued for 15 minutes,
steam escaped through various narrow openings. The heating
of the retorts was accomplished in four processes, each couple of
retorts being heated separately and the valve differently weighted
in different cases. Thus in three ebullitions the weights em-
ployed were severally 2 lbs., 4 lbs., and 6 lbs., while in the
fourth, no weight was added to that of the valve itself. The
experiment was planned in this way in order that the influence
of pressure might be observed, but in carrying out, it was at
once observed that with this view the method was a futile one,
for steam escaped so readily in each experiment through the
valve that there could be no doubt that all the retorts were in
reality subjected to the same temperatare, 7.e to the ordinary
temperature of ebullition. The ninth retort was treated in the
same way as the others with this exception, that the ebullition
was continued for an hour, the valve remaining open.

The liquids were examined March 10. Of the eight which
were immersed in boiling water for 15 minutes, all were preg-
nant. The ninth retort was barren.

March 13.—Six retorts were charged with turnip-cheese
liquid, sp. gr. ror8, after which they were boiled and closed
hermetically as before. The retorts were immersed in boiling
water as previously, but the experiment was so planned that the
pressure under which ebullition took place could be increased at
will. The arrangement of the apparatus will be best understood
from the diagram. A is a strong iron pot (or digester), the lid of
which fits it by a grooved joint 4, To render the joint air-tight,
the groove is filled with white lead before fitting on the lid,

* Wiillner, Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, B. IIL., p. 559-

NATURE

| Fune 19, 1873

which is then tightly wedged into its place. The valve
having been removed, the orifice of the digester is
stopped. by a vulcanite plug, ¢, through which the long
tube passes. This forms a perfect joint, for the greater the
internal pressure, the more tightly it fits. The end of the tube
dips into mercury contained in a large bottle, ¢, and is retained in
its place by a holder at d, not shown in the diagram. The
pot is half filled with water containing a quantity of hay, among
which the flasks are arranged. It is supported on a triangle and
heated by a Bunsen’s burner, the mercury bottle being raised on
blocks until the end of the tube dips to about the right depth
under the surface of the metal. A more exact adjustment is
attained by means of the holder already mentioned.

In this apparatus the six retorts were subjected to the tem-
perature of ebullition under various pressures, viz., twoundera
pressure of three inches, two under a pressure of four inches,

and two undera pressure of two inches. The period of heating
in each case was fifteen minutes. All of the flasks were placed,
after heating, in the warm chamber at 32° C., and were examined
March 18. All were barren.

March 22.—Four retorts were charged with turnip-cheese
liquid, sp. gr. 1019, each receiving 50 c.c. Of these two were
heated in the apparatus at the temperature of ebullition under a
pressure of one inch, the other two under a pressure of half an
inch, Of each couple one was accidentally broken. Both the
remaining ones were examined March 27, and found to be
barren.

May 7.—Nine flasks were charged with turnip-cheese liquid,
sp. gr. 1019, each flask containing 50 c.c. Of these, four were
subjected to the temperature of water boiling under pressure of
one inch of mercury for thirty minutes, and four for the same
period to the temperature of ebullition under one-tenth of an
inch. They were examined May 12, Of each set one con-
tained Bacteria, the rest being barren. The liquid in the other
flask, which was simply boiled, and closed while boiling, had an
offensive smell, and contained much scum.

May 22.—Thirteen flasks were charged with turnip-cheese
liquid, sp. gr. 1019°5. Of these six were subjected to the tempe-
rature of ebullition at three inches, and six to the ordinary tem-
parature of boiling water, The remaining flask, after having
been closed hermetically in ebullition in the same way as the
rest, was placed with them in the warm chamber. All the flasks
were examined May 26. All the six flasks of the first set were
barren. Of the six flasks of the second set four were barren,
the others contained innumerable living Bacteria. The liquid in
the other flask was offensive, and contained masses of bac-
terial scum.

After the examination several of the flasks containing barren
liquids, particularly those which had been heated under pres-
sure, were replaced in the warm ‘chamber. Some of them were
simply closed hermetically (the liquid having been taken for ex-
amination by means of a freshly drawn out capillary tube),
others were closed after the introduction of a drop of distilled
water. On opening these flasks several days afterwards, it was
found that those which had been impregnated by the addition of

the distilled water were full of Bacteria, the others remaining
barren. This was done to show that the liquid, although de-
prived of its power of germination, is as capable as before of
supporting the life of Bacteria.

The results of the preceding experiments may be summed up
as follows :—In sixteen experiments the liquids were subjected
to the temperature of boiling at the normal pressure ; of these,
eight were heated for 15 minutes, and all bred Bacteria ; six were
heated for 30 minutes, of which two bred Bacteria ; two for an
hour, both of which were barren.

Of ten subjected to the temperature of ebullition at pressures
not exceeding one inch, eight were barren. Both the liquids
which were found to be pregnant lad been heated for 30
minutes, one under a pressure of one-tenth of an inch, the
other of one inch.

In the twelve experiments in which the liquids were heated
under pressures exceeding one inch, all were barren, although
half oe them were subjected to that temperature for only 15
minutes.

It is unnecessary for me to draw any inferences from the
preceding experiments ; it may not, however, be superfluous to
point out that, although all the flasks heated above ror’ C. re-
mained sterile, this fact affords no ground for concluding that any
definite relation exists between that precise temperature and the
destruction of the germinating power of the iiquid in question.
All that has been shown is that the chance that such a liquid
will breed Bacteria is diminished either by slightly increasing
the temperature to which it is heated, or increasing the duration
of the heating. Thus it appears to me quite probable that if a
sufficiently large number of flasks were heated even to 102° C.,
some ofthem would still be found to be pregnant.

University Coll., London, June 7 J. BURDON SANDERSON

Fertilisation of the Pansy.—Ground Ivy

THERE is one further point in the structure of Lola tricolor
which is not mentioned by Mr. Bennett or by Mr, Hart, but
which seems to confirm the theory of the former gentleman that
V. tricolor, as distinguished from most other Violas, is fertilised
by a small insect such as Thrips instead of by the proboscis of
larger insects.

Before saw Mr. Bennett’s paper, my attention had been called
by Miss Dowson to the fact that whereas in the Sweet and Dog
Violets, the circle of anthers presses close to the style all round,
there is in V. ¢ricolor an opening between the two appendaged
stamens. The use of this opening will evidently be to allow
the small creature to enter in and craw! down the stamen to the
nectary at the end of the appendage. This structure may be also
seen in . cornuta, which seems to be fertilised in the same
way. In V. “ricolor the opening is exactly opposite to the
black streak, or guide-post, as Mr. Bennett has termed it.
In V. cornuéa, although this black mark is notso evident, there
is a distinct triangular mark pointing downwards exposed by the
opening of the stamens. On each side of the style are two sets
of hairs, looking like ‘* whiskers” to the scull-like crest of the
style, on which lots of pollen rest. The small insect on enter-
ing the flower can hardly help crawling into the cavity at the top
of the stigma, for the entrance to the flower is almost completely
blocked up by it. On emerging from it it would crawl over the
top, which Mr. Hart mentions as seen in ¢ricolor, and which I
also find in cornuéa, be guided through the hole by the trian-
gular mark, and so find his way to the nectary. On emerging,
covered with pollen, and entering its next flower, it will again be
deluded into the cu/-de-sac in which the stigmatic surface is, where
it will deposit its pollen, The details of the structure of the
appendaged stamens, as contrasted with those of other Violas,
fully bear out this view. ‘

As regards the English translation for the German Jdestduden,
I would suggest to Mr, Hart that ‘‘pollenate” is an impossible
word ; follen, pollinis, must give the verb to ‘* pollinate,” as
fulmen, fulminis gives fulminate. But there isa greatadvantage
in a word which speaks for itself, and, if the word ‘ be-pollen”
offends scientific ears (Mr. Hart does not tell us why), would
the literal translation of the German. ‘‘ to be-dust”’ be offensive ?
If not, I think it would tellits own tale. The word ‘‘empollen”
seems justified by evda/m, but the prefix generally means to
place in or convert into, as in exthval, emprison, embed. Wence
it would at least be ambiguous.

The form of Ground Ivy mentioned by your correspondent
S.S.D. grows here abundantly in several spots, seeds freely, and is
remarkable for haying a much shorter style in proportion to the

NATURE

143

tube of the corolla than the common form in which the style
and stigmas protrude from the tube. F. E. KircHENER

Rugby, June 15

Mr. Kitchener having been kind enough to send me the
above letter, I may, perhaps, be allowed to add a few additional
notes. Since writing the former paper I have had the oppor-
tunity of examining three other species of Viola, V. calcarata,
elatior, and factea, all of which present a remarkable contrast to
V. tricolor in a very curious point of structure. In V. tricolor
the stigma is brought into close contact with the lowest petal by
a very peculiar ‘‘knee” in the style, the effect of which is so
completely to close up the central cavity of the flower as to
render it extremely difficult for any large insect to insert its pro-
boscis into the spur. In all the three species above-named,
which I believe to be fertilised by bees, the style is nearly
straight, so as to leave a considerable gap between the stigma
and lower petal, quite large enough for the insertion of the pro-
boscis of a bee. In none of these is there the least indication of
the black triangular streak on the style which I take to serve, in
V. tricolor, the purpose of guiding the Thrips to the nectary.
The ring of anthers is also perfectly closed, as described by Miss
Dowson in the case of the Dog and Sweet Violet, there being no
opening for the admission of the small insect, as in the pansy.
A striking difference in the form of the stigma also favours the
same conclusion as to the mode of fertilisation.

ALFRED W. BENNETT

ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF
INSECTS *
VI.

PoE metamorphoses of insects ‘have always seemed
to me one of the greatest difficulties of the Dar-
winian theory. In most cases, the development of the
individual reproduces to a certain extent that of the race;
but the motionless, imbecile pupa cannot represent a
mature form. No one, so far as I know, has yet at-
tempted to explain, in accordance with Mr. Darwin’s
views, a life history, such as that of a butterfly, in which
the mouth is first mandibulate and then suctorial. A clue
to the difficulty may, I think, be found in the distinction
between developmental and adaptive changes ; to which
I have called attention in a previous article. The
larvee of insects are by no means mere stages in the
development of the perfect animal. On the contrary, they
are subject to the influence of natural selection, and un-
dergo changes which have reference entirély to their own
requirements and condition. It is evident, then, that while
the embryonic development of an animal in the egg may
be an epitome of its specific history, this is by no means
the case with species in which the immature forms have a
separate and independent existence. If an animal when
young pursues one mode of life, and lives on one kind
of food, which subsequently, either from its own growth
in size and strength, or from any change of season, alters
its habits or food, however slightly, itimmediately becomes
subject to the action of new forces: natural selection
affects it in two different and, it may be, very distinct
manners, gradually leading to differences which may be-
come so great as to involve an intermediate period of
change and quiescence,

There are, however, peculiar difficulties in those cases
in which, as among the Lepidoptera, the same species
is mandibulate as a larva, and suctorial as an imago.
From this point of view Campodea and the Collembola
(Podura, &c.) are peculiarly interesting. There are among
insects three principal types of mouth—first, the mandi-
bulate ; secondly, the suctorial ; and thirdly, that of Cam-
podeaand the Coilembola generally,in which the mandibles
and maxillz are retracted, but, though far from strong,
have some ireedom of motion, and can be used for biting
and chewing'soft substances. This type is intermediate
between the other two. Assuming that certain represen-
tatives of such a type found themselves in circumstances

* Continued irom p. 109.

144

which made a suctorial mouth advantageous, those indi-
viduals would be favoured by natural selection in which
the mandibles and maxilla were best calculated to pierce
or prick, and their power of lateral motion would tend to
fall into abeyance ; while, on the other hand, if powerful
masticatory Jaws were an advantage, the opposite process
would take place,

There is yet a third possibility—namely, that during
the first portion of life, the power of mastication should
be an advantage, and during the second that of suction, or
vice versé. A certain kind of food might abound at one
season and fail at another, might be suitable for the animal
at one age and not at another : now in such cases we should
have two forces acting successively on each individual,
and tending to modify the organisation of the mouth in
different directions. It will not be denied that the ten
thousand variations in the mouth-parts of insects have
special reference to the mode of life, and are of some ad-
vantage to the species in which they occur. Hence no
believer in natural selection can doubt the possibility of
the three cases above suggested, the last of which seems
to explain the possible origin of species which are man-
dibulate in one period of life and not in another. The
change from the one condition to the other would no doubt
take place contemporaneously with a change of skin. At
such times we know that, even when there is no change
to form, the temporary softness of the organs precludes
the insect from feeding for a time, as, for instance,
is the case with the silkworm. When, however, any con-
siderable change was involved, this period of fastinz
would be prolonged, and would lead to the existence of a
third condition, that of the pupa, intermediate between
the other two, Since other changes are more conspicuous
than those relating to the mouth, we are apt to associate
the existence of a pupa-state with the acquisition of
wings: but the case of the Orthoptera (grasshoppers,
&c.) is sufficient proof that the development of wings
is perfectly compatible with continuous activity ; so that
in reality the necessity for rest is much more intimately
connected with the change in the constitution of the
mouth, although in many cases no doubt the result is
accompanied by changes in the legs, and in the in-
ternal organisation. An originally mandibulate mouth,
however, like that of a beetle, could not, I think, be
modified into a suctorial organ like that of a bug or
a gnat, because the intermediate stages would necessarily
be injurious. Neither, on the other hand, for the same
reasons, could the mouth of the Hemiptera be modi-
fied into a mandibulate type like that of the Coleop-
tera. But in Camfodea and the Collembola we have a
type of animal closely resembling certain larve which
occur both in the mandibulate and suctorial series of in-
sects, and possessing a mouth neither distinctly mandibu-
late, nor distinctly suctorial, but constituted on a peculiar
type capable of modincation in either direction by gradual
change, without loss of utility.

In discussing this subject it is necessary also to
take into consideration the nature and origin of wings.
Whence are they derived? why are there normally two
pairs ? and why are they attached to the meso- and meta-
thorax? These questions are not less difficult than inte-
resting. It has been suggested, and I think with justice,
that the wings of insects originally served for aquatic and
respiratory purposes. From the various modes by which
respiration is effected among the different groups of aquatic
insects, there are strong reasons for concluding that the
original insect stock was, like Campoaea (P13, Fig. 5), a
land animal. But in aquatic insects there is a tendency to
effect the purification of the air through the delicate mem-
braneous covering of more or less leaf-like expansions
of the skin, In the larva of Chloéon (Pl. 4, Fig. 1), for
instance, that singularly resembles Camoaea (Pl. 3, Fig.
5), several of the segments are provided with such folia-
ceous expansions ; which, moreover, are in constant agi-

NATURE

[Fune 19, 1873

tation, the muscles of which, in several remarkable points,
resemble those of the true wings. It is true that in
Chloéon the vibration of the so-called branchiz is scarcely,
if at all, utilised for tke purpose of locomotion ; the
branchiz are, in fact, placed too far back to act effi-
ciently. The situation of these branchiz differs in dif-
ferent groups ; indeed, it seems probable that originally
there were a pair on each segment. In such a case,
those branchiz, situated near the centre of the body,
neither too much in front nor too far back, would serve
the most efficiently as propellers. The same causes
which determined the position of the legs would affect
the wings also, Thus a division of labour would be
effected ; the branchiz on the posterior segments of
the thorax would be devoted to locomotion; those on the
abdomen to respiration. This would tend to increase the
development of the thoracic segments, already somewhat
enlarged to receive the muscles of the legs,

That wings may be of use to insects under water is
proved by the very interesting case of Polynema natans,
which I discovered in 1862, and which uses its wings to
swim with. This, however, is a rare case; and it is
possible that the principal use of the wings was, primor-
dially, to enable the mature forms to pass from pond
to pond, thus securing fresh habitats and avoiding in-and-
in breeding. If so, the development of wings would
tend to be relegated to a late period of life; and by
the tendency to the inheritance of characters at corre-
sponding ages,to which Mr. Darwin has called attention,*
the development of wings would be associated with the
maturity of the insect. Thus the late acquisition of
wings in the Insecta generally, seems to be itself an indi-
cation of their descent from a stock which was at one
period aquatic in its habits, and which probably re-
sembled the present larvae of Ch/oéon in form, but had
thoracic as well as abdominal branchiz.

If these views are correct, the genus Campodea must
be regarded as a form of remarkable interest, since it is
the living representative of a primzeval type from which
not only the Collembola and Thysanura, but the other
great orders of insects have all derived their origin.

Finally, from the subject of metamorphoses we pass
naturally to that most remarkable phenomenon which is
known as the “ Alternation of Generations :” for the first
systematic view of which we are indebted to my eminent
friend Prof. Steenstrup.

I have always felt it very difficult to understand why
any species should have been created in this double
character ; nor, so far as I am aware, has any explanation
of the fact yet been attempted. Yet insects offer, in the
metamorphoses which they go through, a phenomenon
not altogether dissimilar, and give a clue to the manner
in which alternation of generations may have originated.

The caterpillar owes its difference from the butterfly
to the early stage at which it leaves the egg; but its
actual form is mainly due to the influence of the condi-
tions in which it lives. If the caterpillar, instead of
changing into one butterfly, produced several butterflies,
we should have an instance of alternation of generations.
Until lately, however, we knew of no such case; each
larva produced one imago, and that not by generation
but by development. It has long been known, indeed,
that there are some species in which certain individuals
remain always apterous, while others acquire wings.
Many entomologists, however, regard these abnormal
individuals as perfect, though wingless insects; and
therefore, though these cases appear to me to deserve
more attention than they have yet received, I shall not
found any argument on them.

Recently, however, Prof. Wagner of Kazan, has dis-
covered that, among certain small gnats, the larve do
not themselves directly produce the perfect insect, but
give rise to other larvae, which undergo metamorphoses of

* Origin of Species, 4th ed. pp. 14 and 97.

| Sune 19, 1873]
a a

ee ee

the usual character, and eventually become gnats. His
observations have been confirmed, as regards this main
fact, by other naturalists ; and there can, I think, be no
doubt that they are, in the main, correct.

Here, then, we have a distinct case of alternation of
generations, as characterised by. Steenstrup. Probably
other cases will be discovered in which insects undeniably
in the larval state will be found to be fertile. Nay, it
seems to me possible, if not probable, that some larvz
which do not now breed, in the course of ages may come
to do so.

If this idea is correct, it shows how the remarkable
phenomenon known as alternation of generations may
have originated. At any rate, we find among insects every
mode of development ; from simple growth on the one
hand, to well-marked alternation on the other. In the
wingless species of Orthoptera there is little difference,
excepting in size, between the young larva and the
perfect insect. The growth is as simple and gradual as
in any other animal; and the creature goes through
nothing which would, in ordinary language, be called a
metamorphosis. In the majority of Orthoptera the pre-
sence of wings produces a marked difference between the
larva and the imago. The habits, however, are nearly
the same throughout life, and consequently the action of
external circumstances affects the larva in the same
manner as the perfect insect.

This is not the case with the Ephemeride. The larve
do not live under the same conditions as the perfect
insects; external forces accordingly affect them in a
different manner; and we have seen that they pass
through some changes which bear no reference to the
form of the perfect insect: these changes, however, are
for the most part very gradual. The caterpillars of
Lepidoptera have even more extensive changes to under-
go; the mouth of the larva, for instance, is remarkably
unlike that of the perfect insect. A change in this
organ, however, could hardly take place while the insect
was still growing fast, and consequently feeding voraci-
ously. Nor, even if the change could be thus effected,
would the mouth, in its intermediate stages, be in any
way fitted for biting and chewing leaves. The same
reasoning applies also to the digestive organs. Hence
the caterpillar undergoes little, if any, change, except in
size, and the metamorphosis is concentrated, so to say,
into the last two moults. The changes then become so
rapid and extensive, that the intermediate period is
necessarily one of quiescence. _

Owing to the fact that the organs connected with the
reproduction of the species come to maturity at a late
period, larvee are generally incapable of breeding. There
are, however, some flies which have viviparous larve, and
thus offer a typical case of alternation of generations,
owing to the early period of leaving the egg, and the
action in many cases of external circumstances on the
larva different from those which affect the mature form.

Thus, then, we find among insects every gradation,
from the case of simple growth to that of alternation of
generations ; and we see how from the single fact of
the early period at which certain animals quit the egg,
we can account for their metamorphoses and for the
still more remarkable phenomenon that, among many of
the lower animals, the species is represented by two very
different forms. We may even, from the same considera-
tions, see reason to conclude that this phenomenon may
in the course of ages become still more common than it
is at present. As long, however, as the external organs
arrive at their mature form before the internal generative
organs are fully developed, we have cases of metamor-
phosis ; but if the reverse is the case, then alternation of
generations often results.

The same considerations throw much light on the
remarkable fact, that in alternation of generations the re-
production is, as a general rule, agamic in the one form.

NATURE

145

This results from the fact that reproduction by distinct
sexes requires the perfection both of the external and
internal organs; and if the phenomenon arise, as has
just been suggested, from the fact that the internal
organs arrive at maturity before the external ones, re-
production will result in those species only which have
the power of agamic multiplication.

Moreover it is evident that we have in the animal
kingdom two kinds of dimorphism.

This term has usually been applied to those cases in
which animals or plants present themselves at maturity
under two different forms. The different forms of ants
and bees afford us familiar instances among animals ;
and among plants the remarkable case of the genus
Primula has recently been worked out with his usual
ability by Mr. Darwin. Even more recently he has made
known to us the still more remarkable phenomenon
afforded by the genus Zzwm, in which there are three
distinct forms, and which therefore offers an instance of
polymorphism.*

The other kind of dimorphism or polymorphism differs
from the first in resulting from the differentiating action
of external circumstances, not on the mature, but on the
young individual. The different forms, therefore, stand
towards one another in a relation of succession. In the
first case the chain of being divides at the extremity ; in
the other it is composed of dissimilar links. Many cases
of dimorphism under this second form have been de-
scribed under the name of alternation of generations,

The term, however, has met with much opposition, and
is clearly inapplicable to the differences exhibited by
insects in different periods of their life. Strictly speaking
the phenomena are very frequently not alternate, and, in
the opinion of many eminent naturalists, they are not
cases of generation at all. ¢

In order, then, to have some name for these remarkable
phenomena, and to distinguish them from those cases
in which the mature animal or plant is represented by
two or more different forms, I think it would be con-
venient to retain for these latter exclusively the terms
dimorphism and polymorphism; and those cases in
which animals or plants pass through a succession of
different forms might be distinguished by the name of
dieidism or polyeidism.

The conclusions, then, which I think we may draw
from the preceding and other considerations are :—

1. That the occurrence of metamorphoses arises from
the immaturity of the condition in which some animals
quit the egg.

2. That the form of the insect larva whenever it
departs from the original vermiform type, depends in
great measure on the conditions in which it lives. The
external forces acting upon it are different from those
which affect the mature form; and thus changes are
produced in the young which have reference to its imme-
diate wants, rather than to its final form.

3, That metamorphoses may therefore be divided into
two kinds, developmental and adaptational. .

4. The apparent abruptness of the changes which in-
sects undergo arises in great measure from the hard-
ness of their skin, which admits no gradual alteration of
form, and which is itself necessary in order to afford suffi-
cient support to the muscles.

5. The immobility of the pupa or chrysalis depends on
the rapidity of the changes going on in it.

6. Although the majority of insects go through three
well-marked stages after leaving the egg, still a large
number arrive at maturity through a somewhat indefinite
number of slight changes.

* Of course all animals in which the sexes are distinct are in one sense
dimorphic. S =

+ ‘There is no such thing asa true case of ‘alternation of generations
in the animal kingdom ; there is only an alternation of true generation with

the totally distinct process of gemmation or fission.”—Huxley on Animal
Individuality, Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., June 1852.

~146

NATURE

[Fune 19, 1873

7. When the external organs arrive at this final form
before the organs of reproduction are matured, these
changes are known as metamorphoses ; when, on the
contrary, the organs of reproduction are functionally per-
fect before the’ external organs, or when the creature has
the power of budding, then the phenomenon is known as
alternation of generations.

8. Thus, then, it appears probable that these remark-
able phenomena may have arisen from the simple cir-
cumstance that certain animals leave the egg at a very
early stage of development, and that the external forces
acting on the young are different from those which affect
the mature animal.

JOHN LUBBOCK
(To be continued.)

ON AN IMPROVED FORM OF OZONE
GENERATOR

SHORT description of an improved form of ozone
generator, exhibited at the last meeting of the
Chemical Society, may perhaps be interesting to the
readers of NATURE.
Probably no apparatus hitherto introduced, for the pro-
duction of ozone by clectric induction, has in its working

given universal satisfaction, The original form of “ Sie-
mens’ tube ” has many disadvantages, amongst which the
chief are, the extremely fragile nature of the two glass
tubes, especially when sealed together by the blowpipe,
and the fact that if the apparatus be worked for any
length of time it becomes heated, thereby causing a dimi-
nution in the quantity of ozone obtained. The arrange-
ment of a number of glass plates coated on alternate
sides with tin foil, and enclosed in a box, known as
“Beane’s” instrument, possesses—especially if used as
it is intended it should be with a large and powerful
coil—this latter disadvantage to a considerable extent.
Sir Benjamin Brodie, during his researches upon ozone,
used a modification of “ Siemens’ tube,” which in a great
degree overcame this difficulty. Two glass tubes closed at
one end, and of such diameter that one was capable of
sliding within the other, were fixed together in that way,
the junction being effected either by the blowpipe or by
means of paraffin, thus leaving a small annular space
between them through which the oxygen or other gas to be
ozonised could circulate ; tin foil coatings were dispensed
with altogether, the inner tube being filled with water,
and the whole apparatus stood in a vessel of water, wires
in conection with an induction coil being placed in the
interior tube, and also in the outer vessel: this water
could be kept cool by ice, and thus any heat produced

he

during the time it was in use was successfully neutral-
ised. Such an apparatus works exceedingly well but
requires delicate handling, and is not perhaps very well
adapted for having other pieces of apparatus attached
to it.

This new instrument is an improved modification of
the above, but permits of a continuous stream of water
of any required temperature being maintained through it ;
and further, the annular space which in the case of glass
tubes is often very irregular, causing thereby an unequal
electrical discharge, is made as true as possible, and the
result is a more uniform conversion of the gas into ozone.
The apparatus as at present made will be better under-
stood by the following description referring to the accom-
panying diagram :—A A isa piece of glass tube of a little
more than one inch in diameter, and of as uniform a bore
as can be obtained. On each end of this tube is placed
a brass cap, bored with two holes, and coated inter-
nally with shellac ; in the interior of this glass tube and
of a diameter scarcely less than that of the tube itself,
but not quite so long, is placed a thin hollow brass box,
B B, with its surface made as true as possible by turning
in a lathe; this brass box is placed concentrically with
the outer tube and is completely coated on its ex-
terior surface with tin, the tin being acted upon to the
smallest extent by the ozone. This hollow box communi-
cates with the exterior of the apparatus by means of the

ccc

New Ozone Generator.

tubes C C passing through the centre of the caps. It is
intended that a current of water shall be kept circulating
through the interior of this box, the water being brought
into direct contact with its sides by means of a small
spiral placed within it, the box being of a slightly less
diameter than the glass tube, a small annular space wi
remain between the two, and through this space the gas
to be ozonised is passed by means of the tubes D D; the
box itself is made one of the electrified surfaces, and a
strip of tin foil G, fixed to the outside of the glass tube,
forms the other ; two binding screws, E and F, serve to
make the necessary connections with an induction coil.
The production of ozone by this apparatus is exceed-
ingly regular and constant. No quantitative estimations
with iodide of potassium and sulphurous acid have as yet
been made with regard to the amount of ozone obtained,
but an approximate experiment upon the quantity of
indigo bleached in a given time, seems to indicate that
this amount is quite equal to, if not rather in excess of,
that obtained when the ordinary apparatus is used. This
instrument possesses also some minor advantages ; it is
not so easily broken, other pieces of apparatus are very
readily attached to it, and at the same time its cost is
less. There appears to be no reason why larger forms —
should not be manufactured upon the same principle.
These instruments are made by Messrs. Tisley and Spiller!
of Brompton, THOS. WILLS

any seer. =

Fune 19, 1873]

THE LAW OF STORMS DEVELOPED*
II.

[t has been asserted lately that the Gulf Stream has no

influence upon storms ; that they have no tendency to
run toward it or to run upon it; and that what geogra-
phers and seamen have always said about the Gulf Stream
as a “weather-breeder” and “storm-king” is absurd. I
think it can be demonstrated that this well-known popular
belief is not absurd.

It is an observation as old as Aristotle, that the storms
of the middle latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere
advance from west to east. This is obviously partly due
to the fact that the winds on their eastern sides are
southerly, that they come from the equatorial regions,
and hence are highly charged with aqueous vapour. This
vapour is absolutely essential to the sustenance of the
storm. Moreover, the law of storms requires that the

NATURE

147

southerly winds should enter the storm-vortex on the
eastern side, and as this is the side on which the greatest
quantity of vapour is found, and the side of greatest
condensation, of the greatest evolution of latent heat,
hence of the greatest aérial rarefaction and barome-
tric fall, to this side the heavier air from the west will
push as into a great hollow. Thus do we actually find
that all storms, formed west of the Gulf Stream, are actu-
ally propagated toward it. It may be argued from the
above facts that the anti-trade winds are thus maintained
by storms incessantly making the circuit of the globe
within the temperate zone. But in reality, instead of
being the effect of storm influence, the anti-trades are
originated by independent solar agency, as are the trades,
and they are potential and causal in producing the east-
ward progression of all cyclones. It must be conceded
that the pressure of vast aérial currents does serve to
force the meteor along with them as the river-eddy is car-

Fic. 3.—The Atmospheric Movements.

ried down stream with the water-current ; otherwise it is |

impossible to explain the westward progression of tropical
hurricanes. While yet in the band of easterly trade-
winds the storm will invariably work its way or be propa-
gated toward the most humid region, unless mechanically
borne in another direction by the great atmospheric cur-
rent in which it is often embedded as an eddy in a
river. The cyclone-tracks over all the oceans lie in
the central bands of the great ocean-currents of high
temperature and great evaporation, and the band of
cyclonic violence is often beautifully coterminous with
the sharply-marked blue-tinted edge of the Gulf Stream.
Thus, in the Pacific, the Loochoo Islands lie just in
the path of the Kuro Siwo, the great Pacific Gulf
Stream of the Japanese, and are visited by the most fear-
ful typhoons ; but the Bonin Islands, in the same parallel,
but on the extreme margin of the Kuro Siwo, have very

* Continued from p. 124.

mild and moderate storms.* “If a storm commences
anywhere in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream, it naturally
tends towards that stream, because,” as Loomis says,
“here is the greatest amount of vapour to be precipitated,
and when a storm has once encountered the Gulf Stream,
it continues to follow that stream in its progress east-
ward.” Vessels and Japanese junks, dismasted in gales off
the Asiatic coast, have been drifted for many days in the
current of the Kuro Siwo, to the coast of California, just
as West-Indian beans, cocoa-nuts, and vegetables, have
been drifted to Iceland, Greenland, and Spitzbergen, on
the extension of the Gulf Stream. According to all
meteorological observations of the tracks of storms, we
are warranted in believing that cyclones and hurricanes
do, asa matter of fact and of atmospheric law, run on
the hot currents of the sea as naturally as the watercourse
clings to its bed. Practical seamen, though unable to

* See Redfield’s Report on Pacific Cyclones.

148

explain the fact, are always on the look-out for these
furious gales when sailing on the axial lines of the Gulf
Stream, on the hot Mozambique current (the Gulf Stream
of the Indian Ocean), and on the dark superheated waters
of the Kuro Siwo of the Pacific.

So dangerous and disastrous are the storms which
course along the Gulf Stream that sailors avoid it, and
the American Sailing Directions and those of the British
Admiralty advise all vessels, sailing from the West Indies
to New York or Liverpool, to beware of taking advantage
of its current, although it would help them along from
three to four miles an hour. Close observation has traced
these storms continuously from the Florida coast to New
York, through Redfield’s labours, and thence to England,
through the records of the Cunard steamships, and thou-
sands of detached observations.

We have now reached a point where we can properly
and intelligently consider a question that has always
baffled meteorologists—the origin of cyclones. The
diagnosis of the phenomenon necessarily precedes its
explanation. This subject has engrossed many minds,
and various have been the ingenious devices for unravel-
ling its mystery. Mr. Ree fel d—the father of storm
physics—in his modesty and diffidence, so distrusted him-
self and in his day so keenly felt the need of a more
enlarged induction of a at he has scarcely left us
his opinion. The theories of other writers have all long
since been abandoned by Enemelves or suffered to drop
from the notice of the scientific world as evidently inca-
pable of explaining the phenomena of cyclones. This
has been the fate of them all, unless possibly we except
the theory advanced by the great meteorologist, M. Dové,
of Berlin. Briefly stated, the latter hypothesis is this (at
least in its application to West Indian hurricanes), viz.,
that “ they owe their origin to the intrusion of the upper
counter trade-wind into the lower trade-wind current”
(Dové's “ Law of Storms,” p. 264).

Without pausing here to examine this theory upon its
merits and upon the facts, we hasten to mention a diffe-
rent hypothesis advanced, nearly two years ago, as a sub-
stitute for that of M. Doyé, and as affording an entirely
original and satisfactory explanation of the origin of
cyclones.

The hypothesis was likewise based upon the agency of
the trade-winds, but in a manner wholly different from
that elaborated by the German meteorologist. In the
original paper in which my view were published, the fol-
lowing statement was made eet can be demonstrated
that the origin of cyclones is 1 in the tendency of the
south-east trade-winds to iny e territory of the north-
east trades, by sweeping over the equator into our hemi-
sphere.” Ais

The hypothesis advanced, in lieu of another seemingly
less satisfactory, claimed to rest upon observations con-
ducted in the very region most notorious for the genera-
tion of cyclones.

To test this, we need only to examine the Atlantic trade
winds.

Theoretically, physical geography has generally repre-
sented the motions of the atmosphere somewhat as is repre-
sented inthe accompanying diagram (Fig. 3) of the winds,
as projected by Prof. William Ferrel, of Cambridge. The
elaborate pages of Prof. Coffin, in his invaluable volume
on the “ Winds of the Northern Hemisphere,” as deduced
from myriads of observations, show that the graphic
illustration furnished by the diagram is approximately
correct.

The region of the trade winds, it will be seen, more
than covers the torrid zone of the earth, and at all the |
seasons of the year overlaps both the northern and |
southern tropics. While this is theoretically true, and is |
usually put forth as a fact, it must be accompanied with |
one or two important qualifications and additions.

Let us see what these are. The well-known oscillation

NATURE

PLT gy Ue es ee ee ee

[ Fune 19, 1873

or swinging of the belts of winds to and fro on the meri-
dians, which is kept up in never-ceasing response to the
apparent annual motion of the sun as he crosses and
recrosses the equator, must ever underlie the conception we
form of the trade winds and be perpetually present to the
mind’s eye. This oscillation has never yet received the
popular attention it needs. The sun traverses (apparently)
an arc of 233° on either side ofthe line ; and we might,
a priori, suppose that the thermal or meteorological
equator, the thermal or meteorological Tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn, and all those phenomena which lie be-
tween them and beyond them, move over an arc of as
many degrees as they traverse. Such an inference, how-
ever, is not borne out by observation, and we pro-
pose to confine ourselves strictly to what may be
proved by observation. It is clear that the trade-
wind belt does traverse or vibrate over a wider zone
than any physicist has yet assigned to it, which is not
more than ten degrees of latitude north and south
respectively of the Tropic of Cancer and that of
Capricorn. These winds, when first experienced by
Spanish sailors, gave, to that portion of the Atlan-
tic over which they blew, the name ¢/ Golfo de las
Damas (the Ladies’ Sea) because they rendered navigation
so easy that a girl might take the helm. But, “gentle”
as they are, they havea wide sweep, and, in the summer
of the Northern Hemisphere, extend far beyond the
Tropic of Cancer. They have often been distinctly felt
at Madeira and the Azores (near the 4oth parallel) in
summer, and it is highly reasonable to suppose that they
then fully reach the latitude of 40° N. The equatorial
side of the north-east trade-wind belt, of course, vibrates
with the sun. In summer it stretches along between the
1oth and 12th parallels of north latitude, verging in
August on the 13th parallel, and, according to one writer,
occasionally the north-east trades at that season do not
extend south of the 15th parallel of north latitude.
Dampier, “the prince of navigation,” as the English call
him, gives the cirection of the wind in the summer
months, between the equatorand 12° north, as south-
south-east, south-south-west, and south-west.

The equatorial side of the north-east trade-wind belt
in winter approaches very nearly to the equator, and may
be located in,January at least as far south as the latitude
of 2° north.

The freshest-trade-winds in the North Atlantic are
generally found between the parallels of 10° and 25°, and
by long protracted experiment in seamanship they have
been found to have an average propelling power, when
the wind is taken just abaft the beam, of about six knots
an hour. But, of course, the northern boundary of the
south-east trade-wind likewise varies and vibrates with
the seasons. So also, and under the same condition,
does the southern boundary of this trade vary and vibrate
with the seasons. Its normal and mean position is a little
south of the parallel of 25° south, but in the winter of our
hemisphere it is pushed much farther south, and in the
vicinity of 35° south latitude. The charts of Captain
Wilkes give easterly winds for the east coast of Australia,
and also for the south coast of Africa. Sir John Herschel,
speaking from knowledge gained by his long residence at
the Cape of Good Hope, tells us that there “the south-
easterly winds which sweep over the Southern Ocean,
infringing upon the long range of rocks which terminates
inthe Table Mountain, is thrown up by them, makes a
clean sweep over the flat table-land which forms the
summit of that mountain (about 3,85oft. high), and
thence plunges down with the violence of a cataract”
(“ Meteorology,” p. 96).

From these high southern latitudes, we must conceive
the motion of the south-east trades, extending northward
in summer to the neighbourhood of the parallel of 10°.

T. B, MAURY
(Zo be continued.)

Sune 19, 1873]

—,

Bye an °

- NATURE

149

THE CORONAL ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN*

Il,

V HEN the subject is a phenomenon se complex as

that of the corona, it is necessary to bring to bear
upon it various methods of study. This is why I have
thought it indispensable to consider the corona from the
triple standpoint of its aspect, the analysis of its light,
and its polariscopic manifestations. Let us discuss these
varied observations.

Let us first of fall see what can be learned from an
examination of the corona during the first instants of
totality. We have seen that the general structure of the
corona persisted throughout the duration of totality. We
cannot, then, admit here any effect of diffraction engen-
dered at the surface of the lunar screen by the rays
grazing the edges of that screen Let us revert to
the geometric circumstances of a total eclipse. At the
moment when totality is produced, the disc of the moon is
tangent, at one point, to that of the sun, and edges off
gradually more and more to the opposite point. Diffrac-
tion will be produced, then, under physical conditions the
most different, at) various points of the lunar limb, and
an aureole due to that cause will reveal, by its dissym-
metry, such a diversity of conditions. Moreover, an
aureole of this kind will present a continually varying
aspect during the various phases of totality. Unsym-
metrical at the outset, it will be modified with the move-
ment of the moon, and will tend to assume the same
form all round our satellite, when the disc of the latter
is equidistant from that of the sun. Finally, from that
point this aureole will pass through the same phases
inversely until the reappearance of the sun.

However, nothing like this was produced at Shoolor.
The general structure of the corona remained the same
throughout the continuance of totality.+

It is unnecessary to dwell on the hypothesis of an
aureole produced by a lunar atmosphere. We know now
that if a gaseous layer exists on the surface of our satel-
lite, it must be of so small extent that the grand pheno-
menon of a corona could not be produced by it.

Our own atmosphere cannot be adduced as the cause
of the phenomenon, though it is evident that it plays an
important part in the particular aspects which the corona
may present at different stations, according to the state
of the sky at these stations, It acts as a modifying, but
not as a producing cause.

Let us pass, meanwhile, to the spectroscopic observa-
tions. The corona presents the hydrogen lines through-
out all its visible extent ; in certain parts as far as to 12’
or 15’in height. This observation is certain. The pre-
cision of the spectroscopic scales, the experience we have
had in such determinations, and the care which was taken
in the last observation to compare the lines of the corona
with those of a protuberance, of which they are only a
prolongation, leaves no doubt as to this point.

But if the corona presents the hydrogen lines, we must
ask this testing question—Is this light emitted or re-
flected? The constitution of the coronal spectrum will
afford us an answer.

If the light of the corona is reflected, this light can
only have a solar origin. It proceeds from the photo-
sphere and the chromosphere, and its spectrum ought to
be that of the sun, that is, a luminous ground with ob-
scure lines. But such is not the constitution of the
coronal spectrum ; that presents to us the hydrogen lines
standing in strong relief on the ground ; after the green
line (1474) this is the most striking manifestation in the
phenomenon. We must conclude that the coronal medium
is self-lighted, in great part at least, and that it contains

* Continued from p. 127.

+ It is quite evident that this constancy of aspect only agrees with points
of general structure sufficiently distant from the sun not to be influenced by

variations of light resulting from the displacement of the moon, relatively
to the low and very luminous regions of the chromosphere,

incandescent hydrogen, This first point is conclusively
established. But is it to be inferred from this that the
whole of the light of the corona is emitted light? Evi-
dently not ; and on this point a delicate observation in
spectrum analysis and polarisation may inform us. In
fact, the spectrum of the corona presented to me, besides
these bright lines, many obscure lines of the solar spec-
trum, the line D,and some in the green. This fact proves
the presence of reflected solar light. We may ask why
the principal Fraiinhofer lines are reduced to the line D.
It should be remarked that the coronal spectrum, not
being very luminous, is especially perceptible in its central
part, and that, in this part, the lines C, F, &c., are re-
placed by the bright lines. In these conditions the line
D alone remains important; thus it is on it I have
directed all my attention. As to the finer lines, they were
much more difficult to discern, a fact very easily explained
by the very large opening I was obliged to give to the
slit of the spectroscope.

The proof of the existence of the Fraiinhofer lines in
the spectrum of the corona is a work of delicacy ; it was
not obtained by the other observers. This fact is ex-
plained partly by the great purity of the sky at Shoolor,
partly by the power of my instrument. I have no doubt
that the observation will be confirmed by astronomers
who work under conditions equally favourable.

The presence of reflected solar light in the spectrum of
the corona is of great importance ; it shows the double
origin of this coronal light ; it explains observations of
polarisation which appeared irreconcilable ;* but above
all, it enables us to understand how the solar light form-
ing in some sort the ground of the spectrum of the corona,
this spectrum may be considered continuous; and we
know that hitherto this circumstance has been the great
obstacle which prevented the corona from being regarded
as entirely gaseous. The phenomena of polarisation pre-
sented by the corona are for the most part those of radial
polarisation, which shows that reflection takes place
chiefly in the corona, and that that which may be pro-
duced in our atmosphere is only secondary. Polarisation
then agrees here with my observation of the Fraiinhofer
lines ; but in order that the agreement may be complete,
it is necessary that the polariscopic analysis, like the
spectral analysis, should show that the light of the corona
is only partially reflected. This is precisely what hap-
pened, We have seen, in fact, that near the limb of the
moon, where the coronal light is brightest, polarisation
appears less pronounced than ata certain distance. The
reason is, that in the inferior regions emission is so strong
that it conceals reflection, and the latter appears, with its
peculiar characteristics, only in the layers where it is
able to assume a certain relative importance.

Thus the two analyses, spectral and polariscopic, fairly
interpreted, agree as to the double origin of the coronal
light, and all the observations unite in demonstrating the
existence of this circumsolar medium. This medium is
distinguished both by its temperature and by its density
from the chromosphere, of which the limit, moreover, is
perfectly distinct, as is shown in all the drawings ofthe
protuberances and of the chromosphere. There is thus
a necessity for giving ita name: I propose that of “coro-
nal envelope” or “coronal atmosphere,” to remind us
that the luminous phenomena of the corona owe to it
their origin. ;

The density of the coronal atmosphere must be exces-
sively rare. In fact, itis known that the spectrum of the
chromosphere in its superior parts is that of a hydrogen
medium successively rarified ; but as the coronal medium,
according to the indications of the spectrum, ought to be
even infinitely less dense, we see how rare this medium

* If we consult the history of eclipses we shall see that observers have
often obtained contrary results, which has been the means of casting a kind
of discredit on this kind of observation. But if these observations are con-
sidered in view of the double nature of the light of the corona, and of the
effects of our atmosphere, we shall be able to remove most of the difficulties.

4

150 NATURE

[Hune 19, 1873

must be. This conclusion is further corroborated by
astronomical observations. Science has recorded the
passage of comets as only some minutes’ distance from
the surface of the sun ; these bodies must have traversed
the coronal atmosphere, and yet, notwithstanding the
lightness of their mass, they did not fall into the sun.

I shall add here, as to the constitution of the coronal
atmosphere, a few ideas which do not rigorously flow
from my observations, but which appear to me very pro-
bable, but upon which the future must pronounce.

I said, 2 propos of the observations in the telescope,
that the corona was shown at Shoolor with a form almost
square, and that it was distinguished by gigantic dahlia-
like petals, It is a fact that in each eclipse the figure of
the corona has often varied ; it has exhibited the most
eccentric appearances. I have no hesitation in saying
that this medium, now incontestably recognised, and
which I propose to name the “coronal atmosphere,” very
probably does not represent the whole of the aureole
which is seen during total eclipses. It is quite credible
that portions of the rings or trains of the cosmical matter
then become visible and thus tend to complicate the
figure of the corona, It belongs to future eclipses to
instruct us on this point. But with regard to the coronal
medium itself, there is no doubt that it presents singular
forms, which convey but little idea of an atmosphere in
equilibrium. Moreover, I am inclined to admit that
these appearances are produced by trains of very lumi-
nous and dense matter from the superior layers ploughing
this troubled medium. The protuberant jets, which
carry the hydrogen to such great heights, must have a
peculiar influence upon this coronal medium, whose
density is quite comparable to that of the cometary
media.

It is, then, very probable that the coronal atmosphere,
like the chromosphere, is very much agitated, and that it
changes its shape very rapidly, which will explain how it
presents different appearances every time it has been
observed.

To repeat : I have been able to establish at Shoolor,
by trustworthy and consistent observations, that the solar
corona presents the optical characteristics of incandes-
cent hydrogen gas, that this very rare medium extends to
very variable distances from the sun, from half a radius
of the sun to about double that at certain points ; but I
give these figures only as results of an observation, not
as definitive. It is quite certain, moreover, that the
height of the corona must be necessarily variable.

This result seems to be a considerable advance in the
general problem of the corona. If our foreign rivals
have not obtained a result so decisive* as those of the
French mission, I believe it must be attributed to the
altogether exceptional purity of the sky in the station
which I chose with such pains, and also to the combined
optical arrangements which gave to the luminous pheno-

mena which it was the object to catch, an exceptional ;

power.t JANSSEN

CHRONOMETER TESTS

bi meet following, which has been sent us by the

Scientific Editor of Harper's Weekly, shows with
what minuteness the scientific work of this country is
studied in America, and what a critical audience we have
on the other side of the water:—One of the most im-
portant services that astronomy has rendered to man-
Kind consists in the contributions it has made to the

* M. Respighi, at Poodookotah, made observations purely spectroscopic
which confirm mine; only he found the height of the corona much less,
which appears to me to be due to the more feeble luminous power of his
instrument.

_ t This paper contains only an analysis of my obzervaticns: I have not
been able to refer in detail to those of other observers. I may cite, however,
he important remarks of Mr. Lockyer on the structure of the corona, the

pt graphs of Colonel Tennant, the polariscopic observations made at
Jafna, these of Capt. Fyers, M. Oudemans, and others.

progress of navigation, and the increased security of life
and property. In this field England has always taken
the lead, and the efforts of Mr. Hartnup at Liverpool are
a worthy continuation of the labours of Flamstead,
Bradley, and Airy. While the Greenwich Observatory
has caused a great improvement in the general standard
of the chronometers bought for the use of the Govern-
ment vessels, Mr. Hartnup has sought to effect a similar
reform for the mercantile marine. He has insisted on
the vital importance to ship-masters, as well as to owners
and insurance companies, of the careful determination of
the rates of their chronometers as affected by tempera-
ture. The makers of these instruments and the astro-
nomers who use them carefully have always known that
which captains of vessels have been very slow to profit
by—z.e. that the chronometers are, when made, so
adjusted that they keep perfect time at two temperatures,
such as 55° and 85° F., while between these limits they
gain, and beyond them they lose, on the true time. It is
rare that this variation in the chronometer rate can be
safely overlooked by a careful navigator, though it is
frequently done by those whose vessels do not carry a
precious burden of 1,000 or 2,000 souls, The only
excuse for this neglect is the positive assurance of the
maker that the chronometer is perfectly reliable—an
assurance that is often fortified by very deceitful figures.
The difficulty and expense of a searching investigation
into the errors to which every chronometer is liable
have long been supposed by the trade to stand in the
way of the introduction of such chronometers only as
were of approved reliability. In order to obviate the
difficulty as far as possible, the Liverpool Observatory
has been constructed by Mr. Hartnup specially for the
purpose of studying the rates of the chronometers that
may be sent thither by captains sailing from that port.
The expense of the examination given to such chrono-
meters is comparatively trifling; and the number of
chronometers submitted to him has annually increased,
until by reason of the recent regulations at that port the
number of examinations has amounted to between 1,000
and 2,000 annually, the same instruments having been
repeatedly submitted to him. The process pursued by
Mr. Hartnup consists in exposing each chronometer for
a week to a uniform temperature of 55°, and determining
its rate each day; itis then for another week exposed to
a temperature of 70°, and then to one of 85°; the next
week it is returned to the temperature of 70°, and the
last or fifth week it is exposed to the temperature of 55°,
as at first. By means of general laws regulating the
rates of chronometers it is now possible to determine
what the rate will be at other temperatures than the three
above mentioned, and knowing these, the navigator is
able to apply the proper correction to his time-keeper
so exactly that he need never mistake his position upon
the ocean.

The records of the Liverpool Observatory for the past
year show—1. That the rates of about 10 per cent. of |
the chronometers tested (those of the mercantile marine
very generally have the ordinary compensation balance)
are so irregular as to render the instruments entirely unfit
for nautical purposes. 2. The error of adjustment for
temperature of the remaining 90 per cent. is often so
erroneous as to produce a change of daily rate of many
seconds, when the temperature varies but little from either
of the two standard points of 55° and 85°, or thereabouts.
3. That the best made and most carefully adjusted in-
struments gain, on the average, daily six-tenths of a
second more at a temperature of 70° than at 55° or 85°.
4. That those that have the same rate at 55° and 70°, or
at 70° and 85°, lose when exposed to temperatures beyond
these limits at the rate of 1°5 seconds daily for a change
of 15° in temperature. 5. That when the connection be-
tween temperature and daily rate has been well deter-
mined, it will remain constant in good instruments for a

4 fee a Y 7
| Fune 19, 1873]

NATURE

.

151

long time, which need in general to be examined only
once in one, two, or three years.

_ The vital importance of this subject to the interests of
safe, speedy navigation, will be impressed upon everyone
by the disaster that befell the Az/antic, consequent upon
being some twenty miles (or ninety seconds of time) out
in her reckoning,

NOTES

Last Thursday the gentlemen already named by us were
elected Fellows of the Royal Society.

THE Baly Medal for physiological research has been awarded
to Dr. Sharpey.

A PoRTION of the collection made by the naturalist D’Al-
bertis in New Guinea, and referred to in our Notes last week,
has already arrived in England, and at the meeting of the Zoo-
logical Society, on Tuesday, June 17, Mr. Sclater, F.R.S.,
announced that among other valuable species, it contained both
male and female specimens of a previously unknown Bird of
Paradise of the Epimachine division, with a peculiarly long and
curved beak, which he proposed to name Drepanephorus albertist,
after its discoverer.

A PROJECT has been set on foot by Colonel Grant, so well
known from his African travels, to form a loan exhibition of
skulls and horns of hollow-horned animals, in order that by
observation and comparison of a large number of characteristic
specimens, facts may be obtained regarding the form, sexual
characters, and locality of each particular species. It is proposed
to have as many as from twenty to fifty specimens of each species,
so as to be able to form groups representing every stage in the
life of each, as also to show the varieties of species in different
localities. When from three to five thousand specimens of the
one hundred and fifty existing species has been promised, means
will be taken to secure the most suitable place in London for
their exhibition.

ARRANGEMENTS have been made, under the sanction of Dr.
Whewell’s friends and executors, for the publication of a life of
the late Master of Trinity, with selections from his correspond-
dence and remains. The literary and scientific remains and cor-
respondence will be edited by Mr. Todhunter, Lecturer, and
ormerly Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. The account
of Dr. Whewell’s college and university career will be written
by Mr. W. G. Clark, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. Some of the most distinguished of Dr. Whewell’s
friends, to whom application has been privately made, have
kindly placed their papers at the disposal of the editors, and ex-
pressed their approbation of the proposed work. The editors
now ask in a more public manner for the loan of letters or other
materials which will assist them in their labours. Mr. J. L.
Hammond, Fellow of Trinity, as the surviving executor under
Dr. Whewell’s will, has undertaken to receive, on behalf of the
editors, any documents that may be intrusted to them, all of
which will be catalogued and carefully preserved, and returned
within such limits of time as may be prescribed,

A CONFERENCE took place on Saturday, in promotion of a
project to which we have already alluded as the “Trades
Guild of Learning,” for extending the advantages of university
education to the working and middle classes of this-country.
It is proposed that local organisations shall be formed in various
towns, and put into communication with a central guild, for the
purpose of defraying the cost of the attendance of duly authorised
lecturers sent from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, to
conduct classes and deliver lectures on subjects, such, for example,

_as Political Economy, English Literature, Force and Motion,

{

Astronomy, Physical Geography, &c. Technical education is
to form a leading department of the scheme, and it appears that
Nottingham, Derby, and Leicester have already made arrange-
ments and fixed dates for receiving the lectures, and that the
authorities of both Universities, but that of Cambridge especially,
have given cordial encouragement to the idea. Saturday’s
conference was yery fairly attended by representative working
men in the capacity of delegates from societies more or less nume-
rous and powerful, and the whole day from eleven in the
morning until seven in the evening was occupied in the discussion
of the project. Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P., presided for the
first few hours, and was succeeded in the chair by Mr. Mundella,
M.P. With them were the Rev. H. Solly, Mr. James Stuart,
M.A., Hon, Sec. to the Syndicate, who is actively engaged in
furthering the scheme in connection with the Universities, Mr.
Webster, Q.C., and other gentlemen, and a few ladies. It was
agreed that women should not be excluded from the advantages
of the guild,

ON June 7 a meeting was held of the Druitt Testimonial Com-
mittee, at which it was reported that a handsome silver cup,
along with 1215/., was to be presented to Dr. Druitt, who is
still in India.

THE subscribers to the Children’s Hospital, Bristol, have re-
solved to admit female practitioners to the medical staff of the
hospital.

THE following, in alphabetical order, have passed first-class
in Natural Science at St. John’s College, Cambridge :—Clough,
Jukes-Browne, Koch, Marshall, Sollas. Of the above, Marshall
has been elected to a Foundation Scholarship, Clough, Jukes-
Browne, Koch, Sollas (scholar 1872) have been awarded ex-
hibitions.

In the last issued Part of the Birds of Europe, which has
just appeared, the name of Mr. Sharpe is no longer associated
with that of Mr. Dresser as co-editor. The former of these
two gentlemen has been compelled, on account of his many
duties at the British Museum, to retire from his connection with
the work which he was so instrumental in organising, and Mr.
Dresser is now sole editor. The Viscount Walden, F.R.S.,
President of the Zoological Society, has relieved him of part of
his considerable task, by undertaking to write most of the syno-
nyms of the future parts, which will be sufficient guarantee for
its accuracy and exhaustiveness.

THE concluding Part of Dr. W. L. Buller’s Birds of New
Zealand has just been issued. The genus Aféeryx, the last dis-
cussed, and most interesting in the avifauna of these islands, is
divided into four species at least, of which 4. Aaasti closely
resembles 4. owemii, except in size, being considerably larger.
The author also considers that the evidence, as far as it goes, is
in favour of 4. haasti differing from 4A. maxima of M. Jules
Verreaux, which he thinks represents another species as large as
a full-grown turkey. The Introduction contains several in-
teresting supplementary notes ; further facts are given in favour
of the Quail Hawk (Mieracidea nove-Zealandie) being distinct
from the Sparrow Hawk (/7. drunnea) ; the validity of Platy-
cercus alpinus, as a species, is established ; the Huia bird (/ere-
valocha acutirostris) is placed among the Starlings, close to
Creadion instead of with the Upupide, and Tribonyx mortiert
is included in the New Zealand fauna. There are seven excel-
lent plates, and a supplementary series is promised.

THE recent changes which took place in French policy have
deprived science of an active and able leader in M. Jules
Simon, who was sparing no trouble to promote new inquiries and
restore French science to its pristine activity. His imme-

152

diate successot has had no time to make any show of
his intentions. M. Batbie seems to feel inclined to ac-
cept the inheritance of M. Jules Simon, as far as it relates
to the Fucultés (the equivalent of the several English
Universities). It is supposed on good grounds that all the
schemes of M. Jules Simon for building a new Faculté of Sciences
on the back part of the Luxembourg will not be interfered with
by the sudden presidential change. It remains to be ascertained
what will be the working of the new system on the courses of
lectures delivered by unofficial men of science.

M. LEVERRIER has entered on his new office of Director of
the French National Observatory. The Observatory Board
has decided on his formal proposition that they shall co-operate
with the Bureau des Longitudes for taking a new measure of
the French arc from Dunkerque to Oran vid Spain. Com-
mander Perrier will be the chief geodesist for that most im-
portant survey.

M. Wo tr has taken a series of magnificent photographs with
Leon Foucault’s siderostat during the last partial eclipse. He was
then testing the photographic process which he intends using
in Japan on the next Transitof Venus. The Japan Embassy
was present at the operations and exhibited a great deal of
truly scientific curiosity.

M. THIERS is now busy studying geology for the purpose of
writing an essay on the destiny of mankind. Hewill take an
anti-Darwinian view of the question. M. Daubree is his teacher
for geology. He was taught in astronomy ten years ago by M.
Leverrier, and in Natural Philosophy by M. Mascart, lec-
urer at the Collége de France.

* M. BARTHELEMY SAINT-HILAIRE has already resumed his
wo-k of translating Aristotle and commenting upon it. The
volumes now in hand relate to scientific subjects.

Messrs. MacMILLAN & Co, will shortly publish the
‘«Elements of Embryology,” by Michael Foster, F.R.S., Pre-
lector in Physiology at Trinity Coll. Cambridge, and F. M. Bal-
four, Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge.

THE French Academy has named a commission to prepare a
list of candidates for the place of Foreign Associate, vacant by
the death of Baron Liebig. The commission is composed of
MM. de Quatrefages, Liouville, Morin, Becquerel, Dumas,
Chevreul, and Milne-Edwards.

TURIN possesses an Industrial Museum, which, though it has
been established only a few years, is, according to Z’/nstitut, one
of the most complete in Europe, second only to the Conserva-
toire des Arts et Métiers de Paris. The va!ue of this establish-
ment has just been increased by the publication of a monthly
periodical entitled Annals of the Italian Industrial Museum,
The Director of the Museum is M. Codazra, and the Con-
servator, Mr. W. T. Jervis.

M. PauL Broca contributes to the Revue Scientifique an
account of some researches he made about twelve years ago for
the purpose of ascertaining the influence of educationon the
development of the brain. He took as his subject 20 atten-
dants ani 18 pupils of the hospital of Bicétre, the average age
of the former being 39% years, and the average height 1°643
metre; the average age of the latter 26} years, and the average
height 1°689 metre. Notwithstanding the great advantage
of the former in the matter of age—for it has been ascertained
that the mean weight of the brain increases up to 40 years—the
measurements made by M. Broca were very considerably in
favour of the pupils, who had undergone a long training before
being admitted to the hospital, and some of whom have since
had a distinguished career, We®can only here give the differences

NATURE

at ‘, oy rite rene ote -
: oat —3>.
5 . pes ~.

| Kune 19, 1873

between the various measurements of the two groups of heads, the
+denoting the excess (in millimetres) in favour of the hospital
pupils, Antero-posterior diameter—Maximum + 4’89, inial +
5°87 ; transverse diameter+ 291 ; cephalic cephalometric index
—*55; inio-frontal curve—total + 990, anterior part + 9°25, poste-
rior part + 0°65 : horizontal curve—total + 16°06, anterior part
+ 10°90, posterior part + 5°16; transverse curve—bi-auricular
+ 13°90, supra-auricular 11°70. “M. Broca thinks that the
results of the measurements prove, in the first place, that mental
culture and intellectual work increase the volume of the brain,
and in the second place that the increase takes place principally
in the frontal lobes, which are the seat of the highest faculties of
intelligence, Very important conclusions in favour of the spread
of the higher education may be drawn from these statistics.

WE are glad to see, from a pamphlet by Mr. Ellery
(just elected F.R.S.), ‘‘ Notes on the Climate of Victoria,”
that a beginning has been made to put into shape the multitude
of statistics which have already been accumulated as to the
climate of that country. With regard to the rainfall, we quote
the following paragraph :—By selecting Melbourne as the
locality in which the most extended series of observations have
been obtained, we remark that in the years 1848, 1849, and in
1863, the rainfall was far above the average; in 1864, 1865,
1866, and 1870 it fell below the average, especially 1865, when
it only reached 15°9 inches. In 1848 and 1849 extensive and
destructive floods occurred, and again in 1863; in 1865 and
1866 the country suffered from a severe drought ; and the year
1851, following the heavy rains of 1849, was also a dry one,
although the amount of rainfall, if ever observed, cannot yet be
ascertained. An opinion has often been expressed that there is
a periodicity in the excessive rainfalls and droughts in Australia
generally ; but although the above results may give some slight
grounds for this supposition, a far greater number of years’
observations will be necessary from which to deduce any law of
this kind,

THE United States Signal Corps has recently extended its
series of observations in the form of a daily record of the surface
and bottom temperature of the rivers and harbours upon which
the several stations are situated. This, while of much interest
in a meteorological point of view, is also of practical importance
in connection with the subject of introducing useful food fishes
into the rivers and lakes of the United States, as lately provided
for by Congressional enactment. It is well knowa that the
possibility of introducing salmon into any given stream will
depend upon the relationship of its temperature during the
summer and autumn to the particular species ; some kinds, as
the true salmon of the North Atlantic (Sa/mo salar), requiring a

summer minimum of at least sixty to sixty-five degrees, while

others will bear a higher temperature.

AN institution has been founded in Vienna by M. Anton M.
Pallac, which he calls a Rudolfinum, or Students’ Home—a
college of technical science for students of any nationality. It
is now announced that this gentleman has arranged with the
officers of the Rudolfinum to furnish free lodgings in that
building to three hundred professors and teachers, of all nations
and countries, who intend visiting the exhibition of 1873. The
offer is made for the months of July, August, and September,
and applies alike to the professors of royal academies and the
teachers of any kind of public schools. Early application is to
be made, giving in each instance the name, address, and teaching
position of the applicant, locality of school or institution in
which he is engaged, with the date and length of time of his
desired occupancy of these free lodgings. The application is to
be addressed to the administration of the Rudolfinum, 4, Moier-
hofgrasse, Vienna.

THE principal paper in the last number (Vol. ii. No. 4) of the —

Fune 19, 1873]

“Proceedings of the Bath Natural History Society,” is a long
address by the president, the Rey. Leonard Blomefield, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., on ‘*Local Biology,” containing many valuable hints
as to the objects which members of such societies ought to have in
view, illustrated by many interesting facts and recent observa-
tions in natural history. He shows how valuable the field work
of local scientific societies might be made when intelligently and
judiciously conducted, not only in collecting facts as to local
biology, but in helping to solve many of the most important
problems which are at present occupying the attention of biolo-
gists. The main qualification for efficient work of this kind is
an intelligent and sharp look-out. Mr. Blomefield concludes his
paper by some remarks on the faunas of Bath and Somerset,
We are glad to see the address has been printed separately, and
we would recommend it to the attention of all local scientific
societies. The two other scientific papers in this number are on
“Devonian Fossils from the Sandstones on the N.E. of the
Quantocks,” by the Rev. H. H. Winwood, F.G.S., and ‘‘ The
Geographical Position of the Carboniferous Formation in Somer-
setshire, with Notes on possible Coal Areas in adjoining Dis-
tricts in the South of England,” by J. McMurtrie, F.G.S., the
latter illustrated by a well-constructed map.

“WE have received a wonderfully cheap pennyworth in the
shape of a ‘‘ Descriptive Guide to the Fossil Collection” of the
Museum of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. The
pamphlet is interestingly written and well arranged, and con-
tains a long and valuable list of useful books of reference on
Palzontology.

THE Third Annual Report of the Devon and Exeter Albert
Memorial Museum, Schools of Science and Art, and Free
Library, is altogether a very satisfactory one. Great facilities
are offered for scientific study and laboratory practice, and these
appear to be largely taken advantage of. The number of indi-
vidual students during the current session is 89, and the subjects at
present taught in the school are Mathematics, Theoretical Mecha-
nics, Physical Geography, Geology, Acoustics, Light and Heat,
Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, Systematic and Economic
Botany, Magnetism and Electricity, and Inorganic Chemistry
with laboratory practice. According to the library statistics, a
yery large increase during the past year has taken place in the
number of scientific books sought for, both in the consulting
and lending libraries.

THE following is the ephemeris of Tempel’s Comet for the
days namedas, calculated by Mr. Hind for Greenwich midnight :—

True R.A. True N.P.D. Log A
1873 h. m. s, Sam
June 20 16 14 50°1 rrr 18 19 9'91982
22 14 23'7 111 38 44 9792529
24 14 49 rrr 58 53 9'93106
26 13 53°9 112 18 45 9°93711
28 13 511 112 38 19 9.94342
0 13 56'7 112 57 34 9794996
July 2 14 10°8 113 16 3% 9°95671
4 14 33°6 113 35 10 9°96365
6 1615 53 113 53 30 9°97977

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a black Iguana (AZetopoceros cornutus) from
San Domingo, presented by Mr. John Dutton; two golden
Tench (Zinca vulgaris), presented by Lord Herbrand Russell;
two black Kites (A/i/vus migrans), presented by Mr. H. F.
Blissett ; two starred Tortoises (Zestudo stellata) from India,
presented by Capt. C. S. Sturt; a smooth-headed Capuchin
(Cebus monachus) from Brazil, presented by Mr. J. A. Horsford ;
a Rhesus Monkey (Aacacus erythraeus) from India, presented
by Mr. G. Cork ; an Entellus Monkey (Semnopithecus entellus)
from India ; four Sturgeon (Accipenser sturio) ; two American
Rice-birds (Dolichonyx oryzivora) ; five horned Lizards (Phryno-
soma cornutum) from Texas, purchased ; a Lion (Feé/zs /eo) from
Africa; a Collared Mangabey (Cercocebus collaris), a Diana
“Monkey (Cercopithecus diana), and a Moustache Monkey
(C. cephus) from W. Africa, on approval.

NATURE

153

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Journal of Botany for May commences with a critical
investigation, illustrated by a plate, by the editor, of the very
common but badly understood Dock, Rumex obtusifolius, which
is followed by two papers on the distribution of plants, Addi-
tions to the British lichen flora, by Rev. M. Crombie, and
Additions to the flora of Berkshire, by James Britten. In this
number is also the very useful annual list of the new species of
phanerogamous plants described in periodicals published in Great
Britain during the year 1872. The plate which now accompanies
every number is a great addition to the value of this magazine.

In the June number the illustrated article is by Mr. W. P,
Hiern, on Physotrichia, a new genus of Umbelliferous plants
from Angola, from the Welwitschian collection. Mr. F,
Townsend contributes a paper on a much controverted subject,
some points relating to the morphology of Carex and other
Monocotyledons, The short notesand queries are, as usual, not
the least interesting portion of these two numbers,

Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Supplement
vol, vi,, part. I. This number contains the first instalment of a
series of researches on the volume constitution of solid sub-
stances ; a lengthy paper in three parts, the first being intro-
ductory and theoretical, the second describing methods, and the
third detailing results in the case of chlorides, bromides, and
iodides.—Prof. Schwedoff of Odessa follows with an interesting
paper, in which he establishes a correspondence between the
propagation of electrical currents in thin conducting insulated
plates and that of light rays in transparent media. A ‘‘ray of
electricity ” is represented by the line drawn from a pole to any
given point of the body, and means simply the direction in
which electrical ‘‘masses” (in the plate) are attracted to the
pole or repelled from it. He shows that the intensity of such
rays is inversionally proportional to distance from the pole ; that
they are reflected (it may be oftener than once), from the edges,
the angles of reflection and incidence being equal; that they do
not lose intensity by reflection, nor suffer change of sign. His
theory and mode of experiment are illustrated by figures——An
article by Dr. Heinrich Schneebeli on bar-magnetism, contains
a full and thorough investigation of magnetic moment in per-
manent bar-magnets, and more especially of the position of the
magnetic pole ; this is determined by two different methods which
do not suppose a knowledge of the law of distribution of the
magnetic fluid, and the results (closely agreeing), are applied in
correction of the tangent galvanometer.—Carl Pape contributes
a determination of the optical constants of blue vitriol, and
Alexander Miiller the first part of studies on chloride of iron
solutions without change of aggregate state.—Among the ex-
tracted matter may be noted an article by Kohlrausch on the
reduction of the Siemens unit of galvanic resistance to absolute
measure, and one by Edlund on the nature of electricity, which
has already appeared in English form.

THE Monthly Microscopical Fournal commences with an
article by Dr. R. L. Maddox on an Entozoon with ova, found
encysted in the muscles of a sheep, which he calls Cysticercus
ovipariens, Then comes a very valuable paper on the de-
velopment of the face in the sturgeon, by Mr. Parker, F.R.S.,
which, if followed by the description of a few more type-forms,
will render the development of that complicated portion of the
body, the head, one of the most easily understood sections of
the vertebrate body. Mr. Joseph Needham gives a concise
résumé of the methods employed for cutting sections of animal
tissues for microscopical examination, in which he strongly ad-
yocates the method of freezing as ‘‘ the simplest and most elegant
mode” of obtaining sections of yielding tissues. Assistant-
Surgeon Woodward describes how that a y')th objective, sent to
him by Mr. Tolles to test, gave a balsam angie of less than 80°,
whilst a second, a ith of peculiar construction, having four com-
binations instead of three, gave the high angle of more than 100°
when fully closed, and so exceeding the extreme limit assigned
as attainable by Mr. Wenham. Mr. H. Davis gives further facts
in support of the originality of his theory respecting the survival
of Rotifera after desiccation.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON
Royal Society, May 8.—‘ Researches in Spectrum Ana-
lysis in connection with the Spectrum of the Sun.”—No, II.
By J. Norman Lockyer., F.R.S.

154

NATURE

[Fune 19, 1873

, ;

The observations in this paper are a continuation of those
referred to in the previous communication bearing the same title.
They deal (1) with the spectrum of chemical compounds, and
(2) with the spectra of mechanical mixtures.

I. Chemical Compounds.

Several series of Salts were observed; these series may be
divided into two :—1st, those in which the atomic weights varied
in each series; 2nd, those in which the associated elements
varied in each series. The following salts were mapped :—

Pb F,, Pb Cl, Pb Bra, Pb I,; Sr F,, Sr Cl, Sr Bra,

SrI,; BaF,, Ba Cl, Ba Br,, Bal,; MgF,, Mg Cl., Mg Br,
MgI,; NaF, Na Cl, Na br, Nal.
The conditions of the experiments are described, the same alu-
minium cups, described in the first paper, were used, and the
poles were arranged in such a manner that they could at will be
surrounded with any gas or vapour. Hydrogen was used in
some of these experiments ; it was purified in the usual manner
by drying, and freeing from traces of sulphuretted hydrogen, it
was then passed over clean cut pieces of sodium, and admitted
to the poles. An induction-spark from 5 one-pint Grové tells
was used, the circuit being without the Leyden gar.

The lead compounds behaved (in air) as follows :—

The fluoride gave the eleven longest lines of the metal, but
four were very faint.

The chloride gave nine lines ; one of these is very short.

The bromide gave six lines, but one is a mere dot on the pole.

The iodide gave four lines distinctly and two as dots, one of
which is scarcely visible.

It is pointed out that the decrease in length and number of
lines follows the increase in the atomic weight of the non-me-
tallic element, the lines dying out in the order of their length.

Barium was next experimented on, the same series of salts
being used. A marked departure from the results obtained in
the case of the lead compounds was observed especially in
the case of the fluoride, its spectrum being much the simplest ;
in fact it consisted of only four lines. Strontium behaved like
barium, and so did magnesium fluoride. This anomalous be-
haviour was found to be most probably due to the exceedingly
refractory nature of these fluorides, all of them being quite in-
fusible, and non-volatile in any spark that was used.

Sodic fluoride, sodic chloride, sodic bromide, and sodic iodide
exhibited a behaviour exactly the reverse of that of lead, z.¢. the
iodide showed most of the metallic spectrum.

The difference between flame-spectra and those produced by
a weak electric discharge are then discussed. Beads of the
chlorides, &c., were heated in a Bunsen-gas flame; Bal, gave a
‘*structure” spectrum (since proved to be due to the oxide) and the
line 5534°5, by very {ar the longest metallic line of barium; the
beadiused. The bromide behaved like the iodide, and so did the
chloride, except that its spectrum was more brilliant. Baric fluoride
gave scarcely atrace of aspectrum, the oxidestructure being scarcely
visible, and 5534°5 very faintindeed. The strontium salts follow
those of barium, 4607°5, the longest strontium line appearing in
conjunction with an oxide spectrum. The strontic fluoride,
however, refused to give any spectrum whatever. These results
are compared with those obtained with the weak spark, and it
is shown that the difference is one of degree ; e.g. baric bromide
gives 25 lines in the spark ; these are the longest lines. In the
flame it gives but one line; but this is the longest of all the
barium lines, and indeed very far exceeds all the others in
length. When the flame-spectra are compared with those pro-
duced by the low tension spark, the spectra of the metals in the
combination are in the former case invariably more simple than
in the latter, so that only the very longest line or lines are left.

Some experiments made by Mr. K. J. Friswell to determine
the cause oi the similarity of the spectra of the various salts of
the same metal observed in air are then given, the conclusion
being that the spectrum observed is really that of the oxide.

\archhoff and Bunsen’s, Mitscherlich’s, and Clifton and
Roscoe’s prior conclusions on the points investigated are stated
at length ; and it is shown that the observations recorded, taken
in conjunciion with the determination of the long and short lines
of metailic vapours, are in favour of the views advanced by
Muscherlich, Chitou, aud Roscoe. For while the spectra of
the iodides, bromides, &c. of any element in air are the same as
stated by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, the fact that this is mo¢ the
spec.ra of the metal is established by the other fact, that only
the very longest lines of the metal are present, increased dissociation
bringing in the other metallic lines in order of their length,

The spectra have been mapped with the salt in hydrogen ;
here the spectra are different, as stated by Mitscherlich, and ¢he
metallic lines are represented according to the volatility of the com-
pound, onry the very longest lines being visible in the case of the
least volatile one.

The following are the conclusions arrived at :—

1. A compound body has as definite a spectrum as a simple
one ; but while the spectrum of theslatter consists of lines, the
number and thickness of some of which increase with molecular
approach, the spectrum of a compound consists in the main of
channelled spaces and bands which increase in like manner. In
short, the molecules of a simple body and of a compound one
are affected in the same manner by their approach or recess, in
so far as their spectra are concerned ; i other words, both spectra
have their long and short lines, the lines in the spectrum of the
element being represented by bands or channelled lines in the
spectrumo “the compound ; and in each case the greatest sim-
plicity oft Le spectrum depends upon the greatest separation of
molecules, and the greatest complexity (a continuous spectrum)
upon their nearest approach,

2. The keat required to act upon a compound, so as to render
its spectrum visible, dissociates the compound according to its
volatility ; t he number of true metallic lines which thus appear
is a measure of the dissociation, and doubtless as the metal lines
increase in rumber the compound bands thin out. i

Mitscher ich’s obvervations, that the metalloids show the same
structurals pectra as the compound bodies is then referred to,
and the question is asked whether the molecules of a metalloid
do not in stiucture lie between those of elements on the one
hand and compounds on the other.

These ccrsiderations are applied to solar and stellar spectra ;
the general zppearance of the solar spectrum shows that in all
probability there are no compounds in the sun.

Secchi’s raps of a large number of stellar spectra are referred
to as now incicating beyond all doubt the existence of compound
vapours int he atmosphere of some stars; and it is suggested
that the pheromena of variable stars may be due to a delicate
state of equilibrium in the temperature of a star which now pro-
duces the giezt absorption of the compound and now that of the
elemental mclecules.

The secord part of the paper deals with the mechanical mix-
tures. Maps ¢f the spectra of alloys of the following percentages
are given :—

Sn and Cd _ percentages of Cd
Pb and Zn 36 ee Zn 10'0, 50, 1°, OF.
Phyatid Migeiets ila ubetes «ask Mg 10'0, 1°0, O'l, O’OI.

It is pointed out that the lines die out in the order of their
length as the percentage becomes less, the shortest lines disap-
pearing first; and that although we have here the germs of a
quantitative spectrum analysis, the method is a rough one only,
but that furtker researches on a method which promises much
greater accurecy are in progress,

The bearing of these results on our knowledge of the reversing
layer of the sun’s atmospheres is then discussed.

Mathematical Society, June 12.—Dr. Hirst, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—
‘‘Some general theorems relating to Vibrations,” Hon. J. W.
Strutt; ‘‘Invariant conditions of multiple concurrence of three
conics,” Mr. j. J. Walker; ‘‘On a new form of Biquaternion,
being the ratic of two systems of forces,” Prof. Clifford; “* A further
note on geodesic lines,’”’ Prof. Cayley —A paper by Prof. Wol-
stenhoime, ‘* The locus of the point of concourse of tangents to an
epicycloid, inclined to each other at a constant angle,” was, in
the author’s absence, taken as read.— A conversation ensued on
the subject of Prof. Clifford’s paper, in which the president, Prof,
Cayley, and Mr. S. Roberts took part.

Geological Society, May 28,—Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair. The following communications
were read:—‘‘The Glaciation of the northern part of the
Lake-district,” by J. Clifton Ward. The author stated the
leading questions to be settled by his investigation of the
northern part of the Lake-district as follows :—The fact of the
glaciation of the district being granted, and of this he adduced
abundant evidence, th= questious that arose were whether tue
glaciating agent worked irom north to south, whether it came
from within or from without the district, and finally, whether the
agent was floating ice, a system of local glaciers, or an unbroken
ice-cap. As the result of his investigation he maintained that
there is no evidence that a great ice-cap from the north ever
swept over this district. The ice-scratches trending along the

100, 5‘O, IO, O'I5.

Fune 19, 1873]

NATURE

195

principal valleys, but sometimes crossing watersheds, indicate a
great confluent glacier-sheet,, at one time almost covering a
great part of the district, the movement of which was determined
by the principal water-shed of the Lake-district. In the part of
the Lake-district under consideration the ice, during its increase,
carried forward, from south to north, a great quantity of rocky
material. There are no signs in the district of the occurrence of
mild periods during the epoch of primary glaciation, but the
author thought that the climate had probably become moderate
before the great submergence of the land commenced. The
author noticed the effect of the submergence upon the results of
previous glacial action, and maintained that when the Jand had
sunk 800 or goo ft. there was a recurrence of cold, and boulders
were transported by floatingice. Until the submergence reached
1,500 ft. there was no direct communication between the northern
and southern halves of the Lake-district except by the straits of
Dunmail Raise. From the directions which would be taken by
the currents in the sea at this period, it would appear that
boulders may then have been transported by floating ice in some
of the same directions as they had previously been carried
by glacier-ice. The extreme of submergence appeared to have
been about 2,000 ft. The author further maintained that fon
the re-elevation of the district there was a second land-glaciation,
affecting the higher valleys and clearing them ef marine drift.—
** Alluvial and Lacustrine Deposits and Alluvial Records of the
Upper Indus Basin,” by Frederic Drew. The author said that
he felt the necessity fora careful classification of the phenomena
of alluvial deposits, for the want of recognition of the different
kinds was likely to lead to incorrect deductions; the classifica-
_ tion he proposed was the following :—I. Loosened material, which
consisted of disjointed rocks or loose angular stones, sometimes
mixed up with mud, which had been separated and disinte-
grated, but since that had remained unmoved. IL. Taluses, the
substance of which had fallen by its own weight, and not been
transported by streams. These were the great heaps of angular
matter that were found at the foot of cliffs, with a slope gene-
rally of near 35°. A special form was the fan-talus, which
occurred where the falling matter had either originated from, or
collected to, one spot, from which again it spread, and made a
partial cone of the same slope as the ordinary taluses. III. 4//u-
vial Fans.—These were the fan-shaped extensions of alluvial or
torrential matter that spread out from the mouths of gorges,
where these debouched into a more open valley. They were in
form cones of a low angle, commonly 5° or so; they had accu-
mulated by layer after layer on a cone-shaped surface, as shown
by the radial sections exhibiting layers of a straight slope, and
the chord sections showing curves, which were by the theory
hyperbolas. Many complicated phenomena were produced by
the denudation of these fans, and the production of secondary
ones, some of which were illustrated by diagrams. IV. A//u-
wium, which was defined as a deposit which sloped down the
direction of the valley of the stream which had made it, and did
‘not appreciably slope or curve over in a direction at right angles
to that. With regard to the country in question, there was
evidence of a succession of three states :—Ist, The cutting of
the valleys. 2nd, The accumulation of alluvial matter. 3rd,
The cutting down of the streams through that alluvial matter.
Accumulation denotes an excess of supply of material from the
rocks (by disintegration) over what can be carried away by the
streams. Denudation, or the cutting down of the streams through
their alluvium (the lowering of their beds), denotes a deficiency
of supply of material from the rocks as compared with the trans-
porting power of the streams. Hence the author inferred that
the period of great accumulation of these alluvial deposits was
one of great disintegration of rocks, one of intense frost ; in other
words, it was the Glacial period, and that the denudation occurred
when the cold lessened, and there came to be a smaller supply
of disintegrated material. The connection of various glacial
phenomena with the alluvium, such as the one described above,
was taken to corroborate the inference that the greater deposits
were made during the Glacial epoch.

Geologists’ Association, June 6.—Mr. Robert Etheridge,
F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—‘‘On Ammonite Zones in
the Upper Chalk of Margate, Kent,” by Mr. F. A. Bedwell.
The author described, and showed by sections, the exact po-
sitions in the cliffs to the east and west of Margate, of fifteen
large Ammonites, twelve of which lie between the Flagstaff and
the Cliftonville Hotel, a space of about half a mile, and some

~ of them exceed three feet in diameter. All these twelve are in
a bed closely approximating to an exact parallel with a faint line

a

of nodular flints which undulates over this part of the cliff and
are at a constant distance of eight feet below that line. These
facts indicate the following (1) The presence of an Ammonite
zone, and of (2) a true sea floor. (3) The parallelism of this
with the horizontal flints, and (4) that all the horizontal bands of
flint must be assumed to have been aggregated before the chalk
moved. Particulars were also given of three other beds of Am-
monites, one to the west of Margate, another forty feet below
that first mentioned, and a fourth at Pegwell Bay, at the top of
the cliff near the landing-stage. The first and second were con-
jectured to be identical, and also the third and fourth. Specimens
from the first and second beds were respectively identified by
Mr. Etheridge as A. Jeptophyllus and A. Lewesiensis. Similar
beds elsewhere were referred to, but details could only be given
of one, This is to be seen at low water near the Black Rock
at Brighton. A remarkable bed of continuous solid flint,
three or four inches thick, occurs round and under the Isle
of Thanet. Between the Foreland and Pegwell Bay it is
in the upper part of the cliff, sinks below the shore at
Pegwell Bay and Kingsgate, rises again to the west at
the back of Margate Harbour but disappears immediately,
appears again to the south, as pointed out by Mr. Whitaker in
his Geology of the London Basin, at Cap Point near Walmer,

and again at Shepherd’s Well Station, 10 miles inland, where it
is surmounted by the soft almost flintless chalk of Margate, and
finally it was known throughout the island by the well diggers.

This positive testimony of coincident and uniform flint aggrega-

tion over so large an area appeared to be an important fact in its
bearing on the origin of flint. Mr. Bedwell stated that he had
found the ammonites entirely by trusting to the zone of life

theory insisted on by Mr. Caleb Evans in his paper on the Chalk

(Geol. Assoc, 1870), and had failed to find them until he had
selected the faint line of flints as a datum line and worked from
that. He advised all young students of the chalk to examine a
cliff in true horizons and not in a mere indiscriminate effort to
make a large bag of specimens, to record carefully the exact
chronological order of each fossil extracted by referring it to a
datum line as suggested by Mr. Caleb Evans, to keep in mind
the time which may have separated the life history of two fossils
though only distant a few feet from each other, and to try to
correlate two sections of chalk rather by the succession of zones
of life in each cliff than by a mere comparison of indiscriminately
collected fossils. The author in conclusion urged the importance
of allowing Nature to teach her own independent lessons at the
cliff side, of supplementing Nature by books rather than books
by Nature, and pointed out how easy it was for thase with little
knowledge of details to be of service to science by simple obser-
vation and following to its end one single thread and one only,
and then laying the results before scientific men, leaving them to
estimate the value of the information.

Royal Horticultural Society, June 4.—Scientific Com-
mittee.—A. Smee, F.R.S., in the chair,—A fruit of Anona re-
ticulata was sent produced in the gardens of Sir Walter Tre-
velyan at Wallington.—A letter was read from Prof. Westwood,
stating that some grubs which had been submitted to him as
having completely destroyed some bulbs, proved to belong to
Merodon clavipes, a very rare insect in England, and in this case
probably introduced.—A Pelargonium of the variety Cleopatra
was exhibited from the Chiswick Garden, It had produced
trusses of flowers of its proper pink as well as others of its an-
cestral scarlet,—Dr. Gilbert made some remarks on the proposed
use of chalk mixed with coal in furnaces for horticultural pur-
poses. He said it was quite certain the chalk could not supply
any heat ; on the contrary, its conversion into lime involved a
considerable loss of heat in order to effect the change. What
the chalk did was to absorb the heat and radiate it out again,
and pieces of broken fire brick would probably answer the pur-
pose equally well. The mixture of these substances simply, so
to speak, diluted the coal.—A fine specimen of fasciated aspara-
gus was shown from Mr. Macmillan. It has been produced two
years running apparently from the same plant.

General Meeting.—Viscount Bury, M.P., president, in the
chair.—The Rey. M. J. Berkeley stated that he had recently
seen in Denbighshire nectarine trees, the flowers of which usually
produced five carpels instead of one. He commented on the
effects of the late frost on the potatoes at Chiswick. Some were
very much injured, while others had escaped altogether, and in
some instances of two stems to one root, one had been killed
back and the other not touched.

156

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, March 4.—Mr. Vaux,
vice-president, in the chair,.—Mr. Thomas Meehan exhibited a
flower of Bletia Tankervillia (Phaius grandiflora of some
authors), in which the dorsal sepal (or, as some authors contend,
petal), had united with the column, and had been much retarded
in its development accordingly. He said that he had several
dozen of flowers produced in this way this winter, all, however,
confined to separate spikes from those which bore the perfect
flowers. It was usual to pass over these appearances as ‘‘mon-
strosities,” but in truth the whole Orchid structure was little less
than a monstrosity. He did not think as much had been made
out of the changes of structure in orchids in the study of evolu-
tion, as might be, in consequence of the impression that these
abnormal forms, as they were termed, were monstrosities, or the
results of cultivation. There had been already on record accounts
of changes in wild orchids more remarkable than many much
dwelt on by many modern writers on development. He further
remarked that, in examining closely the flowers of Bletia Tan-
kervillia early in the morning, he found on the outside, at the
base of the three exterior petals, a liquid exudation from a
small gland. It was highly probable that these glands were ru-
dimentary spurs, and that, if the course of nutrition which sus-
tained the cohering power of an orchid could in any way be
diverted before the final direction of form, each of these outer
petals might take on some of the labellate character;with its at-
tendant spur, which gave such a peculiar appearance to so many
orchidaceous plants.

March 18.—The president, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair.
—‘* On the Occurrence of an Extinct Hog in America.”—Prof.
Leidy exhibited the fragment of a lower jaw of a pig which Prof.
Hayden had picked up, together with many remains of extinct
mammals, in the pliocene sands of the Niobrara River, Ne-
braska. The specimen he viewed as of recent character, and not as
a true indigenous fossil. Prof. Leidy remarked that he had never
seen any remains of the hog which he could confidently view as
true American fossils.—Prof. Cope stated that Dr. Hayden
handed to him for determination some bones on a fragment of
the Green River shale of the Eocene of Wyoming, ‘They indi-
cated a species of Anourous Batrachian, but as the individuals
were not fully developed, he was not prepared to identify the
genus. They constituted the first indication of this order in
time ; those previously known from Europe and India being all
of Miocene age.

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, June 9.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dent, in the chair.—M. Dupuy de Lome presented to the
Academy, in the name of the Minister of Marine, the first
number of the ‘‘ Memorial of Marine Artillery’ and its ap-
pendix, ‘‘ The Artillery Remembrancer.” These are published
for the use of French naval officers, and contain an immense
amount of information on the armament of foreign ships of war.
Great space is devoted to English naval matters, and the Memo-
rial is well worthy of the attention of our own naval authorities.
—The following papers were read :—Researches on new propyl
derivatives, No. 2, by M. A. Cahours. The glucinum, silicon,
and boron compounds of propyl were described.—On normal
and abnormal speech, by M. Bouillaud.—On the intervention of
atmospheric nitrogen in the phenomena of vegetation, by
M. P. P. Dehérain. The author described some experi-
ments which showed that, in the presence of ammonia, glu-
cose absorbs nitrogen from the air.—On the multiple causes
which provoke the fall of lightning, by M. W. de Fonvielle.—
On the theory of the spots and the dark nucleus of the sun, by
M. E. Vicaire. The author replied to M. Faye’s recent answer
to him ; he thinks that Respighi’s observations quoted by M. Faye
tend to support his views rather than those of that astronomer,
i.e, that the absence of the chromosphere over the spots is due
toa cessation of the emission of the gases of which it is com-
posed, and not to their being swallowed up by a cyclone.—
Researches in spectrum analysis in relation to the spectrum of
the sun, by Mr. J. N. Lockyer. This was a letter to M. Dumas
giving an account of the author’s late paper read before the
Royal Society.—An answer to M. Raynaud’s late note on the
resistance-maxima of magnetic coils, by M. Th. du Moncel.—
On the relation between electric and capillary phenomena, by
M. G. Lippmann.—On the boiling points and molecular volumes
of the chlorinated isomers of the ethylic series, by M. G. Hinrichs.
—On ethylacetylene formed by synthesis, and onits identity with

NATURE

| Fune 19, 1873

eee

crotonylene, by M. L. Prunier. The author has synthesised this
body by passing equal volumes of ethylene and acetylene through
a porcelain tube heated to dull redness.—On the synthesis
of phenyl-allyl, by M. Chojnacki. The author obtained this
body by acting on a mixture of equal weights of benzine and
iodide, or bromide of allyl, with 3th of its weight of powdered
zinc.—On the combinations of titanic chloride with the ethers,
by M. Demarcay.—On phenyl-cyanine, by Mr. T. L. Phipson.—
Note on M. Méne’s paper on the preparation of ammonic sul-
phate from nitrogenous waste, by M. L’Hote.—On the estima-
tion of phosphoric acid in manures, coprolites, and fossil phos-
phates, by M. Ch. Méne,—Mineralogical note on the dibasic
plumbic sulphate of V’Ariége, by M. E. Jannettaz,—On the
affinities of Ztheostomata (Agassiz), by M. L. Vaillant.—Mag-
netic observations, by M. Diamilla-Muller.—Spectroscopic re-
searches on the fumerolles of the eruption of Vesuvius of April
1872, and on the actual state of that volcano, by M. L. Palmieri.
This was a very short extract from a letter, the only points
being that thallium and boric acid are found in the sublimates
from these vents, and that since the eruption the mountain has
exhibited a state of abnormal quietude,

DIARY

THURSDAY, June 19.

Royat Socrety, at 8.30.—On the Fossil Mammals of Australia, Part IX.
Family Macropodidae : Prof. Owen, C.B.—On the Nature and Physio-
logical Action of the Poison of Naja Tripudicans, and other Indian Veno-
mous Snakes: Dr. Fayrer and Dr. Brunton —Researches in Circular
Solar Spectra Applied to Test Residuary Aberration in Microscopes and
Telescopes: Dr. Royston-Pigott.—On the Structure and Development of
the Skull in the Pig (sus scrofa): W. K. Parker.—Results of the Com-
parisons of the Standards of Length of England, Austria, Spain, United.
States, Cape of Good Hope, &c.: Lieut.-Col. Clarke.—On Comparative
Vegetable Chromatology : H. C. Sorby.

Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—On Further Excavations at Silchester :
Rev. J. G. Joyce. =

LInNEAN Socikgty, at 8.

Cuemicat Society, at 8.—On the Influence of Pressure upon Fermenta-
tion. Part II, : Horace Brown.—Researches on the Action of the Copper-
Zinc Couple on Organic Bodies, III., and on Normal and Iso-Propyl
Jodides: Dr. J. H. Gladstone and A. Tribe.—On Cymenes from different
sources optically considered: Dr. J. H. Gladstone.—On the Action ot
Bromine on Alizarine: W. H. Perkin.—On some Decompositions and
Oxidation Products of Morphine and Codeine Derivatives: E. L. Mayer
and Dr. C R.A. Wright.—On the Decomposition of Tricalcic Phosphate
by Water: R. Warrington.—Oa a new Tellurium Mineral, with Notes on
a Systematic Mineralogical Nomenclature: J. B. Hannay.—Communica-
tions from the Laboratory of the London Institution, No XII ;—On New
Derivatives of Cresol: Dr. H. E, Armstrong and C. L. Field.

Numismatic Society, at 7.—Anniversary.

FRIDAY, June 20.
Mepicat Microscoricat Society, at 8.—The
Diptheria and Croup: Jabez Hogg.
MONDAY, June 23.
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8,30.
WEDNESDAY, June 25.

Society oF ArTS, at 4.—Anniversary.

GEoLocicaL Society, at 8.—On Six Lake-basins in Argyllshire : His Grace
the Duke of Argyll, K.T, F-R.S., President.—Descr-iption of the Skull
of a Dentigerous Bird (Odontopteryx toliapicus, Owen), from the London
Clay of Sheppey: Prof. Richard Owen, F.R.S.—Contribution to the
Anatomy of Hyfsilophodon Foxit, Huxley: J. W. Hulke, F.R.S.—On
the Glacial Phenomena of the Long Island, or Outer clebrides: James
Geikie.—On Fossil Corals from the Eocene Formation of the West Indies:
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S.—Note on the Lignite-deposit of Lal-Lal,
Victoria, Australia: R. Etheridge, Jun.

THURSDAY, June 26.

Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.

Pathological Relations of

CONTENTS PAacE
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Jacor’s Puivipping ISLANDS. . - + «© © + © © © © © « « « 338
MILLER’s ROMANCE OF ASTRONOMY «. «© + + «© © «© © © «© «© «© 240
Our Book SHELF ... . ais = = 8 © © 0 ©» 6) 9 )stisenee

LETTERS TO THE EpIToR:—

Dr. Bastian’s Turnip-Cheese Experiments —Dr. Burpon SANDEK-

SON, F.R.S. (With Illustration) . » « «+ + « « « « «© « %4E
aes of the,Pansy.—I’. E. Kircnener ; A, W. Bennett,
eLNWss «© 2 0 © ee ene, sees » © ©... oe
On THE OrIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF InsgcTs, VI. By Sir Joun ea
Lussock, Bart. M.P., FaRiSs os = + 5 © «©. « = s)5 sie
An Improvep Form or Ozone GENERATOR. By T. Witts (W2th
Lélustration). .. « late gts tells sis S's in) ot othe ee
Tue Law or Storms Devetopen, II. By Prof. T. B. Maury (With
Lilustration) . re Aes 147
Tue CoronAL ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN, II. By M. JANSSEN. . . 149
CHRONOMETER TESTS . 4 «. + © © «© © © © oe ee ae
Norges. . ee. 4 ere
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS: .. 6) ilel« ep = © © © Sis) aklenen
SOcIETIES AND ACADEMIES. . « + © © © © + + © «© + «© @ « 253
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:

NATURE

157

THURSDAY, JUNE 26, 1873 .

THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH
I,

4 Ben are not wanting signs that ere long the whole

question of the present condition of research in
this country, and of its amelioration, will undergo a com-
plete discussion. Those who are best acquainted with
this condition, and the position occupied by England at
the present moment in the Science of the world, will be
the first to acknowledge the importance of general at-
tention being directed to the subject.

When the matter comes to be considered by minds
free from the trammels alike of tradition and of preju-
dice, it will doubtless be found strange that such a funda-
mental question should have waited so long before it
should have asserted itself; on the other hand, it is
perfectly clear that many who are even now considering
it have utterly failed to grasp it as it will have to be
grasped.

This lack of clearness in the appreciation of the vast
bearings of the question is quite pardonable, and is,
doubtless, to a large extent, the natural consequence of
the manner in which physical science has been added on
to, the older knowledge. It would seem, however, that a
mere statement of a few fundamental positions should
clear the view. These positions, most fortunately, are
rapidly asserting themselves.

First, we have the generally acknowledged fact that a
nation’s progress depends upon its Science. Science, in
fact, is the engine which must be as ever active in peace
as the cannon’s mouth is in war, and a nation may just as
safely neglect one as the other.

This brings us to the second position. Does Eng-
land as a nation pay as much heed to the one as
the other? or as much as other nations? To ask
this question is to answer it. England as a nation
does next to nothing for this peace armament, and
on all hands it is acknowledged that the nation’s
progress from this point of view is in great danger,
because the decline of research in England, not only
relatively, but absolutely, is so decided, that it is already
a matter of history. We have long ago in these pages
referred to Dr. Frankland’s evidence on this point ; he
is the acknowledged head of chemical science in this
country and should surely know; and other men who cul-
tivate other sciences have expressed the same opinions
with regard to them. ;

To what then is this decline to be attributed? The
reply to this question brings us to the third point,
There is absolutely no career for the student of Science,
as such, in this country. True scientific research is
absolutely unencouraged and unpaid. The original in-
vestigator is of course the man here intended, not the
man who turns Science into a means of livelihood, how-
ever honourable, either as a teacher or a manufacturer.

There can be no doubt that to this state of things our
present condition is to be ascribed, and this point is,
according to us, the key of the whole position. A glance
at the condition of things in France and Germany will
strengthen our view. Why was Germany till lately the
acknowledged leader in all matters connected with the

No. 191—VOL, VIIt.

4
Se a =

advancement of knowledge? Because there were no
such brilliant and highly paid careers open there as here
to those who choose politics, the bench, the bar, or
commerce, in preference to Science. And what is happen-
ing there at present? a decline visible not alone to the
far-sighted, because Germany is getting rich as England
has long been rich. Why is France now endowing re-
search on a large scale, and even proposing that the most
successful students in her magnificent Polytechnic School
should be allowed to advance Science as State servants ?
Because in France there is a government instructed
enough to acknowledge that a decline of investigation
may bring evil to the State, and that it is the duty of the
State to guard against this condition of things at all cost,
this condition till lately, there as here, being that outside
of the State service, and outside of the professoriate, no
means of existence are provided for a student of Science ;
hence men of the most excellent promise are yearly
lost to research, which undoubtedly also is the case
with us.

What course then does it behove us to pursue in this
country, in order that Science may take up its true
position in our midst ?

Here again opinion is rapidly forming itself. It is
obvious to all who have thought about the matter, that it
is absolutely indispensable that an employment, neces-
sary for the public good, which is neglected to the
State’s detriment because in itself it does not bring
in a livelihood, should be artificially supported, and
artificially supported at the public expense. It would be
quite justifiable, both from an economical and also a
political point of view, to provide for the needs of know-
ledge out of the taxation of the country ; because the tax-
payer gets back his guzd fro quo for the taxes he pays in
the form of the amelioration of the conditions of living,
as he gets it back in the form of security and good
government.

It will probably be a considerable time before
this truth is brought home to the public mind so
completely as to render possible any large grant of
national income for this purpose; but there are not
wanting indications that statesmen of all parties are
awakening to its reality, which in point of fact has long
been ‘conceded in principle. Still, such a source of
support for Science to any very large extent must appear,
even to the most sanguine, a thing of the future.

The area of knowledge will probably, in the future,
increase beyond the means of any artificial support less
than the national one ; but perhaps it cannot be said that
this state of things exists at present.

What, then, are we to do in the mean time? Have
we no means which are at hand and immediately avail-
able, which may suffice to support the present claims of
knowledge, without drawing too extensively upon the
long-suffering or the intelligence of the taxpayer ?

We have the means, if we will only employ them—
nay more, some of them are now, for the most part,
lying idle—of not only supplying all the needs of the
physical and other sciences, but of supplying them
magnificently. To mention no other sources of supply
there is the Patent Fund, and the endowments of the
colleges of the old Universities.

As to the Patent Fund, it is not too much to say that a

K

158

NATURE

‘.
#
4
«

[Sune 26, 1873

large part has been derived from the application of the
abstract truths of physical science to the requirements of
ordinary life, and that therefore the needs of physical
science would be properly provided for out of it.

As to the College Endowments, whichever way we look
at them, either as private bequests, as they are at length
ceasing to be regarded, or as public funds, the conclusion
is the same: their proper destination is the support of
learning and Science.

If we look upon them as private bequests, and interpret
the wills of founders and benefactors on the usual ¢7-prés
principle, we should be right in devoting to investigation
of facts at first hand the funds which were left by the far-
seeing men of the time of the revival of letters for the
support of book-learning, which at that time occupied the
place of modern Science. That theyso regarded the aim
of these bequests is shown, amongst other things, very re-
markably by the universal annexation to the enjoyment of
them of the condition of residence within the Universities.
When the whole, or the major part, of the materials of
investigation was enshrined in libraries, to insist that a
man should remain where libraries were was to insist that
he should remain in his workshop.

If on the other hand we are to regard these en-
dowments as public funds, as is now generally
agreed, is it right that such public funds should be
consumed either in educating those who are practically
as well able to pay for their own education as those
who now receive a similar one at, say London Uni-
versity, an institution which is not aided by the State ; or
in supplying a life-maintenance to a considerable body of
able young men, in return for passing a good examination
at the outset of life?

It is well known that the ordinary Fellow of a college
does not dream for a moment that he has any duties
towards knowledge or Science. He regards the public
money which he enjoys as a portion in a frechold estate,
to enable him to tide over the uncertain years which come
at the commencement of the ordinary professional career,
the brilliant rewards of which we have shown to be the
great cause of the decline of Science in this country, be-
cause they enable the practical life to outbid in attractive-
ness the laborious but most necessary pursuit of truth.

CHAUVEAU’S ANATOMY OF DOMESTI-
CATED ANIMALS

The Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals.
By A. Chauveau. Translated and edited by G. Flem-
ming, Vet.-Surg. R.E. (J. and A. Churchill.)

Ee* a long time there has been a great want felt by

veterinary surgeons of a first-class work on the
anatomy of the horse and other domestic animals, to be
to them as valuable and trustworthy a book of reference as

Quain and Sharpey’s Anatomy is to the student of human

anatomy, This feeling has induced Mr. Flemming to

undertake the very arduous and considerable task of
translating from the French the generally esteemed

“Tryaité d’Anatomie Comparée des animaux domes-

tiques” of M. Chauveau. The high position held by the

Veterinary School of Lyons, and the great scientific repu-

tation of its Professor, are sufficient guarantee for the

excellence and accuracy of the original work before us,

‘so that it will be unnecessary to enter into a detailed -

criticism of it: it will therefore be our chief duty to
consider the manner in which the translation has been
performed.

There are, however, one or two points to which we
should like to draw attention in the work itself. First
respecting the nomenclature of the lobes of the liver in
the horse, Prof. Chauveau, as do most of the authors on
the same subject, incorrectly calls the Caudate lobe the
Spigelian. This error was clearly pointed out by Prof.
Flower in his Hunterian Lectures last year, when he con-
clusively proved that the free, ear-shaped lobe, which is
situated to the right of the vena porte in the horse,
rhinoceros and tapir, is the caudate and not the spigelian
lobe. This last is represented by a long attached trans-
verse ridge of hepatic tissue, situated further to the left.
Again, it is not clear why the protometra is said to be
incorrectly termed the wterus mascululinus, for it is
certainly not a gland in the ordinary sense of the word,
and is as certainly the rudiment of the duct which deve-
lopes into the uterus in the female. In the paragraph on
the small horny plates, called ‘‘ chesnuts,” found on the
lower third of the inner face of the forearm and at the
upper extremity of the inner face of the metatarsal bone
of the horse, the author remarks that “In solipeds, the
chesnut is the representative of the thumb.” That such
is the case is, to say the least, extremely doubtt ul
particularly in any member of the class Ungulata ; ant
from the fact that in the rhinoceros and tapir the second
digit is perfectly developed, these epidermic appendages
would be most probably larger in them than in Horse,
if they represented the pollex and hallux ; however they
are altogether absent. That these horny plates in the
fore-limb are situated above the carpus, is likewise not in
harmony with their representing the thumbs.

Respecting the translation, which considering the size
of the volume, must have been a very serious under-
taking, the reader will, in the majority of cases, learn as
correctly and as easily as from the original French, A
perusal of several portions of the work seems to indicate
that the translation has been performed by more than a
single hand, for in some portions it is not so good
as in others, and different words are employed to ex-
press the same one in the original. If there is any
fault to find, it is one which may be considered by some
to be rather an advantage than not, namely, that the ren-
dering is too literal. A verbatim translation is in some
cases not capable of giving the full force of the author’s
meaning in scientific as well as in other subjects, each
language having an idiomatic phraseology of its own,
For instance, the middle of the diaphragm may be cor-
rectly termed in French “le centre phrénique,” but it is
more than perplexing to comprehend at first sight what
is meant by “the phrenic centre.” The cavities of the
heart (/es poches) are not called “ pouches” by English
anatomists, and the colon is succulated (dossedé), not
“bosselated ;” this latter word is not to be found in
some, perhaps not in any standard dictionaries. The
stylo-glossus muscle does not “respond” (2/ repond) but
corresponds ‘‘with the mylo-hyoid outwardly and the
genio-glossus inwardly.” The large colon of the horse is
said to be fixed by adherence to the “cross of the

caecum ;” we do net know what the cross of the caecum is, |

eee eee

a

Fune 26, 1873]

but the angle or bend (crosse) can be easily understood ;
in other places this word is correctly translated. Several
minor errors in which nouns are rendered as adjectives
and sentences are incomplete, will be no doubt corrected
in a second edition.

Mr. Flemming has made some modifications in the
general plan of the work, which will decidedly render it
more useful to English readers. The descriptions of the
anatomy of the ruminants, as well as those of the cat,
dog, and birds, are in small type, so that it is not at all
difficult, by omitting all but the large type, to study the
bones, muscles, and nerves of the horse, without having
to sift these out from the much larger mass of informa-
tion respecting the other animals, as has to be done
in the French edition. He has also added many notes,
which in most cases bear on practical points in veterinary
art ; and he has omitted, wisely we think, the paragraphs
of the original, which have reference to the dromedary
and rabbit. Several of the unnecessary illustrations of
human dissections, which can be found in many other
works on the subject, have been omitted, and they have
been replaced to advantage by others which further illus-
‘trate that of the horse, and also the recent advances in
our knowledge of the structure of the tissues of the animal
body.

Students of human anatomy are too apt to think that
anthropotomy is the only subject of the kind which has
been worked out thoroughly and in detail, but a glance
at the book before us will soon remove that impression ;
and we are convinced that no one who has made any
progress in a medical education could more profitably
employ an occasional spare hour, than by a perusal of
parts of this translation by Mr. Flemming of M. Chau-
veau’s most excellent treatise.

RECENT ARITHMETICS

Arithmetic in Theory ana Practice. By J. Brook-Smith,
M.A., LL.B. (Macmillan, 1872.)
A Treatise on Arithmetic. By J. Hamblin Smith, M.A.
(University Press, Cambridge, 1872.)
Figures made easy. A First Arithmetic Book. By Lewis
Hensley, M.A. (Clarendon Press Series, Oxford, 1872.)
Notes on Arithmetic and Algebra. By the Rev. S. E.
Williams, M.A. (Cambridge : J. Hall and Son, 1872.)
OST persons engaged in tuition have often this
= critical question proposed to them, ‘ Whose
arithmetic do you recommend?” and as almost every
teacher of mathematics fancies he has something new or
varied to say on the subjects he has long taught, many
rush into print, and thus submit their claims to considera-
tion to a wider circle than that they have hitherto ad-
dressed. “As many arithmetics as teachers of the
science,” is perhaps as true a doctrine as that which
applies to men and their opinions, certainly the writing
of treatises on the subject has not of Jate years
got into disfavour with the body referred to, and a
second edition of De Morgan’s Arithmetical Books,
would show a considerable increase in number of authors
if brought down to the present date. Every year sends
forth a heap of candidates for the public favour. On the
whole perhaps arithmetic has been very fairly treated ;
most of the treatises that have come under our own

Bei

NATURE

159

eyes have possessed something to recommend them.
We have grouped together for our present considera-
tion some of the most recent works on the science.
Without doubt the first book on our list is entitled to the
place of honour ; it is, we think, the best work that has
appeared for some years, the only work claiming to be
ranked on the same high platform with it, being the
“Arithmetic Theoretical and Practical,” by W. H
Girdlestone, M.A. (Rivingtons, 1870): the two have
much in common. In this treatise the leading proposi-
tions are discussed and reasoned out in a lucid and
accurate manner ; the fundamental principles are clearly
stated, and there is a valuable collection of examination
papers for the student to try his powers upon. The
writer is a disciple of De Morgan, to whom, as well as
to other eminent writers on Arithmetic, he acknowledges
his indebtedness. The book is quite up to approved
modern standards, as it gives contracted methods of
work, and treats of the metric system, and of the
application of per-centages. It needs no further commen-
dation, and after stating that it is a good practical work,
we advise a student in want of a good treatise, to get
this, and make it part and parcel of his mental furniture,
The “get-up” of the book, its external dress, its inner
garniture, is not merely neat but positively elegant, and
possibly indicates the high interest the author takes in
the subject upon which he has written so well.

Mr. Hamblin Smith’s work calls for no special
comment: the ability with which the author has written
on other subjects will doubtless induce many to purchase
the book, It is hard to write anything new on so
hackneyed a theme, and there are few who have been
able to raise the treatment of it above the ordinary fair
orthodox level. We b- lieve it to be a sound book, but it
could have been dispensed with (especially with our first
considered work in the field) except as it serves to fill up
a niche in a connected series of text-books. The writer
in this case also aims at teaching not so much rzles
as principles, and he rightly treats the so-called rude of
three by the rational method now so generally adopted.
The book may be recommended as a school-book, and
this is probably the object the writer had in view. There
is a copious collection of examination papers, which
occupies nearly one-sixth of the whole work.

The third work on our list is concerned with much
lower ground than the two former ; it is written for mere
infants, so to speak, in the science—it is anA BC; the re-
ceiving vessels are small and their capacity consequently
for acquiring such new ideas as are presented to them
at the outset of their inquiries also small ; our author,
with the ability only acquired by careful thought and
experience, prepares right food, and not too much of that,
for each lesson. In forty lessons the pupil is carried from
“first notions of counting” to “division of fractions.”
With careful oral teaching we believe the book to be
well adapted for the end aimed at. It is printed in the
effective style of the “Clarendon Press” Series, and is
further recommended by its cheapness.

The “ Notes” presuppose a general knowledge of the
subject, and give for the most part no explanation of the
rules. The book is intended to act more as a “refresher”
than as an “instructor,” yet in the addition, multipli-
cation, and division of recurring decimals, together with

160

NATURE

[Fame 26,1873

the history of the calendar, the author has gone into a
little more detail. To these “ Notes” have been subse-
quently added some useful “ Notes on Algebra.” For the
object aimed at the book is very fairly adapted. Some
few further notes which will readily occur to the majority
of teachers can be easily furnished to pupils using the
“ Notes” for insertion, in addition to the printed ones.

We have not tested the accuracy of the solutions given
in the works we have here examined,

OUR BOOK SHELF
Official Guide-book to the Brighton Aquarium. By W.
Saville Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.S. (Brighton, 1873, price 6d.)

THE Brighton Aquarium is without doubt the largest
and most extensive of the buildings which have been
erected of late years for the exhibit on of aquitic animals.
It also possesses the advantages of being at the seaside,
and at the same time conveniently placed for access to the
multitude of sight-seers. Though a large sum of money
was spent upon its construction, we have been informed
that good dividends are paid to the shareholders, and it
would seem that the institution shows every symptom of
favourable progress. In our eyes the issue of the present
guide-book is a very welcome proof that Science will not
be entirely neglected in the endeavours to attain material
prosperity. Mr. Saville Kent’s guide-book is drawn up
with a strictly scientific method, but at the same time a
large amount of popular information is given in it, and it
is well adapted for the purpose for which it is intended.
The higher vertebrata of the Brighton Aquarium are
at present but few in number, consisting only of porpoises,
representing the order Cefaced, and the common seal, ex-
emplifying the marine section of the Carnivora, and it is
not likely that the representatives of these orders will be
much increased in number. But the class of fishes is, on
the other hand, very well represented, the Brighton In-
stitution containing the best living series of these animals
that has ever yet been brought together, and one that, as
our weekly record of its progress shows, is continually
increasing both in number and in variety. Mr. Kent’s
guide-book furnishes the visitor with a short account of
the principal facts that are known concerning the life-
history of each of these fishes, and cannot fail to add
greatly to the instruction to be derived from a visit to
the Aquarium. After the fishes, which certainly form the
leading feature in the Brighton establishment, and con-
sequently the principal topic in the guide-book, Mr. Kent
turns to the Invertebrate division of the animal kingdom,
and gives a general sketch of the five groups into which
it is now usually separated, and of their principal repre-
sentatives in the Aquarium. This portion of the guide-
book, we think, requires further development, and will
doubtless receive it in a future edition. We also beg
leave to suggest that a few illustrations in the way of
woodcuts would be a valuable addition to the handbook,
and would, moreover, be likely to assist very materially in
extending its sale. The only illustration in the edition
now before us is the ground-plan of the building, given as
a frontispiece to the work, and showing the arrangements
of the difierent tanks and rooms. Figures of some of the
more remarkable inhabitants of the tanks would, in our
opinion, render Mr. Kent’s book more attractive to the
general visitors, and more useful to the scientific student.

Chemistry for Schools. By C. Haughton Gill. With
100 illustrations. Second edition. (London : Edward
Stanford, 6 and 7, Charing Cross, 1873.)

Mr. GILL’s little manual is intended either for private

study or for class-teaching, and has special reference to

the requirements of those who have to learn the small
modicum of chemistry required for the matriculation ex-
amination of the University of London. He has indicated

the chapters necessary for the latter by a +, an act which
we cannot at all approve. Surely, if even so light an
examination as the one in question has to be undertaken
in what may be to some a distasteful study, it is better to
know too much than too little, and Mr, Gill’s little book
is not such a very dreadful treatise that one need be
afraid of reading it through. Ifthe examinations are to
mean nothing more than the “getting up” of a set of
special chapters written for the purpose, they had better
by far be abandoned at once. With this exception we
have little fault to find. Great care has been taken in

arranging and systematising the work, though this has been ~

pushed rather far—the word “acid,” for instance, being
almost banished. The great merit of the book is, how-
ever, to be found in the very admirably-selected questions
placed at the end of each chapter: we feel sure that any-
one conscientiously endeavouring to understand and work
these out would learn more, and that more thoroughly,
than he would by a vast amount of desultory reading and
rambling through of larger works. We would say to any
candidate for the London matriculation, “ Let him neglect
Mr. Gill’s advice about the marked chapters, and work
conscientiously through the book.”

Report of the Rugby School Natural History Soctety for
the Year 1872. (Rugby: Billington, 1873.)
WE are sorry that the first words of this Report are
words of complaint at the small number of real workers
among the numerous members of this society ; some of
the Sections we regret very much to be told, are either
deserted or inactive. We hope no such complaint
will be called for next year, and that the new regu-
lation as to membership may be of service as a stimu-
lus to work among the younger associates; by this
new rule the number of members is henceforward
limited to 15, for the purpose of making election to
membership. a real distinction. To judge from the
number and value of the papers in the Report, there
are, after all, not a few really good workers among the
members. Of the various selected papers and reports
one-half are by members who were actual pupils of the
school at the time they were written. B. R. Wise’s paper
“On the Earliness of the Season” (1872), shows the
possession of a power of observation which, if carefully
cultivated, ought to produce good results. The same
may be said of A. G, Burchardt’s paper on “ The Work
of the Anatomical Section,” which contains an account of
some of the animals found in the Rugby district, and
some very useful directions on the preservation of speci-
mens. E. J. Taylor’s account of ‘‘A Visit to Norway”
is interesting, and shows the author can make use of his
eyes. L. Maxwell’s essay on “ Spectrum Analysis,” well
deserves the Society’s Prize, which was awarded to it:
the author shows that he possesses a clear idea of the
nature of Spectrum Analysis, the principles on which it
is based, and the many valuable purposes it is calculated
to serve. It is accompanied by some rough but intelli-
gible drawings of various absorption spectra, The second
prize was awarded to an intelligent paper by H. N.
Hutchinson on “ Motive Power,” in which the author
describes and illustrates various substitutes for coal as
generators of motive power, including an ingenious flux
motor, or tidal engine. Among other interesting papers
we would mention the valuable observations on //iffo-
campus brevirostris, by the Rev. T. N. Hutchinson ;
and some very curious facts as to protective mimicry in
spiders, communicated by the Rev, C. W. Penny. From the
Astronomical Report, by Mr. Wilson, we learn that a
large amount of good work is being done, especially in
solar observation. Appended to the report are Messrs.
Lockyer and Seabroke’s paper “ On a New Method of
Viewing the Chromosphere ;” and a report on the No-
vember Meteors, by L. Maxwell. The Meteorological
Observations seem to have been regularly and carefully
taken, though we hope there will be more to report in the

a =~

ae

Fune 26, 1873)

NATURE

161

Zoological Section as the result of the present year’s work ;
the anatomical department of this section has, however,
made a fair start under the direction of the late member,
Mr. A, G. Burchardt. W. B. Lewis’s Report of the
Geological Section, with accompanying plates, shows
there has been some activity in this department. A. F.
Buxton’s Entomological Report consists of a complete
list of the Lepidoptera which have been noticed within
eight miles of the School Close. Under Mr. Kit-
chener’s, the President’s, guidance, some good work
has been done in the Botanical Section, though the
workers seem to be few. Appended to the report of this
section is an abstract of two papers by Mr. Kitchener on
a Pelerian form of Linaria vulgaris, On the whole, the

« Report of this Society’s work for 1872, is one of which
there is no reason to be ashamed, and we hope that each
year will add to the number of those who take an active
part in the work. From many scientific societies it is
not advisable nor often expedient to exclude non-workers,
but in such societies connected with schools, it should be
insisted on that every member be an active worker : only
thus can they completely serve the purpose for which
they are established.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of ‘anonymous
communications. ]

Dr. Sanderson’s Experiments and Archebiosis

Tue letter by Dr. Sanderson, in last week’s NATURE, coritains
an interesting and important confirmation of my experiments,
which I was very glad to see. There are two or three points,
however, which seem to require some comment.

In the first place the flasks and retorts after exposure to the
heat were kept only from three to six days, before they were sub-
mitted to examination in order to ascertain whether fermentation
had or had not taken place. But in cases in which fluids are
exposed to heat for a long time, or are exposed to higher tem-
peratures, the process of fermentation is almost invariably delayed
and also modified in intensity. It must not therefore be supposed
that fermentation would not have taken place at all in certain of
Dr. Sanderson’s flasks, simply because it had not occurred
within four, five, or six days. :

Secondly, Dr. Sanderson thinks his present experiments enable
him to say that the particular fluid with which he experimented is
not prone to undergo fermentation within six days, after it has
been heated to a temperature of 100°92°C, I would ask Dr.
Sanderson, however, whether he has been careful to observe the
precise temperature attained by ‘an infusion boiling rapidly in a
flask from which the steam can find exit only through a capillary
orifice—as in the experiments which we performed together ?

Thirdly, I think it very desirable that Dr. Sanderson should
state definitely to the scientinc world what precise meaning he
wishes to convey by his emphasized use of the word ‘‘ chance”
in the concluding paragraph of his letter. There seems a little
ambiguity in his use of the word, which is the more to be re-
gretted, since it occurs in the statement of an inference—
where freedom from all possibility of misconception is so
eminently desirable. H. CHARLTON BasTIAN

University College, June 23

Spectrum of Nitrogen

In a letter to NATURE (April 17th), Mr. Stearn throws some
doubts on the accuracy of my experiments regarding the spectrum
of nitrogen. I shall take the earliest opportunity of repeating
and completing my experiments, and hope then to bring the ques-
tion to a satisfactory close. As, however, some time may elapse
before I can resume work, I wish to say now a few words in
answer to Mr. Stearn’s letter.

Before all, I wish to state clearly in what way the correctness
of the opinion I profess with regard to the band-spectrum of
nitrogen would be affected by an error introduced into my expe-
riments. The unexpected result of an experiment of mine, to-
gether with a remark which Plucker makes in one of his papers,
suggested to me the idea that the so-called band-spectrum of
nitrogen might be that of the oxides of nitrogen, Iwas confirmed

Bite,

in this idea soon afterwards by a remark of Angstrém in his
recent paper on double spectra (Comptes Rendus, August 17, 1871,
but which was omitted in the English translation), by which he
calls attention to the close resemblance of this band spectrum
with the spectrum of metallic oxides. I have described in my
paper the experiment just mentioned. A rather narrow tube
showed, when exhausted, the lines of nitrogen ; as soon as the air
entered the bands appeared. The remark of Plucker alludes to
the fact that a tube filled with oxides of nitrogen showed the
bands with unusual brilliancy. In order to test the accuracy of
this opinion I intended to make a crucial experiment by taking
care to remove every trace of oxygen. I used for this purpose, at
the suggestion of Dr. Balfour Stewart, small pieces of sodium
heated in the vacuum tubes. The sodium was fused several times
in succession in order to free it from impurities. When the nitro-
gen was thus treated it always showed a line spectrum, the lines of
which seemed to coincide with those of the known line spectrum
of nitrogen when measured with the instrument at my disposal.
It seems now that I have been too hasty in assuming that this
apparent coincidence was a teal one. While passing through
London a few weeks ago, Dr. Huggins was kind enough to allow
me the use of his spectroscope in order to compare, under his
supervision, the spectrum of my tubes with the real line spectrum
ofnitrogen. Ithen found that, although my tube showsalinewhich
is very near the principal double line of nitrogen, the spectrum is
not that of nitrogen. I am at present unable to say what is the
origin of this spectrum ; but I do not think that its formation
can be brought forward as a proof that the band spectrum is not
due to oxides of nitrogen. On the contrary, it rather shows that
an impurity which has no effect on the spectrum of air, will have
one when all the oxygen is removed, and that a change has there-
fore probably taken place in the conducting power of the gas
which gives out the spectrum.

I donot quite see the real object of Mr. Stearn’s letter. If he
merely wishes to say that the proof brought forward by me is
insufficient, and that the question must still remain an open one,
I confess I have nothing to say against it. If he, however,
wishes to convey the idea that nitrogen has really a double spec-
trum, I do not think his argument is a correct one.

I will not trespasss any longer upon your space, but I may, I
think, fairly ask your readers to suspend their judgment until I
have completed my experiments.

Heidelberg, May 30 ARTHUR SCHUSTER

Ground Ivy

WITH respect to the question started in the number for
June 12 of this journal as to the Ground Ivy, it may be said that
in Glechoma, as also in Origanum vulgare, Thymus serpyllum
and vulgaris, and Mentha vulgaris, specimens having flowers
with small corolla and undeveloped anthers are very common,
I think as common as specimens having flowers with
large corolla and the two sexes developed. Also of
Mentha aquatica and Prunella vulgaris specimens with smaller
corolla and only pistils developed are found, but much more
rarely than those of the other form.

I have attempted in my work to give an explanation of the
origin of the second form of the above-mentioned Labiatz, as
follows :—

The species named are distinguished from our other
Labiatee by the coincidence of the following three pecu-
liarities :-—

1. By an abundance of honey, and in consequence of that by
an abundance of insects visiting and cross-fertilising them.”

2. In the hermaphrodite flowers, by a stigma so far overtopping
the anthers and developed so long after the anthers that self-
fertilisation is impossible, or nearly so.

3. By a great variability in the size of the corolla in the her-
maphrodite flowers of different specimens.

Now when the flowers on different stems of the same species
differ in the size of their corolla, it is evident a priori, and
ascertained by direct observation, that generally those with the
largest corolla are the first seen and visited by insects flying near
them, those with the smallest corolla the last. The latter, always
the flowers last visited, are fertilised exclusively by the pollen of pre-
viously-visited flowers, consequently produce their pollen in vain ;
and since the non-production of useless organs is always an
advantage to every organic being, varieties of the smallest

* For instance, I found Tiymus serpyllum visited by 7 species of Apidz,
3 species of Sfhegide, 14 species of Diptera, and 6 species of Lepidoptera ;
Glechoma visited by 21 species of Apide, 8 species of Diptera, and 3 species
of Lepidoptera.

162

NATURE

>

\

flowered form must be favoured in the struggle for existence,
when ceasing to develop their useless anthers. Thus of the
smallest-flowered form, varieties with atrophied anthers of neces-
sity remained at last the only survivors.

Lippstadt, June 17 H. MULLER

ALL the flowers of the ground ivy (JVegefa Glechoma) that I
haye this season examined, from this neighbourhood, have been
of the stamenless form described by your correspondent ‘*S. S. D.”
While spending a few days at Bath, I could find none but her-
maphrodite flowers. At Hertford I found both forms, but a
preponderance of hermaphrodites. These seem always more or
less protandrous, and spontaneous self-pollenation is further
prevented by the unequal lengths of the style and stamens.

Kilderry, Co, Donegal W. E, Harr

Lotus corniculatus

Mr. W. E. Hart(Naturte, June 12) is quite right in correcting
me on the subject of the fertilisation of Lotus corniculatus. It is the
outer whorl of stamens, those opposfte the calyx teeth, which con-
tinue to grow after the others, and which have their filaments
dilated at the top so as to thru-t the pollen out of the long sharp
tube of the keel. I should scarcely have thought it necessary to
acknowledge his courteous correction, if it were not for the
following question and answer : How is it, then, that the pollen
of the inner and shorter whorl of stamens, which discharge their
pollen at the same time as the outer whorl, gets pushed out by
the filaments of the outer whorl, since the anthers of the inner
whorl lie below the summits of the filaments of the outer whorl ?
The answer is curious; In the early bud, before the anther cells
begin to open, the inner whorl is obviously shorter than the outer
whorl, so that the anthers of the former lie ina regular row entirely
Lelow the anthers o/ the latter, apparently for the convenience of
close packing in the narrowclosed flower. As the anther cells begin
to open, which is just before the flower opens, the stamens of the
inner whorl grow and approach very nearly in height to the
stamens of the outer whorl ; and as they shed their pollen from
the summit of the anthers, their pollen comes out above the
dilated tops of the filaments of the outer whorl, so that it can
be pushed forwards by those filaments along with the pollen
of their own anthers. The filaments of the inner whorl then
wither and become comparatively short, while those of the outer
whorl continue to grow, dilate, and stiffen, so as to do the work
for all the pollen of both whorls. In the mature opened flower
the difference between the two whorls becomes more marked
than ever. If I am right, Mr. Hart’s detection of my blunder
leads to the notice of a curious instance of economy of space
and of mechanism. T. H. FARRER

Abinger, Surrey, June 21

The Secchi and Respighi Methods

In the number of Nature for June 12, p. 136, I see that
you notice the results obtained in the Jast eclipse with
the use of the spectroscope for determining the first entrance of
the moon or planet. There seems, however, to be some con-
fusion in the report. You say that I propose Respighi’s
method for first contact, and my own for the last. This
is not the case. I propose the common Respighi method as
useful for obtaining a first warning of the entrance of the planet
on the chromosphere. This is the only use I think it possible to
make of it. But the real entrance must be obtained by my
method, in which one sees the disc of the sun as with a common
glass, and the line of the chromosphere tangent to it, can be
seen broken at the instant of contact, as the ring of Venus is
broken at its exit from the solar disc.

You say also (page 131, col. 1) that itis difficult to obtain a per-
fect adjustment on account of the inequality of the driving-clock.
If you say so for the common spectroscopic method, I agree
perfectly with you, because the edge of the disc cannot be seen ;
but with my method this difficulty does not exist. It is not
more difficult to keep the sun’s dise tangent to the chromo-
spheric line, than to keep it tangent to a common wire ; the clock
can help, but it is not necessary to have it in perfect order ; even
with common handles one can obtain it. The reason is that the
solar dsc being perfectly visible, one is greatly helped by the
edge of the sun itself, while in common methods the edge of the
sun is not seen,

Rome, June 16 P, A. SECCHI

P.S --More on this will be found in the MWemorie del,
Soc, degli Spettroscopisti Ital.

Gassendi and the Doctrine of Natural Selection

No one having yet replied to the question in Mr. Monro’s
letter (see NATURE, vol, vii. p. 402), I venture to hope that you
will give me space for a few remarks on Gassendi’s physical
philosophy, and more especially on that part of it germane to
the subject discussed by Mr. Monro,

The apparent implication of the question referred to is, that an-
ticipations of natural selection are¥to be found in Gassendi’s
writings. Allowing to the term its utmost la\itude of meaning, this

‘c wep > ee ee ee,
a nhs ER We ee eae

(HXune 26, 1873

does not appear to meto be the case. In his historical sketch of the

various views which poets and philosophers have held as to the
origin of things, Gassendi gives the theory of Empedokles at
some length, including the passage on the Bouyev) avipbmpwpa
which Mr. Monro quotes in his letter. But Gassendi has
no word of approval for the theory; he classes it with other
Greek cosmogonies, such as those of Anaximander, Pythagoras,
&c., and with the Chinese and Hindu cosmogonies as ‘* fabulares
sententias philosophorum,” not less fabulous indeed than the
poetic fictions of Prometheus, Deukalion, and Kadmus. Here,
too, as well as in other parts of his works, Gassendi blames philo-
sophers for ascribing to the action of natural laws effects which he
regards as direct results of the Divine power,

Before giving a brief summary of Gassendi’s own views, I will
premise that it is not easy to discover them with exactitude,
His works are very voluminous, both the Lyons edition of 1658,
and the Florence edition of 1728, occupying six bulky and closely
printed folio volumes. Even the abridgment made by his dis-
ciple Bernier fills seven vols. 12mo. Ordinary histories of
philosophy give for the most part a very meagre account of the
French forerunner of Locke ; and more comprehensive works,
like those of Tennemann, Buhle, and De Gerando, deal with
Gassendi as a psychologist and a moralist rather than as a
physicist. Even Dr. Whewell, from whom, as the historian of
the inductive sciences, more might have been expected, makes
but a few cursory references to the philosopher who was one of
the earliest and most pronounced followers of the Baconian
method, and who, as De Gerando says, ‘‘enseignant les mémes
principes (as Bacon) les a surtout enseignés par son exemple.”
The work which, as far as I have seen, gives the most complete
account of Gassendi as a physical philosopher is Schaller’s
“*Geschichte der Naturphilosophie von Baco bis auf unsere
Zeit.’ This writer takes Bacon, Hobbes, and Gassendi as the
typical philosophers of the empirical or a fosterior? school of
natural philosophy. He devotes about one hundred pages to
the exposition of Gassendi’s physical doctrines, and concludes
with an elaborate criticism of his atomic theory. The intrinsic
obstacles to a precise appreciation of Gassendi’s views are more
serious. Not far removed from the age of scholasticism he
exhibits, in a modified degree, two of the distinctive features of
the schoolmen, their pedantic erudition, and their commenta-
torial spirit. The wealth of quotation with which his pages are
burdened rather than adorned has laid him open to the charge
‘*de laisser étouffer ses propres idées sous le poids des citations
empruntées aux anciens.” He better deserves the second than’
the first clause of Gibbon’s epigrammatic eulogy : “Le meilleur
philosophe des littérateurs, et le meilleur littérateur des philo-
sophes.’ A work largely imbued with the commentatorial
spirit, as the Syx/agma Philosophicum is, is always more valuable
as a history of philosophic opinion than as a source of new
philosophic thought. Again Gassendi’s bent of mind, coupled
with the exigencies of his position as a Church dignitary, seem
to me to have precluded his holding opinions of a very decide
and novel character. ‘True or not, the reason he is said to have
given for adopting the atomism of Epicurus rather than the Car-
tesian theory of vortices is somewhat characteristic; ‘* Chimzra
for chimera I cannot help feeling some partiality for that which
is two thousand years older than the other.’’

In his views as to the origin of things, Gassendi is at once an
atomist and a special creationist. One experiences a certain
sense of incongruity in noticing the way in which, while follow.
ing the Biblical narrative for the main outlines of his doctrine,
he fills in the details from Atomism. In the beginning there
was a chaos in which the Deity had intermingled in manifold
confusion atoms, molecules, corfuscule insectilie, ox minima
naturalia (a phrase borrowed from Lucretius) of every kind,
celestial and terrestrial, organic and inorganic, animal and vege-
tal. Upon these atoms had been impressed peculiar motions
and affinities. At the creation of the world, as the creative fiats
in their turn went forth, the potential motions and affinities of
each species of atom became kinetic, and by the concourse of

Sune 26, 1873]

NATURE

163

atoms, similarly endowed, the successive stages of creation were
accomplished. There is so much resemblance between Gassendi’s
account of the appearance of the different animal forms, and the
Miltonic narrative of the time when ‘“‘the grassy sods now
calved,” that the question suggests itself whether the ‘‘ Paradise
Lost,” which appeared in 1667, might not have been influenced
by the Syxtagma Philosophicum, its predecessor by some twenty
years? From the side of Atomism Gassendi seeks to explain
the Divine cessation from labour after the six stages of creation.
Besides the atoms which, when endowed with kinetic energy,
gave rise to the primordial plants and animals, there remained
others in which their characteristic motions and affinities still
continued potential, and which had been subject to distribution
only. These account on the one hand for the seminal repro-
duction of plants and animals, and on the other for the pheno-
mena of so-called spontaneous generation. On this view, as
may be supposed, spontaneous generation presents few difficul-
ties to Gassendi. He needs but the hypothesis of the endurance
from the creation of the atoms special to any peculiar form of
life, Then, when their potential motions and affinities become
kinetic, they must of necessity issue in the forms of life which
by their concourse they were destined to produce. Two points
are worthy of notice in this connection—Gassendi’s definition of
spontaneous generation, and his list of animals produced spon-
taneously. Spontaneous generation is not generation “sine
seminibus” (germs), but ‘‘sine parentibus.” Amongst his
‘*animalia sponte nascentia” are enumerated ‘‘ mures, vermes,
ranz, muscz, aliaque insecta.”

In a theory such as this is there no eyolution, no selection,
The atoms themselves are unchangeable, and so are the specific
characters of the aggregates which they build up. Plants and
animals, as they now are, are but copies of the primitive forms,
be they produced by gamogenesis or spontaneously. The natu-
ral conditions also by which floral and faunal habitats and distri-
bution are regulated, Gassendi seems to regard as having been
fixed once for all at the creation. Reading ‘‘Deus” for
“Natura,” Virgil’s lines express Gassendi’s views on this point—

“Continuo has leges, zternaque fcedera certis
Imposuit Natura locis."—(Geo. i., vv. 60, 61.)

There is a sort of superficial resemblance between Gassendi’s
atoms and Mr. Spencer’s ‘‘ physiological units,” but with capital
points of difference. In both theories the molecules of each
species of plant and animal have distinctive characteristics, and
an inherent power of arranging themselves in the form of the
organism to which they appertain. But while Gassendi’s atoms
are simple and indivisible, as one of their synonymes, corpuscule
insectlie, connotes, Mr. Spencer’s physiological units are com-
plex. While Gassendi’s atoms are specific creations and endowed
with unalterable properties, Mr. Spencer’s physiological units
are themselyes the products of evolution, and are perpetually
undergoing adaptation to equilibrate the action of forces internal
and external.

Tam inclined to suspect that Maupertuis may have, in the
main, borrowed the atomic theory contained in the “Syst¢me
de la Nature” from Gassendi. The materialism which led
Maupertuis to'make perception a fundamental property of his
atoms is, however, all his own ; at any rate it is not Gassendi’s,

In Physics as in Ethics, the nearest affinity of the philosophy
of Gassendi is to that of Epicurus, It is Epicurianism modern-
ised, and modified so as not to clash, openly at least, with
Christianity and with the dogmas of the current theology. By
his want of originality he was led to base his philosophy on
an already established system, and by his adoption of Bacon’s
method he was attracted to Epicurus, for that philosopher and
his school were the sole ancient representatives of the new
a@ posteriori philosophy. De Gerando thinks that an additional
link between Gassendi and Epicurus existed in the sim larity of
their views on the physical doctrines of a vacuum and of atoms.
But it seems at least as probable that the French philosopher
adopted these conceptions from the Greek, as that he reached
them by his own independent thought. While, however, he was
essentially an Epicurean, Gassendi was careful not to commit
himself to any doctrines which might cause his orthodoxy to be
questioned ; in fact, he more than once clearly expresses this
determination.

“‘How far back can traces of the great theory of Dar-
win and Spencer be discovered?” As 1 showed in my letter
on Maupertuis, in NATURE, vol. vii. p. 402, the doctrine is
discoverable in that writer; but De Maillet, with whom Mr.

_ Spencer begins his historical sketch, is a quarter of a century

earlier than Maupertuis. My examination of Gassendi leads me
to the conclusion that the doctrine of Natural Selection is not to
be found in his works, and further that his views, as far as I
understand them, effectually preclude his holding the theory
under any form.
W. H. BREWER

P.S.—On looking back over what I have written, I find
that I have omitted to point out the different attitudes of
Gassendi towards the two distinct portions of his cosmological
views. When he is borrowing from the Mosaic account of the
creation, all his assertions are positive, for here we have ‘‘ quod
Fides et Sacrze Literze docent.” When, however, he is borrow-
ing from Atomism his views take a hypothetical form, and are
introduced by the phrase ‘‘nihil vetat supponere.”

Grace’s Road, Camberwell

Care of Monkeys for their Dead

As a supplement to the extract from James Forbes’ ‘‘ Orienta
Memoirs,” given by Dr. Gulliver in Nature (vol. viii. page
103), the following incident, recorded by Capt. Johnson, deserves
republication :—

‘* T was one of a party at Jeekarry, in the Bahar district ; our
tents were pitched in a large mango garden, and our horses were
picqueted in the same garden at a little distance off. When we
were at dinner, a Syce came to us complaining that some of the
horses had broken loose in consequence of being frightened by
monkeys (z.e. MJacacus Rhesus) on the trees... As soon as
dinner was over, I went out with my gun to drive them off, and
T fired with small shot at one of them, which instantly ran down
to the lowest branch of the tree, as if he were going to fly at me,
stopped suddenly, and coolly put his paw to the part wounded,
covered with blood, and held it out for me to see. I was so
much hurt at the time that it has left an impression never to be
effaced, and I have never since fired a gun at any of the tribe,

‘* Almost immediately on my return to the party, before I had
fully described what had passed, a Syce came to inform us that
the monkey was dead. We ordered the Syce to bring it to us,
but by the time he returned, the other monkeys had carried the
dead one off, and none of them could anywhere be seen.”

GoJo

The Intellect of Porpoises

IN Prof. Huxley’s admirable criticism of ‘*Mr. Darwin’s
Critics,”’ * the following passage occurs :—‘‘ The brain of a por-
poise is quite wonderful for its mass, and for the development of
the cerebral convolutions. And yet, since we have ceased to
credit the story of Arion, it is hard to believe that porpoises are
much troubled with intellect.”

I have no doubt that Prof. Huxley will agree with me in
further concluding that “it is hard to believe ” that the remark-
ably developed cerebral hemispheres of the porpoise with their
deep and numerous convolutions perform no more exalted func-
tions than the smooth pair of mere pimples that stand behind
the olfactory ganglia of a cod-fish, and constitute the whole of
his claim to a cerebrum proper.

The psychology of the porpoise (and also that of the dolphin
and other cetaceans with similar brains) is thus a subject of
primary interest to the student of cerebral physiology. As a
contribution to the subject I offer the following facts :—

Many years ago I made the voyage from Constantinople to
London in a small schooner laden with box-wood, &c. The
passage was very slow, occupying fully two months, including the
whole of August, and parts of July and September. We were
often becalmed, with porpoises playing about the ship. The
sailors assured me that no sharks were in the neighbourhood
while the porpoises were near, and accepting this generalisation
I frequently plunged overboard and swam towards the porpoises,
They usually surrounded me in a nearly circular shoal or com-
pany, and directed towards their unusual visitor an amount of
attention which I may venture to dignify with the title of curi-
osity, Their respiratory necessities precluded any long-continued
scrutiny, but after dashing upwards for their customary snort,
they commonly resumed their investigations, sometimes ap-
proaching uncomfortably near and then darting off to the circum-
ference of the attendant circle. I am not able to describe the
expression on the /ea/wres of a porpoise, but my recollection of
that of the eyes of my swimming companions is very different

* Contemporary Review, 1871. Reprinted in ‘‘ Critiques and Ad-
dresses.”

164

from what I have since seen on the large vacant orbs of aquarium
cod-fishes, &c. ae ,

I have not yet seen the porpoises in the Brighton Aquarium,
but suspect that if they contrive to ‘make themselves at home”
there, a careful study of their habits will remove some of the
difficulty which Prof. Huxley experiences in believing in their
intelligence. W, Matrigu WILLIAMS

Instinct

A DIFFICULTY occurred to me on reading Mr. Lewes’s inter-
esting and instructive article on “ Instinct” in NATURE of
April 1o—and as no satisfactory answer offers itself to me, I
venture to trouble you with it.

Wherein lies the difference in kind between the actions per-
formed instinctively by animals for the preservation of them-
selves or their young, and those actions performed by plants
with the same result ?

For instance; the Ivy Linaria grows on an old wall; its
flowers and the flower-stalks stand out for the sun and insects to
visit the little ‘‘snap-dragon.” Butno sooner does the corolla
fall, than the peduncle begins to ¢urve inwards to the wall, and
usually contrives to tuck its seed-vessel well into the brickwork
again. Wecannot say of such an action that there is ‘no alter-
native open to it;” and even if we do, it does not explain it
to callit ‘‘impulsive,” and yet one is not prepared to accept
it as an instance of instinct. I shall be grateful for any
elucidation. M.

Grus vipio

I oBsERVE that in your report of the meeting of the Zoological
Society on the 6th ult., in your issue of the 15th, it is stated,
with reference to Gvws vipio (seu leucauchen), that ‘‘no example
of this fine species, so far as was known, had previously been
brought alive to Europe.”’ Last autumn, when going over the
Zoological Gardens at Amsterdam with the superintendent, Mr.
Hegt, I saw there a splendid pair of these birds, which had been
purchased for 140/., and had bred the same spring, and reared
successfully a fine young bird, about two-thirds grown when I
saw it in September, destined, as I was informed by Mr. Hegt,
for the Berlin Gardens. The collection of cranes at Amsterdam
is exceedingly rich, far surpassing either London or Antwerp in
this respect. It contained, when I sawit, fourteen out of the fifteen
valid species of Grus, comprising, besides the above-mentioned,
G. vifio, a splendid pair of G. viridirostris, a fine G. deucogeranus,
G. carunculatus, G. canadensis, G. Americana, G. torquata,
&c., the desideratum being G. monacha, of Japan.

W. A. FORBES

Culverlea, Winchester, June 2

ON THE SYNTHESIS OF MARSH-GAS AND
FORMIC ACID, AND ON THE ELECTRIC
DECOMPOSITION OF CARBONIC OXIDE *

7 connection with the investigation on the electric de-

composition of carbonic-acid gas referred to in a
previous communication to the Society, I was led to sub-
mit a mixture of hydrogen and carbonic-oxide gas to the
action of electricity in the induction-tube, the mixed gases
being circulated through the tube by means of an appa-
ratus which I will not now describe. A contraction was
soon observed to have taken place, which at the end of an
hour amounted to 10 cub, centims. The rate of contrac-
tion steadily diminished, and during the fifth hour of the
duration of the experiment amounted to only 2 cub.
centims. The experiment was stopped, and the gas
analyzed with the following results in two several
analyses :—

I. Il.
Carbonic oxide 61°65 | Carbonic oxide 61°35
Hydrogen . 32°16 Hydrogen. . . 32°34
Marsh-gas. . . 6°14 Marsh-gas. . 6°31
10°00 100°00

A small quantity (about 2 per cent.) of nitrogen was

* A paper read at the Royal ty by Sir B, C. Brodie, Bart., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., late Wayneflete Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oxford..

NATURE

[Xame 26, 1873,

also contained in the gas, together with a trace of oxygen,
which have been omitted from the calculation,
The result of this reaction is expressed in the following
equation :— sh
CO+3H,=CH,+H,0. .
This fundamental experiment, which constitutes the
basis of a new method of chemical synthesis, susceptible
of the most varied applications, and of peculiar interest
in reference to the explication of natural phenomena, was.
commenced by me on the roth of January last at Oxford,
in the laboratory of my friend and successor in the Chair
of Chemistry, Prof. Odling; two analyses of the gas
were completed, and the results attained in the course of
a week from that date. In a similar experiment made
with a mixture of hydrogen and carbonic-acid gas, a con-
traction also occurred, attended with the formation of
water. The gas which resulted from the experiment was
found to consist (after the absorption of carbonic acid) of
hydrogen and carbonic oxide, together with a little marsh-
gas. Traces of oxygen and nitrogen were also present.
Minute drops, too, of an oily liquid appeared in the tube.
This liquid, after the conclusion of the experiment, was
dissolved in a small quantity of water. The solution was
strongly acid and had a pungent taste. It reduced an
alkaline solution of terchloride of gold and an ammoniacal
solution of nitrate of silver. These reactions are the
characteristic properties of formic acid, of which we may
infer the synthesis to have been effected according’ to the

equation
H,+CO,=H,CO,.

I may avail myself of the present opportunity to place
on record the following important facts in reference to the
action of electricity on carbonic-oxide gas.

When pure and dry carbonic oxide is circulated
through the induction-tube, and there submitted to the
action of electricity, a decomposition of the gas occurs,
attended with a gradual and regular contraction, which,
in the form assumed in my experiments, occurred at the
regular rate of about 5 cub. centims. in an hour, Car-
bonic acid is formed, and simultaneously with its forma-
tion a solid deposit may be observed in the induction- .
tube. This deposit appears as a transparent film of a
red-brown colour, lining the walls of the tube. It is per-
fectly soluble in water, which is strongly coloured by it.
The solution has an intensely acid reaction.

The solid deposit in the tube, in the dry condition be-
fore it has been in contact with water, is an oxide of
carbon. Samples, however, made in different experi-
ments do not present precisely the same composition ;
but nevertheless they appear to belong toa certain limited
number of forms which repeatedly occur, and may invari-
ably be referred to the same general order or system.
This system is, or appears to be, what I may term a
homologous series of ‘‘ oxycarbons,” of which the unit of
carbon with the weight 12 may be regarded as the first
term, and of which the adjacent terms differ by an incre-
ment of carbonic oxide (CO) weighing 28, precisely as
homologous series of hydrocarbons differ by the incre-
ment CH, with the weight 14. I have succeeded in iden-
tifying by analysis two at least of these substances,
namely, the adjacent terms C,O. and C.O,. From this
point of view these peculiar bodies are members of a
series of oxycarbons analogous in the oxycarbon system to
the series of hydrocarbons of which the unit of carbon is
the first‘and the unit of acetylene C,H, is the second
term, the oxycarbon C,O, being represented in that
series by the hydrocarbon crotonylene C,H,, and the oxy-
carbon C.O, by the hydrocarbon valerylene C.H,.

THE LAW OF STORMS DEVELOPED*

Ill.
PROM the Cape of Good Hope, in a straight line to-
ward the projecting eastern coasts of Brazil, mariners
have found a peculiar streakj of south-easterly winds.
* Continued from p, 148,

‘ aa i

“—
’

a

Sune 26, 1873)

Between the island of Tristan da Cunha and the Cape,
and northward and westward to the island of Fernando
Noronha, this streak of powerful winds, with which
nothing in the trade-wind region of the North Atlantic
can compare, has its atmospheric current as sharply
marked asthe dark blue and rapid current of the Gulf
Stream in the Narrows of Bemini. It is, doubtless, the
region or band of most intensely acting south-east trades,
and is probably due to the peculiar configuration of the
shores of the South Atlantic, and to the wall of the
South American Andes. It is a well-known fact that
the volcanic cone of Teneriffe, which lies in the zone of
north-east trades, intercepts the wind and gives it a lateral
deflection ; so that, while the trades are blowing strongly
on the north-east side of the island, on the opposite side
there is a distinctly-marked and carefully-measured calm
shadow. Now, the chain of the Andes endeavours to
exert on the south-eastern trades just such an influence
as is exerted by the Canary Islands on the north-east
trades. This influence, in the former case, suffices to
throw off from the Continent of South America a large
body of the south-east trades, and to deflect it to the
eastward, giving it the character of a south-south-west
wind, and, at the same time, by forcing a greater or
more concentrated body of air into the regions north-
east of Brazil, imparting an increased velocity and violence
to the air-current. It is, therefore, in the air-current that
the homeward-bound vessel from the Cape of Good Hope
aims to steer, because she is sure of being wafted happily
and swiftly to her destination.

It has long been demonstrated by meteorologic observa-
tions, taken both at sea and on land, that there is very
much /ess atmosphere in the Southern Hemisphere than
in the northern, and for a long time physicists were at a
loss to account for the difference. It has been, however,
very satisfactorily explained by the eminent American
mathematician, Ferrel, in his work on the “ Motions of
Fluids and Solids, relative to the Earth’s Surface,” where
he proves at length, and states in detail (p. 39): “‘ As there
is much more Jand, with higher mountain ranges, in the
Northern Hemisphere than in the southern, the resistances
are greater, and consequently the eastward motion of the
air, upon which the deflecting force depends, is much
less ; and the consequence is, that the more rapid motions
of the Southern Hemisphere cause a greater depression
there, and a greater part of the atmosphere to be thrown
into the Northern Hemisphere.” It is, doubtless, to this
tendency of the Southern Hemisphere to throw off much
of its atmosphere north of the equator that we may attri-
bute in part the superior force and power of the south-
east trades, and their well-known ability to battle with the
north-east trades, and drive them from their own territory,
at least all summer, and even in winter, as far back across
the line as 3° or 4° north latitude. Mr. Ferrel, speaking
of the principle just enunciated, well says: “This also
accounts for the mean position of the equatorial calm-belt
being, in general, a little north of the equator. But, in
the Pacific Ocean, where there is nearly as much water
north of the equator as south (and the resistances are
usually equal), its position nearly comcides with the equa-
tor.” In other words, just as a bucket full of water
revolving on a perpendicular axis would show a depression
in the centre, and the fluid be thrown from all sides of its
rim, the Southern Hemisphere throws its water and its
atmosphere into the Northern hemisphere, all along the
equator.

It is, therefore, a mathematical and mechanical cer-
tainty that there is an invasion of the north-east trade-
wind belt from the south-east trades, and observation
powerfully bears out the deduction of the mathematician.
Ansted states in his cautiously-written “ Physical Geo-
graphy :”—“The southern trade-wind region ismuch larger
than the northern in the Atlantic Ocean. In this sea,
the south-east trades are fresher, and blow stronger, than

{

= 7

NATURE

165

the others, and often reach to the roth or 15th parallel of
north latitude ; whereas the northern trade-wind seldom
gets south of the equator, and usually ranges from 9°
to 29° north latitude” (p. 253). It is not difficult to see
how easily it happens that a very small atmospheric eddy
found in the tropical Atlantic by the conflictory north-
east and overleaping south-east trade-winds may soon be-
come a hurricane of wide extent and of tremendous
energy. All that is necessary, as we have before seen, is
that an initial impulse of gyration be given to a body of
air. The moment that this takes place by mechanical
influence, and centrifugal force creates the smallest eddy
cr vortex, the surrounding air, already highly charged
with moisture, begins the process of convergence and
Soe cae motion, followed rapidly by condensation
aloft.

The storm-cylinder—the nucleus of the hurricane—
originally very small, is instantly enlarged and expanded
by the evolution of latent heat stored away in the vesicles
of aqueous vapour. For some hours, as all observations
show to be actually the case, the incipient cyclone scarcely
moves, while gathering in its energies and laying tributes
upon all contiguous regions. The process continues with
momentarily increasing intensity, and, before the sun has
made his daily circuit, the meteor is formed.

If it be asked along what parallels of latitude in our he-
misphere this formation takes place, the intelligent reader
will at once answer, Near the terrestrial circle of trade-
wind interference. This, we have already seen, is in
summer, from the roth to the 12th parallels of north
latitude,

This slender zone of debatable ground is the battle-
field of the two opposing bands of the trades. There
is really no need of observations to tell us as much, But
millions of observations attest the fact. Every seaman
knows it. Every meteorological writer tells the same
story. You have only to examine physical charts from
the time of Columbus and Magellan to this, to see the
absolute unanimity of testimony, and to discover that the
hypothesis now advanced, and the known facts of the
case, are in perfect and minute accord,

If it be asked whether the origin and interest of the
West-Indian gales is solely due to mechanical inter-
ference, the proper reply, it would appear, should be in
the negative. As the south-east trade-wind comes laden
with the vapour of the southern or water hemisphere,
which Dové well called “the boiler” of the globe, it is
met by the cold north-east trade from the northern, or
land hemisphere. There must be a great difference in
their temperatures, and consequently extensive condensa-
tion, which, by the reasoning of Mr. Clement Ley, would,
of itself, explain the formation of the storm, That con-
d-nsation greatly assists in producing or intensifying it,
cannot be doubted. In the high Jatitudes, where the
polar air-current is sometimes forced by barometric pres-
sure into the southerly or equatorial current moving over
the warm waters of the ocean, and thus heavily vapour-
laden, the consequence is illustrated by such terrific and
sudden tempests as that of the Royal Charter, distinctly
proved by Admiral Fitzroy to have been generated be-
tween the opposite polar and equatorial currents off the
coast of Wales.

But that the origin of great depression-systems is solely
due to condensation can hardly be sustained, and seems
entirely overthrown if we regard the single fact that, on
the great equatorial belt—the belt of perennial precipita-
tion—no hurricane or typhoon has ever been experienced
by the mariner. It has long been, and is now, the
almost universally accepted theory of meteorologists, that
the reason no cyclones have ever been known to occur on
the equator is, that there the earth’s rotation exerts a de-
flecting influence on the winds, amounting to zero, and
hence the formation of a whirl is impossible. This view
is not satisfactory, because the nucleus of a depression

.

166 NATURE [ Fune 26, 1873

once formed on the equator, there would be intro-moving | the depression and the steepness of the barometric
masses of air proportioned in violence to the amount of | gradient down which they rush to reach the point of

~

\

2
fs

hl 8

a
YW

WEATHER-CHART OF GREAT BRITAIN, BEFORE “ ROYAL CHARTER” STORM,
Full-feathered arrows show Polar current; half-feathered arrows show Equatorial current; dark-coloured surface
not reported by vessels or land-observers. :
J Ditit 3 t aj mods
parallels of latitude appears to be, that the:equatorial belt’
is a belt of xon-interference.

1 ‘west barometer. ©The true reason that no reat cyclone
ha: ever been formed nearer the equator than the third

.

; Fune 26, 1873]

ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OCF
‘ INSECTS *
VII.
ON THE ORIGIN OF INSECTS
“ DERSONNE,” says Carl Vogt, “en Europe au
moins, n’ose plus soutenir la Création indépendante
et de toutes piéces des espéces,” and though this state-
ment is perhaps not strictly correct, still it is no doubt
true, that the Doctrine of Evolution, in some form or

Fic. 48, Larva of Moth (Agrotis suffusa), after Packard. 49, Larva of
Beetle (Haética), after Westwood. 50, Larva of Sawfly (Cimbex),
i e and Zaddach. Beob. ub d. artm. der Blall—Holzwespen, Fig.

8. 5r, Larva of Julus. Newport, Philos. Transactions, 1841,

other, is accepted by most, if not by all, the greatest
naturalists of Europe. Yet it is surprising how much, in
spite of all that has been written, Mr. Darwin’s views are

Ficrigs) Agrotis iffusa (after Packard). 53,;Haltieg (after! Westwood).

still misunderstood. Thus Browning, in one of his recent
poems, says :—
** That mass man sprang from was a jelly lump
Once on a time ; he kept an after course *
Through fish and insect, reptile, bird, and beast,
Till he attained to be an ape at last,
Or last but one.” +

Fic. 54, Cimbex, Brischke and Zaddach, l.c. T. 2, Fig. 9.

Yet this is a theory which Mr. Darwin would entirely
‘Tepudiate ; which is utterly inconsistent with his views.

* Continued irom p. 140. 7
+ Prince Hohenstiel Schwangau, p. 68,

NATURE

167

Whether fish and insect, reptile, bird, and beast, are
derived from one original stock or not, they are certainly
not links in one sequence. I do not, however, propose to
discuss the question of Natural Selection, but I may
observe that it is one thing to acknowledge that in
Natural Selection, or the survival. of the fittest, Mr.
Darwin has called attention to a vera causa, has pointed

os
GE rE,

Fic. 55, Julus (after Gervais).

out the true explanation of certain phenomena ; but it is
quite another thing to maintain, that all animals are
descended from one primordial source.

_ Formy own part, I am satisfied that Natural Selection
1s a true cause, and that whatever may be th: final result
of our present inquiries—whether animated nature is
derived from one aacestral source, or from many—the

Fic. 56, Tardigrade (after Dujardin). 57, Larva of Cecidomyia (after
Packard). 58, Lindia tomlosa (after Dujardin),

publication of the Origin of Species will not the less
have constituted an epoch in the History of Biology.
But, how far the preseat condition of living beings is
due to that cause ; how far, on the other hand, the action
of Natural Selection has been modified and checked by
other natural laws—by the unalterability of types, by
atavism, &c, ; how many types of life originally came into

Fic. 59, Prorhynchus stagnalis.

being ; and whether they arose simultaneously or succes-
sively,—these and many other similar questions remain
unsolved, even if we admit the theory of Natural
Selection. All this has indeed been clearly pointed out
by Mr. Darwin himself, and would not need repetition but
for the careless criticism by which in too many cases the
true question has been obscured, Without, however, dis-
cussing the argument for and against Mr. Darwin’s con-
clusions, we so often meet with travesties of it like that
which I have just quoted, that it may be worth while to con«
sider the stages through which some group, say for instance

168

NATURE

that of insects, have probably come to be what they are,
assuming them to have developed under natural laws
from simpler organisms, The question is one of great
difficulty. It is hardly necessary to say that insects cannot
have passed through all the lower forms of animal life,
and the true line of their development would not at pre-
sent be agreed upon by all naturalists. In this question
embryology and development are perhaps our best guides.
The various groups of Crustacea, for instance, greatly as
they differ in their mature condition, are for the most
part very similar when they quit the egg. Haeckel, in his
“Naturliche Schopfungsgeschichte,” gives a diagram
which illustrates this very clearly.

In the case of insects, the gradual course of evo-
lution through which the present condition of the
group has been probably arrived at, has been discussed
by Mr. Darwin, by Fritz Miller, Haeckel, Brauer, myself
and others. At first sight the differences are indeed great
between the various groups of insects. The stag beetle,
the dragon fly, the moth, the bee, the ant, the gnat, the
grasshopper —these and other less familiar types seem at
first to have little indeed in common. They differ in size,

a

Fic. 60, Egg of Tardigrade, Kaufmann, Zeit f. Wiss. Zool. 1851, Pl. r
61, Egg of Tardigrade after the yolk has subdivided. 62, Egg of
Tardigrade in the next stage. 63, Egg of Tardigrade more advanced.

in form, in colour, in habits, and modes of life. Yet the
researches of entomologists, following the clue supplied
by the illustrious Savigny, have shown, not only that
while differing greatly in details, they are constructed on
one common plan; but also that other groups, as for
instance, Crustacea (Lobsters, Crabs, &c.) and Arachnida
(Spiders and Mites), can be shown to be fundamentally
similar, In Pl. 4 I have figured the larve of an Ephemera
(Fig. 1), of a Meloe (Fig. 2), of a Dragon Fly (Fig. 3), of
a Sitaris (Fig. 4), of a Campodea (Fig. 5), of a Dyticus
(Fig. 6), of a Termite (Fig. 7), of a Stylops (Fig. 8), and
of a Thrips (Fig. 9). All these larvee possess many cha-
racters in common, The mature forms are represented
in the corresponding figures of Plate 3, and it will at once
be seen how considerably they differ from one another. The
same fact is also illustrated in Figs. 48—55, where Figs.
48—5SI represent the larval states of the mature forms re-
presented in Figs.52—55. Fig. 48is the larva of a moth,
Agrotis suffusa (Fig. 52); Fig. 49 of a beetle, Haltica
(Fig. 53); Fig. 50 of a Saw Fly, CimseaXFig. 54) ; and
Fig. 51 of a Centipede, ¥z/us (Fig. 55).

Thus then, although it can be demonstrated that per-
fect insects, however much they diifer in appearance, are
yet reducible to one type, the fact becomes much more
evident if we compare the larva. M. Brauer* and I t+
have pointed out that two types of larvae, which Packard
has proposed to call the Eruciform and Leptiform, run
through the principal groups of insects. This is obviously
a fact of great importance: as all individual Meloés are
derived from a form resembling Plate 2, Fig, 2, it is surely
no rash hypothesis to suggest that the genus itself may
be so.

Firstly, however, let me say a word as to the general
Insect type. It may shortly be described as consisting
of animals, possessing a head, with mouth-parts, eyes,
and antennz ; a thorax made up of three segments, each
with a pair of legs; and a many-segmented abdomen
with anal appendages. Into the internal anatomy I will

* Wien. Zool. Bot. Gessels, 1869.
- t Linnean Transactions, 7863,

‘not now enter.
| presenting the larva of a small beetle named Sitaris,

It will be seen that Plate 4, Fig. 4, re-

answers very well to this description. Many other
Bectles are developed from larvz closely resembling those
of Meloé (Plate 4, Fig. 2), and Sitaris (Plate 4, Fig. 4) ; in
fact—except those species the larve of which, as, for
instance of the Weevils (Plite 2, Fig. 6), are internal
feeders, and do not require legs—we may say that the
Coleoptera generally are derived from larvae of this type.

I will now pass to a second order, the Neuroptera.
Plate 4, Fig. 1, represents the larva of Chloéon, a species
the metamorphoses of which [ described some years ago
in the Linnean Transactions,* and itis obvious that in
essential points it closely resembles the form which I
have just described.

The Orthoptera, again, the order to which Grass-
hoppers, Crickets, Locusts, &c. belong, commence life in
a similar condition, and the same may also be said of the
Trichoptera.

From the difference in external form, and especially
the large comparative size of the abdomen, the larvze of
Lepidoptera (Fig. 48), and of certain Hymenoptera,
for instance, of Sirex (Fig. 14) and Tenthredo, the Saw
Flies (Fig. 50), have generally been classed with the
maggots of Flies, Bees, Weevils, &c., rather than with the
more active form of larva just adverted to. This seems to
me, as I have already pointed out,t to be amistike. If

we look, for insiamce, at the larva of Tenthredo
the three thoracic segments well marked,”

we see
and the three pairs of legs. The abdominal prolegs,
indeed, give the larvae a very different appearance to those

of the preceding type, but in some resp2cts remove them |

still further from the apod, vermiform, larve. The larva
of other species bel nging to this group, for instance of
Lyda, have no abdominal prolegs, and well developed
though short antenne. The caterpillar type differs
then in its general appearance owing to its greater
clumsiness, but still essentially agrees with that already
described.

No Dipterous larva, so far as I know. belongs truly to
this type; in fact, the early stages of the pupa in the
Diptera seem in some respects to correspond to the larva
of other Insect orders. The Development of the Diptera
is, however, as Weissman f has shown, very abnormal in
other respects.

Thus then we find in many of the principal groups
of insects that, greatly as they differ from one another
in their mature condition, woen they leave the egg
they consist of a head; a three-segmented thorax,
with three pairs of legs; and a many-jointed abiomen,
often with anal appendages. Now is there any mature
animal which answers to this description? We need
not have been surprised if this type, through which
it wouli appear that insects must have passed so
many ages since (for winged Neuroptera have been
found in the carboniferous strata) had long ago become
extinct. Yet itis not so. The interesting genus Campo-
dea (Pl. 3, Fig 5) still lives; it inhibits damp earth, and
closely resembles the larva of Chloéon (PI. 2, Fig. 1),
constitutinz, indeed, a type which, as shown in Pl. 4,
Occurs in many orders of insects. It is true that the
mouth parts of Campodea do not resemble either the
strongly mandibulate form which prevails among the
larvae of Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenop-
tera, and Lepidoptera; or the suctorial type of the
Homoptera and Heteroptera. It is, however, not the
less interesting or significant on that account, since, as I
have elsewhere endeavoured to point out, its mouth parts
are intermediate § between the mandibulate and haustillate
types ; a fact which seems to me highly significant.

It seems to me, then, that there are good grounds for

* Linnean Transactions, 1866, vol. xxv.

+ Linnean Transactions, vol. xxiv. p 65. -
1 Siebold and Kolliker’s Zeits. f Wiss. Zool., 1864.
§ Journal, v, xis

[Fune 26, 1873

considering that the various types of insects are descended
from ancestors more or less resembling the genus Cam-
podea, with a body divided into head, thorax, and abdo-
men-; the head provided with mouth-parts, eyes, and one
pair of antennz, the thorax with three pairs of legs, and
the abdomen, in all probability, with caudal appendages.

If these views are correct, the genus Campodea must
be regarded as a form of remarkable interest, since it is
the living representative of a primzeval type from which
not only the Collembola and Thysanura, but the other
great orders of insects have derived their origin.

This ancient type may possibly have been derived from
a less highly developed one, resembling the modern Tar-
digrades, a (Fig. 56) smaller and much less highly
organised being than Campodea, which has been succes-
sively placed among the Acari and the Rotatora. It
possesses two eyes, three anterior pairs of legs, and one
at the posterior end of the body, giving it a curious re-
semblance to some Lepidopterous larvez.

These legs, however, as it will be seen, are reduced to
mere projections. But for them, the Tardigrada would
closely resemble the vermiform larva so common
among insects. Among the Coleoptera, for instance, the
vermiform type occurs in the weevils ; among Hymenop-
tera in the Bees and Ants; among Diptera it is general.
Among Tricoptera the larva early acquires the three pairs
of legs, but as Zaddach has shown,* there is a stage,
though it is quickly passed through, in which the divisions
of the body are indicated, but no trace of legs is yet pre-
sent. Indeed, there appear to be reasons for considering
that while among Crustacea the appendages appear be-
fore the segments, in Insects the segments precede the
appendages, although this stage of development is very
transitory, and apparently, in some cases, altogether sup-
pressed. I say “apparently,” because I am not yet
satisfied that it will not eventually be found to occur in
all cases. Zaddach, in his careful observations of the
embryology of Phryganea, only once found a specimen in
this stage, which also, according to the. researches of
Huxley, + seems to be little more than indicated in
Aphis. It is therefore possible that in other cases, when
no such stage has been observed, it is not really absent,
but, from its transitoriness, has hitherto escaped at-
tention.

Fritz Muller has expressed the opinion f that this ver-
miform type is of comparatively recent origin; he says,
“the ancient insects approached more nearly to the

existing Orthoptera, and perhaps to the wingless Blat-.

tidz, than to any other order, and the complete meta-
morphosis of the Beetles, Lepidotera, &c. is of later
origin.” “There were,” he adds, “perfect insects before
larvee and pupz.” This opinion has been adopted by
Mr. Packard § in his “ Embryological Studies on Hexa-
podous Insects.”

M. Brauer || also considers that the vermiform larva is
a more recent type than the Hexapod form, and is to be
regarded not as a developmental form, but as an adapta-
tional modification of the earlier active hexapod type. In
proof of this he quotes the case of Sitaris.

Considering, however, the peculiar habits of this
genus, to which I have already referred, and that
the vermiform type is altogether lower in organi-
sation and less differentiated than the Campodea
form, I cannot but regard this case as exceptional ;
as one in which the development has been, so to
say, “falsified” by the struggle for existence, to use an
expression of Fritz Miiller’s, and which therefore does not
truly indicate the successive stages of evolution. On
the contrary, the facts seem to me to point to the con-
clusion that, though the grublike larvz of Coleoptera, and

* Unters. ub. die Entwick, und der Bau der Gliederthiere, p. 73
+ Linnean Transactions, v. xxii.
1 Facts for Darwin, trans. by Dallas, p. 118.

§ Mem, Peabody Academy of Science, v. I. No. 3.
|| Wien. Zool. Bott. Gesells, 1869, p. 310.

NATURE

169

some other insects, owe their present form mainly to the
influence of external circumstances, and partially also to
atavism, still the Campodea type is itself derived from
earlier vermiform ancestors. Nicolas Wagner has shown
in the case of a small gnat, allied to Cecidomyia, that
even now, in some instances, the vermiform larvz retain
the power of reproduction. Such a larva (as, for
instance, Fig. 57) very closely resembles some of the
Rotatoria, such, for instance, as Albertia or Notom-
mata ; these differ generally in possessing vibratile cilia,
There is, however, one genus—Lindia (Fig. 58)—in which
these cilize are altogether absent, and which, though re-
sembling Macrobiotus in many respects, differs from that
genus in being entirely destitute of legs. I have never met
with it myself, but it is described by Dujardin, who found
it in a ditch near Paris, as oblong, vermiform, divided
into rings, and terminating posteriorly in two short conical
appendages. The jaws are not unlike those of the larvx
of Flies, and indeed many naturalists meeting with such a
creature would, I am sure, regard it as a small Dipterous
larva ; yet Dujardin figures a specimen containing an egg,
and seems to have no doubt that it is a mature form. *
JOHN LUBBOCK
(To be continued.)

AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITIONS +

‘Le present year will be pre-eminently characterised

in the history of the United States by the number
of scientific expeditions, thoroughly equipped in every
respect, and fitted out for exploration in various regions
of the great West ; and although most of them have been
already referred to in our columns, it may be well to
recapitulate them in geographical order. The most
northerly is the International Northern Boundary Com-
mission, which is intended to survey the line of the forty-
ninth parallel, from the Lake of the Woods to the crest of
the Rocky Mountains. The survey of the eastern section
of the northern boundary of the United States was com-
pleted many years ago by Colonel J. D. Graham and
others, and that of the western section, from the Pacific
coast to the Rocky Mountains, was brought to a close in
1860. The middle section, as was the western, is in
charge of Archibald Campbell, Esq., of Washington, as
commissioner, with Major Twining as chief engineer
officer on the part of the United States. Dr. Elliott
Coues, of the army, the well-known naturalist, accom-
panies the expedition in that capacity, and the work will
be done in connection with a large party, equally well
equipped, detailed by the British Government.

The labour of this Commission was begun in 1872, con-
sisting in the examination of the line from the Lake of
Woods to Pembina, this village being the starting-point
for the present year.

The next expedition is that along the line of the
Northern Pacific Railway, and will consist of a body of
about 2,000 troops, under the immediate command of
Colonel D. N. Stanley. This will concentrate at Fort
Abraham Lincoln, on the Missouri, now representing the
western terminus of the Northern Pacific Railway, and
its route will be westward toward and across the Yellow
Stone River. This large force is intended to keep the
Indians in check, and prevent any interferences on their
part with the location and construction parties of the
railway. In view of the fact that this expedition passes
through a rich but little-known country, abounding in
objects of natural history and zoology, the president of
the National Academy of Sciences memorialised the
Secretary of War in reference to the appointment of a

* See also the descriptions given by Dujardin (Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1851,
v. xv.) and Claparéde (Anat. and Entwickl. der Wirbellosen Thiere)
of the interesting genus Echinoderes, which these two eminent natu alists
unite in regarding as intermediate be:ween the Annelides andthe Crustacea.

+ Communicated by the Scientific Editor of Harfer’s Weekly.

170

NATURE

| Fune 26, 1873

a

corps of scientific men to accompany it ; and this com-
munication being favourably received, a number of gentle-
men were duly commissioned. Some of these, however,
subsequently found themselves unable to carry out their
intention; but finally an organisation was completed,
with Mr, J. A. Allen, of Cambridge, as zoologist ; Dr.
Lionel R. Nettre, of New York, as mineralogist and geo-
logist ; Mr. William Pywell, of Washington, as photo-
grapher; Mr. Edward Konopicky, of Cambridge, as
zoological and landscape artist ; and Mr. C. W. Bennett
as general assistant. These gentlemen have been com-
mended especially to the kind attentions of General
Sheridan and Colonel Stanley, and will receive every
facility possible for carrying on their work.

The next expedition is that of Prof. F. V. Hayden,
who continues the work upon which he has been engaged
for so many years. His starting-point is Denver, and the
region to be explored lies south of the fortieth parallel of
latitude, and extending from Green River on the west to
the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. He expects
to occupy several successive years in proceeding toward
the Mexican boundary. The expedition has been divided
into several parties, each with its commander. The
general topographical and surveying work is under the
direction of Mr. James T. Gardner, so well known in
connection with Mr. Clarence King’s explorations, Some
of the specialists accompanying the expedition are Dr.
F. M. Endlich and Mr. Marvin as geologists, and Mr. J.
H. Batty as zoologist.

The next survey in the geographical order of arrange-
ment is that of Lieutenant George M. Wheeler, in con-
tinuation of the labours of several preceding years. This
expedition will be divided into four main field parties,
one of which will be again subdivided, and includes four
astronomical and triangulation parties. Party No. 1,
under charge of Lieutenant Wheeler himself, will operate
in portions of New Mexico and Arizona, and will be
accompanied by Mr. G. K. Gilbert as chief geologist, and
Dr. Oscar Loew as assistant geologist. Party No. 2,
under Lieutenant Hoxie, will be accompanied by Mr. E.
E. Howell as geologist, and Mr. H. W. Henshaw as natu-
ralist. This party will move from Salt Lake to Camp
Wingate, passing through portions of New Mexico and
Arizona, The third party, under Lieutenant William L.
Marshall, with Prof. J. J. Stevenson as geologist and
mineralogist, and Dr. J. L. Rothrock as medical officer
and naturalist, will move south-west from Denver through
to Wingate, and explore also a portion of New Mexico
and Arizona.

The fourth, or triangulation party, will start from Santa
Fé, and carry a system of triangulation west to the
meridian of Fort Wingate, and thence south to the
Mexican border. The first astronomical party will be
stationed at Salt Lake, with Mr. J. H. Clarke as observer ;
the second will be on the Denver and Santa Fé line, Dr.
F. Kampf, observer; the third will be on the Union
Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroad lines, with
William W. Maryatt as observer ; and the fourth party at
Ogden, with Prof. H. B. Herr as observer. Here an ob-
servatory will be constructed for receiving signals from
communicating stations, with a view of establishing differ-
ences of longitude.

The expedition of Major J. W. Powell on the Colorado
River, in Utah, comes nex: in order, this gentleman being
now occupied in finishing his work and preparing his re-
port in compliance with the Act of Congress. Major
Powell had been several years in this region, and has al-
ready constructed a map of wonderiul interest and great
accuracy. In connection with his work he has made a
very large ethnological collection relating to the Piute
Indians.

Tne explorations of Mr, Clarence King, who has been
engaged tor several years in the survey of the line o: the
fortieth parallel, will, it is understood, be completed during

the present season by reviewing some portions of the route
already traversed.

The engineer expedition under Captain Jones will alse
proceed from Cheyenne along the Wind River Mountains
to some point on the Upper Missouri, and will be accom-
panied by Dr. Parry, the well-known botanist. It is also
understood that a large Government party will start from
Fort Ellis and proceed eastward, and form part of the
Yellowstone expedition already referred to.

The exploration of Alaska will also be prosecuted in
behalf of the Coast Survey by Mr. William H. Dall, who
has already proceeded to the Aleutian Islands, with a
view of preparing a proper chart of the same, and espe-
cially of selecting a suitable landing-place for the pro-
posed Pacific Ocean cable. The labours of Mr. Henry
W. Elliott and Captain Bryant in the islands of St. Paul
and St. George, in Behring Sea, will, it is hoped, be as
productive as in 1872,

Nearly all the parties referred to, while, of course, pre-
pared for prosecuting the topographical, geographical,
and astronomical service, are accompanied by competent
geologists, botanists, and zoologists, and there is reason
to believe that the amount of material which will be
transmitted by them to the National Museum will exceed
in magnitude and value that of any previous year since
its establishment in 1857. ;

NOTES

‘TAT a meeting of the Geographical Society on Monday even-
ing, Sir Bartle Frere, who was in the chair, intimated that the
Queen had been graciously pleased to grant a pension of 300/,
a year to Dr. Livingstone. We are glad to see that the daily
press is becoming alive to the scandal of putting off with sucha
paltry gift a man who has spent his life in the disinterested
service of his country and of humanity: he has surely
earned something more handsome. Sir Bartle Frere read a
letter from Dr. Kirk, which stated that the East Coast Ex-

pedition was getting on well, and that its members were -

in good health. Dr. Dillon and Lieutenant Cameron had
succeeded in traversing the wet country, and were now
engaged in collecting porters on the inland side of the river.
Lieutenant Murphy and Mr. Moffat were understood to be
following. His arrival had done much for the assistance
of the expedition. No further news had of late been re-
ceived of the expedition, a circumstance regarded by Dr. Kirk
in a favourable sense, A letter from Lieutenant Grandy, from
the Western Expedition, was thenread. In this communication
the writer, in giving an account of the progress of the expedition,
stated that the men were all well, and that the climate was de-
liciously cool.

THERE will be an Election to Five Scholarships at Jesus
College, Oxford, on Tuesday, October 14. The annual value
cf the Scholarships is 80/., and they are tenable to the close of
the twentieth term from the Scholar’s matriculation. Candi-
dates must not on the day of election be fu!l twenty-four years
old. One of these Scholarships is an Open Scholarship. It will
be given according to proficiency in Physical Science, combined
with the Classical attainments required by the University. The
Examination for this will commence on Tuesd:y, October 7,
and it will be held at Magdalen College in company with that
for a Magdalen Demyship and a Merton. Post-Mastership,
Papers will be set in Chemistry, Physics, and Biology; and an
opportun ty will be given of showing a knowledge of practical
work in Chemistry and Biology. Candidates for this Scholar-
ship, if not otherwise admitted to the Examination, are requested
to call on the Principal of Jesus College, on Monday, Oct. 6;
and if so admitted, to call upon him on any day in the same
week, and to bring with them certificates of age and of past
good conduct.

er ay ee ha we, gra eo
he) 2 a 6)
e 4 2 R aes A raie dhe
7° ‘ ar te

Fune 26, 1873]

- THERE will be an election to a Fellowship in Natural Science
at Magdalen College, Oxford, in October next, the holder of
which will not be required to take Holy Orders. The exami-
nation will be held in common with Merton College, preference
being given to proficiency in Biology, the College reserving to
themselves the power of taking candidates in any other branch
of Natural Science if it shall seem expedient to do so.
Candidates must have passed all the examinations required by
the University of Oxford or University of Cambridge for the
degree of Bachelor of Arts, and must not be in possession of
any Ecclesiastical Benefice, or of any Property, Government
Pension, or office tenable for life, or during good behaviour (not
being an Academical office within the University of Ox ord), the
clear annual value of which shall exceed 230/. They must also
produce testimonials of their fitness to become Fellows of the
College as a place of religion, learning, and education, and
these must be sent to the President on or before Monday, Sept.
29. Candidates are required to call on the President on Monday,
Oct. 6, between the hours of 3 and 5,or Sand9 P.M. The exa-
mination will commence the following day.

Dr. JaAMEs BoTToMLeEy, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., has been ap-
pointed to the Science Mastership of the Taunton College
School. The liberality of two or three munificent friends has
enabled the headmaster to place the science teaching on a new
and enlarged footing. Science has been taught in the school
since 1865 with imperfect instruments, accommodation, and
teaching power, yet with sufficient thoroughness to pass many
pupils in the London Matriculations and in the scientific portion
of the Oxford Local Examinations. The apparatus will now be
largely increased, a temporary but efficient laboratory is about-to
be erected, and a science master of the highest reputation has
been secured.

THE fine specimen of the Octopus brought to the Brighton
Aquarium from the French Coast in April last and suspected at
the time by Mr. Saville Kent to bea female, has just verified
this anticipation by depositing numerous eggs. The position
selected by the creature for their lodgment is most opportune,
the several clusters being attached to the rockwork, close to one
another, within a few inches of the front glass of its tank; thus
affording every facility for their observation to the general
public, and enabling the officers on the Naturalist’s Staff to
watch their progress towards maturity from day to day. The
eggs were deposited on Thursday last, the 19th inst., since which
time the parent has vigilantly guarded them, usually encircling
and partly concealing the whole within a coil of one or more of
her snake-like arms, and vigorously repelling the near approach
of any of her comrades in the same tank. Like those of the
Argonaut or Paper Nautilus, the eggs of the Octopus are of
small size compared with the ova of other Cephalopoda, the
individuals being no more than one-eighth of an inch in length,
of oval form, aud are crowded round a central flexible stalk
two or three inches long. A dozen or more of these compound
clusters, each including over a hundred eggs, represent the
number already deposited by the female Octopus in the Brighton
tanks. The mate of the interesting parent is a fine fellow
brought from the Cornish Coast last February. On the arrival
of his fair companion he immediately vacated his oyster grotto
in her favour and for many subsequent days lavished upon her
the most assiduous attention.

Mr. LivincsTONE Stone, the Assistant Commissioner on
the part of the United States, has been engaged for some time
past in collecting fresh-water fishes of various species to be
transported to California, for the purpose of introducing them
into the rivers and ponds of that State. For this purpose he
___ had sent to him acar of the Central Pacific Railway, which he
__— has had fitted up}properly for this object, At one end of the

NATURE

171

car isa plank pond, lined with zinc and holding four tons of
water, over which are berths for Mr. Stone and his assistants.
The rest of the car is occupied with smaller tanks, and a reserve
of sea and fresh water, household and commissary supplies, &c.
Among the species that Mr. Stone carries with him, in the form
of partly hatched eggs or young, are shad, cat-fish, yellow perch,
wall-eyed or glass-eyed perch, eels, lobsters, and the like; and
there is every reason to believe he wil! succeed in transfering
his freight without material loss. If he accomplishes his object
of placing these fish in the California waters, there is every
reason to expect them to constitute before many years an im-
portant addition to the food resources of the State.

Mr. BENTHAM’s Anniversary Address to the Linnean Society,
just printed at the request of the Fellows, deals chiefly with
the progress of physiological botany during the past year. He
refers especially to Strasburger’s investigations of the floral
structure of Coniferze and Gnetacex, and to the genealogical
theory by which that botanist makes the Conifers the parent race
from which the Gnetaceze have directly descended, these agaia
having engendered the higher Dicotyledons. This theory Mr.
Bentham consideis to rest on very slender grounds, preferring the
hypothesis that the Gnetaceze have remained the least modified
from the common stock, the Conifer having undergone a
greater progressive change in one direction, the total separation
of the sexes, the Dicotyledons a greater advance in another
direction, the increasing complexity of the floral development,
Haeckel’s conjectural pedigree of the Calcisponges is also
criticised,

THE “‘session extraordinaire” of the Botanical Society of
France will be held this year at Brussels under the auspices of
the Royal Botanical Society of Belgium. The session will com-
mence by a meeting at the Botanic Gardens, Brussels, on
July 9, at 9 A.M. Excursions will be made to the botanical
establishments at Brussels, Ghent, Liége, Antiwerp, &c. ; as
well as to the grotto of Haux, the marshes of Hasselt, &c.
English botanists are especially invited to take part in this
meeting. The districts to be visited are stated to be of unusual
interest from a botanical point of view.

THE subscriptions to the Sedgwick memorial give promise
that a handsome museum will be erected to his memory, The
amount already promised is very considerable. The Chancellor
of the University, the Duke of Devonshire, heads the list with a
donation of 1,000/. The High Steward, the Earl Powis, contri-
butes 200/. ; the Prince of Wales, 100 guineas; the Vice-
Chancellor., Dr. Cookson, the two representatives in Parliament,
the Right Hon. S. H. Walpole and Mr, Beresford Hope, as
well as a large number of other gentlemen give 100/. each, The
Earl of Derby has promised 200/., Prof. Selwyn, 500/. ; the
Master of Trinity College, 200/. ; Prof. Lightfoot, 200/.

Tue Royal Horticultural Society’s Show at Bath was opened
on Tuesday, and continues till Saturday.

Tue official report of the Secretary of the U.S. Navy, re-
specting the Arctic exploring ship Po/arts, dispels the suspicions
respecting the manner of Captain Hall’s death, and shows that
the separation of the crew was accidental, but does not account
for the failure of the 7o/arzs to rescue the men on the ice. Im-
portant scientific results have been obtained. The supposed
open Polar Sea proves to bea sound opening into Kennedy
Channel, with an inlet on the east, probably marking the
northern shore of Greenland. The 7igress, which has been
purchased by the Navy department for the relief expedition, will
start early in July. .

THE Council appointed at the Conference of the Trades
Guild of Learning, recently held at the Society of Arts, met on
Saturday last. Amongst other business transacted it was resolved

172

that in addition to various other eminent men, the following, as
representatives of literature, science, and art, be invited to be-
come vice-presidents of the guild :—Prof. Huxley, Sir Francis
Grant, Mr. Alfred Tennyson, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Prof. Tyn-
dall, Sir Antonio Brady, Lord Lyttelton, Mr. Thomas Hughes,
M.P., Mr. J. A. Froude, and Sir Sterndale Bennett. It was
further resolved that the annual subscription for ordinary mem-
bers be one shilling or upwards, and for associate members one
guinea or upwards ; that application should be made for dona-
tions to meet the preliminary expenses, and to furnish an income
until the society is self-supporting ; and that a prospectus of the
objects and plans of the society should be issued as soon as
possible.

CoMMODORE SELFRIDGE has returned to the Navy Depart-
ment at Washington, bringing with him the materials for pre-
senting a detailed report of his exploration upon the Isthmus of
Darien during the past winter in reference to the construction of
an inter-oceanic ship-canal. The result of his inquiries has been
much more favourable than was anticipated, and it is now esti-
mated that only twenty-eight miles of canal need be constructed,
the remainder of the distance consisting of the perfectly navi-
gable waters of the Atrato, Doguado, and Napipi rivers. A
tunnel will still be necessary, as estimated on a previous ex-
ploration, but this will only require to be three miles in length,
instead of five, and it is estimated that the entire distance can be
completed at a cost of less than 70,000,000 dols. Twenty-two
miles of the canal are over an almost level plain, and only nine
locks in all will be needed.

WE have just received the first number of the Bulletin, or
Proceedings of the Society of Natural History of Buffalo, New
York. Four similar numbers are to be issued each year, with a
few plates. The number before us is solely occupied by the
work of Mr. Aug. R. Grote, who contributes four papers
describing new North American Moths, and giving catalogues
of the Sphingidae and Zygaemidae of North America, followed
by conclusions drawn from a study of the genera Hypena, and
Herminia.

SINCE the diffraction spectrum differs from a prismatic spec-
trum of the same length in having the less refrangible rays more
widely dispersed, it some time ago suggested itself to Prof. C.
A. Young that a so-called gitter-plaite or ‘‘ grating ” of fine lines
might advantageously replace the prisms in spectroscopes de-
signed for the observation of the solar prominences through the
C line. Having recently obtained one of the beautiful gratings
ruled upon speculum metal, having a ruled surface of something
more than a square inch, the lines being spaced at intervals of
ges Of an inch, he combined this with the collimator and tele-
scope of a common chemical spectroscope, thus getting an instru-
ment furnishing a spectrum of the first order, in which the D
lines are about twice as widely separated as by the flint glass
prism of 60° belonging with the original instrument. In
the neighbourhood of C the dispersion is nearly the
same as would be given by four prisms, The spectra
of the higher orders are generally not so well seen on
account of their overlapping «each other, but fortunately
with one particular adjustment of the angle between the collima-
tor and telescope, the C line in the spectrum of the third order
can be made to fall in the vacant space between the spectra of
the second and fourth orders. On applying the new instrument
to the equatorial, Prof. Young found that in the first order
spectrum he could easily ‘see the bright . chromosphere lines
C, Dj, and F ; he could also, though with great difficulty, make
out Hy, (2796K). On opening the slit the outline of the chro-
mosphere and the forms of the prominences were well seen,
both in the spectra of the first and third order. The grating is
much lighter and easier to manage than a train of prisms, and

NATURE

[Kune 26, 1873

if similar ruled plates can be furnished by the opticians at reason-
able prices and of satisfactory quality, it would seem that for
observations upon the chromosphere and prominences they might
well to some extent supersede prisms.

THE Eleventh Annual Report of the Free Libraries Com-
mittee of Birmingham is very carefully drawn up. It contains
some valuable analytical tables showing the average numbers
of those who daily take advantage of the library, the ages of
the readers, their occupations, along with the number of
volumes issued to readers of each occupation, and tables show-
ing the books most in demand. From the latter item we are
glad to see that science in its various departments comes in for a
very fair share of attention. In April 1872 the Reference
Library and the Art Gallery were thrown open to the public
on Sunday afternoons, and to judge from the statistics, the
privilege has been taken considerable advantage of, especially
by those who have least time during the week for mental
improvement.

IN the last number of the Yournal of the Statistical Society is
an interesting paper by Mr. F, Galton, F.R.S., on the Relative
Supplies from Town and Country Families to the population of
future generations. Mr. Galton took for the purpose of com-
parison, from the census returns, 1,000 families belonging to
Coventry, in which there are various industries, and where the
population is not increasing, and 1,000 families from small agri-
cultural parishes in Warwickshire. After careful comparison
and calculation, based on ascertained data, Mr. Galton concludes.
that the rate of supply in towns to the next adult generation is
only 77 per cent., or, say, three-quarters of that in the country.
In two generations the proportion falls to 59 per cent., that is,
the adult grandchildren of artisan townsfolk are little more than
half as numerous as those of labouring people who live in
healthy country districts.

THE Reports and Proceedings for the year 1872-3 of the
Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devon, contain some good
papers, mostly of a practical nature, in connection with mininy.

WE have received the Monthly Notices of the papers and
proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania for 1870, 1871,
and the half of 1872. A great part of them are occupied with
valuable meteorological observations and statistics, and from the
reports of the society’s meetings and the numerous papers printed
in extenso on subjects connected with all departments of science,
we judge the society to be in a healthy condition, As might
naturally be expected, many of the papers are devoted to the
practical aspects of science, to pisciculture, arboriculture, agri-
culture, the rearing of sheep, &c.

WE would recommend to anyone visiting Derbyshire, espe-
cially the district around the Peak, Mr. Bates’s little ‘* Hand-
book to Castleion and its Neighbourhood,” containing very full
and well-compacted information on all the places of interest
around. There is a useful section on the geology, mineralogy,
and botany of the district, and we believe that Mr. John Tym,
of Castleton, the publisher of the book, well known as a geolo-
gist, will willingly give anyone who calls at his shop, informa-
tion on the natural history of the district.

WE would recommend to all Londoners who are at a loss how
to spend an occasional holiday to procure the summer edition of
Mr. Henry Walker’s ‘‘ Half-Holiday Guide,” which is wonder-
fully cheap considering the quantity of matter it contains. It
would take a few summers ‘of half-holidays to exhaust all the
charming resorts around London he describes. The book also
contains much useful information for the botanist, geologist,
ornithologist, entomologist, and microscopist, as well as with
regard to various sports. Mr. Walker should, however, cease
to quote so much irrelevant verse,

,

.

P

| ¥une 26, 1873]

NATURE

173

THE following additions have been made to the Brighton
Aquarium during the past week :—Two Puffins (Fratercula
arctica) ; small Crocodile (Crocozilus sp.) from Sumatra, pre-
-sented by Captain Murray ; Bass (Zedrax /upus); Black Bream
(Cantharus lineatus); Streaked Gurnards (Zrigla lineata) ;
Mackerel (Scomber scomber); Lumpfish (Cyelopterus /umpus) ;
Grey Mullet (AZugil capito) ; Ballan Wrasse (Zadrus maculatus) ;
Flounders (Pleuronectes flesus), fresh-water variety, presented by
F. J. Evans, Esq. ; Herring (Clupea harengus) ; Conger Eels
(Conger vulgaris); John Dorée (Zeus faber); Sea Horses
(Hippocampus ramulosus) from the Mediterranean ; Octopus
(Octopus vulgaris) ; Oysters (Ostrea edulis); Zoophytes (Actinoloba
dianthus), (Sagartia nivea), (S. miniata), (Alcyonium digitatum),
( Zubularia indivisa).

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a Dormouse Phalanger (Dromicia nana) from
Tasmania, presented by Mast. W. F. Stratford ; a Coati, brown
variety (Vasua nasica) from S. America, presented by Mr, G. P.
Crawford; a Lion (fis Jeo) from Africa, presented by the
Hon. M. E.G. Finch Hatton; a Rhesus Monkey (MJacacus
erythreus) from India, presented by Mr. J. C. Freeman; a
Tasmanian Rat Kangaroo (Hyfsifrymnus cuniculus), presented
by Mr. J. Shelton ; a Garnet’s Galago (Ga/ago garnetti) from
E, Africa, presented by Mr. Bartle Frere ; two horned Lizards
(Phryrosoma cornutum) from Texas, presented by Mr. W. L.
Booker; a Clifford’s Snake (Zamenis cliffordiit) from Cairo,
‘presented by Mrs. E. Liveing ; a black Stork (Ciconia nigra), two
white Storks (C. a/éa), and a Spoon-bill (Platalea leucorodia),
purchased ; a red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus), and a Fallow
Deer (Dama vulgaris), born in the Gardens.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDoN

Royal Society, May 15.—‘‘ On the Heating of a Disc by
Rapid Rotation zz vacuo.” By Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
F.R.S., and Prof. P. G. Tait, M.A.

In two previous communications to this Society, we gave an
account of some experiments which we had made up n the
heating of a disc through rotation 7 vacuo. In these experi-
ments the increase of radiation of the heated disc was observed
by means of a delicate thermopile and galvanometer. Three
aluminium discs of various thicknesses and one ebonite disc
were used, and the results derived from the experiments were as
follows :—

(1) The heating effect observed appeared to be independent
of the density , and of the chemical constitution of the residual
air and vapour surr ounding the discs. ;

(2) The quantity of heat developed under similar circum-
stances of rotation in three aluminium discs ‘05, ‘0375, ‘025 of
an inch in thickness respectively appeared to be the same, inas-
much as the relative thermometric effect for these discs varied
inversely as their thickness.

(3) Besides the heating effect alluded to in (1) and (2), there
was found to be, when the vacuum had been recently made, a
strictly temporary effect, sometimes in the direction of heat,
sometimes in that of cold, owing probably to the condensation
or evaporation of small quantities of aqueous vapour ; but this
effect was only noticeable during rotation, disappearing the mo-
ment the motion was stop ped.

In June 1871 the expe riments were resumed. In the mean time
theapparatus had been fitted with an arrangement working through
a barometer-tube, by means of which, instead of trusting to radi-
ation, the disc itself might, after rotation, be tapped by means
of the pile, which could be brought up to it and then withdrawn.
By this means a much larger effect. might be obtained, and it
became possible, by varying the adjustment, to find according to
what law the heat-effect varies with the distance from the
centre.

These experiments were conducted in the following manner :
_The disc was first of all tapped before rotation several times ;
at each tapping the momentary swing of the needle was re-

4
= = i bd

corded, and the mean of the readings was regarded as indi-
cating the state of the disc with respect to heat.

The disc was next tapped after rotation, and the difference
between the readings before and afier was taken as indicating the
change in the state of the disc produced by rotation.

The results derived by tapping an ebonite disc were found to
be very different from the radiation-results, inasmuch as in the
former the effect of the pressure and quality of the residual air
is very apparent, while in the radiation-results it is hardly per-
ceptible. A probable explanation of this will be given after-
wards, but in the mean time, in view of these results, it has been
thought expedient to discuss them quite independently and by
themselves, with the view of ascertaming whether they can_ best
be explained by a gas-effect alone, or whether they likewise indi-
cate a residual effect independent of gas,

With this object calling A B the results at and .3, let us

take een) : (B)

of 35 in. due to whatever cause or causes.

as representing the whole effect at a pressure
We thus obtain
Dry hydrogen. Dry air. Dry carbonic acid.
Whole effect at . 9°5 250 24'0
Again, let us suppose that (A)—(B) denotes the gas effect for +,
in., and we obtain
Dry hydrogen. Dry air. Dry carbonic acid.
Gas-effect at 40 20°0 18'0
Finally, let us regard as unknown residual effect the difference
between the whole effect and the gas-effect, and we obtain
Dry hydrogen. Dry air. Dry carbonic acid
Residual effect 55 50 ‘oO
Similar experiments with the same galvanometer were made
with a disc of cartridge-paper, of which the pores were filled
with solid paraffin.
Treating these results in the same manner as those of the
ebonite disc, we obtain :—

Dry hydrogen. Dry air. Dry carbonic acid,
Whole effect (~%;) 25'0 45°0 43°5
Gas-effect (x) . . 4'0 20°0 230
Residual effect 21'0 250 20°5

Now, if we suppose that there is only one effect due to gas, it
follows :—

(a) That the proportion between the effects due to the various
gases experimented on (and all of the same pressure) is never-
theless different for the two discs.

(8) That the proportion (for the same disc) between the effects
due to the various gases experimented on is different according
to the pressure.

If, however, we suppose that there are two effects, one of
which is independent of the residual gas, we find :—

(a) That, as regards the gas-effect, the proportion between that
due to the various gases is nearly the same for both discs. Thus
in the ebonite disc we have 4, 20, 18, while in the paper disc we
have 4, 20, 23 as representing the gas-effect for the various
gases,

(8) That the vestdual effect in either disc is nearly the same for
the various gases. Thus in the ebonite disc we have 5°5, 5'0,
6'0, while in the paper disc we have 21°0, 25°0, 20°5 as repre-
senting the residual effect for the various gases.

The results are thus much more simple on the hypothesis of
two effects, one of these being independent of the residual gas,
than on the hypothesis of only one effect.

It was next endeavoured to ascertain whether these two effects
were differently influenced by a blind, and it was found that the
proportion between the two effects is greatly altered by the blind,
so that while the hydrogen effect is not much stopped, the other
is diminished very considerably ; it was therefore concluded that
the residual effect is not much altered by a chamois leather
blind.

It was suggested to us by Prof. Helmholtz that it would be
desirable to ascertain whether any difference was produced in
the results by loading the disc on one side; for if these
results be due to vibration, it might be supposed that they would
be affected by this means.

It has been seen that the residual effect obtained from a disc
covered with chamois leather is approximately the same as that
from an uncovered disc ; this would appear to us to be against
the vibration hypothesis.

In an experiment made the disc was covered with a chamois
leather blind with a segment cut out. 4

174.

From a mean of two sets of experiments we may conclude that
this arrangement does not much influence the results.

The disc was next treated in the following manner :—

It was covered with a chamois leather blind tied into holes
drilled in the disc, and having two pieces of different shape cut
out. The experiments gave (for an atmosphere of 3% dry
hydrogen) tapping in A 54, tapping in B 56, while for an
uncovered disc they gave 53 as the heat-result, All these
experiments apparently combine to prove that the result is not
due to vibration.

Our next experiments were made with the view of testing
whether or not the two effects, the residual and the gas-effect,
were resident in the same particles of the disc ; and for this purpose
the experiments made immediately after rotation were compared
with those made one minute afterwards,

The experiments available for this purpose are so numerous
that they can bear splitting into two portions, in each of which
the same result is seen.

Thus we have for an atmosphere of 39; dry hydrogen, and as
the mean of 30 individual comparisons. ,

Effect at first : Effect one minute after :: 1°30 : I;
also, as the mean of 22 individual comparisons, we obtain the
proportion of 1°19 : 1,while as the mean of the whole we obtain
1°25: 1.

Treating in a similar manner the observations made with an
atmosphere of # hyd. + <°; air, we obtain

As the mean of 25 comparisons
As the mean of 21 comparisons ...............

while as the mean of the whole we obtain 1744 : I.

We therefore conclude that the residual effect is less diminished
during the interval of one minute than the gas-effect.

We next made experiments with two aluminium discs ‘05 and
025 of an inch in thickness respectively. These discs were covered
on both sides with a coating of lampblack applied by negative
photographic varnish.

From these experiments it was concluded that there are two
effects which are differently distributed over the particles of the
disc.

It also appeared that the effect for.*, hyd. which may be
supposed to represent the residual effect, and that for 5 hyd.
+4!; air, which may be supposed to represent the gas-effect, are
both diminished in very nearly the same proportion, namely
100: 77, by a transference of the pile to a position nearer the
cenite of the disc. And it was furthermore conclu.ed from the
experiments that in an aluminium disc covered with varnish, as
well as in a disc of ebonite, we may imagine the residual effect
to be more deeply seated than the gas-effect.

We venture on the following as what appears to us to be the
most probable explanation of the whole body of experiments,
including those with radiation.

(1) There is a temporary heat or cold effect which may
be supposed to arise in particles very slightly attached to the
disc ; this is radiated off chiefly during rotation, and does not
probably greatly affect the disc afterwards.

(2) There is a surface gas-effect, which in an aluminium and
even in an ebonite disc 1s conducted into the interior as it arises,
so that it does not greatly radiate during rotation of the disc.
In a paper disc, however, which is formed of a badly conducting
material loosely put together, part of the effect does escape as
radiation during rotation.

(3) There is a residual effect, which is more deeply seated
than the gas-effect. And inasmuch as radiation takes place from
a perceptible depth, this effect is much more influential than the
gas-eflect in increasing radiation alter rotation, In the case of a
paper disc, this deeply seated effect will be less diminished by
radiation during rotation than the gas-effect, and therefore after
rotation in such a disc we might expect the gas-effect to be
pecuiiarly small.

In the course of these experiments we have endeavoured to
prove that this residual effect is not caused by vibration. The
radiation-experiments with aluminium discs of three different
thicknesses went, on the other hand, to show that it was of the
nature of a surface-effect. This is confirmed by the results de-
rived from tapping ; for, in the first place, the experiments with
aluminium discs show that the two effects (the residual and the
gas-effect) are probably distributed in the same proportion, going
from the centre to the circumference of the disc. Again, taking
the two discs of thickness ‘o5 and ‘025 of an inch, we obtain
the following results :—

NATURE

PEI iy > oye a ee ee SOS RS ae
Vy mt ia th VRAD) Cee
2 - pee Aw

a
*
|

| Fune 26, 1873

Effect for »*, hyd. Effect for yi; hyd. +3; air.
Thin disc ... 48 (22 observations). 228 (10 observations),

Thick disc... 29 (20 observations). 103 (10 observations),

Now, allowing for errors of experiment, we see that the resi-
dual, as well as the gas-effect, is reduced to about one-half for
the thick disc.

Again, an experiment of a similar nature gave the effect for
zy hyd. in an ebonite disc of 7; insin thickness = 33 against a
result = 55 for the thin ebonite disc. Unfortunately it was
omitted to make a comparison with these two discs for the gas-
effect ; nevertheless these results are all in favour of the residual
effect being a surface-effect.

Our conclusion from the evidence before us is, that the resi-
dual effect is a surface-effect more deeply seated than the gas-
effect, but distributed outwards from the centre to the circum-
ference, very much in the same manner as the gas-effect. The
residual effect likewise appears able to penetrate a chamois
leather blind without any perceptible diminution. We regard
these conclusions as preliminary, and shall endeavour in our
future experiments to procure additional evidence of these pro-
perties of the residual effect, as well as to obtain new facts
regarding it. In the meantime, as the subject is one of interest, |
and has been already too long delayed, we have not hesitated to |
bring these results before the notice of the Royal Society, }

Geological Society, June 11.—Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., vice-
president, in the chair.—The following communications were
read :—*‘ On the nature and probable origin of the superficial
deposits in the valleys and deserts of Central Persia,” by
W. T. Blanford. The general results may be summed up
as follows :—Persia has undergone a gradual change from a
moister to a drier climate simultaneously with the elevation ot
portions of its surface, resulting first in the conversion of old —
river-valleys into enclosed basins containing large lakes, pro-
bably brackish or salt, Then, as the rainfall diminished, the
lakes gradually dried up, leaving desert plains. The amount of
subaérial disintegration among the rocks of the high ground he
considered to be in excess of the force available for its removal,
the water which now falls only sufficing to wash the loosened _
materials from the steeper slopes into the valieys, and hence the
valleys in the upper parts are gradually being filled up with
coarse gravel-like detritus, just as their lower portions have been ~
already hidden beneath lake-deposits —*‘On Caryophyllia Bre-
dai (Milne-Edwards and Haime) from the Red Crag of Wood-
bridge.” by Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S, The author 1e-
corded the occurrence in the Red Crag of the Woodbridge dis-
trict of a variety of Caryophyllia Bredai (Milne-Edwards and
Haime).—‘ On the Cephalopoda-bed and the Ooolite Sands of
Dorset and part of Somerset,” by James Buckman, F.L.S.
From an investigation of the Cephalopoda-bed in quarries at
Bradford Abbas in Dorsetshire, the author comes to the con-
clusion that it is quite distinct from the Cephalopoda-bed of
Gloucestershire, and that it is the representative oi the Rubbly
Oolite at the top of Leckhampton Hul and Cold Comfort, and
of the Gryphite and Z?yigonza-beds of the neighbourhood of
Cheltenham. The Gloucestershire Cephalopoda-bed he regards
as situated close to the bottom of the Interior Ooolite series ;
and this is also the position to which he refers the sandy beds
above mentioned.—‘‘ Cetarthrosaurus Walkeri (Seeley), an
Ichthyosaurian from the Cambridge Upper Greensand,” by H.
G. Seeley, F.L.S. In this paper the author described a small
Ichthyosaurian femur, discovered by Mr. J. F. Walker in the
Upper Greensand of Cambridge. He noticed the general cha-
racteristics of the femur in Ichihyosaurians, and pointed out, as
the chief peculiarities of the boue that he was describing, the
subovate form of its head, and the presence of large flawened
lateral trochanters, which, if of equal dimensions on both sides
of the bone, would have made its greatest transverse measure-
ment greater than its length. Upon this bone he proposed to
found new a genus, Cetarthrosaurus.

Royal Astronomical Society, June 13.—Prof. Cayley,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—S. J. Lambert, of Newton
Observatory, Auckland, was elected.a Fellow of the Society.—
The Rev. J. Vale Mummery presented a large photographic
portrait of Mrs. Somerville. He said that the Society had long
been possessed of a portrait of Miss Caroline Herschel, and he
was glad now to be the means of finding her so fitting a com-
panion. Mrs. Somerville and Miss Herschel had been admitied
as honorary members of the Society on the same evening in ~
1834. They had long been separated, first by distance and then

“Fune 26, 1873)

NATURE

175

by death, and it was only fitting that their p
be hung together on the walls of the Society.—Paper ‘On a
stereographic projection of the transit of Venus in 1882,” by
R. A. Proctor. The author said that his paper was intended to
show the desirableness of limiting the preparations for Halley’s
method to the transit of 1874. In the transit of 1882 the lines
bounding the region where the whole transit can be seen will lie
much closer. This is the natural effect of the transit lasting only
six hours. Again, the southern pole where difference of duration
is greatest, instead of lying within the region where the whole
transit can be seen as in 1874, lies outside that region. It should
be remembered also that in searching for suitable places of obser-
vation a fringe of 10° wide, measuring along the lines where the
beginning and end of the transit are seen at sunrise or sunset,
must be thrown out of account. Taking this into account the
transit of 1882 is seen to be very little suited for Halley's method.
Maps were shown to illustrate the paper.—‘‘ On occultations of
stars by the moon and eclipses of Jupiter's satellites,” by the Rev.
R. Main. This paper contained a very extensive table of obser-
vations of eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites. Several such sets of
observations have recently been received by the Society, and it was
remarked that a paper on the subject read by the Astronomer
Royal last year was beginning to bear good fruit.—‘‘ Note on the
discovery of a new minor planet, No. 131,” by Dr. Peters. This
is the nineteenth planet discovered by Dr. Peters. Dr. Luther
has also discovered 19. Thanks to the American telegraphic
system, it has already been observed in England as well

as at Leipzig and Marseilles—‘‘ Note on the Mass of

Jupiter,” by W. T. Lynn. In 1866, he had had the honour
of laying before the Society an account of a determination of this
element by Prof. Kriiger, of Helsingfors. That determination
having been recently improved by the aid of subsequent obser-
vations, the result was communicated by the author to the
Astronomische Nachrichten (No. 1,941.) Mr. Syme has, in this
** Note,” placed it in juxtaposition with the determinations by
Airy, Bessel, Jacobs, and Mdller, The agreement thus shown
is very satisfactory, especially as the methods employed are
different—Airy, Bessel, and Jacobs deducing Jupiter’s mass
from the motions of his satellites, Méller from those of
Faye’s Comet, and Kriigen from those of the planet Kemis.
This important element in the solar system may be considered
as well established.—‘ Note on Dr. Oudeman’s Photographs
of the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 11, 1871,” by Col. Tennant. He had
received two paper copies of the photographs takenin Java. He
could recognise almost every depression of outline as in the
Indian photographs, but there was much less detail. He thought
we might learn something from them as to photography. It was
evident that the light was more intense than in the Indian pho-
tographs, but the exposure for a short time had not had the effect
of producing the halation which was there visible. He was con-
vinced that in future eclipses it will be better to use a reflector.
—Mr. Ranyard remarked that the paper copies of the Dutch
photographs which he had seen had been printed from enlarge-
ments on glass in which the moon had been stopped out with
black paper, or some other material. On measuring, he had
found that the body of the moon, as given in the photographs,
was by no means circular; and Mr. Davis had pointed out to
him that the irradiation under the prominences was perfectly
sharp at the edges as it would be when printed through a paper
nitch. _ It was therefore unfair to institute any comparisons as to
the amount of the irradiation in these and in theother photographs,
—‘‘ Note on the sympathetic influence o! clocks,”’ by Mr. William
Ellis. He had been testing a number of clocks placed upon a
wooden frame at the Royal Cbservatory. At first he found a
Sympathetic influence, but when the frame was considerably
strengthened, so as to prevent vibration, they ceased to influence
one another. He concluded that the popular notion as to the
Vibrations in the air proiuced by the swing of one peniulum
having any susceptible usfluence on another swinging near to it
was erroneous. —‘‘ On a recording micrometer,” by Mr. W.
H. Christie. This contained a description of two rather elabo-
rate instruments for recording the transits of stars by pricks on
along strip ot paper. It is intended to make experiments as
to the possible use of the instruments at Greenwich.—Proposal
to determine the solar paraliax by observativns of the opposition
of the planet Flora. M. Galle invited the assistance of Engli-h
and Australiana astronomers. He hai prepared and submitted
to the Society a long list of suitable comparison stars.

Linnean Society, June 19.—Mr. Bentham, president, in

, _ :
ortraits should now

the chair.—Prof. P. M, Duncan read a paper on the Deyelop-

ment of the Gynzcium and method of Fertilisation of the Ovule
in Primula vulgaris. Prof. Duncan had carefully followed the
account given by Duchartre of the mode of development of the
ovule in Pritiulacee, from which he differed in many im-
portant points, believing that the French observer had been
led into etror by dissecting only a cultivated and therefore to
some extent abnormal variety. In tracing the development of
the floral organs Duchartre states that he first of all detected
the calyx, then the stamens, and finally the pistil, the placenta
being formed in the centre of the cavi'y of the pistil,and never
connected with the ovarian wall. With this statement Payen
agrees. Dr. Duncan’s observations agreed with these as far as the
formation of the calyx and stamens was concerned ; but within
the latter he found simply a mamiilary process. At the next
stage there was a very short style, solid ani not perforated, the
ovarian wall including the placenta on which were the rudi-
mentary ovules; the ovarian wall does not grow up over the
placenta, but is produced from it by a kind of differentiation ;
subsequently the style lengthens and the small stigma is pro-
duced. The ovules appear in a spiral series, and are recognised
by their power of reflecting light; the summit of the placenta
has never any connection with the style. The ovule consists of
nothing but a single integument and an embryo-sac: there is no
inner integument and no nucleus. The lower portion of the
tissue of the style is absolutely impervious to the pollen-tubes ;
and if these could enter the ovary in this way, the micropyles
are in such intimate contact with the placenta, that they could
never be reached by the tubes from the cavity of the ovary.
Dr. Duncan has detected the passage of the pollen-tubes actually
through the tissue of the placenta itself, from which they again
emerge to reach the micropyle of the ovule. In the discussion
which followed, this view of the course of the pollen-tubes was
confirmed by Dr. T. S. Cobbold. —Dr. Hooker read a paper by
the Rey. C. New, on the sub-alpine vegetation of Kilma-njaro,
This is the only tropical African alpine flora with which we
are acquainted ; the mountain being situated in Eastern Africa,
3° S. lat., rising to a height of 20,000 ft., or nearly 5,o00ft,
above the snow-level. The flora is essentially that of the
Cameroons. The flora may be divided into seven regions of
successive heights; the rst is the inhabited district, with
plantains, maize, &c.; the 2nd region is jungle; the 3rd is a
forest of gigantic trees covered with moss, the herbaceous
vegetation being essentially European, with the dock and stinging-
nettle, frosts almost every night; the 4th consists of green
hills covered with clover ; the 5th is heath ; the 6th bare hills ;
the 7th, everlasting snow. Of the fifty species contained in the
collection, twenty were from the zone immediately beneath the
perpetual snow ; nearly all were of South African genera, very
few European, and no new species not already known from the
Cameroons. The flora is therefore essentially South African.

Meteorological Society, June 18.—Dr, J. W. Tripe, pre-
sident, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—On
some results of temperature observations at Durham, by John
J. Piummer.—On tne Meteorology of New Zealand, 1872, by
C. R. Marten.—On the Climate of Vancouver Islani, by Robert
H. Scott, F.R.S.—Meteorological Observations at Zi-Ka- Wei,
near Shanghai, by Rev. A. M. Colombel, with note by Rev.
S. J. Perry, F.R:A.S.—Notes on the connection between Col-
liery Explosions and Weather, by R. H. Scott, F.R.S., and
William Galloway.—Distribution of Rainfal Maxima in Great
Britain and Ireland between the years 1848 and 1872 inclusive,
by W. R. Birt, F.R.A.S., and note on the heavy Rainiall of
March 4 at Natal, by R. J. Mann, M.D, F.R.A.S. The ordinary
meeting was then adjourned and the Annual General Mee ing
was heid, and ‘he Report of the Council read. The Report
stated that the Council had much pleasure in congratulating the
Society, at the close of the twenty-third session, upon the termi-
nation of a year which will bear favouravle c mparison with
any that precedes it, whether regard be had to the chara ter of
the papers read, to the attendance at the pe iodic meetings, to
the number of new Fellows elected, or to the activity and inte-
rest evinced in the general proceedings. It was stated that it
had been found necessary to hold an exira meeting in May to
enable all the papers which had been received to be presented
before the Society; and the Council had the gratification to
announce that it is in contemplation to hold eight monthly meet-
ings next session, instead of six as has been the practice h therto.
The numcer of new Fellows added to the Scciety duing the
year had amounted to 35, the accession thus indicated being
considerably larger than upon any years since 1864. Reference

176 NATURE

was made to the library, the financial affairs, the proposed altera-
tions of the bye-laws, and the recent meteorological conference
at Leipzig ; and the Council concluded by stating that they had
had under consideration that evening a letter from the Board of
Trade with reference to sending a representative to the Meteoro-
logical Congress to be held at Vienna in September next. The
President then delivered an Address in which he chiefly referred
to the progress of the Society during the two years that he had
occupied the presidential chair. The following gentlemen were
elected officers and council for the ensuing year :—President—
Dr. Robert James Mann, F.R.A.S. Vice-presidents—Arthur
Brewin, F.R.A.S., George Dines, Henry Storks Eaton, Lieut.-
Col. Alexander Strange, F.R.S, Treasurer—Henry Perigal,
F.R.A.S, Trustees—Sir Antonio Brady, F.G.S., Stephen
William Silver, F.R.G.S, Secretaries—George James Symons,
John W. Tripe, M.D. Foreign Secretary—Robert H. Scott,
F.R.S. Council—Charles Brooke, F,R.S., Charles O. F. Cator,
Rogers Field, C.E., Frederic Gaster, James Glaisher, F.R.S.,
John Knox Laughton, F.R.A.S., William Carpenter Nash,
Thomas Sopwith, F.R.S., Rev. Fenwick W. Stow, M,A., Capt.
Henry Toynbee, F.R.A.S., Charles Vincent Waiker, F.R.S.,
E. QO. Wildman Whitehouse, C, E.

BERLIN

German Chemical Society, June 9.—A. W. Hofmann,
president, in the chair. A, Behr and Van Dorp report oxide of
Jead heated in iron tubes to be a good oxidising agent for or-
ganic vapours: C,H,(CH,), yielding CsH,(CH),, &c.—E.
5. ‘kowsky has found that taurine escapes digestion in the human
body to a large extent. A small quantity of the following com-
pound, however, passes into the urine; a crystallised acid of the
empirical formula, CsH,N.SO,, forming quadratic plates, which
are easily soluble, and giving well-crystallised salts with Ba, Ag,
&c. With baryta water it yields taurine, carbonic acid and ammo-
nia. The acid appears to be a substitution product of our hydro-
gen in taurine through carbaminic acid. Dr. Salkowsky took
5 grammes of taurine for twelve days following without suffering
any great inconvenience to his health.—T. Thomsen sent in the
results of very numerous experiments on the heat absorbed or
developed by dissolving various salts in water, Thesame savant
attacks the calorimetric method employed by Berthelot, and
disputes his conclusions as to the existence of a hydrate HCl +
8H,O.—K. Heumann has found that copper in contact with
sulhde of ammonium becomes covered with crystals of subsul-
fide Cu,S, according to the reaction 2CuO +2(NH,),.S=Cu,
S+4NH,+2H.0+S.—H. vy. Gegenfeld reports on the action
of hypochlorous acid HCIO on allylic chloride. The dichlor-
hydrine thus formed he considers as isomeric with that prepared
from glycerine, while L. Henry obtained a body through the same
reaction, which he considers as identical with ordinary dichlor-
hydrine. —L, Bisschopinck has studied the amides and the
nitrites of the three chloracetic acids, particularly with regard to
their physical properties. The most prominent result is the
following irregularity in the boiling points of the nitriles,
namely ;—

CH,.CN boils at 81— 82°

CH,Cl.CN ,, 123—124°
CHCl,.CN ,,° 113—113°
CC),. CN » 83— 84

The foregoing remarks were accompanied by a note of M. L.
Henry on the boiling-points of the cyanides of negative radicals.
He points out that if in HCN, H is replaced by a negative ele-
ment or radical, the boiling point sinks; thus HCN 20°,
Cl. CN 15°, CN. CN — a1’, adding other examples, and the
attempt of an explanation of this exceptional phenomenon,
‘The same chemist has continued his researches on propargylic
alcohol C;H,OH. We has found its boiling point equal to
114°, and he has prepared the bromide, the iodide, the sulfo-
cyanide, and the acetate belonging toit. In treating brominated
allylic alcohol C,H,Br. OH with potash, he obtains besides
propargylic alcohol an ether (C,H, Br),O, and perhaps also pro-
pargylic ether, which has not as yet been obtained in the pure
state.
Paris

Academy of Sciences, June 16.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dent, in the chair. The following papers were read:—On the
combustion heat of formic acid, by M. Berthelot.—On the alloys
used for gold coinage, by M. Eug. Pelegot. The author advo-
cated the addition of zinc to the alloy, and at the same time the
reduction of the gold to a very great amount. He mentions with

~ Va to a ee eo

| Fune 26, 1873

favour alloys containing from 48 to 66 mill. zinc, 354 to 372 cop-

per, and 580 to 581 gold.—A report on the papers on Phyd-

loxera, by MM. Duclaux, Max, Cornu, and L. Faucon was

presented.—On the complete movements of a ship oscillating

in calm water, by MM. O. Duhil, de Benazé and P. Risbec. .
The authors gave an account of their experiments on the

Elorn, a vessel of 100 tons displacement.—Photo-chemical

researches on the use of gases as developers, and on

the influence of physical conditions as regards sensitisation,

by M. Merget, was a paper on some of the chemi-

cal phenomena of photography.—On a scientific ballcon as-

cent on the 26th April, 1873, by MM. Crocé-Spinelli, Jobert,

Pénaud, Petard, and Sivel—Announcement of the discovery of

Planet 132 at Washington on the 14th June, by Prof. Henry.—
Researches on electricity produced by mechanical actions, &c.,

by M. L, Joulin. Researches on essence of alan-gilan (Uxona

odoratissima), by M. H. Gal. The author has discovered ben-
zoic acid in this essence, and believes that this is the first instance
of this body being found in an essence, it having hitherto been
found only in the balsams.—Contributions to the history of the
histologic constitution of Moitg’s glarin, by M. A, Bechamp.

This paper related to the gelatinous body found in the sulphurous
springs of the Pyrenees. The author finds that microscopic ex-
amination shows it to be a mass of microzymes imprisoned in'a
hyalin matrix. He has tried various experiments on its action
as a ferment.—On the estimation of the total nitrogen in manures,
by M. H. Pellet—On the estimation of phosphoric acid in
natural phosphates, super-phosphates, and manures, by M.
H. Jouliee—On a process for the estimation of hzmo-
globin in blood, by M. Quinquaud.—On the determina-
tion of the mechanical equivalent of food, by M. A.
Sanson. The author pointed out the immense value to ali
employers of animal motive power, such as military autho-
rities, &c., of the value of a method for ascertaining the value in
work of the forage they use for their horses. He estimated the
value of 1 kilo. of protein in a good average ration, as, in round
numbers, 1,600,000 metre-kilograms, —Experimental researches
on the influence of barometric changes on the phenomena of life,

11th note, by M. P. Bert.

DIARY
THURSDAY, June 26,
Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.
FRIDAY, June 27.

SATURDAY, June 28.
Grotoacists’ AssociaTion.—Excursion to Hatfield.
TUESDAY, Juty x.
Society oF BrsLicaL ARCH OLOGY, at 8.30.—The Fall of Nineveh and the
First Year of Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon: J. W. Bosanquet.
WEDNESDAY, Jury 2.
HorTICULTURAL SocirTy.—Rose Show.

QueketT Cvs, at 8.

BOOKS RECEIVED
EncGiisu.—Field Pocket Book for the Auxiliary Forces: Colonel! Sir
Garnett Wolseley (Macmillan and Co.).—Education of Man (Charles
Griffin & Co.) —Light Science for Leisure Hours. 2nd Series: R
Proctor (Longmans & Co.).—The Old Faith and the New: Dr. F, Strauss
(Asher & Co.) —The Scholar’s Arithmetic: Lewis Hensley (C, P. S. Mac-
millan & Co.).

CONTENTS _ Pate

THe ENDOWMENT oF RESEARCH, I. 6 « «+ » © 9 8s 0 © 6 ESF
CuavuveAu’s ANATOMY OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS . . « + + « 158
Receny ‘Akita merics! Se ee eg
Our Boox:SHeEtr «sale Wee ree ov’ + 160
Lerrers TO THE EpiTorR ;--
Dr. Sanderson's Experiments and Archebiosis.—Dr. CHARLTON
BASTIAN, F.R.S. OO ss cok sab, lene Ge
Spectrum of Nitrogen—Dr. A. Schuster. . . A 161
Ground Tver ed

MULLER; (W. Es HART) «vies: |store
Lotus corniculatus.—T, H. FARRER. . « . . « .

The Respighi and Secchi Methods.—Father Seccut . ». .. .
Gassendi and the Doctrine of Natural Selection.—W. H. BREWER. 162
Care of Monkeys for their Dead . . s) 6 . ss ss a es
Inteilect of Porpoises. -W, Matrigu WituiAms, F.C.S. . . . 163
Instinct . . So '8 Sele! 0 6 86 6x ene

Grus vipio.—W. A. ForBES . 2s) ee 8 0 oe sae cee
On THE SyNTHESIS OF MarsH-GAs AND Formic ACID, AND ON THE
Exectric DecomrosiTion oF CARBONIC Oxipe. By Sir B. C,
Bropig, Bait. FR S. Gieiisuasea oe ay oat isics oa 6 eg eee
Tue Law or Storms Devetoren, III. By Prof. T. B. Maury (With ‘
Lddastration)':.'\.°/5 JRA MEO SOL tM ee ain
ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF INsEcTs, VII. By Sir Joun
Lussock, Bart.. M.P., F.R.S, (Wath Illustrations). . 1 . . » 167
AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITIONS . + . » +s 4» © « «© « » 169
NOTES 65.2) 15h.) RR SY Oy tere) ane es
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. « « 5 + es + + 5 8 + es os 973
1 A Bae ch mie ans Oe sre
Books RECEIVED. . . . “ve booties + + @ + 376

a

NATURE

177

THURSDAY, JULY 3, 1873

AN ORDER OF INTELLECTUAL MERIT

HE many obvious objections that may be urged
fb against the well-meant proposal which Earl
Stanhope brought forward in the House of Lords the
other evening, for the creation of an Order of Merit to
confer upon men who have deserved well of their
country in Literature, Science, and Art, have already been
pretty fully discussed both in the Upper House itself, and
by the daily press. Happily “It is not now as it hath
been of yore ;” the classes for whose behalf it is sought
to create a special Order of Merit, are getting to be
regarded as less and less a peculiar people, both by
themselves and by the public generally. To many it ap-
pears that the creation of any such order would be going
in the face of the progressive tendencies of the age, and,
we are confident, would not be in accordance with the
desires of many of the men whom Lord Stanhope is sin-
cerely anxious to honour. It is well-known, that over and
over again have both academical and imperial honours
been refused by men whom all acknowledge to have
produced works that must be placed in the highest
rank of intellectual products, and they spurn patronage.

The matter is not, however, all one way. The medals
conferred by the Royal Society are really the decorations
of an Order of Merit, election to which, however, lies
in the hands of competent men; and much of the ob-
jection to the creation of an Order of Merit, such as that
proposed by Lord Stanhope, would be done away with
if Government were composed of men as competent to
select the candidates for such an honour, as are the
Fellows of the Royal Society. No doubt as civilisation
based on Science advances, a Government competent to
elect to such an order, as wellas of performing efficiently
all the other functions of a model Government, will be
found at the head of this great country.

Speaking specially for men of Science, for men who
devote to the advancement of scientific knowledge what
leisure they have to spare from the necessary work of
bread-winning, we must at once point out a tremendous
difference between them and those who are generally
classed with them.

The work of the artist and the author is always a
marketable commodity—sometimes a very marketable
one—while the investigation of new scientific truth is
absolutely unremunerative ; all the same, we may safely
say that they seek no such recognition from the State as
is indicated in Lord Stanhope’s proposal.

From the tenor of all the speeches in the Upper
House on Friday night, even those adverse to the
creation of a special Order of Merit, we judge that
the Government, as well as the House of Lords, be-
lieves that men who attain eminence in Science ar2
as deserving of recognition by the State as men who
have distinguished themselves in the army or navy,
in diplomacy or politics. If this is so, then we
are sure we speak the wishes of the great majo-
rity of scientific men when we say that they are
willing to dispense with all hope of ever obtaining any
honour from the State, if Government would do what is

No, 192—VOL, VIII.

without doubt its duty,—eaable those wna hive showa
themselves competent to pursue original scientific re-
search, to devote all their time to this object without
care as to the means of living.

Most of those who, not being rich men, have done
most to advance scientific knowledge have done so in
moments snatched from the duties imposed upon them
by the necessity of procuring the wherewithal to support
life. Many who do the most valuable work in Science,
which is generally o¢ the work that ismost volubly brought
before fashionable audiences, are compelled, for bare life,
to adopt some profession, and almost the only profession
open to men who have qualified themselves for thorough
scientific research, is the profession of teaching. This
profession, it is well known, is one demanding, for the
thorough performance of its duties, a very large expendi-
ture of the highest energy as well as of {time, so that men
of Science of the class we are speaking of, who are com-
pelled to adopt it, have but a small amount of energy and
little time left to devote to that pursuit on which their
heart is set, for which their whole training has qualified
them, and in which they have shown themselves com-
petent to attain the highest results ;—results of the
greatest and most wide-spread value both to our
own country and to humanity generally. Is it not
shameful then, nay does it not argue the greatest blind-
ness on the part of Government to the best interests
of the country, that these men should be compelled to
expend the very best of their valuable and well-skilled
energies in the drudgery of a profession for which they
may by no means be peculiarly fitted, merely to keep
the life in their bodies, while but a very moderate
expenditure on the part of the State, would enable
them to devote, without dread of coming to want,
the whole of their power to the pursuit of that
research, from which the country already has
reaped the highest benefit? Noman whose opinion is
of any value, not even any member of Her Majesty’s
Government, we believe, doubts the eminently practical
utility of scientific research, and the dependence of our
country for its foremost place among the nations of the
world, that it should have at its disposal the highest and
latest results of such research. Instead then of devising
new and empty honours wherewith to reward men who,
amid a life passed in the worry and struggle for existence,
have been able to push forward scientific knowledge a
short stage, would it not be honouring the pioneers of
Science far more, and at the same time making an invest-
ment which ere long would be repaid a hundredfold, if
Government would only bestow upon these men the
means wherewith to do thoroughly, and with all their
might, the unspeakably valuable} work which at present
they can only do by snatches, or be compelled to give up
when probably it is about to bring forth noble results? If
Lord Stanhope and those in both houses of Parliament
who have the wisdom to see wherein the true glory and
highest good of their country consist, would only set
themselves earnestly to devise some plan whereby scien-
tific research could be pursued under the most favourable
circumstances, they would delight the hearts of scientific
men infinitely more than if they heaped upon their beads
all the honours of all the Courts of Europe.

178

COOKERY AT SOUTH KENSINGTON

HE most successful department of the International
Exhibition this year is undoubtedly that connected
with Cookery. Twice a day is alecture delivered on some
practical department of cooking, and at the same time a
demonstration is given by a well-trained group of female
cooks, in a conveniently fitted-up kitchen open to the au-
dience. These lectures are the great attraction of the
Exhibition, and many persons anxious to gain admission
are turned-away for want of space to accommodate them.
This shows, at any rate, on the part of the public, an
appreciation of the subject and a desire to be instructed
as far as possible.
At the same time it is to be lamented that the class of
persons who most need instruetion in cooking do not
attend. The charges cf sixpence and a shilling for

entrance to hear these lectures and see the cooking demon- |
strations must exclude the class of people for whom such |
instruction is most needed. Although there is a wide- |

spread notion that people in England do not know how
to cook at all, yet we question very much if the civilised

world produces better dinners than are to be found daily |
onthe tables of the wealthy classes of England. They |

need not to consult economy either in the cost of mate-
rials of food or its preparation. For them lectures on
cooking are not needed, and even their cooks, who get
from fifty toa hundred poundsa year, could hardly be
instructed by Mr. Buckmaster and his bevy of cleanly
cooks. If anything is wanted by the wealthier classes, it
is a more scientific knowledge of the nature of food and
the processes by which it is prepared for digestion. This
they will not get at South eeneton.. Mr. Buck-
master’s lectures are not intended as a scientific exposi-
tion of the chemical or physical properties of substances
used as diet, or of the way in which they affect the palate
or act on the body. They consist simply of directions
how to prepare dishes, and the cooks in the kitchen
follow his directions. There is no doubt that to
thousands of people this is of great service. No house-
keeper, however low in the scale of society, but must be
benefited by seeing prepared poor man’s soup, omelettes,
macaroni, and Australian meat, in Mr. Buckmaster’s
kitchen. At the same time they will learn only how to
imitate the methods of cooking they have seen: they
will learn no principles. They will hear nothing about
the nature of the materials they see cooked, unless it is
that hot water and heat act upon them to produce the
results théy see. They will see eggs made into an
omelette in a frying-pan, but hear nothing with regard to
the nature of eggs, their value as an article of diet, and
other means ot cooking them besides frying.

Another defect we observed in these lectures was
the truly British defect of ignoring weights and mea-
sures. Mr, Buckmaster’s lecture sounded very like the
magnification of a receipt out ot an ordinary cookery
book. Take a piece of this, a pinch of that, and a hand-
ful, a sprig, a few teaspoonfuls, and so on for every
ingredient used. We know this is the rule of the
kitchen, and any attempt to introduce scales and weights
would be flouted with contempt. It is the same with
temperature ; water is called “ cold,” “warm,” and “hot,”
without the slightest allusion to temperature. Surely

| Mr. Buckmaster’s chef, and the four young female cooks,

[¥uly 3, 1873

in lectures like these accuracy ought to be studied; and
when things can be measured and weighed, so good
an opportunity of teaching the importance of this should
not be lost. It is because of the neglect of these mat-
ters in the kitchens of our wealthier classes that they
seldom have put on their tables dishes two days alike. Nay,
we know more: we tasted some macaroni made bya cook
who had been to Mr. Buckmaster’s lecture, which was no
more like the macaroni made in his kitchen than his was
like plum pudding. This arose entirely from the cook not
measuring rightly the time of cooking the macaroni and
the quantity of the flavouring ingredients.

Now we do not Say it is possible to teach all the science
of cookery in one lecture, but we do say that it is possible
to speak accurately about the wezg/ts of the materials
used, the degrees of Acat to be employed in cookiag, and
the “ve that things require to cook.

We throw out these suggestions in the hope of seeing
them acted upon. There is no doubt that it would be
attended with some difficulty. There is the Italian cook,

all not only to be educated, but to be got into the frame of
mind to submit. We see also that there is a Cookery
Committee, who would, we suppose, have to be consulted 5
but these gentlemen would, we are sure, assist in intro=
ducing so desirable a system of instruction. Mr De
Rivaz is on the Committee, and he is well known for
his book on cookery called “ Round the Table,” as also
for his receipts in the Qveex newspaper.

Whether there is any inténtion on the part of this Com-
mittee to extend the lectures, and give a course on cookery
comprising the teaching of the elements of the sciences in-
volved in the facts acted upon in the kitchen, we do not
know, but this would be a worthy object and probably
would succeed, as the public is evidently disposed to listen
to the subject. It must, however, be done at once, and
done in the International Exhibition. It cannot be dotle
at South Kensington; the experiment has been tried there
and failed. The country gentlemen in the House of
Commons do not see their way to voting public money
for the instruction of people in London. Whether done
in London or the country, such courses of instruction
would be a capital way of getting a little scientific know-
ledge into the heads of people edgeways, as it weré.

But now we come to the question of opening the presént
lectures to the poor. These lectures were intended for
their instruction and got up in their interest, but they are
conspicuous by their absence at these lectures. The whole
Exhibition is open to them for a shilling, and when they
have screwed this sum out of their hard-earned wages, and
paid fora crust of bread and cheese and half-a-pint of beer,
they have nothing to spare for learning cookery. Yet we are
quite sure the money would be well spent. The persons
in the community who suffer most for want of economy
in cookery are the very poor. They buy their food in the
most expensive way, by buying it in small quantities, and
when they have got it they know less than any class how
to cook, They know nothing of the way of making, or of
the economy of using soup. They hardly know the differ-
ence between warm, hot, and boiling water in cooking
food. The fact is, we believe, that half the food of this
class is really lost for the want of a knowledge of the
proper means of cooking it. To such people these lectures

aS a. s

— Se eS

,

Fuly 3, 1873]

NATURE

179

should be open at the cost of a penny or twopence each
lecture ; and that each person of this class who attends
the Exhibition should have the benefit of the lectures and
demonstrations, these should be more frequent, and the
theatre larger.

Something may be done before the Exhibition closes ;
but the cookery question is a permanent one. Cannot
something be done to establish a School of Cookery, in
which teaching such as is now going on at the Interna-
tional show can be carried on continuously? We can
conceive such an institution possible, and even self-sup-
porting, The whole of the middle and upper classes are
interested in getting good cooks, and the school boards
should be urged to allow their elder female pupils to
attend the instructions given in such an institution. This
would be an immense economy to all, for it would save a
large portion of that waste which now goes on in every
household, in teaching girls to become the sort of cooks
they are.

If girls and women could be sent to such a school with
a previous elementary knowledge of chemistry, physiology,
and natural philosophy, they would derive more advan-
tage than they would otherwise get from the necessarily
short courses in such a school. In short it comes to this,
that nearly all the details of practical life are dependent
on facts which are comprehended in the various branches
of scientific knowledge ; and it is only as men and women
are taught the nature of these facts that society can pro-
gress and man attain the highest possibilities of civili-
sation, E. LANKESTER

COX’S POPULAR PSYCHOLOGY

What am I? A Popular Introduction to Mental Philo-
sophy and Psychology. Vol. I. The Mechanism of
Man. By Edward William Cox, Serjeant-at-law. (Long-
mans and Co.)

O doubt many of the Serjeant’s friends will read his
1 popular introduction to the study of psychology, and
think it very profound, and many of them, especially his
lady friends, charmed with the vague denunciation of
** Scientists” and materialists, the religious element, the
quackery of science, and the scraps of poetry, will be
able to tell him in all sincerity that they think it “a very
nice book.” But from those whose opinion is worth the
paper it is written on, Mr. Cox has nothing to hope. The
first sentence of the preface declares that “ The study of
psychology has not kept pace with the progress of the
physical sciences.” The truth of this statement must be
painfully brought home to every real student of psycho-
logy, by the fact that a man possessing the intelligence
and general culture of Mr. Cox could write such a book,
and that educated people will be found to read it. We
can agree with the author that there is at the present time
room for a work presenting the leading truths of mental
science in, if possible, a popular shape. But surely one
qualification of the writer who would make such a book
for the benefit of the “many persons who desire to obtain
some knowledge of psychology, but who are deterred from
its study by the ponderous volumes of abstruse argument
. . - intelligible, only to the far advanced philosopher,”
must be, that he is himself up with the best science ol

the day, that he has made himself acquainted with “the
ponderous volumes of abstruse argument.” Unfortunately
Mr. Cox does not appear to have taken this view of the
matter. In setting himself to produce an “ outline of the

| science of psychology written in plain language,” he has,

in plain language, attempted work for which he is no
more qualified than an ordinary farm labourer is qualified
to translate Homer into the vernacular of his native
village.

Like books of its class the volume before -us is rich
in curious absurdities of presumption, For instance,
scientific men are very severely taken to task for their
lamentable want of scientific method ; and there is no end to
the tirade against materialists, metaphysicians, and mental
philosophers. Who these greatest of sinners are, we can-
not tell ; for Mr. Cox prudently refrains from mentioning
names. Nor are we told very precisely what are the
particularly damnable heresies with which they have
poisoned the public mind; indeed, it would appear that
mindful of the good old proverb that one cannot touch
tar without being defiled, Mr. Cox has been careful to
keep his own mind at an angry distance from all their
evil thinking. It may however aniuse some of our readers
to know what, according to Mr, Cox, is not materialism,
while it will enable all to estimate the claim of the
writer to rank as a psychologist. This is spiritualism :
“ Rightly, then to conceive of spirit, the first step is clearly
to comprehend that it is not, and cannot be, zvmaterial
—but only that it is composed of very refined matter—
so refined that it is imperceptible to our bodily senses,
which are adapted only to perceive certain forms of
matter that affect ourselves.” “ The soul, therefore, being
composed of molecules infinitely finer than the molecules
of the body—as fine possibly -as those of the comet,
could, with the utmost ease, permeate the body, infusing
itself among all the atoms of which the body is built,
and thus occupy the whole frame ; ” and as a consequence
“the shape of the soul must be the shape of the body.”
The soul here spoken of is not “the mind” nor the “ life,”
but the proprietor of the body, the mind, and the life.
As Mr. Cox’s “inquiry is designed to be purely scéentific,’
and is “ addressed mainly to those who reject the authority
of the theologian,” we must give one specitnen of the
scientific arguments, in support of the existence of this
entity, which scientists ia their stupidity have hitherto
failed to appreciate. Here is the best one :—* Does any
sane man ever talk or write of his mind or his life as
‘Me?’ Does he not always say ‘ my mind,’ ‘your mind,
‘my life, ‘your lifey—that is to say ‘the mind, the life,
—that belongs to me,’ ‘the life—the mind—that belongs
to you.” We hope the learned serjeant does better than
this when he has a concrete mortal for a client. Without
going farther a-field for an answer it must be sufficient
to remind him that we not only say “ zy mind,” and “ your
mind,” but also “ zy soul,” and “ your soul,” “myself,” and
“ yourself.” Who, or what is the “ Ze,” which according
to the profound word-argument must exist as the pro-
prietor of the sov/ and the se/f? This very refined exist-
ence has not yet got a name ; but perhaps Mr. Cox, now
his attention has been called to it, will be able to tell us in
his second volume (which already promises to be much
more interesting than the one before us) what Sort of
matter it is made of, its shapé, and its dwelling place.

180

NATURE

[Fuly 3. 1873

Oae word more, if men will write nonsense, they might at | should differ from the German professor ; with whom we

least endeavour to write original nonsense. It is sad t>
think that even young ladies should have to admire the
old empty sentences in every new book. S.

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Darwinian T. heory and the Law of the Migration
of Organisms. By Moritz Wagner; translated by J.
L. Laird. (Sandford.)

AFTER the perusal of the preface to this pamphlet, the
reader will expect to find that a serious objection to the
Dar vinian hypothesis has been detected, and that what
is to follow will, by the introduction of a ‘new law, clear
up the assumed difficulty, and immortalise its discoverer.

“The Law of the Migration of Organisms” of Prof.
Wagner is that it is only by the isolated migration of
single individuals from the station of their species, that
natural selection could and can be effected, and that only
by this means new varieties of plants and animals could
arise in the past as well as in the present. This law is
based on the considerations that the greater the change
to which individuals are subjected on migration from their
homes to some fresh locality, the greater will be their
tendency to vary, and the less they have the opportunity
of crossing with the parent stock, the more permanent
will variations become. Most of the observations on
which these arguments are founded have been arrived at
from the author’s researches on the distribution of insects
and plants ; and he has been led to propose it, because,
as he says, “ Darwin’s work neither satisfactorily explains
the external cause which gives the first impuls2 to in-
creased individual variability, and consequently to natural
selection; nor that condition which, in connection with a
certain advantage in the struggle for life, renders the new
characteristic indispensable.”

To us it is not easy to see what direct bearing this law
has on the theory of natural selection, for it seems to be
nothing but one of the many deductions of Lamarck’s
theory of the origin of species. It is evident that on
that very ingenious but equally inefficient hypothesis,
the removal of individuals from their homes to some other
locality in which the temperature and food are different,
would cause them to vary ; and that if the so modified
forms are allowed again to mix with those which have
not altered their position, the induced peculiarities will
disappear. But, though by artificial selection an appa-
rently similar result may be attained, yet in a wild state
this is hardly the sequence of events which the evolu-
tion hypothesis supposes. According to it, the forces
which come into play affect large numbers, and being
generally comparable in degree and gradual in their
action, those individuals which escape change in one
direction are almost certain to undergo some equally con-
siderable modification in another; consequently there
will at no time be left any of the original unmodified
stock for the varieties to intermix with, as required
in the theory under consideration, at the same time
that the effect of simple change of locality in producing
new and well-marked varieties has not been conclusively
proved.

From the study of the breeds of horses and cattle,
Prof. M. Wagner is convinced that the invariable result
of intercrossing is uniformity, and that only in connection
with isolation is natural selection able to come into play.
This, as do many other remarks throughout this pamphlet,
shows clearly that its author does not really recognise the
point of Mr. Darwin’s great theory, and that whilst under
the idea that he is attempting to modify it, he is really
discussing another, but distantly related, and much less
important problem. Such being the case, it is not sur-
prising that the author of the theory of Natural Selection

also cannot agree in thinking that “perhaps that gene-
rous British naturalist, who is always open to conviction,
after calmly weighing his reasons and data, may yet be
induced to modify his opinions.”

A Practical Manual of Chemical Analysis ana Assay-
ing, as applied to the Manufacture of Iron from is
Ores, and to Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel as
found inCommerce. By L. L. de Koninck, Dr, Sc.,
and E. Dietz. Edited, with notes, by Robert Mallet,
F.R,S., F.G.S., M.LC.E., &c. (London: Chapman
and Hall, 1872.)

THE above little work appeared at Litge in 1871, and
as it was well arranged, succinct, and clear in its descrip-
tions, Mr. Mallet considered it worthy of translation. The
plan is similar to that of Fresenius’s well-known quanti-
tative analysis, the reagents being described first, then
the apparatus and operations, and then the practical
application to the special class of work to which the
book is devoted. On the whole we cannot help
thinking that too much space is given to matter
with which every person ought to be thoroughly familiar
before he attempts to make a practical application of his
chemical knowledge. The supercession of the skilled
chemist by the “tolerably intelligent man” mentioned by
the editor in his preface is not, we think, a desirable re-
form. The editor’s notes consist of some four and twenty
pages of small print at the end of the book, and they are
full of valuable suggestions. His remarks on the con-
struction and arrangement of the laboratory of an iron-
work are particularly worthy of attention. The book
concludes with a table of atomic weights, one for the
conversion of English weights and measures, with their
metrical equivalents, and one of constants for calculating
percentages of substances found. The book will no
doubt prove very useful in its special field,

Verhandlungen der k.-k. Zoologisch-botanischen Gesell-
schaft in Wien. Jahrgang, 1872, 22° Band, (Leipzig
Brockhaus.)

THE annual volume of “ Transactions of the Zoological
and Botanical Society of Vienna” contains, as usual, a
number of interesting and valuable articles. The papers
are almost entirely systematic and descriptive :—On the
flora of Poland (the longest paper in the volume); on
birds from the shores of China and Japan ; on the lichens
of the Tyrol ; on a collection of birds from Australia ; on
the bees of Germany; on North American Micro-Lepi-
doptera ; on the oak-galls of Central Europe; and others
of a similar character. Physiological or anatomical con-
tributions occupy but a small portion of the volume, which
is illustrated by seven plates.

The Art of Grafting and Budding. By Charles Baltet.
(London : W. Robinson, 1873.)

THE various modes of the reproduction of plants com-
prised under the designations grafting, budding, layering,
&c., have been more scientifically studied and carried to
greater perfection by gardeners in France than in Eng-
land. Baltet’s “L’Art de Greffer” is the text-book on
this branch of horticulture, and of this little volume we
have here a translation, although the omission to note
this fact on the title-page might give unwary purchasers
who have not dipped into the preface the impression that
it is an original work, M. Baltet is so successful a fruit-
grower, and his manual is so well and favourably known,
that no apology was necessary in furnishing the English
reader with a translation of it, which will be an indis-
pensable companion to all engaged in horticulture. At the
end of the volume is a useful list of the more commonly
grown trees and shrubs, with instructions as to the best
kind of stock on which to graft them, and the method to
be pursued ; though it is a pity that the translator did not

| Fuly 3, 1873]

oye ras
s ares - er,

NATURE

181

take the trouble to re-arrange them in some order more
intelligible to the English reader than that of the alpha-
betical sequence cf the common French names.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Tue Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Dr. Bastian’s Turnip-Cheese Experiments

From Dr. Bastian’s letter in last week’s NATURE I learn that
my last communication has afforded him satisfaction. The grati-
fication which I feel at this expression of his approval is mixed
with some surprise; for however confirmatory my experiments
may be of his, so. far as relates to the bare fact that boiling is
insufficient to destroy the germinating power of the turnip-
cheese liquid, they certainly do not tell in favour of the inference
which he is understood to draw from that fact.

The experiments which’ Dr. Bastian was kind enough to show me
last December were regarded by him as unequivocal instances of
spontaneous generation. He will remember that at that time I
stated to him, both orally and in writing, that the significance of
the results in their relation to the doctrine of heterogenesis,
appeared to me to be doubtful, and that I thought it probable
that they would be interpreted by different persons in opposite
senses, according to their preconceived opinions. I expressed
myself in a similar manner at a discussion which took place
on the subject last winter at the Royal Society. It was
for the purpose of clearing up this doubt that I made the experi-
ments recorded in my last communication. I did not expect to
prove that the production of Bacteria in Dr. Bastian’s experi-
ments was zof spontaneous, but merely to determine whether the
fact afforded any support to the opposite conclusion.

Having first shown that living organisms increase and multiply
in the liquid in question, when boiled at the ordinary temperature,
under circumstances which absolutely preclude the introduction
of living matter from without, I prove that under otherwise
similar conditions this result is not obtained when the liquid is
subjected to ebullition at a slightly higher temperature. 1 show
further that the liquideven when heated to 102°'5 C. suffers no
impairment of its power of supporting the life of Bacteria, for by
inoculating it with a drop of ordinary distilled water it at once
becomes pregnant. Hence I conclude, not that spontaneous
generation is impossible, but that the particular experiment in
question is not an instance of it, and that no argument founded
on it in favour of the doctrine is of the slightest value.

Itis unnecessary for me to occupy your space by at any
length adverting to the side questions raised by Dr. Bastian in

the other paragraphs of his letter.
In examining the liquids within a few days after heating
rather than later, I followed his own method.

I made no attempt to determine the temperature of ebullition
in flasks with capillary orifices, because I know of no method by
which it could be done accurately. Besides, it was not required
for my purpose.

I employed the word ‘‘chance” in its ordinary sense. In the
sentence t2 which Dr. Bastian refers I explained that, although
there may be a limit of temperature at which a liquid, before
possessing the power of breeding Bacteria, is deprived of that
power, experiments such as mine are insufficient to define that
limit, As regards the turnip-cheese liquid it has been shown that
between the temperatures of 100° and 102° C., the probability of
pregnancy diminishes rapidly as the temperature increases. It is
not as yet possible to say at what point the probability vanishes.

University College, June 30 J. BURDON SANDERSCN

The Zodiacal Light

ConTRARY to Mr. Hall’s experience of astronomical books (see
NATORE, vol. viii. p. 7), in neither Herschel’s *‘ Outlines of Astro-
nomy,” Humboldt’s ‘‘ Cosmos,” nor Guillemin’s ‘* Heavens,” can
I find any hint of a permanent difference between the brightness
of the zodiacal light east of the sun and west ef it, though Arago’s
** Popular Astronomy” says that according to Cassini, ‘‘it is
generally less lively and less extended in the morning than in the
evening.” But even if Cassini was correct, this is no positive
proof of any difference between the two ‘‘branches” of the
zodiacal light at the same time, seeing that he lived in the tem-

perate zone, and probably did not observe it in both morning
and evening at the same time of year. Mr. Hall’s situation in
Jamaica is favourable for investigating this point, and I should
not wonder if he finds the fact different from what he supposes.
But even the books that consider the zodiacal light to surround
the sun in the shape of a lens, acknowledge that it may extend
further one way than another, and further at one time than
another. T. W. BackuousE

Sunderland, June 7

AT about half-past one in the morning of June 5, the sky wa'
clear, but the stars were not very brilliant, on account of the dif-
fused light, and consequently the Eastern branch of the Zodiacal
Light was very faint ; as I was endeavouring to trace its course,
a strong beam of light appeared so suddenly as to have quite a
startling effect ; it was not shot out like the rays of the Aurora
Borealis, but gathered strength throughout its whole course,
which lay through Aquarius, over the stars a and 6 Capricorni,
through Sagittarius, across the Milky Way, and through Scorpio,
passing to the N. of Antares; its visible length was therefore
upwards of 100°, and as I was about to make accurate observa-
tions, it suddenly disappeared, having lasted somewhat less than
one minute.

Its course was therefore nearly parallel to the Ecliptic, and
about 6° to the N. of it; its breadth was from 3° to 4°; its
brilliancy was equal to that of the brightest part of tae Milky
Way, through which it passed, and therefore allowed me to
judge very accurately ; and it had no colour.

Now Humboldt says in his ‘‘ Cosmos,” * ‘* T have occasionally
been astonished, in the tropical climates of South America, to
observe the variable intensity of the Zodiacal Light,” and he
considered the variation to be due to atmospheric changes, as I
myself have hitherto done ; but in the case above no ordinary
atmospheric changes could have produced the effect observed.

It occurred June 4d. 18h. gom. Greenwich mean time, and it
would be very interesting to know whether the magnetic instru-
ments were affected at any part of the earth.

Jamaica, June 1873 MAXWELL HALL

Meteorological Influence of Trap Rocks

THE thermometer in a mine, or coal-pit, rises, according to
Herschel, 1° for every 90 feet of descent, or 58° per mile; and,
according to Clerk Maxwell, the rate of increase in this country
is 1° for every 50 feet of descent. These results are obtained in
passing through a very small portion of the superficial crust of
the earth ; such, for example, asa part of the coal formation,
which possesses.a very low degree of conductivity. We can
hardly, indeed, conceive a worse conductor thana crust consisting
of alternating strata of freestone, shale, till, coal, limestone, &c.
But these strata are very frequently perforated by comparatively
homogeneous intrusions in the form of trap dykes, which not
only possess greater conductivity, but which, from the analogy
presented by volcanoes, \ery probably extend down to the molten
matter subjacent to the external crust of the earth. Such trap
dykes may be compared to an iron poker thrust through the super-
ficial strata having its lower end ina state of fusion, and its upper
end kept cool by radiation into the atmosphere. Through any
continuous dyke, if this view be correct, there will therefore be a
more rapid escape of heat ; and when such igneous rocks occupy
spaces of many square miles of the earth’s surface, one would,
at first sight, expect them to play a very important part in affect-
ing the meteorological conditions of the district in which they
are found. They might be expected, by the large amount of heat
which they conducted freely to the earth’s surface, to stimulate
the growth of plants ; and by the radiation of the liberated heat
into the atmosphere, they ought to become—especially during
night—the generators of storms, by causing a constant ascent of
rarefied air. It is quite true, however, that the meteorological
effects of such an agent must, as in the case of volcanoes, be
observed by the far grander cycle of disturbances initiated by the
solar heat ; and that its agricultural efficiency may be, to a large
exteat, negatived by differences of chemical constitution, acidity,
and exposure, Still, however, the influence is there, and ought,
in one way or other, to make itself sensible. ;

Do any of your readers possess information bearing upon this
question? Such, for example, as experiments on the con-
ductivity of the different kinds of trap as compared with the
stratified rocks, or observations of the temperature of the air,
especially during nizht, above trap-rocks as compared with that

* Otte’s transl., vol. i, p. x32,

182

NATURE

[Fuly 3, 1873

of the air above surrounding districts of the coal measures, or

statistics of the fertility and periods of fructification of crops

under similar differences of conditions. Of course the great

ditficulty affecting the last point is the difference in the chemicai

constitution of the soils produced by the decomposition of trap

and stratified rocks. THOMAS STEVENSON
Edinburgh, June 21

Winters and Summers

A FRIEND writes to me :—‘‘ From my observations of climate
here (Belfast) I should say that I never saw a severe winter fol-
lowed by a really fine summer. The severest winters I remember
were those of 1854-5, and 1859-60. The summer of 1855 was
very wet, and that of 1860 deplorable. The finest summers I
remember were those of 1842, 1857, and 1868; in every case
the preceding winter was very mild.”

I would add to this, that the severe winters of 1865 and 1870
were not followed by remarkably fine summers. The harvest
weather of 1866 was unusually bad.

Can any of your readers throw light on this subject from care-
fully kept registers ? JosErH JOHN Murry

Old Forge, Dunmurry, June 6

Cyclones

Mr. Maury’s theory of Cyclones, as stated in NATURE of
the rgth, is, in my opinion, true and valuable. I hope you will
permit me to call the attention of your readers to my letter in
Nature, Vol. iv. p. 305, where it will appear that I had inde-
pendently arrived at the conclusion stated by him, “that the
origin of cyclones is found in the tendency of the south-east
trade-winds to invade the north-east trades by sweeping over the
equator into our hemispheres’ Only the words ‘‘south-east ”
and ‘north-east ” must exchange places, and ‘‘the opposite
hemisphere,” must be read, instead of ‘* our hemisphere,”’ if we
are to apply the theory to the cyclones of the Southern Indian
Ocean and of the Southern Pacific. On this latter subject, see
Mr. Woaitmee’s letter in \NaATURE, vol. vi. p. 121.

I wish, however, to call your attention to what I think an
error in the diagram of the winds, which Mr. Maury reprints
from Prof. Ferrel. It represents the winds at the surface of the
earth in the Polar regions as blowing in nearly the same direction
as the trade winds, This appears mechanically impossible, and
T cannot think that Prof. Coffin’s data are extensive enough as
regards the Polar regions. As the late Capt. Maury remarks,
the west winds of the higher and middle latitudes constitute
‘an everlasting cyclone on a great scale ;” that is to say, a vast
vortex whereof the poleis the centre. But it appears impossible
that the direction of the motion of a vortex should be reversed at
its centre. JoserH JOHN MurPHY

Old Forge, Dunmurry, June 24

A Mirage in the Fens

As the phenomenon called Mirage is not very common in this
country, though more frequent in the Fens, perhaps, than else-
where, [ presume that a description of one which was seen on
Thursday, May 29, last, will be interesting to the readers of
NaTURE.

Driving from Wisbech towards Thorney on the morning
named, I stopped at Guyhirne, and my friend, Mr. S. B. J.
Skertchley, of H. M. Geological Survey, who accompanied me,
mounted the parapet of the bridge of the March and Spalding
Railway, to view the Fens from that elevation, and then called
my atteation to what appeared a beautiful lake spread out a few
miles distant. The illusory waters were of a bluish grey cvlour,
and being apparently raised from the level, presented the per-
spective of a Mere of considerable breadth. But this was not a
dull expanse ; there were variously formed indentations—islands
dotted here and there, pollard willows inverted, and the reflec-
tion of tall poplars and elms on the glassy surface. The use of
my field-glass only brought these features more distinctly to the
eye. As we stood on the bridge, we were looking from W. by
S. to W. Whittlesea Church was eight miles distant, and
Thorney Abbey seven miles. The mirage was stretched ont
from Eastern Fen over Prior's Fen to the west of Thorney, #7,
three or four miles. It was 11 o'clock. There was a fresh
breeze from N.E, ; the sky was not half obscured by cloud ; the
barometer stood high, being four degrees difference between the

dry and wet bulb thermometers at 9 A.M. All these conditions
were favourable to evaporation ; there had been more than half
an inch of rain the Monday previous. Mr. S. had witnessed a
similar phenomenon from another point of view (see NATURE,
vol. ii. p. 337) in 1870, when he saw it both E. and W. of his
position, but on Thursday last there was not even a mist in any
other part of the horizon. On both occasions the wind was N.E.
It may be interesting to know whether these phenomena appear
with a mild and moist S.W. or W. bre€ze.

Wisbech, June 5 Sami, H. MILLER

The Westerly Progress of Cities

REFERRING to Mr. W. F. Barrett’s letter I would remark
that there is a similar phrase, viz the westerly or north-westerly
progress of nations, which is intimately connected with “the
westerly progress of cities,” and the former helps to explain the
latter. As a rule the more westerly of two peoples inhabiting a
country is there by compulsion, having been driven thither by
the invader who, as a rule, makes the attack from the east.
The remnants of the ancient Celtic race, inhabiting portions of
the western shores and highlands of Spain, France, and the
British Isles, are an evidence of this. We see the same process
going on now in America: the aborigines being driven before
the invader, to the west. There are insignificant exceptions,
both in ancient and modern times, but they only prove the
tule. :

So much then for the westerly among the peoples of a land:
they are in the west by violent compulsion. Among the inhabi-
tants of a city the westerly are there also by compulsion—not a
compulsion by violence, but by uncomfortable pressure; in
which case it is the powerful or wealthy who retire before the
weaker or poorer.

The very fact of the westerly progress of nations establishes
the further fact that what becomes afterwards more or less the
eastern part of the city is the older and that where the first
habitations were erected. An exception would be such a case
as a city built on a western coast without any adjacent country
to the west. Here the wealthy in retiring before their less for-—
tunate fellow-citizens must necessarily go more or less to the
east. B. G. JENKINS

London, June 9

To the instances of ‘‘ westing ” adduced by Mr. W. F. Barrett
as occurring in the large towns of the Old World it is desirable
to add that a similar tendency prevails in the large towns of the
New, excepting, of course, the cases in which physical barriers ~
impede or prevent it. ctu

It should be observed, also, "that this westward current of
progress in cities appears to be but the special manifestation of
a principle much more general—the direction of great emigra-
tions and of the advance of civilisation, apparently in pre-historic
and certainly throughout historical times, having been uniformly
towards the west. Gus

How does the Cuckoo deposit her Eggs?

A FEW days ago while examining a reed bed in the fens of
Lincolnshire, near Wainfleet, [ found a Reed Warbler’s nest, in
which was deposited a Cuckoo’s egg. From the shape of the
nest, which was very narrow and deep, and from the posttion of
the nest, which was built on slender reeds, on the outer edge of
the bed, it was utterly impossible that the egg could have been
laid, as, in the first place, the nest was far too small for so large
a bird as the cuckoo tositin ; and in the second, the weight of the
bird would have inevitably swamped the nest. Does not this fact
go far, at any rate, to confirm the theory held by many ornitho-
logists to be the correct one, that the female cuckoo drops her
eggs into nests by means of her bill, as it is well known she is
provided by Nature with an enlargement in the throat, in which
the egg could be carried in safety during her flight in search of a
suitable place in which to deposit it. I give here a quotation
from Bewick on the subject -—

‘* Naturalists are not agreed as to whether the female cuckoo
lays her egg at once in the nest of another bird, or whether she
lays it first on the ground, and then, seizing it with her bill, con-
veys it in her throat (supposed to be enlarged for this purpose)
to the nest which is to be its depository.”

I should be glad if any of your correspondents will inform me
if the male bird has a like enlargement in the throat, or is it only
to be found in the hen? 8 +.) T. Aupas

Regent's Terrace, Hull

—

eee

NATURE

183

THE LATE MR. ARCHIBALD. SMITIT

M R, ARCHIBALD SMITH was born at Glasgow
in 1813; his father, Mr. James Smith, of Jordan-
hill, Lanarkshire, was well known as a geologist, and as
the author of a learned and critical work on the Voyage
and Shipwreck of St. Paul.
At the University of Glasgow Mr. Smith was a con-
temporary of the late Norman McLeod and of the present

‘Archbishop of Canterbury, with both of whom he retained

a friendship through life.

Fram Glasgow he went to Trinity College, Cambridge,
where, while still an undergraduate, he commenced to
contribute papers to the Mathematical journals ; his first,
a most important paper “On the Equation to Fresnel’s
Wave Surface,” is an excellent example of the extreme
neatness and elegance of his style; it was published
under the signature A. S. in the Cambridge Phil. Frans.
and ja the Phil, Magazine.

He, hawever, as the result well showed, did not allow
his amateur mathematics to interfere with the regular
course of Tripos reading, and he also found time for a
good share of athletic exercise. He pulled in the Trinity
boat of which the late Lord Justice Selwyn was stroke ;
all the oars in- that boat were reading men, and were
familiarly known as “ Peacock’s examples” (Peacock
being a well-known tutor of the day). It was no doubt
owing to Mr. Smith’s strong physical constitution which
was thus well trained in early life, that he was able so
long to sustain the great strain of mental effort and the
want of rest to which he never scrupled to subject himself
in after years when occasion required.

In 1836 he finished his undergraduate’s career by
taking the first place in the mathematical tripos as well
as the first Smith’s prize, and he was soon after elected a
Fellaw of his College. The second wrangler of his year
was Hishap Colenso. :

Having chosen the profession of the Chancery Bar,
Mr, Smith became a pupil and a friend of Mr. James
Parker, afterwards Vice-Chancellor, and is said to have
acquired the sound legal learning and careful method
which distinguished that judge, It was during the inter-
vals of his laborious Chancery practice that he found time
for the long serjes of magnetic investigations which has
ni him famous throughout Europe.

is connection with Magnetic Science arose from
intimacy with Sir Edward Sabine, the late distinguished
president of the Royal Society, and who was interested in
the questian of the Deviation of the Compass, first as
member ef a cammittee appointed by the Admiralty to
consider the question, and afterwards as having under-
taken the reduction and publication of the magnetic ob-
seryatians made by Sir James Ross in his Antarctic

voyage

lethe Bl 1842 to 1847 Mr. Smith, at General (then
Colonel) Sabine’s request, deduced from Poisson's general
equations, formule for the correction of the observations

. made on board ship. These were published in successive

numbers of Sabine’s “ Contributions to Terrestrial Mag-
netism,” in the Transactions of the Royal Society.

Ia 1851, at the request of Captain Johnson, the superin-
tendent of the Compass Department of the Royal Navy,
he deduced from the formule the convenient tabular
forms, and computed the auxiliary tables for determining
the co-efficients A, B, C, D, E, which have ever since been
in use. ‘hese were published by the Admiralty in suc-
cessive editions, but without the demonstrations or
formule.

In 1859 Mr. Archibald Smith edited and published the
voyage of Scoresby to Australia, which was undertaken
chiefly for magnetic research ; and in his introduction
gave, for the first time, the exact formule for the effect of

the iron of a ship on the compass, the former approximate | few hours’ duration,

formulz being found insufficient,

Se ee as

In 1862 he, conjointty with Captain Evans, the present
chief of the Compass department, prepared the Admiralty
Compass Manual, a book which has since been translated
into French, German, Russian, and Portuguese, and
gone through three editions. The work is divided into
four parts, the first of which contains practical rules to
enable a seaman by the process of swinging his ship to
obtain a table of the deviations of the compass aq each
point, and then to apply the tabular corrections to the
courses steered. The second part is a description of
“Napier’s graphic method,” the practical advantages of
which are that it enables the navigator from observations
of deviations made on any number of courses, whether
equi-distant or not, to construct a curve in which the
errors of observation are as far as possible mutually com-
pensated, and which gives him the deviation as well on
the compass courses as on the correct magnetic courses.
Part IEE. contains the practical application to this subject
of mathematical formulz derived from the fundamental
equations deduced by Poisson from Coulomb's theory of
magnetism. Prior to this time it was considered suf-
ficient to use approximate formule, going as far only
as terms involving the first powers of the co-efficients of
deviation ; but the very Jarge deviations found in iron-
plated ships of war rendered it desirable to use in certain
cases the exact instead of the approximate formule, and
this part was therefore re-written. The fourth part of the
“Manual” contains charts of the lines of equal variation,
equal dip, and equal horizontal force over the globe; the
first for the purpose of enabling the navigator at sea to
determine the deviation by astronomical observations, the
two latter to throw light on the changes which the devia-
tions undergo in a lengthened voyage, and to enable the
navigator to anticipate the changes which will take place
on a change of geographical position.

All Mr. Smith's investigations were undertakea as
labours of love ; but we must not leave unnoticed some
of the recognitions which he received.

In the year 1865 one of the Royal medals of the Royal
Society was awarded to him, and he was elected a corre-
sponding member of the Naval Scientific Committee of
Russia; in the following year the Emperor of Russia,
with a most complimentary letter, presented him with a
gold compass emblazoned with the Imperial .arms, and
set with brilliants.

Recently, too, our own Government offered him a
present of 2,000/., and intimated the fact to him in a

andsome letter from the First Lord of the Admiralty,
begging his acceptance, not by way of recompense, but
as a mark of the high appreciation which the Goyern-
ment had for the services he had rendered.

The history of Mr. Archibald Smith's legal life is soon
told. He attained the reputation of being an eminently
concise and perspicuous draughtsman, and made a prac-
tice at the bar which was above the average both in
extent and importance.

When Sir James Parker was made Vice-Chancellor he
appointed Mr. Smith his Secretary ; but the early death
of Sir James brought these duties to a close, Later, a
Judgeship in Queensland was offered to him, which he
declined. It is said that the important change which
has substituted figures for words as to dates and sums
occurring in bills in Chancery was made at the suggestion
of Mr. Archibald Smith. ;

In 1868, when the Universities of Glasgow and Aber-
deen were formed into a parliamentary constituency the
liberal electors chose Mr. Smith as their candidate, and
they did their best, though without avajl, to bring him in
for the new seat.

About two years ago he was compelled by ill-health to
give up work ; but he had greatly rallied ; and the attack
which ended fatally was totally unexpected, and of but a
In private life thase who knew Mr.

| Smith best admired him most; he leaves unnumbered

184

NATURE

| Fuly 3, 1873

friends to testify to the noble simplicity of his dispo- | greatest difficulties of the experiment, for that speed is

sition, and to the true warmth of his heart, which was
always open amongst his multifarious and engrossing
work.

NEW EXPERIMENTS FOR THE DETERMI-
NATION OF THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT BY
M, ALFRED CORNU

2 ve exact value of the velocity of light is equally in-
teresting to astronomers and physicists. It is in-
teresting to astronomers, for it enables us to calculate an
important and not exactly known number, namely, the
distance from the sun to the earth, for which cause the
learned world is looking forward with so much im-
patience to the passage of Venus on the disc of the sun,
as the observation of this phenomenon, it is hoped,
will fill up this chasm, It is interesting to physicists
likewise, it is evident, but especially since the remarkable
researches* of Prof. Clerk-Maxwell, who has found an
unexpected relation between the theories of light and
electricity.

M. Alfred Cornu’s experiments, to which we now call
attention, have for these reasons a great interest.

The first who busied himself with this difficult question
was Rcemer, a Dane, at the Observatory of Paris, where
Picart had called him ; but the observation of the eclipses
of Jupiter’s satellites, although giving a pretty good value
of the velocity of light, offers, notwithstanding, some
causes of error, especially the difference of brightness of
Jupiter's satellites at their maximum or minimum distance
from the earth ; and it requires moreover an exact value of
the diameter of the terrestrial orbit.

M. Fizeau (1849) showed that it was not necessary to
employ astronomical phenomena, and that it was possible
on the surface of the earth to make use of relatively short
distances, such as four or five English miles. This rather
bold experiment was much spoken of, He operated be-
tween Montmartre and Suresnes, near Paris, at a distance
of about five English miles and a half.

Léon Foucault, some time after, putting into execution
a project of Arago, proposed another method founded on
the revolving mirror of Sir Ch, Wheatstone. The value
obtained by him, 189,000 miles (298,000 kilometres) was
made use of by astronomers, who deduced for the paral-
lax of the sun a number (8”. 86), that is in concordance
with the best observations of the transit of Venus.

The number obtained at first by M. Fizeau was higher,
but it was given by him, who dwelt upon all the diffi-
culties of such a measurement, with hesitation.

M. Alfred Cornu left aside Foucault’s method (viz.,
that of the revolving mirror) which is liable to serious
objections, and employed that of M. Fizeau, although he
had tried the two methods of experiment at the Poly-
technic School, where many physicists were able to see
them.

M. Fizeau’s method is free from all objection. A
ray of light is sent between the teeth of a cog-wheel,
and it is reflected at a great distance, so as to bring it
back to the point of departure. If the revolving motion
given to the wheel is sufficiently rapid, the ray on its way
back meets a tooth, instead of a free passage, and does not
pass through ; when the speed is double, the ray meets
the following interval, and passes through again, and so
forth alternately for increasing rates of revolution.

Thus the returning ray alternately presents a minimum
(or an extinction) and a maximum; but the speed of
rotation (in order to be measured) must be kept constant
during several seconds in those moments ; it is one of the

vite See knows that in one ot the last meetings of the British Associa-
tion Sir William Thomson has estimated them at their real value,

enormous. Let us add the want of precision in the evolu-
tion of a maximum or a minimum.

M. Alfred Cornu has obviated all those difficulties :-—

1. By giving a speed of rotation not constant but
increasing or decreasing according to a regular law,
which he registers by means of electricity; so that he
easily knows the speed at every moment.

2. By registering in the same
manner the exact time in which
the ray of light disappears and
appears again : and thus he does
not observe the instant of maxi-
mum or minimum, but two in-
stants which are equally distant
from the moment that is to be
determined.

The various results are traced
by fine needles that run on a
sheet of paper covered with
lamp-black, and rolled round a
revolving cylinder. If the needles
remain motionless, they describe
a helix on the black paper, which
becomes a straight line when the
cylinder is unrolled. But these
points are extremities of arma-
tures of electro-magnets, and are
moved when the electricity passes
through ; and during all the time
the current passes, the traced line
is above the level of the normal
line.

The annexed sketch shows a
part of an experiment made in
the month of July 1872.

The line a on the right hand
side represents the increasing
speed of the wheel; each time a
cog of the apparatus, in its
movement of rotation, touched a
certain wire, the electric current
had passed through, and devi-
ated the needle for the time the
cog was passing (from A to B,
from C to D). During the time,
from the beginning of one devia-
tion to the other (from A to C,
from C to E, from E to G), 50,000
teeth had passed. We clearly
see that these intervals are de-
creasing, because the speed in-
creases,

The median line indicates
seconds which are sent by an
electric clock.

The third line has been ob-
tained by the observer himself by
means of a Morse-key ; he made
the electric current pass during
the time the light was invisible ;
P Q/.and sR. S. \ Jihei sketch
thus shows two extinctions and
two reappearances of light.
is the beginning of the experi-
ment.

This method, moreoyer, obviates one of the greatest
difficulties in physical experiments, namely the noting
down of various numbers, that diverts the observer and
complicates operations, Furthermore, there remains not
only the remembrance of the experiment made, but an
exact, real, and living drawing.

M, A, Cornu has, moreover, changed the rather large

Copy of the Automatic
It Registrations.

and expensive apparatus of M, Froment for another,

i

lil

uly 3, 1873]

NATURE

185

strong and small, for it is not bigger than the fists. He uses
the works of a common clock, which do not cost more than
asoyereign. He has only replaced the largest wheel of
the scapement by another one, lighter and more finely
toothed. Special experiments, not mentioned in his
present memoir enabled him to choose the most proper
diameter for that cog wheel. A strong spring drives the
wheel 700 or 800 revolutions in a second.

A drag has been added, in order to check the speed.
By a special arrangement, the rotation of the wheel can
be reversed, in order to eliminate certain errors that
might result from the apparatus itself.

In order to try the improvements of the apparatus, a
first series of experiments was made between the Poly-
technic School and a tower of the telegraph office, at a
distance of about one mile and a half (2 kilometres and
a half). The observer could perceive a window of this
tower amid a forest of chimneys. The distance was too
short : he prudently did not publish the result.

‘A second series was attempted by him between the
Polytechnic School and the Valérien Hill, at a distance
of about six miles and a half (10 kilometres 310 metres).

But a transparent atmosphere is seldom now to be ob-
tainedin misty Paris If we goup tothe garret where the
observer stands, we perceive asea of roofs below ; on the
right Montmartre Hill, on the left the heights of Meudon,
and in the front the Valérien fortress ; in one of the rooms
in the barracks the mirror and the collimator were esta--
blished.

The apparatus that sends forth the ray of light
(an instrument with a large aperture) was laid on a
solid timberwork ; in front of the eyepiece is the little
machine; on the left side the source of light is esta-
blished, a ray of which, reflected by a glass, is sent
between two teeth of the wheel.

But the Mont Valérien is concealed by mist ; the win-
dow of the barrack is hardly distinguishable, although the
sky is cloudless. Paris is covered with a damp and dusty
veil. The sun sets behind the fortress, and suddenly the
mist disappears and the air becomes transparent. The
ray of light between the teeth of the wheel is to be seen
in the telescope as a faint star in the midst of the inverted
image of the window ; it is a star of the sixth magni-
tude, the intensity of which increases and becomes of the
first magnitude with the transparency of theair. Butit is
necessary to make the experiments hastily, for that trans-
parency will not last more than one hour. *

‘An obstacle nearly checked the observer; the image
often scintillated, and was agitated in such a manner that
it was impossible to pursue the experiment. It was the
warm air of a chimney unluckily standing in the way of
the ray of light, the kitchen chimney of the Lycée Louis
le Grand. M. Cornu waited for the holidays, and the
operations were at last worked out.

‘He thus made more than a thousand experiments, and
calculated 690 of them.

In order to determine the distance between the two
stations, he compared the measures previously deter-
mined, and made himself a triangulation ; the average of
those numbers gave him the number above cited, about
six miles and a half (10 kilometres, 310 metres).

e did not at once take the average of the numbers of
his experiments, but he gave a greater value to the num-
bers obtained under the best circumstances. It appears
evident that the results deduced from the fifth disappear-
ance of the light are superior to those deduced from the
first one, because of the more exact value of the velocity,
of the wheel, and that the favourable atmospheric con-
dition rendered the disappearance and reappearances
of light more plain.

The average thus obtained gives for the velocity of light

* The source of light was Drummond’s lime-light, or only a petroleum
lamp. Tt was necessary sometimes, in the finest weathers, to moderate
it, in order to have a disappearance of light more* favourable to observations
than a minimum of intensity,

189,300 miles in a second ; by dividing the number by
the refractive indices of the air (10003) we obtain the
number 189,209 miles in a second in a vacuum; the
possible error in this value is about 349 -

M. Fizeau had found about 194,000 miles (312,000 kil.) ;
Foucault 189,000 miles (298,000 kil.) The physi-
cists will wonder at the concordance between M. Cornu’s
number and that of Foucault, obtained by an entirely
different method ; and so will the astronomers ; for this
number of 189,090 miles gives by calculatinz the value of
the parallax of the sun the number 8”.86; and it is
exactly the one recently obtained by M. Leverrier as a
consequence of three series of observations made on the
movement of planets, particularly of Mars and Venus.

If experiments on the velocity of light were made again
under good topographic and atmospheric conditions, and
between two stations, the distance of which would be
known by a geodetic calculation, a value of this velocity
would be obtained with an error less than ;ylyg. Astre-
nomical methods do not easily perhaps give such ana
approach.

The author concludes his paper by saying : “It is to
be desired for the honour of French science, that those
great works relative to the velocity of light, begun by
Roemer at the observatory of Paris, pursued and simpli-
fied by some learned Frenchmen, should be finished in
France with a precision worthy of their astronomical and
physical importance,” M. C,

Explanation of the Diagram (see next page) |

A, Source of light; apetroleam lamp. B, a combination of
lenses to direct and concentrate the light. C,D,E, F, areshown
from above in order to show the direction of the ray of light :—
C, glass plate, on the surface of which the light is reflected and
sent into the telescope according to the direction of the arrows ;
a isa little handle which permits of small motions being given to the
little platein order to arrange it properly. D, works of a common
clock drawn to the 4 of its linear dimensions. —It is used to put
in motion the cog wheel Y, between the teeth of which the ray
of light is sent forth. JV, wire touched by a cog d of the axis
of the third wheel, at each revolution ; it is united to the electro-
magnet z (of the plate G), and thus the number of revolutions
during a second is registered by. 4,, 63, two barrels that give
revolving motions in a contrary direction, in order to eliminate cer-
tain errors that might result from the apparatusitself. 4, a wheel
ontheside of whichadrag H_ bears (H has been drawn apart for
greater clearness) ; 7, horizontal axis of rotation ; V, screw; when-
ever bymeans of V the rod is brought to g, inthe same manner is
brought to w, and the extremity ¢ does not rub on the side of the
wheel. (Note.—A decreasing pressure is thus used, an in-
creasing one is rendered impossible so as to prevent the delicate
works from being broken.) D’, front view of the same work ;
the same things designed by the same letters primed. D”
shows the respective situation of the two barrels 6, and 4,.
I, telescope ; the light is transmitted to a distance of six miles
and a half, and comes back on the same path: the appa-
ratus that reflects it back is a telescope like E, and performing
the office of a collimator the eye-piece of which is replaced
by a little mirror properly disposed. F, eye-piece of E, with
which the ray of light is observed at its return; it is observed
through the glass-plate C on which it has bees reflected.
G, apparatus by which the various data of the experiments are
registered. X, lamp-blacked cylinder. Y, moveable system
bearing the electro-magnets /, m, 2. The cylinder revolves
without changing its place with an uniform rotatory motion given
by a special apparatus. The movable system slides by a uniform
motion communicated by means of a stretching weight. The
manner of giving this motion has not been represented ; the
relative motion is the same as if the system were immove-
able, and the cylinder going forwards and revolving in the
same time. 4, m, 2, electro-magnets ; , 7, 7, armatures ; they
terminate in needles and describe on the lamp-blacked paper the
three lines drawn on the sketch. One extrenity of the wire of
the electro-magnets communicates with the earth, the other
with a pole of a special pile ; the other pole of the pile com-
municates also with the earth. Oa the way of the current

‘that ‘passes through from each particular pile to the three

136 NATURE [Fuly 3, 1873

-magnets 2 # 7, is placed an interruptor different in each } gives the speed of the wheel Y for each moment) ; for 7, the
og ices : for ine law of rotation of the wheel / (it | seconds of time ; they are seat by an ele:ttical clock ; for /, it

en ne ge

registers the time of appearances and disappearances of the light, | during the experiment, Each experiment with six, and even
by means of a Morse-key, on which the obseryer keeps his hand | seven disappearances, lasts about two minutes,

OO SS ee ee

ON THE FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS BY
INSECTS AND ON THE RECIPROCAL
ADAPTATIONS OF BOTH

jy Sate the last ten years, since, by his wonderful

work on Orchids,* Darwin anew turned the at-
tention of naturalists to the remarkable connection

Fic. 1.—Head of a humble-bee (Bombus muscorunt L. 9) seen from above,
with the oral apparatus stretched out to its fullest extent (5; 1).

between the structure of flowers and the insects visiting

(4

Fic. 2.—Sucking apparatus of a honey-bee seen from beneath (rz: 1)

and fertilising them, many essays on the contrivances of

* “On the various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids
ae fertilised by Insects, and on the good Effects of Intercrossing.” London,
1862.

187

flowers as apparently affording facilities for intercrossing
distinct individuals have been published ; but there is no
doubt that by far the greatest part of the work on this
subject is still to be done. The most conspicuous flowers
attracted, of course, in the first place, the attention of
inquirers, and much greater pains was taken to show the
possibility of their cross-fertilisation by insects than to
observe whether self-fertilisation may possibly take place
if not visited by insects. Another very obvious deficiency
of observations indispensable to be made on the subject
in question resulted,—the fertilisation of flowers by insects
being studied by botanists but little acquainted with
insects. From this cause, for the most part, when flowers
were examined as to their intercrossing by insects, no
complete observations were made as to the insects them-
selves which were supposed to visit and fertilise the flowers,
and in many cases the agency of insects was over-esti-
mated in consequence of not observing them directly.
Therefore, being myself acquainted with our flowers as
well as with a great number of our insects, I thought it
would be as agreeable as useful if I observed, as far as it
was possible for me, the insects which really visit and
fertilise our flowers, their adaptations to gain the honey

Fic. 3.—Lateral view of the sucking apparatus of a humble-bee (Bombus
silvarum 1.), representing all the four foldings partly commenced,
partly imperfectly executed. A piece of the tubular mentum is broken
away to show the folding of the base of the tongue (7; 1).

and the pollen, and on the other hand, the adaptations of
our flowers to the insects that visit them; and having
during a series of years bestowed all my leisure upon
observations of this kind, I put them together in a work
which was published some months ago (“ Die Befruchtung
der Blumen durch Insecten und die gegenseitigen An-
passungen beider.” Leipzig, 1873.) Supposing that this

| book is in the hands of only very few Englishmen, I
| think it may be of some interest for the readers of NATURE

if I make them acquainted with the principal new facts
contained in my work, adding some observations made
since its publication.

l.—Jn what manner the hive- and humble-bees obtain
the honey of the flowers

The first accurate description and drawing of the parts

_ of the mouth of the hive-bee were given by Swammerdamm
| about two centuries ago, but he did not succeed in finding

out the true function of the tongue ; he described and drew
it as perforated at the end,* and believed that it was a
simple suckin pipe. His successors saw that the tongue

* “Joh, Swammerdamm, Bibel der Natur, Aus dem Hollandischen
iibersetzt.” Leipzig, 1752. Taf. xvii.

188

of the bee is by no means perforated at the end, and
that fluids, for that reason, cannot enter through its
interior, but must be transported to the opening of the
cesophagus by the outside of the tongue. Thus with
Swammerdamm’s error, that the tongue was perforated at
the end, the view that it was a sucking organ was also
rejected, and since then, even down to our own day, zoolo-
gists seem almost unanimously to have denied in general
the sucking power of bees. Milne-Edwards calls the Hyme-
noptera licking insects (“Insectes Iécheurs”), and says
that the honey-bees nourish themselves not by sucking,
but, as it were, by lapping, nearly in the same manner as
a cat does (‘Ainsi il n’est pas en pompant que l’Abeille
se nourrit, mais pour ainsi dire en lapant a peu prés
comme le fait un chat”). In like manner Carl Vogt
expresses his opinion on the Same subject, with only the
difference that he chooses for the comparison the dog
instead of the cat. The bees make use of their tongue
to lap, says Carl Vogt, in a somewhat similar manner as
dogs apply their tongue to drink (“Sie gebrauchen ihre
Zunge etwa in ahnlicher Weise zum Schlappen, wie die
Hunde sich der ihrigen zum Saufen bedienen.”) * Also
Claus} calls the parts of the mouth of the Hyme-
noptera biting and licking (“ beissend und leckend ”),
and Gerstaecker blames, in his annual report on the
Progress of Entomology, Schenck for describing the

NATURE

| Fuly 3, 1873

tongue of the bees as serving to suck honey, whereas,
according to Gerstaecker’s opinion, it.is only able to lick it.
Hence, a good number of our best zoologists absolutely
denying the sucking of bees, and our entomological
works affording, indeed, very detailed descriptions of the
single parts of the mouth of the bees, but not sufficiently
accurate ones of the use of them, it may not be fruitless
if I explain here, in some detail, the function of the oral
apparatus of the bee.

If we stretch out to its fullest extent, as shown in Figs,
1 and 2, the complex machinery of the oral apparatus of
a hive- or humble-be2, which, when at rest, is placed by
different foldings in an excavation in the under-side of
the head, so as to permit but little of it to be seen, the
most prominent part we observe is the long vermicular
annulated tongue (/gi/a, 77), at the end of which a little
membranous lobe is seen (/), the same which was erro-
neously thought by Swammerdamm to be perforated.
The ligula is composed of a great number of rings, each
of which is provided with a whorl of hairs ; each whorl
of hairs can be erected at will by the bee and pressed
close to the ligula. The base of the ligula, which bears
two appendages, the faragloss@ (fa), is inserted, together
with them, in the tubular wzentum (mz), and can be drawn
back, as Fig. 3 shows, into the extremity of the tubular
mentum, so that only the tips of the paraglosse are

Fic. 4.—Lateral view of the sucking apparatus of, a humble-bee (Bomdus hortorum L. 2) in a middle sucking Position (7: x).
c

yisible. On both sides of the ligula we observe, also in-
serted in the mentum, the two four-jointed /adzal palpi
(7f), the two first joints of which (//'), being flattened
and very slender, with a central rib, form a sheath to the
tongue, enclosing it from beneath, whilst the two minute
joints at the tip of the labial palpi (/”) serve as feelers,

When drawn back into the extremity of the tubular
meatum, as is shown in Fig. 3, the tongue by no means
overtops tbe labial palpi, but is wholly enclosed by them
from beneath, whilst when pulled out as far as possible
(as shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 4) it considerably overtops the
labial palpi. The base of the mentum is inserted in a
horay ridge, called by Kirby (in his “ Monographia Apum
Angliz”) the fulcrum (/). The fulcrum is placed at the
conjunction of two diverging horny ridges, called by Kirby
cardines (c), which connect the base of the fulcrum with
the basal portion or stipes (st) of the maxilla. The car-
dines can be turned round their food-points ; when turned
forwards, they also push forwards the fulcrum and the
mentum, so as to overtop considerably the basal por-
tidp Of the maxillee (as shown’ Figs. 1, 2); when turned
backwards, they also draw backwards the parts inserted
in them, and the mentum is now enclosed by the basal
portion of the maxill (as'shown in Fig. 4). In this position

* C. Vogt, Zool. Briefe i, p. 678.
+ Grundziige der Zoologiey 1866, p. 323-

the terminal portions of the two maxilla, the amine (da)
appearing as two flattened, lanceolate, horny pieces with
a central rib, form a sheath to thé tongue enclosing it
from above, whilst at the same time the two first joints of
the labial palpi enclose it from beneath. The maxillary
palpi (mp) exist in the motth of’ typical bees only as
atrophied useless organs. ; .

Besides the two foldings hitherto explained, two other
foldings are to be mentioned. * First, the whole apparatus
hitherto described is inserted in the terminal points of two
long, horny ridges enclosed in the excavation of the head
and moveable round their food-points (/, /ora, of Kirby).
When turned forwards, the lora push forward to twice their
own length the maxilla and Re menfum, with all their
appendages ; when turned’ backwar' } they draw them
backwards the same distance. Secbndly, when all three
withdrawals hitherto mentioned—(1} of the base of the
tongue, (2) of the cardines, (3) of the lora—are effected,
the mentum lies, defended on each side by the basal por-
tion of the maxillze (s¢), enclosed in the excavation of the
under-side of the head ; only the tongue sheathed by the
lominee and the labial palpi overtop the head, and pre-
vent the jaws from being used ; but all these overtopping
parts are bent downwards and backward very easily ; and
now the jaws or mandibude (md) are not prevented from

being employed,

ayes: *

NATURE

189

The separate parts of the mouth of the bee and their
power of moving having been considered, it remains to
examine what use the bee makes of them in its different
actions.

1. In order to empty the deepest honey tubes acces-
sible to it, the bee stretches out all the moveable parts of
its sucking apparatus (lora, cardines, laminz, maxillar
palpi, and tongue) in the same manner as is shown in
Figs. 1 and 2, with the only difference that the two first
joints of the labial palpi sheathe the tongue from beneath,
and that the laminz closely embrace the mentum and the
basal part of the tongue from above. Then the terminal

g hairy whorls of the tongue, protruded as far as possible

and advanced to the bottom of the honey-tube, being
wetted with honey, the bee, turning backwards the car-
dines (c), withdraws the mentum, together with the tongue
and the labial palpi, so far that the laminz are no
longer overtopped by the labial palpi, and that the laminze
and the labial palpi together, closely embracing the
tongue, form a sucking-pipe, of which only the part 4-2
(Fig. 4) of the tongue is prominent. But almost at the
same time the bee, folding the base of the tongue into the
tubular extremity of the mentum, withdraws the terminal
hairy whorls wetted with honey into the sucking-pipe, in
which the honey is forthwith driven downwards to the
oral opening by the erection of the whorls of hairs
progressing quickly from the tip of the tongue towards
its base, and simultaneously by the enlargement of the
interior abdominal hollows connected with the cesophagus,
which are visible from the outside by the swelling of the
abdomen, and which must suck the honey towards the
cesophagus.

Fig. 4 shows the head of a humble-bee in a
medium sucking position, When from this position
the base of the tongue is folded into the hollow ex-
tremity of the mentum (as illustrated by Fig. 3),
the part £2 of the tongue wetted with honey is
withdrawn into the sucking-pipe. Now when the lora
(2 in Fig. 4, directed downwards) are turned backwards
round their food-points, the base of the sucking pipe
(near mp Fig. 4) is withdrawn to the opening of the
mouth (between the base of the two mandibule, md and
the labrum, /é7, Fig. 4, below the epipharynx ¢f, Fig. 1),
and the honey is, by pressing and sucking, driven to the
cesophagus. When the lora (/) are again turned forwards,
the whole sucking apparatus is pushed forward double
the length of the lora; and now the cardines turning
forward, the mentum with its appendages again advances
double the length of the cardines, while the maxillz remain
atthe same place, and the laminz from this cause embrace
only the mentum and the basal portion of the tongue ;
when at last the base of the tongue infolded in the
tubular mentum is stretched out, the tongue is again
protruded to its fullest extent, and the terminal whorls of

hairs are again wetted with honey at the bottom of the |

honey-tube of the flower.

In a flower rich in honey, a humble bee may be ob-
served executing four, five, and sometimes more, even
eight or ten separate acts of suction, probably accom-
panied by as many protrusions of the tip of the tongue
into the honey, and withdrawals of it and of the whole
sucking- pipe.

I am fully convinced that the movements of the oral
apparatus of the bees are as described ; for by intoxi-
cating honey- and humble-bees by chloroform, and
immersing the tip of their tongue into a solution of sugar, I
sometimes succeeded in seeing the movements described
performed sufficiently slowly to discern each separate act
very well. What occurred within the sheath of the tongue
formed by the laminz and the maxillary palpi, was of
course not visible, but bending them aside after wetting
the tip of the tongue with the solution of sugar, I some-
times saw the erection of the whorls of hairs progressing
from the tip towards the base of the tongue,

i

Hence undoubtedly the statement of zoologists, who,
absolutely denying the sucking power of bees, assert that
they lick or lap the honey in a manner similar to a ‘dog
or a cat when drinking, must be essentially modified.
The terminal whorls of hairs are filled with honey by
adhesion ; this honey withdrawn into the sheath of the
tongue is driven towards the cesophagus by a double cause,
first by the pressure of the erect whorls of hairs, and
secondly by suction. HERMANN MULLER

(To be continued)

ON SOME REMARKABLE FORMS OF ANIMAL
LIFE FROM GREAT DEEPS OFF THE
NORWEGIAN COAST#

‘Ee name of George Ossian Sars is honourably con-

nected with a very interesting chapter in the history
of deep-sea research. As early as 1850, his illustrious
father, Dr. Michael Sars, had challenged Edward Forbes’s
conclusions respecting the bathymetrical terminus of
animal life. He remarked,} that at least in the Norwe-
gian Seas, it appeared to extend much beyond the limit
which the English naturalist had fixed for it. Forbes
had not dredged below 230 fathoms, and at this depth he
had only obtained two living Mollusca and a couple of
Serpulze ; hence he was led to place the zero of animal
life at 300 fathoms. Sars, on the contrary, even at the
early period just mentioned, had obtained from a depth
of 300 fathoms a number of animals, including a species
of Coral, Molluscs, Polyzoa, &c.; and he sagaciously
remarked that there was evidence of the existence
of a vigorous animal life at this great depth, inasmuch as
some of the species (¢.2. Terabratula septigera and Lima
excavata) were the largest known representatives of their
respective genera. In confirmation of his opinion, he
was able to offer, in 1864, a Catalogue of 92 animals,
which had been obtained in depths varying from 200 to
300 fathoms. More recently his son has devoted him-
self with much energy and success to deep-sea investiga~
tion, and in 1868 had extended his dredgings to 450
fathoms, and added no less than 335 species to those
already published. He says :—“I found to my great
surprise at this enormous depth, not ... a poor and
oppressed Fauna, but on the contrary a richly developed
and varied animal life... . And so far was I from ob-
serving any sign of diminished intensity in this animal
life at increased depths that it seemed, on the contrary,
as if there was just beginning to appear a rich and in
many respects peculiar deep-sea fauna, of which only a
very incomplete notion had previously existed.” Amongst
the new forms thus obtained was the famous Ahizzocrinus
Lofotensis, descended from Oolitic ancestry, which fur-
nished, according to Dr. Carpenter, “a _ principal
‘motive’” of the Lzghtning expedition. It is interesting
to learn that these productive dredgings at the great
depth of 200-450 fathoms were accomplished in an ordi-
nary fishing-boat with a crew of three men,

In the important paper which forms the subject of the
present notice, Mr. G. O. Sars has given us an account
of some of the results of his dredgings in the “ great
deeps ” off the Coast of Norway, founded partly on the
posthumous manuscripts of the late Prof. Sars, and partly
on his own investigations. Various new species of Mol-
lusca, Annelids, Corals, and Sponges, all of them dwellers
in depths varying from 100 to about 500 fathoms,
are described, and illustrated by excellent figures. But
that which gives a peculiar and distinctive interest to the
work is the elaborate memoir on a remarkable Polyzoon,
taken in the year 1866, from a depth of 120 fathoms, at
Skraaven, in Lofoten. This unique animal is not only

* Partly from posthumous manuscripts of the late Prof, Dr. Michael Sars
By George Ossian Sars. See

+‘ Beretningom en i Sommerenn, 1849, foretagen Zoologisk Reis¢ i Lofoter.

og Finmarken,” p. 13.

“190

generically distinct from all the forms that had been re-
cognised at the time of its discovery, but must be referred
to a new Order or Sub-class: it is chiefly interesting,
however, to the biologist from the light which it throws
on the history and affinities of the tribe to which it
belongs. Its occurrence was first recorded in 1868 by
the elder Sars, who gave it the name of Flalilophus mira-
dilis, but did not at that time enter upon the details of its
structure, In 1869 Allman described a new Polyzoon,
under the name of Rhabdopleura Normanni, which had
been dredged up from a) water in Shetland, and which
presented some remarkable peculiarities. Its polypides
(according to Allman) were of the Hippocrepian type,
having the tentacles disposed in the form of a horse-shoe,
instead of circularly, an arrangement which had only
been noticed so far amongst the fresh-water division of
the Polyzoa, Another anomalous character was the pre-
sence of a rigid, chitinous rod, extending throughout the
creeping portions of the polyzoarium, to which the poly-
pides were attached at intervals by means of a long

- flexible cord. It now appears that the Shetland Polyzoon
belongs to the same genus as the Lofoten form just men-
tioned. Allman, however, having only access to speci-
mens preserved in spirit, was unable to master all the
details of the structure or to apprehend fully the signifi-
cance of the organism as a whole. For a complete
knowledge of Rhabdopleura we are indebted to the
careful observations of the younger Sars, who studied the
living animal ; while to his father we owe a most inte-
resting interpretation of the facts which the son had
established,

Without entering into minutia, I shall endeavour to
describe briefly the characteristics which mark out the
Rhabdopleura as unique, and invest it with so high an
interest, not only for the student of the Polyzoa, but also
for the philosophical biologist. In the first place, it may
be stated broadly that we find in this form the Polyzoan
type in a rudimentary and half-developed condition. It
clearly represents a very early stage in its evolution, if
evolution be the method of Nature. The points which
separate it most strikingly from its congeners are not the
equivalent of the ordinary differences that occur amongst
the members of the same class ; they might rather be re-
garded as surviving features of another and very different
type, from which it has diverged, and are strictly transi-
tional in character. Rhabdopleura is a Polyzoon, and yet
not a// Polyzoon. A large portion of its structure, while
clearly taking the Polyzoan direction, differs widely from
that of all known Polyzoa. Some of the features which
we should regard as most characteristic of this class are
altogether wanting. And organs in which the Polyzoan
type is most distinctly traceable, appear in a simpler and
more rudimentary condition than in any other known
form. Ina word, two types of structure seem to blend
in this remarkable animal, one, as it were, fading away,
and the other dawning.

The polyzoarium in Ahabdopleura bears a striking re-
remblance to that of a Hydroid, and might belong to a
Coryne or Eudendrium. It consists of a number of erect,
chitinous tubes, distinctly annulated, which are united by
a creeping, tubular stem. Each of the erect tubes
(zocecia) contains a polypide, and every polypide is at-
tached by a contractile cord to a dark-coloured, cylindri-
cal rod, which pervades the creeping portion of the poly-
zoary. The polypide differs from those of the normal
Polyzoa in the following important particulars :—

1. It is without any sort of attachment to its cell, in
which it lies quite free. In all other known Polyzoa a
membrane (the endocyst) lines the cavity of the cell, and
envelopes the polypide, to which it is attached above, at
the base of the tentacular crown. When the animal re-
treats into its cell, it draws in with it the anterior portion
of this membrane, which securely closes the aperture.
Between the endocyst and the body of the polypide is a

NATURE
ee enone Strate varies ee ted <a

[Fuly 3, 1873

space (the perigastric cavity), in which the nutritive fluid
is confined. But in Rhabdopleura the endocyst is alto-
gether absent, or appears in a perfectly elementary condi- —
tion, as a “thin, glassy skin,” immediately surrounding |
the digestive apparatus. There is nothing to close the
orifice of the cell, and the surrounding water passes
freely into its interior. There is no perigastric cavity
or fluid. The polypide is as free and unattached as a
Hydroid in its calycle; and its only connection with
the colony is through the contractile cord already re-
ferred to.

2. The digestive system is of the Polyzoan type, but of
much lower grade than is found elsewhere. There is little
specialisation of parts; the stomach and intestine consist
of a simple tube, wider towards its: upper extremity and
narrowing off rapidly towards the posterior end, which is
bent abruptly upon itself. The intestine is not separated
from the true stomach by any valve, but is an immediate
continuation of it, and passes off from its lower extremity
in a straight line to the anal orifice.

In the normal Polyzoa, on the contrary, the stomach is
divided into two well-defined regions ; and the intestine,
which is marked off by a distinct valve, takes the origin
between the upper portion and the large, sub-globular sac,
in which it terminates below. We have in Rhabdopleura
the bent tube and the two orifices (oral and anal), but be-
yond this, perfect simplicity of structure.

3. The tentacular apparatus exhibits some remark-
able features. It differs essentially from that of the
marine, and also from that of the fresh-water Polyzoa,
though it most nearly approaches the latter. It consists
of two symmetrical lobes or arms, which extend out
dorsally from the anterior part of the body, diverging to
each side ; and each of which bears a double row of
ciliated tentacles. These lobes are very flexible, and
exhibit great mobility, bending slowly in various direc-
tions ; and in this respect they contrast strikingly with
the unchanging lophophore of the fresh-water Polyzoa,
The single tentacular crown, which belongs to all the
other known members of the class has here disappeared ;
and instead of the circular verticil of the marine, and the
crescentic but continuous series of the fresh-water species,
we have here two series, borne on distinct flexible and
movable appendages.

4. In habdopleura, the complicated muscular
system concerned in the protrusion and retraction of
the polypide, which is so characteristic of the Polyzoa,
and on which their lively and rapid movements depend,
is suppressed along with the endocyst. Retraction is
effected solely by means of the cord that passes from
the body to the rod pervading the creeping stem. It
is a very slow and sluggish process, the polypide exhi-
biting none of the sensitiveness and vivacity of its
kindred. | Under extreme provocation it retires very
deliberately ; an ordinary Polyzoon disappears with the
speed of light, on the slightest alarm. This sluggishness,
as our author remarks, is accounted for “ by the want of
special retractor-muscles, and. by the slightly developed
contractile elements, not distinguishable as evident
muscular fibres, in the contractile cord.”

Still more remarkable is the mode in which the pro-
trusion of the polypide is effected. In the absence of the
usual muscular appliances, it is difficult, at first sight, to
imagine how the creature can raise itself from the lower
extremity to the aperture of its tubular dwelling, It
appears, however, that a special and most singular organ
exists for the purpose, and that here also the Rhabdopleura
departs altogether from the customs of its race, This
organ consists of a large and prominent shield or disc,
which projects from the anterior end of the body between
the oral and anal orifices, and is thickly covered with
cilia. It evidently corresponds with an anomalous
Structure (known as the efistome), which occurs only
amongst the freshwater Polyzoa, and the function of

a

which runs throughew the creeping stem, and is a very
marked feature of t
a cylindrical tube, with firm, horny walls, inclosing

a soft, transparent, cellular substance, from which
branches are given off at intervals, and-enter into the
contractile cord of each polypide. This “ axial cord”
may no doubt be compared with the so-called nerve-
trunk pervading the stem of other marine Polyzoa—the
principal element of the supposed colonial nervous-
system. Our author rightly regards the soft substance
extending through the cord, as a sort of incompletely
defined nervous trunk connecting all the individuals of
the colony.

- Of the development of Rhabdofpleura little can be said
at present. Both Sars and Allman, indeed, have recorded
observations made on the formation of buds; but they
disagree in their interpretation of severalimportant points ;
and we must wait for further information before we can
master this portion of the history. Ere

From the foregoing account it is evident, as stated at
first, that in RAcbdopleura we have the polyzoan structure
in a very rudimentary condition, and half disguised by
features that are alien to it as it now exists; some of
its principal elements are fully established, though in a
simpler form than we find them elsewhere; some are
altogether wanting ; while one important class of functions
(the various moyements of the polypide) is provided for
by means which have no parallel whatever amongst other
members of the tribe, and in part by an organ, which
survives, reduced in size and with a different office, in one
section only, as the so-called eféstome of the fresh-water
species.

Sarats examination of the Shetland RAhabdopleura,
as preserved in spirits, led him to regard the Polyzoa as
connected with the Mollusca, through the Lamelli-
branchiata, rather than the Brachiopods. Prof. Sars,
relying on his son’s investigations, takes a very different
view of their affinities. He regards the Rhabdopleura as an
organism “ which stands as it were in the middle between
the Hydrozoa and the Polyzoa,” and forms a transition
from one tothe other. It is undoubtedly, he says, “like
many other animals which at present inhabit the greater
depths of the sea,... a very old form, which in its
organisation has still retained several features from the
time when the animal type that we call Polyzoa first
developed itself from a lower type.” He considers it
to prove that the Polyzoa “are most closely related
to the type of the Cwlenterates, and especially to
the class Hydrozoa,’ from which they are probably
derived. '

It is my present object merely to report results, and
‘not to offer any criticism upon them; but it may safely
be said that the paper, a portion of which I have sum-
marised, is one of the most interesting and important
contributions to biological literature, that have lately
appeared.

‘It is right to add that the author, considering “one of
the great universal languages” preferable to his mother-
tongue, as the vehicle of scientific research; and as a
graceful acknowledgment of the services rendered by
our countrymen in recent times to zoological science, has
courageously, and to the relief of many of his readers,
written his memoir in English.

THOMAS HINCKS

Igl

NOTES

Ar the Midsummer Commencements, held last week in
Trinity College, Dublin, the honorary degree of LL.D. was
conferred by the University of Dublin on Dr. Andrews, of Bel-
fast, and Professor Wright, of Cambridge. :

Dr. JAMEs Murig, Professor of Anatomy in the Edinburgh
Veterinary Cojlege, has been elected to the newly-founded
lectureship of Animal Physiology in the Edinburgh School of
Arts.

ARCHAOLOGISTS will be interested, and no doubt pleased, to
hear, that Sir John Lubbock has just bought Silbury Hill, the
grandest tumulus in Great Britain, if not in Europe. ;

We have a number of earthquakes to chronicle this week ; that
in India, it will be noticed, preceded only by a day those of Italy.
The earthquakes in Chili, on the 15th May, were of a very
serious character. They affected Valparaiso, Santiago, Quillota,
La Ligua, Canquenes, and Salvados. At Chillan, Concepcion,
and Talchuano, in the south, so far as we can understand, it
was slight. At Valparaiso, it commenced at 12.32 P.M., and
lasted forty-two seconds, with a vertical motion, so that the
ground danced under foot. Two churches and many buildings
were damaged. Gas branches were wrenched from the ceilings,
and books thrown from the shelves. In Salvados, in Central
America, the earthquakes had ceased in May. At
2 P.M, on the 28th June, Asseerghur Fort was visited
by an earthquake which lasted for about three or four
seconds, direction from north-west to south-east. On the
morning of June 29, about five o'clock, an earthquake visited
several parts of Italy. At Verona, Treviso, and Venice,
though the shocks were severe, little damage was done; but at
Feletto, north of Piane, and near Conegliano, the church fell in-
and thirty-eight people are reported to have been killed. At
Belluno four persons were killed and several wounded. At
Pieve del Alpago several persons were injured. Two persons
were killed at Torres, four at Curago, eleven at Puos, two at
Visione, and one at Cavessago.

WE regret to hear that difficulties have arisen in the manage-
meit of the Brighton Aquarium, which are likely to lead to the
resignation of Mr. Saville Kent, who lately vacated a post in the
British Museum for that of Curator and Resident Naturalist to
the Aquarium. Of the nature of the dispute we are not in-
formed, but it seems unfortunate if some méans may not still be
found by which an amicable arrangement may be arrived at he-
tween Mr. Kent and his colleagues ‘by which his services may be
retained to the institution. , f ;

TuE female Octopus at the Brighton Aquarium still continues
to guard her clusters of ova with the greatest vigilance, refresh-
ing them"at short intervals by turning upon them a powerful
stream by means of {her tubular funnel; no increase to the
number deposited having taken place since last week, the usual
complement produced may be presumed to have been excluded.
The truncate “‘ Hecfocotylus” arm of the male, in this instance
the third on the left side, is fast recovering its normal condition,
a new slender filamentous process has sprung from the ruptured
extremity, resembling, injdetail, the reproduced arm of an Op/io-
coma or Brittle Starfish. Mr. Saville Kent is of the opinion
that the Octopus tuberculatus of D’Orbigny will prove on closer
investigation to be the mate of O. vulgaris; the difference in
appearance between individuals of the same species but the
opposite sex being most marked when once recognised ; the
general surface of the integument in the female is comparatively
smooth, while numerous rugosities and eleyated papillae adorn
that of the male, more particularly in the neighbourhood of the
head, F

192

NATURE

RES Cet ae a ip ey ee

i
=.

[Fuly 3, 1873

Ir has been announced by cable from America that a new
planet (No. 132) was discovered by Prof. Henry on June 13.

THE just published lecture, delivered in April last by Prof,
Flower at the Royal Institution, on ‘‘ Palzeontological Evidence
of Gradual Modification of Animal Forms,” is accompanied by
an excellent and very ingeniously-constructed diagram of the
affinities of the different members of the class Ungulata, including
all the fossil as well as the recent forms. Each genus is repre-
sented by a circle, the comparative size of which indicates the
number of species included in it. The existing genera are left
white, and those which have fossil representatives are surrounded
by rings, which are so shaded as to make it easy by referring to
an accompanying table, to find in which stratum the form first
appears; the extinct genera appear as shaded circles. Conse-
quently the Peccary and Babirussa are represented by unsur-
rounded white circles, while Coryphodon and Lephiodon are all
shaded ; Antilope is a large white circle surrounded by a late
Miocene ring ; Aceraterium has a central late Miocene circle
and an early Miocene ring, indicating its range in time. Sucha
method applied to all the classes of animals, if equally thorough
and accurate, would be an invaluable acquisition to Zoological
Science.

Tue following telegram dated Alexandria, June 30, 1873,
1 P.M., has been received at the Foreign Office, from the Hon.
H. C. Vivian, Her Majesty’s Acting Agent and Consul-General
in Egypt :—‘‘ Telegram just received from Sir Samuel Baker,
dated Khartoum, yesterday, reports his safe arrival there in
good health, with all the other Europeans. The country as far
as Equator annexed to Egyptian dominion. All rebellions,
intrigues, and slave trade completely put down. Country
orderly. Government perfectly organised, and road open as far
as Zanzibar, El Zaraf navigable. Victory on June 8 with only
105 men, over army of Onioso, This mission completely
successful.”

M. DE LesseEps is a candidate for the! place in the French
Academy vacant by the death of the late M. de Verneuil.

Tur name Drefanephorus having been recently used by Sir
Philip Egerton for a species of fossil fishes, Mr. Sclater proposes
to change the generic name which he gave to the Paradise Bird
discovered by the Italian naturalist D’Albertis, to Drepanornis.
We shall shortly have the opportunity of offering to our readers
a description of this bird from the hand of Mr, Sclater, together
with a drawing illustrating its peculiarities.

Some years ago, in connection with the Berlin Geographical
Society, an Association, joined in by all the chief European
powers except France and England, was formed for the purpose
of determining a standard European metre, to be based on the
exact determination of the meridian between Christiana and
Palermo. The work has developed itself into the ascertainment
of the dimensions of the globe, and the Association has been
now joined by France, England thus being the only power which
holds itself aloof from taking part in the highly valuable work.
The result will be the union of the triangulation of the whole of
Europe.

At the recent D.Sc. examination of the University of London
Mr. Richard Wormell, M.A., passed in Electricity, and Mr.
Augustus C. Maybury in Geology.

ATTENTION has been lately given by the American Ethno-
logists to the fossil skeleton of Guadeloupe, and they support
the suggestion that it belongs to the Carib race, This admission
still allows of considerable antiquity,

Doctor Don Ricardo de la Parra, died at Envijado, in }
Antlouquia, U.S. of Colombia, on May 9. He was about to pub. |

lish a work on Elephantiasis, which had been a special study,

‘

THE volcano of Puraca, in the western state of Cauca, in the
U.S. of Colombia, has been in convulsion for three years, and is
now causing great alarm. It gives rise to frequent storms.

THE forthcoming number of Petermann’s A@i/theilungen will
contain a very interesting article by Carl Dambeck ‘on the
Geographical Distribution of Sea-fish, in \which the author
divides the ocean into eleven regions, and gives lists of the
principal fishes to be found in each region,

Mr. LaMont’s fine yacht Diana, which was chartered by
Mr. Leigh Smith, and which recently left Dundee on a Polar
Expedition, is reported by the whaler Zc/ifse, which arrived at
Peterhead on Sunday. The letters which have been received an-
nounce that the paity were on June 1 last in latitude 77°40, being
among the floating ice, which reached northward to Spitzbergen.
At that time all connected with the expedition were well, and
notwithstanding that very severe weather had prevailed since
leaving Scotland, no accident had happened. The arrangements
had been slightly interfered with in consequence of the tempes-
tuous weather, and the island of Jan Mayen had not been
reached, The Diana was to proceed along the outside of the
ice towards the north-west corner of Spitzbergen, where she
will meet a storeship which preceded her.

MucH gratification is felt in Peru at the discovery of a new
coal deposit near Pisco, which is said to be one of the best and
richest on the Pacific coast, and the locomotives on the Ica and
and Pisco Railway are using it with great success. The mine is
situated close to the sea, and near a perfectly safe harbour, and
the coal is said to be finer ‘in quality than any in Chili, and of
great extent, and, if so, must prove to be of very great economi-
cal value.

A GENERAL meeting of the members of the Aéronautical So-
ciety of Great Britain was: held on Monday evening in the
theatre of the Society of Arts, under the presidency of Mr.
Glaisher. A number of models prepared for the occasion were
exhibited by persons actively interested in the advancement of
the great scheme of aérial navigation. The chairman, in his
opening remarks, expressed his satisfaction at having to record
several marks of progress made during the past year in the
science in which they were all so interested. These marks were
certainly slight, but they were nevertheless decided steps in the
right direction. Very many experiments of the highest impor-
tance to the furtherance of aérial navigation had been carried
out in many cases with what might be considered tolerably satis-
factory results, ‘The Society had, he added, expended a sum of
1,200/, in the construction of a ballcon the motive power of
which was to be brought about by a small steam-engine, now in
preparation, of a merely nominal weight, and giving, for its size,
an exceedingly high pressure of steam. A model of this was
exhibited in operation by Messrs, Thomas Moy and R, E, Shill.
Papers were read during the evening by several gentlemen, in-
cluding Mr. Bennett and Mr. D. S, Brown,

THE French ‘‘ Society of the Friends of Science,” an associa-
tion for succouring the widows and orphans of men of science,
has distributed during the last three years, in spite of the mis-
fortunes of the country, 88,439 fr.

THE scarcity of rags has, it is well known, recently induced
paper manufacturers to look out for new textures as substitutes
for those formerly used. In France hop-stalks have been suc-
cessfully utilised for this purpose, and in this country an attempt
has been made to utilise jute for newspapers. A copy of the
Warrington Guardian, printed on jute paper, has been sent us,
and it appears to us quite satisfactory,

A SociEry for the Promotion of Scientific Industry has recently
been established in Manchester. Its object is the increase of the

Fuly 3, 1873]

technical knowledge and skill of those engaged in the varlous
industries, the improvement and advancement of manufactures
and the industrial arts and sciences, and the general prozress,
extension, and well-being of industry and trade. The society is
sending out artisans to Vienna to profit by the Exhibition row
being held there, as was done by the Society of Arts on the
occasion of the Paris Exhibition, and it proposes to hold in the
autumn an exhibition of designs in textile fabrics and of fuel
economisers.

A PAPER entitled ‘‘ Contributions to a Knowledge of North
American Moths,” by Aug. R. Grote, was read on June 6 before
the Buffalo (U.S.) Society of Natural Sciences, in which it was
stated that three new genera (Litognatha, Meghypena, Phzecasio-
phora), and nineteen hitherto undescribed species (Acronycta, 4 ;
Agrotis, 1 ; Cloantha, 2; Litognatha, 2; Meghypena, 2 ; Botis,
1 ; Phecasiophora, 1 ; Eurycreon, 1 ; Peuthina, 3 ; Grapholitha,
I ; Oeta, 1) occur in the North American insect fauna. At the
same time a paper entitled ‘‘Descriptions of New Species of
Fungi,” by Chas. H. Peck, was read, in which it was stated
that 142 hitherto undescribed species of fungi (Hymenomycetis,
96 ; Gasteromycetes, 11 ; Coniomycetes, 18 ; Hyphomycetes, 6 ;
Ascomycetes, 11) occur in the flora of the United States,

In connection with the Social Science Congress, to be held at
Norwich, from the 1st to the 8th of October next, there will be
an Exhibition of Educational, Sanitary, and Domestic Ap-
pliances, based on the experiment which proved so successful at
Leeds in 1871. The object of the exhibition is to bring under
the notice of the public generally, and particularly those who
are interested in social, sanitary, and educational questions, the
latest scientific appliances for improving the public health and
promoting education. The exhibition will be open to exhibitors
from all parts, and the management will be under the superin-
tendence of a committee.

A VALUABLE paper in the May number of the Cznadian
Fournal is a contribution to a Fauna Canadensis, by Prof. H.
Alleyne Nicholson, being an account of the animals dredged in
Lake Ontario jin 1872. The dredginfs were all carried on
within a radius of ten miles from Toronto, and Prof. Nicholson
describes the nature of the bottom, and forty-three species of
animals taken up in the dredge, belonging to Annelida, Crusta-
sea, Arachnida, Insecta, Mollusca, and Vertebrata. The paper
possesses several points of interest.

WeEihaye received Nos. 3 and 4 of the School Laboratory of
Physical Science, a small quarterly journal edited by Prof.
Hinrichs, Director of the Laboratory of the Iowa State Univer-
sity. The longest paper is entitled ‘‘ Science in Schools,” and
gives a comparative view of the place occupied by Physical
Science in the Classical Courses of the American Colleges, the
palm in this respect being given to Harvard. Prof. Hinrichs
thinks, notwithstanding the comparatively great importance
attached to physical science in America, the place allotted to it
in her universities is still farfrom satisfactory. Under the head
of “ Laboratory Notes,” Prof. Hinrichs gives a method of deter-
mining the Velocity of Sound in the Atmosphere,

Mr. T. Loctn, C.E., Superintending Engineer, 2nd Circle,
Punjab, has sent us a small pamphlet, entitled ‘* Practical Notes
on the Egyptian Mode of Cotton Cultivation,” containing a
series of well-arranged directions on this subject, founded on

_ Mr. Login’s own experiments, which appear to have been un-

usually successful.

WE have received from Messrs. Asher and Co., Nos. 378,
379, 380, of Kirchoffand Wigand’s (of Leipzig) ‘‘ Antiquarisches

- Biicherlager,” containing long lists of very valuable works in

Mathematical, Physical, and Mechanical Sciences,

i

NATURE

ACCORDING to the American Artisan, the new educational
system in Japan embraces the organisation of 8 colleges, 256 high
schools, and over 50,009 public schools, at which the attendance
is to be compulsory for all children above six years of age.

A SUPPLEMENT to the Fifth Annual Report of the United
States Geological Survey of 1871, contains an enumeration with
descriptions by Mr. Leo Lesquereux, of some tertiary fossil
plants, from specimens procured in the explorations of Dr. F.
V. Hayden. in 1870. Another small pamphlet connected with
the same survey contains carefully compiled and very valuable
lists of elevations and distances ia that portion of the United
States west of the Mississippi, collated and arranged by Prof. C.
Thomas.

THE ‘‘ Report of the Entomological Society of Ontario,” for
1872, contains papers on Insects injurious to the Grape, the
Strawberry, the [op, the Maple, the Peach, the Potato, on
some innoxious insects, and on beneficial insects.

WE have received the “‘ Report of Progress” of the Geo-
logical Survey of Canada for 1871-72, containing detailed and
well-compiled accounts from the various parties who are carrying
on the work,

WE learn that there has been erected a small observatory on
the Columbia (U.S.) College campus for educational and, we
hope, also for scientific purposes. The observatory is furnished
with an equatorial, accompanied by a seven-prism spectroscope,
by Clark, and a position micrometer, besides an altazimuth and
a zenith telescope.

WE take the following from a paragraph entitled ‘‘ Prof.
Agassiz on Natural History in Schools,” in the Uziversity
Monthly (New York) :—‘‘I am satisfied that there are branches
of knowledge which are better taught without books than with
them ; and there are some cases so obvious, that I wonder why
it is that teachers always resort to books when they would teach
some new branch in their schools. When we would study natu-
ral history, instead of books let us take specimens—stones, mine-
rals, crystals. When we would study plants, let us go to the
plants themselves, and not to books describing them. When
we would study animals, let us observe animals.”

ADDITIONS to the Brighton Aquarium during the past
week; 2 Bass (Ladrax Jupus); 14 Black Bream (Can-
tharus lineatus); 1 Ballan Wrasse (Labrus maculatus);
I three-bearded Rockling (Motella wulgaris); 6 Sea Cray-
fish (Palinurus vulgaris); 1 Toad Crab (Dromia vulgaris),
1 Octopus (Octopus vulgaris), presented by Mr. C. J. Small, ot
Hastings; 1 Sea-hare (Aplysia punctata); Oysters (Ostrea
edulis); Mussels (JZytilus edulis); Zoophytes (TZealia crassi-
cornis, Alcyonium digitatum).

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens, during
the last week, include an Erxleben’s Monkey (Cercopithecus
erxlebent) ; a Moustache Monkey (C. cephus) ; a banded Ichneu-
mon (Herfestes fasciatus) and two bronze Spotted Doves (Cha/co-
pelia chalcospilos), from West Africa, presented by Mr. J. J.
Monteiro ; a greater Sulphur Crested Cockatoo (Cacatua gale-
rita), from Australia, presented by Mrs. Thomas ; a Hyacinth
Porphyrio (Porfhyrio hyacinthinus), from West Africa, pre-
sented by Lady Cust; a grey Ichneumon (erfestes griseus),
from India, presented by Mr. W. Walker; an Argus Pheasant
(Argus giganteus), from Malacca; two Rufous-tailed Pheasants
(Ceriornis erythrophthalmus), from India; a white-handed
Gibbon (Ay/obates lar), from the Malay Peninsula; a Puma
(Felis concolor), from Bogota ; two Lanner Falcons (Falco /ana-
vius), from E, Europe, deposited.

194

NATURE

| Fuly 3, 1873

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Der Naturforscher, May.—This serial, containing little that is
original, furnishes a weekly supply of well-selected and adapted
matter from varibus sources. In the present number attention
may be called to an academical address delivered by Herr
Streng at Giessen, on the “ circle-course” of substances in nature,
treating chiefly of geological phenomena ; to an account of Herr
Janettaz’s recent careful researches on the conduction of heat in
crystals (some 44 mineral species having been examined) ; to atheo-
retical investigation by Herr Handl (Vienna Academy) of thecondi-
tions of: satitvated and supersaturated Solutions, and to several papers
of meteorological experiment : on moisture in forests and in the
open, on the temperature of rain, and on the velocity of winds
as measured on various heights on Antwerp Cathedral.—Some
observations of M. Du Breuil on the partial decortication of
horse-chestnuts, are worthy of notice. He found about twenty
of these trees in the park at Compiégne, the bark of which had
been eaten off twenty-four years previously, by rabbits, to a
height of 30 or 40 centimetres. From several experiments hé
concluded that the chestnuts could live thus long without com-
munication with the sdiJ, and that the elements necessary to
their growth were obtained partly from the atmosphere, partly

through endoSmose from the woody tissue formed before decorti- |

cation.— Among several French Academy papers are those by
M., Jamin on the laws of the normal magnet, and M. Faye on
circulation of hydrogen in the sun.—English and American
science is also represented.—A curious fact is stated in the
‘*Kleinere Mittheilungen”: Herr Eimer has recently found, on a
precipitous rock near the island of Capri, a new species of lizard.
It is blue all over, with dark spots on the back ; while the lizards
in Capri are of a bright green, with only a little blue at the ex-
tremities. Now the rock (which is frequented by birds of prey)
has little or no vegetation, and its natural colour is a bluish
grey, or dark blue in the shaded parts. The lizard, when at
rest, can hardly be detected by sight, its colour is so like that
of the rock. Herr Eimer finds indications that the rock was
once connected with the land, and suppos-s green lizards to have
gone over and been gradually transformed to blue, through natu-
ral selection.

THE American Fournal of Science and Arts for June com-
mences with a biographical notice of Dr. John Torrey, the
botanist, who died in March last, in the 77th year of his age.—
Mr. G. J. Brush contributes a paper on the avalysis of an Angle-
site from Arizona, worked out in the Sheffield Laboratory of
Yale College.—Prof. Dana discusses some results of the earth’s
contraction from cooling, including the origin of mountains and
the nature of the earth’s interior.—Prof. J. H. Eaton has a
paper on the relations of the sandstone, conglomerates, and
limestone of Sauk County, Wisconsin, to each other and to the
Azoic.—Prof. Le Conte replies to Mr, T. S. Hunt’s criticisms
on his paper on the formation of the great features of the earth’s
surface.—Mr, Verrill remarks on Mr. Jeffrey’s article on ‘* The
Mollusca of Europe compared with those of Eastern North
America,” in which, while differing from that author, who thinks
that most of the New World forms are derived from the old, he
considers the reverse is the case.—Prof. Young proposes thé use
of diffraction ‘‘ gratings” a& a substitute for the trains of prisms
in a solar spectroscope; and he considers that they might well
supersede prisms on account of their lightness and ease in
management. Prof. Marsh gives further notices. of Tertiary
mammals, describing two new genera, Tillotherium and
Brontotherium, allied respectively to Anchigpodus and Titano-
therium.

Bulletin Mensuel de la Société d'Acclimatation dz Paris, —The

ril number of this serial has only just come to hand. It gives
details of all the prizes in the gift of the Society for papers or
Works on matters it Which it is specially interested, or for Success
in ‘carryiig out its objects in the acclimatisation or improvement
‘of various animals or plants. No less than 88 prizes, of the
money value of more than 75,000 fr, (3,000/.), remain to be com-
peted for, besides 31 medals. By this means the Society does much
to popularise the work it has in hand, and to make known the
experiencé gained by those who have interested themselves in it.
The system of lending ‘specimens, ‘on condition of receiving, for
further distribution, a certain part of the produce, is explained
in a paper by .M. Passy, the vice-president. It appears that
Algeria and Madeira, Guadeloupe and Martinique,, besides
Switzerland, Russia, Italy, Austria, atid some other Européan

countries, are brought within the field Of the Suciety by means

of branches, or affiliated societies of a similar nature.—A paper
entitled ‘* Le Jardin de mon,Grandpére,” by Edmond About, the
George Augustus Sala of French literature, gives some idea of
the benefits conferred by careful cultivation. ‘* To increase the
resources given by Nature to manis a task at once too noble and
too useful not to induce the sympathy and earnest assistance of
people in all parts of the world.” Such is the aim of the
Society. The last year has had good results. Foreign coun-
tries have all been made to give their quota towards increasing
the material wealth of France and the knowledge of those interest:

in the Society. ‘‘China, hitherto so unknown, will soon have
no secrets from us. A work on the ichthyology of the Celestial
Land has given details as to the modes of pisciculture in that
country.” The financial position of the Society is satisfactory,
the balance-sheet for 1872 showing receipts 54,944 fr. (2,200/.),
and expenditure 45,704 fr. (1,828/.),

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
Lonpon ‘

Royal Society, May 15.—On a Periodicity of Rainfll in
connection with the Sun-spot Periodicity, by C. Meldrim,
Director of the Meteorological Observatory, Mauritits, Com-
municated by Sir Edward Sabine.

Assuming that there is a sun-spot periodicity, in the course of
which the sun undergoes a variation with respect to heat, or
some other form of energy, we should expect to find a corre-
sponding variation in the state of our atmosphere.

With this idea, it was some time ago determined to discuss
the cyclones that had occurred during the Jast twenty-five years
in the Southern Indian Ocean, and 1t was found, what had been
often surmised, that they were more frequent and more violent
in the maxima than in the minima sun-spot years.

It is well known that the cyclones ot the Indian Ocean aré
attended with much rain, which is not confined to the body of
the storm, but extends over wide areas. Years remaikable for
cyclones, therefore, should be also years remarkable for rain ;
but to test this inference, with regard to the Indian Ocean, we
had no rainfall statistics, except eighteen years’ obs<rvations at
Mauritius ; and these were in every respect favourable, the
rainiest years having been those in which cyclones were most
abundant. In the absence of other data, the Brisbane and
Adelaide rainfalls were consulted, and it was found that, like
Mauritius rainfall, they indicated a periodicity. It was then
surmised that there might be a rainfajl periodicity generally ;
and that, if such was the case, both it and the cyclone-periodicity
Were condomitant effects of one and the same catsé. This sup-
position having been strétigthened by the results of an exaimina-
tion of the rainfall of England, it was resolved to examine all
the rainfall tables (containing one or more sun-spot periods) that
could be obtained. By comparison of an extensive series of
weather statistics kept at a large number of places all over the
world, the decided conclusion is that, with scarcely an excep
tion, all the years of maxima and minima rainfall are within a
fraction of the correspofiding maximum and midimim sun-spot
year.

Chemical Society, June 19.—Dr. Odling, F.8.8., president,
in the chair,—Nine commihications were read, of which the
following are the titles:—1. ‘‘ Reseatches on the Action of thé
Copper Zine Couple on Organic Bodies III. on Normal and
iro-propyl iodide,” by J..H. Gladstone, F.R.S., and A, Tribe,
being a continuation, in the propyl series, of the author’s pre-
vious researches. 2, ‘*On the Influence of Pressure on Fer-
mentation, Part 4. The influence of reduced atmospheric
pressure on the alcoholic fermentation,” by Horace T. Brown,
in which he finds that, under diminished pressure, the progress
of the alcoholic fermentation is retarded in a remarkable way.
3. ‘*On Cymene from different Sources, optically considered,”
by J. H. Gladstone, F,R.S. 4. ‘‘ Note on the Action of Bro-
mine on Alizarine,” by W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. This reaction
gives rise to Bromalizarine, an orange-coloured crystalline sub-
stance, possessing feebler dyeing properties than pure alizarine,
the colouring principle of madder. 5. “On some Oxidation
and Decomposition Products of Morphine Derivatives,” by G.
L. Mayer and C. R. A. Wright, D. Sc. 6. ‘On the Decom-
position of Tricalcic Phosphate by Water,” by R. Warrington.
7. ‘“Communications from the Laboratory of the London In-
stitution, No. XII.” : “On the Nature and on some Derivatives -
of Coal-tar Cresol,” by Dr, H, £, Armstrong aiid 'C, L, Wield,

Fuly 3, 1873]

8. ‘Ona new Tellurium Mineral, with Notes on a Systematic
Mineralogical Nomenclature,” by J. B. Hannay. 9g. ‘‘ Note on
the Relation among the atomic Weights,” by J. A. K. Newlands.
The president, in adjourning the meeting until after the recess,
congratulated the members on the number and importance of
the papers that had been read during the session,

Zoological Society, June 17.—The Viscount Walden,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Mr. Sclater laid before the
meeting the first sheets of a catalogue of the birds of the Neo-
tropical Region, prepared by himself and Mr. Osbert Salvin,
and shortly to be pablished under the title * Nomenclator Avium
Neotropicalium.” The number of species included in it, as
known tothe authors, was 3, 565.—Mr. Sclater exhivited and made
remarks on a collection of birds recently made in New Guinea by
Signor D’Albertis. The most remarkable of them was anew Para-
dise bird belonging to the Epimachine Section, but peculiar for its
long incurved bill, which was proposed to be called Drepare-
phorus albertisi, afver its discoverer.—Mr. J. W. Clark exhibited
the skull of a Seal from the Northern Pacific, which appeared
to be Halicyon richardsi, of Gray, and explained his reasons for
regarding it as indistinguishable from Phoca vitulina of the North
Atlantic. —A communication was read from Lord Walsingham,
giviog particulars as to the distribution of the different species of
Deer and other Ruminants of Oregon and Northern California.
—Dr. A. Leith Adams read a memoir on the osteology of the
Maltese Fossil Elephants, in which was given the description of
a large collection of remains discovered by him in Malta in the
years 1860-1866, Dr. Adams referred these remains to two
distinct species—a larger Zlephas mnaidriensis, and a smaller—
the £. melitensis of Falconer, and assigned 2. falconert of Busk
toa smaller form of the latter species— Mr. H. J. Elwes read a
paper on the geographical distribution of Asiatic birds, in which
he entered into the question of the best subdivision of the Indo-
Malayan Region.—A ‘communication was read from Mr.
W.S. Atkinson, of Darjecling, containing the description of a
new genus and species of afilionide from the South Eastern
Himalayas, proposed to be called Bhutanitis idderdalii—Mr.
R. B. Sharpe contributed the fourth of a series of papers on
African birds. The present memoir dealt with the African
Cuckoos, which were fully described and their geographical dis-
t:ibution pointed out.~-Mr. R. B. Sharpe read a second communi-
cation, describing three new species of birds, proposed to be
called Macrodipteryx speriingi from the Bay of Malimba, West
Africa, Chametylas princet from the Gold Coast, and Baza
erythrothorax from Celebes.—Mr. Sclater read a paper on the
Curassows, based mainly upon specimens now or lately living in
the Society’s Gardens, and gave details on their geographical
distribution and on the variations of sex of the known species. —
A communication was read from Mr. R. Swinhoe on Chinese
Deer, with notices of two new species proposed to be called
Cervus kopschi and C. euopis.—Mr. Sclater read a note on the
genus Ornithion of Hautlaub, and the synonymy of the four
known species. -Mr. A, H. Garrod read a memoir on certain
muscles of the thigh of birds and their value in classification,
founded principaliy upon the examination of a large number of
specimens that had lived in the Society’s collection. This
meeting closes the Scientific Session 1872-73.

Anthropological Institute, June 17.—Prof. Busk, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—Mr. J. G. Waller exhibited a series of
bronze implements discovered on the site of an ancient camp
near Hythe, Kent; and Mr, J. E. Price exhibited potiery and
bones of Ses found at New Southgate.—Lieut. C. S. Holland
read a paper on ‘The Ainos.” The following papers were
also read :—Account of an interview with a tribe of Bushmans
in South Africa, by G. W. Stow, F.G.S.—Specimens of native
Australian languages, by A. Mackenzie.—A brief account of
three microcephales, by Dr. John Shortt-—On a patoo-patoo
from New Zealand, by Sir Duncan Gibb, Bart.—The healing
art in the North of Scotland in the olden time, by Rev. Walter
Gregor, M.A.—On a hypogeum at Valaquil, Isle of Uist, by
A. Carmichael.—Heathen ceremonies still practised in Livonia,
by the Baron de Bogouschefsky.—The westerly drifting of
nomads from the 15th to the roth céntury, Part XI.—The Bual-
garians, by H. H. Howorth.

Entomological Society, June 2.—Sir Sidney S. Saunders,
V.P., in the chair.—Mr. Miiller exhibited a remarkable Psyche
case, sent by Mr. Rothney from Calcutta. It was eomposed of
thorns, all of equal length (about 1} inches), arranged with the
points all in one direction, so as effectually to guard the entrance

NATURE

195

azainst an euemy.—Sir Sidney Saunders exhibited a series of ‘iving
Hymenopterous larvze and pupz in briar stems lately received from
Albania, These stems having been split, showed the occupan §
in their natural cells. Specimens of the perfect insects rear ed
from the larvee were also exhibited.—Mr. Miiller communi-
cated some notes on the discovery by Dr. Joly, of Toulouse, of a
nymph belonzing to the genus O/ieoneuria, the immature state o*
which had been hitherto quite unknowa. Drawings of the upper
ani under sides of the nymph acccompanied the notes.—Mr,
Wo laston communicated a valuable paper ‘‘ On the genera of
the Cossonide.” It comprised (1) a catalogue of the several
groups, arranged systematically and tabulated; (2) full generic
diagaoses, taken seriatim ; (3) Observations (diagnostic and geo-
graphical) on each separate genus; (4) brief characters of 139
species not hitherto recorded ; (5) a complete list of the particular
members of the family (amounting in all to 253).—The Secretary
read a letter he had received from Mr. Roland Trimen, of Cape
Town, containing some remarks on the Rey. R. P. Murray’s
“Notes on Variations of Neuration observed in certain Papilio-
nid,” published in the Proceedings of the Society in Novem ber
last, and referring certain cases of {variation to reversion to an-
cestral characters, pointing to a remote community of origin
between the Papilionide and the higher Heterocera.

BERLIN

Geographical Society, June 7.—Baron Richthofen, pre-
sident, in the chair.—Dr. Neumayer spoke on methods of
measuring the temperature of the water of the sea at great
depth, and a new instrument for that purpose, invented
by himself. The discovery of the fact that the bulb of an
ordinary mercurial thermometer does not indicate correctly
the temperature when subjected to the pressure of many atmo-
spheres such as prevails at great depth, and that the errors of
any single reading may react as muchas 12 degrees of Fahren-
heit, first led to the improved method of surrounding the bulb
with a larger one filled with alcchol. The thermometrical
errors, so far as they relate to the working of the instrument
itself, are thereby nearly abolished. The difficulty, however,
remains of ascertaining the point in the scale which the column
of mercury reaches at any required depth of water. The various
methods devised for overcoming it are chiefly directed towards
the introduction of means for indicating the maximum and
minimum points. No one of them fully answers this pur-

pose. Any further improvement must therefore have for
its object the reading of the thermometer while under
water. A step in this direction was made by Mr. N. Siemens,

but it was argued that the results arrived at by this
method are not satisfactory, although it may eventually
be improved. Dr. Neumayer’s new principle is based
upon the plan of devising a self-registering thermometer
which may be lowered into the sea, and his first object was
to find out a kind of light which should be able to do
photographic work and yet not create errors by producing
heat. The Geissler tubes answer these conditions, chiefly those
filled with nitrogen, which emit a bright light and do not affect
the temperature in any measurable degree. The new apparatus,
which was exhibited and experimented with, consists of a large
vessel of brass containing (I) two vertical thermometers, which
perforate the bottom ani protrude into an open compartment
underneath, free to theaccess of water; (2) a galvanic battery,
with two Geissler iubes inserted, running in front of, and close
to, the thermometers ; (3) two rollsof Talbot paper standing
upright and immediately back of the thermometers, and re-
volving by means of a clockwork. As soon as the ba'teries
are closed avd the clockwork wound up, the luminous
columns of the nitrogen cause the picture of the column of
mercury to be reproduced on the photographic paper behind,
together with all the lines marking the partition of the scale.
The vessel is shut hermetically and lowered into the sea to any
required depth. When raised again, the record of the tempera-
ture which the surrounding water had at any minute, and there-
fore at the particular depth to which the apparatus was then
lowered, is read distinctly on the paper. An additional im-
provement was made by attaching on the top of the ins‘ru + ent
a co.npass-card turning freely around its axis, and on the out-
side of the vessela sort of wing, which will be directed > by the
current when the ship is in a slight motion. By an ingenious
contrivance the deviation of the direction of the wing from
the north ard south line of the card is indicated by the same
photographic means. It is believed that the direction of the
current at various depths will thus be determined.—Mr, Siemens

196

proposed to use chased copper in the place of brass in con-
structing the vessel, on account of its offering greater resistance
to pressure, and believed to have already found satisfactory
means for improving the instrument invented by himself and
his brother.—Dr.-Marthe gave an account of Khiwa based on
the study of Russian literature on the subject, winding up with
the suggestion, that the withirawing of a large body of the
water from the Amu for the irrigation of the oasis, deprived the
lake Aral of so large a supply, that to this circumstance might
be due the diminution its surface has suffered, and the fact of its

resent isolation. The water which before took its way through

ake Aral to the Caspian, now evaporates from the rice-fields of
Khiwa,

Geological Society, June 4.—Dr. J. Ewald in the chair.—
Baron Richthofen drew attention to the activity recently dis-
played, according to newspaper reports, by several volcanoes of
Japan, some of which have not been active for a long time, and
gave an account of the distribution of volcanoes in Japan. The
west and east portion of the aggregate body of the Japanese
islands (leaving out of consideration the small inland passages),
is in every way the direct continuation of the mountain system
which occupies the south-eastern portion of China, the axial chain
of which extends from the frontier of Annam to the island of
Chusan, in the direction of W. 30° S.; E. 30° N. It is accom-
panied on either side by a number of parallel chains. The
prolongation of the main portion of this group of linear chains
passes through the island of Kiushiu to the great bend of Japan ;
and in that entire region of country, the structure of the hills,
the rocks of which they are made up (chiefly Silurian and De-
vonian strata accompanied by granite), and the lines of strike
are the same which were observed in south-eastern China. This
first system is intersected, at either end, by another which runs
SS.W., NN.E. On the west, it commences in Kiushiu, and
extends southward in the direction of the Liu-Kiu islands, while
on the east it constitutes the northern branch of the main island,
and, with a slight deviation in its course, continues through the
islands of Yesso and Saghalin. A third system, which does not
properly belong to Japan, is indicated by the S.W. and N.E,
line of the Kurilislands, The first system, where it occupies
the breadth of the country for itself alone, is as free from vol-
€anoes or any accumulation of volcanic rocks as it is in south-
eastern China. The second is accompanied by volcanoes. But
the greatest accumulation of volcanic rocks, as well as of extinct
volcanoes, is found in the places of interference, or those regions
where the lines of the two systems cross each other; and be-
sides, in that region where the third system branches off from
the second. To the same three regions of interference those
volcanoes are confined which have been active in historical
times. Some details were then given regarding the structure of
Kiushiu. This island, although having its longer axis directed
from north to south, is intersected, as it were, by several solid
bars made up of very ancient rocks, and following the strike of
W. 30° S., E. 30° N. They form high mountain barriers, the
most central of which (south of the provinces of Higo and
Bungo) rises to over 7,000 feet, and is extremely wild and
rugged. Among the details regarding the volcanoes of Satsuma,
particular attention was drawn to the fact that the various families
of volcaric rocks have arrived there at the surface in exactly the
same order of succession as is the case in Hungary, Mexico, the
Great Basin, and many other volcanic regions, namely, Ist, Pro-
pylite, or trachytic greenstone ; 2nd, Andesite ; 3rd, Trachyte
and Rhyolite ; and qtb, the basaltic rocks. There is the greatest
accumulation of mountain masses in Japan, one of the several
chains rising to upwards of 11,000 feet in its summits. Among
them are situated several gigantic volcanoes, such as Fusi-yama,
the highest of all, Yatsunga-Jake, a series of elevated cones with
extinct craters, and several others partly active and partly extinct.
Those of the third group were not visited by Richthofen.—
Prof. E. Weiss exhibited some curious octahedral crystals of
Hausmannite, remarkable on account of certain re-entering
angles and the striated aspect of the faces, and proved that the
lines which caused this appearance were due to a kind of twin
formation not hitherto observed.

PaRIS

Academy of Sciences, June 23.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dent, in the chair—The following papers were read :—Second
note on guano, by M. Chevreul.—New researches on the silent
electric discharge, by MM. P. and A. Thenard.—Researches on
vhlorine and its compounds, by M. Berthelot. The author dealt

NATURE

[Fuly 3, 1873

with the compounds of chlorine with water and the protosalts.—-
A new series of observations on the solar protuberances ; new
remarks on the relations between protuberances and spots, by
Father Secchi. The Rey. Father presented his observations for
the last quarter, and then, in his letter, criticised Respighi’s late
remarks on the absence of the chromosphere over spots, which
he maintains is not the case. He then gave an account of some
experiments on scdium vapour, which, however, contained
nothing new, and then proceeded to state that the line D, ap-
pears to him to coincide with one of the components of the D
group which appears when the sun is near the horizon. He has
also found a bright iron line between 6, and 43, and having
examined the spectrum of iron with a battery of 50 cells, has
seen 480 lines, but could not find 1474 Kirchhoff; he hopes to
repeat this experiment, and if the results are same, he considers
that the absence of Fe from the corona will be proved. With
magnesium in the lamp, he finds the same nebulosity as is
exhibited by the sodium lines, but it is accompanied by a banded
spectrum of MgO ; he thinks that if the nebulosity is also due
to the oxide, that the occurrence of oxidation in the sun will be
proved.—On the influence of atmospheric refraction as it affects
the time of contact in a transit of Venus, by M. E. Dubois.—
On the coloration and greening of Neottia Nidus-avis, by M. E.
Prillieux.—On semi-diurnal barometric variations, by M. Broun.—
On hot-air warming apparatus, by M. Ducrot.—A letter was re-
ceived from M. de Lesseps praying the Academy toinclude his name
among those of the candidates for the vacant seat of Académicien
libre, vacant by M. de Verneuil’sdeath.—On the constitution of the
sun and the theory of the spots, by M. E. Vicaire.—On the pro-
duction of methylic alcohol by the distillation of calcic formate,
by MM. C. Friedel and R. D, Silva, The authors believe that
formic aldehyde is first formed by the reaction (CHO,),C1 =
CO,Ca? + H,O + CH,O, and that the aldehyde is converted
into alcohol by the action of nascent hydrogen.—On terebene,
by M. J. Ribau.—On the production of the rotatory power ia
the neutral derivatives of mannite, by M. G. Bouchardat.—An
answer to a late no‘e, by M. du Moncel, on the resistance
maxima of induction coils, by M. Raynaud.

DIARY

FRIDAY, Jury 4.
Geotocists’ AssocIATION, at 8.
ARCHAOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 4.
Horricu.TurRat Society, at 3.—Lecture.

SATURDAY, Juty 5.
Gegovocists’ AssociaTion.—Excursion to Plumstead and Crossness.
MONDAY, Jury 7.

Gerocrapnicat Society, at 8.30 —Boat Journey up the River Wami: C. C.
Hill.—Remarks on Zanzibar and the East Coast of Africa: Sir Bartle
Frere, K C.B., president.

ENTOMOLOGICAL Society, at 7.

BOOKS RECEIVED

AmeRICAN.—Families of Fishes: Theo. Gill (Smithsonian Institution).
—Memoir of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, 2 vols : George
Ellis (Claxton & Co, U.S.A.).—U-S. Sanitary Commission in Valley of
Mississippi, 1861-6 : Dr. Newberry (Cleveland, U.S.A.).—Geologica! Survey
of Indiana: E. T. Cox (Indianopolis, U.S.A.)

: CONTENTS

Pace
An Orper oF INTELLECTUAL MERIT. « . . «sw ww es 1977
Cookery aT Souru Kenstncton. By Dr. E. Lanxester, F.R.S.. 178
Cox's Poputar PsycHOLOGY » . 6 se 2 1 se ee 6s 8 190
Our Book SHELF. < s.jagkeP Ol «Werle “ec 1a) «cee
LetrTers To THE EptroR:—
Dr. Bastian's Turnip-Cheese Experiments —Dr. BuRDON SANDER-

SON. F.RS,. . Bales «so oe + ee nn
The Zodiacal Light —T. W Backuouse; Maxwett Hatt . . 184
Meteorological Influence of Trap-Rocks.—T. SrevgNSON . . . 181
Winters and Summers —J, J. Murruy, F.G.S. . . Oe 182
Cyclones.—J. J. MurrHy, PGS... . 2... « ee. 182
A Mirage in the Fens—S, H. Mitter. . . ..... . « 182
‘Lhe Westerly Progress of Cities.—B.G. Jenkins . . . . . . 182
How does the Cuckoo deposit her Eggs.—‘T’ ANnpas . o atte'paBa

Tue Late Mr. ARCHIBALD SMITH... oes 185

New EXPERIMENTS FOR THE D&TERMINATION OF THE VELOCITY OF
Licut py M. ALFRED Cornu (With [dlustrations) . . .. . .
FERTILISATION OF F. OWERS BY INSECTS, and on the reciprocal adapta
tions of both. By Dr. HERMANN MULLER (H4/sth llustrations) .
ON SOME REMARKABLE ForMS OF ANIMAL LIFE FROM GREAT

Deers orF THE Norwecian Coast. By Rev. Tuomas HINCKS . 189
NOEs +. sss) 5 ee oe ne 8 se ee
SCIENTIFIC'SERIALS’ 4s: GieMerte, bls) a lo os Ser aL 194
SocteTI£s AND ACADEMIES'¢),:0):) a6)! « s+ 90 ol glenn 104
DIARY «105.2, 0.0 (© ogee! tel atyatly , |» 1/84 0 sat a oe ee
Booxs Ruckivap. .. 6 sia lebwi she ss «sc ee ouSTe

THURSDAY, JULY 10, 1873

. THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH
Il.
N a recent number attention was drawn to the public
importance of original research in the Sciences, and
it was insisted that certain funds which lie ready to the
hand should be devoted towards the maintenance of
those who undertake the national duty of extending the
bounds of scientific knowledge.

In this article it is proposed to strengthen those
positions by a reference to the already published evidence
of the Royal Commission at present inquiring into “ Scien-
tific Instruction and the Advancement of Science.” The
object of the labours of the Commission is twofold, but
concerning the former part nothing need now be said,
except that regulated activity in independent investigation
is the main condition upon which depends successful
teaching alike in the individual professor, and the

_ scientific schools of the nation.

The Commission was especially directed to ascertain
how far the endowments of the Universities and Colleges
might be directed to aid the needs of Science. On this
point much valuable evidence was given by several
distinguished members of our two wealthy Universities,
and there was a general agreement of opinion that so far
as Instruction and Examination are concerned, the Uni-
versities are showing a praiseworthy disposition to
encourage their scientific students. On the other hand,
it was universally admitted that the Oxford Science-
school, despite the excellent teaching of its professors,
is not progressing so well as might be expected, and that
the University is lamentably deficient in that part of its
functions which is concerned with the promotion of
knowledge for its own sake.

Among the Oxford witnesses Sir B. Brodie, who was at
the time that he gave his evidence Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry, is conspicuous as well for the precision with
which he pointed out the causes of the present defects, as
for the definiteness of the scheme by which he proposed
to remedy them. According to him, “ Universities are
Institutions of which the object is, in the first place, to
promote scientific education and to diffuse scientific
knowledge, and in the second place to preserve and to
extend scientific knowledge.” He was of opinion that
“the latter of these duties is at present not sufficiently
kept in view, whereas in old days the case had been dif-
ferent.” His suggestions were that “the University
should establish, on a larger scale than now, museums
and scientific collections, for the present ones are orga-
nised too much with a purely educational object ; and
secondly (a point to which he attached by far the most
importance), that the means of existence and of scientific
study should be provided for certain professors or indi-
viduals, by whatever name they may be called, whose
chief function should be scientific investigation and the
representation and advancement of their various special
Sciences.”

He further went on to suggest that “these professors
- should be, to a great extent, separate from the ordinary
teaching staff of the University, professors of the Science

No, 193—VOL. vu,

NATURE

197

itself, rather than professors of the teaching of the
Science’: ” that “in their lectures they should give to the
public what they have attained for themselves, and have
under them a limited number of pupils as assistants in
their own original researches.” The case of Liebig at
Giessen will naturally suggest itself to our readers as an
apt illustration of the particular mode of advancing
Science here advocated ; and from the evidence of Sir
W. Thompson before the Commissioa it may be learnt
that both at Glasgow and at Owens College a somewhat
similar plan is being energetically carried out.

Sir B. Brodie, however, would appear with charac-
teristic oe to go even one step beyond this, for he in-
stances as “a capital example of such a foundation as he
would desire the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford, where
the observer gives no lectures at all, is not even attached
to the University, but solely put there to do astronomical
work. The Board of Curators, themselves not necessarily
members of the University, having large funds at their
disposal, give to the observer whatever he wants, whilst
he on his part, as the sole evidence of his industry, makes
an annual report on the condition of the observatory and
the work done, and publishes certain tables.” Here we
also think that we have found, so far as the theory of the
institution goes, an admirable model of the manner in
which the cultivation of Science for its own sake may be
endowed with great advantage to the country and without
any manifest risk of sinecurism. In the language of the
Dean of Christ Church, “ we should very much like to see
eminent men residing at Oxford only partially employed
in teaching, but employing a great part of their time in
scientific research.”

With reference to the endowment of research here ad-
vocated it is necessary that a warning should be explicitly
given against dangers which threaten from two different
sides. On the one hand it is most important, in England
more than in other countries, that the simple pursuft of
Science as knowledge should not be confounded with the
practical application of scientific truth to the numberless
arts of modern civilisation. Applied Science is a profes-
sion which promises to become of a highly remunerative
character. The analyst, the engineer, and the electrician
May require pecuniary help and regulation from the
Central Government for their technical schools, but they
emphatically do not require to be themselves supported
by national endowments. On the other hand, the ordi-
nary scientific teacher at the universities, where not
the poor but the rich as a rule are taught, should
not in our opinion be regarded gwd@ teacher as the
proper recipient of the funds of an endowment. It
may very well be that while education in Science is
struggling towards recognition, the teachers may claim
some sort of aid to put them on a level with those
branches of instruction which have the advantage
of ancient prestige ; it may also be thought advantageous
that certain teachers should receive endowments, not for
the tuition they give, but for the investigations they are
carrying on independently of their other work; yet it
must be granted that either of these cases is of an excep-
tional character.

On all hands are to be seen the disastrous conse-
quences of endowing teaching proper, and of compelling
original research to take its chance at the hands of the

M

eae i

. 198 NA TURE

[Fuly 10, 1873

amateur. It must happen that the professor (so called)
will be constrained to give up the whole of his time to
the duty which is most expected of him, and that original
research will suffer both in quantity and in quality. The
most general principles of political economy are sufficient
to show that in a wealthy and moderately enlightened
country the remuneration of teaching had better be regu-
lated by the equitable standard which impartial compe-
tition will not fail to establish. It is for those subjects
which, though of essential importance to the welfare of
the country, are in themselves naturally unremunerative,
that the old endowments for the promotion of education
and knowledge, whatever may have been the particular
means by which these ends were originally to be attained,
are now required. Among these subjects disinterested
application to pure Science is manifestly the chief.

In a subsequent article we propose to show that the
funds of the Colleges cannot be more consistently applied
than to this purpose, and that the progressive well-being
of the Universities mainly depends upon the degree to
which they are concerned in the advancement of know-
ledge. c

THOME’S LEHRBUCH DER ZOOLOGIE

Lehrbuch der Zoologie. Von Dr. Otto Wilhelm Thomé ;
Pp. 416. (Brunswick; 1872.)

F Germans wonder, not without reason, who buy our
m anuals of microscopic mounting, Englishmen may
equally wonder for whom such books as Dr. Thomé’s are
written. We have technical treatises on special branches
of zoology, and we have popular natural history books,
but a manual like this would find a poor sale in England.
It is a school manual, and its existence is explained by
the introduction of zoology to some extent into the cur-
riculum of the German gymnasia and much more into
that of the Realschule, which more or less correspond to
the “modern side” of our public schools, or may be de-
scribed as answering in intention, though of course
immeasurably supepar in performance, to English “ com-
mercial schools.” Whether zoology ought to form a
regular part of school work, even whee room is made by
giving up Greek altogether and Latin more or less, is an
important question. As a part of education in the proper
sense of the word, it is so inferior in exactness, in con-
ciseness, in facility of demonstration, and convenience
for observation and experiment to such rivals as botany,
physics, and even chemistry, that its claims may practi-
cally be ignored. Moreover, looking at school work from
another point of view, it is obvious that any scheme of utili-
tarian zzstruction which is good for much must include ig-
norance of the greater part of human knowledge, in order to
provide for acquaintance with the rest ; and the first ad-
dition to the indispensable elements of reading, writing,
and arithmetic would probably be claimed for geography,
political economy, or the rudiments of hygiene, as
more useful branches of knowledge than zoology. A boy
with a bent for natural history would gain far more good
from reading the bits of zoology in such books as the
“Voyage of the Beagle,” the “ Malay Archipelago,” or
“ Kosmos,” and by collecting bird’s eggs or butterflies, than
he would by painfully wading through the details of Dr.

Thomé’s closely printed pages. And when zoology is
taken up as a serious study by older students, most
teachers will agree that the best plan is for them to begin
by a careful study of a particular branch of the subject,
with the help of such a peo as Flowers’ “ Osteology
of the Mammalia.”

Looking to the object of the book, the reader
will find Dr. Thomé’s work fairly done. The first
hundred pages are devoted to a popular sketch of
human anatomy and physiology, from which all notice of
generation and development is excluded. Otherwise it is
as complete as the space will allow. The remainder of
the book describes the several classes of animals, begin-
ning with Mammalia and following the arrangement into
seven types—Vertebrata, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Vermes,
Echinodermata, Ccelenterata and Protozoa—which is
now generally accepted among German naturalists. A
diagram of these types is given, which might serve for a
genealogical tree ; but no hint of this intention is given.
The sub-division into classes and orders is not particu.
larly good. Thus among Mammalia the Sirenia are con-
founded with the Cetacea, Ray’s obsolete distribution
into Ungulata and Unguiculata is preserved, and the
orders Ruminantia and Pachydermata appear, as if
nothing had been done to clear up the real affini-
ties of these groups since Cuvier published the
“Regne Animal.” The classification of birds is not
more unsatisfactory than that of other writers ; and in the
class of fishes Miiller’s orders are commendably fol-
lowed. Tunicata and Bryozoa are of course excluded
from Mollusca, and help to fill the lumber-room of —
Vermes. A very large share is, as usual, given to the —
account of insects, while marine zoology and the Protozoa
receive comparatively little attention.

Three hundred and fifty-eight woodcuts'makelan impor-
tant feature of the work. Most of these are good in them-
selves and well printed. Those illustrating human anatomy
and histology are the best, and almost all borrowed from
Henle. No indication of this or any other source is given,
but it is easy to recognise that some of the figures have been ~
taken from the admirable cuts in Bell’s “ British Reptiles,”
others from Forbes, Milne-Edwards, and other well-
known works ; while some of the Mammalia appear to
have been drawn from children’s toys. Fig. 350, of a
sponge, is a curiously modified reproduction of the original
drawing in Grant’s “ Outlines of Comparative Anatomy”
(p. 312). Of the thirty-one figures of birds, twenty-seven
represent European species, and of these all but four are
copied from Yarrell’s British Birds. One excellent addi-
tion to each figure is a note of the relation it bears to the
actual size of the animal represented, or of the average
length of the latter. There are not many figures of
anatomical details, but almost all are good, some being
taken from Gegenbaur’s “ Vergleichende Anatomie.”

To compare Dr. Thome’s book as a whole with serious
scientific treatises even of the second class, like that of —
Claus, would be unfair : but even as a “cram-book” it is
inferior to Nicholson’s Zoology: and it gives far too
little space to descriptions of the habits and character of —
well-known groups like mammals, birds, and insects, to be —
really popular. Such books as Knight’s “ Museum of
Animated Nature” are much more interesting and quite
as scientific, Tete eee

-for binding them.

Fuly 10, 1873]

NATURE

199

VALENTIN’S QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

A Course of Qualitative Chemical Anaiysis. By William
George Valentin, F.C.S., Principal Demonstrator of
Practical Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines
and Science Training Schools, South Kensington.
(London: J. and A. Churchill. 1873.)

So is a good sign of the present activity of scientific
study in this country that there should have already

been a call for a second edition of a work which only

appeared two years back, in the early part of 1871.

The author has, in the second edition, separated the
second part of his orignal work, and this, treating entirely
of qualitative analysis, forms the volume now before us,
The elements which occur in the main as bases are
divided into five groups, and the first portion of the book
is devoted to a careful study of each element of each
group beginning with group V., a method the advantages
of which will be seen by a very short study. The first
103 pages are devoted to this matter, and the attention of
the student is then devoted to the study of the reactions
of the acids. No particular grouping is here attempted,
the acids being simply taken under the head of the prin-
cipal element of each, ¢,g. sulphuric acid is followed by
sulphurous acid, and that by hyposulphurous and hydro-
sulphuric acids. We remark here, by the way, that the
polythionic acids are dismissed with the notice that
they must be reserved for a more extensive course
of study. A few of the more common organic acids
are then referred to, and the whole matter treated of is
shown in the comdensed form as tables. In these we
notice no important alterations from those of the edition
of 1871, and of them we can, after considerable expe-
rience, speak in the highest terms, students soon learning
to use them with great accuracy and despatch.

Mr. Valentin has stated in his preface that he
purposely omits considering the rarer elements in his
tables. In this we cordially agree with him as regards
the tables intended for students, but we cannot help
wishing that Mr. Valentin had put in the appendix some
analytical information with regard to these bodies in a
tabular form ; as we feel sure that his great experience in
the analysis of every possible kind of body would have
enabled him to give valuable information to many who
are compelled occasionally to make diligent search for
elements which are not always met with. Many old
students of the College of Chemistry will recognise an
old friend on pp. 50 and 51 in the alternative table for
group IIIA., it being no other than the old table used
there up to the time of the introduction of the newer
methods given at the end of the book.

We notice with pleasure that the analytical tables
are published in a separate form, printed on De
La Rue’s parchment paper; this is certainly very
good news for chemical students who have to use
them. Who does not know the gradual process of obli-
teration and destruction by acids and alkalies which
gradually, but surely, rendered his most carefully pre-
pared and written analytical tables useless. It would be
a great boon to all compelled to use books in the labora-
tory, if some modification of this material could be used
In conclusion we can strongly recom-
mend the book to anyone desiring either to get or to give

a thorough grounding in analytical chemistry; and the
only fault we can find with it is that rather too profuse
use is made of symbolical formule, for they are scarcely
required in a book on analytical subjects only, and the
first volume gives quite a sufficient amount of informa-
tion on their use and nature. We hope that Mr. Valentin
will some day give us a quantitative analysis.
R. J. F.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. By the Rev. T.
W. Webb, M.A., F.R.A.S, Third edition, revised and
enlarged. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1873.)

PossEssoRS of what Mr. Webb calls “common tele-

scopes,” will be pleased to have another edition of this

most useful adjunct to their instruments, with corrections
and additions up to the present time. Now that silvered
glass reflectors are so cheap, and apertures little below
six inches not uncommon in the hands of amateur astro-
nomers, the author’s definition of a common telescope is
probably too limited, but these limits are extended as
we proceed with the book and find mention of objects
barely visible with nine inches. The advice on the use of
telescopes, and the mode of observation is sound and good,

and too much stress cannot be laid on the necessity of a

good solid stand; a good telescope will be absolutely use-

less with an unsteady mounting. The description of the
various phenomena to be viewed in the members of the

Solar system may lead possessors of small telescopes to ex-

pect too much, the separation of Saturn’s rings, the mark-

ingson Jupiter’s satellites, to wit, although mention is made
of the apertures required to view the features mentioned ;
but this may also make the book useful for work with
larger instruments. We must take objection to the great
contrast of light and shade, as is often the case in other
works, in the cuts of Venus and Jupiter’s moons, the dark
markings on Venus being infinitely too black, they in
reality being only just visible, with first-rate instruments,
toa practised astronomer. Drawings of this kind only
represent position and shape, but it must be remembered
that an amateur expects to see through the telescope ex-
actly what he sees in a drawing. One-third of the book
is taken up with a selection of double stars and nebula,
as in the former editions, with measures of position and
distance up to later dates. Altogether the book will be
found most useful to every incipient astronomer, but
perhaps there may be too strong a tendency to star- gazing
induced by it, and we should have been more gratified to
have seen directions to readers having telescopes of cer-
tain sizes how to make their observations of real use
and not a mere pastime. For instance, double image
micrometers can be used on less apertures than 6-in.
without clockwork ; and some instructions in the use of
them, and in reducing their observations so as to show
the motions of binaries, would be of great service in
teaching amateurs to do useful work; a hint, also, on
drawing the ever-changing belts of Jupiter, any extra-
ordinary spots on the sun, the larger nebulz, and last, not
least, the star clusters. As soon as amateurs have seen
the planets and a few double stars, they should begin to
make themselves useful, otherwise they soon get tired of
the mere star-gazing and the telescope becomes to them a
thing of the past. G. M.S.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. }

Dr, Sanderson’s Experiments and Archebiosis

IN last week’s NATURE Dr. Sanderson expresses some sur
prise that I was gratified by the facts recorded in his previou.

_ 200

NATURE

[Fuly 10, 1873

letter. My reasons were these. Dr. Sanderson’s experiments in
the eight successive cases in which he empluyed the temperature
of 100° C, for twenty minu'es were entirely confirmatory of my
own, and were, moreover, so conducted as to refute the objec-
tions which have been urged by Dr. Wm. Roberts and others.

As to the bearing of Dr. Sanderson’s experiments with higher
temperatures and more prolonged periods of exposure to heat
upon the general question of the independent origin of living
matter, I wholly dissent from his now expressed conclusions, for
the following reasons :—

In the first place his fluids were not kept sufficiently long
before they were submitted to microscopical examination. Dr,
Sanderson is quite mistaken in supposing that in examining his
liquids within 3-6 days after their preparation he was following
my method—more especially in cases such as these where the
fluids have been exposed to temperatures higher than usual, or
to 100° C, for upwards of twenty minutes. Three to six
weeks have often elapsed before I thought it judicious to open
my flasks (See ‘‘ Beginnings of Life,” vol. i. p. 355, p. 441,
and Append. C.). In opening all his flasks at the end of 3-6
days, Dr. Sanderson lost the opportunity of watching the
changes which might have ensued later in many of his experi-
mental fluids—and hence lost his right to draw any conclusions
from these abortive trials.

Secondly these experiments are open to another objection.
Dr. Sanderson concludes from them that exposure to a tempera-
ture of ror® C. almost always arrests the tendency to fermenta-
tion in his experimental fluids. This conclusion I believe to be
erroneous, because in the former series of experiments which I
performed in his presence, and of which he recorded the results
-in your pages (NATURE, vol. vii. p. 180), fermentation oc-
curred in the majority of cases in fluids which I have very good
reasons for believing to have been raised to a temperature of
10333 C.* The method recently employed by Dr. Sanderson
for superheating his flasks was needlessly complicated, and the
exact temperature to which they had been exposed was known
only by inference—never by direct thermometric observation.

Leaving now the discussion of the experimental facts I come
to the examination of Dr. Sanderson’s inferences, which seem
still more open to objection.

Dr. Sanderson, in common with most others, had up to the
date of his witnessing my experiments, admitted that Bacteria
and their germs were killed in all fluids with which he had
experimented at the temperature of 100° C, (see ‘‘ Thirteenth
Report of Medical Officer of Privy Council, 1871.”) It was,
indeed, this conviction which inspired himself, and many others,
with a strong disbelief in the results which I obtained with
previously boiled infusions.

What remains, then, for Dr. Sanderson to do, prior to drawing
inferences such as he now expresses, is to ascertain, by direct
examination, whether the temperature of 100° C. is or is not
fatal to the life of Bacteria. It is upon this that the inter-
pretation of my results can alone depend. I have already
contributed my share to the inquiry by several long series of
experiments, each of which has led me to the same conclusion,
viz., that Bacteria and their germs, when in the moist state, are
killed at a temperature of 60°C. (See “ Beginnings of Life,”
vol. i, p. 325-3333 ‘‘ Proceedings of Royal Society,” No. 143,
1873 ; and another paper about to appear in the next number of
the “ Proceedings.”) It is for Dr. Sanderson, or any com-
petent observers who are sufficiently interested, to examine my
experiments and results on this part of the subject, or else to
devise others for themselves having a similar bearing.

If I am right in believing that 60°C. is the thermal death-
point o' Bacteria in the moist state, the conclusion which must be
drawn from the now admitted results occurring in fluids which

* Dr. Sanderson was not aware of this fact, and says he does not know
any means by which the temperature of a fluid boiling briskly in a vessel
from which the steam escapes only through a capillary orifice, could be accu-
rately estimated. ‘he method which | adopted some mouths ago seems to
possess this merit. I had a small maximum thermometer made for the pur-
pose, 24 in. in length, and graduated from 95°-115° C. Having straightened
tue neck of one of my retorts (capable of holding about two fluid ounces), it
was filled with some hay infusion and the thermometer was introduced in
such a way that its bulb remained in the ,midst of the fluid, about three
quarters of an inch away from the glass. The long neck of the retort having
then been drawn out and b. oken off (so as to leave the usual capiilary orifice)
the fluid was boiled tor five minutes before the vessel was sealed. The ther-
mometer was found to stand at 103°33”7C The retorts employed in my
previous experiments with Dr. Sanderson were of the same size, and their
contained fluids were boiled under precisely similar conditions. If larger
flasks, con aining more fluid, were employed the temperature weuld dou vt-

less rise to a still higher degree owing to a corresponding increase in internal
pressure.

have been heated to 100°C. suffice for my argument as to the
reality of Archebiosis. The further investigation of the results
of raising fluids to higher temperatures for protracted periods is
of great interest, but does not at all affect the question of the
reality of Archebiosis ; ani Dr. Sanderson’s preseat experiments
have, therefore, none of the significance in the arzumeat which
he strangely enough appears to claim for them.

Briefly, having admitted that B&cteria arise in fluids which
have been submitted to a temperature of 109°C., it is for Dr,
Sanderson to show that they are not killed in fluids at 60° C., as
I maintain that they are, before he can attempt with any effect
to draw inferences of his own, or to criticise those which I have
drawn on the subject of the independent origin of living matter.

H. CHARLTON BASTIAN

University College, July 7

Dr. Bastian’s Experiments

REGARDING Dr. Bastian’s letter in NaTuRE of June 26,
I am happy to be able to make a note of an experiment which
is of interest and importance. I sealed a tube on toa flask of
about 100 cc. capacity at right angles to the neck, and drew
out the end so as to forma capillary orifice. About 30 cc. of
water were put into the flask, anda thermometer in an india-
rubber cork was wired into the neck. On boiling the water
the steam had not issued during more than half-a-minate, before
the temperature was 102° C., and in less than ten minutes it had
reached 118° C, ; fearing the safety of the apparatus, I did not
proceed further, nor indeed did I wish to do more. The joint ~
experiments of Drs. Sanderson and Bastian, then newly pub-
lished in your paper, led me to this. My view being that
Pasteur’s experiments on milk, mixed with carbonate of lime,
and the liquid known as ‘‘ Pasteur’s solution” mixed with
carbonate of lime, conclusively show that liquids which ordina-
rily develop Bacteria, will, if they remain neutral after boiling
at 100° C. also develop these organisms: raise the temperature
to 110° C. and the Bacteria no longer show themselves.

Thus believing, I concluded that the absence of Bacteria in
some of Drs. Sanderson and Bastian’s flasks in which were
placed neutral or only slightly alkaline infusions, was probably
due to the liquids being heated above 100°C., by boiling in
vessels with capillary orifices. That my supposition was correct
is more than likely ; in fact experiments with infusions con-
firmed it, That an aqueous solution may so easily be raised to
118° C. is a point in chemical manipulation which will be
turned to advantage in the laboratory.

King’s College, June 30 WALTER NO&L HARTLEY

Temperature and Pressure

THE climate of the island of Jamaica is remarkably uniform,
not only at the sea-level, but also at places having the same ele-
vation, so that the connection between temperature and eleya-
tion, or barometrical pressure due to that elevation, is easily ob-
tained ; and since the surface of the island is broken up by in-
numerable radiating and intersecting mountain ranges, among or
upon which the houses are scattered, this connection becomes
one of the most important features in its meteorology; but
what renders it especially interesting, however, is the fact that
the rate of the decrease of temperature in ascending the hills in
this tropical climate is equal to the average rate of decrease
found by balloon ascents made in England, as far as the irregu-
larities of the results obtained from those ascents will allow us to
judge.

: ie order to show that this is the case, let ¢, be the temperature
at any place where the pressure is #,, the temperature being ex-
pressed in degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale, and the pressure in
inches of mercury at 32°; let ¢ and f be the corresponding
quantities at any other place above the former ; then if A be con-
stant and equal to 3°°23, the equation

t,—t=A(0,-P)

will represent the connection between temperature and pressure ;
or in words, for every inch the barometer may fall, the thermo-
meter will fall 3°°23. ,

If we take mean annual values, at Kingston 4, =78°8, Zo=
29'97in. ; and at Newcastle, the garrison of the white troops, ¢=
67°'0, P=26'31in. ; so that A (#,—f)=11° 8, which is exactly
equal to the observed difference of temperature. ,

Again at Craigton, the residence of his Excellency th

NATURE

201

Governor, which is between the two former places with respect
to both position and eleyation, ‘=70°°5, # = 27°41 in., from
observations kindly made for me by Captain Lanyon, A.D.C. ;
so that the calculated difference of temperature between Kingston
and Craigton is 8°°3, the observed difference ; and the calcu-
lated difference between Craigton and Newcastle is 3°°55, which
is only 0°05 too large. And since the equation has been found
to hold good under different circumstances at lower elevation,
we may suppose that it is strictly true for Jamaica.

With regard to balloon ascents, I have before me two tables,
one compiled by Sir John Herschel, and the other by Prof.
Loomis, from more recent observations, and these are brought

- into the same form in the following table in order to compare

them ; the first column contains the fall of the barometer in
inches, the second contains the corresponding fall of temperature
from Herschel’s Meteorology, the third from Loomis’s Meteoro-
logy, and the fourth contains the mean of the numbers in the
second and third, which we shall consider to be the average
results obtained from balloon ascents,

t 2 3 4 5 6
ho-b H L to-# Calc. Diff.

in. o ° ° °
2 30 10°! 66 16°3 +03
4 68 iy de 12°1 12°6 —0'5
6 IX°3.0\|, 23:2 17°3 18-9 — 16
8 16°9 29°0 230 25°2 — 2°2
10 23°6 34°7 29°2 315 — 23
12 314 40'5 36'0 37°38 - 13
14 408 463 || 43°6 441 =A
16 518 ery) ie 51° 50°4 + 14
18 637 | 561 | 59°99 56°7 + 32

Now if we take ¢,—¢ = (fo—J), we shall get nine equations
of condition for finding A; the most probable value of this
quantity is 3°15, which hardly differs from the value found in
Jamaica. Again, if we calculate 4.-—¢ and employ this value of
A, we get the fifth column, and it will be noticed that the
differences in the last column between the observed and calcu-
lated quantities are very small when we consider the great
differences between the second and third column.
| Therefore the equation 4, —- ¢= A(fo—/) holds good for
about two-thirds of the whole atmosphere, and if it holds good
for the remaining third, by putting # = 0, we shall obtain the
difference between the temperatures at the lowest and highest
strata of the atmosphere ; this difference is about 94°, so when
the temperature at the surface of the earth is 50°, the tempera-
ture at the superior limit of the atmosphere must be — 44°.

Since the temperature falls 3°15 for every inch the barometer
may fall, or for every 945 ft. we may ascend (when that tempe-
rature is about 50° and the elevation low), the temperature in
England will fall 1° for every 300 ft. ; this has been always
acknowledged, and we now see that it is a consequence of the
more general law which connects temperature and pressure
throughout the atmosphere.

Now though we may suppose that A has this value for all in-
sular climates, yet it cannot have the same value for continental
climates, on account of the higher temperature of the land ; but
still there is every reason for supposing that, at any given in-
stant of time, A is constant for all points in the same vertical
line ; and when it has been determined from the observed tem-
peratures and pressures at any two points in that vertical, our
equa:ion becomes especially adapted for the barometrical mea-
surement of the distance between them.

It only remains for me to say that I have already used the
equation when making a series of observations among the hills
in the north of England, and always found it true when the
weather was settled, and sufficient time and care taken in ob-
taining the mean temperatures of the different strata of air.

Jamaica MAXWELL HALL

Larve of Membracis serving as Milk-cattle to a Bra-
zilian Species of Honey-bees

THE connection between the ants and the Aphides has long
since been generally known ; in the proper season we always
find ants very busy on those trees and plants on which the

Aphides abound, and if we examine more closely we discover
that their object in thus attending upon them is to obtain the
saccharine fluid which they secrete from two setiform tubes
placed one on each side just above the end of the abdomen, and
which may well be denominated their milk (Kirby and Spence,
“ Introduction to Entomology,” 7th edition, p. 335). Ithas also
long been observed and described, that not only do the Aphides
yield this repast to the ants, but also the Cocci, and that in the
tropical regions of India and Brazil, where no Aphides occur,
the ants milk the larvze of several species of Cercopis and Mem-
bracis (Kirby and Spence, p. 336; Westwood, ‘* Modern
Classification of Insects,” II. p. 434). Recently Prof. F, Delpino,
of Vallombrosa, near Florence, observed the same connection

Fig. 1.—Lateral view of larva. Fig. 3.—Front view of head of imago.
between Formica pubescens and Tettigometra virescens (‘* Bolletino
Entomologico,” anno IV. Settembre 1872). But, as far as I
know, it has never been observed hitherto that honey-bees also
nourish themselves by the secretion of certain hemipterous in-
sects. Hence the following observation, made some months ago
by my brother, Fritz Miiller (Itajahy, Prov. St. Catherina,
Brazil) may be worth publishing.

Among the great number of species of Melipona and Trigona
which, in the tropical and subtropical regions of America, as is
known, occupy the place of our hive-bee, there is one small
species of Trigona which has only once been found by my
brother on flowers (of Sicyos angulata), and which seems to
nourish itself in a very strange manner. He once found a multi-
tude of them spread over the body, already strongly putrifying, of
a large toad; the interior of the large open mouth of the
toad was filled with these bees, probably sucking the putrid
juice of the dead body. On another occasion he saw a great

Fic. 2.—Lateral view of imago.

number of the same species of bees in the putrifying intestines
of ahen. Repeatedly he saw them sucking the juice flowing
out of trees.

In consequence of other observations this same species ot
Trigona is supposed by my brother to suck ihe secretion of the
larvee of a certain hemipterous insect belonging to the genus
Membracis, or to a closely allied one. As I do not precisely
know the name of this supposed milk-cow, I here give the illus-
tration of its larvae and imago, drawn from specimens sent me
by my brother. ?

He found the pedunculi of the flowers of Cassia multijuga
pretty frequently occupied by societies of larvae of this species
closely crowded together. Amongst these larvze there was pre-
sent a great number of the above-mentioned Trigona, marching
all the day long amongst and upon them. When taken between
the fingers, the larvae of Membracis immediately emitted a litle
drop of a limpid fluid from the upward bent tip of their abdo-
men—probably a sweet fluid, for the sucking of which the larvee
are visited by the Trigona.

Unfortunately the specimens of this Trigona, enclosed ina
letter sent me by brother, arrived here quite broken, so as not

202

NATURE

| Fuly 10, 1873

to be determinable ; but in a future number of this journal I
hope to be able accurately to name both the supposed milker
and the supposed milk-cow.

Lippstadt HERMANN MULLER

Free-Standing Dolmens

Mr. LUKISs, in a paper recently read before the Society of
Antiquaries, nominally ‘On certain Erroneous Views respect-
ing the Construction of French Chambered Barrows,” but really
a method of criticising severely Mr. Fergusson’s work on the
**Rude Stone Monuments,” states that it is an ‘‘error” to
suppose that the Dolmens of that country were ever free-stand-
ing; in other words, he lays down the ‘‘rule,” ‘‘ there were no
free-standing dolmens in France.” The announcement that,
with regard to monuments of whose fashioners we know abso-
lutely nothing, a universal negative of this kind can be safely
laid down as a law, would be startling, did it not come from one
who is backed by such extensive inductive evidence as is Mr.
Lukis. His ‘‘rule” was ‘‘ established by the extreme rarity of
the instances.” This being the case, he calls those ‘‘in error”
who would, from these instances, form a small class, or species
of dolmen. As, in an essay on the Cornish sepulchral monu-
ments, which you recently most kindly reviewed at length, Lam
committed to this latter view—one, by the way, which I had
struck out for myself before the appearance of the “‘ Rude Stone
Monuments,” —will you kindly permit me to call yourattention to
one structure which I have ventured to place, and shall still ven-
ture to place, in the discarded class? I do so asa protest against
the dictum of Mr. Lukis being extended to our British examples,
before a careful scrutiny has been made of every monument of
the kind from one corner of our islands to the other. On this
single instance, such as it is, it must be clearly understood that
T build no theory ; it will be for others to judge whether it does
not afford some evidence of the difference in construction and
use of the dolmen or table-stone proper, and the kist-vaen crom-
lech ; one thing only I will add, that, limited as my experience
is to the monuments of Britain, I shall not be exposed to the
temptation of explaining away any observed fact in order to re-
concile a doubtful comparison, Without feeling that I am
guilty of ‘‘dabbling in archzeology,” or of setting forth ‘‘any
dogmatic expositions of hypotheses” (!!), or of ‘establishing
my proposition from second-hand information,” or in short of
being the victim of any very ‘‘ erroneous view ” (all which faults
Mr. Lukis finds in those who differ from him), I consider that
the following facts justify my statement that the monument I am
about to describe always was, as it is now, a free-standing
dolmen.

At Lanyon, in the parish of Madron, Cornwall, stands a
tripod dolmen, or cromlech, consisting of three slim pillars of
unhewn granite supporting on their summits a horizontal stone
over 40 ft. in circumference and averaging 20 in. thick. In 1815
it fell ; but previous to its fall a man on horseback could sit
upright underneath the cap-stone. In 1824 it was again set up ;
but two drawings had been made of it in its pristine condition,
one by Canon Rogers in 1797, and the other by no less accurate
a draughtsman, half a century before, namely, by my ancestor,
Dr. Borlase. Both these drawings agree in representing the
extreme slimness of the pillars; their distance apart ; and the
great height of the monument; features which render it not
unlike a gigantic three-legged milking stool. Then, as now,
there was no mound about it, as there is in the case of
each and all of the kist-vaen cromlechs. It stood on
a low bank of earth, and the area had been often dis-
turbed by treasure seekers. No houses are near it
which could have received the stones of a denuded mound.
Added to this, it is difficult to see how a kist-vaen, or sep/um
of any kind, could have been formed beneath the cap-stone.
Had a wall of sail stones been built up from pillar to pillar the
weight of the superincumbent mound must have forced them in-
wards, a catastrophe which the ‘‘dolmen-builders” were always
most careful to avoid. Secondly, had /avge stones placed on
edge formed the walls of the kist, how is it they are a// removed,
while every other cromlech in the district retains them? But,
laying aside this evidence, my strongest proof is yet to come.
The {interment in this instance was vot in the hist at all. A
grave had received the body six feet under the natural surface of
the surrounding soil, and within the area described by the struc-
ture. This being the case, of what use could an enclosed kist
have been ; or why should the cenotaph be covered in at all?
Add to this again, that on the southern side of the structure, and

so near it that a mound over the monument must inevitably have -
covered it up, stands a little circular ring cairn of the ordinary
type, in the centre of which I found the remains of an inner
ring, which, though now rifled, had doubtless contained an in-
terment. Must I then explain away in deference to superior ex-
perience or received opinion each and ail of the above facts, in
order to reconcile this monument with those which seem to be
totally different structures, viz., the kist-vaens?* Should I not
by so doing b2 sacrificing a fact to amhypothesis, and is not that
hypothesis of such a nature that even a single instance well es-
tablished must shake it to its foundation? Should I not incur a -
charge of erroneousness equal to, if not greater, than that which
Mr. Lukis brings to bear on all who differ from him?

No one can wish more than I do to see errors expunged, and
the truth in these matters arrived at; but I must confess that [
cannot see how this will be brought about by confronting one
hypothesis with another equally dogmatic, and more universally
inclusive, WIix.1AM C. BorLASE

Castle Horneck, near Penzance

Fertilisation of the Pansy

I am glad to be able to confirm, to-some extent, from obser-
vation, Mr. Bennett’s theory of the fertilisation of the Pansy,
given in NATURE, vol, viii, p. 49. I watched a considerable
number of specimens of Viola tricolor on a grassy hill-top
where the smaller insects were very numerous and busy, and
twice saw them entered by a minute fly. In the first case the
insect was dusty with pollen when it arrived. It settled on the
lower petal and walked up one of the black lines to the gap in —
the ring of anthers, through which it entered with some diffi-
culty—leaving some of the foreign pollen on the stigma as it
passed. When it came out it had still more pollen on it than
when it went in, and again in passing the stigma it left some on
it. It paused a moment on the lower petal to clean itself, and
left a little ball of pollen on the hairs on one side of the stigma.
In the second case, the insect alighted first on one of the upper
unmasked petals, turned round and round as though seeking the
guiding lines, and flew off to the lower petal, where, without
hesitation, it followed the guiding lines as the other had done.
After it had passed the stigma there was no pollen visible on its
surface ; but after it had come out, almost the whole of the
lower half was covered. In each case the passage through the
ring of anthers seemed rather a struggle. There were many bees
about, but I did not see any of them visit the Viol, although
they were almost the only flower near. A. T. MYERs

Penrith, June 30

European Weeds and Insects in America

A CANADIAN friend writes to me :—‘‘I have heard or seen
it mentioned as a fact that European weeds and insects intro-
duced into America flourish for a while, but after fifty or sixty
years gradually disappear: for instance, that the Hessian fly
(so called from having been brought over by the Hessian troops
in their hay in the war of independence) has died out or ceased
to give trouble, though at one time it totally destroyed the wheat
crops of New England. I do not know how far the facts haye
been tested, or how far they are owing to improved agriculture.”

This statement, if true, is obviously of great importance,
Can any of your correspondents confirm or disprove it ?

JOsEPH JOHN Murpuy

Old Forge, Dunmurry, July 4

CHLOROPHYLL COLOURING-MATTERS t+

ee would be impossible for me not to look upon

the appearance of such a work as the one recently
published by Dr. Gregor Kraus with much satisfac-
tion, since the chief object of the author is to call the
attention of his countrymen to the value of the spectrum-
microscope in studying the colouring-matters of plants.
He commences with a description of the instrument, and
says that, though originally designed for the examination
of microscopical objects, it is not only as useful as any.

* The only other tripod dolmen in Cornwall, viz., that at Caerwynen, is
also a free standing one (within the memory of man, at least), whereas the
kist-vaens are one and adi partially covered by their envelope.

+ ‘On the Chlorophyll Colouring-Matters.” (‘Zur Kenntniss der

Chlorophyllfarbstoffe und ihrer Verwandten”). By Dr, Gregor Kraus.
(Stuttgart, 1872.) ,

_ lutions, but indeed in many cases preferable.

;

Fuly x

: oes

0, 1873]

larger spectroscope for the study of the pn amen of ca

e de-
scribes two different kinds of eye-piece, viz., a simple form
made by Merz, and the far more complete Sorby-
Browning, with the method of measurement proposed by
Mr. Browning, and expresses his regret that the value of
such instruments has been almost altogether overlooked
by German botanists. In treating on the application of
the apparatus, the author very justly points out the great
advantage of having a bright illumination, without too
much dispersion, and the importance of being able to
examine the spectrum of a leaf or any other object in its
natural state, in order to ascertain whether the colouring
matters dissolved out from a plant by any solvent do
really occur in it, or are products of decomposition. I
would also myself add that in some cases the difference
between the spectrum of a substance in a free state and
when dissolved is so considerable that care must be taken
not to conclude that there has been actual decom-
position, until the character of the spectrum of the
solid substance, in a free state, has been ascertained ; and
even when the spectra are very nearly the same, the posi-
tion of the absorption-bands may differ sufficiently to
make it possible to determine whether a colouring-matter
naturally exists in a free state or dissolved in water, or in
an oil, according as it is or is not solubie in water. The
fact of being thus dissolved or not is in some cases, pro-
bably, a question of considerable physiological import-
ance, since the existence of solid particles along with, or
even actually surrounded by, a liquid capable of dissolv-
ing them, points to a very different origin and relation to
structure to those of a substance merely dissolved in the
juices of a plant or an animal. The solution of such a
colouring-matter is sometimes one of the first changes that
occur in decomposition, as if set free from minute cells.

Having explained the general methods employed, and
given a list of the chief publications connected with the
subject, the author proceeds to the consideration of
various colouring-matters found in plants. If I had
written this review immediately after the work was pub-
lished, I should have expressed my agreement with the
greater part of the author’s conclusions ; for they are
those to which a most careful experimenter would be led
by employing the methods generally known at that time ;
but during the last year I have devoted myself exclu-
sively to this particular subject and have been led to employ
almost entirely new methods of investigation, and the result
is that I must now point out a number of particulars in
which J think the author’s conclusions are not altogether
correct. These new methods consist chiefly in the more
or less perfect separation of the different substances by
means of bisulphide of carbon, alcohol, and water, used
in varying proportions, and in a somewhat peculiar
manner ; in the employment of what I have named fhozo-
chemical analysis, or the use of light as a reagent, so as
to destroy some constituents, and leave others, which per-
haps could not be separated by chemical methods ; and
in studying and comparing together all classes of plants,
especially the lower cryptogamia, when growing in various
conditiens ; and not only in examining them qualitatively
but also in determining the relative amount of the different
colouring-matters by a method of comparative quantita-
tive analysis. I will not now enter into detail, but refer
to a paper recently communicated to the Royal Society,
on comparative vegetable chromatology, in which I have
given a complete general description of the methods I
have used, of the facts I have observed, and of the con-
clusions drawn from them, which have a very direct bear-
ing on some of the most important questions in biology,
and enable us to examine them froma new point of
view.

One great value of the authors work consists in its
giving a very complete account of the researches of pre-
vious investigators, which I have myself found extremely

NATURE

203

useful ; since so much that has been written is difficult of
access. At the same time, since the methods employed
were often altogether unsuitable, and most of the experi-
ments are now known to have been made with mixtures,
many of the results are of very little more than historical
interest. The work also contains three excellent litho-
graphed plates of the spectra of the various colouring-
matters in @ natural or altered condition. ~The whole
subject is treated in an admirable manner, and I trust
that no one will think that I wish in any way to detract
from the author’s merit in taking this opportunity to
illustrate the application of the methods which I think
should be employed in such researches.

The coloured solutions obtained from leaves are very
complicated mixtures. It is not at all unusual for them
to contain as many as ten different coloured substances.
The progress of our knowledge has to a great extent
depended upon the application of improved methods,
which have made it possible to distinguish the various
constituents of these mixtures. The author has himself
pointed this out, and shown that what was at one time
called chlorophyll, and looked upon as a single substance,
consists of a mixture of a bluer-green substance with a
yellow substance. This kind of analysis had however
previously been considerably extended. Ina very short
paper,* containing no description of the methods of ex-
periment, or of the separate colouring-matters, Stokes
said that his researches had led him to conclude that the
chlorophyll of land plants is a mixture of four sub-
stances, two green and two yellow, and in my late paper
I have shown that by the newer and improved methods
it is easy to prove that there are not only these two green
substances, one a blue-green and the other a yellow-
green, having perfectly distinct and characteristic proper-
ties, though confounded together by nearly all other
experimenters, but also four or even five perfectly distinct
yellow substances. These various colouring-matters I
have named dlue chlorophyll, yellow chlorophyll, orange
xanthophyll, xanthophyll, yellow xanthophyll, orange
lichnoxanthine, and lichnoxanthine. They are all in-
soluble in water, and soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and
besides one or two products of decomposition, they must
all have been present in what has sometimes been called
chlorophyll, and looked upon as a single compound.
Now, almost the only points in which I feel compelled to
differ from the author are those cases in which the new
methods of examination prove that what he regarded as
a single colouring matter is in reality a mixture of two or
even more, which can be separated, and do occur sepa-
rately in particular plants. Thus, for example, in Plate II,
Fig. 1, he gives a drawing of the spectrum of the blue-
green colouring matter of Dewfzéa scabra, showing six
absorption-bands. Now, I feel persuaded that this
colouring-matter must have been a mixture of three
different substances, viz. my blue chlorophyll, my yellow
chlorophyll, and the product of the action of acids on
blue chlorophyll The bands numbered 1, 2, 3, and 6
are mainly due to blue chlorophyll. Part of No. 1 and
No. 5 are due to yellow chlorophyll, and the band No. 4
clearly indicates the presence of a small quantity of the
product of the action of acids on blue chlorophyll. This
is almost always present when the preparation is made
in the manner adopted by the author, but by neutralising
the acid of the juice by carbonate of ammonia, or still
better by employing a plant that has an almost perfectly
neutral juice, chlorophyll may be obtained which gives a
spectrum almost absolutely free from any such band.

In the spectrum shown by Plate III. Fig. 1 of the blue-
green colouring-matter of an Osczl/atoria, the bands of
yellow chlorophyll are absent, for it does not exist in such
Alge, but the broad band shown at about 500 of the
author’s scale, not seen in the spectrum of the chlorophyll
of Deutzia, must have been mainly due to orange xantho-

* Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1864, xiii. p. 44.

204

NATURE }

phyll, which occurs in considerable quantity in Osctlla-
toria, but is relatively almost absent in green leaves, and
would not be separated by the method employed by the
author in making the preparation. Comparatively pure
blue chlorophyll, prepared from olive AZg@ by the method
described in my late paper, gives a spectrum free from
absorption over the whole of the green and a considerable
part of the adjoining blue. The close resemblance, and
yet decided difference, between the spectra of the blue-
green colouring matter obtained from the two above-
named sources, did not escape the author’s notice, but
the methods employed were inadequate to prove that
both contained the same principal blue-green substance,
mixed in one case with one, and in the other case with
another colouring matter. I may here say that the rela-
tive amount of blue and yellow chlorophyll differs very
much in different classes of plants, and even in the same
plant, when in different conditions, and the study of this
variation leads to results of great interest in connection
with vegetable physiology ; since, amongst other things,
it proves that leaves normally very yellow are quite unlike
those that have turned yellow in autumn, but analogous
to those which are abnormally yellow owing to absence
of light, as though the deficiency of chlorophyll were in
both cases due to weak constructive energy; and the
comparative absence of yellow chlorophyll in such abnor-
mally weak plants, belonging to the highest classes, causes
their colouring to approximate much more closely to that
of those of much lower organisation.

I must say that I object to the term chlorophyll being
applied, as by the author, to a mixture of the various
yellow substances belonging to the xanthophyll group.
with one or both of the above-named green substances,
The green colour of leaves is due to them, and they are
both actually green, one a blue-green and the other a
yellow-green, so that the terms blue chlorophyll and yel-
low chlorophyll appear to me very appropriate. It would
be better and extremely convenient to adopt some such
word as endochrome, to express any mixture of coloured
substances contained in the cells of plants, which has no
reference to any particular tint of colour,

The very materially different position of the chief ab-
sorption-band of chlorophyll when in the leaves of plants
and when in solution has been noticed by the author, and
likewise the difference in its position when the chlorophyll
is dissolved in different liquids. He attributes this en-
tirely to the difference in the density of the liquid, and con-
cludes that in the leaves the chlorophyll may be combined
with or dissolved in some dense substance, The difference
in the position of the bands of chlorophyll is very small com-
pared with the difference seen in the case of some other
colouring-matters, and by carefully studying the question
I have come to the conclusion that the position of the
bands does not vary directly with the density of the sol-
vent, or with any other general property, but is so inde-
pendent that it is desirable to look upon it as a special
property, and to call it the absorption-band-raising power.
The extent to which the bands are raised varies much
according to the substance ; but, as an apparent rule, if
the position is altered, they lie nearer to the blue end
when the substance is dissolved than when in a free state.
In accordance with this view of the subject, it appears as
though in the living plants chlorophyll and various other
colouring-matters exist in a free state, not combined with
or dissolved in any wax, fat, or oil, with which, however,
they often combine when the plant is boiled in water, and
with which they are combined when a solution is evapo-
rated to dryness, so that the spectrum of such a dried-up
material may, and often does, differ most materially from
that of the endochrome in the living plants. As an illustra-
tion of the opposite case, I may refer to the spectra of yellow
flowers, which often show that the endochrome is combined
with, or dissolved in, a fat or oil. When not thus combined,
the spectra are so different that the colouring-matter

might be, and sometimes has been, looked upon as dis-
tinct, before the true cause of the difference was known.
The microscope alone could not decide this question,
since visible granules might not be the free colouring-
matter, and, on the contrary, it might be free, and the
particles too small to be separately visible.
: H. C. SORBY
(To be continued.)
7

RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE PHYSIO-

LOGICAL ACTION OF LIGHT

HE arrangements by which the mind is brought into
relation with the outer world are—(1) a terminal
organ, such as the retina, or the intricate structures of the
internal ear, or the touch corpuscles of Wagner, for the
reception of impressions from without; (2) a nerve,
endowed with a special sensibility peculiar to the sense
for the conveyance of influences from the terminal organ
to the brain ; and (3) a sensorium or brain in which, on
receiving these influences, changes occur which give rise
to the phenomena of consciousness.

Nerves act, therefore, as conductors from the terminal
organs to the brain, These terminal organs are specially
fitted for the reception of specific stimuli, such as the
vibrations of the ether, which, when received by the
retina, induce a change which is transmitted to the
brain, and gives rise to the sensation of light, or the con-
densations and rarefactions of the air which cause sound.
But though specially fitted for these stimuli, the terminal
organs may be affected in other ways. For example,
mechanical pressure on the retina produces a sensation of
light, and many diseases affecting the auditory appara-
tus by compression, cause agonising sensations of sound.
The nerves in connection with the sense organs are
termed nerves of special sense, because they are supposed
only to convey influences which are derived from the
special terminal organs with which they are connected.
These nerves are, however, themselves not affected only
by the special stimulus which affects their respective ter-
minal organ. As is well known, the optic nerve is not
affected by light—a fact easily demonstrated by Marriot’s
experiment showing that the retina at the entrance of the
optic nerve is insensible to light.

The nature of the specific change produced on the ter-
minal organs by the action of external stimuli has not
hitherto been experimentally examined. Let us take the
case of the eye. Numerous hypotheses have been ad-
vanced. The action of light on the retina has been con-
jectured to be a mere communication of vibrations, an
intermittent motion of portions of the optic nerve, ar
electrical effect, a heating effect, or a photographic effect
like that produced by light on a sensitive surface, but up
to this time there has been no experimental evidence in
support of either of these views.

The result of investigations made by Mr. Dewar and
Dr. McKendrick, of Edinburgh, communicated to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, has been to show that the
specific effect of light on the retina and optic nerve is 2
change in the electro-motive force of these organs. They
have been able to demonstrate this by the following
arrangements :—The eye of a frog rapidly killed by
pithing is dissected out of the orbit, so as to leave the
sclerotic entirely free from muscle, and a portion of optic
nerve intact. This preparation is placed on the cushions
of the well-known arrangement of Du Bois-Raymond for
collecting electric currents from animal structures, con-
sisting of two zinc troughs, carefully amalgamated on the
inner surface, and containing pads of Swedish filter-paper
moistened with a solution of pure neutral sulphate of
zinc. To protect the eye from the irritating action
of the sulphate of zinc, thin films of sculptors’
clay, mixed with a weak solution of chloride of

“s) . 7 . Py

[ Fuly 10, 1873

<

ak !
sodium, each worked out to a point, are placed on the

.

369
es

NATURE

205

pads of filter paper. From each of the troughs a wire
passes to a key so as to enable the experimenter to stop
the current at pleasure, and from thence the current
passes to the galvanometer. They then lay the eye ona
glass support between the cushions, and carefully adjust
the clay-points so that the one touches the cornea and
the other the transverse section of the optic nerve, or the
one may touch the surface of the nerve and the other its
transverse section. On opening the key, a deflection of
the galvanometer needle is at once obtained to the extent
of about 600° of the galvanometer scale, placed at a
distance from the mirror of the galvanometer of about
26 inches. This deflection is a measure of the natural
electro-motive force of the eye. The troughs are now
covered over with an apparatus consisting of a double
shell made of glass, and containing between the walls one
inch of water so as to absorb all heat rays, and lastly a
wooden box is placed over the whole, having a draw-
shutter so as to enable the experimenter to admit light at
pleasure. A gas flame is placed before the shutter. The
arrangement is now complete. After observing that the
deflection indicating the electro-motive force in the dark
is constant, the shutter is now withdrawn so as to admit
light. At that instant, that is, on the impact of light, a
change is perceived in the electro-motive force. There is
at first an increase, then a diminution, and on the re-
moval of light there is another increase of the electro-
motive force. Occasionally, in consequence of the dying
of the nerve, there is only a slight increase, then a dimi-
Nution, but the rise on the removal of light is always
constant. The amount of change in the electro-motive
force by the action of light is about 3 per cent. of
the total. There has been no difficulty in demonstrating
the effect in the eyes of the following animals, after
removal from the body: Reftiles, Snake; Amphibia,
Frog, Toad, Newt ; Fzshes, Gold Fish, Stickleback, Rock-
ling; Crustacea, Crab, Swimming Crab, Spider Crab,
Lobster, Hermit Crab. The greatest effect was observed
in the case of the lobster, in the eye of which Messrs.
Dewar and McKendrick found a modification in the elec-
tro-motive force by the action of light to the extent of about
ten percent. With the eyes of birds and mammals they
had great difficulty. It is well known that in these ani-
mals the great source of nervous power is an abundant
supply of healthy blood. Without this, nervous action is
soonarrested. This law, of course, holds good for the retina
and optic nerve. When, therefore, they removed the eye-
ball with nerve attached, from the orbit of a cat or rabbit
recently killed, and placed it in connection with the clay
points, they found a large deflection which quickly
diminished, but all sensitiveness to light disappeared
within one or two minutes after the eye had been re-
moved from the animal. This fact of itself shows that
what has been observed is a change depending on the
vital sensibility of the parts. It was therefore necessary
to perform the experiment on the living animal under
chloroform. By so fixing the head that it could not move,
and by removing the outer wall of the orbit so as to
permit the clay points to be applied to the cornea and
nerve, the same results have been obtained in the case
of the cat, rabbit, pigeon, and owl.

Without going into minute detail, which the space
allowed for this short article will not admit of, the results

_of this inquiry have been as follows :—

1. That the specific effect of light on the eye is to
change the electro-motive force of the retina and optic
nerve.

2. That this last applies to both the simple and to the
compound eye.

3. That the change is not at all proportional to the
amount of light in lights of different intensities, but to
the logarithm of the quotient, thus agreeing with the

_~ psycho-physical law of Fechner.

4. That those rays, such as the yellow, which appear to
our consciousness to be the most luminous, affect the
electro-motive force most, and that those, such as the
violet, which are least luminous, affect it least.

5. That this change is essentially dependent on the
retina, because if this structure is removed, while the
other ,structure of the eye lives, though there is still an
electro-motive force, there is no sensitiveness to light.

; That this change may be followed into the optic
obes.

7. That theso-called psycho-physical law of Fechnerdoes
not depend on consciousness or perception in the brain,
but is really dependent on the anatomical structure and
physiological properties of the terminal organ itself, inas-
much as the same results as to the effect of light are
obtained by the action of the retina and nerve without
the presence of brain.

The method of investigation pursued by Messrs.
McKendrick and Dewar is applicable to the other
senses, and opens up a new field of physiological research.
The specific action of sound, of the contact of substances
with the terminal organs of taste, and of smell, may all
be examined in the same manner ; and we are in hopes
of soon seeing results from such investigations.

ON THE FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS BY
INSECTS AND ON THE RECIPROCAL
ADAPTATIONS OF BOTH

Il.

In what manner the hive- and humble-bees obtain the
honey of the flowers

[x the last number the use the bee makes of its complex

sucking machinery, when emptying the deepest
honey-tubes or spurs accessible to it, was stated in de-
tail; we have now to show the different movements and
positions the separate parts of the mouth undergo, when
the bee is obtaining honey less deeply placed, or when it
is about to collect the pollen of flowers, or when it folds
together the whole sucking apparatus into the cavity of
the head in order to employ its jaws or to rest.

(2) In order to obtain the honey out of tubes or spurs of
less depth the bee need not turn the cardines forward;
these remain at rest in their backward position, the
tongue remains consequently embraced by the maxilla
and labial palpi, and only the base of the tongue is alter-
nately protruded and withdrawn, by which motion the
terminal whorls of hairs are alternately immersed into
the honey and withdrawn into the sucking-pipe.

(3) While the bee, in order to suck honey, flies
from flower to flower, it carries its sucking apparatus
stretched forward so as to be able to put it directly into
the opening of the honey-tube, but its tongue is perfectly
enclosed between the labial palpi and the maxillz ; the
delicate whorls of hairs are protected by that from any
injury they might receive, when introduced into the
flowers, and the terminal joints of the labial palpi are not
prevented from serving as feelers. Consequently during
the flying from flower to flower the base of the tongue is
folded into the extremity of the tubular mentum, the
cardines are turned backwards, whilst the lora can be
directed downwards (Fig. 4), forwards (Fig. 2) or back-
wards, in proportion as the bee is about to obtain the
honey from shorter or longer tubes.

(4) The parts of the mouth must be held in the very
same position when the bee wishes to pierce tender cellular
textures by means of the tips of its maxilla. It executes
this sort of process, sometimes in order to obtain the fluids
of juicy flowers which do not secrete nectar, as for
instance Hyacinthus orientalis, Orchis mascula, morio
and /atifolia, sometimes in order to break open honey-
tubes which are too deep to be emptied by the bee in the

206

regular way. Thus, for instance, Lombus terrestris,
having of all our humble-bees the shortest tongue, forcibly
opens the honey-tubes of Agudlegia, Trifolium pratense,
Pedicularis sylvatica, and many other flowers ; sometimes
by piercing the corolla by the tips of its maxilla, some-
times by biting through the corolla by means of its jaws,
and then steals the honey by guiding its proboscis into
the honey-tube through the self-made opening.

(5) When collecting the pollen of flowers the hive- and
humble-bees moisten, as is well known, the pollen with
honey before stripping it off with the brushes of their feet
from the anthers and amassing it on the outside of the pos-
terior tibiz. During this process the maxilla and the
labium are commonly bent beneath the breast, as in

Fic. 5.—The sucking apparatus of a humble-bee (Bombus hortorum, L. 2)
placed in the hollow underside of the head, seen from beneath (7 : 1).

inaction, almost as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, the jaws are
opened, the labrum is raised, the opening of the mouth is
brought near the pollen to be collected, and a drop of
honey is spit out upon this pollen ; often also the bee
before moistening the pollen with honey frees it while
still enclosed in the anthers by chewing the anthers with
its jaws.

In quite a different manner I saw the hive-bee preceed
when collecting the loose, dry pollen of P/antago lanceo-
Zata, so easily shaken out. By vehement movements of
its wings the bee maintains itself, steadily humming, at
the same place in the air, close before the anthers,
the pollen which it is about to collect; in this posi-
tion it has its sucking-apparatus stretched forward, but
the tongue quite enclosed between the laminz and labial
palpi, and spits out of the sucking-pipe formed by these
parts a drop of honey upon the anthers. Then it grasps
very hastily, with the brushes of its anterior legs, amongst

Fic, 6.—Lateral view of the same head.

the anthers, and strips off the moistened pollen from them,
while the dry pollen of the neighbouring anthers also
shaken out, is disseminated, forming alittle cloud of dust.
Consequently, also in this case the bee carries the base
of its tongue folded into the mentum, and the cardines
turned backward, precisely in the same manner as when
flying from flower to flower, or when piercing honey-tubes
by the tips of the laminz.

Plantago lanceolata and other plants with equally loose,
dry pollen, scattered by the wind, are honeyless ; on the
other hand the pollen of all honey-flowers is collected by
the hive- and humble-bees when holding their sucking
organs retracted, whilst the honey of these flowers is

obtained by their sucking-organs stretched forward ; hence
it follows that hive-bees, humble-bees, and all the bees
which are in the habit of moistening the pollen before
collecting it, can never suck honey and collect pollen at _
the same time, but are obliged to perform alternately these —
two actions after having commenced with sucking honey, of
which they are in need for moistening the pollen to be
collected, whereas all the bees which collect the pollen
without moistening it, as, for instance, the Andrena,
Osmia, and Megachile, are often observed sucking honey
and collecting pollen at the same time.

(6) When the bee is about to employ its jaws, or when —
it wishes to rest, it rests the whole sucking apparatus
in the hollow in the under-side of the head, by

Fic. 7.—Two whorls of scales of the terminal portion of the tongue ofa blue
Brazilian Euglossa’ (or Chrysantheda) ; the scales of each whorl alter-
nating with those of the following one (80: 1).

effecting all the four foldings above described, and bends
beneath the breast those parts which do not find any room
in this excavation, viz., the tongue, and the labial palpiand
laminz enclosing it, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6.

Everyone who has observed in nature the activity of the
hive- and humble-bees will be surprised by the ease with
which the numerous movements just described are effected
by them, Nevertheless, when sucking honey out of tubes
or spurs, they experience a sensible loss of time by so
repeatedly protruding and retracting the tongue. This
loss of time seems to be avoided by a. very singular con-
trivance lately discovered in some Brazilian bees by my
brother, Fritz Miiller, In these bees all the rings of the
terminal portion of the tongue, from the tip to the sheath,
formed by the labial palpi and laminz, are provided, as
shown in Fig. 7, with whorls of narrow-staiked, broad
scales instead of hairs, and these scales, lying closely upon
one another, form together a tube around the prominent

Fic. 8.—Gradations between hairs and scales,

portion of the tongue which probably enables the bee to
suck the honey out of the longest flower-tubes accessible
to it without needing to retract the tongue.

The first scale-bearing rings within the sheath of the
tongue, offering numerous gradations by which hairs and
scales graduate into each other, as shown in Fig. 8, indi-
cate precisely the degrees of variability by which natural
selection arrived at the broad narrow-stalked scales
clothing the prominent portion of the tongue,

HERMANN MULLER

‘

‘uly 10, 1873]

ON THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF
INSECTS *
VIII.

FoR the next descending stage we must, I think, look
: among the Infusoria, through some such genus as
_Cheetonotus or Ichthydium. Other forms of the Rota-
toria, such for instance as Rattulus, and still more the
very remarkable form discovered last year by Mr. Hud-
son,t and described under the name of Pedalion mira,

Pian

PLATE 5.

6—9, Protamyxa Aurautiaca. Haeckel,

Plate 5.—Figs. r—5, Protamceba.
1c—18, Magosphcera planula

Beit. zur. Monog. der Moneren, Pl. 1.
Haeckel lc., P.l. 5.

seem to lead to the Crustacea through the Nauplius form.
Dr. Cobbold tells me that he regards the Gordii as the
lowest of the Scolecida ; Mr. E. Ray Lankester considers
some of the Turbellaria, such genera for instance as
Mesostomum, Vortex, &c., to be the lowest of existing
worms ; that is to say, if we exclude the parasitic groups.
Haeckel also regards the Turbellaria as forming the
nearest approach to the Infusoria. The true worms
seem, however, to constitute a separate branch of the
animal kingdom,

We may take the genus Prorhynchus,§ for instance, as

* Continued trom p, 167.

t “Ona New Rotifer.” Monthly Microscopical Fournal, Sept. 1871.

1 Generale Morphologie. _V. ii, p, Ixxix

§ Gegenbaur. Grund. d. Vergleich. Anat. p. 2to. See also Beitrage
Zur Naturg. der, Turbellarien. Dr. M. S. Schultze, 1851. Pl. vi, fig. r.

207

ar. illustration of such a low type (Fig. 59), which consists
of a hollow cylindrical body 1 to 2”’ long, containing a
straight simple tube, the digestive organ.

But however simple such creatures as these may be, there
are others which are far less complex, far less differen-
tiated ; which therefore on Mr. Darwin’s principles may
be considered still more closely to represent the primzeval
ancestor from which these more highly developed types
have been derived, and which, in spite of their great
antiquity, in spite of, or perhaps in consequence of their
simplicity, still maintain themselves almost unaltered.

Thus the form which Haeckel has described * under the
name of Protameba primitiva, Pl. 5, Fig. 1—5, con-
sists of an entirely homogeneous and structureless
substance, which continually alters its form ; putting out,
and drawing in again, more or less elongated processes,
and creeping about like a true Amceba, from which, how-
ever, Protamceba differs in the absence of a nucleus. It
seems impossible to imagine anything simpler ; indeed, as
described, it appears to be an illustration of properties
without structure. It takes intoitself any suitable particle
with which it comes in contact, absorbs that which is
nutritious, and rejects the rest. From time to time a
constriction appears at the centre (Pl. 5, Fig. 2), the form
approximates more and more to that of an hour-glass
(Pl. 5, Fig. 3), and at length the two halves separate, and
each commences an independent existence (Pl. 5, Fig. 5).

In the true Amcebas, on the contrary, we find a
differentiation between the exterior and the interior : the
body being more or less distinctly divisible into an outer
layer and an inner parenchym, In the Amcebas, as in
Protamoeba, multiplication takes place by self-division,
and nothing corresponding to sexual reproduction has
yet been discovered.

Somewhat more advanced, but yet of great simpli-
city, is the Protomyxa aurantiaca, discovered by Haeckelt
on dead shells of Spirula, where it appears as a minute
orange speck, which shows well against the clear white
of the Spirula. Examined with a microscope the
speck is seen to be a spherical mass of orange-coloured,
homogeneous, albuminous, matter, surrounded by a deli-
cate, structureless, membrane (Pl. 5, Fig. 8). It is obvious
from this description that these bodies closely resemble
eggs, for which indeed Haeckel jat first mistook them.
Gradually however the yellow sphere broke itself up into
smaller spherules (P]. 5, Fig. 9), after which the containing
membrane burst, and the separate spherules, losing
their globular form, crept out as small Amcebe (PI. 5,
Fig. 6), or amceboid bodies. These little bodies moved
about, assimilated the minute particles of organic matter,
with which they came in contact, and gradually increased
in size (Pl. 5, Fig. 7) with more or less rapidity according
to the amount of nourishment they were able to obtain.
They threw out arms in various directions, and if
divided each section maintained its individual existence.
After a while their movements ceased, they contracted
into a ball, and again secreted round themselves a clear
structureless envelope.

This completes their life-history as observed by
Haeckel, who found it easy to retain them in his glasses
in perfect health, and who watched them closely. It also
coincides very closely with that of the Gregarinz, another
group of singularly egg-like organisms.

As another illustration I may take the MZagosphera
planula, discovered by Haeckel on the coast of Norway.

In one stage of its existence (PI. 5, Fig. 10) it is a
minute mass of gelatinous matter, which continually alters
its form, moves about, feeds, and in fact behaves altogether
like the Amoeba just described. It does not however
remain always in this condition, Aftera while it contracts
into a spherical form (Pl. 5, Fig. 11), and secretes round
itself a structureless envelope, which, with the nucleus,
gives it a very close resemblance to a minute egg.

* Monographie der Moneren, p. 43-
+ Monographie der Moneren, p. ro,

268

NATURE

i _ Seki es

| %uly 10, 1873

2 A

Gradually the nucleus divides itself, and the protoplasm
also separates into two spherules (PI. 5, Fig. 12) ; these
two subdivide into four (Pl. 5, Fig. 13), and so on (Pl. 5,
Fig. 14), until at length thirty-two are present, compressed
into a more or less polygonal form (Pl. 5, Fig. 15). Here
this process ends. The separate spherules now begin to
lose their smooth outline, to throw out processes, and
to show amceboid movements like those of the crea-
tures just described. The processes or pseudopods grow
gradually longer, thinner, and more pointed. Their move-

PLATE 6,

Plate 6.—Figs. 1-4, Yolk-segmentation in Laomedea; 5—9, in Filaria;
10—13, in Echinus ; 14—17, in Lacinularia ; 18—21, in Purpura ; 22—24,
Amphioxus ; 25—29, Vertebrata.

ments become more active, until at length they take the
form of ciliz. The spherical Magosphcera, the upper sur-
face of which has thus become covered with ciliz, now
begins to rotate within the cyst or envelope, which at
length gives way and sets free the contained sphere, which
then swims about freely in the water (PI. 5, Fig. 16), thus
closely resembling Synura, or one of the Volvocinex,
After swimming about in this condition for a certain time
the sphere breaks up into the separate cells of which it is
composed (Pl. 5, Fig. 17). Aslong as the individual cells

‘finally forming the young worm.

had remained together they had undergone no changes of
form, but they now show considerable contractility, and
gradually alter their form, until they become undistinguish-
able from true Amcebe (PI. 5, Fig. 18). Finally, according
to Haeckel, these amceboid bodies, after living for a certain
time in this condition, return to a state of rest, again con-
tract into a spherical form, and secrete round themselves
a structureless envelope. . ,

It may be said, and said truly, that the difference
between such beings as these and the Campodea,
or Tardigrade, is immense. But if it be considered
incredible that even during the long lapse of geo-
logical time such great changes should have taken place
as are implied in the belief that there is any genetic con-
nection between insects and these lower groups, let us —
consider what happens under our eyes in the develop-
ment of each one of these little creatures, in the pro-
verbially short space of their individual life.

I will take for instance the first stages, and for the sake
of brevity only the first stages, of the life history of a
Tardigrade.* As shown in Fig. 60, the egg is at first
a round body, with a clear central cell—the germinal
vesicle ; it increases in size, and after a while the yolk
and the germinal vesicle divide into two (Fig. 61), then
again into four (Fig. 62), and so on, just as we have seen
to be the case in Magosphcera. From the minute cells
(Fig. 63) arising through this process of yolk-segmenta-
tion, the body of the Tardigrade is then built up.

It is true that among the Insecta generally, normal
yolk-segmentation does not occur, though the first stages’
of development in Platygaster, as figured by Ganin
(ante Figs.), closely resemble those of the Tardigrada,

Though I will not now attempt to point out the full
bearing of these facts on the study of embryology generally,
yet I cannot resist calling attention to the similarity of
the development of Magosphcera with the first stages of
development of other animals, because it appears to me
to possess a significance, the importance of which it
would be difficult to over-estimate. :

Among the Zoophytes Prof. Allman thus describes Tt
the process in Laomedea, as representing the Hydroids
(Pl. 6, Fig. 1, represents the young egg) :—“ The first step
observable in the segmentation-process is the cleavage of
the yolk into two segments (Pl. 6, Fig. 2), immediately
followed by the cleavage of these into other two, so that
the vitellus is now composed of four cleavage spheres
(Pl. 6, Fig. 3).” These spheres again divide (Pl. 6, Fig.
4) and subdivide, thus at length forming minute cells, of
which, as in the previous cases, the body of the embryo
is built up.

In Pl. 6, Figs. 5—9 represent the corresponding stagesin

the development of a small parasitic worm—the A7/aria
mustelarum—as given by Van Beneden.{ The first pro-
cess is that within the egg, which represents, so to say,
the encysted condition of Magosphcera,; the yolk di-
vides itself inte two balls (Pl. 6, Fig. 6), then into four
(Pl. 6, Fig. 7), eight, and so on, the cells thus constituted
I have myself observed
the same stages in the eggs of the very remarkable and
abnormal Spherularia bombis§

Among the Echinoderms M. Derbés thus describes the
first stages (Pl. 6, Figs. 1o—13) in the development of the
egg of an Echinus (Zchinus esculentus) :—*Le jaune,
commence a se segmenter, d’abord en deux, puis en quatre
et ainsi de suite, chacune des nouvelles cellules se parta-
geant a son tour en deux.”|| Sars has observed the same
thing in the starfish.{)

* See, for instance, Kauffmann, Uber die Entwickelung und systematische
stellung der Tardigraden. Zeits. f. Wiss. Zool. 1851, p. 220.

+ Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or Tubularian Hydroids, by G. J,
Allman. Ray. Soc. 1871, p. 86.

t V. Beneden, Mem. sur les Vers Intestinaux, 1858.

§ Natural History Review, 1861, p. 44.

ll Derbés, Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1847, p. go.

‘1 Fauna Littoralis Norvegiss, pl. viii.

In the Rotatoria, as shown by Huxley in Lacinularia,*
and by Williamson in Melicerta,t the yolk is at first a
single globular mass, the first changes which take place
in it being as follows :—“ The central nucleus becomes
drawn out and subdivides into two, this division being
followed by a corresponding segmentation of the yolk.
The same process is repeated again and again, until at
length the entire yolk is converted into a mass of minute
cells.” Among the Crustacea the total segmentation of the
yolk occcurs among the Copepoda, the Rhizocephala, and
Cirripedia. Sars has described the same process in one of
the nudibranchiate mollusca { (Tritonia), Muller in Ento-
chocha,§ Haeckel in Ascidia, || Lacaze Duthiers in Denta-
lium.§] Figures 18 to 21, Pl. 6, are taken from Koren and
Danielssen’s ** memoir on the development of Purpura
lapillus. hs

Figs. 22-24 show the same stages in a fish (Amphioxus)
as given by Haeckel, and it is unnecessaty to point out
the great similarity.

Lastly, figures 25 to 29, Pl. 6, are given by Dr. Allen
Thomson,?t as illustrating the first stages in the develop-
ment of the vertebrata.

I might have given many other examples, but the above
are probably sufficient, and show that the processes which
constitute the life-history of the lowest organised beings,
very closely resemble the first stages in the development
of more advanced groups; that, as Allen Thomson has
truly observed,tt “the occurrence of segmentation and
the regularity of its phenomena are so constant that we
may regard it as one of the best established series of facts
in organic nature.”

It is true that yolk segmentation is not universal in the
animal kingdom ; that there are great groups in which
the yolk does not divide in this manner,—perhaps owing to
some difference in its relation to the germinal vesicle, or
perhaps because it has become one of these suppressed
Stages in embryological development, many instances of
which might be given, not only in zoology, but, as I may
state on the authority of Dr. Hooker, in botany also.
’ But however this may be, it is surely not uninteresting,
nor without significance, to find that changes which con-
stitute the life-history of the lowest creatures, form the
initial stages even of the highest.

Returning to the immediate subject of this work, I
have pointed out that many beetles and other insects
are derived from larvze closely resembling Campodea,
that other insects come from larvz more or less like
Lindia, and it has been shown over and over again that
in many circumstances the embryo of the more specia'ised
forms resembles the full-grown representatives of lower
types. I conclude, therefore, that the Insecta generally
are descended from ancestors resembling the existing
genus Campodea, and that these again have arisen from
others belonging to a type represented more or less closely
by the existing genus Lindia.

Of course it may be argued that these facts have not
really the significance which they seem to me to possess.
It may be said that when Divine power created insects,
they were created with these remarkable developmental
processes. [By such arguments the conclusions of geolo-
gists were long disputed. When God made the rocks,
it was tersely said, he made the fossils in them. No one,
I suppose, would now be found to maintain such a theory,
and I believe the time will come when it will be generally
admitted that the structure of the egg, and its develop-
mental changes, teach us as truly the course of organic

* Trans. of the Microsc. Soc. of London, 185r.

+ ot Journal of Microsc. Science, 1853.

tT Wiegmann's Archiv., 1840, p. 196.

§Ueber die Erzeugung von Schnecken in Holothurier.
x8s5r. Ann. Nat. Hist, 1852, v. ix. Muller's Archiv., 1852.

| Ann. des Sci Nat. 1853, p.89

J Ann. des Sci. Nat, 1857, pl. vi.

** Naturliche, Schipfungsgeschichte, pl. x.

++ Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology. Art. Ovum, p. 4

1t Thomson, l.c. Article, Ovum p. 139.

Berlin, Bericht,

NATURE

at

269

development in ancient times, as the contents of rocks
teach us the past history of the earth itself.
Joun Lurrock

NOTES
Sik CHARLES WHEATSTONE has been elected a Foreiga
Associate of the French Academy of Sciences in place of the
late Baron Liebig.

Mr. Cotr’s retirement from public service is now completed,
and the Treasury have awarded him the full pension usually
granted to officers who have completed fifty years of public
service. Although Mr. Cole quits the South Kensington
Museum, he will continue to assist in promoting the diffusion
of Science and Art applied to productive industry as the Acting
Commissioner for the estate purchased out of the surplus funds
of the Exhibition of 1851. This estate at present comprehends the
Horticultural Gardens, the buildings of the Annual International.
Exhibitions, and the Royal Albert Hall. Measures are in
progress for forthwith commencing the National Training School
for Music. A meeting of those interested in the Testimonial which
it is proposed to present to Mr. Cole, will be held in Willis’s Rooms

‘to-morrow at 3 0’clock. Those who know best how much Mr.

Cole has done for the encouragement and advance of Science,
will, we are sure, be the most ready to take part in this well-
deserved testimony to the value of his services to the public.

AFTER the alarming rumours that have recently found their
way into the newspapers, it is a great relief to receive what
appears to be really authentic news of the safety of Sir Samuel
and Lady Baker. It appears, from the message received by the
Daily Telegraph, that they arrived at Khartoum on the 29th of
June. It is stated that the party had been as far south as a
place called Mosindi, near the chief village of Kamrasi, the
King of Unyoro, which would be in about 1°45’ N. Jat., and
about 80 miles to the east of the shores of the Albert Nyanza.
Here Sir Samuel is said to have been attacked by a chief named
Kabriki, and, on his retreat, by a party of slave-hunters. He
seems to have established another Egyptian station at a place
called Fatiko, somewhere to the south of Gondokoro. The
story about the Albert Nyanza and Lake Tanganyika being one,
which forms part of the news published by the Daily Telegraph,
is certainly very startling news, and must at present be received
with great caution, though the 7é/egraph correspondent declares
he received it direct from the lips of the Emancipator of Central
Africa himself,

Mr. AUBERON HERBERT’S Select Committee on the Wild
Birds Protection Act has met three times, and examined a good
many witnesses. It would not be fair to take the report,
published in the Fie/d, of what passed at those meetings as
strictly correct, but if it be at all true, the doubt, before ex-
pressed in these pages (NATURE, May 1, 1873), as to any real
good resulting from the inquiry, can hardly be otherwise than
justified. The questions put by the chairman indicate, as far as
we perceive, that he has a very hazy idea of the bearings of the
whole subject, and no one of the other members appears to have
sufficient knowledge of any part of it to follow home by cross-
examination any of the evidence offered in reply. By many of
the witnesses birds are regarded as divisible into two groups—
the useful and the noxious—a simple classification which will be
amusing to naturalists. Such witnesses also think that the
destruction of the latter should be encouraged and the former
protected—being quite innocent of the fact that no laws in the
world will make most ‘‘ useful ” birds more numerous than they
already are. It seems to us that the only way in which an
inquiry of this kind could be satisfactorily conducted would be
by a Royal Commission, in which the scientific element, so

210

unhappily lacking in*a Parliamentary Committee, should be
adequately represented. The birds which suffer a perfectly
preventible persecution to such an extent that their extermination
may shortly be expected, appear to be thought hardly worthy of
the Committee’s consideration, though it was to save them that
the British Association’s efforts were chiefly directed.

Tue Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland have
taken a praiseworthy step in memorialising Government to do
what is undoubtedly their duty to the country, appoint a Com-
mission of competent scientific men to inquire into the causes
of the ever-recurring potato-disease, a disease which is a national
calamity. How far advanced is the American Government in
matters concerning the national welfare is well shown by the
memorialists, and even Portugal is far enough ahead of us to
appoint a Government Commission to inquire into the vine-
disease.

THE Executive Committee of the Fund for erecting
a memorial to the late John Stuart Mill have resolved
that a portion of the funds raised be devoted to erecting a bronze
statue of Mr. Mill in some public situation in the City of West-
minster, which he for a time represented in Parliament, the re-
mainder to the foundation of Scholarships, open to the compe-
tition of candidates of both sexes, in Mental Science and Political
Economy ; subscribers to the fund being invited to say to which
of these purposes they wish their subscriptions to be devoted.

Tue Council of University College, London, has determined
to throw open to women next session another of its ordinary
classes, that of jurisprudence, conducted by Prof. Sheldon Amos,

WE are glad to see from a circular which has been sent us,
and which we would recommend to the attention of all teachers,
and to all interested in science-teaching in schools, that the
Charterhouse School of Science has met with signal success
during the past, its first, session.
scientific lecturers, which we are glad to see is to be increased, the
training is thorough and practical, and a large and well-fitted che-
mical Jaboratory, besides other scientific apparatus, is tobe added to
the School. The School is in connection with the Science and
Art Department, and we hope that during next session, which
commences on September 20, the attendance will be as satis-
factory as during the past. Attached to the circular is a form to
be filled up by intending students, and accompanying itis a well-
drawn up time-table. The fees are remarkably low.

Ara meeting of the Council of the Royal School of Mines,
held on Saturday, July 5, the following gentlemen received the
diploma of Associate of the Royal School of Mines :—Mining
and metallurgical division—E. Jackson, J. A. Griffiths, C. Law.
Mining division—A. G, Phillips. Metallurgical division—J. W.
Westmorland, S. W. Davies, J. C. Jefferson, H. S. Bell.
Geological division—G. Smith. The following Scholarships
and Prizes were also awarded :—The two Royal Scholarships
of 152. each, for first year’s students, to Mr. H. Carter and Mr,
A. J. Meeze. To second year’s students: H.R.H. the Duke of
Comwall’s scholarship of 30/. for two years, to Mr. C, Lloyd
Morgan, and the Royal Scholarship of 25/7. to Mr. S. A. Hill,
The Edward Forbes’ medal and prize of books, for Natural
History, to Mr. G. Smith. The Dela Beche medal and prize
of books, for mining, to Mr. Edgar Jackson. The Murchison
medal and prize of books, for geology, to Mr. C. Lloyd
Morgan,

SIGNoR AucusTO RIGHI, Demonstrator of Physics in the
University of Bologna, has just published an elaborate memoir
**On,the Composition of Vibratory Motions” (7ii Gamberini
e Parmegsiani, Bologna). The memoir is of a high order, and
is worthy the attention of all physicists specially interested in
acoustics. The subject is mathematically treated, and is illus.
trated by twenty-one admirable plates,

‘NATURE

There is an excellent staff of

a

[¥uly 10,1873

Mr. W. CarRUTHERs has just issued his official Report for
1872, of the Department of Botany in the British Museum. -
The additions to the Herbarium during the year are spoken of as
large and important, rendering more and more pressing the
necessity of increasing accommodation for the arranged
Herbaria, The species included under several of the natural
orders, both in the General aud in the British Herbarium, have
been entirely re-arranged during the year; and much use has
been made of the Herbarium by botanists preparing monographs
for a number of different publications, Numerous interesting
additions have also been made to the Structural Series, both in
the Fruit, the Fossil, and the General Collection.

WE have received “‘ Lecture Extra, No. 8” of the Mew Vork
Tribune, containing twelve lectures by Prof. Louis Agassiz, on
various important subjects connected with animal life ; besides a
lecture on ‘‘ Vestiges of Antiquity,” by Dr. A. Le Plongeon,
“The Art of Dyeing,’’ by Prof. Chandler, a long article on the
Fossil Man of Mentone, and a detailed account of Prof. Marsh’s
discoveries in the Rocky Mountains. All these lectures and»
articles are copiously illustrated and well printed, and the whole
is a marvellous pennyworth. The Z>ibwne deserves the greatest
praise for the important part allotted to science in its pro-
gramme.

IN the just published number of the Yournal of Anatomy and ~
Physiology there is a valuable paper by Prof. Rutherford, of
King’s College, on the cause of the retardation of the pulse
which follows closure of the nostrils in the rabbit, in which he
shows that this retardation is not the direct effect of reflex action,
as previously supposed, but is due to the arrest of respiration
which necessarily attends the blockage in the air-passage; for
the retardation does not commence directly the nostrils are
closed, but is delayed for about four seconds, and if the trachea -
is kept open it does not occur at all. Ammonia applied to the
nose produces similar effect, because the animal ceases to breathe
for a time, as it closes the nostrils in order to prevent the entrance
of the irritating fumes. Prof. Rutherford finds that after the
vagi have been divided, the arrest of respiration does not cause
the pulse to become slower, which is in favour of the supposition
that the retardation which ‘normally occurs is produced by the
action of the impure blood on the cardio-inhibitory centres in
the medulla oblongata.

THE Yournal of Botany records the death of two British
botanists of reputation, Mr. James Ward, of Richmond, York-
shire, one of the most active and experienced botanists of the
North of England, and Mr. James Irvine, of Chelsea, who wrote
a *‘London Flora” in 1838, and was one of the editors of the
old Phytologist.

A Frora of Cheshire is shortly to appear under the super-
intendence of the Hon. J. L. Warren.

WE have to record the following earthquakes this week :—
THE Imperial Meteorological Observatory of Constantinople
reports that on June 20 there were several smart shocks of earth-
quake at Bagdad at night, and again on the ‘21st at noon. A
strong shock of earthquake was felt at Alpago, Italy on July 3.
A volcanic eruption, accompanied by discharges of hot cinders,
is stated to have commenced at Farra. The waters of the Lake
Santa Croce, a few miles south-east of Belluno, were boiling.
Three shocks of earthquake were felt at Buffalo, U.S., on
the morning of July 6, causing the buildings and shipping to
rock,

THE Synopsis of Laboratory Work in Practical Organic
Chemistry at the Teachers’ Training Class at South Kensington

for July, contains seventy practical problems in chemistry, with

directions for their solution,
A GREAT International Exhibition is to be held at Phila-

delphia in 1876,

—eEo=_:

there for’several years, ‘The light in which he represents the
natives of Hawaii to regard the death of Captain Cook will be
new to many of our readers. ‘‘ The natives were astonished and
distressed at their owan barbarity, and they treated the remains
of Cook as they did those of their highest chiefs and as if he had
beena god. They dissected the biz bones from his legs and
arms, as a mark of the highest honour they could confer on their
own beloved dead. They exposed the rest of his remains before
their great idol in the temple, and sacrificed hogs and dogs to
his memory and to appease the gods for his and their own sins.
His entrails had been placed carefully in a calabash and left
aside, in order for burning in some subsequent ceremony, when
a boy (an intelligent old man of som: 75 or 80 years in 1845,
with whom the Doctor had conversed), supposing them to be the
entrails of a hog, cut off a piece and roasted it on coals and ate
it. When the officers of the ships, in their subsequent inter-
course with the natives to recover the remains of Captain Cook,
earned that nothing was left of them but the big bones, which
were delivered up to them, they fancied his (flesh had been de-
voured by the savages, and a howl went up from the British
public and the Christian worid that the newly-discovered
Hawaiians were natives and cannibals. Such was not the case
at first, and has never been the case. Their firstexperience with
a Christian people was a bitter one, and the cup for them has
been bitter from that time to this. The fasts attending Captain
Cook’s death, and the treatment of his remains, the Doctor re-
ceived from the mouth of an honest old native named Keha, on
the island of Maui, a clear-minded man, and one of the heredi-
tary historians of the Kings or Chiefs. The natives always re-
gretted Cook’s death.”

Tue German Arctic Navigation Society of Hamburg
city has received a telegram from Tromsée, dated July 6,
according to which eighteen Norwegians who had passed the
winter in Spitzbergen, have been found dead by the society’ s
schooner Zyonsd¢, Captain Mack. They have been buried by
the latter's direction.

THE latest novelty in literature is a farthing daily
paper, in the shape of Zhe Penny-a-Week County Daily
Newspaper, a single copy of which may be had for a far-
thing, but which, by a little arrangement, will be supplied to
any subscriber for a penny a week. It is intendel as an organ
for sowing broadcast the principles of the Conservative party,
who, if they really have the welfare of their country at heart,
ought to make use of this splendid opportunity for elevating the
classes whom they want to influence, by serving up a daily
modicum of useful knowledge methodically arranged,—7.e,
Science.

WE have received from A. Ernst his careful paper on the
Meteorology of the Caracas, based on three years’ observations
by Seftor Agustin Aveledo.

Tue ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences
of Mauritius” for 1871, which has just reached us, shows that
that body is in excellent working order, and is quite alive to the
interests of Science in that hybrid colony, especially in the de-
partment of Natural History. The curious mixture of French
and English in the volume is significant of the history of the
island and the mixed nationality of the colonists. The longest,
and one of the most valuable and interesting papers in the
volume, is Colonel Pike’s account (in English) of a visit he paid
to the Seychelle Islands, containing important details on the
natural history of this remote and little-known group. The So-
ciety has been the means of successfully introducing into the
Mauritius the cultivation of the silkworm, and an association has

it

NATURE

In the Weekly Salt Lake Tribune of June 7, a lecture is re- been formed for the manufacture of textile fabrics from native
_ ported on the Sandwich Islands by Dr. Winslow, who resided

215

plants, especially from the Agave.

THE ‘‘ Fourth Annual Report of the State Board of Health
of Massachusetts,” deserves the attention of all who are inte-
rested in the public welfare so far as sanitary matters are con-
cerned, Detailed reports on all subjects connected with public
health are given, and some humiliating and curious revelations
made as to adulteration of food and drink, which seems to be
nearly as universal in Mas:achusetts as in our own enlightened
and very moral country; as is also ignorance of the
use and preparation of food. Reports such as these show
how lamentable and wide-spread is ignorance of the science of
living, and with what a host of adverse influences in the way of
adulteration, bad drainage, and such like, civilised man is
surrounded.

WE have received Memoirs, by Prof. Asa Gray, of the
late Mr. John Torrey and Mr. W. S. Sullivant, written for
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Part I. of vol. ix. of ‘‘The Journalof the Royal Agricultural
Society of Englandand Wales,” contains many statistics and papers
of great value connected with the subject of Agriculture. Besides
a variety of statistics as to grain, Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Dairy
Produce, Prices, &c., the Journal contains the following papers :
On the Characters of Pure and Mixed Linseed-Cakes, by Dr.
Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S. ; Report of the Judges on the Trials
of Portable Steam-Engines at Cardiff; Report of Experiments
on the Growth of Barley for Twenty Years in succession on the
same Land, by J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., and J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S. ;
Record of Rainfall at Rothamsted (parish of Harpenden) and
Harpenden Village, near St. Alban’s, Herts, in 1872 and the 19
preceding years ;} Report on the Trade in Animals, and its
Influence on the spread of Foot-and-Mouth and other Con-
tagious or Infectious Diseases which affect the Live Stock of the
Farm, by H. M. Jenkins, F.G.S., Secretary of the Royal
Agricultural Society ; Further Report by the Judges on the
Competition for Prizes for Plans of Labourers’ Cottages in con-
nection with the Cardiff Meeting, 1872; The Potato Disease,
by William Carruthers, F.R.S., Consulting Botanist to the
Society; On Dodder, by W. Carruthers, F.R.S.; Annual
Report of the Consuiting Chemist for 1871 ; Quarterly Report of
the Chemical Committee, December, 1872 ; Quarterly Report
of the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College.

THE death of Mr. J. A. Gordon, Superintendent of the Crystal
Palace Gardens, is announced. Mr, Gordon was in part trained
under Sir Joseph Paxtoa, and was well known as a contributor
to the Gardener's Magazine.

Mr. J. L. Happen, C.E., superintended the electric light
arrangements on the occasion of the late /¢/es at Constantinople
for the Sultan’s accession. The next morning on awaking he
found himself quite blind. The medical men had hopes of his
restoration to sight.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a Rock-hopper Penguin (Zudyples chryso-
coma), from the Falkland Islands, presented by Mr. J. M. Dean;
a tuberculatei Lizard (Jguvana tuberrulata), from the West
Indies, presented by Mr. J. B. Spence; a Greater Sulphur-
crested Cockatoo (Cacatua yaleritx),from Australia, presented by
Mr. R. Dean; four black-necked Swans (Cygnus nigricollis)
hatched in the Gardens; a Beaver (Castor canadensis), born in
the Gardens ; two crimson-faced Waxbills (Pytelia melba), from
Africa ; a Tawny Eagle (Aguila naevioides), purchased ; a black-
tailed Antelope (Nanotragus nigricaudatus), an Ariel Toucan
(Ramphastos arid), and a West India Rail (Aramides Cayen-
nensis), deposited.

212

ON THE GERM THEORY OF PUTREFACTION
“AND OTHER FERMENTATIVE CHANGES*

AFIER some introductory remarks referring to the various
other theories which had been entertained on this subject,
viz., the oxygen theory, the theory of spontaneous generation,
and that of chemical ferments, the author stated that the re-
searches of Pasteur had long since made him a convert to the
germ theory, which attributes the alteration experienced by
exposed organic substances to the development within them of
minute organisms springing, like larger living beings, from
parents like themselves ; and that this belief had been since con-
tinually strengthened by the results of the antiseptic system of
treatment in surgery, which he had founded on that theory asa
basis.

But his attention had been afresh directed to the subject about
a year and a half ago by a remarkable paper by Dr. Burdon-
Sanderson,t in which experiments were recorded, leading to the
conclusion that Bacteria, unlike the spores of fungi, are deprived
of vitality by mere desiccation at a moderate temperature, so that
while a drop of water from ordinary sources or the contact of a
moist surface is sure to lead to Bacteric development and conse-
quent putrefaction in an organic substance susceptible of that
change, the access of dust from exposure to the atmosphere in-
duces merely the growth of fungi and comparatively insignificant
chemical alteration.

If this were true it would be needless to provide an antiseptic
atmosphere in carrying out the antiseptic system of treatment ;
and all that would be requisite in the performance of a surgical
operation would be to have the skin of the part about to be
operated on treated once for all with an efficient antiseptic,
while the hands of the surgeon and his assistants and also the
instruments were similarly purified ; a dressing being afterwards
used to guard against the subsequent access of septic material.
Thus the use of the spray might be dispensed with, and no
one would rejoice more than himself in getting rid of that com-
plication.

Such being the practical importance of the conclusion referred
to, he determined to subject it to a searching experimental
test.

The material first employed was urine, not boiled, as
it had commonly been in previous investigations, but ob-
tained, by a very simple antiseptic process, perfectly un-
contaminated in its natural condition, in which it proved
a far more favourable nidus for the development of or-
ganisms than in the boiled state, as indeed might have been
anticipated, since it contains unaltered the complicated organic
substance termed the mucus, which has been sometimes regarded
as a chemical ferment of urine. Nevertheless, when a wine-glass,
together with a small porcelain evaporating dish, to serve as a
cover, had been heated, like the vessels used by Dr. Sanderson,
far above the boiling-point of water, and allowed to cool (a pro-
cess conveniently designated by the term “heated”), and after-
wards charged with the unboiled urine, and placed under a glass
shade as an additionai protection against dust, it was found that
the fluid remained free from organic development or putrefactive
change for months, till at last it dried up into a saline mass.
On the other hand, if a glass so charged was exposed to the air
by removing the shade and cover for a while, organisms appeared
in it of various kinds, and among the rest, in several instances,
Bacteria. Thus it was shown on the one hand that bacteria
might arise from atmospheric exposure, and on the other hand
that a porcelain cover and glass shade afforded absolute security
against the introduction of organisms from without. If, there-
fore, the exposure of such a glass for a limited period chanced to
lead to the introduction of any one organism unmixed with others,
the opportunity was afforded of studying the behaviour of that
organism, either in the same medium for a protracted period or
in other media in similar glasses, inoculated by means of a heated
pipette or glass rod. For it was found as a matter of experience
that exposure for the few seconds or fractions of a second necessary
for performing the inoculation or withdrawing a little fluid for ex-
aminaticn did not involve any considerable risk of accidental
contamination.

Early in the investigation it was ascertained that the putre-
faction of urine might take place without the occurrence of
Bacteria, in presence of minute granules in irregular groups, in

* Abstract of a communication made to the Royal Society of Edinburgh,

April 7, 1873, by Prof. Joseph Lister, F.R.S. 5
t See 13th Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council.

Pa OTN ae

NATURE —

Or SA tes ;
tens oe Or =

a7 a

| Fuly 10, 1873

such numbers as to make the liquid milky; their organio
nature being clearly proved by fissiparous generation observed to
take place in them, though in a different manner from that
which is seen in Bacteria. To this form of organism the name
‘*Granuligera” has been provisionally applied.

In one of the experiments related, two drops of water from —
the tap having been added to a glass of Pasteur’s solution, the
result was not in the first instance the general opalescence due
to Bacteria in a liquid, but a deposit which proved to be a
minute filamentous fungus producing abundant spores (conidia)
on its branches. These spores after separation often produced
young plants like their parents; but there were also seen in
abundance precisely similar spores multiplying by pullulation
like a Torula (to retain the old use of the name as applicable to
organisms like the yeast plant).* And there were also present
multitudes of moreslender filaments which were seen to break
up into Bacteria, while in several instances these filaments were
observed springing from spores undistinguishable from those of
the fungus.

The view that some filamentous fungi may give origin to both
toruloid and Bacteric forms was soon afterwards confirmed by
another experiment. + A “heated” wine-glass was taken into
the open air during a drizzling rain, and the cover being lifted,
some rain-drops were allowed to fall into it, after which un-
contaminated urine was introduced. The result was the pro-
duction of a pullulating delicate Torula, totally different
from the yeast plant; forming a granular deposit on
the sides of the glass, and an abundant scum, both in the
urine and also in Pasteur’s solution on repeated inocula-
tions. Portions of both liquids containing this organism having
been set aside under circumstances permitting only very slow
evaporation, they were examined again eight months later, when
a delicate filamentous fungus was found in both, bearing conidia
resembling the cells of tne Torula, while similar spores were
seen multiplying by pullulation, and some of the buds were in a
slender form undistinguishable in character from the Bacteria
which in the case of the urine were observed swimming in the
liquid.

me organism which in the first instance was observed for
weeks together growing as a mere Torula having thus, as it
appeared, developed into a filamentous fungus, after remaining
for months in the same solution, hopes were excited that a
corresponding observation might be made with regard to the
yeast-plant, and this led to a careful examination of alow white
mould, referable to the genus Oidium, which was observed in a
glass of Pasteur’s solution to which yeast had been added several
weeks previously. The hope was disappointed, but some inter-
esting facts were elicited: for the fungus was found to vary
remarkably according to the quality of the medium in which it
grew, having sometimes the aspect of an Oidium with fructi-
fying filaments, sometimesa purely filamentous structure, some-
times a loosely-jointed growih producing abundant oval spores
destitute of nuclei, and often pullulating like a Torula, and
lastly a purely toruloid form of an entirely different aspect, com-
posed of spherical nucleated cells, cccurring in urine, and
operating as a power‘ul putrefactive ferment upon that fluid. Yet
totally dissimilar as the different forms of this fungus might ap-
pear, their identity was demonstrated by observing with the
microscope the actual growth of one from another when trans-
ferred to a new medium on aslide of thick glass excavated round
acentral island, so as to provide a sufficient supply of oxygen
to last the growing fungus for a long period. ‘The sliie and its
thin covering glass were heated between metallic plates to diffuse
the heat and prevent cracking of the glass, so arranged as to
guard against the entrance of dust during cooling, and all instru-
ments, such as forceps and needles, employed in the subsequent
manipulations, were ‘‘heated” before beiog used, the thin covering
glass being luted down with melted paraffin applied with a hot steel
pen. ‘Glass gardens” of this construction stocked with various
organisms in various media proved extremely useful means of
investigation. Samples of the organism introduced were sketched
with camera lucida immediately after introduction, and their
subsequent development observed with perfect precision. In
this way, in the case of the Oidium, spherical nucleated cells of

* The toruloid pullulation of spores of some minute filamentous fungi had
been previously observed by De Bary. See ** Morphologie und Phys.ologiz
der Pilze,” &c., von. Dr, A. de Bary, p 183.

t This view has been expressed by various other authors, but has been
hitherto incapable of demonstration in consequeuce of the uncertainty
whether things which seem to grow from one organism may not be merely
the result of the accidental presence of others.

the toruloid form of the organism were observed to sprout into
beautitul filamentous fungi, and these aguin, as the fliid became
vitiated by the growing fungus, were found to reproduce as
coni ‘ia the spherical torulvid cells.

Among other media inoculated with this Oidium was a solution
of albumen obtained by treating a fresh-laid ezg with a solution
of carhbolic acid, to destroy any organisms adhering to the shell,
and then breaking it with carbolised fingers into a ‘‘ heated”
vessel containing water that had been boiled and allowed to cool
protected from dust, the solution being afterwards cleared by
pfgsing it through a boiled filter in a ‘‘ heated” funnel with
**heated” cover. This fluid had remained during the half-year
which had since elapsed, free from putrefaction or any other
change, except where organisms had been introduced, although
the air had free access to it;* a fict which indicates pretty
clearly that the putrefaction of eggs, which has been regarded as
a stumbling-block in the way of the germ theory, must somehow
or other be brought about by the penetration of ferments through
the shell and membrane. This, indeed, becomes intelligible
enough if we admit that Bacteria may be formed from fungi, and
remember how the filaments ofsome parasitic fungi perforate the
epidermis of leaves.t In a glass of this albuminous fluid the
Oidium grew very slowly and feebly, but its development was
accompanied by a remarkable alteration in the liquid, which, in
the course of six weeks, changed from the colourless purity of
spring water to the dark brown, almost black, appearance of
porter. Yet the dark brown liquid remained perfectly free from
smell, proving, what the author had long suspected as the result
of experience in antiseptic surgery, that an albuminous fluid
may undergo fermentation with odourless products.

Another experiment given in full detail was performed with milk
upon the same principle as those with urine and albumen, in
the hope of removing another stumbling-block in the path of
the germ theory. For, according to the high authority of Pas-
teur, milk forms an exception to organic liquids in general, in the
circumstance that a greater elevation of temperature than the
boiling-point of water is required to kill Bacteria contained in
it.{ But the advocates of the theory of spontaneous generation
reply that any Bacteria present would be certainly killed by
boiling, and therefore the subsequent appearance of living Bac-
teria in the boiled milk in Pasteur’s experiments is proof of their
spontaneous evolution from the chemical constituents of the
liquid. If, however, by the use of antiseptic means, milk could
be obtained uncontaminated from the cow, there being no orga-
nisms to kill, boiling might be dispensed with, and the milk,
like the unboiled urine, should remain free from organic develop-
ment or fermentative change, if kept protected in ‘‘heated”
vessels. Accordingly, five flasks with glass caps, and six test-
tubes with wider test-tubes to cover them, having been heated,
and allowed to cool under glass shades in the stable where the
experiment was performed, the udder and adjacent skin of a
cow were well washed with a strong watery solution of carbolic
acid, which was also applied with a small syringe to the outlets
of the milk ducts, the teat being held in the finger and thumb
to prevent the entrance of the solution into the udder, and
a milkman with his sleeves tucked up, and his hands and arms
washed with the antiseptic lotion, was directed to milk into the
glasses as their covers were successively raised. The cow did
not give milk at all freely, and a considerable time was occupied
in charging the flasks, but the small quantity required for each
test-tube was got by asingle squirt from the teat, with almost
momentary exposure, Yet not only in all the flasks but in all
but one of the test-tubes organisms made their appearance. In
one of the test-tubes, however, the unboiled milk had hitherto
(for a quarter of a year) remained entirely unaltered. One such
success was as clear evidence against the hypothesis of sponta-
neous evolution of organisms as if all the glasses had remained
free from them, and their occurrence in the other ten proved a
most foriunate circumstance. For no two of them were alike in
the organisms they contained, and in several instances there was
apparently only some one species unmixed with others, so that
the opportunity was afforded of studying various different orga-
nismsjas modified by other media, and as regards any fermen‘a-
tive influence which they might exert upon those media, Among
the organisms in the milk glasses were Bacteria of different
species, to judge from their size and other appearances, as well

* Dr. Burdon-Sanderson had previously preserved unboiled white of egg
epcanaed for six months ina ‘“‘ heated” tuve containing air, hermetically
sealec.

+ See De Bary, op. cit., page 216.
t See Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1862, p. 60,

NATURE 213

as numerous kinds of fungi; and when they were introduced
into a series of glasses of the albuminous liquid before described,
it was found that while some of the fungi grew in it others re-
fused to do so, and while Bacteria obtained by adding a drop of
water to urine throve in the alnuminous fluid, not one of four
inoculations of Bacteria from four milk glasses was followed by
any result. Thus was afforded, it is believed, for the first time,
distinct phy-iological proof of real differences among Bacteria.
But what was still more unexpected was the fact that when the
inoculation was practised in a series of glasses of urine, two of
the Bacteria refused to grow even in that liquid, which had been
previously regarded as a peculiarly favourable nidus for Bacteric
development. This fact, besides serving still more clearly to
differenti ite the various species of Bacteria, suggested a possible
explanation of the failure of experiments with milk in the hands
of others, For if organisms thrive in milk which cannot grow
in urine at all, milk must be a more difficult fluid to work with
in experiments which aim at excluding organic development.
Hence it seemed worth while to try again the effect of boiling
milk, but in doing so to adopt more rigorous precautions
against the entrance of organic germs. There could be
little doubt that the organisms which appeared in the various
milk glasses cf the experiment above related entered during
the cooling, which though it took place just as in the success-
ful experiments with urine, led to failure fin the case of
the milk, partly from the favourable nature of that‘ liquid for
organic development, and partly no doubt from the atmosphere
of the stable being much more loaded with organic germs than
that of the author’s study. The new precautions adopted were
in the main these. The small wine glasses (liqueur g/asses) into
which the fluid was to be decanted were covered, together with
their glass caps, while still very hot, with cotton wool secured
by fine iron wire tied tightly round below the cap, so as effec-
tually to filter the air that entered during cooling; after which
the cotton was carefully removed and the glass placed under a
small glass shade on a separate piece of plate glass. For heat-
ing the flask in which the milk was to be boiled a very high
temperature was requisite to ensure destruction of all life in the
considerable volume of air which it contained ; and this was
arranged for by binding asbestos with wire round the junction of
the neck of the flask and the glass cap, and then roasting the
flask over a large Bunsen’s burner. The asbestos, which proved
as good a filter as cotton wool, was removed after cooling, and
the cap being lifted, a long ‘‘ heated ” funnel was passed quickly
into the flask and the milk poured in through it after wrapping
a piece of carbolised rag round the funnel and neck of the flask
to exclude septic dust : scrupulous care being taken to avoid
touching the neck of the flask with the moist end of the funnel
as it was withdrawn. By this means security was obtained
against the presence of any living organism inside the flask
except in the fluid at the bottom of the vessel. The cap was
then re-applied and carbolised cotton wool tied over it to filter
regurgitant air during the boiling. The necessity for the air-
filter was made very manifest during ebullition from the great
tendency of milk to froth, involving the necessity of frequently
removing the flame, fresh air entering on every such occasion :
another peculiarity of milk which served further to explain the
failure of previous experiments. But the efficiency of the means
employed was shown by the appearance of the flask as exhibited
to the Society. For although seven weeks had passed since it
was filled, the milk was seen to be perfectly fluid and with no
appearance of alteration.

All trouble occasioned by frothing, involving constant watch-
ing to prevent the froth from wetting the cotton, was afterwards
avoided by acting on the suggestion of Mr. Godlee, of University
College, London, who happened to beassisting the author at the
time, and immersing the flask in boiling water above the level of
the liquid, instead of applying the flame directly. This method
had the further advantage of avoiding any risk of ‘‘ burning ” the
milk, and also any loss by evaporation, A second flask ‘‘ heated”
and charged with milk like tne other and similarly covered with
cotton wool, was kept in this way at 212° F. for an hour, and,
after cooling, its contents were decanted off into twelve ‘* heated”
liqueur glasses, and in these it had remained during the seven
wecks that had since passed perfectly free from change except
when organisms had been intentionally introduced. To illustrate
this the author drank, before the Society, the contents of one of
the uninoculated glasses, which proved perfectly sweet and

‘ood.
° It was a curious circumstance that on the morning following

214

NATURE

[Xuby 10, 1873

the night on which the liqueur glasses were thus charged with
boiled milk, the author received from Dr. Roberts, of Manches-
ter, a copy of his paper describing how he had got over all the
difficulties, as regards milk, by a different and very simple me-
thod.* But beautiful as Dr. Roberts’s method was, and perfectly
conclusive against the theory of spontaneous evolution, it would
not have answered the author’s purpose, as it was essential for
his investigations that the liquid should be decanted from the
flask into the liqueur-glasses. The decanting was effected by
means of a “ heated” syphon, with special precautions against the
entrance of living organisms, as was fully explained to the
Society.

The same plan of ‘‘heating” the vessels and decanting was after-
wards followed with turnip infusion and with urine ; and in proof
of the security of the method, flasks containing the residual stock
of these fluids after decanting into twelve glasses from each nearly
six weeks before, were shown to the Society quite unchanged.
And as further evidence of the trustworthiness of the system pur-
sued, it was mentioned that out of six series of wine-glasses with
about twelve in each series, containing a!buminous fluid, urine (in
two series), Pasteur’s solution, boiled milk and turnip infusion,
although portions of the contents had been often removed for in-
vestigation or inoculation, only two instances were known to
have occurred in which any organism (a filamentous fungus) had
made its appearance which had not been arranged for either by
inoculation or prolonged exposure,

(To be continued.)

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Ocean Hizhways for July is a very interesting number. The
first article, on the ‘‘ Voyage of the o/aris,” accompanied by
six small maps, shows that notwithstanding the disastrous results
of Captain Hall’s venture, it proves more strongly than ever
that a well-equipped Arctic expedition, taking the route of
Smith’s Sound, would be attended with results of the highest
value. ‘‘In the present day,” the writer concludes, ‘‘ when
the true methods of exploring are well known, and men of
science have clearly enumerated the important problems that
will be solved, and the numerous valuable results that will be
derived fron the labours of an Arctic Expedition, the reasons
for despatching one have acquired tenfold force.” This is
followed by a long and extremely valuable and interesting
account of *‘ Personal Experiences of Venomous Reptiles and
Insects in South America,” by Mr. Richard Spruce, who has
spent fifteen years in Equatorial Africa for the purpose of
investigating the natural history of that region. The author’s
account of his experiences gives a vivid idea of the many dangers
and trials to which devotees of science are exposed, in their
endeavours to add to the sum of human knowledge. We would
strongly recommend Mr, Spruce’s interesting article to all who
take an interest in the subject, on which, our readers may
remember, there was recently some correspondence in NATURE,
H. H. Giglioli contributes two very valuable letters from
Dr Beceari on his explorations in Papuasia, which are likely to
be attended with very important results. Other papers in this
number are ‘‘ On Settlements on the Gold Coast,” with a map ;
a paper on Khiva, by Rev. G. P. Badger, consisting of a catena
of extracts from several eminent Arabic writers; the ‘‘ Foot-
paths of London,” a sort of popular geological lecture, by
Mr. H. P. Malet; and the second part of Prof. H. Mohn’s
article on the Meteorological Institute of Norway.

Bulletin de la Société de Geographie, May. The first article
in this journal is by M. Charles Maunoir, on the work of the
French Geographical Society, and the Progress of the Geogra-
phical Sciences during the year 1872.—Mr. W. Huber contri-
butes an interesting paper on the telegraphic network of the
globe, with a map showing at a glance how much has already been
done in this way to annihilate distance, and how much remains
to be done to complete this important work.—This is followed
by the conclusion of M. Balansa’s paper on New Caledonia, the
present instalment treating specially of the Loyalty Islands.—M.
Edouard Sayons gives an abstract of the contents of M. Hun-
falvy’s very interesting work on the Finnish Provinces of the
Baltic ; the work is published in Hungarian, and is an account
of the author’s explorations in the districts mentioned in the
year 1870,

* See Nature, Feb, 20, 1873.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Royal Society, June 19.—‘‘ On a newly discovered extinct
Mammal from Patagonia (Homalodotherium Cunninghame),” by
William Henry: Flower, F.R.S., Hunterian Professor of Com-
parative Anatomy, and Conservator of the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons. e

The author describes the complete adult dentition of a
new genus of Mammal, founded on remains discovered by
Dr. Robert O. Cunningham in deposits of uncertain age, on the
banks of the River Gallejos, South Patagonia. The animal
appears to have possessed the complete typical number of teeth,
i.e. twenty-two above and below, arranged in an unbroken
series, and of nearly even height, and presenting a remarkable
gradual transition in characters in both jaws, from the first in-
cisor to the last molar. The molars more clearly resemble those
of the genus Rhinoceros than any other known mammal ; and,
judging by the general characters of the teeth alone, the animal
would appear to have been a very generalised type of Perisso«
dactyle Ungulate, allied through yracodon (a North-American
Miocene form) to RAinoceros, also more remotely to Macrau-
chenia, and, though still more remotely, to the aberrant Vesodon
and Zoxodon. The generic name Homalodotherium was sug-
gested for this form by Prof. Huxley in his Presidential Address
to the Geological Society in 1870.

‘The Diurnal Variations of the Wind and Barometric Pres-
sure at Bombay,” by F. Chambers. Communicated by Charles
Chambers, F.R.S., Director of the. Colaba Observatory,
Bombay.

The object of this paper is to bring to notice a remarkable
relation that has been found to exist between the diurnal varia-
tions of the wind and the barometer at Bombay.

The observations made use of are the records of a Robinson’s
anemograph during the first three years of its performance, viz.
from June 1867 to May 1870, and the corresponding hourly
observations of the barometer and the dry- and wet-bulb ther-
mometer, made at the Government Observatory, Bombay.

The mean results for each hour of the day during the whole
period, and the mean diurnal relations of each element are tabu-
lated and graphically represented by figures. The diurnal
variation of the wind is then investigated, the most influential _
part of which is attributed to the land- and sea-breezes which
blow from E.S.E. and W.N.W., and are shown to follow
mainly the same law of progression as the temperature of the
air, thus affording confirmatory evidence of the truth of Hadley’s
theory of the trade-winds as applied to land- and sea-breezes.

Some peculiarities of the curve representing the land- and sea-
breezes are then pointed out, and these the writer concludes are
due to the superposition of another distinct variation having two
maxima and two minima in the twenty-four hours like the baro-
meter variation ; and he supports his views by a reference to the
variation of the east components of the wind in the months
of July and August, when the land- and sea-breezes have almost
disappeared. This is found to exhibit a decided dowd/e period.
The north components of the land- and sea-breezes are then ap-
proximately eliminated from the north components of the whole
variation, and the variation which then remains exhibits a very
decided double period in this direction also. These variations
with double periods are regarded as indicative of the existence of
a double diurnal variation in the general movements of the at-
mosphere. Upon this hypothesis typical diurnal variations of the
wind are deduced for north and south low latitudes; that for
north latitudes exhibiting a double diurnal right-handed rotation,
and that for south latitudes a double diurnal left-handed rotation,
and from these the diurnal variation of the barometer is de-
duced.

The movements of the wind-vane at Bombay are then
analysed, and the writer concludes that the greater part of the
excess of ‘‘ direct” over “‘retrograde” rotation of the vane at
Bombay is due to the di#rnal variation of the wind.

Extracts are given from observations made at St. Helena,
Toronto, and Falmouth, showing the character of the diurnal
wind-yariations at those places, and their greater or less agree-
ment with the deduced typical curves. The writer maintains
that these variations afford independently a possible, if not a
probable explanation of that movement of the air which Dové
had called the ‘* Law of Gyration ;” and in conclusion he points
to the extent of their applicability in deducing weather proba-
bilities, and to the method of discussing storms.

___ and in the undulating ground at its base.

3 uly 10, 1873]

NATURE

215

eee

A postscript is added, giving the mean diurnal variation of the
wind at Sandwick Manse, Orkney, and pointing out its general
conformity with the results deduced from the Bombay wind-
observations.

“On the Mathematical Expression of Observations of Com-
plex Periodical Phenomena, and on Planetary Influence on the
Earth’s Magnetism,” by Charles Chambers, F.R.S. and
F, Chambers.

“Observations of the Currents and Undercurrents of the
Dardanelles and Bosphorus, made by Commander J. L. Wharton,
of H.M. Surveying Ship Shearwater, between the months of
June and October, 1872.” From a Report of that Officer to
the Hydrographer of the Admiralty. Communicated by
Admiral Richards, C.B., V.P.R.S.

Geological Society, June 25.—Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair. The following communications
were read :—‘‘ On six Lake-basins in Argyllshire,” by his Grace
the Duke of Argyll, F.R.S., president. The author referred to
the part ascribed to glacial action in the formation of lake-basins,
and described the basins of six lakes in Argyllshire, the charac-
ters presented by which seemed to him inconsistent with their
having been excavated by ice. Among these lakes were Loch
Fyne, Loch Awe, Loch Leckan, and the Dhu Loch.—‘‘ Descrip-
tion of the Skull of a dentigerous Bird (Odontoperyx toliapicus,
Owen), from the London clay of Sheppey,” by Prof. Richard
Owen, F.R.S. The specimen described by the author consisted
of the brain-case, with the basal portion of both jaws. The
author described in detail the structure and relations of the
various bones composing this skull, which is rendered especially
remarkable by the denticulation of the alveolar margins of the
jaws, to which its generic appellation refers. The denticula-
tions, which are intrinsic parts of the bone bearing them, are of
two sizes—the smaller ones about half a line in length, the
larger ones from two to three lines. The latter are separated by
several of the smaller denticles. All the denticles are of a
triangular or compressed conical form, the larger ones resembling
laniaries. Sections of the denticles show under the microscope
the unmistakable characters of avian bone. The length of the
skull behind the fronto-nasal suture is 2 inches 5 lines; and
from the proportions of the fragment of the upper mandible pre-
served, the author concluded that the total Jength of the per-
fect skull could not be less than between 5 and 6 inches.
The fossil seems to .approach most nearly to the Ana-
tidaz, in the near allies of which, the Goosanders and Mer-
gansers, the beak is furnished with strong pointed denticu-
lations. In these, however, the tooth-like processes belong to
the horny bill only, and the author stated that the production of
_ the alveolar margin into bony teeth is peculiar, so far as he
knows, to Odontopteryx. He concluded, from the consideration
of all its characters, ‘‘that Od2ntopleryx was a warm-blooded,
feathered biped, with wings ; and further, that it was web-footed
and a fish-eater, and that in the catching of its slippery prey it
was assisted by this pterosauroid armature of its jaws.” In con-
‘clusion, the author indicated the characters separating Odontopte-
ryx from the Cretaceous fossil skull lately described by Prof. O.
C. Marsh, and which he affirms to have small, similar teeth im-
planted in distinct sockets.—‘‘ Contribution to the Anatomy of
LHypsilophodon Foxii, an Account of recently acquired Remains of
this Dinosaur,” by J. W. Hulke, F.R.S. The author communi-
cated details of its dentition, the form of its mandible, and that of
the cones of the shoulder and fore limb, and of the haunch and hind
limb, hitherto imperfectly or quite unknown, The resemblance
to Zewanodon is greater than had been supposed, but the generic
distinctness of Aypsilophodon holds good.—‘ On the Glacial
Phenomena of the ‘Long Island,’ or Outer Hebrides,” I., by
James Geikie, F.R.S.E., of H.M. Geological Survey of Scot-
land. The author commenced by describing the physical features
of Lewis, which he stated to be broken and mountainous in the
south, whilst the north might be described as a great peat moss
rising gradually to a height of about 400 ft., but with the rock
breaking through here and there, and sometimes reaching a
higher elevation, The north-east and north-west coasts are com-
paratively unbroken, but south of Aird Laimisheader in the
west and Stornoway in the east, many inlets run far into the
country. The island contains a great number of lakes of various
sizes, which are most abundant in the southern mountain tract
The greater part of
Lewis consists of gneiss, the only other rocks met with being
granite and red sandstone, and conglomerate of Cambrian age.
The stratification of the gneissic rocks is generally well marked ;

the prevalent strike is N.E. and S.W. with S.E. dip, generally
at a high angle. The author described in considerable detail the
traces of glaciation observed in the lower northern part of Lewis,
and inferred from his observations that the ice passed from sea
to sea across the whole breadth of this district, and that it not
only did not come from the mountainous tract to the south, but
must have been of sufficient thickness to keep on its course
towards the north-west undisturbed by the pressure of the glacier
masses which must at the same time have filled the glens and
valleys of that mountain region. After describing the charac-
ters presented by the bottom-hill in the northern part of Lewis,
the author proceeded to notice those of the lakes, some of which
trend north-east and south-west, while those of the mountain
district follow no particular direction, The lake-basins of the
first series he regarded as formed at the same time and by the
same agency as the roches moutonnées and other marks of glacial
action; they are true rock-basins or hollows between parallel
banks wholly of till, or of tilland rock. The N.E. and S.W.
lakes coincide in direction precisely with the strike of the gneiss;
and the author explained their origin by the deposition of till by
the land-ice in passing over the escarpments of the gneiss facing
the north-west. The lakes of the mountain district are regarded
by the author as all produced by glacial erosion. The author
considered that the ice which passed over the northern part of
Lewis could only have come from the main land. Referring to
the glaciation of Raasay, he showed that the ice-sheet which
effected it must have had in the Inner Sound a depth of at least
2,700 ft.,and taking this as approximately the thickness of the
mer de glace, which flowed into the Minch, which is only be-
tween 50 and 60 fathoms in depth, no part of this ice could
have floated, and the mass must have passed on over the sea-
bottom just as if it had been a land surface. Ice coming from
Sutherland must have prevented the flow of the Ross-shire ice
through the Minch into the North Atlantic, and forced it over
the low northern part of Lewis ; and the height to which Lewis
has been glaciated seems to show that the great ice-sheet con-
tinued its progress until it reached the edge of the 100-fathom
plateau, 40 or 52 miles beyond the Outer Hebrides, and then gave
off its icebergs in the deep waters of the Atlantic.—‘‘ Notes on the
Glacial Phenomena of the Hebrides,” by J. F. Campbell, F'.G.S.
The authorstated that, on the whole, he was inclined to think that
the last glacial period was marine, and that heavy ice
came in from the ocean, the local conditions being like those
of Labrador. The author regarded most ofthe lake-basins of
the Hebrides as formed by ice-action, and considered that the
ice by which those islands were glaciated came from Green-
land.—‘*‘On Fossil Corals from the Eocene Formation!
of the West Indies,” by Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S.
The specimens were collected from limestone and coral
conglomerates, which are covered by, and rest upon volcanic
débris and ejectmenta in the island of St. Bartholomew. The
determination of the forms of the associated Mollusca and Echi-
nodermata permit the following deposits being placed on a gene-
ral geological horizon—the limestone and conglomerate of St.
Bartholomew, the dark shales beneath the Miocene of Jamaica,
the beds of San Fernando, Trinidad. These were probably
contemporaneous with the Java deposits, the Eocene of the Hala
chain, the great reefs of the Castel Gomberto district, the reefs
of Oberberg in Steiermark, and the Oligocene of Western
Europe: The affinities and identities of the fossil forms with
those of contemporaneous reefs in Asia and Europe, and the
limitation of the species of the existing Caribbean coral fauna,
point out the correctness of the views put forth by S. P. Wood-
ward, Carrick Moore, and the author, concerning the upheaval
of the isthmus of Panama after the termination of the Miocene
period.—‘‘ Note on the Lignite-deposit of Lal-Lal, Victoria,
Australia,” by R. Etheridge, jun., F.G.S. The lignite is almost
entirely composed of remains of coniferous plants not now exist-
ing in Victoria ; and the author considered that it is nearly of the
same age as the lignite deposit of Morrison’s Diggings, which
has been regarded as Miocene.

Entomological Society, July 7.—Henry T. Stainton, vice-
president, in the chair, Mr. Weir exhibited specimens of
Agrotera nemoralis, taken near Lewes.—Mr. McLachlan
exhibited a remarkable instance of hermaphroditism in a specie
men of a fly (one of the Syrphide) taken at Black Park.—
Mr. Trovey Blackmore exhibited specimens of a gall found on
oaks near Tangier, which were taken possession of for a habita-
tion by a species of ant (Crematogaster scutellaris, Oliv.)—Mr.
William Pryer exhibited some fine species of Lepidoptera from

ee eee ce Rr tte a* ‘Ske

+i? Ve. OS ST eee Se \ tea
Fe em At Oe eg tee ee so

NATURE

[ Fucy 10, 1873

China.—Sir S. S. Saunders communicated a paper ‘‘ On the
habits and economy of certain Hymenopterous Insects which
nidificate in briars; and their parasites.” The insects were
exhibited at the last meeting, and Sir Sydney Saunders further
exhibited a specimen of a Raphiglossa, which he had suffocated
with cyanide of potassium, whilst asleep, showing the remark-
able position of the insect during repose, as described in the
paper.—Mr. Butler communicated a list of the species of
Galeodides, with description of a new species in the British
Museum.
PHILADELPHIA

American Philosophical Society, March 7.—Hector
Orr made a communication on the microscopic slide of Mr.
Holman.—Dr. Leiler exhibited a modification of apparatus
for showing the vibration of molecules in light.—Prof. J. P.
Lesley presented a map of the subterranean portions of the
collieries of Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania.—Prof. P. E. Chase read
a paper on Planetaxis, the relation of the rotation of the sun and
interior asteroids to the sun-spot period, and on the relative
velocities of light and gravity.

March 21.—Prof. P. E. Chase pointed out the precise acord-
ance of the wave-length of the Fraunhofer I line with the wave-
length of the F note in the 26th musical octave. The other
Fraunhofer lines also correspond very closely with the musical
notes which are designated by corresponding letters. If this
accordance indicates that the luminiferous ether is a material
medium, it appears that Winnecke’s estimate of the sun’s dis-
tance is the most accurate of those that have been based on
astronomical observations.—Prof. Persifor Fraser exhibited an
apparatus for the better manipulation of the lime-light.—Mr.
Holman exhibited a slide for the microscope, designed for the
better observation of substances suspended in fluids, especially
the different corpuscles of the blood. The slide contained two
concavities on its face, which were connected by a groove, aud
covered by a thin plate of glass. It was highly sensitive to
changes of temperature.—A resoiution was adopted recom-
mending the passage of a bill by the Legislature of Pennsylvania,
inaugurating a new Geological Survey of the State.

April 4.—Prof. P. E. Chase showed that, by making the dif-
ferences symmetrical at each extremity of the planetary series,
the supposed failure of Bode’s law in the case of Neptune was
only apparent, and that it gave the rule a higher generality. He
also gave two new planetary series, based, like his modification
of Bode’s law, on laws of oscillation. If the mean distance of
Neptune be divided by successive powers of the ratio of a cir-
cumference to its diameter, the points of division will fall in
alternate planetary orbits, Saturn, Asteroid, Earth, Mercury.
The last term of this first ser.es brings us to the orbital axis of
the centres of gravity of the sun and Jupiter. The second series
is in regular harmonic progression. Taking Jupiter’s perihelion
distance as the unit,

Ef 3 t b Tp pa ts
respectively designate orbital positions of Mars, Earth, Venus,
?, Mercury’s aphelion, Mercury’s mean, Mercury’s perihelion.
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are also in harmonic progression
beyond Jupiter. If we express this spheral harmony by musical
intervals, they are generally such as to produce chords between
any two adjacent planetary positions. But where quarter tones
occur, the discordant vibrations seem to have broken up or
disturbed the tendencies to planetary aggregations, thus aiding in
producing the asteroidal belt, giving Mars and Mercury their
diminutive masses and great eccentricity, and obliterating the
theoretical planet between Mercury and Venus.—Prof. W. C.
Kerr, State Geologist of North Carolina, communicated a paper
on Topography of the Earth’s surface, as affected by the rotation
on its axis. He pointed out that the rivers of southern and
castern North Carolina flowed towards the ocean ina south-
easterly direction, and that their south-western banks are elevated
and bluffy, while the north-eastern descend very gradually
to the water. They flow through, yielding materials of the
cretaceous and tertiary formations, and have apparently under-
gone change of location, in the course of which they have ex-
cavated their south-westem banks.—Prof. Kerr exhibited some
mathematical reasons why this change might have been effected
by the earth’s rotation. —Prof. E. D. Cope read a paper on the
flat-clawed carnivora of Wyoming. ‘this group embraced two
genera, Mesonyx Cope, and Synoplotherium Cope, which bore
some resemblance in dentition to Hyacnodon. In both the claws
were broad, flat, and fissured above, and without projecting

endinous insertion below, and hence little prehensile use. In } PAMPHLETS Recerve .

Mesonyx the astragalus has two distal facets ; in Synoplotherium
the scaphoid and lunar bones were distinct. The genera were
thought to be of aquatic habit.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, June 30.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dent, in the chair.—During the meeting the Academy proceeded
to elect a Foreign Associate in the place of the late Baron Liebig,
Sir Charles Wheatstone obtained 43 votes, M. d’Omalius
d’Halloy, 2; Sir C. Wheatstone was therefore declared duly
elected.—The following papers were read :—Reflexions on La-
grange’s memoir on the problem of three bodies, by M. J. A.
Serret.—A° comparison of the refraction indices of several
isomeric compound ethers, by MM. Pierre and Puchot. The
authors have found these indices sensibly the same when calcu-
lated for temperatures equally distant from the respective boiling
points of the bodies in question.—On the analytical theory of
the satellites of Jupiter, by M. Souillart.—Researches on the
reflexion of solar heat at the surface of Lake Leman, by M. L.
Dufour.—On the transplantation of the marrow of bones in
sub-periosteum amputations, by M, Feélizet.—New observations
concerning the presence of magnesium round the entire disc of
the sun, by M. Tacchinii—On the want of agreement between
the old theory of the thrust (Zowssée) of earth and experiment,
by M. J. Curie. This was a paper dealing with fortification
Note on magnetism, by M. J. M. Gaugain.—On the cooling and
freezing of alcoholic liquids and wines, by M. Melsens.—On
the decomposition of metaliic carbonates by heat, by M. L.
Joulin. —On the calculus of the moments of inertia of molecules,
by M. G. Hinrichs.— On the production of glycerin starting from
propyiene, by MM. Friedel aud Silva.—On a glycerin of the
aromatic series, by M. E. Grimaux.—On the estimation of
sugar by Barreswil’s method, by M. Loiseau.—Erythrophenic
acid, new reaction of phenol and aniline, by M. Jacquemin.—On
crystallised mercurous iodide, by M. P. Yvon.—A summary of
the state of silk culture in 1873, by M. E. Guérin-Meéneville,

DIARY
FRIDAY, Jury 1.
QuekettT Cus, at 8.
SATURDAY, Juty 12.
Boranic Society, at 3.45.
TUESDAY, Jury 15.
British Horoocica Institute, at 8.30.— Anniversary.

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Enctisu.—Official Guide-Book to the Brighton Aquarium: W. Saville
Kent, F.Z.S.—Third Annual Keport of Devon and Exeter Alozrt Memorial
Mu-eum Schools of Science and Art.— Quarterly Weather Report of the
Meteorological Office, Part 11I., July to September, 1871.—Keports and
Proceedings of the Miners’ Assoctation of Cornwall and Devon for 1872-3.

AUSTRALIAN.—Notes on the Climate of Victoria: Robert L. ji Ellery.—
Record of Results of Observations in Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism,
fe, — at the Melbourne Observatory during February 1873: Robert

» J. Ellery.

CONTENTS Pace
THe ENpowMenT oF Research, II. . . Spin o SL aay
THoMe’s LeHRBUCH DER ZOOLOGIE Serer
VALENTIN'S QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS . + + + e+ + ¢ © © © «© + 199
Our Book SHELF . « + s 6 «© © © © © © ee 8 ew OY
LETTEKs TO THE EDITOR :—
Dr. Sanderson’s Experiments and Archebiosis.—Dr. CHARLTON
BASTIAN, F/RSs ssp ele ate le! Ste Re gin
Dr. Bastian’s Experiments.—W. N. HartLEY «. . + « «= «+ 200
Temperature and Pressure—Maxwett HALL . . . + « + + 200
Laivz of Membracis serving as Milk-cattle to a Brazilian ies
of Honey-bees.—Dr. HERMANN MULLER (/4 ith /lustrations). 20%
Free-standing Dolmens.— WILLIAM C. BoRLASE . . « + + + 202
Ferniisation of the Pansy.—A. IT. Myers . . . - + « «© « = 202
European Weeds and Insects in America.—JosEPHJOHN MuRPHY,
BGS.) 0 RRS a
CuHLoRoPHYLL CoLourinG-MaTTERS. By H.C Sorsy,F.RS. . . 202
Recent RESEARCHES ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF LIGHT. . 204
ON THE FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS BY INSECTS, AND ON THE RECI-
PROCAL ADAPTATIONS OF BOTH, II. By Dr. HERMANN MULLER
(With [lustrations) OP59 oe ew
On THE ORIGIN AND MeTamorPHosES OF INskEcTs, VIII. By Sir Joun
Lussock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S, (With Idlustrations). . + « « « 207
INGTES SLs 3 us = ¢ ae as PS are
On THE Germ THEORY OF PUTREFACTION AND OTHER FERMENTA-
TIVE CHANGES. © By Prof. Lister, F.RS. . . 2 « 2) ss tele ate
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS © 5.5 BIRD Bk. bin) Je) co om Em el
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES/bs (ss. «0: 6.5 «1; 10) 0s ae eee
JD ga ee © EBERT A in ign he 6-8, 15 ne ee
Nh ea a A Ie i ae hes

NATURE

217

THURSDAY, JULY 17, 1873

THE PAY OF SCIENTIFIC MEN

ot ead are a good many points of interest attaching
to the Parliamentary paper referring to the pay of
the officers of the British Museum, which, thanks to
Lord George Hamilton, has been issued during this
week,

It shows in a striking manner what the Government
thinks of Science and its votaries ; nor is this all: it
shows in a not less striking manner how it behoves men
of Science, if they consider that there should be a career
for Science at all, to at once take some action, in order
that their real claims may be conceded. Mr. Lowe, in de-
fending not long ago the high rate of pay of Treasury
clerks, who “begin” at 250/. a year and rise quickly to
1,200/, (if they are unfortunate enough not to get a staff
appointment with much higher pay, long before they
would, in the ordinary course of promotion, reach the
senior class), stated that what was principally wanted at
the Treasury, over and above the ordinary qualities of a
clerk, was a certain “ freemasonry,” which was best got at
the public schools. For this “ freemasonry” Mr. Lowe is
willing to pay 150/. a year over and above the 100/. which
is the usual commencing pay of a junior clerk in the other
Crown offices.

Perhaps it is too much to say that this ‘‘ Freemasonry ”
is required in the British Museum. But there is cer-
tainly something required in the case of the scientific
appointments there, of as special a character ; and that is
a knowledge of Science.

What then does Mr. Lowe do to secure this specialty ?
He gives the man of Science who enters the Museum the
magnificent sum of go/. per annum on entrance, with the
still more magnificent—-but, unfortunately, very distant—
prospect of attaining an income of 600/, So that :—

Public School Freemasonry : Scientific Attainments : : 250/. : 9o/.

This state of things has recently been brought home to
the Trustees by petitions from all grades in the Museum,
and a sub-committee of the Trustees has reported
that, “owing to the insufficiency of the salaries, the
slowness of their progressive rise, and the lowness of
their maximum, the trustees are losing, and will continue
to lose, their best men.”

As a result of this report, in which we consider that
higher ground might have been taken, the Trustees have
proposed a new scale to the Treasury, the only fault of
which is that—with the exception of the case of principal
Librarian, who is not a specialist, who has no special
work to do which could not be done by the keepers acting
in turn as Dean, and who already has just double the salary
of the most highly-paid keeper—it is far too modest. As
the Daily News has well put it, a maximum of 500/.
is “certainly not a too lavish position fora man who
must be a scholar and linguist, an archzeologist, natu-
alist, or chemist, and must in most cases be already in
middle life.”

The men upon whose heads, hands, reputation, and
work the success and fame of the Museum depend, are

No. 194—VOL, VIII.

the keepers, whose pay, even as revised, is a mere pit-
tance for such service as they render.

Altogether, the eventual /ofa/ increased annual expendi-
ture would amount to 5,7o0/. a year—the pay of one
political or legal placeman, who has properly employed
his “ Freemasonry.”

Here is the Treasury reply :—

y * Treasury Chambers, March 28, 1873

“My Lords and Gentlemen,—The Lords Commissioners
of Her Majesty’s Treasury have had before them two
letters from Mr. Winter Jones, dated the 4th instant,
submitting recommendations for the grant of increase of
salary to the principal Librarian and Secretary, and to
various other officers of your establishment, and they
desire me to say that, after giving their most careful
consideration to all the statements put before them, they
regret that they would not feel warranted in acceding

to any alteration in the present scale of salaries,
“T have, &c.
(Signed) “ WILLIAM Law”

We trust that some determined stand will be made by
the Trustees—among whom is the Right Hon. Robert
Lowe—against this monstrous letter ;' and we trust also
that some general protest will be made by men of Science
and Culture generally against this latest valuation of
these acquirements by the Government.

The man of Science serves his country as well as the
politician, the lawyer, the soldier, or the sailor, although
perhaps his claims are not stated in so blatant a manner,
nor are at present so generally acknowledged, whether they
will be in the future must to a large extent depend upon
men of Science themselves : but whether this be conceded
or not, surely in a country where the State remuneration
for services performed is extraordinarily high in the upper
appointments, our scientific chiefs in the public service
should at all events receive the means of a decent liveli-
hood, and such men as are employed in the British
Museum, many of whom have world-wide reputations,
should at least be treated as well as Government clerks.

Surely this is not to ask too much? Nay, it is already
conceded by the Government in many departments
where special scientific knowledge is required of no
higher order than that which is so shabbily treated in the
one Institution of which we have the greatest reason to be
proud.

THE “ POLARIS” ARCTIC EXPEDITION

\ E have just received the printed Report, pre-

sented to the President of the United States
by the naval authorities, of the result of their exa-
mination of those of the crew of the Po/aris, who, in
October last, were severed from that ship, and drifted on
an ice-floe from about 80° north latitude during the whole
of the winter until, 600 miles south from their starting-
point, they were picked up on April 30, of this year, by
the Tigress off the coast of Labrador. The Report fur-
nishes material for one more of those thrilling narratives
of Arctic adventure, which will be the delight of the boy-
hood of all genefations, and which, commencing in the
roth century with that of Bjorne the Norseman, have
been accumulating in increasing proportion, and will
never fail to be added to until not a shred of mystery re-
mains to unravel within the Arctic circle. The advocates
of Arctic exploration by way of Smith’s Sound, needed

N

218

NATURE

[Fuly 17, 1873

5 H 5 ae |
only the narrative furnished in this Report, to render their

arguments invincible.

The Folaris, an ordinary wooden vessel, lefe New |
London, Connecticut, on July 3, 1871, well furnished with |
provisions, but othe:wise ill fitted for an Arctic expe- |

dition, under the command of Captain Hall, an en-
thusiastic explorer, who firmly believed he was “born to

discover the pole,” but apparently deficient in the firmness |

and decision necessary to manage a crew amid the trials of
an Arctic winter ; the officers and crew, moreover, seem

to have been collected at haphazard, and were by no,

means well assorted. The sccond in command, Captain
Buddington, who has now the command of the Polaris,

ought never to have been tal-en on such an exp: dition, |
and, even though tke most lenient construction be put |

upon his conduct, is deserving of the severest reprehen -
sion. After a delay of a week at St. John’s, Newfound-
land, the Po/aris sailed for the West Coast of Gre enland,
and after calling at several places on that coast, arrived
at Disco, which she left on August 17. After calling at
the settlements of Upernavik and Tessiusak, the latter in
73° 24’ north lat., the Polaris commenced her exploring
work in earnest, leaving Tessiusak on the 24th August.
Hitherto there had been no difficulty whatever in navi-
gation, nor was the vessel destined to meet with any ob-
Struction until passing through Smith’s Sound and Ken-
nedy Channel, she reached 82° 16’ N. lat., a point far
beyond the limits of previous navigation. This she did
on August 30, within a week after leaving Tessiusak.
After making unsuccessful efforts to find a way through
the ice, Captain Hall resolved to return’ and take up
winter quarters, which he did.on September 3, in a
small sheltered cove or bend of the coast in what
he called Polaris Bay, the “ Open Polar Sea” of Kine,
where the ship was protected by a stranded iceberg—
Providence Berg. This was in 81° 38 N. lat., 61° 44’
W. long. Had the vessel been specially built for Arctic
exploration, it appears to us that Captain Hall by good
management could have pushed even farther north before
requiring to return to winter-quarters : as it is this is one
of the most wonderful and successful Arctic cruises on
record, considering the distance accomplished in less
than a week so far within the ice-bound region. It affords
the strongest ground for hope that with a vessel specially
fitted for ice-navigation, a skilful captain may ere long
complete the 8° that remain to be traversed before the
North Pole be brought within the sphere of the known.

From Polaris Bay on October 10 Captain. Hall left the
Polaris, accompanied by Mr. Chester, first mate, and Hans
the Esquimaux with two sledges and fourteen.dogs. In the
progress of the journey he discovered, as appears by his
despatch, a river, a lake, and a large inlet. The latter,
in latitude 81° 57’ north, he named “ Newman’s Bay,”
calling its northern point “Cape Brevoort,’” and the
southern one “Sumner Headland.”

Captain Hall, it appears, had hoped, when he left the
_ Polaris on this journey, to advance northward at least a
hundred miles ; but after having gone about fifty he was
compelled, by the condition of the shore and of the ice,
and by the state of the climate, to return and await the
approach of spring for another attempt. He reached the
ship on October 24, apparently in his usyal fine health,
but was attacked the same day with sickness, and, taking

_ to his bed, the next day was found to be seriously ill,
| After rallying once or twice he died on November 8, and
was buried on the shore. The commissioners who ex-
amined the crew reach the unanimous conclusion that the
death of Captain Hall resulted naturally from disease,
_ without fault on the part of “anyone. After this sad
event, the command of the expedition devolved upon
Capta’n Buddington, who expressly declared, according
to the evidence, that he had no inclination and no in-
tention to pursue discovery further ; he determined to
make his way south to the United States as soon as the
ice would permit... During the winter little was done, and
on August 12, 1872, the Polaris began to move south-
wards. On the 16th of August the ship was made fast toa
| large floe of ice in the latitude of 80° 2’ north, and longi-

'

| tude about 68° west, and while still fast to this floe drifted
south through Smith’s Sound nearly to. Northumberland
Island. On the night of the 15th of October, 1872, in
about latitude 79° 35’ north, during a violent gale of wind
and snow, the ship was suddenly beset by a tremendous
Pressure of ice, which was driven against her from the
southward and forced under her, pressing her up out of
the water, and by successive and violent shocks finally
throwing her over on her beam-ends. In the words of
the Report, —

Captain Buddington directed the provisions, stores, and
' materials which had been put in readiness on deck, to be
thrown over on the ice, and ordered half the crew upon the
ice to carry them upon a thicker part to the | um-
mocks, where they would be comparatively sie. He
also sent all the Esquimaux, with their kyaks, out of the
ship, and lowered the two remaining boats upon the floe.
While so engaged, in the darkness of an Arctic night, in
the midst of a fierce gale and driving snow-storm, the
hawscrs of the Po/aris failed to hold her, and she broke
adrift from the floe, and in a few minutes was out of sight
of the party who were at that moment busily at work on
the ice.

From October 15, 1872, until April 20, 1873, when
they were picked up in latitude about 59° north, these
nineteen men, women, and children remained through the
whole of the dark and dreary winter upon the ice. In
their first endeavours to reach the land, they occupied for
a time different pieces of floating ice, but, forced finally
to abandon all hope in this direction, they rested at last
upon the floe upon which the Polaris had made fast.

At the time of their separation from the Polaris ev
one belonging to the expedition was in good health. She
had plenty of provisions, but not much coal—probably
about enough to last through the winter. She was last
seen, 2pparently at anchor, under Northumberland Island,
where it is most likely she remained for winter-quarters,

Mr. Robeson has already given preparatory orders to
the United States steamer Juniata, now at New York, to
proceed, at the earliest practicable moment, to Disco, and
if possible to Upernavik, for the purpose of carrying for-
ward the necessary coal and supplies, communicating
with the authorities of Greenland, obtaining information,
and, if practicable, sending forward some word of en-
couragement to those on board the Polaris. This last
will most likely be impossible, but an attempt will be
made.

It is also proposed to fit out at once an expedition of
relief, to be sent to Northumberland Island, where the
Polaris was last seen, in the Tigress, about 200 tons

Fuly 17, 1873]

NATURE

219

burden, built and fitted to contend with the ice, and the | species of butterflies, specimens of which were collécteg ;

same ship by which the nineteen persons were rescued.

The following, in the words of the Report are a brief |

summary of some of the scientific results of the ill-
managed expedition :—

While the records of the astronomical, meteorolo-
gical, magnetic, tidal, and other physical depart-

ments of the exploration appear to have been ex: |

tremely full, and the observations in each appear to

have been conducted according to approved methods, |
shown to |

the col'ections of natural history are
have been not less extensive, the store-rooms of the
Polaris being filled with skins and skeletons of musk-
oxen, bears, and other mammals; different species of
birds and their eggs: numerous marine invertebrata ;
plants, both recent and fossil, minerals, &c.

driftwood picked up on or near the shores of Newman’s
and Polaris Bays, among which Mr. Meyer thought he
recognised distinctly the walnut, the ash, and the pine.
Among the numerous facts that appear to be shown by

the testimony elicited on the examination, we may men- |
tion as one of much interest that the dip of the needle |

amounted to 45°, and its deviation to 96°, being less than
at Port Foulke and Rensselaer Harbour, as given by Dr.
Kane and Dr. Hays. Auroras were frequent, but by no
means brilliant, generally quite light, and consisting some-
times of one arch and sometimes of several. Streamers
werequite rare. Shooting-stars were so constantly seen that,
although no special shower was observed, it was scarcely
possible ever to look at the star-lit sky without noticing
them in one direction or another. The rise and fall of

the tides were carefully observed, the average being about |

five and a half feet. The greatest depth of water noticed
was about 1oo fathoms. The existence of a constant cur-
rent southward was noted by the expedition, its rapidity
varying with the season and locality. The winter tempe-
rature was found to be much milder than was expected,
the minimum being 58° in January, although March
proved to be the coldest month.

The prevailing winds were from the north-east, although
there were occasionally violent tempests from the seuth-
west. Light winds were noticed, however, from all points
ofthe compass. Rain was occasionally observed, only on
the land, however, the precipitation presenting itself over
the ice in the form of snow. During the summer the
entire extent of both low lands and elevations are bare of
both snow and ice, excepting patches here and there in
the shape of the rocks. The soil, during this period, was
covered with a more or less dense vegetation of moss,
with which several arctic plants were interspersed, some
of them of considerable beauty, but entirely without
scent, and many small willows scarcely reaching the
dignity of shrubs. The rocks noticed were of a schistose
or slaty nature, and in some instances contained fossil
plants, specimens of which were collected. Distinct
evidence of former glaciers were seen in localities now
bare of ice, these indications consisting in the occurrence
of terminal ard lateral moraines.

Animal life was found to abound, musk-oxen being
shot at intervals throughout the winter.

Wolves, also bears, foxes, lemmings, and other mam-
mals, were repeatedly observed. Geese, ducks,and other
water-fowls, including plover and other wading-birds,
abounded during the summer, although the species of
land-birds were comparatively few, including, however,
as might have been expected, large nuthbers of ptarmigan
or snow-partridge. No fish were seen, although the net
and line were frequently called into play in the attempt
to obtain them. The waters, however, were found filled
to an extraordinary degree with marine invertebrata, in-
cluding jelly-fish and shrimps. Seals are very abundant.
Numerous insects were observed, also, especially several

Not the |
least interesting of these collections are specimens of |

also, flies and bees and insects of like character.

The geographical results of the expedition, of which
the accempanying map will give a good idea, so far as
they can now be ascertained from the testimony of Messrs.

CAPE UNION

CAPE CONSTITUTION

CAPE “G BACK
CAPE: JEFFERSON
CARE. VON’ BUCH

CAPE MCCLINTOCK
CAPE. N SHAW

CAPE... JACKSON

TAPE, BARROW \~A)
MAURY BAY
CAPE WILKES

CAPE FRAZER

POINT JAY

Diagram of the Exploratiens of the Po/aris. (Drawn by F. Meyer,

Signal Service, U.S.A.)

Tyson, Meyer, and their comrades, may be summed up
briefly as follows :—

The open polar sea laid down by Kane and Hayes is
found to be in reality a sound of considerable extent,

220

fornied by the somewhat abrupt expansion of Kennedy’s
channel to the northward, and broken by Lady Franklin’s
Bay on the west, and on the east by a large inlet or fiord,
twenty-two miles wide at the opening, and certainly ex-
tending far inland to the south-east. Its length was not
ascertained, and Mr. Meyer thinks that it may be, in fact,
a strait extending till it communicates with the Francis
Joseph Sound of the Germania and Hansa expedition, and
with it defining the northern limits of Greenland. This
inlet was called the Southern Fiord. North of it, on the
same side, is the indentation of the shore called Polaris
Bay by Captain Hall.

From Cape Lupton the land trends to the north-east,
and forms the eastern shore of a newchannel from twenty-
five to thirty miles wide, opening out of the sound above
mentioned, to which Captain Hall gave the name of Robe-
son Straits. North-east of Cape Lupton, in lat. 81° 57’, is
a deep inlet, which Captain Hall called Newman’s Bay,
naming its northern point Cape Brevoort, and its southern
bluff Sumner Headland. From Cape Brevoort the north-
east trend of the land continues to Repulse Harbour, in
lat. 82° 9’ north—the highest northern position reached
by land during this expedition.

From an elevation of 1,700 ft. at Repulse Harbour, on
the east coast of Robeson Straits, the land continues north-
east to the end of those straits, and thence east and south-
east till lost in the distance, its vanishing point bearing
south of east from the place of observation.

No other land was visible to the north-east, but land
was seen on the west coast, extending northward as far
as the eye could reach, and apparently terminating in a
headland and near latitude 84° north.

Mr. Meyer also states that directly to the north he
observed, on a bright day, from the elevation mentioned,
a line of light apparently circular in form, which was
thought by other observers to be land, but which he
supposed to indicate open water.

Of course the full scientific results of the Polaris expe-
dition cannot be known until that vessel shall have been
found and brought back with the treasures she has
gathered, and the records and details of her Arctic
explorations. But enough is told by the witnesses whom
we have examined to excite expectation and encourage
the hope of large and valuable additions to the domain
of human knowledge.

Enough has been said to show that the way to the
North Pole is clear and practicable: it remains for
Britain to consummate the glory she has already ac-
quired by sending out an expedition so equipped that it
cannot fail to return with the solution of the Arctic
mystery, whose bourne is being pushed further and further
back every year. We would recommend the Report to
the Joint Committee of the Royal and Geographical
Societies now considering the subject of an Arctic
Expedition.

SCIENCE AND ANGLING

Flies and Fly Fishing, with Hints on Minnow and
Grasshopper Fishing. By Capt. St. John Dick.
(Hardwicke.)

hs is doubtful whether much real progress has been

made in the art of angling since the time of

Walton, whose “Complete Angler” was published in

1653. A great improvement has taken place in fishing-

tackle and implements, and we have much better rods,

reels, lines, and lures now, than could have been got in
old Isaac’s time. Of late years the number of rod-fishers
has enormously increased, and there is quite a plethora

NATURE

[Faly 17, iSt3

of popular treatises on the art of fishing.
books we have seen, including the one whose title is at
the head of this notice, there is a striking absence of any
guiding principles to go by; and notwithstanding the
marked improvement in the mechanical appliances
referred to, and the increase1 number and activity of
anglers, we repeat that it may be ‘fairly doubted whether
the latter are more successful fishers than their representa-
tives 200 years ago. The cause of this is pro»ably owing
to the fact that hitherto attentio1 has been almost exclu- -
sively directed to the mer2 practice of the art, and that
angling as a science has been all but completely ignored.
We have ad nauseam, empiric and dogmatic rules for the
guidance of the tyro, but few of these are based on suffi-
cient data, and most of them are quite untrustworthy.
There is no statement for example, more frequently made
in books on angling than that if the wind be from the
east trout will not rise to the fly ; and yet there are lakes
(notably Loch Leven, Kinross-shire, probably the best
trouting lake in Great Britain), in which the fish take best
when the wind blows from that quarter. Another gene-
rally accepted canon is that fish will not rise freely
during a thunderstorm, or when “there is thunder in the
air;” but in our own not very large experience,
we have again and again proved the falsity of this
rule. It would be easy to multiply examples of the
worthlessness of such empiric directions. What is
wanted is a scientific treatise on angling. A principle in
Science, some one has said, is a rule in art; and it is
such rules that are desiderated. The object of this paper
is rather to indicate this want than to supply it ; and we
have little hopes of much progress being made in the
“gentle art” until it is carefully studied and treated
scientifically. Until this is done there are many difficult
problems connected with angling which must, we fear, re-
main unsolved. One day, for eximple, fish will take
greedily any fly that is offer.d them, for an hour or two ;
and before or after this, their feeding time, the most
skilful angler will practise all his wiles in vain, Another
day, only flies of a particular colour or shape have any
chance of taking. Again, it does happen occasionally
that a veteran Waltonian will return from his favourite
stream or lake, under the most auspicious influences of
sky, wind, and water, with a very light basket, or it may
be, an empty one. It is also a fact that the most
successful day’s fishing is sometimes achieved by going
dead against all recogaised rules and imitations of
Nature. These are only a few of the things that require
to be explained, and in the explanation of which a careful
study of the nature and habits of fishes—how they are
affected by atmospheric influences, &c.—would probably
greatly assist. Of course, there are scientific anglers
who have picked up their science under difficulties, and
as they best could ; and their number might be indefinitely
increased if greater facilities were afforded for acquiring
scientific knowledge. Such anglers will be sure to have
the indispensable qualities of patience and perseverance ;
but they must also be careful observers of Nature, of the
conditions of the water, of the appearance of the sky, and
of metcorological phenomena in general ; and in addition
to all these they will be found to possess an intimate
acquaintance with some special branch of Natural
History.

But in all the

a

fee

- Fuly v4, 1873]

-mands investigation.

_ becoming scarcer.

NATURE

221

There is a point connected with angling which is raised | has, it is true, mentioned one or two things worth

by Captain Dick, but not for the first time, and which de-
It seems to be beyond question
that, over the whole of Great Britain, trout are every year
It is very seldom that the angler
now-a-days makes a basket equal to what would have
been called a very common take a score of years ago.
So alarming has been this decrease that district associa-
tions are being formed for the purpose of watching and
protecting the spawning grounds in theic neighbourhood.
The falling off is probably due to a variety of causes,
such as over-fishing, pollution of streams, want of protec-
tioa of spawning fish and spawning beds, the prevalence
of pike, &c. It is certain that many streams and lakes,
easy of access to populous districts, suffer from being
over-fished ; but the example of Loch Leven, already re-
ferred to, shows what may be done if proper precautions
be taken. This lake is only 3} miles by 2}, and 9 miles
in circuit, and is open to anglers from all quarters (by
paying a ceriain sum per hour) during the four months
May, June, July, and August. The rest of the year the
like is closed, and the spawning grounds are carefully
watched. There are both pike and perch in the lake, but
nets are freely used to keep down these marauders. The
results of these measures are worthy of notice. For the
last fifteen years the takes have been gradually increasing,
and last year upwards of 17,009 trout were taken by the
rod. During the months of May and June this year
nearly 9,000 have been taken, and it may be added that
the average weight of Loch Leven trout is a little under
1lb, What has been done by private enterprise for this
lake might and should be done by Government for all the
lakes and rivers in the country. There is no reason,
that we know of, why there should not be a close time
for trout as well as for salmoa. The pollution of rivers
by public works is a more difficult question to deal with ;
bat surely something could be done to prevent such whole-
sale destruction as that, for example, which took place in
the first week of July this year in the rivers Teviot and
Ribble. In the former of these rivers tens of thousands
of fish, including trout, smelt, grayling, and even
salmon, were poisoned in one day. Unless some action
be taken by Government strictly prohibiting manufac-
turers from sending their poisonous refuse into our rivers,
not only will the fish in these soon become extinct, but
the rivers themselves thus impregnated will act as open
sewers generating and propagating disease in every

direction. With a little judicious legislation, the quantity

of fish obtained in fresh water might be so largely in-
creased as to become important as an item of food for the
people. We have indicated how this might be done with
regard totrout, &c. With regard to salmon, all that is
necessary to do is to blast the rocks at the Falls of the
Tummel, the Gary, and the Spean, in Scotland, and of
the Axe, and other rivers in England, and the area of
the spawning grounds of this monarch of our rivers would
at once be doubled. This could be done at little expense,
due allowance being of course made for vested rights
and any interests involved

A single glance at any page of Captain Dick’s book
is sufficient to show that he is more accustomed to
wield the rod than the pen; indeed we fail to sce

setting down in an article or essay, but not worth
writing a book aout. His list of artificial flies is very
full and may be of service. The only contribution to
Natural History we can find is his statement—which
we are inclined to accept as fact—that “although fish
generally lie with their heads pointing up stream, they
never, by any chance, take a fly in that position, but always
make a decided turn in the act of rising, and take the fly
with their heads pointing down stream.” He adduces
this as a reason for fishing down stream, of which prac-
tice, in opposition to the best anglers, he is a strenuous
advocate. As to fishing with minnows, he prefers the
ordinary metal kill-devils to natural minnows and to all
other imitations. In this, also, experienced anglers wi.l
generally disagree with him, There is no lure more
deadly for large trout, in certain seasons, than the natural
minnow, and next after that, we should say, is the phan-
tom minnow. In his remarks on pike-fishing, the author
does not refer to the spoon-bait, which nevertheless, in
lakes, especially in dull weather, may safely be backed
against any other lure. Why does the author almost
always use the word “ fisherman,” and only once the much
more precise term “angler”? Strictly speaking, “ fisher-
man” is a generic term, and applies equally to net and
rod-fishers, but by common usage is generally employed
to denote the former; whereas “angler” is a distinctive
term which can be applied only to the rod-fisher.

MIVART’S “ ELEMENTARY ANATOMY”

Lessons in Elemzntary Anatomy. By St. George Mivart,
F.R.S. Pp. 535. (Macmillan, 1873)

HIS modest volume is one of the series to which
Huxley’s “Physiology,” Olivers “ Botany,” and
Roscoe’s “Chemistry” belong. Like them it has the
indispensable merit of being an elementary manual
written by a master of the subject; for while special
investigations may be often well performed by advanced
students, primers and text-books can only be properly
written by experienced teachers.

The plan of the book is to describe in a popular
manner the various bones and other parts of human
anatomy, excepting the reproductive organs, and then to
point out the chief variations among other vertebrata.
It would perhaps have been better to have called it
“Elementary Lessons in the Comparative Anatomy of
Vertebrate Animals :” for as all the organs are used to
illustrate those of man, consideration of non-vertebrate
classes is very reasonably omitted. Moreover, for reasons
given in the preface, with which every teacher of the
subject will probably agree, the largest space is given to
the account of the endoskeleton. The whole forms a cole
lection of facts, accurate in detail, carefully arranged, and
clearly described. One would think there must be slips
among so many isolated statements, but we have failed
to detect one in a careful perusal of about 300 pages.
The sixth chapter contains a review of the general mor-
pholozy of the vertebrate skeleton, and here Mr, Mivart’s
well-known views, communicated to the Linngean and
Zoological Societies, are expounded fully but simply,

the raison Wétre of the gallant captain’s work, He | Without admitting all his positions, as for example the

222

NATURE

[Fudy 17, 1873

homology of the zradecule cranii, most of what is stated
in this chapter is well enough established to form part of
a manual for students of comparative anatomy.

But who are these students? Noone could follow the
closely printed pages of description here given, without a
good general acquaintance with human anatomy and a
thorough knowledge of the human skeleton, For this
reason we think it would have been better to have cur-
tailed or even omitted the preliminary accounts of each
organ in man, because they are not sufficient alone, and
there are many excellent treatises on this subject already.
If it is answered that the book is really intended for boys
and girls at school, then the details given, especially in
osteology, are far too numerous: in fact they would be
unintelligible without a good museum, and learning
zygosphenes and hypapophyses without seeing them is far
worse mental training than Barbara Celarent, or the
verbs in -y. For the second class of readers mentioned
in the preface, teachers, medical students, and others
acquainted with human anatomy, this little treatise will
be found just what they want in order to learn “its more
significant relations to the structure of other animals.”
The only defect they will find is the omission of the
organs of reproduction and the structure of the ovum.

The woodcuts are generally sufficient, and some of the
diagrams are remarkably ingenious and useful. Some
are, however, much too small, ¢.g, the diagram of the
skull, Fig. 197, and all the figures of entire skeletons, as
200; while others, as 137, representing the shoulder-
girdle of Hemidactylus, after Parker, greatly need the
shading and tinting of the original drawing. The plan
of repeating an illustration whenever it is referred to is
not often adopted in English books, but on the whole it
is, we think, the most convenient.

Experience will show what class of students will
really make most use of Mr. Mivart’s Lessons. We
heartily recommead them to all medical students and
zoologists who have access to a good museum. anos

OUR BOOK SHELF

Die Robbe und die Otter (Phoca vitulina ef Lutra vul-
garis) in Ihrem Kunochen-und Muskel-skelet, Eine
anatomisch-zoologicgische Studie von Dr. J. C. G.
Lucae. 102 pp. 15 plates, (Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1873.)

UNDER this title the distinguished anatomist, Prof. Lucae,
has contributed to the ‘Transactions of the Sencken-
bergian Society of Naturalists,” an elaborate treatise upon
the anatomy of the Common Seal (Phoca vitulina). The
osteology of Phoca is minutely described, and every part of
its skeleton compared with the corresponding portions of
that of the Otter—one of its nearest allies among the
terrestrial Carnivora. Comparisons with other mammals
are also given.

Fifteen well-executed plates illustrate this excellent
memoir, which, when completed (the first part being only
now before us) will leave little to be added to our infor-
mation as to the osteology of the true Seals (Phocide.)
To our knowledge of the structure of the two other
families of the marine Carnivora (the Trichecide and
Otariidze) we have lately received a valuable contribution
in the shape of Dr. Murie’s Memoirs on the Walrus and
Sea-lion, published in the Zoological Society’s « Trans-
actions,” so that great progress has lately been made
towards a perfect understanding of the osseous structure
of the marine Carnivora,

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinicns expressed

by his correspondengs. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. }

Agassiz and Forbes

Mr. GeorGe Forres has, in NAQORE of May 22, given his
version of the controversy between Agassiz and Forbes. I had
no intention, in a former note, of reviving, for the benefit of the
readers of NATURE, this unpleasant subject ; but simply wished
to protest against the ex cathedra statements of the reviewer of
Tyndall. The materials for an impartial discussion of the
history of glacier work are accessible to all investigators, and
when it comes to bz written, Azassiz and Forbes will obtain due
credit for their share of the work. One of the points at issue
between Forbes and Agassiz is not a matter ‘‘of facts to be
proved or disproved by facts.” The conversation between
Agassiz and Forbes (Heath as witness for Forbes) held on the
first day of their sojoura on the Aar Glacie*, refers simply to a
difference of opinion on the explanation of certain bands (observed
previously by several persons, and well known to Agassiz). The
nature of these bands has to this day remained problematical.
and why Agassiz, when writing to Humboldt that Ze had ob-
served these bands at a depth of 120 ft. in the body of the glacier,
shoul1 give any credit to Forbes passes all understanding. This
observation was made after Forbes’s departure, and Agassiz cer-
tainly needed no ‘‘ reconcilia'ion with his conscience ” to describe
this as ‘‘le fait le plus nouveau que7’aé observé.” The testimony of
Mr. Heath is of no valu, for it certainly would be the height of
presumption, in a man without any previous acqnaintance with
glaciers, to undertake to decide in a few lines, a point to this day
a subject of controversy among investigators of glaciers ; his
endorsement of the claims of Forbes is as ridiculous as the
attempt male by a prominent Swiss geologist (who gives his
testimony in favour of Forbes), to ign re the claims of Agassiz,
by passing his name over in silence when writiag the history of
geological science in Switzerland,

I would also remind Mr. George Forbes and the editors of
the ‘Life and Letters of Forbes,” that Agassiz’s affirmation
carries as geeat weight as that of Forbes or Mr. Heath. Forbes
is entitled to whatever credit there is in his explanation of these
bands and no more, an explanation which has not been
adopted by Agassiz for the very good reason that he did not
deem it a satisfactory one, and did not attach to it the same
importanc: which Forbes did. Agassiz expsessed to Forbes
considerable surprise at the appearance of the bands which
presented that morning peculiar conditions, not usually seen
except afler a hard rain, and on the strength of this surprise
Forbes lays claim to the discovery of the bands, and boldly
accuses Agassiz of knowing nothing about them at the time of
his visit. In investigations carried on for several years, as those
of the glacier of the Aar under Agassiz, it was most natural that
special points should not always be uppermost in the mind of the
investigator, however interesting they might appear to a visitor ;
this will fully account for any want of interest shown by Agassi
on first meeting Forbes and discussing the veined structu ce of the
ice.

Agassiz certainly owed nothing to Forbes, who was an invited
guest on the glacier of the Aar, a novice in glacial work. No
attack was made upon Forbes, as is stated by Mr. George
Forbes ; it originated with him. Ina letter addressed to Forbes
by Agassiz when he first discovered that Forbes had published,
independently as his own, observations made upon the glacier
of the Aar, during his stay with the Swiss party, he says: ‘‘the
idea that in thought you conceived the project of an independent
publication did not come to me for an instant. I should have
thought I did you injustice by such a supposition.” Agassiz felt
he ‘had been deeply wronged” by the course taken by Forbes ;
he made no answer to Forbes, and paid no further attention
to the subject, not because there was ‘‘no room for discus-
sion,” but because the toneadopted by Forbes was so insulting and
overbearing as to render all further discussion impossible with-
out its degenerating into the personalities afterwards indulged
in by Forbes, in his letters to his friends, which the editors of
hi; Life and Letters have taken special pleasure in reproducing.

Forbes did not hesitate to bring Mr. Heath uninvited to the
glacier of the Aar, probably to act as his witness and swel
the party, yet both he and his son regard the presence o
friends of Agassiz, to assist him in his work, a most monstrous
circumstance, Pioneers usually find it difficult to explore the

way, but when the track
_ follow and find the path.
As I do not wish to fill the pages of this jocrnal with per-
sonal explanations, my con‘r butions in NaTURE to this subject
Must cease with this note. It is not my purpose at present to
refute the imputations cast upoa Agassiz by the editors of
Forbes’s Life and Letters; he can well afford to pass them
over as he has done thus far, in silent con empt, the more so
since, fortunately for Aguass'z, the editors have given us from
Forbes’s own letters all that was necessary to show a course
of duplicity, on Forbes’s part, towards the man with whom “he
served his apprenticeship in glacier observation,” which is happily
Tare among sc’entific men, ALEXANDER AGASSIZ

is once blazed it is casy enough to

Probosces capable of sucking the Nectar of Anagrecum
sesquipedale

Mr. W. A. Forses, in the number for June 12 started

the question, whether moths are known to inhabit Madagascar
with probosces capable of such an expansion, as to obtain the
_ last drops of the nectar secreted in the lower part of the whip-
like nectazies of Anagrecum Sesquipedale,
_ _ As long as a direct answer to this question has not been given,
_ it may be of some interest to state in general the existence of
moths provided with probosces sufliciently long for the honey-
spurs in question.

Some days ago I received a letter from my brother, Fritz
Miiller (Itajahy, Prov. St. Catharina, Brazil), in which he says :
“T recently caught a Sphinx (not determinable by Burmeister’s
“Brazilian Sphingide’’), the proboscis of which has a length of
about 0:25 metres—a length not approached by any honey-tube
of this country known to me. I enclose the proboscis.” Being
unable to get the name of this species of Sphinx, I append the
illustration of its proboscis, magnified in the proportion 7 : 1.

This
millimetres in diameter, and showing at least 20 elegant wind-
ings, in its expanded condition attains a length of between 10
and II inches, and would con-equently be adapted to the necta-

proboscis, in its contorted condition forming a roll of 10-11

ries of Anagrecum sesquipedale, which have been found by
Derwin 11} inches long, with only the lower inch and a half
filled with nectar. Darwin indeed says, with regard to the fer-
tilisation of Anagrecum sesquifedale (p. 198 of his work on
Orchids): ‘‘there must be moths with probosces capable of
extension to a length of between 10 and 11 inches,” .
Lippstadt, July 1 HERMANN MiLier

An Order of Merit
Your leading article in the last number of NATURE on the
subject of a proposed “Order of Merit for Scientific Men,” re-
calls the views (in exact correspondence with your own) enter-
_ tained by my brother-in-law, the late J. Beete Jukes. These
_ Were expressed by him in no uncertain terms on the occasion of

NATURE |
i ee See

223

publishing an address on
Dublin in 1865.

I take the liberty of sending
to refer to note B, at p. 21.
dealt with ia your article.

5, West Hill, H:ghga'e

“* Men of science haye of late years pandered too much to the
utilitarian quackery of the age, and it is time that some one
should stand up to protest against it. Government and the House
of Commons shoul! be told that Science must be supported and
encouraged for her own purely abstract purposes, independently
of all utilitarian applications. The necessary preliminary, in-
deed, to these utilitarian applications is the discovery and
establishment of abstract scientific truth by men who look to
that alone, and whose whole faculties and lives are devoted to it.
The men who afterwards make the practical applications of it
often attain, indeed, far wider reputations than the real men of
science, and become to the p-pular gaze the representatives of
Science itself. The higher clas; are rarely much known to the
public during their lives, and are not usually men who would
experience any satisfaction if they were nick-named Knights or
labelled with C.B., or would feel inclined to accept any other
crumbs that might fall from the table of the politically great and
powerful. Nor would they commonly care much for pecuniary
rewards, unless as a meins to enable them to do their work
without drudging for the support of themselves or their families,
They are the men, however, who in the end rule the world, and
doubtl-ss they are often sustained in their labours by a con-
sciousness of this fac‘,

“It would manifestly conduce to the public good and the na-
tional honour if such men, when they do arise amongst us,
should be soight out, recognised as public benefactors, and
allowed means to do that work which their faculties, and theirs
only, enable them to perform” (‘Her Majesty’s Geolazical
Surgey of the United Kingdom,” &c., by J. Beete Jukes, FR S,

1867.) -——

the Geological Survey, delivered in

you a print for your perusal, and
I was glad to see the subject so well
ALF, H. BRowNE

Geological Sub: idence and Upheaval

Sir J. HERSCHEL thought that the earth’s crust floats upon an
ocean of molten matter, and that the washing of detritus from
the land into the sza, by altering the relative weight of different
portions of the shell, occasions a subsidence of the ocean’s bed
and an upheaval of the land, which may he either gradual and
insensible, like the process of denudation, or spasmodic and by
fits and starts producing earthquakes and sometimes volcanic
eruptions.

This theory was at one time adopted, at least partially, by Sir
C. Lyell, but is not mentionel in the latest edition of his
“Principles,” and is generally rejected by geologists as at
variance with th2 opinion held by Sir W. Thomson and others
in regard to the internal solidity of the earth. But this objec-
tion may be avoided by modifying Sir J. Herschel’s theory. We
may repudiate his hypothesis that a great fiery ocean exists below
the outer crust. We may arrive at many of the important con-
clusions which he drew from this hypothesis, and which he de-
scribed as all that a geologist could require, by admitting either
that solid rocks are plastic, or that some of the lower and warmer
strata of the earth are more pliable than the upper.

As to the plasticity of solid bodies, it may be sufficient to
refer to the experiments of M. Tresca (Comp. Rend. de l’Acad.,
1864-65, and Annalcs du Conservatoire, No. 21). Dr. Tyndall
(Glaciers of the Alps, p. 9) suggests the possibility that the con-
tortions of the strata in the valley of Lauterbrunnen may have
been produced by pressure acting throughout long ages on the
rocks in their present hard and solid condition.

Again, the lower strata of our globe may be rendered more
pliable than the superincumbent rocks by the great internal heat,
although it may be insufficient to fuse them or even to maintain
them ina yiscous condition, Many of the geological effects of
a molten ocean may thus be produced.

The theory that volcanic eruptions are caused by water perco-
lating through superficial cracks may, perhaps, give a clue to the
reason why volcanoes often occur in a great circle round the
globe and in diametrically antipodal positions. When other
causes concur to modify the form of the earth, the tidal strain
occasioned by the sun and moon may often be required to over-
come the vs ivertiz; this strain being greatest in the great circles
of the globe perpendicular to the direction in which the sun and
moon happen to be, cracks would probably occur most readily
in these circles. ~

It seems at least a cuffous coincidence that some areas of recent

J

924

subsidence, ¢.g. coral reefs and islands, are parts of the earth’s
surface which have Jately increased rapidly in weight ; and it
may be worthy of consideration whether coral and volcanic
islands have contributed to deepen the bed of the ocean.
J. F. ANDERSON
Cauterets, Hautes Pyrenees, July 12

Curious Rainbow

AN unusual atmospherical effect was witnessed here to-day,
which I had a good opportunity cf observing. The sun was
about 8° from the horizon, shining brightly upon a heavy shower
which had a background of dark clouds. The result was, of
course, a double rainbow of remarkable brilliancy. In addition,
however, to the ordinary circular and concentric bows, there
was a third of an elliptical form, the two ends of which respec-
tively sprang from the two ends of the inner arc, while the
elliptical curve cut the outer are at each extremity of a chord,
which was parallel to, and which intersected the normal radius
at a point about two-thirds of its length above, the diameter
that formed the common base. The top of the elliptical bow
was thus the outermost of the three, but the space between its
inner margin and the outer margin of the second bow, although
quite distinct, was not large.

The appearance of the third bow was due to light reflected
from the sea. The sun being low, the resulting line of reflection
was long, and it was the linear character of the source of light
which gave the elliptical form to the bow it occasioned.

Dunskaith, Ross-shire, July 10 GEGRGE J. ROMANES

CHLOROPHYLL COLOURING-MATTERS *
Il.

I THINK there can be no doubt that the spectra

of the various yellow substances given in PI. IL,
Figs. 3, 4, and 6 of Dr. Kraus’s work, are due to a
variable mixture of xanthophyll, yellow xanthophyll,
and lichnoxanthine. These can be separated, and
do occur in different kinds of plants, either alone or
mixed in such variable proportions that the spectra of
the solutions show the absorption-bands, not only in
variable positions, but also much less distinctly in some
cases than inothers. This difference is ascribed by the
author, not to a variation in the relative proportion of
two or more substances, each having definite and unvary-
ing characters, but to the modification of one single sub-
stance, due to some unknown cause, assigning as a reason
for this supposition that the chemical reactions are the
same, and that the positions of the absorption-bands vary
so gradually from one extreme to the other that no dis-
tinct demarcation can be detected. Now this is so very
fundamental a question in such studies, and, according
as it is decided, would modify the conclusions so much,
that it is requisite to discuss it somewhat fully. No
doubt the position of the absorption-bands seen in the
spectra of solutions in different liquids does differ very
considerably, but I feel persuaded that the spectrum of
the sare chemical compound, dissolved in the same
liquid, is the same in all cases ; and that, if there is any
difference between the spectra of two similar solutions,
it is due to a difference in the substances themselves. I
would restrict the term modification to those changes
sometimes produced by the action of weak alkalis or
acids, or by deoxidizing reagents, which are only of a
temporary nature, so that when the solution is restored to
its original state, the spectrum is seen to be just as at
first. We really do require such a term, and I have my-
self constantly ysed it in this sense. There is, however,
no such relation between the different colouring-matters
belonging to what I have called the xanthophyll group ;
and, though the presence or absence of oily substances
may, and sometimes does, materially influence the posi-
tion of the absorption-bands seen in the spectra of plants
themselves, yet, when dissolved in a relatively large
quantity of a solvent, this effect is altogether overcome,
As | have shown in my late paper the position of the

* Continued from p, 2g4)

NATURE

|Fuly 17, 18 73

absorption-bands in the different members of the xantho-
phyll group is very different, and yet it would be easy so
to mix them as to have a perfect series of connecting
links, and in my opinion the variations from what appear
to be independent compounds may be explained in an
extremely simple and satisfactory manner, without sup-
posing that the optical characters are subject to any
such variations as are ascribed to them by the author.
Whenever I have met with these variations I have
looked upon them as presumptive evidence of there
being a mixture, and have always been able to prove
the truth of this principle by subsequent conclusive
experiments. The following example will serve very
well to explain my views. Many yellow flowers are
coloured by a variable mixture of what I have called
xanthophyll, yellow xanthophyll, and lichnoxanthine.
The former occurs separately in the Alga, Porphyra
vulgaris, the second in such pale yellow flowers as the
yellow Chrysanthemum, and the last in the yellow fungus,
Clavaria fusiformis. The absorption-bands of these’two
kinds of xanthophyll are in a very different position, and
the lichnoxanthine gives no bands, only an uniform ab-
sorption, extending over about one half of the spectrum
from the blue end, The chemical reactions are also
equally distinct. On dissolving each in absolute alcohol,
and adding a little hydrochloric acid, the first fades
slowly, without being first changed into another yellow
substance, and without turning blue or green ; the second
is first altered into another yellow substance, giving a
spectrum with two absorption-bands in a different posi-
tion, and then turns to a deep blue, whilst the last
remains unchanged for a much longer time, and fades
very slowly. Now, of course, if all these were mixed
together in variable quantities, we should get results
varying according to the relative amount of each. The
absorption-bands due to the two kinds of xanthophyll
would lie in an intermediate position, according to the —
relative amount of each constituent, and would be more
or less indistinct, according as there was more or less of
the lichnoxanthine ; and on adding a little hydrochloric
acid to the solution in alcohol the colour would turn to a
more or less blue green, and subsequently fade to a pale
or deeper yellow, according to the relative quantity of
each constituent. :
In order to make my meaning more clear, let us sup- —
pose that we were to take a mixture of equal quantities
of xanthophyll and yellow xanthophyll, Using the nota-
tion I have so often explained in former papers, the
centres of the absorption-bands of the spectra of a
solution in bisulphide of carbon would then be—

Xanthophylgge = 20) sl". aye OD
‘The aboveammxture 50° Ss ls Oe nee
Yellow xanthophyll. . . . .. 7 8

Now on exposing solutions of xanthophyll or yellow
xanthophyll to the sun both fade, and if examined when
very little colour was left undecomposed, the bands would
be seen to be in the same position as at first, the solution
being in fact just as if a large part of the colour had been
removed, or as if it had been much diluted. In the case
of the mixture this would not be the case. Xanthophyll —
is more rapidly decomposed than yellow xanthophyll, so
that when very little colour was left the bands would be
no longer in the original position, but in the same place
as those of yellow xanthophyll, showing that a small
quantity of this is left, when all the other has been
destroyed, If some lichnoxanthine had been mixed with
the solution, after longer exposure to the sun no absorp=
tion-bands would be seen, only the general absorption
due to that substance, Moreover if we took equally
deep coloured solutions in absolute alcohol of the same
three different specimens, and added a little hydrochlorig
acid to each, the xanthophyll would fade till it was colours
less, the yellow xanthophyll would turn to a fine blue,

— Fuly 17, 1873)

and the mixture would also turn blue, but of only about

5 owes 4a

NATURE

225

half the depth of colour. If lichnoxanthine had been
present it would have caused the colour to be green ; and,
after the blue product had faded, it would remain as a
residual yellow. By experimenting with such known
mixtures we therefore see that, independently of being
able to partially separate the constituents, the evidence of
the solution being a mixture consists in the difference in
the position of the absorption-bands, in the change in
their position, or disappearance, when partially decom-
posed by light, and in the relative quantity of blue
substance formed by the action of hydrochloric acid, and
of the residual yellow. Such, then, being the case, we
know what kind of methods to employ in studying
natural coloured solutions, suspected to be mixtures ; and
on applying them to the investigation of the solutions ob-
tained from leaves and flowers, 1 find that they behave
exactly like such artificial mixtures, and not only so, but
there is generally no difficulty in more or less perfectly
separating the constituents, so as to correspond more or
less closely with the different substances in their more
pure state. The evidence of their being mixtures is there-
fore as good as could be expected. Kraus seems
never to have made such experiments, and yet he strongly
criticises what I had said about the existence of several
distinct kinds of xanthophyll; but y eontend that by
adopting the principles I have described, we can com-
pletely explain the various facts on perfectly simple
principles, without suppoging that the optical characters
of any single substance are subject ta variations from
some unknown, and, as J believe, altogether ymaginary
cause, :

The igwers of different varieties of Euychscholtsia cali-

Sornica A g@ a good illustration of my yiews. The
very yellow fe g are coloured by yellow xanthaphyll
with a very little xanthophyll and lichnoxanthing, and
thus correspond with many other similar flowers,

but the more orange-coloured petals, and the ‘orange-
coloured portions of the yellower petals, contaig in add
tion, another colouring-matter, giving the absorpfion-band
in the green shown in Plate I. Fig. 7,at 1 a, of Kraus's work
which, howeyer, he did not look upon as eyidence af a
mixture—merely of what he calls a radifvation, Now,
on exposing such a sqlution in bisulphide of carbon ie the
sun, this erange-caloured sybstance is more yapidly de-
composed than the others, and in a while a yellower
solution is left, which gives exactly ie same spectrum
as that due ta the coloyring-matter fram the ella petals,
According to this view ef the subject we therefore sce
that the yellaw flawers are of the usnal type, and that
the more orange-coloured portions of the petals, and the
whole of the orange-coloured varieties differ only in there
being developed an unusual and independent substance,
which in this case is of orange-colour, whereas in the
flowers of some other plants, such additional colouring-
matters are red or blue, as the case may be, and instead of
being allied to xanthophyll, differ in almost every particular.

In conclusion I would say that the yellow colouring-
matters, soluble in bisulphide of carbon, which exist in
green leaves, are the above-named xanthophyll, yellow
xanthophyll, and lichnoxanthine. This is probably the
reason why this is also the normal type of yellow flowers,
and why only in particular cases one or both of these sub-
stances are absent. To this I attribute the statement of
the author that the chemical reactions are the same, for
he has apparently never examined those plants which
yield them in an approximately pure state,

In Pl. Ill. Fig. 2, Kraus gives a representation of
the spectrum of a coloured solution obtained from
certain species of Oscéllaforiz. This he has named
phycoxanthine ; but I am persuaded that the solution
must have contained three perfectly distinct colouring-
matters, which can be separated by chemical and
photo-chemical methods, and do occur almost, or

a:

quite, separately in other plants, For one of these
substances I have adopted the author's name phyco-
xanthine. It may be obtained in the most pure state
from the lichen Peltigera canina, when growing in
such a damp and shady situation, that very little orange
lichnoxanthine is developed. When dissolved in absolute
alcohol and hydrochloric acid is added, it fades
without turning blue. Another constituent of the mixture
is what I have called /ucoxanthine, which occurs quite
free from phycoxanthine in Fucus and other olive Alge,
and even in the same species of Oscillatoriz, growing
where there is very little light, as those which
contain phycoxanthine, if growing well exposed to
the sun. When dissolved in absolute alcohol and
hydrochloric acid is added, it turns to a splendid
blue. The third constituent of the mixed solution
is what I have named orange Jichnoxanthine, which can
be obtained by itself from lichens, and is left when such
a mixed solution as described by the author, in bisulphide
of carbon, is exposed to the sun under green glass, until
the phycoxanthine and fucoxanthine have been destroyed.
When dissolved in absolute alcohol and treated with
hydrochloric acid it fades very slowly. The relative
amount of this is greatest in those specimens of Osci//a-
torie which grow very much exposed to the sun and air,
and I have found by careful comparative quantitative
analyses that the relative quantity of these various sub-
stances, which together constituted the author’s phyco-
xanthine, varies in such a manner that, as far as the
fundamental colouring-matters are concerned, the same
or closely allied species of Oscétlatorie, growing exposed
to a varying amount of light, furnish.a most interesting
series of connecting links between olive 4/g@and lichens,
When their vitality and constructive energy are very
much reduced by want of light, their type a colouring
clasely approaches to that of olive Alg@, whereas when
they are exposed to much gir and light, the type ap-
proaches to that of such lichens as Pa wera canina, 1
have met with other analogous cases, and if more ex-
tended research should still further confirm the existence
ort is analogy between the results due to abnormaliy
reduced or increased vitality in the same kind of plants,
and the normal characters cf lower and higher classes of
plants it would certainly be remarkable, as showing that
he vegetative energy of the lower classes is in some way
or other of a lawer type than that of the higher classes,
and would present @ striking analogy to the relation
between the structure ef animals whose deyelapment has
been arrested and that af those of lower grganisation.
The fact being able to prove that a coloured solution
obtained from a plant is really a mixture of a number of
different substances, may at first sight appear to be of
very little consequence, but I trust that some of the con-
clusions deduced from this method of study will justify
me in looking upon it as very well worthy of attention.
When we come to study the various classes of plants
growing under various conditions, with the view of con-
structing such a general science as that I have named
comparative vegetable chromatology, these details become
not only of the very greatest importance, but absolutely
essential. By making qualitative and comparative quan-
titative analyses of the colouring-matters, carefully dis-
tinguishing the fundamental from the accidental, there
seems every reason to believe that the petals and the
foliage of plants can be brought into morphological
agreement, and many of the leading classes of plants
distinguished, and at the same time connected together,
so as to form a continuous series, advancing from the
lowest classes cf animals to the highest classes of plants ;.
whereas, if we were to look upon mixtures as independent
colouring-matters, and were not to distinguish well-marked
species, the whole vegetable kingdom would appear
broken up and disjointed, without any chromatological
continuity, H.C. Sorby

226

NATURE

,

| uly 17, 1873

THE NEW LABORATORIES OF THE
NATURAL AISTORV MUSUEM, PARIS *

I N order to provide every facility for the higher scientific

education, and induce young men to devote them-
selves to scientific research, the French Government have
established a school of advanced study, in the form of
a suite of laboratories in which young men receive a
practical education par excellence ; they are trained there
in manipulations and dissections, and initiated in all those
delicacies of touch, those turns of the wrist, which are
traditional in the green-rooms (coulisses) of science, but
which cannot be taught in the theatre,

Without noticing at present the zoological laboratories
under the zealous management of M, A. Milne-Edwards,
and through which have already passed several students
desirous of taking the degree of licentiate in natural
science; or the physiological laboratory, at the head of
which is the eminent M. Claude Bernard, or the libora-

tories of comparative anatomy and geology, we shall take
the reader through the Rue de Buffon, into the new
buildings which contain the chemical laboratory of M.
Fremy, the botanical laboratory of M. Brongniart, and
the laboratory of vegetable physiology and anatomy of
M. Decaisne.

M. Fremy had already, for many years, assembled his
pupils in the old Museum buildings, badly lighted,
small, confined, where they were very uncomfortable ;
now, on the contrary, they are installed in a new building
where they are furnished with every convenience for their
work,

As soon as we enter the court, we fiad on the right and
left, platforms (fazd/asses) in the open air with a glass
roof, where all experiments can be made, of a nature
to taint the atmosphere of the laboratories. On each

side are ranged buildings, one specially intended for
beginners, the other for more advanced students. The
latter is provided with furnices, by means of which the

UTED

I
LUCIEN |
NH

E ‘MD
=

Laboratery of Vegetable Physiology in the Puris Muscum of Natural History

highest temperatures may be obtained. Each pupil has |
his place marked out, his name inscribed upon the frame
above his work-table, which is furnished with a set of
drawers and a rack for holding the mazériel appropriate
for his special work. The laboratory of the assistant
naturalist, M. Terreil, and the preparatory laboratory, are
situated in a line with the pupils’ laboratory.
The bottom of the court opens into a lobby which.
communicates with the two wings of the building ; here |
are conveniences for depositing the clothes which the
students exchange for their working garb on entering the |
laboratory. A door in this corridor gives access to an |
antechamber into which open the laboratories of M. |
Fremy, and that of his special assistant, placed
side. A
The first and second stories of the buildings on the
right and in the centre are intended for the botanists of
M. Brongniart, who have not yet obtained complete pos-
* Frem an article in La Nature, No. 1.

session ; the left wing belongs as yet to chemistry ; on
the first story is the lecture-hall, on the second the
library. 2

M. Fremy has realised the foundation of a true school
of chemistry ; not only does he lavish on his pupils his
instructions, but he sees that their education is com-
plete. Every day at three o’clock work in the laboratory
ceases, and oral instruction begins, the lecture-hall, more-
over, being open to the public. M. Fremy gives instruc-
tion in general chemistry, with a well-known power of ex-
position; M. Terreil has charge of analysis; M. Ed,
Becquerel, of the Institute, initiates the students in

‘ | the management of physical apparatus; Jannetaz, as-
side by | sistant in mineralogy,

gives instruction in that branch;
and lastly, M. Stanislas Meunier, already known by his
researches upon meteorites, treats of all the parts of
geology which are connected with chemistry. Examina-
tions are held by the lecturers for the purpose of
testing the work of_the pupils, who are rewarded at

|

es es

Fuly 17, 1873]

the close of their studies with certificates testifying to
their diligence and their acquirements.

All this instruction is absolutely gratuitous. M. Fremy
wishes to remain faithful to the old motto of the museurn,
“Tout est gratuit dans l’établissement,” though this ex-
cessive liberality is perhaps open to criticism.

Behind the magnificent chemical rooms we found the
modest laboratory of M. Decaisne. Descending a few
steps we reach a garden set apart to experiments in
culture, having on the left a glazed gallery: this is the
laboratory of vegetable anatomy and physiology. M.
Decaisne superintends and advises the anatomists during
his daily visits ; M. Dehérain, who is well known for his
researches in agricultural chemistry and vegetable phy-
siology, directs the work of the laboratory represented in
our illustration. It is a long apartment, perfectly lighted,
into which stream the rays of the sun, that plays so
important a part in all the phenomena of vegetable life ;
on the right, ventilators carry off all the strong-smelling
gases which the chemist is obliged to employ ; long tables,
furnished with earthenware vessels, extend along the
middle of the apartments as well as underneath the
windows. Everything is scrupulously tidy.

This laboratory of agricultural chemistry will no doubt
yield to agricultural chemistry important results. The
man of science will have here the means of preparing at
pleasure true artificial soils ; he will see plants of various
-kinds grow under his eyes; he will nourish them with
organic and mineral substances whose composition is
known to him. He will follow step by step the various
phases of vegetable life ; he will study the yet mysterious
laws of vegetable life. Indeed it is difficult to state all
the powerful resources that are in the hands of the experi-
menter, :

AERIAL SPECTRES

1 iy an article on the above subject in Za Nature, No. 4,
M. G. Tissandier gives the following account of what

he saw from a balloon on February 16, last.
At mid-day we quitted the earth wrapped in a thick
mantle of fog ; after traversing the mass of the clouds,
we were suddenly dazzled by torrents of light which shot

NATURE

227

have, in addition, “the light that never was on sea or
land,’

When our balloon had passed about 50 metres beyond
the plain of clouds, its shadow was projected with re-
markable precision, and a magnificent circular rainbow
appeared round the shadow of the car. Fig. 2 gives a
very exact idea of the phenomenon. The shadow of the
car formed the centre cf rainbow-colcured concentric
circles, in which were distinctly seen the seven colours of
the spectrum, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange,
and red. The violet was inside, and the red on the out-
side, these two colours being at the sane time those
which wer>scen -v.th the greatest distinctn si. We were,

Fic. 1.—Shadow of a balloon surrounded by three aureoles,

from a tropical sun, a stream of fire, in the midst of an
azuresky, Neither the mer de glace nor the snowy fields of
the Alps, give an idea of the plateau of mist which
stretched under the car like a glassy circle, in which
valleys of silver appeared in the midst of flakes of gold.
Neither the sea at sunset nor the ocean waves when
lighted up by the orb of day at noon, approach in
splendour this array of circular cumulus, but which

G. 2,—Optical phenomenon observed from a ba loon.

at the tine the observation was made, at a height of
1,350 metres above the level of the sea.

The balloon, the gas in which expanded under th2 heat
of the sun, continued to rise rapidly in the air, its shadow
visibly diminishing ; soon, at a height of 1,700 metres, the
rainbow-circle enveloped it entire’y, and disappeared fiom

around the car. AA little later, at about 1°35™, we
approached the bed of clouds, and the shadow was girt
this time by three silver-coloured aurioles, elliptical and
concentric, as shown in Fig. 1,

Nothing can give an idea of the purity of these
shadows, which are cut out in an opaline mist, or of the
delicacy of tone of the rainbow which surrounds them,
The complete silence which reigns in the atrial rezions,
where this play of light is seen, the absolute calm which

228

NATURE

Ly es Aes Mr ’
ts +4 a Sen!

ok Se a5 4 ets

a, ee We “i KA -

"es pera, z < oe CORP aa nf
ke , Pa F ee

[Fuly 17, 1873

exists there, aboye clouds transformed by the syn into
flakes of light, adds to the beauty of the spectacle, and
fills the soul with inexpressible admiration.

We do not yet know exactly to what cause to attribute
the production of a luminous contour around the shadow
projected upon vapours or mists. Some observers have
thought that these phenomena are due to the diffraction of
light, but it is possible that they have a common origin
with the rainbow. What tends to confirm this opinion is
the necessity for the presence of the vapour of water as a
neccssary condition of the phenomenon: if it is the
result of diffraction, it ought to appear as well upon a
white wall, or any kind of screen, as upon a cloud. It
is possible, moreover, to study these curious phenomena
by means of experiments upon the earth; by suitably
arranging screens of silk or muslin saturated with water.
which resemble a cloud, we may expect to be able to pro-
duce the phenomenon. M. Leterne points out another
excellent method of studying it. On a spring morning,
when the sun, about 15 or 20 degrees above the horizon,
has warmed the atmgsphere a little, and has produced a
light condensation of vapour upon the grassy borders of
the oads, ene may see his silhouette projected upon
the humid yerdure, surrounded by a luminous con-
tour, in which is seen the colours of the spectrum, the

red, however, being strangest.*

THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIANA

‘EOLOGY is a branch of Science which specially
commends itself to the fostering care of Govern-
ments, paternal or otherwise. More particularly is this
frue of a new country, where, in the imagination of the
settlers, untold wealth has yet to be dug out of the earth,
if only they could discover in what quarter best to look for
it, Accordingly, in not a fe of dur colonies and in a
RHEE of the States of the Union, geqlagical and mine-
ralogical surveys have long been at ore, originated and
continued at the public expense. In most cases, of
course, the first aim of such suryeys, an ;
ustification of their existence in the eyes of practical and
y NO means scientific legislators, is the finding of mineral
weathe If they were begun from the lofty scientific point
of view they would fail, and deservedly. But whena really
able scientific man gets the charge of one of them, and
has at the same time that mother-wit and knowledge of
the world which scientific men so often lack, he may not
only attend to the rigid economics of his paymasters, but
do great service to geology. His aim is to show the
public that a strictly scientific basis is the only one on
which a mineral survey to be of any value can be con-
ducted. And this is so obvious that if it is simply and
clearly stated, it for the most part commends itself to the
common-sense of public men. In laying this necessary
basis and then in carrying out the survey for economic
minerals the geologist may both pave the way for an
enormous increase to his country’s industry and wealth,
and add much of permanent interest and importance to
the common stock of geological knowledge.

Perhaps the most notable illustration of the successful
accomplishment of this double mission is furnished by
the career of Sir William Logan, whose practical kindly
ways enabled him to triumph over the shortsightedness
of colonial gbstructionists, and whose patient and saga-
cious labours among the racks of Canada have made his
name honoured and familiar all over the world, and have
conferred distinction also upon his country. In the United
States, too, fostered by the liberality of the Legislatures,
a number of admirable State surveys have been made, or
are still in progress. Under the auspices of such men as
James Hall, Owen, the Hitchcocks, the brothers Rogers,
Hayden, Whitney, Blake, Cook, and others,’ not only
have maps been constructed, but elaborate reports have

" Comptes Rendus, t. \xxvi. p. 786.

in fact the very .

heen published, embracing, in addition to the paramount
economics, much yalyable information in geology, mine-
ralogy, and palzontology.

One of the latest of these State suryeys is that of In-
diana, which was started some four years ago under the
direction of Prof E. T, Cox. Like those already referred
to, it was organised by the authorities “for the purpose
of collecting information designed to promote the inte-
rests of agriculture, arts, manufactures, and mining.”
But it was furnished at the same time with an analytical
laboratory “for analysing such ores and substances as
may be deemed useful to the State,” and with space “ to
build up a geological and natural history cabinet,” while
in order to render its labours as speedily serviceable as
porsible, an annual report of progress was required to be
issued.

Prof. Cox has evidently a hard task before him. He
has been invited to become a kind of depository of all
the mining information in the State. He is to see that
trustworthy mineral surveys are made, and at the same
time he is expected to look after the laboratory and infant
museum at Indianopolis and—perhaps most laborious
but not least useful of all—to receive everyhody who
wants to know about coal, iron, or other mineral produce,
and to collect and furnish to such inquirers all the infor-
mation procurable, He generously says in one of his
reports that this latter part of his duties “has always
given him pleasure,” though he confesses that it has con-
sumed a considerable portion of his time. Fortunately —
he can count on the help of a small but apparently able —
staff of assistants, and notwithstanding all the obstacles
in his way he has succeeded in getting through a large
amount of work which, though not yet of high scientific
value, must bear most importantly upon the future deve-
lopment of Indiana.

Three volumes of reports with maps have been
published, bringing the account of the progress of the
Survey up to the end of last year. Each of these neatly
printed and not too bulky octavos describes several
counties of the State with reference chiefly to the dis-
tribution of economic minerals ; and the maps which ac-
company it, though roughly and cheaply executed, are
clear and must be of infinite service to the many specula-
tors and others who every year come in increasing
numbers into the state in search of mineral investments.
The coal-field of Indiana, though only a part of the larger
basin of Illinois, is estimated to equal more than half of
the area of the whole of the coal-fields of Great Britain
and Ireland. Some of the coal-seams are of excellent
quality, specially that known locally as “bleck-coal,”
which is said to be unrivalled for iron-furnaces. Abun-
dant iron ore likewise occurs, Hence not only coal-pits
but iron-works are springing up in rapidly increasing
numbers. Not a little of this wonderful rapidity of growth
is attributed by Prof. Cox, and no doubt justly, to
the extended and more accurate knowledge of the
minerals which the Survey has been able to publish. In
the course of two or three years tracts of “ primeval forest”
have vanished, and in their place the visitor would now
see clanking engines and mining villages, crowded with a
population as busy and begrimed as any to be met with
in Staffordshire or Lanarkshire. And yet vast though
this change is, it may be said to have only just begun.
Before many years are over the coal-bearing part of the
formerly quiet agricultural state of Indiana will become
one of the most active centres of industry in the Union,
with railways diverging in all directions to carry away
its mineral produce. ; ‘

Prof. Cox and his assistants have not only been success-
ful in pointing out the mineral resources of the various
coynties. In looking through his reports one can see
that he continues from year ta year to slipin more of
general scientific interest. This is notably the case with
the volume lately published. In addition to a series of

- elaborate analyses of coals, we find that in the coal-pit
sections the names of characteristic fossils have found
their way into the text, that notices are given, not merely
of the economically useful minerals, but of the
geological formations which have no special indus-
trial value,—Silurian, Drift, River-terraces, &c. The
volume contains also meteorological tables and
notices of recent geological changes. But by far the
most interesting ‘contribution to science in its pages is
a “ Report on the Wyandotte Cave and its Fauna,” con-
tributed by Prof. E. D. Cope, with an account of the
geology of the cave, by Prof. Cox himself. This remark-
able cavern runs through the “ sub-carboniferous” lime-
stone in numerous branches which are said to have a
total length of twenty-two miles, and greatly to excel
the more famous Mammoth cave of Kentucky in the
number and beauty of their stalactites. It contains a pecu-
liar fauna, numbering at least sixteen species, which show
a general resemblance to those of the latter cave, and in-
clude one species of blind fish (Am/yopsis speleus) which
lives in the subterranean waters of Kentucky.

In these Reports each county is described separately,
so that the same geological facts require to be frequently
repeated. This is, doubtless, the most useful arrange-
ment for those for whom the volumes are primarily in-
tended, But it would be a service to other readers if a
good table of contents were given, and if the index were
made much fuller, especially in matters of general geo-
logical interest. The volumes are eminently praiseworthy,
and we hope to see them followed, before long, by a good
map and a general geological Report of the whole State
of Indiana, A. G.

INTELLECT OF PORPOISES

SINGLE visit to the Brighton Aquarium would

suffice to convince a recent correspondent, Mr.
Mattieu Williams, that the intellect of the porpoise, as
foreshadowed by its convoluted brain, exceeds, beyond
comparison, that of thecod-fish or any other representa-
tives of the piscine race. Of the two specimens now
inhabiting the largest tank in the building, over one
hundred feet long, the first-comer so readily accommo-
dated itself to its altered conditions, that on the second day
it took its food, smelts and’sprats, from its keeper's hand,
and has continued to do so ever since, The later arrival
was, at first, less sociably inclined; but both have latterly
become equally tame, and frequently, while receiving fish
from my hand with the gentleness of pet dogs, have per-
mitted me to pat and stroke their slippery india-rubber-
like backs.

During feeding-time it is amusing to watch the avidity
with which these porpoises take their food; one, the more
active of the two, usually securing the lion’s share, and
displaying marked sagacity by frequently snatching a
second or third morsel before disposing of the first.

The keeper in charge of these interesting animals is
now in the habit of summoning them to their meals by
the call of a whistle; his approaching footsteps, even,
cause great excitement in their movements, and recent
experiments have proved them to be acutely sensitive to
the vibrations of sound, By the physiologist a more
pleasing spectacle can scarcely be witnessed than the
graceful actions of these cetacea, as they swiftly pursue
their course up and down their spacious tank, ascending
to the surface of the water at intervals of fifteen or twenty
seconds, to breathe, each inspiration being accompanied
by a spasmodic sob-like sound, produced by the rush of
air as a breath is rapidly liberated and inspired through
the single central blow-hole. %

Onward progress is effected in these animals, as in all
other cetacea, exclusively by the action of the horizontal
caudal fin ; the development of muscle at the “wrist” of
the tail on which this action depends being enormous and

NATURE

a

229

plainly visible externally ; the pectorals are devoted prin-
cipally to the purpose of steering the creature to the right
or left, aiding it also in rising to the surface of the water.

The fact alone of the porpoise suckling and evincing
much maternal solicitude for the welfare of its young indi-
cates the superiority of its position in the zoological scale
above that of the other representatives of the finny tribe ;
and to this, in addition to the remarks just made upon
their sagacity when feeding, many other facts may be
cited, pointing inthe sante direction. The curiosity attri-
buted to these creatures, as illustrated by the experiences
of Mr. Mattieu Williams, receives ample confirmation
from their habits in confinement. A new arrival is at
once subjected to the most importunate attention, and,
advancing from familiarity to contempt, if disapproved of,
soon becomes the object of attack and persecution. A
few dog-fish, Acanthias and Mustecus, three or four feet
long, placed in the same tank, soon fell victims to their
tyranny, the porpoises seizing them by their tails, and
swimming off with and shaking them in a manner scarcely
conducive to their comfort or dignified appearance, re-
minding the spectator of a large dog worrying a rat. The
fine sturgeon, six feet long, now sharing an adjoining
tank with the cod, was first placed with these animals, but
in a short time was so persecuted that for safety it had to
be removed ; while to this day the lacerated condition of
its tail bears witness to the pertinacious attention of its
former comrades. Some large skate (Raja clavala and
maculata), while they maintained their usual habit of
lying sluggishly on the floor of the tank, escaped moles-
tation ; but fio sooner did these fish display any unwonted
activity than the porpoises were upon them, and, making
a convenient handle of their characteristic attenuated
tails, worried them incessantly. On one occasion I wit-
nessed the two Cefacea acting evidently in concert against
one of these unwieldy fish, the latter swimming close to
the top of the water, and seeking momentary respite from
its relentless enemies, by lifting its unfortunate caudal
appendage high above its surface. It need scarcely be
remarked that the skate were removed before further
mischief could be done, leaving the porpoises, with the
exception of a few conger, which during the day-time
mostly lie hidden in the crevices of the rock-work, turtles,
and a huge monk-fish (A/a sguatina) sole occupants
of this colossal tank.

While far behind the porpoises in display of intellect, it
may be hereafter shown that the representatives of the
Gadide, or cod-family, are by no means the least intelli-
gent of fish. W. SAVILLE KENT

AN INTERNATIONAL COINAGE

i PROPOSITION has been made for holding a

private conference for an International Coinage at
Vienna in the course of next September, and to consider
more particularly the following points

1. The question of Valuation.

2, The principal Coins.

3. The Unit of Value, and its Sub-divisions,

4. The charge for Coining, the rate of alloy, and other

technical questions.

5. The preservation of the full value of the principal
Coins in circulation, and the coining of others.

6. The different modes of jntroducing a new moneys
system,

The prime mover and most active agent in the proma-
tion of this conference is Mr, A. Eggers, Consulin Bremen,
The declared object is to bring together a limited number
of sem|-official or private representatives of the various
countries, with a view of a full discussion of the subject ;
and a committee has been constituted consisting of
several French and German gentlemen who are interested
in the question of the International Coinage,

230

Mr. Eggers has recently paid a visit to this country
with a view of inducing some of the English advocates of
an International Coinage to take part in the proposed
conference. It was suggested by Mr. J. B. Smith, M.P.,
that a private mecting should be held to enable Mr.
Eggers to explain his vi.ws, and this meeting was
accordingly held on the 25th ult. at the Standards Office,
7, Old Palace Yard. But few persons, however, attended ;
amongst them were Dr. Leone Levi and Mr. Hendricks ;
Mr. J. B. Smith was himself absent from illness.

The principal propositions of Mr. Eggers, which seem
to be fully explained in his printed pamphlet, entitled
“ Die Geldreform,” published at Berlin, were—

1. That the International Coins should be of a round
metric weight. whe

2. As common units of value, a dollar of fine gold
1} gramme, and a coin of 25 grammes of silver
“, fine. :

2 As nearly corresponding with the pound sterling, a
coin of 5 dollars, or a new sovereign of 7} grammes
of fine gold.

And he suggested that such a gold dollar and sayereign
might be first introduced in Canada, as very nearly
agreeing in value with the American gold coinage.

The objections raised against these propositions were,
first, that if the fine gold in the dollar weighed 1} grammes,
the addition of } alloy would make the actual weight of
the dollar 13 grammes, which is not a round metric
weight. There would be the same result with the new
sovercign of 7} grammes fine gold, as } alloy would make
the actual weight 81 grammes,

A far more serious objection was that the difference
between the 7} gramme fine go!d in the proposed new
sovereign, and 7'32238 grammes in the existing sovereign,
equal to 017762 grammes, would increase the value of
the sovereign more than 5}¢., which was quite inad-
missible,

The question of a silver International Coin was not
discussed, the general opinion being that the difficulties
of agreeing upon asingle gold unit were already suffi-
ciently great, and that until they could be‘overcome, it was
almost hopeless to expect that any International Coinage
could be established. The adoption in the German
Empire of the 20-mark piece as the gold coin unit, and
containing 5‘o4d. less in value of fine gold than the sove-
reign, together with the very large amount of the new
German gold coinage, appears to offer at the present
time an insuperable obstacle to the common adoption of
an International Coinage, however desirable it may be.

NOTES

Ar the meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences on the 7th
instant, three elections to the Section of Anatomy and Zoology
took place. The places to be filled were those of Mr. Agass‘z,
elected a Foreign Associate, and MM. Pictet and Pouchet,
deceased. In the first case M. Steenstrup ‘obtained 38 votes
and Mr. Darwin 6; in the second Mr. Dana obtained 35 and
Mr. Darwin 12; in the third Dr. Carpenter obtained 35, Mr.
Darwin 12, and Mr. Huxley 1 vote. Messrs. Steenstrup, Dana,
and Carpenter were therefore declared duly elected.

Tue Professorship of Anatomy at King’s College, London,
rendered vacant by the death of Mr. Partridge, was refilled on
Friday last by the appointment of Dr, Curmmow, a former student
of the College, whose medical career at the University of London
has been one of the most brilliant on record. After having ob-
tained the scholarships agg gold medals in Anatomy and Materit
Medica at the first M.B.y@he was equally successful at the second |
‘CB., gaining the same honours in Medicine and Obste‘ric
‘Tedicine, Atthe M.D, examination Prof, Curnow also obtained
“= gold medal, We cannot but think that the Council of |

NATURE

[Fuly 17, 1873

King’s College have made a judicious selection, and haye grace-
fully recognised talent in one of their most promising pupils,

THE Royal College of Science for Ireland,’in connection with
the Science and Art Department, South Kensington, has con-
ferred the diploma of associate on the following gentlemen : —
Faculty of Engineering : G. P. Culyerwell, E. P. Culverwell, R.
W. Frazer, and E. Barrington. “Faculty of Manufactures ;
Thomas Abbott. The two Royal Scholarships were awarJed
to John O. Hicks and James Patterson. The silver medal to F.
A Caldwell.

“Tr never rains bat it pours.” Prof. Agassiz, as repre-
senting the Anderson Natural History School, of Penikese
Island, has been presented by Mr. C. W. Galloupe, of Swamp-
scott, with a handsome yacht of 80 tons, estimated to cost 20,000
dollars. The: vessel will be used for dredging, temperature
soundings, &c., along the ‘coast in the neighbourhood of the
island ; its presentation makes perfectly complete the apparatus
for practically training the students of the finest natural history
school in the world.

THE British Government has appointed Mr. Robert Scott
and Mr, Alexander Buchan to represent this country at the
forthcoming Meteorological Conzress at Vienna, Other societies ©
and departments which have been invited to nominate delega'es
will probably refuse to do so, Government having characteris-
tically refused to pay the necessary expenses,

THE Report of the College of Physical Science of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, at the end of the second year of its existence, is
altogether satisfactory, The classes have been augmented from
four to eleven, and the number of students shows a considerable
increase over the previous session ; the attendance at the eyenin
classes is also satisfactory. The number of students attending
instruction in practical chemistry has been so great as to render
it necessary to make arrangements for materially increasing the
laboratory accommodation, The Council are very sanguine of
the success of the college, though they feel the necessity of found-
ing more professorships and obtaining more accommodation, and
think that the wealthy manufacturers and merchants of New-
castle and the North of England ought to render much more
assistance than they do. We hope the wealthy manufacturers of
the North will see it to be their duty, as it certainly is their interest
to contribute to the success of such an institution in their midst,
It would certainly be a disgrace to Newcastle if its Science College
should, in the midst of enormous wealth, not attain the greatest
possible measure of success, There is no reason why this insti-
tution should not be made as successful as Owens College, Man-
chester, and we hope that ere long similar institutions will be
established in all the large towns of England. It would be a
pity that those who are concerned in the management of
the Newcastle institution should mar its success by any
antiquated restrictions as toa knowledge of ancient languages
by those who have shown themselves deserving of a degree in
science,

WE regret to announce the death of the eminent engineer,
Mr, J. R. McClean, M.P., F.R.S. ;

Our readers have no doubt heard of the recent miserable thefts
of living Italian coral from the Crystal Palace Aqnuariam. It is .
really difficult to find words to characterise the despicable mean-
nessoftheact. Mr. Lloydsays that these things are never taken
when working people are present. Meantime the public must
suffer for the act ofan individual, for it has been thought necessary .
so to secure the corals under lock and key, thatithey cannot be so
well seen 93 before, ‘when in open tanks. We can only hope
that the petty thief will be discovered: happily such acts gre
rays ip gut Places of publig resort.

A NEW part of the quarto ‘* Fransactions 9 of the Zoological
Society,” just issued, contains three papers by Prof, Owen. The
last of these is of special interest, as containing the first account
of a new extinct Struthions form from Australia, proposed to be

called Dromornis aust alis, for the full description of which we

must refer our readers to the paper in question.

7 THE post tertiary fauna of Australia is extremely rich in
| Macropodide, or Kangaroo, many of which greatly exceed any
of the existing species in size. Pro‘essor Owen kas lately de-
scribed a large series of these in a memoir presented to the
Royal Society, and has divided them into nymerous genera,
founded upon somewhat minute distinctions in the characters of
‘the teeth. We have just received from Mr. Gerard Krefft,
Curator of the Sydaey Museum, a photograph of the teeth of a
_ giant of the race, the four molars together measuring from before
backwards as mitch as three inches. It is ynaccompanied by
any description, and pending the publ. cation of Prof. Owen’s
memoir, we are unable to say whether it belongs to either of
a species described thecein.

_ THE tank containing the Spring Lobster or Sea Crayfish,
Palinurus vulgaris, at the Brighton Aquarium, No. 26, is
invested with special interest at the present moment, oa account
_ of the appearance, during the last few days, of innumerable
young. Until within late years, the early condition of this, ‘the
) largest of our British crustacea, was regarded as a distinct species,
allied to Squille, representing the Stomapadoys instead of the
Podopthalmous order of their class; it was thus described by
Leach uoder the nam: of Pa pyllosa) mz connune. The celebrated
Belgian naturalis', Prof. Van Benelen, was one of the first to
establish the identity ‘of these two forms, and the result of his
praisewor:hy investigations was simply and amply confirmed by
the receat arrivals at the Brightoa tanks. Ta this ‘ ‘ Phyllosoma a
phase, the ovate body is so remarkably transparent and flattened
out, that even when several inches in length they can scarcely
be distinguished at the surface of the sea, waere they often float
in countless numbers. Some very fine eee of these crustacea,
; illustrating this interesting staze of their development, are
exhibited in the typical invertebrate szries in the Royal College
of Surgeons. The specim2ns at the Bsighton Aquarium just
exciuded from the egg are very minute, scarcely exceeding half-
an-inch in total length, and although swarming in their tank are,
on account of their extreme pellucidness, ealy visible on the
most close inspection. ‘The “berried hen” producing this large

brood of young, was added to the collection about a month ago. *

An adjoining tank, No. 28, is teeming in a similar manner with
the young of the Common Lobster, Homarus vulgaris.

THE number of the {‘ Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal,” containing a report of the annual meeting, has just
been received. The chief feature of this meeting was the admir-
able address of the president, Dra. Oldham, from which we
are glad to see that under the auspices of this Society, a very
large amount of valuable work continues to be done to the
literature, archzology, ethnology, and natural history of India.
For years the Indian Government ignored the acknowledged
claims which this Society had upon | jt, in return for the Society’ s
handing over to Government its invaluable collection. It is
gratifying to he told by the president that the Government of
India have acceded in full to the claims of the Society. This
gives us some hope that the Government, who haye, the presi-
dent tells us, sanctiqned the necessary expenditure for photo-
graphic observations of the forthcoming Transit of Venus, will,
as the Society desires, maintain and render permanent the small
establishment about to be fixed for this object on some elevated
spot, for the special purpose of solar observation in connection
with meteorology, The British Association at its last meeting
requested the Society tourge the Indian Government to establish

NATURE

23!
and maintain a an n observatory for this purpose in India. The
direct yalue, both to science and to commerce, of the work of
such an observatory would be incalculable; and we hope the
Society will continue importunate until the Gogerament accede
to its wishes. We are moreover glad to see that a committee of
the Society has been organised to supplement the work of the
Challenger by exploring the Indian seas, an almost virgin soil ;
the acigeee funds for the purchase of instruments have been
granted, and we hope the ship, which is all that is wanting, will
be forthcoming when the instruments are ready. Altogether the
Society must be congratulated on the work i it does amid many
discouragement.

TELEGRAPHIC intelligence has been received in Berlin an.
nouncing that the English steamer conveying the German
African “exploring expedition to Congo has bzen wrecked off
Sierra Leone. There was no loss of life, but all the effects
and scientific instruments of those on board were lost.

Socks of earthquake occurred on the morning of July 12 at
Rome, Frosinone, Alatri, and several other places. Nodamage
was done. The shocks and subterranean roaring continue in
the neighbourhood of Alpago. A rather strong shock of earth-
quake occurred on the same day in the Valley of Lira, at Isola.
The workmen left the manufactories, and several houses were
damaged.

Mr. J. L. HappDEN, C.E., who was blinded by watching the
electric light at Constantinople, is reported as having recovered.

ON June 15, according to the official jouraal of the Viceroyalty
of Konieh, in Asia Minor, snow fell heavily on the mountain
called Bulgardagh, in the Kaza of Erkeli, In some places the
snow was five feet deep. :

We have already referred; to the U.S. exploring expedition
to Montana, in connection with the survey for the Northern
Pacific Railroad. The correspondent of the Mew York Tribune,
writing from Fort Rice in the Upper Missouri, near a newly-
founded town called Bismarck, gives details concerning the
organisation of the expedition, which was expected to set ont
fcom Fort Rice at the end of June. There isa large military
escort as a protection against the Indians, and the scientific parly
is well equipped. It is expected that the waggons which carry
out supplies will return loaded with specimens of the natural
products of the region, especially of the Yellowstone Basin,
to be arranged systematically, and depos‘ted in the National
Musuem cf the United States. The results of this expedition,
so liberally fitted out by the American Government, are likely
to be of great service to science.

Tue Zimes of India contains an accoynt of the death of a
huge boa- -constrictor which infested same marshy groynd at the
foot of the hills near Poodoocottah. The animal was regarded
as sacred by the natives, who would not molest it, although only
on the morning when Dr. Johastone and Mr. Pennington, with
great danger to themselves, brayely hunted it up and shot it, it
had swallowed a young child. The animal is about 21 feet long,
and its stuffed skin is to bz deposited in the Madras Museum,

As might be expected, Mr. G. J. Symons’ “ British Rainfall
for 1872,” considering the unusual wetness of the year, is of
great interest to meteorologists. The author deserves great
credit for the immense trouble he has taken in putting together
ina handy and useful form such a multitude of statistics, and
the great care he appears to have taken to secure accuracy. The
greatest rainfall in the three kingdoms during 1872 occurred at
The Stye in Cumberland, 1,077 ft. above the sea-level, where it
reached the extraordinary amount of 243'9Sin, ; th2 smallest
amount was at Silsoe in Bedfordshire, where it was only 2618 in.,
unusually small as compared with most other places. The

232

volume, besides rainfall statistics, contains much that is of in-
terest to meteorolozists, including some statements on the sup-
posed connection between rainfall and sunspot frequency, that
are worthy of attention.

‘Tre U.S. Sanitary Commission in the Valley of the Missis-
sippi during the War of the Rebellion, 1861—1866,” is the title
of a very interesting volume, giving a detailed account of the
organisation and working of this benevolent commission during
the American civil war. It seems to have been on the whole
well organised and successful in carrying out its object, thus
doing much to alleviate the miseries of that unfortunate war.

Me. FREDERICK’ AYRTON, barrister-at-law, long resident at
Cairo, who died in London recently, has bequeathed to the
British Museum a splendid library of caligraphic writings in
Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, collected during many years’
residence in Egypt, and the market value of which probably
exceeds 3,000/. Mr, F.‘Ayrton was a perfect connoisseur in the
Oriental science of caligraphy, of which so little is known,
artistically, in Europe; and he devoted time and money, without
stint, to this his favourite study. His collection is, perhaps,
unrivalled in Europe. The gift is made on condition that the
trustees set aparta room in the Museum for the exhibition of
these specimens of Oriental caligraphy, and that Mr. Ayrton’s
Arabic scribe, Asadd Effendy, be engaged for three or four
years, ata salary of 100/. per annum, to draw up a catalogue
raisonné of the contents of each series.

‘‘Lrs Richesses Naturelles du Globe 4 Exposition Univer-
selle de Vienne,” by M. Bernardin, is the title of a short pam-
phlet called forth by the Vienna Exhibition, the author’s object
beinz to show that most of the industrial materials obtained from
the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms within the last
forty years have been lighted upon by chance, and that if com-
petent men were to make a thorouzh investigation of the
subject, Nature might be made to contribute to industry a vastly
greater amount of material than she at present does.

WE learn from Triibner’s Literary Record that M. Alphonse
Pinart has just published a catalogue containing a description of
the different collections made during his stay in what was for-
merly Russian America (Alaska), brought to Europe, and is now
exhibiting in one of the galleries of the Museum of Natural His-
tory, Paris. The collection comprises objects of Natural His-
tory in general, Palzeontology, Conchology, and especially a rich
collection of objects of high ethnographical interest, as costumes,
tools, arms, &c., used by the aborigines of Alaska.

We are indebted to Jron for the following :—During the
recent building of a bridge in Holland one of the traverses, 465
feet long, was misplaced on the supports. Tt was an inch out of
line, and the problem was how to move it, Experiment proved
that the ironwork expanded a small fraction of an inch for every
degree of heat it received. It was noticed that the day and night
temperature differed by about 25°, and it was thought this might
be made to move the bridge. In the morning the end out of
place was bolted down securely, and the other end left free. In
the heat of the sun the iron expanded, and towards night the
free end was bolted down, and the opposite end was loosened.
The contraction then dragged the whole thing the other way.
For two days this experiment was repeated, till the desired place
was reached. We find no record that the heat of the sun
has ever been employed in this way before.

Tue following -is from Ocean Highways :—During the last
three years a naval party, commend d by Lieutenant Simpson,

}as been employe! by the Chilian Goverament to explore the |

western side of Patagonia, In November and December 1871,
Lieutenant Simpson, whose narative has only just been pub-
lished, ascended the river Aysen, which falls into the sea in lati.

NATURE

4

[Fuly 17, 1873

tude 45° 20’ S., opposite the Chinos Archipelago, to the south
of Chiloe. He soon came to rapids and waterfalls which stopped
his boats, but he pressed on through the forest in pouring rain
on foot, and crossed the Cordillera at a point where it has never
before been visited. The country had no inhabitants, but it is
well wooded, and signs of coal were found.

No. 5 of the ‘‘ Lecture Extras” of the Mew York
Tribune, contains seven lectures with numerous woodcit
illustrations, The principal lectures are, ‘‘Sound and Hear-
ing,” ** Voice and Speech,” and The Explanation of Musical
Harmony,” by Prof, Elsberg, of the University Medical Colleze,
New York, “Deep Placer Mining in Californis,” by Pro®
Benjamin Silliman, of Yale College, and ‘‘ The Seven Senses,”
by Dr. R. W. Raymond, U.S. Mining Commissioner.

AppITIoNns to the Brighton Aquarium during the past week :—
3 Green Turt’e (Chelonia viridis), 4 Green Lizards (Lacerta

viridis), 45 Mackerel (ScomJer sromber), 3 Sea-trout (Salmo .

truitr), 4 Bass (Labrax lupus), 8 Black Bream (Cantharus

'Lineatus), 3 Shad (Clupea Alosa) 1 Scad ( Trachurus trachurus)

2 Octopus (O. vulgaris), 2 bunches of spawn of Squid (Zoaigo

vulsaris), 2 brood of young Lobsters (Homarus vulgaris), ,

hatched in tank No. 28.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a Mississippi Alligator (4//igator mississippi-

esis) from New Orleans, presented by Mr. John Hanley ; four —

b!ossom-headed Parrakeets (Palzornis cyancezphala) and an Alex-
ailrine Parrakeet (F. alexandri) from India, presented by Mr,
Hugh Nevill; six Zenaida Doves (Zena:da amabilis) from the
West Indies, presented by the Right Rev. Dr. Stirling; a
Tabuan Parrakeet (Pyrrhul2psis tabuensis) from the Feejee
Islands, and a Wagler’s Conure (Coxurus wgleri) from Vene-

zuela, both new to the collection; an Elan (Oreas canna) from —

South Africa, purchased; two Crested Porcapines (/ystiv
cristata) born in the Gardens, :

ON THE GERM THEORY OF PUTREFACTION
AND OTHER FERMENTATIVE CHANGES.*
Il.

Tie author next proceeded to describe and illustrate, by dia-
grams enlarged from camera lucida sketches, some of the

variations he had observed in organisms found in the milk glasses —

when iatroduced into other media. Another unnamed species of
Oidium closely allied to that before referred to, and like it
operating as a putrefactive ferment upon urine, was seen to
present strange varieties according to the fluid in which it grew
and the length of time it remained in it; yet, when placed in
boiled milk, it returned to exactly the same character which it
had when in the flask of unboiled milk in which it was first
observed. But still more remarkable modifications were seen
among the Bacteria. One species of very large size, but of ordi-
nary form and movements, as seen first in the milk, presented the
following, among other varieties, In Pasteur’s solution it grew
as motionless algoid threads with nucleated segments. In wine
and turnip infusion it did not grow at all, nor did it in the albu-
minous fluid till boiled and cooled solution of sugar of milk had
been added, when it returned to its original Bacteric form at
first, but afterwards assumed the characters of a toruloid organ-
ism. In boiled milk it resumed the original Bacteric character,
but, after seven weeks, the Bacteria had changed from very large
to excessively minute ones. (

Another species, seen in the first instance in milk, as about the
most minute form of Bacterium the author had ever observed,
grew in Pasteur’s solution as an orcinary full-sized Bacterium 5
but in urine it assumed the unjointed and cork-screw shape, and
the spiral movements of a Spirillum. In turnip infusion it grew
with extreme rapidity as an ordinary double-rod-like moving
Bacterium, but after remaining some weeks in that medium it
assumed a remarkable fungoid character witn greatly increased

* Continued from p, ar4.

Fuly 17, 1873)

diameter, which on introduction i .to urine reproduced the mov-
ing Spiriilum, now of very Jarge size, and sometimes remarkably
- branched, but as time passed grad:al'y growing a smuller and
smaller progeny as the liquil became vitia‘ed, till at length it
Jost in the urine its spiral shape, and yeturn+d to the appearance
of the minute ordinary Bacterium fi-st seen in the milk. These
_ may serve as samples of this c’ass of observations, which proved
on the one hand how utte:ly fallacious are any descriptions
hitherto given of Bacteria acc rding to form, size or movement,
yet, on the other hand, showing tiat the different Bacteria, like
the different Oidia, retained ami all their variations their distinct
specific characters.
The fermentative changes induced in the media by the intro-
duction of the various organisms wer: next alluded to. The
_ test-tubes of the experiment with unboiled milk were shown, and
it was pointed out that each different organism was accompanied
by a different appearance of the milk, implying that each was
_ associated with a special chemical chanze in the fluid in which it
grew. An enlarged sketch was also exhibited of the boiled milk
_ glasses as they were seen some weeks after they had been inocu-
; lated with the various Bacteria, showing that no two of those
glasses were alike. In that containing the Bacteria derived from
: a drop of tap-water introduced into urine the milk had changed
_ to a beautiful green colour ; that with the kind which formed the
Spirillum in urine was a pure white curdy mass, sharply acid to
_ test-paper, while a third, inoculated with a curious irregular form
__ of Bacterium from another of the milk-flasks, was of umber brown
colour. This glass was brouzht to the meeting because it was of
_ especial interest, not only on account of its peculiar tint, but be-
i ‘cause it was an instance of a primary alkaline fermentation of
milk. Another miik glass had been inoculated with the same
organism, and had undergone the same change, as:uming in a
few days the same umber brown colour, accompanied by power-
ful alkaline reaction. This particular Bacterium was in some
_ forms undistinguishable from pairs of granules of a form of
**Granuligera,” which occurred in one of the milk glasses asso-
_ ciated with the large Bacteria above mentioned ; but the Granu-
ligera having been obtained unmixed by introducing it succes-
sively into liquids which permitted its growth, but not that of
the Bacterium, it proved to be a feeble acid ferment of milk, not
producing any effect upon its col mr. One of the glasses sketched
~ was of peculiar interest, because it contained a large motionless
Bacteritn, which had been the sole product of exposure of a
glass of tlie boiled milk for an hour in a sitting room, the fungus
spores that in all probability entered with it having been pre-
vented from developing by the growth of the Bacterium.
It happened that the Bacterium thus derived from the
air refused to grow in Pasteur’s solution, urine, or turnip
infusion, so that if the experiment had bein performed
with either of those fluids, it would have afforded negative re-
sults as regards the Bacterium, though fungi would probably
have appeared ; and this might have been quoted as a good-illus-
tration of absence of Bacteric development after atmospheric
exposure.

The Oidium, which, as before mentioned, was a powerful pu-
trefactive ferment of urine, produced scarcely any effect on milk,
which had remained unchanged in flavour for seyea weeks, al-
though converted into a thick mass, not by coagulation of the
casein, but simply by the dense jungle of the fungus filaments,

_ while test paper indicated merely a very faint increase of alkaline
reaction, The fluid remaining thus unimpaired in quality, ex-
ct the luxuriant growth and healthy appearance of the
ungus in it, contrasting strikingly with its characters in urine, in
which it rapidly occasioned putrcfaction, and thea formed merely
a scum of torulvid rounded cells.

In describing these facts, the author did not affect the circum-
locution that would be necessary in order to avoid using the lan-
guage of the germ theory, As stated at the outset, his original
object in the investigation had not been to prove that theory, but
to throw light upon the nature and habits of the fermenting
organisms. Nevertheless, fer the sake of any who might still
entertain doubt upon the question, it might be well to point out
that the facts which had been adduced were irreconcilable with
any other view. It was plain that they utterly disproved the
oxygen theory, while they indicated with sufficient distinctness
that all instances of so-called spontaneous generation had
been due simply to imperfect experimentation. It re-
mained to consider shortly the only other rival theory,

the somewhat specious one of chemical ferments. After
pointing out some of the inconsistencies of that theory

NATURE 233

with the facts observed, and how its difficulties became in-
creased with the discovery of every new organism with its
corresponding chemicil change, requiring the a-sumption of a
new anl purely hypothetical ch-mical ferment, the author
reminded the Society that in trath thers was not a fact in
chemis'ry to favour the belicf that any sv stmce destitute of
vita‘ity possessed the one faculty which dis inguished all true
fermentation, viz the property of self-pro xazatio 1 of the fe ment.
Perhaps the most remarkable instance of a che nicil ferment was
the res lution of the amygdalin of the bitter almond into the
essential oil of bitter almonds, hydrocyanic acid, formic acd
and glucose under the influence ofemu'sin. The amygialin nei her

gained nor lost a single atom, but was simply broken up into -

new compounds under the iofluence of the peculiar albuminous
principle emulsin. ut did the emulsin undergo multiplication
as in the true fermentations? On the contrary, it had been
shown by Liebig and Wohler in their original paper * that a
certain weight of emulsin would only break up a limited
quantity of amygdalin, and that the emulsin when afterwards
separa‘ed no longer affected amygdalin. So far from having the
property of self-propagation, it lost its catalytic power in the act
of catalysis. Thus the chemical ferment theory was in truth
utterly destitute of scientific basis as explaining trae fermentation.

Such being the case it was contended that the germ theory
must now be regarded as demonstrated ; viz. that putrefaction
and other true fermentations characterised by indefinite multipli-
cation of the ferment are ciused by the growth of living
organisms, which, whil2 capable of great variations according
to the circumstances in which they are plazed, retain their
specific characters like larger plants, and like them spring only
from pre-existing similar organisms.

Nevertheless the so-called chemical ferments had a high
degree of interest in this ques’ion, as very likely playing an im-
portant part in bringing about the chemical changes, For just
as it was proved that a peculiar albuminous principle, emulsin,
existing in the sweet as well as in the bitter almond, but absent
from the pei, or bean, or other leguminous plants examined by
Liebig and Wohle, could break up as much as ten times i s weight
of a stabte crystallisable substance like amygdalin, so it seemed
probable that other peculiar albuminous principles might exist
in other plants, such as the fungi, and in like manner break up
larger or smaller quantities of other stable organic compounds.
In this sense, then, as intervening between the growth of the
organisms and the resulting decompositions, the theory cf
chemical ferments might be welcomed as a valuable hypothesis.

Lastly, the author showed some blood obtained from a horse
between three and four weeks previously, in the hope that by
exposing the carotid artery autiseptically, and receiving the
blood from it ino a ‘‘heated”’ vessel, and protecting it from
dust, he might, after the clot had contracted, decant off the
cleir serum, and inoculating or exposing the uncontaminated
fluid, observe organisms and fermentations corresponding to
those which occur in the practice of surgery.

But to his great surprise day afrer day passed without the clot
showing any sign of shrinking, and it remained still uncontracted.
In the flask shown, the bufly coat was seen to be present onthe
upper part of the still tremulous jelly-like coagulum, but instead
of being powerfully pinched together into a comparatively small
bulk bathed with serum, that part like the rest of the clat was
everywhere in con act with the sides of the glass, and not a drop
of serum was to be seen. At the same time there was no smell
whatever about the cotton that covered the neck of the flask,
showing that putrefaction had been ayoided, Somehow or other
the exclusion of living organisms, while it had not interfered
with coagulation, had prevented the fibrine from acquiring a
tendency to shrink. ‘his fact, while entirely new, and openirg
up a wide field of inquiry, was seen to tally with phenomena
met with in surgical practice, such as the absence of shrinking of
the plug of clot near a ligature placed upon an artery. It was
an illustration of how little we are often able to predict what may
arise when even the most familiar objects are placed in new
circumstances,

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Yournal of Mental Science, July.—We have heard or
read of a rather imoressionable gentleman who, as he perused
Dr. Buchan’s ‘* Domestic Medicine,” fancied himself afflicted with,

* See “ Annales de Chimie et de Physique,” 1837, p. 185.

ww

234

every disorder therein described, not even excepting the pains of
pregnancy. Bearing this in mind, we would recommend that
none save those well assured of their own sanity should read the
Fournal of Mental Science. There is so much about morbid
psychology, madness, and idiocy, that weak readers are in some
real danger of being taken possession of by an uncomfortable
suspicion that they may be a little touched themselves. The
place of honour is given to an address on idiocy by Dr. J. C.
Bucknill. This is a piece of special pleading (justified, perhaps,
by its occasion) for the education of idiots. Now, as these
miserable abortions must be kept in life because of the indirect
evil effects of any system of extinguishing them, we certainly de-
sire that they should be kept in asylums and made comfortable.
But we cannot even grant that they are ‘‘more worthy of our
efforts than those races of animals which men strive to bring to
perfection.” Except in so far as Science miy be advanced by
such work, it seems very much of a waste of time for such a
man as Séguin to labour for four months to fix the eye of an
idiot as the first step in the education of sight. We cannot go
into ecstacy on hearing that idiots are actually taught to use
knives and forks, when so many rational beings around us have
neither knives nor forks to use, nor any use for them. By all
means let the charitable support asylums for idiots; but at the
same time it should not be forgotten that these poor creatures
can never be educate i into anything useful or lovely, and that a
point is soon reached beyond which further education is mis-
spent labour.—A valuable paper on “ The Use of Digitalis in
Maniacal Excitement” is coatributed by Dr. W. J. Mickle.
Next follows, under the title of “ Consciousness and Unconscious
Cerebration,” a rather muddled attempt, on the part of W. G.
Davies, B.D., to upset Dr. Carpenter’s doctrine of “ unconscious
cerebration.” From this article one might suppose that the
views combated were pecu‘iar to Dr. Carpen‘er and his so-called
disciplks Dr. Bastian and Miss Cobbe, whereas in truth the
writer has against him not these only, but also the most distin-
guished of living psychologists. [lis writing is a good deal in
the bad old style, the language serving at times, as it seems to
us, to obscure rather than express thought. Dr. Carpenter is
accused of imagining a nervous anatumy to suit his theory. But
Mr. Davies does not himself seem to be up with the latest scien-
tific surmises. For example, in laying the groundwork of one of
his own arguments, he says : “ The very same cells in the visual
sense-centre cannot, at one and the same moment, see brown and
yellow.” He does not seem to be aware that it is highly probabie
that the cells that see one colour never do see another. There
are over a dozen other papers, all of more or less, some of them
of considerable interest.

THE Afonthly Microscopical Fournal for this month commences
with an article by Mr. J. W. Stephenson onthe optical appearances
presented by the inner and outer layers of Coscinodiscus when ex-
amined in bisulphide of carbon and in air, in which the impor-
tance of considering the refractive index of the medium in which
calcareous and silicious structures are examined, is fully dis-
cussed. ‘his is followed by a paper on some new diatoms from
the harbours of Peru and Bolivia, by Mr. F. Kitton, in which
Aulacodiscus formosus and Omphalopilta versicolor are the most
important.—Mr. F. Wenham, in a very temperate manner, re-
buffs the unjustifiable statements of the American microscopists,
who, not realising the high scientific position he holds in this
country, accuse him of acting unfairly to Mr. Tolles, and in-
sinuate that he has acted from mercenary motives. He ends by
saying, ‘‘I trust that Colonel Woodward, having affirmed that
‘the position taken by me is certainly true for objectives, as
ordinarily constructed,’ will allow that this additional lens em-
bodies a deviation from the ordinary question, which was to the
effect that there would be no loss of angle aperture of ordinary
objectives by the immersion of the front surface in fluids.” —Dr.
Braithwaite continues his observations on the bog-mosses.—Dr.
Royston-Piggott considers the high-power definition of minute
organic particles, in which he divides his subject into five parts,
including the nature of the least circle of confusion, the nature
of mixed shadows, and the nature of perfect definition. —The
preparation of the brain and spinal cord for microscopic exami-
nation, forms the subject of a paper by Mr. H. S. Atkinson, in
which he explains in detail the methods employed by Pro-
fessor Rutherford, and the means of staining sections adopted by
himself,

Letermann’s Geographische Mittheilungen, No. V1.— An account
of Dr, Nachtigal’s travels in Northern Africa, which appears in

NATURE |

| matisation were more fully deve’oped, could be produced

| Fuly 17, 1873

this number, we have already noticed in the advanced sheets
One of the longest and most valuable papers is by Dr. C, E.
Meinicke on Dr. Bernstein’s explorations in the Northern
Moluccas, accompanied bya map. An important article is the
second part of an account by Freiherr F. von Richthofen, of —
some of the results of his journey from Pekin southwestwards
through China, embracing valuable details on the geology, topo-
graphy, and natural history of thé little known interior of that
country. Another important article is on the Aurora Borealis, by
M. E. Pechuel-Loesche, who for the purpose of ascertaining the
teal nature of the phenomenon, brings together the results of the
observations of those who have cirefully obs-rved it in the Polar —
regions. This is to be followed by another paper in the same
direction.—-Dr. H. Wagner contributes an article on the Deve-
lopment of the German Railway System, accompanied by a
well-constructed map.

A VERY interesting number of the Bulletin Mensuel de la
| Societé d’Acclimatation de Paris has been published for May.
One of the principal papers is a long article by the Abbé Des-
godins, missionary at Yer-ka-lo, on the zoology of Thibet.
The varied temperatures of its different levels are such that
the country coatains a great varicty of animals, the fauna of
both tropical and cold climates being found there. A descrip-
tion is given by M. Robert of his pat nt artificial incubators for
hatching eggs, which seem to be more perfect in all their details
than any of tho<e appliances we have seen. As a proof of
the usefulness of such a Society, the secretary calls attention
to the increased price of certain animal and vegetable pro-
ducts of foreign countries, which, if the principle of accli-

much cheaper in France. Experiments on sericulture have
shown that silk of varied colour can be produced by feed-
ing the silkworm on different leaves. Worms fed on vine
leaves produce a silk of a magnificent red colour. Lettuce
has been found to produce an emerald-green coloured silk.
During April, 51 animals ani 886 birds were received at the Gar-
dens of the Society, while 51 anima's, and 1,333 birds were distri-
bute!. Among interesting items of intelligence we may mention
that the ostriches have begun to lay, and it is hoped that kangaroos
may be s» freely bred in France as to justify their being turned
loose in suitable parts of the country. Three Trumpeter Swans =
were received from America.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES ‘
Lonpon

Royal Society, June 19.—‘‘On a tendency observed in Sun-
spots to change alternately from the one Solar Hemisphere to
the other.” Ly Warren De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S., Baliour
Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S., and Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S.

1. Hitherto in our reductions we have summed up the spotted
areas of the various groups occurring on the sun’s surface on any
day, and have regarded their sum_as a tepresentation of the spot-
activity forthat day. It has occurred to us to see what result
we should obtain by taking instead for each day the excess of the
spotted area in the one solar hemisphere above that in the
other.

2. On adopting this method, it soon became evident that dur-
ing periods of great disturbance there is a tendency in spots to
change alternately from the north or positive to the south or nega-
tive hemisphere, and vice versd, the period of such charge being
about 25 days. When, on the other hand, the solar disturbance —
is inconsiderable, the spots do not present any such systematic
oscillation, ,

3. We have graphically represented on a diagram the results
derived from this method during three of the most considerable
periods of so!ar disturbance. z

In this diagram the observed values of hemispherical excess
are marked with an asterisk, and a curve is drawn So as to
equalise their smaller irregularities. The northera hemisphere
is reckoned positive, and the southern negative. The unit of
area is, as before, the one millionth of the sun’s visible hemi-
sphere,

4. The first of these three periods extends from the beginning
of August to the end of December, 1859. We derive from our
diagram the followiag Table, exhibiting the maximum amounts
of hemispherical excess, with their respective dates :— ;

wt a sie ed ed ee

NATURE |

235

Hemispherical excess.

ort South.
+4180 eat

(+ 40)

+2580
— 2920

+ 920
—1420

+ 1000
— 2480

+ 120
+1320

+1050
— 1400

From these we derive the following values of a period of
oscillation by taking the differences in dates between the positive
extremes :—

"27 days, 21 days, 29 days, 30 days, 22 days—mean, 25'8 days ;
while doing the same with the negative extremes, we obtain :—
24 days, 22 days, 31 days, 17 days, 32 days—mean, 25:2 days.

5. The second of the three periods extends from the end of

June to the beginning of November 1860. Treating this in the

same manner, we obtain :—
Hemispherical excess.

Date. North. South.
F; MHOC uly Li) fos cac.secenas es + 4900
ae Ui 2S ee ao — 600
July 30 ... . +2040
Aug. 9 ... <t —2400
Aug, 21... . + 400
Sepe's” :.. oh - 1400
Sept. 16... - + 400
Oct. 1 = —1180
Orie +. . + 800
Ock 9. « — 2560
Or oie | ee : ...(- 380)

From these we derive, by taking the differences in dates of
the positive extremes,

29 days, 22 days, 26 days, 23 days, 22 days—mean, 24°4 days ;
while doing the same with negative extremes, we obtain :—-
18 days, 27 days, 26 days, 18 days—mean, 22°25 days.

6. The third of these three periods extends from the beginning
of May.to the end of August 1862. Treating this in the same
manner, we obtain :—

Hemispherical crea

Date. North. jouth,
1862, May 9 + 6co

May 22 .... —1160

June 3... +2960

June rs .. — 2600

June 29 +1880

July 16 — 800

July 26 + 2400

Aug. 14 — 200

Aug. 23 + 460

Taking, as before, the distances between the positive extremes,
we obtain :—

25 days, 26 days, 27 days, 28 days—mean, 26°5 days ;
while from the negative extremes we obtain :—
24 days, 31 days, 29 days—mean, 28°0 days.

From the whole three periods we obtain, as the most probable
mean value, 25°2 days.

7. We do not profess to have discovered the cause of these
oscillations, but we would nevertheless suggest that the obser-
vational facts here brought to light may perhaps be connected
with two other observational facts, the one of which was first
brought to light by Carrington, and the other by ourselves.

The first of these is the fact that, generally speaking, spots in
the north hemisphere have much about the same latitude as those
occurring at the same or nearly the same period inthe south, both
sets widening or contracting together. We may perhaps, there-
fore, suppose, by applying this law, that the latitude of the spots
which cause the positive extremes in the above series is not
greatly different from that of those which cause the corresponding
negative extremes.

The second observational law is that which tells us that spots
about the same period have a tendency to attain their maximum

4

at or near the same ecliptical longitude. Now, if we suppose
that in the foregoing three series the greatest positive extremes
were caused by the positive spots attaining their greatest size,
and the greatest negative extremes by the negative spots,
attaining their greatest size, it would follow that the two sets,
positive and negative, must have taken their rise at places on
the sun’s surface 180° of longitude different from each other
inasmuch as the one set about twelve or thirteen days before or
Bier passed (let us say) the same ecliptical longitude as the
other.

But if the positive set have the same latitude as the negative,
and if the one is 180° of solar longitude different from the other,
it would mean that the two outbreaks are at opposite ends of the
same solar diameter.

This conclusion is an interesting one, but, of course, it
requires to be verified by further observation before it be finally
received. Meanwhile, we are engaged in mapping out syste-
matically the positions of the various outbreaks of the sun’s
surface, and we shall soon, therefore, be able to find whether
or not there be any truth in this conjecture.

Geologists’ Association, July 4.—Mr. Henry Woodward,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—1. “A sketch of the Geology
of Northamptonshire,” by Samuel Sharp, F.S.A. A general
section of the county of Northampton shows the lias as a
basal formation with the inferior oolite beds of the ‘‘ Northamp-
ton sands” above. Fossils are abundant, and some species are
not found in other localities. The upper division consists of a
nearly white siliceous sand with bands of clay and a plant bed,
the whole of these deposits being evidently of estuarine and
littoral origin. Above these, but unconformably, lies the
bed classed as Great Oolite, and which consists of, firstly,
a series of clay beds with a ferruginous base and containing
a plant bed; then, secondly, a limestone series abounding with
fossils and affording an ornamental stone called ‘‘ Alwalton
marble.” The bed of clay reposing on these great oolite strata
may be considered the equivalent of the ‘‘ Bradford clay,” and
still higher in a general section will be found the Forest marble,
the Cornbrash, and, highest of the secondaries, the Oxford clay.
The high lands of the county are frequently capped by boulder
clay and glacial gravels containing fragments from nearly the
whole series of the primary and secondary rocks. <A peaty
fluviatile bed above the gravels contains at its base numerous
remains of mammalia. The lias extends throughout the county
though appearing only in the valleys, the iron sands occupy the
middle and the Lincolnshire limestone the northern portion of
the county, while the other formations are patchy in extension.
A high table-land about Naseby gives rise to the Avon, the
Welland, and the Nene, which occupy the principal valleys of
the county. In past times efforts were made at consider-
able cost to find coal,.and recently the question of whether
coal can be obtained in the county has been discussed,
but judging from what we know of the rocks of
the nearest coal-field of Warwickshire, and of the intervening
district, as much as 4,500 ft. of strata may lie above coal-seams
of sufficient thickness to be worked. Moreover, Prof. Hull,
F.R.S., concludes that ‘* Carboniferous ” coal will not be found at
any depth in Northamptonshire. —2. ‘On some new Crag Fossil,”
by Alfred Bell. The author’s observations since his former
paper on the crags was read, confirm the views he then expressed
as to the divisibility of the English crags into four divisions
founded on palzontological evidence. He had determined 145
species (some new, some new to the crag, and some new
to particular divisions) in addition to those given in his
published lists. —3. ‘‘An account of the Eruption of Mount
Vesuvius of April 1872,” by J. M. Black. In this paper
the brief but violent and destructive eruption of last year was
described by the author, who has carefully noted the various
phenomena that occurred during its continuance. An ascent of
the yoleano was made by Mr. Black, a few days after the
eruption, and the form and condition of the crater observed.
The author had succeeded in photographing various parts of
the mountain after the eruption, and the views so taken were
exhibited.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, April 1.—Dr, Ruschena
berger, president, in the chair. The following paper was presented
for publication :—‘‘ On the Affinities of the Sirenians,” by Theo:
Gill. Prof. Leidy remarked that the rat presented this evening
by Mr, L. Fussel was a specimen of the Black Rat, or Aus rats

tus, which had been caught on board a ship in the vicinity of the
city. This rat is exceedingly rare, but is said to have once been
common enough, and is also said to have been nearly exter-
minated by the common brown or Norway Rat.

April 8.—Dr. LeConte announced the death, at Davidsburg,
York Co., Pa.,on March 10, of Freidrich Ernest Melsheimer,
M.D., a correspondent of the Academy, aged nearly ninety-one
years. He inherited great taste for entomology from his father,
E. F. Meisheimer, a clergyman, who cultivated natural science
with much success, and not only was a highly esteemed corre-
spondent of Knoch and other European entomologists of the end
of the past and beginning of the present century, but an active
collaborator with Say, the founder of descriptive entomology in
the United States. Entomology also owes to Dr. Melsheimer
the catalozue of the described Coleoptera of the United States,
which was published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1853. It
was the first work of bibliographical importance in the modem
history of that branch of science, and gave a powerful impetus to
its development in the United States, and has greatly diminished
the labour of those who have continued the study of that de-
partment:

April 15.—‘‘ Observations on a Change of Structure of a
Larva of Dryocampa imperialis,” by Thos, G. Gentry.—‘' Re-
marks on Extinct Mammals from California. Prof. Leidy
directed attention to some fossils, which he had borrowed,
through Prof. E. O. Hovey, from the cabinet of Wabash Col-
lege, Crawfordsville, Indiana. The most interesting specimens
consist of an upper molar and a complete lower molar series of
a lama as large as the existing camel. Remains of a still
larger species from California have been previously indicated
under the name of Auchenia californica, The present specimens
were referred to a species with the name Auchenia hesterna.
Prof. Owen has described some remains of an equally large lama
from Mexico, which he refers to an allied genus with the name
Palauchenia magna, and which perhaps may be the same as the
Auchenia hesterna. An inspection of Prof. Owen’s figures of a
series of molar teeth leads to the suspicion that he has inadver-
tently mistaken the upper series for the lower ones, and has thus
beea led to refer them to a genus different from Auchenia,

April 22.—“ Influence of Nutrition upon Sex among the
Lepidoptera,” by Thos. G. Gentry.—‘‘ Fungus Parasite on a
Mouse.” Prof. Leidy exhibited a mouse with several whitish
masses adherent to the ears, side of the face, and nose. The
mouse had been caught in the children’s department of Blockley
Hospital. The white matter examined beneath the microscope
proved to be composed of sporular bodies, single, double, or in
short chains of a dozen or more, They measure about the y3>
of a line in a diameter. The fungus is a Torula or Oidium, and
resembles that found in Aptha. Perhaps the disease in the mouse
is the result of feeding upon articles imbued with adherent por-
tions of apthous matter from the mouths of children.

BERLIN

German Chemical Society, June 24.—C. Rammelsberg,
vice-president, in the chair.—F. Romer has investigated the fol-
lowing derivatives of normal propylic alcohol :—The mercaptan
and its mercury-compound, propyl-xanthogenic acid and its
sodium salt, and the monamine, By heating cyanate of potash
with propyl-sulphate of potash no cyanurate of propyl was
formed, but a well-crystallised biuret in which three atoms of
hydrogen are replaced by three molecules of propyl.—R. Otto
sent a well-crystallised specimen of phosphate of ammonium and
Magnesium from the cesspool of an old house in Brunswick, analo-
gous to the crystals of * Struvite” found in Hamburg in 1842.—
C. Scheibler showed a specimen of glass ground by a new
method, which has come to us from America, and is now prac-
tised in the wlassworks of M, Hasenclever at Hollberg, near
Aix-la-Chapelle. By means of Giffard’s injector a current of fine
hard sand is thrown with great force on the glass, which is thus
ground ; but any pattern cut in paper and pasted on the glass
remains unaltered. Even hard minerals, such as corundum, can
be ground by this process. —C. Bottinger has studied the action
of baryta on pyruvic acid. According to Finck two acids are
thus produced, one crystalline, which he called uritinic, and one
syrupy body, to which he gave the name of uritonic acid, Mr.

Lottinger’s researches throw doubts on the existence of the latter
body, which seems to be a mixture of uritinic, acetic, and oxalic
acids.—C. Rammelsberg communicated new researches on the
composition of vesuvians of different origin.—W. H. Pike, of
London, has treated sulfo-urea with chloride of benzoyle, obtain-
ing well crystallised benzoyle-sulfo-urea (C,H;ONH)CS(NH)z2
of the melting-point 170°,

NATURE

[Fuly 17, 1873

Paris

Academy of Sciences, July 7,—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dent, in the chair. The following papers were read:—New
clinical researches on the localisation, in the anterior lobes of
the brain, of the action by which the brain contributes to the
psycho-physiological faculty of speech, by M. Bouillaud. At
the conclusion of this somewhat long paper, M. E, Chevreul
made some remarks on Dr. Bouillaud’s conclusions.—On the ex-
ponential function, by H. Hermite.—On the heat of combina-
tion referred to the solid state, a new expression for thermo-
chemical reactions, by M. Berthelot.—The election of Dr.
Carpenter, Mr. Steenstrup, and Mr. Dana, as recorded in
our notes, then took place.—On a system of optical tele-
graphy, invented during the siege of Paris, by a commission ap-
pointed by the Governor, by M. Laussedat.—On the nutritive
and milk-producing properties of Galega officinalis, by M.
Gillet-Damitte.—On the constitution of the sun and the theory
of the spots, by M. E. Vicaire. The author vigorously sup-
ported the scoriz theory of spots, which he regards as formed
by the fall of heated products of combustion into a boiling
liquid ; he considers that the prominences are formed at the same
time and by the same agency.—Solar cyclones compared to those
of our own atmosphere, by M. H. Tarry.—On a new isomer of
valeric acid, by MM. Friedel and Silva.—On the transformation
of succinic into malic acid, by M. E, Bourgoin. The author
has succeeded in effecting this by heating fine and dry argenetic
malate, mixed with fine sand, to 180°.—On the mode of decom-
position of explosive bodies as compared with the phenomena
of supersaturation, by MM. Champion and Pellet—On the
action of benzyl chloride on napthalamine, by MM. Ch. Froté
and D. Tommasi.—Experimental researches on the action of
nitrous oxide, by MM. F. Jolyet and T. Blanche. The authors
believe that this gas is not a true anesthetic, but acts by pro-
ducing asphyxia.—Researches on the floral organogenesis of the
hazels, by M. H. Baillon.—Discovery of the makis and the
horse in the fossil state in the phosphorites of Lot, by M. E.
Delfortrie.—On the crystalline forms of Scotch Lanarkite, by
M. A. Schrauf.—Details of the earthquake of the 29th of June,
by M. W. De Fonvielle.

BOOKS RECEIVED

ENGLIsH.—Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, 4th ed.: Sir
Charles Lyell (J. Murray)—Human Longevity, its Facts and Fictions:
Wm. J. Thoms (J. Murray).—The Human Mind ; a System of Mental Phi-
losophy: jas. G. Murphy (W. Mullan, Belfast).—Mrs Taylor's A BC of ©
Chemistry. Edited by W. M. Williams (Simpkin, Marshall & Co.).—Six
Lectures on Light, delivered in America: John Tyndall, F.R.S. (Long-
man & Co.),—Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, and Series, No. 12_
(Macmillan & Co.).—Relations of the Air to the Clothes we wear, &c. : Dr.
Max von Pettenkofer : translated by Dr. Hess (Triibner & Co.).—The Royal
Readers, No. 6 (‘T. Nelson & Sons).—Essay on the Mathematical Priaciples
of Physics: Rev. Jas. Challis, M.A. (Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge).;

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

ForeiGn.—Sitzungsberichte der Kénigl Bohmischen Gesel. in Prag, Jan.
to June and July to Dec., 1871, Jan. to June 1872.—Eleven copies of Proceed-
ings of Ditto: K, W. Zenger, A. von Waltenhofen, O. Feistmantel, J, Schobl,
J. Dienger, J. M. Solin, E. Weyr, W. Matzka. K. Domalip, and C. Kiipper.
ieee eraunnes der Thiere und ihr psychischer Horizont: von Dr. Karl

oblus,

CONTENTS

Tue Pay or Scigntiric MEN . . + + «ss ew
Tue “ Poraris” Axctic Exrepition (With Map) . A
SctENCE AND ANGLING . oes ee

Mivart’s “ELEMENTARY ANATOMY” . 2. + e

Our Book SHELF . ants

LETTERs TO THE EDITOR:—
Agassiz and Forbes; =AUSAGASSIZ . «. 3 0 5 0% ee nee
Probosces capable of sucking the Nectar of Anagrecum sesquipe-

ae 6 ¢ (a i? ee

dale.—Dr, HERMANN Mu Ltsr (With Jilustration) eo]
An Order of Merit—A. H. Brownz. . . « + «© «+ «© « «© «© 223
Geological Subsidence and Upheaval.—J. F. ANDERSON. . . + 223
Curious Kainbow.—G. J. RoMaNngs . 224

CHLOROPHYLL CoLourING-MaTTERs, II. By H. C “Sorsy, ERS.
Tue New LasoraTorigs OF THE NATURAL History Museum, Paris

(With (Uustration). Ge ss 5 + se te en ar
AgRIAL SPECTRES (With Illustrations) . . . . 1 « © © © «© «© 229
THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIANA «©. . ee se + 8 ew eo 228
INTELLECT OF Porpoises. By W. SAVILLE Kent. «. + « + «© «© 229
AN INTERNATIONAL COINAGE . 9. .. 0. « 0 © « © swans) eee
Norss . gee ies s = os eee te Pe Ye hot ger be’
On THE GERM THEORY OF PUTREFACTION AND OTHER FERMENTA-

TivE CHANGES. By Prof. Lister, F.RS. . . . -« + 2 «© + 232,
Screntiric SERIALS . » . 2. « + ers 1 ides. 233
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES’: (c< < as 0 ss =) © = 50 seseeeemeeeeel
Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED . « + a ay oe ee

NATURE

7 oS

237

THURSDAY, JULY 24, 1873

THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH
III.

re is probable that though the main proposition here

advocated, that original workers in the Sciences de-
serve, on public grounds, a recognised position and pecu-
niary support, will not meet with much opposition from
any quarter, the means by which this desirable end is
chiefly proposed to be attained will not be acquiesced in
with equal readiness. Englishmen have been so long
accustomed to regard their Universities as merely high
schools of liberal education, and the independent growth
of modern Science in this country has been so rapid and
vigorous, that to many worthy persons it will seem nothing
better than a Utopian dream to attempt to re-establish
the genuine pursuit of scientific knowledge as an end in
itself at our ancient seats of learning. Those, however,
who know something about the system of a German
University, and are acquainted with the former history of
Oxford and Cambridge, will not consider the attempt to
be of sucha hopeless character. The present time also
affords an admirable opportunity of urging upon public
attention a fundamental reform in the direction above indi-
cated. The Universities have of late years been losing
many of the peculiarities which they once so warmly
cherished, and at the same time their revenues have been
increasing to an enormous extent. The same Govern-
ment which passed a Bill to pronounce them national
and not ecclesiastical establishments, has also issued a
Royal Commission to inquire into the extent and
distribution of their endowments. Now that the nation
has established its claim to remodel the Universities
solely with a view to the public interest, and is taking
stock, as it were, of the property which has fallen under.
its disposal, the very occasion has come when scientific
men should formulate their demands on behalf of those
public interests which the practical politician is likely to
neglect. It must, moreover, be borne in mind that the
impulse in this direction must come from without, for
although it will not be difficult to prove that no less
benefit would accrue to the Universities themselves than
to the cause of Science from the scheme herein ad-
vocated, yet the most advanced academical reformers
do not seem to have got beyond the notion of extending
and perfecting the professorial functions.

We propose then to show at some length that the En-
dowment of Research should naturally take a leading
place in the reconstruction of the University system
which appears to be close at hand, and to indicate in
what manner such endowment may most readily be
carried into effect. For this purpose it will not be neces-
sary to reveal the many minor abuses which the reforms
of twenty years ago failed to remove, but it will be neces-
sary to adopt the more difficult task of sketching out the
true conception of what a University should be, and of
considering the comparative claims to endowment of
teaching and of study.

Without any attempt to prejudge the matter, or to
awake the dormant controversy as to the original meaning

_ of the word, it may be safely laid down that a University

No. 195—VOL, vit.

=

a — —_ — — ———— SSSFSFSFSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSFSeee

is an institution composed of the most competent teachers
and the most promising students, on which the State, in
consideration of its diligently promoting the higher edu-
cation, confers a lofty position and important privileges.
That such an institution should enjoy large endowments >
is evidently not of the essence of its nature, for the Uni-
versities of old were uniformly most famous when they
were least rich : it is, however, absolutely necessary for
the healthy activity of its functions that it should not be
so encumbered with wealth as to be disposed to lavish sine-
cures upon its favourite members. It is evident, also, that
it will forfeit its trust as the home of Culture and of
Science, and will degenerate into a lyceum for the adult
sons of the well-to-do classes, unless it continually main-
tains itself on a level with the ever-advancing boundaries
of human knowledge, and that just so far as it lags be-
hind it will exercise a mischievous influence on the simple
public, who continue to rely upon its treacherous
authority. Further, it is of great importance that the
original institution, on which alone the rank was bestowed,
and which alone deserves the high privileges, should not be
absorbed by the growth of a number of parasitic institu-
tions, whose interests and aims may be not identical with or
even analogous to itsown. Butabove all other symptoms
of decay that a University can show, is to be placed its
rejection of the highest branches of knowledge which
the progressive activity of human thought is ever compre-
hending within the domain of Science. To this danger
the most ancient and the most wealthy Universities are
naturally the most exposed. Their antiquity leads them
to regard the erudition which they have inherited through
many centuries as synonymous with real knowledge, and
their wealth is used (where it is not misused) to afford
encouragement only to those kinds of learning which their
traditions have sanctified. In brief, a false University would
be an institution which is content merely to satisfy the de-
mand for teaching which custom approves, and which
neglects as a hindrance to its tuitional duties the higher
knowledge which it was originally founded to promote.

To recall such a University to the true conception of
its duties no mere mechanical changes with reference to
its internal organisation will be sufficient. It has lost
the spirit of disinterested study which first gave it life, and
the atmosphere of intellectual activity under which alone
it can flourish. It requires that new vigour should be
poured into it, and a new order of workers established
within its limits. It requires to be relieved of the burden
of part of its wealth, in order that it may receive back
again greater advantages than it can give. By endowing
research in all those departments of knowledge to which
the scientific method has been already extended, and by
reserving the power of similar endowment for those other
departments of knowledge which will, no doubt, before long
besimilarly reduced to orderand law, Oxfordand Cambridge
may yet regain the proud position which was once theirs,
as “‘ bodies of learned men devoting their lives to the cul-
tivation of Science, and the direction of academical
teaching.”

To point out more particularly the source from which
the endowments of research should be drawn, it will be
necessary to revive the original distinction between the
Universities and the Colleges of which they may be said
to be now composed, To raise the University proper at

Co)

238

the expense of the individual Colleges, has long been a
favourite project with academical reformers, yet no one
yet appears to propose any more radical scheme than an
augmentation in the number of University Professors, and
a diminution in the influence of College tutors. Against
any such scheme, however carefully elaborated, there arise
the old objections that an improvement in the mechanism
of teaching is not the main reform of which the Uni-
versities stand in need, and that the endowment of more
teachers will not remedy the crying evil which has so la-
mentably hindered the advance of purely scientific investi-
gation in this country, The circumstance that the Universi-
ties are comparatively poor, while many of the Colleges are
very rich, and an awakening conviction that the Colleges
exist for the Universities, and not the Universities for the
Colleges, would seem to have suggested the above pro-
posal : whereas the smallest historical knowledge of the
objects with which the Colleges were originally founded,
would reveal the curious circumstance that the first bene-
factors had a truer conception of the manner in which
knowledge ought to be endowed, than have the modern
recipients of their benefits. Nothing can be more certain,
though nothing is more frequently denied by those whose
duty it is to be better informed, than that the majority of the
great Colleges were not founded to be boarding schools
for teachers and students, subordinate to the University
curriculum, but to be homes at the central seats of
learning, where life-long students might be supported
while acquiring all the knowledge of the age, and aug-
menting the store of learning which they had there in-
herited. According to the old Oxford tradition, she
could boast in the fifteenth century before there was ever
a wealthy College that she had thousands of students
living in hundreds of private halls. Many of the early
Colleges did not include at allin their arrangements those
whom we should now call Undergraduates, some of those
which did do so allowed for a teaching staff independent of
the body of Fellows, and it is within modern memory that
many Colleges have had more Fellows than Under-
graduates on their books. All these facts, and there are
many similar ones, go to prove decisively that, in the
language of Mr. Mark Pattison, “the Colleges were in
their origin endowments not for the elements of a general
liberal education, but for the prolonged study of special and
professional faculties by men of riper age: and that so
far from it being the intention of a Fellowship to support
its holder as a teacher, it was rather its purpose to
relieve him from the drudgery of teaching for a mainten-
ance, and to set him free to give his whole time to the
studies and exercises of his faculty.” The wish of the
Founders, that is to say, when harmonised with the wants
of the present age, and interpreted into the language of
modern science, was to afford the means of living and
the instruments of work to those who pledge their lives to
the unremunerative task of scientific investigation, and
original research.

Surely then, if the influential and wealthy members of
our Universities have at heart the real interest of their
Institutions, or retain any veneration for the express
intentions of their benefactors, they should not be the last
to join in the patriotic object of raising the scientific
reputation of this country, and increasing in manifold
unseen ways the elements of our national greatness, C.

NATURE

| us two volumes. The third volume of the original, which

-second volume, the comprehensive catalogue of his pub-

[uly 24, 1873

ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT

Life of Alexander von Humboldt, compiled by F. Lowen-
berg, Robert Ave-Lallemant, and Alfred Dove. Edited
by Professor Karl Bruhns. Translated by J. and C.
Lassell. 2 vols. (London: Longmans, 1873.)

E cordially welcome this» admirable translation of —

the only biography of A. v. Humboldt that

has yet appeared possessing any authentic or scien-
tific value. Humboldt’s own definitely expressed aversion
to biographical notices, whether in regard to himself or
his friends, the fact of his having outlived nearly all his
blood-relations and the greater number of the contem-
poraries of his earlier working years, together with other
causes, combined, for a time, to retard the appearance of

a trustworthy life of this remarkable man.

The want of such a work was, however, strongly felt,
and at the Congress of Astronomers convened at Vienna
on Sept. 14, 1869, in honour of the centenary of A, vy.
Humboldt’s birth, Dr. Karl Bruhns, Director of the
Observatory at Leipzig, laid before the meeting the
prospectus of a Scientific Biography of their great
countryman, for which he demanded their active co-ope-
ration. The result of this appeal and of his own editorial
labours, was the appearance last year, in Germany, of
the work of which the present excellent translation gives

consists of critical véswsés by various writers of the
state of different branches of the physical and natural
sciences, with notices of Humboldt’s contributions to each,
has been omitted by the translators, on the ground that
the facts were treated of with sufficient minuteness in the
general biography. On less good grounds, as it appears —
to us, they have also omitted from the last section of the

lished writings, of which upwards of 600 are enumerated
in this list.

Humboldt’s life, like the work devoted to its exposition,
resolves itself into two distinct parts or periods. The
first of these is characterised by intense and incessant
activity in the acquisition of knowledge, the second by
the quiet mature elaboration of the results of earlier
study and observation ending in a thirty years’ term of
comparative stagnation under the depressing influences
of honorary court servitude.

Alexander v. Humboldt was born at Berlin, in 1769,
and together with his elder brother Wilhelm, was pre-
pared under excellent private tutors for his university
career at Frankfort, A. O., where he matriculated in 1787,
He had already then shown that craving for the accumu-
lation of facts which he retained to his latest years, and
from his boyhood had been distinguished for his love of
observing and collecting natural history objects, and his
inaptitude for acquiring the exact classical scholarship —
for which his brother evinced such marked ability.
Botany was Alexander’s first love, and the earliest of his
voluminous literary productions was a treatise in French
which appeared anonymously at Berlin, in 1789, in the
Gazette Literaire, entitled, “Sur le Bohon-Upas, par un
jeune Gentilhomme de Berlin.” This composition was,
however, rapidly followed by papers on the flora and
geology of the Rhine lands, and other districts which he
visited in the course of the few short intervals of cessation

- - “

Fuly 24, 1873]

_ from study which mark his university career, and b

“numerous essays on mathematical, physical, medical,

_ physiological, and even classical subjects ; for by dint of

hard work he had, during his attendance on Heyne’s
Greek lectures at Gottingen, so thoroughly mastered hi-
earlier deficiencies that he won from that learned pro
fessor the distinction of being commended as “a bette:
philologer than any who had left the class for many years.”

_ The University of Gottingen to which the brothers hac
migrated in 1789, and which had already begun to attract

students from all parts, as the best school of pure and
practical science, afforded the advantages that Frankfor:

had failed to give them; and here, under Lichtenberg
_ Gmelin, Osiander and Blumenbach, Alexander laid th”

solid foundations of those varied acquisitions in the de-
partments of physical and natural science, which justl)
entitle him to rank as the greatest pioneer in the cause of
modern research. Others may have very far surpassed him

- in one or more domains of inquiry, but no one man in his

time has done more than A. v. Humboldt in accumulating
materials, testing evidence, repeating experiments and
carrying on observations in almost every section of

knowledge by which the labours of subsequent inquirers.

have been lightened. To his latest years, Humboldt did
justice to the benefit which he had derived from Géttin-
gen, which he had entered with “ the wzwsua/ advantages,”
as we are told by his former tutor, the mathematician,
Fischer, “ of having received an excellent education, and of
‘possessing a proficiency in mathematics which might
have secured him distinction had he been able to devote
his attention exclusively, or even partially, to that science.”
Political economy had, however, already become the
principal object of his studies, in consequence of his hay-
ing made choice of the public bureaucratic service of the
State as his future career. In 1790 his experiences of
foreign travel were begun during a visit to England, made
in company with George Forster, the friend whose adven-
turous voyages and various books of travel had given
Humboldt from his earliest boyhood the keenest desire to
visit tropical lands, and see with his own eyes the exotic
floras and faunas which he described in such glowing
colours. The journal which records the experiences of
this tour gives evidence of the astonishing range of infor-
mation possessed at this time by Humboldt, who, true to
his destined vocation, set himself steadily to work to ob-
serve everything bearing upon the politico-economical
aspects of English life, although his scientific tastes are
perpetually cropping out in remarks upon the geological
features of the country. To this first experience of
English life and to the influence \exerted on his future
pursuits by intercourse with George Forster and his
friends, Humboldt long looked back with grateful
pleasure. Soon after his return to Germany he went to
Hamburg for the sake of attending lectures on currency,
book-keeping, and other practical branches of commercial
knowledge at the Academy of Commerce, which, under
the management of its chief professors, the jurists Busch
and Ebeling, was attracting the attendance of young men
preparing for a political career.

From Hamburg A. von Humboldt passed to the Frei-
berg School of Mines, where, under Werner, he prepared
himself for the special duties of the post of Assessor and
Superintendent of Mines to which he had for some time

NATURE

239

aspired, and which for a time after its attainment seemed
to him the realisation of all his wishes. No employé had
ever been more zealous, and all his reports were expansive
geognostic treatises on the districts he was called upon to
survey. The charm of novelty soon, however, wore off,
and then the complete stagnation, the systematised red-
tapeism, and the absolute dearth of intellectual or rational
interests belonging to Prussian Public Service in those
times, proved as unbearable to [Alexander as-they had
already become to his elder brother, and both ceased
their official connection with the State at the first moment
they could do so. Society in Berlin was equally distaste-
ful to them on account of the prejudice and etiquette by
which it was regulated, and after a prolonged and happy
sojourn at Jena and Weimar, the then active centres of
the true intellectual, zesthetical, and literary life of Ger-
many, Alexander proceeded, on the death of his mother
in 1796, to carry out his long-cherished dream of visiting
far distant. tropical regions. To prepare himself tho-
roughly for this purpose had been for years the object of
his studies, and few men were ever better fitted than him-
self for the end he had in view. To his other qualifica-
tions for becoming an efficient scientific traveller, he added
the possession of an almost unparalleled range of know-
ledge, including an intimate acquaintance with the cha-
racter, history, and resources of his own country, un-
bounded love of nature, unflinching perseverance, nearly
inexhaustible capacity for work, wide sympathies with his
fellow-men, a ready gift of pleasing and being pleased,
and an ardent, almost ideal enthusiasm, which found ex-
pression in his own favourite motto, “ Der Mensch muss
das Grosse und Gute wollen” (Man must strive after the
Great and the Good).

After oft repeated disappointments and many shat-
tered plans, A. v. Humboldt, in spite of the numerous
obstacles arising from the disturbed political condi-
tion of Europe at the time, achieved his long-
cherished project of visiting the New World, and in the
summer of 1799 he landed in South America. In the
following year he and his companion and friend,
Bonpland, plunged into the steaming forests of the
Orinoco, and bidding farewell to civilisation, threw
themselves into the work before them. An enormous
mass of specimens collected from every kingdom of
nature preceded A. v. H.’s return to Europe in 1804, and
gave the scientific world at home a faint foreshadowing
of the gigantic dimensions of the labours accomplished by
that indefatigable explorer. Paris was at that time the
only spot where a work such as he meditated could be
produced, and accordingly thither he repaired, and after
securing the co-operation of Cuvier, Latreille, and many
of the other leaders of science, proceeded to elaborate his
materials. The result of these combined labours was the
appearance, in 1807, of the magnificent work known as
“Voyage aux Régions equinoxiales du Nouveau
Continent fait dans les années 1799 4 1804, par A. de
Humboldt et A. Boupland.” The cost of bringing out
this colossal xész#zé of his American observations involved
Humboldt in pecuniary embarrassments, from which he
can scarcely be said ever to have freed himself, and
which had moreover the disastrous results of forcing him
to accept help at a subsequent period from the King of
Prussia ; and thus incur an obligation which he found

240

could only be redeemed by devoting himself to the
perpetual restraints of a court-life. The times were in-
auspicious to great literary or scientific undertakings, and
hence we cannot wonder that the “Voyages aux Rég.
Equinox.” should have proved pecuniarily a failure. At
that period of political inquietude and financial de-
pression in every part of the Continent, 290/. was a very
large sum to pay for any work, although, perhaps, not in
this case commensurate with the outlay, when we bear in
mind that the printing and paper alone had cost 840,000
francs, and that it contained more than 1,400 beautifully
coloured illustrations, and consisted of twenty folio and
ten quarto volumes, which were, moreover, divided into
five distinct parts, complete in themselves, and to be
purchased separately. Humboldt had started on his
travels with property realising about 500/. a year, but the
cost of his expedition and of publishing, added to the
war requisitions by which the value of his private property
had been materially injured, left him for a time on the
brink of absolute poverty. These temporary anxieties
had, however, little effect on his mental energies ; and
after the completion of his American voyage, he continued
for twenty years to reside at Paris, where his life was
passed in one incessant whirl of intellectual labour,
scientific discussions and social intercourse. Thus at one
time he would spend months together working with Guy
Lussac in the laboratory of the Ecole Polytechnique, at
another keeping watch day and night at the Observatory,
while he was always preparing fresh papers to read
before the Institute and other scientific associations, and
carrying one or more works contemporaneously through
the press. Besides these labours he had early entered

_ upon the study of the Oriental languages with the view
of undertaking a scientific expedition into Asia for the
purpose of collecting materials for a comparison between
the eastern and the western continents. This scheme
after many abortive attempts was finally carried out in
1829, when by the munificent aid cf the Prussian King
and the truly imperial liberality of the Emperor Nicholas,
Humboldt found himself able to penetrate at the head of
a carefully equipped scientific staff into the Steppes and the
remotest parts of Asiatic Russia. The cost of his journey
from Berlin to St. Petersburg and back was defrayed by
the Prussian Government, whilst a sum of 20,000 roubles
‘was placed at his disposal for his personal expenses by
the Emperor, on his arrival in Russia. The results of
this great expedition are of very inferior value to those
yielded by the American voyages of earlier years.

This comparative failure may be in part referred to the
short time—only nine months—devoted to the purpose,
during which the veteran traveller passed over nearly
12,000 miles of the Russian territory. The journey was
moreover a princely procession rather than a scientific
expedition.
taries, soldiers and police officers surrounded him, Go-
vernors of provinces, commandants of fortresses, super-
intendents of mines welcomed him with speeches and
reports whenever he appeared within the limits of their
jurisdiction. Generals supplied him with minutes of the
strength of the various brigades under their command,
while officers and men in dress uniforms saluted him in
military fashion as he passed their posts. At Miask
these military marks of respect culminated in the pre-

NATURE

Wherever he went crowds of local digni- .

rae SS ee ve"

[Fuly 24, 1873

sentation, by the directors of the mines, of a grand
cavalry sabre, in honour of his sixtieth birthday. The
learned bodies were equally on the alert to show him
respect. At Kasan, after incessant feasting and speechi-
fying, the Professors escorted him to his lodgings at
I A.M. in gala costume, and reappeared in the same attire.
at 4.30 A.M. to speed his departure to the next station,
After enduring a host of similarly oppressive social dis-
tinctions, which included at Jekatharinenburg the obliga-
tion of leading off a ball in a stately quadrille, and on the
Steppes at Orenburg the necessity of presiding over a
Kirghis festival at which the men ran races and the
Tartar Sultanas warbled sweet songs in his praise,
Humboldt had to encounter at Moscow one of the most
absurd ordeals to which the fame of his greatness exposed —
him. On his arrival he was invited to attend a special
meeting of the Physical Society, and duly made his
appearance at the University, holding in his hand the
paper he had prepared to read to the learned members
“On the deviation of the Magnet in the Ural.” The
court, passages, stairs, and halls were crowded with great
people, gorgeous with stars and orders, amongst whom
stood conspicuous the Professors, wearing long swords
girded to their sides, and three-cornered hats tucked
under their arms. Speeches of welcome in German,
French, and Latin from the Governor-General, the chief
clergy, and the deans of the various faculties had to be
heard and replied to, and instead of engaging in scientific
discussion on magnetic aberration, Humboldt had to
listen to a Russian poem in which he was hailed as
Prometheus, and to examine a plait of Peter the Great’s
hair, which was solemnly presented for inspection by the
Rector of the University. The “Asie Centrale” and a
few very fragmentary works were the immediate results
of this most oppressively-honoured expedition, from
which, satiated with ceremonials and respect, Humboldt
had, in the winter of the same year, 1829, returned to
Berlin, which thenceforth to the end of his long life in
1859 became his home, :
To fully understand the sacrifices to expediency and
to the obligations of gratitude made by Humboldt in
accepting the position of what may best be termed an
honorary affache to his own Court and Sovereign, one re-
quires to read with attention the pictures drawn in these
volumes of society in the Prussian capital during the
earlier half of this century. But it would scarcely, per-
haps, be possible in the present changed position of
Prussia to realise the deadness and stagnation that then
hovered over every phase of social life. Humboldt, who
from the year 1809, when he accompanied the Prince of
Prussia to Paris in the capacity of friendly and official
adviser, had repeatedly been entrusted with diplomatic
and other honourable missions by the Sovereign, enter- —
tained a warm regard for the different members of the
Royal family, while his relations to the late King Frede-
rick William IV. were those of a long-tried, affectionate
friendship. These feelings undoubtedly softened the
hardships of the courtly bondage in which he spent his
last thirty years, but though they may have gilded the
bitter pill, they scarcely made it palatable; and Hum-
boldt’s voluminous correspondence at Berlin bears ample ~
testimony to the struggle which was going on within
himself to keep in check his contempt for Courts, his

-recommendations authoritative,
brethren a striking example of patient, persevering in-
dustry in trying to keep pace with the rapid progress of

oe
, ‘)

‘uly 24, 1873]

natural proclivity to sarcasm, and his impatience of

routine constraints. With the view of trying to leaven

the dead mass around him, and to awaken some interests
apart from everyday life, he gave popular lectures to the
upper classes, which ultimately resolved themselves into

that very attractive—if slightly prolix—résumd of his
_ knowledge, observations, and speculations, which we know

under the title of “ The Cosmos.” And while he laboured
assiduously to exercise his influence for the endowment

of scientific institutions of all kinds, and the encourage-

ment of learning and learned men, not only in Germany,
but in every country where his reputation made his
he set his scientific

inquiry,and of humblereadiness in renouncing old opinions
whenever he found that they had been superseded by
more correct views.

To the English reader interested in tracing the progress
of scientific and social development in Germany and
other parts of the Continent during the close of the last
and the first half of the present century, the “ Life of A.

von Humboldt, by Bruhns and Lassell,” cannot fail to
_ prove at once instructive and suggestive.

STIRLING’S “ PHILCSOPHY OF LAW”

Leatures on the Philosophy of Law. Together with

Whewell and Hegel, and Hezel and Mr. W. R. Smith,

a Vindication in a Physico-Mathematical regard. By

James Hutchinson Stirling, F.R.C.S, and LL.D. Edin.

(London: Longmans, 1873 )

HIS volume contains certain lectures on the Philo-
sophy of Law, delivered to the Juridical Society of
Edinburgh in November 1871, together with a discussion
of Hegel’s opinions concerning gravitation and the differ-
ential calculus. Of the lectures we may say, that if the
members of the Juridical Society understood them, they
must be much more clever than we profess to be. The
first lecture is an introduction to philosophy in general,
that is, the philosophy of Hegel. It expounds the doc-
trine of the #o¢ion, and discloses in the briefest possible
space the “secret of Hegel.” Mr. Stirling has already
written a work of two substantial octavo volumes, entitled
“The Secret of Hegel.” A friend of the author being
found reading it, and being asked what he thought of the
* Secret,” answered, “ Why, I think the author has kept
it.” If then the secret cannot be disclosed in two volumes,
how did Mr, Stirling hope to make it plain in a lecture
occupying only fifteen printed pages? In reading this
lecture we did not enjoy for a single moment the feeling
of solid ground. We had an impression that we under-
steod what logic was until we met with the following
passage :—

“ Hegel’s system, as is now pretty well known, is con-
tained in three great spheres—the Science of Logic, the
Philosohpy of Nature, and the Philosophy of Spirit.
Here we see at once that what we have before us is the
Notion. Logic is the universal ; Nature is the particular ;
and Spirit is the singular. Logic, having developed into
full Zdea, passes into the particular as the particular, into
externalisation as externalisation, in Nature ; and Nature,
rising and collecting itself, through sphere after sphere,

‘from externality itself in the form of space, up to natural

NATURE

241

internality in the form of organic life, passes into the Soul,
which is the first form of Spirit. The instrument of the
evolution all along, we are to understand, is the Vo/ion,
in its three Moments” (p. 15).

So long as Hegel and his satellite Stirling kept to the
notion and its three moments in the abstract, they are
impregnable and unapproachable, like those fishes which
are said to make the water muddy all around when an
enemy is near. It was when Hegel ventured out of his
own mists that he showed his extreme fallibility. Having
applied his “notion” to the theory of gravitation, he dis-
covered that Newton was wrong in asserting the curve of
motion of a gravitating particle to be any conic section,

“‘Hegel’s idea certainly is that the ellipse is a necessary
outcome of ¢ke notion on this the stage of free motion
according to the relations of time and space as moments,
If planets do move in circles, or even if planets might
move in circles, Hegel would here have to confess a
failure. It would be his metaphysic that in that event
would suffer, however, rather than his knowledge of
physics. In the meantime, the fact is that the curve of
movement still remains an ellipse, and Hegel so far is
not in error” (p. 99).

Now, inasmuch as the circle is only the extreme case
of an ellipse possessing no eccentricity, it is just as likely
that a planet would move ina circle as in any one definite
ellipse ; but astronomers could never discriminate with
certainty between a circle and an ellipse of very slight
eccentricity ; and so far Hegel escapes absolute conflict
with fact. Unfortunately, however, it is known that cer-
tain comets move in hyperbolic paths (see Chambers’
“ Handbook of Descriptive and Practical Astronomy,” p,
203, 1861), and as the ellipse is the wecessary outcome of
Hegel’s notion, we think he must suffer both in his meta.
physics and his physics. ;

In Mr. Stirling’s controversy with Mr. W. R. Smith
concerning Hegel’s notion of the differential calculus, we
also think that Hegel suffers. The critical statement of
the necessary outcome of Hegel’s philosophy is as follows
(p. 113) :—

“ The limit of a qualitative relation is that in which it
both is and is not, or, more accurately, that in which the
quantum has disappeared, and there remains the relation
only as qualitative relation of quantity.”

Now the very essence of the differential calculus con-
sists in the fact that quantities, although indefinitely
decreasing, or vanishing, as the expression is, preserve all
their quantitative relations. Mr. Stirling says (p. 114) :—

“ What is called infinitely /¢¢/e is only qualitative, and
is neither little nor great, nor quantitative at all.”

On the contrary, the very principle of the calculus is
that infinitely little magnitudes are still comparatively
little or great, and preserve all their quantitative relations,
so that differential co-efficients, or the ratios of such
infinitesimals, are definite numbers.

As Hegel’s “notion” here again comes into conflict
with all that is best established in abstract mathematical
science, we must decline to follow Mr. Stirling through
his generally incomprehensible vindications of Hegel.
When Hegel's philosophy breaks down so sadly at the
slightest touch of fact, can we waste our own time, or that
of our readers, with endeavouring to attach a meaning to
pages of this kind of philosophy ?—

“ The outside darvshauung being viewed as the con-

242

NATURE

[Fuly 24, 1873

tinuum, the regula may be regarded-as the discretum ;
but it were a false conception, that of the continuum as
made up of an infinite number of discre¢a (regule) infi
nitely small. Such continuum is but the exemflification,
proexumbration, externalisation of the regula,” &c. (p.
116.) Winds

OUR BOOK SHELF

Sunior Course of Practical Chemistry. By H. E. Roscoe,
B.A., F.R.S., &c., and Francis Jones. (London : Mac-
millan and Co.)

THE work now before us represents the course of practical
chemistry carried out by students entering the Owens
College Laboratory. It commences with the preparation
of the ordinary gases, which are, if anything, too shortly
described ; and then proceeds to the subject of blowpipe
analysis and the preliminary examination of simple sub-
stances, and afterwards to the reactions of metals,
&c., and qualitative analysis itself. The book does not
deal in any way with theoretical chemistry, but the student
is referred to Prof. Roscoe’s “Lessons in Elementary
Chemistry” for any explanation of this kind. This, of
course, necessitates a considerable amount of extra read-
ing, more particularly in the earlier portions of the book.
The course of qualitative analysis, and so forth, through
which the student has to pass, seems to be very similar
to that which is now in use in most of our laboratories.

The various experiments, reactions, &c., are as a rule
clearly described, but we notice one or two which would
undoubtedly be better for some slight alteration and ad-
dition ; thus, on p. 59, we find the following given as a
method of testing for Baric sulphate :—‘‘ Barium sulphate
fused with Na, Co, and HCl added, yields BaCl, (flame
coloration green), precipitated by SrSo, solution.” Now
we think that there is a strong probability that a student
proceeding as directed in the book would again form the
original Baric sulphate, and he would certainly not obtain
any precipitate with Strontic sulphate solution, and
probably would not obtain the green colouration. The
same method is also given for the detection of Strontic
sulphate. Another instance in which we think that clear-
ness has perhaps been sacrificed to brevity is in Table A,
but with a teacher at hand there need be little fear but
that the student will easily overcome such minor difficulties.
In fact the book is written with the desire to aid the
teacher in his work, and not to dispense with his ser-
vices altogether ; in the former we think the book is very
successful, but we do not believe that a student could well
work through the book without such aid.

A number of well-selected questions is appended at the
end of the book. They seem well adapted to test the
student’s knowledge of his work, and will in this way con-
siderably lighten the teacher’s labours.

We must also not forget to mention in terms of high
praise the three short rules for the guidance of students,
which are appended by Prof. Roscoe at the end of the
preface, and we hope that every student who works by
this volume will lay them to heart, and practise them
with all sincerity.

The title of this book, “ Junior Course,” &c. scarcely
conveyed to our minds exactly what we have found the
book to be. It is more advanced than we anticipated,
and yet, perhaps, it is not a thoroughly complete manual
of qualitative analysis, although nearly so; but we must
still thank the authors for a clear and succinct little
manual, which will no doubt prove very useful to both
teachers and students,

The Philosophy of Evolution. An Actonian Prize
Essay. By B. T. Lowne. (Van Voorst.)

THe author of this short sketch of the theory of evolu-
tion is already favourably known by his treatise on the

anatomy of the Blow-fly, a strictly anatomical work,
abounding in detail, and not going beyond the region of
fact. We can scarcely congratulate him, however, on
the success of his theoretical attempts, as many of them
are but weakly based, and others lead to very unreason-
able deductions.

In the discussion of the variations which, according to
the Darwinian hypothesis, give rise to the development —
of new forms, Mr. Lowne terms the greater tendency
possessed, as he states, by some animals, to vary,
plasticity, and the less tendency among others, rigidity ; and
he considers that these characters, plasticity and rigidity,
are capable of being transmitted from generation to
generation like other hereditary characters. At first
sight this may appear highly probable, but to any one
who considers the subject, it will be evident that it is
based on an erroneous conception of the nature of that
so frequently employed, but still ill-understood expression,
variation. For the assumption of the existence of a
struggle, together with the concomitant “ Survival of the
Fittest,” means that the possible variation in a particular
advantageous direction is tending to a limit, or in other
words, that the continuation of the struggle is. correlated
with a tendency to the reduction to a minimum of the
power to vary, for directly any advantageous tendency is
developed, it is immediately run upon and exhausted.

The chapter on nutrition contains more than one pro- -
position open to criticism; the function is incorrectly
defined, and the ultimate destination of foods which is
said to be in three directions, namely of nutrition, energy,
and excretion, is very misleading. But it is in the expla-
nation of the formation of the antlers of the Deer that a
theory is given, which is not exceeded in rashness and
lack of foundation by any lately put before the scientific
world ; the following is a sketch of the argument :—
Herbivorous animals, specially ruminants, take into their
system a superabundance of salines, the excess of which
the kidney is not sufficiently developed to eliminate ;
consequently, on an axiom laid down by Sir J. Paget
(who would be one of the first to object to this abuse
of his words) that every part of the body may be looked
upon as an excretion to every other part in highly
complex organisms, this excess is got rid of by the
development of the antlers, which contain a large amount
of calcium salt, and are shed every year: the females
have no horns, because in them the excess of salts is
employed in the formation of the bones of their progeny.
Such being the case, we do not know how Mr. Lowne
explains the elimination of the salts in the Cavicorn
ruminants, and their non-development in the males of
all other herbivorous animals.

We cannot agree with our author in his attempt to
derive all the higher forms of animal life from aquatic
ancestors. Upon this supposition he attempts to prove
that the Penguins and Auks belong to the early type of
birds, and that they show marked reptilian affinities, but —
as they do nothing of the kind, his endeavour is worse than
feeble. We are quite unable to see how the view “ that the
aquatic penguins belong to an early type of birds has
been materially strengthened of late by Professor Marsh’s
remarkable discovery of an Ichthyornid type of birds in
the Cretaceous shales of Kansas.”

The elaborate markings of the flint shields of the
Radiolaria and Diatomacez being somewhat like the
curves which are produccd on the surface of a vibrating
metal plate, on which sand has been scattered, we are
told that “nothing appears more probable than that
similar points of vibration and rest exist upon the surface
of these shield-forming organisms, and that the excreted
silica which forms their shields comes to rest at the nodal _
points.” This explanation is bold, to say the least, con-
sidering the very different circumstances under which the
results are produced. Mr. Lowne should try to produce
the curves or the vibrating metal plate under water.

;
t
:
b

+?
ee

ee

NATURE

243

Natural Theology being the subject for which this
essay obtained a prize, some of its dogmas are shortly
discussed. In answer to the statement that the hypo-
thesis of a soul is objectionable ‘on the ground that it is
not known to exist in nature, and cannot, therefore, be
known to be capable of producing the effects ascribed to
it,” it is shown “ that when the effects are such that they
cannot be produced by any known cause, they must re-
sult from an unknown cause or causes capable of produc-
ing the effects ascribed to them.” However, in an earlier
part of the work it is remarked that Mr. Darwin has
done injustice to his theory by comparing it to the undu-
latory theory of light, because the latter assumes the
existence of an ether, which is an unknown agent. It is
therefore to be inferred that the Darwinian hypothesis
is on a better basis than that of the existence of a soul,
from the perusal of an Actonian Prize essay !

Light Science jor Leisure Hours. Second Series. Fami-
liar Essays on Scientific Subjects, Natural Phenomena,
&c., with a Sketch of the Life of Mary Somerville. By
Richard A. Proctor, B.A. Camb., Honorary Secretary
of the Royal Astronomical Society, author of “ The
Sun,” “ Other Worlds,” “ Saturn,” “ Essays on Astro-
nomy,” “ The Orbs around Us,” &c. (Longmans, 1873.)

THE essays in this volume have already appeared in

various journals. Besides the life of Mrs. Somerville, the

volume contains the following :—“ The coming Transit
of Venus, and British Preparations for observing it ;”

“The Ever-widening World of the Stars ;” “ Movements

in the Star-depths ;” “ The great Nebula in Orion ;” “ The

Sun’s True Atmosphere ;” “Something Wrong with the

Sun ;” an article occasioned by the intense heat of July

last year; “ News from Herschel’s Planet ;” “ The two

Comets of the Year 1868 ;” “ Comets of Short Period ;”

“The Gulf Stream,” “ Oceanic Circulation,” “ Addendum

in Reply to Dr. Carpenter ;’ “Climate of Great Britain ;”

“ Low Barometer of the Antarctic Temperate Zone.”

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice ts taken of anonymous
communications. |
The Pay of Scientific Men

Tr is unfortunately too true, as stated in your last week’s leading
article, that whether the claims of men of Science in serving
their country are generally acknowledged in the future must to
a large extent depend upon the men of Science themselves. I
say unfortunately because, as a general rule, such claims, at least
as far as pecuniary rewards go, could not be left in worse hands.
I know so well how utterly repugnant it is to the feelings of all
true and earnest workers in Science even to speak of such
matters, however much they may be compelled to feel them
sometimes, that they will be the last to force public attention to
the question, Though this may be a natural and honvurable
feeling as far as each individual is concerned, I cannot help
thinking that it is one which for the sake of the Science they

loye, it is a duty to place, for the time at least, in abeyance.
Very much has been said and written of late about the ‘‘ En-
dowment of Scientific Research.” I, for one, hold what you
would probably consider rather heretical views on the subject,
believing that the ‘‘ protesters ” against the report of the Com-
mittee on the Organisation of Academical Study, as well as the
writer of your recent articles on the subject, are rather running
the risk of losing a very substantial and comparatively easily
attainable method of reaching the end we all have in view,
whilst so keenly pursuing a very shadowy ideal. I think that
Scientific Research can be endowed indirectly, so effectually and
at comparatively so little trouble in overcoming old prejudices,
and all the various obstacles to radical changes of organisation

who have its promotion at heart. The far more difficult question of
direct endowment will follow more appropriately and be carried out
more efficiently when the body of educated scientific men in the
country is larger than it is now, and the public generally, espe-
cially those in high places, have more appreciation of the claims
of Science for its own sake.

The educated men of Szience in this country are still but a
handful ; we want more, and there is but one way of obtaining
them. Pay them better for their work, that it may be worth
while for parents to allow their sons of promise to take up a
scientific calling. What our Universities and to a certain extent
our Government are now beginning to do to encourage scientific
education, viz. offering prizes, scholarships, and even fellowships
is a delusion and a snare, unless followed up by something more
substantial.

There will never be wanting young minds ardent enough to
commence the pursuit of Science for its own attractions, but it
is positive cruelty to lure them on by bribes further in a path
which will only lead them to the edge of a precipice or into a
morass of hopeless difficulties. To be supported in a scientific
pursuit when young, is of very doubtful advantage, if you are to
find yourself landed in middle or old age, encompassed by all
the stern realities of life and all the needs engendered by our
complicated social system, with only the miserable and preca-
rious pittance now accorded even to some of the most able
veterans of Science. It is this which naturally and rightly dis-
courages scientific research in this country ; and it is this which
could to a large extent be so easily remedied.

The urgent want is better paid appointments which can be
held by men of high scientific attainments, more especially pro -
fessorships at the Universities. I must confess that I am not
one of those who think that a moderate amount of teaching work
or even official duties of a scientific nature is any hindrance to a
life of healthy and genuine advancement of Science by original
research. On the contrary, ‘they may be (if not overdone, as
usually is the case in this country) rather an assistance ; but that
is a long question which I need not discuss on the present occa.
sion,

As such appointments would probably only be given to those
who had already shown evidence of their ability by their contri-
butions to knowledge (and this will be more and more the case
as the number of available candidates increases, and public
opinion forms itself in such matters) the prospect of attaining one
would be the greatest possible stimulus to scientific research in
young men. Scholarships and Fellowships are valuable adjuncts
to the training of such men, but nothing more. What I contend
for is that if Science, as a profession, is to compete in its attrac-
tion with other callings, as law, medicine, the civil services, to
say nothing of trade, we must provide far more liberally than at
present for the endowment of the later half of the lives of those
that follow it. That a man should be able to grow wealthy by
Science is not asked for, probably not to be desired. The ad-
vantages and pleasures of a life devoted to scientific pursuits are
such that for myself (and probably most others would say the
same) I would prefer them with a simple competency—by which
I mean sufficient to join freely in intellectual society and to give
one’s children a good education—to the wealth of a millionaire
acquired in any other way.

But in the present condition of things Science does not even
do this, at least for the branches with which I am best ac-
quainted. Some pursuits, such as chemistry, which bear more
directly on the arts and commerce, stand on a different footing ;
but in biological Science I do not know of a position in the
kingdom to which a man, however distinguished he may be in
his subject, can aspire, in which he can live as I have described,
unless aided by independent means.

To remedy this we want no new organisations ; nothing, in

which I need not specify, that this should be the first object of all } act, but the simplest and most intelligible change in the present

244

state of things.
to increase the pay of all its scientific officers, such as the As-
tronomer Royal, the Director of Kew Gardens, and especially
the Curators of the British Museum referred to in your
article.

Secondly, the Universities, as bodies specially interested in
the advancement of learning, and having (at least in the revenues
of the Colleges) immense resources at their disposal which could
legitimately be devoted to such purposes, ought to lose no time
in largely increasing the number and the emoluments of their
scientific professors, as has been so long and ably urged by the
Rector of Lincoln College.

Lastly, certain still more strictly scientific bodies, who have
in their own hands the appointment and pay of their fellow-
workers, are especially concerned in showing their appreciation
of their services, as it may fairly be taken as a standard by which
the other cases may be judged. It is gratifying to find that in
some of these bodies a liberal spirit is spontaneously showing
itself, as in the case of the one with which [ have the advantage
of being associated. The Council of the Zoological Society is
another example, although even here it takes time to shake off
the narrow spirit of illiberality or economy which has so long
prevailed in such matters. We think nothing (and very pro-
perly) of paying a judge or a bishop 5,000/. a year, buta fifth
part of that sum for a first-class scientific man suill seems to many
a preposterous extravagance. There are many societies which,
being mainly supported by scientific men themselves, are unfortu-
nately without the means of doing justice to their officers, how-
ever much it might be their wish; but I cannot conclude with-
out referring to one body which I think really might be expected
to set a better example—a body composed solely of scientific
men of the highest character, who have the nearly uncontrolled
use of a large sum of public money to spend in carrying out a
great scientific object ; [ mean the Meteorological Committee of
the Royal Society. Whatever the committee may do personally
in the way of suggestion and guidance, the real efficiency of the
operations carried out under their care must depend upon the
chief executive scientific officers. The committee, in fixing the
proportion of the 10,000/. annually placed at their dispo-al by
Parliament, which is devoted to the remuneration of these
officers, afford, I am afraid, an illustration of what I stated in
the beginning of this letter, that scientific men are not the best
fitted to take care of their interests or those of their class.
Eight hundred and four hundred a year respectively for the Land
and Marine Superintendents of the departments, are considered
by the committee as sufficient remuneration for such responsible
posts. If a budy of the first scientific men in the land think it
is so, who can wonder that very unscientific Lords of the Trea-
sury should be of the same mind. Doubiless it was with some
fear of the same Lords in their eyes, that the committee fixed the
lowest po sible standard at which they thought they could get
the work done. Happily for themselves and the country, they
found competent amateurs willing to undertake it ; but from such
a body a cifferent line of action might be expected ; they should
lead, not follow, the instincts of Chancellors of the Exchequer ia
such matters. If scientific men are reluctant to speak on such
topics fur themselves, the love:s of Science among men of in-
fluence, wealth, and position, are the more bound to speak for
them.

July 25 W. H. Flower

Habits of Ants
SoME months ago (vol. vii. p. 443) I sent you an extract from
a letter from Mr. Hague, a geologist residing in California, who
gave me a very curious account of the terrifying effect on the
other ants of the sight of a few which he had killed on one of
their paths. Mr, Traherne Moggridge saw this account in

NATURE

|
In the first place the Government ought at once

[Fuly

24, 1873

Nature, and wrote to me that he had heard from a gentleman
who had lived in Australia that merely drawing a finger
across the path deters ants from crossing the line.

Mr. Moggridge tried this experiment with some ants a

Mentone with similar effects. I therefore sent the letter to Mr.
Hague, and asked him to observe whether his ants were alarmed
by the smell left by the finger, or were really terrified by the
sight of their dead and dying comrades, The case appears
curious, as I believe no one has ever observed an invertebrate
animal realising danger by seeing the corpses of a fellow species.
It is indeed very doubtful whether the higher animals can draw
any such inferences from the sight ; but I believe that everyone
who has had experience in trapping animals is convinced that
individuals who have never been caught learn that a trap is
dangerous by seeing others caught.

Here follows Mr. Hague’s letter, fully confirming his former
statement. CHARLES DARWIN

‘By a somewhat singular coincidence the first reappearance,
since last winter, of any ants in the room where I then observed
them occurred on the day when your last note arrived, —that is,
afcer an interval of several months. Then a few were observed
about the tumbler at the micdle of the shelf and the vase at the
other end from that whence they were first driven, although they
ali came from a hole near the base of the mantel, directly
beneath the vase which they avoided.

“* Acting on Mr. M's. suggestion, I first tried making simple
finger marks on their path (the mantel is of marble) and found
just the resul's which he describes in his note, as observed by
himself at Mentone, that is, no marked symptoms of fear, but a
dislike to the spot and an effort to avoid it by going around it,
or by turning back and only crossing it again after an interval of
time.

**T then killed several ants on the path, using a smooth stone
or a piece of ivory, instead of my finger, to crush them. In this
case the ants approaching all turned back as before and with
much greater exhibition of fear than when the simple finger-
marks was mude. This I did repeatedly. The final result was
the same as obtained last winter. They persisted in coming for
a week or two, curing which I continued to kill them, and then
they disappeared and we haveseen none since. It would appear
from this that while the taint of the hand is sufficient to turn
them back, the killing of their fellows, with a stone or other
material, produces the effects described in my first note, This
was made clear to meat that time from the behaviour of the
ants the first day that I killed any, for on’ that occasion some of”
them approaching the vase irom below, on reaching the upper
edge of the mantel, peeped over and drew back on seeing what
had happened about the vase, then turned away a little and after
a moment tried again at another and another point along the
edge with the same resut in the end. Moreover, those that
found themselves among the dead and dying, went from one
writhing ant to another in great haste and excitement, exhibiting
the sigas of fright which I de-cribed. ’

‘*T hardly hope that any will return again, but if they do, and
give me an opportunity, I shall endeavour to act further on
Mr. M’s. suggestion. “James D, HaGuUE”

San Francisco, June 26

Fertilisation of Viola tricolor and V. cornuta

ALLOW me to thank Mr. Kitchener for his correction of my
spelling. What I object to ia the word ‘* be-pollen” is the harsh
combination of syllables, which I should have thought would be
offensive to any ears, whether scientific or not. The word
“pollen,” used as a verb, would be free from this fault, and —
would be objectionable chiefly from the possibility of confusion —
arising from the novelty of its use in this sense, Neither of these
objections could apply to Mr. Kitchener’s term ‘‘be-dust,” but
why coin a new word when a simpler one exists ready-made?
Does not the ordinary English verb ‘‘to dust” equally give the
exact meaning of destauben ? I cannot, however, agree with Mr,
Kitchener that it would be more expressive than ‘‘ pollinate,” as,
unlike the Germans, we do not habitually use the word “dust” as
a synonym for ‘‘pollen.” I have no wish to dispute Mr.
Benneit’s conclusion that Vio/a tricolor is very commonly fer-
tilised by ‘‘ very minute insects of the Thrips kind,” but only to

Y

‘

2
«
be

—

,

"¢

Fuly 24, 1873)

point out that in its whole structure the flower seems rather
_ adapted for cross-impregnation by larger insects, and that at
_ least some varieties are attractive to humble-bees, On this view,
_ the opening between the two lower anthers, described by Mr.
_ Kitchener, is necessary for the escape of the pollen, which falls,
according to Hildebrand, without the help of insects, into the

_ groove beneath, where it is held by the Jining hairs until removed

by insects. Besides humble-bees, I have seen the small cabbage
_ butterfly (Pieris rape) sucking the flowers of a cultivated pansy.
With regard to V. cornuta, besides the absence of the black
mark on the style, mentioned by Mr. Kitchener, which is not
universally present in V. ¢ricolor, it differs from the latter in the
uniform size of the unvariegated, pale blue, or white flowers, the
somewhat looser disposition of the petals, the great length of the
spur, and the sweetness of the flowers at night, all characters
_ leading to the belief that it is, in fact, a pansy (if I may use the
word in a sub-generic sense), adapted to uniform conditions of life,
_and to fertilisation by /Voctuide. A comparison of the present
condition of two beds of this species in our garden, in connection
_ with their surroundings, helps to strengthen this belief, of the
practical truth of which I have been able to satisfy myself by
the capture of Cuct/lia umbratica in the act of sucking the
flowers. One of these beds, in an exposed part of the garden
_ little frequented by moths (as I can testify from long experience),
- still displays a profusion of blossoms in all their virgin beauty,
with only a few small capsules among them ; in the other, ina
sheltered nook, an old favourite ‘‘ mothing-ground,” the flowers

are mostly past their prime, and a great number of well-filled

capsules arejalready formed. By day I have seen the flowers
visited by a few humble-bees, which seemed to have difficulty
in reaching the nectar, and by the meadow-butterfly (ipparchia
Fanira). Hosts of small flies run over the petals in bright sun-
shine, but rarely attempt to enter the nectary, and I have never
seen such an attempt succeed. A remarkably long-beaked fly
which I watched feeding on the pollen, as it repeatedly inserted
and withdrew its proboscis, must probably have left some of the
flower's own pollen on the stigma. W. E. Hart
Kilderry, Co. Donegal, June 22

Spots on the Cherry-laurel

CAN any of your readers tell me of what use to the plants are
the small spots—glands I suppose—on the back of the laurel-
leaf near the bottom of the rib? Sometimes there are two pairs,”
sometimes one ; but no leaves seem to be without them. They
are most apparent in the young leaves. They evidently contain
something delectable to the bees, which frequent the laurels very
much this year, and always fly to these spots upon the leaves ;
and the microscope shows a drop of liquid. ‘J. M. H.

Sidmouth

Your correspondent means, “I suppose, the cherry-laurel.
His observation is quite correct ; such glands are to be found in
similar situations on other leaves. I know of no explanation of
their purpose or origin. W. T. THISELTON DYER

Turnham Green, July ro

Halomitra

THERE is a singular morphological coincidence between the
specimen of Orditoliles tenuissimus Carpenter, figured on p. 91
of ‘*The Depths of the Sea,” and several specimens which I
have seen of the corallum of a species of the Aungia group,
genus Halomitra Dana. The Orézfolites has the appearance of
having been developed on a nucleus formed by a frustum of a
former specimen. ‘The outer rings are altogether unconformable
with those of the truncated segment composing the nucleus ; and
it is somewhat interesting to notice, as illustrated by the figure
in Prof. Wyville Thomson’s work, how the growth of the
Foraminifer, oppressed at the corners and advancing Jer saltum
at the excavated sides, has shaped itself towards the completion
of its normal disc-like form.

An appearance precisely similar has come under my notice in
the corallum of Ha/omitra. Two specimens in the Free Public
Museum, Liverpool, from the Solomon Islands, exhibit this
peculiarity, and of about eight or ten other specimens seen by
myself, I cannot recollect more than one in which the large
frustum of a former corallum, constituting an unconformable

~ nucleus, did not distinctly appear.
In a single case the presumption would be altogether in favour

NATURE

245

of attributing the peculiarity to an accidental fracture of a former
corallum ; but its frequent occurrence suggests that it may be
worth while to inquire into the possibility of spontaneous fission
taking place in the adult Ha/omitra. Some of the Fungide are
said to possess powers of limited locomotion. It is quite con-
ceivable that a great extension of size in the coral might interfere
with its mobility and render division advantageous. That the
Zoantharian Actinozoa are able to re-absorb solid portions of
their coralla is variously illustrated, no example being more
familiar than that of the young of several species of Fumngia,
which are attached to the under side of the parent polype by a
strong neck of ccenenchyme, which is subsequently absorbed
and the young are liberated.
Rainhill

Henry H. Hiccins

Periodicity of Rainfall

I HAVE observed in recent numbers of NATURE a discussion
upon the subject of the Periodicity of Rainfall, and its connection
with sun-spots, and I hoped by an examination of the Rainfall
Returns of this island (Barbados), which I have collected for
30 years, 1843 to 1872, to have been able to confirm the theory
broached by Mr. Meldrum and Mr, N. Lockyer, which is so
interesting in itself, and might lead to such important results.
But assuming that sun-spots affect all parts of the globe equally,
and that periodicity prevails in all alike, the experience of Bar-
bados is opposed to the theory, and I am led to the conclusion
that it was ‘‘ chance alone” that led to the coincidences noticed
by Mr. Symons in his letter published in vol. viii. p. 143.

In the following calculation I state the years separately in
order to show that not only the triennial and quinquennial
averages, but the individual years, contradict the theory. I am
able to furnish six periods—three of maximum and three of
minimum sun-spots. Of the triennial averages two of each show
an absolute equality ; in the third the rainfail is in an oposite
proportion to the sun-spots. The quinquennial averages do not
materially disturb those results. As regards individual years,
the rainfall was much above the average in two of the minimum
sun-spot years ; and was above it only in one of the maximum
sun-spot years; in the second it was an average ; in the third
it was excessively below it. The average of the island for 25
years, from 1847 to 1871, is 57°74 inches, based upon the mean
of 3 stations in 1843, and increasing to 141 in 1871.

Yearly Average of Average of
Rainfall. 3 years, 5 years.
43 45°31
Minimum 1844 74°45 54°56
45 43°91
46 65°82
47 48°10
Maximum 1848 63°77 54°86 59°67
49 52°77
50 67°88
54 50°38
ee 55 77°31
Minimum 1856 48°49 62:23 56°56
57 60°90
58 45°22
58 45°22
59 56'22
Maximum 1860 57°91 61°98 58'09
61 73°82
62 59°27
65 68°64.
66 59°68
Minimum 1867 69°93 58°07 58°27
68 44°60
69 48°52
69 48°52
7° 60°17
Maximum = =1871 41°46 50°00 52°71
72 48°39
73 65°00

T hie ventured to estimate the rainfall of the present year
with much confidence upon the data given in the accompanying
notics, with which I need not trouble your readers.

_ Barbados Rawson W, RAwson

246

NOTES FROM THE “CHALLENGER”
IV.

‘Oe Saturday, the 15th of March, before going into the
harbour of St. Thomas, a sounding was taken in 450
fathoms off the island of Sombrero. The bottom
brought up by the sounding machine was globi-
gerina mud largely mixed with broken shells, chiefly
those of pteropods. The dredge was put over early, and
veered to 1009 fathoms, At noon it was hauled up half

Ly

a
Ee
B
z
aS

Fic. 1.—Astacus Zaleucus, v. W.-S.

filled with calcareous ooze. It was again sent down, and
brought up early in the afternoon with a like freight.
These dredgings, which we did not regard as entering into
the regular work of the sections, but which were only
undertaken to give us a general idea of the deep-water
fauna of the West Indian province, may be taken in con-
nection with one or two hauls taken with the same object
and under the same circumstances, in waters of nearly
equal depth on the 25th of March, after leaving St

NATURE
mT

| Fuly 24, 1873

Thomas. The careful examination of this zone, between
300 and 1,200 fathoms among the West Indian Islands,
will undoubtedly add enormously to zoological knowledge.
The objects of the present expedition do not, of course,
include a detailed investigation of this kind, which must
be done quietly in a small steamer, by some one on the
spot, and will require the patient work of several years.
Even the few hauls of the dredge*which we had it in our
power to make, brought to light a number of new and
highly interesting forms, representing nearly all the in-
vertebrate groups. A thorough investigation of the belt
must yield a wonderful harvest. F
In those dredgings on the 15th we got several sponges
belonging to the Hexactinellide, very closely allied to

Fic. 2.—Salenica Varispina, A. Ag.

those which we had previously met with in moderately
deep water oft the coast of Portugal, showing that the
distribution of this remarkable order in deep water is
very wide. Several stony corals occurred, but of all
these, with the exception of a species of Sty/aster, which
was very abundant at this station, we got better examples
on a subsequent occasion. The Sty/astey agrees ve
closely with the description and figure given by Pourtalés
of S. complanatus. The only marked difference is that
the primary and secondary septa do not unite to the same
extent as shown in the figure.

In this dredging two very interesting crustaceans —
occurred, both belonging to the decapod family Astacide,

\Fuly 24, 1873]

nd both participating in a singular deficiency, the total
Ibsence of eyes. One of these has been referred by Dr.
. Willemoes-Suhm to his genus Deidamia, It agrees
jwith the species described in my former report in all its
Jeiding characters, although certaia marked differences
must lead to a slizht modification of the characters of the
genus as formerly defined. In Detdamia leptodactyla
all the five pairs of ambulatory legs bear chelz, while it
is a character of the typical Astacide that chelz are
present on three pairs only. In the new species there are
chelz on four pairs of the ambulatory legs, the fifth pair
ending in simple curved claws. The two species agree
with one another, and with Aszacus, in possessing a
lamellar appendage at the base of the outer antennz,
and with this they have the flattened carapace of
‘Palinurus, These characters have not been hitherto
observed in combination, and their so occurring seems
to be a more valuadle generic character thau the variable
one of the form of the limbs. The character of this
genus will now stand thus :—

Deidamia.—Cephalothorax flattened, with a com-
pressed free lateral margin. A lamellar appendage at

Fic. 3.—Hyalonema Toxeres, Wyville Thomson (Upper surface of
sponge body).

base of each of the outer antennz. Swimmerets, consist-
ing of three joints with two palpi. No trace of eyes or of
eyestalks.

D. leptodactyla v. W.-S.—All
bearing chelz.,

D. crucifer v. W.-S.—Four pairs of the ambulatory
feet bearing chele.

As in D. leptodactyla, not only are the eyes and eye-
stalks absent, but there is no indication of a space for
their accommodation in the position in which eyes are
normally developed.

Deidamia crucifer certainly differs widely in general
appearance from the recent Astacidz, at the end of which
family we should, however, be inclined to place it for the
present, It has avery close resemblance to some fossil
forms, particularly the varying species of the genus Zryon.
It has been already remarked that Dezdamia, in its flat-
tened cephalothorax, approaches the Palinuridz; in all
the living members of that family, however, the first pair
of legs are monodactylous, while in De‘damia they are

the ambulatory feet

i:

NATURE

247

didactylous. The fossil genus Zvyon forms an exception
in this particular among Palinurids, with which it has
hitherto been arranged, and has the first pair of limbs
didactylous, as in Dezdamia. It has not yet been ascer-
tained whether Zvyox has a lamellar append we at the
base of the outer antenne. If this appendage be absent,
there is probably scar:ely sufficient ground for separating
Deidamia generically from Eryon. It is very likely that
when the recent deep-sea forms near the Astacide and
Palinuridz come to be carefully correlated with the cre-
taceous and Jurassic species, it may be necessary to
establish an additional family.

The second crustacean, although having little of the
facies of the typical As¢aci, presents apparently no charac-
ters of sufficient value to warrant its separation from that
genus.

Astacus zaleucus, v. W.-S, (Fig. 2), with its long com-
pressed cephalothorax, flattened abdomen and unequal
chelz, has at first sight somewhat the appearance of a
Calianassa.

The total length of the animal is 120 mm.; the
cephalothorax, 50, and the abdomen, [60 mm. The

Fic. 4.—Hyalonema (Lower surface).

carapace is hard, and firm, though only slightly calcified.
It is greatly compressed laterally, rising into a high arch.
It terminates in front in a slender spiny rostrum, 8
mm. in length. The rostrum is covered with a thick
felting of hair, which extends backwards, forming two
hairv triangles on the anterior part of the cephalothorax
In front of the carapace, between its anterior and upper
edge and the insertions of the antennz, in the position of
the eyes in such forms as Astacus fluviatilis, there are
two round vacant spaces which look as if the eyestalks
and eyes had been carefully extirpated and the space
they occupied closed with a chitinous membrane. The
lamellar appendage of the outer antennz has teeth along
its inner border. It extends to the midule of the second
basal segme it of the antenna, which is remarkably long.
The flagella of the outer antennz are 130 mm. in length.
The inner antennz originate in a line with the outer,
The funiculus is shorter, and the flagella, which are equal
in length, are much shorter than those of the outer
antenne, - r

248

NATURE

[Fuly 24, 1873

The parts of the mouth are normal, The three first
pairs of ambulatory legs are terminated by chelz, the
fourth pair bear recurved claws, and the fifth abortive
stump-like claws. The chele of the first pair of
legs are strangely developed, particularly the right
chele, which is double the length of the left,
and with its formidable ranges of long spines along
the inner border of each claw reproduces on a small
scale the jaws of the Gangetic gavial. The last
segment of the pereion is not covered by the carapace
but is in moveable connection with it. The first segment
of the abdomen is very sinall, and the segments gradually
increase up to the fourth, which the fifth and sixth equal
in size. The abdominal segments are flattened from
above downwards. The telson is quadrate, and com-
bines with the two pairs of caudal appendages, which
are widely expanded laterally to form the caudal
fin. The dorsal surfaces of the second, third, and fourth
abdominal segments, and the margin of the tail, are
thickly covered with woolly hair. The individual being a
male, the first pair of swimmerets consist of long slender ap-
pendages, and the four succeeding pairs have one strong,
round, basal joint, to which are attached two palpi fringed
with hair. There is some resemblance between this
form and Caé/ianassa, but in this genus the lamellar
appendage to the outer antenna is absent. There are
four pairs of limbs with chelz instead of three, and the
carapace is soft.

To the genus 4stacus, therefore, with which it has all cha-
racters in common except the great development of the
right chela and the total absence of eyes—neither charac-
ters of generic value—the present species must be referred.

A, Zaleucus,n. sp. (Fig. 1).

Rostrum spiny, elongated. Lamellar appendage of
the outer antennz reaching to the middle of the second
joint of the funiculus. Chelz on three pairs of ambulatory
feet, those on the first pair strongly but unequally deve-
loped. Cephalothorax very much compressed laterally,
eyestalks and eyes entirely wanting.

On Sunday, March 16, we anchored in the Gregaria
Channel, at the entrance of the harbour of Charlotte
Amalia. We spent a few very pleasant days at St.
Thomas, some of the civilians of our party enjoying
greatly their first experience of life and scenery within
the tropics. M. Gardé,the Danish Governor, received
us with the most friendly hospitality. He is a naval
man, and was greatly interested in our investigations, and
his Aide-de-Camp, Baron Eggers, had collected and worked
out the plants of the Island with care, and was other-
wise well acquainted with its natural history.

The natural history of the island of St. Thomas is
tolerably well known, and large collections of its fauna
and flora have been sent home from time to time by very
competent naturalists to the Museum at Copenhagen.
On the present occasion our time was much too limited
to attempt to make collections, so the naturalists
contented themselves with a little shallow water dredging,
and such a general survey of the island and shores as
might familiarise them with the more characteristic forms
of animal and vegetable life ; for while the Atlantic Islands
Madeira, and the Canaries, although gradually assuming
a more tropical character, maintain the most intimate
relations in natural products with the south of Europe, in
Tropical America everything is changed, and it takes a
little time to become familiar with new acquaintances
whom one has hitherto known, if he has known them at
all, only from descriptions or figures, or at best mummied
or pickled, or otherwise in inadequate effigy. Ophiurideas
are particularly plentiful at St. Thomas, and. we made
large collections of these, particularly of the many large
and characteristic West Indian species of the genus
Ophioderma.

On the 24th of March we left the harbour of Charlotte
Amalia and proceeded with a light north-easterly breeze

towards the Culebra passage. The next morning we

sounded in 625 fathoms. The ooze was closer and more

free from shells and coral than in the former haul, but

otherwise much of the same character. This time the
dredge came up about half full, and on sifting its con-

tents many interesting additions were made to our collec-

tions. Here we met for the firststime with the curious

little crinoid, Rhzzocrinus lofotensis, for which we had
been on the outlook since the beginning of the cruise,

and Salenia varispina, which we now recognise as a

very widely distributed inhabitant of the deeper water.

This elegant little urchin (Fig. 2) is about 1omm, in
diameter of the test. It resembles in general appearance
young specimens of Czdaris hystrix. The ambulacral
zones are narrow, the interambulacral correspondingly
wide, and both are furnished with double rows of flat,
paddle-shaped, secondary spines beautifully striated in
purple and white, ranged along the middle line, from
which they shed outwards on either side. The primary
tubercles are large, imperforate, and distinctly crenated.
Some of the larger of the primary spines are 50mm. in
length, “8mm. in diameter, and cylindrical, gradually
tapering towards the point. They are fluted and serrated
along the ridges with sharp prickles. The spines in all
the specimens we have dredged are very uniform ; some
are slightly curved, but they scarcely agree with the de-
scription given by Prof. A. Agassiz, from a young speci-
men, of being “of all shapes.” The spines round the
mouth are short, some of them slightly, flattened and
sharply denticulated.

The corals which were abundant in individuals were
all deep-water forms, They have been examined by Mr,
Moseley, who refers the majority to species which have
been described by M. de Pourtalés* from the Straits of
Florida.

Two examples of the sponge-body of a very handsome
Hyalonema were sifted out of the coral.mud. Unfortu-
nately in both cases the sponge had been torn from the
central coil, and the absence of the coil might have thrown
some little doubt upon the form and mode of finish of the
complete animal, so that it was extremely fortunate that a
young specimen of the same species about 40 mm. in
length was caught in the tangles quite perfect.

Hyalonema toxeres, new species, resembles closely the
other known species AH. Jusitanicum and H. sieboldi in
general appearance and in the arrangement of its parts.
A more or less funnel-shaped sponge presents two sur-
faces covered with a network of different patterns formed
by varying arrangements of large fine rayed spicules.
The upper concave surface shows a number of oscular
openings irregularly arranged, and the lower surface a
more uniform network of pores, some of which seem to
be irhalent and others exhalent.

The central axis of the sponge is closely warped into
the upper part of a coil of long and strong glassy spicules
which, as in the other species, serve to anchor the sponge
in the soft mud. Both of the species dredged have the
sponge more flattened and expanded than it is in HZ, /usz-
tenicum. In one of them it is nearly flat (Fig. 3), forming
a reniform cake-like expansion 80 mm. in length by 7omm.
in width, and about 8mm. in thickness. The upper or
oscular surface is covered by an exceedingly close net-
work with groups of large openings at nearly equal inter-
vals. It is slightly raised in the centre. The central
elevation is followed by a slight depression, and the upper
wall then passes out nearly horizontally to a sharp peri-
pheral edge fringed with long delicate spicules, each
consisting of a slender central shaft with a cross of four
short transverse processes in the centre. The outer half
of the central axis is delicately feathered. The lower
surface of the sponge (Fig. 4) is protected by a singularly

* Tilustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at

Harvard College, No. 4—Deep-sea Corals. By L. F. de Pourtalés, Cam-
bridge (Mass.), 1871.

elegant net-work of sarcode with wide oval and round
_ meshes radiating irregularly from a central point.

q I had supposed.

The
membrane is traversed by irregularly radiating ridges
of firmer substance, which unite in the centre in a
projecting boss at the point where, in this specimen, the
glass-rope” has unfortunately been torn out.
WYVILLE THOMSON

(To be continued.)

THE ANCESTRY OF INSECTS

WA ERIN a very few days after my last article on the
Y Orizin and Metamorphoses of Insects” appeared
i. Nature, I received from Mr.’ Packard a memoir,*
under the above title, in which he developes his latest
views on the same subject; and I.am happy to find
that his views do not differ so much from mine as
He lays great stress, as is natural,

on the larval forms. “If we compare,” he says, “ these

early stages of mites and myriopods, and those of the

true six-footed insects, as in the larval Meloé, Cicada,
Thrips, and D:agon-fly, we shall see quite plainly that
they all share a common form. What does this mean?
To the systematist who concerns himself with the classi-
fication of the myriads of different insects now living, it
is a relief to find that all can be reduced to the compara-
tively simple forms sketched above. It is to him a proof

_ of the unity of organisation pervading the world of insects.

He sees how Nature, seizing upon this archetypal form
has, by simple modifications ot parts here and there, by
the addition of wings and other organs wanting in these
simple creatures, rung numberless changes in this elemen-
talform.” And again (p. 151), ‘‘ Going back to the larval
period, and studying the insect in the egg, we find that
nearly all the insects -yet observed agree most strikingly
in their mode of growth, so that, for instance, the earlier
stages of the germ of a bee, fly, or beetle, bear a remark-
able resemblance to each other, and suggest again, more
forcibly than when we examine the larval condition, that
a commondesign or pattern pervades all.”

He distinguishes, as in his previous writings (p. 175),
two principal types of larva :—

“There are two forms of insectean larve which are
pretty constant. One we call leptiform, from its general
resemblance to the larvze of the mites (Leptus). The larvze
of all the Neuroptera, except those of the Phryganeidze
and Panorpidz (which are cylindrical, and resemble cater-
pillars), are more or less leptiform, z.¢., have a flattened
or oval body, with long thoracic legs. Such are the larvae
of the Orthoptera and Hemiptera, and the Coleoptera
(except the Curculionidz ; pos-ibly the Cerambycidze and
Buprestidz, which approach the maggot-like form of the
larvee of weevils). On the other hand, taking the cater-
pillar or bee larvae, with their cylindrical fleshy bodies, in
most respects typical of larval forms of the Hymenoptera,
Lepidoptera, and Diptera, as the type of the eruciform
larva,” &c.

At first sight it would appear that Mr. Packard’s con-
clusions differ widely from those which I have advocated.
He rejects, indeed, the suggestion made by Haeckel that
the “ common stem form of all Tracheata” may be found
in “Zoeaform Crustacea.” Itis evident, he says (p. 159),
that “the Leptus fundamentally differs from the Nauplius
and begins life ona higher plane. We reject, therefore,
the crustacean origin of the insects.” And elsewhere
“we find through the researches of Messrs, Hartt and
Scudder that there were highly-developed insects, such as
may-flies, grasshoppers, &c., in the Devonian rocks of
New Brunswick, leading us to expect the discovery of
low insects even in the Upper Silurian rocks. At any
rate this discovery pushes back the origin of insects
beyond a time when there were true Zoéz, as the shrimps

* Being a chapter from ‘Our Common Insects,” by A. S, Packard, jun.
(Printed in advance.)

and other allies are not actually known to exist so far
back as the Silurian, not having as yet been found below
the coal-measures.”

But then he observes that the “larvae of the earliest
insects were probably leptiform, and the eruciform con-
dition is consequently an acquired one, as suggested by
Fritz Miilller.” Again, “for reasons which we will not
pause here to discuss, we have always regarded the eruci-
form type of larva as the highest. That it is the result
of degradation from the Leptus or Campodea form, we
should be unwilling to admit.” And once more, “ The
Caterpillar is a later production than the young, wingless
Cockroach.” J

Mr, Packard had already expressed these opinions else-
where, and as I have on the contrary suggested that the
grublike, or Lindia-forms were the first to come into exist-
ence, then the Tardigrade-form, and lastly, the Campodea-
form, I had supposed that our views were in direct opposi-
tion to oneanother : but I am glad to find from other pass-
ages that after all there is not so much dfference as these
passages would seem to indicate. I cannot, indeed, agree
with him in his classification of Insect larvze ; he ranks
the Caterpillars with the grubs and magyots of Bees and
Flies, as a class for which he proposes the term “ eruci-
form” in opposition to the “ leptiform” larvae of Orthop-
tera, Hemiptera, and most Coleoptera. It seems to me,
on the contrary, that the two great groups are the
Hexapod or Campodea-form, and the apod, grublike
type, which I have proposed to call the Lindia-form. At
the first glance, no doubt, the heavy sluggish Caterpillar
seems to have more in common with the grub of a
Bee than with the active larve of Coleoptera. The dif-
ference, however, is one of habit, not of type.

As regards the ancestral forms of Insects, Mr. Packard
considers that “while the Poduras (p. 154) may be said to
form a specialised type, the Bristle-tails (Lepzsma, ATa-
chilis, Nicolitea, and Campodea) are, as we have seen,
much more highly organised, and form a generalised or
comprehensive type. They resemble, in their general
form, the larvee of Ephemerids, and perhaps more closely
the immature Perla, and also the wingless Cockroaches.
Now such forms as these Thysanura, together with the
mites and singular Pauropus, we cannot avoid suspecting
to have been among the earliest to appear upon the
earth ; and putting together the facts, first, of their low
organisation, secondly, of their comprehensive structure,
resembling the larvz of other insects, and thirdly, of
their probable great antiquity, we naturally look to them
as being related in form to what we may conceive to have
been the ancestor of the class of insects. Not that the
animals mentioned above were the actual ancestors, but
that certain insects bearing a greater resemblance to
them than any others with which we are acquainted, and
belonging possibly to families and orders now extinct were
the prototypes and progenitors of the insects now known.”

As regards the probable origin of this Leptus form,
Mr, Packard’s views are expressed in the following pas-
sage (p. 169) :—‘ While the Crustacea may have resulted
from a series of prototypes leading up from the Rotifers,
it is barely possible that one of these creatures may have
given rise to a form resulting in two series of beings, one
leading to the Leptus form, the other to the Nauplius.
For the true Annelides (Chztopods) are too circumscribed
and homogeneous a group to allow us to look to them for
the ancestral forms of insects. But that the insects may
have descended from some low worms is not improbable,
when we reflect that the Syllis and allied genera of Anne-
lides bear appendages consisting of numerous joints ;
indeed, the strange Dwujardinia rotifera, figured by
Quatrefages, in its general form is remarkably like the
larva of Chloéon.” ,

Moreover, though Mr. Packard says that “the caterpillar
is a later production than the young wingless, cock-
roach,” he elsewhere (p. 182) says, “it is evident that in the

250

young grasshoppers the metamorphoses have been passed
through, so to speak, in the egg, while the bee larva is
almost embryonic in its build.” Mr, Packard admits then
that theoretically the Orthoptera do pass through trans-
formations similar to those of metamorphic insects;
though, while bees are hatched in an early larval, “al-
most embyonic” condition, Orthoptera pass through
these early stages rapidly, and within the egg.

Mr. Packard then derives the various groups of Insecta
as I do from ancestors more or less resembling the hexa-
pod larve of Neuroptera, &c.; these from a more acari-
form type ; and these again from lower, more vermiform
ancestors.

That the Lindia-type larvee of Diptera are of more
recent origin than the Campodea-form larve of Neurop-
tera of course I admit, because the palzontological evi-
dence seems to show that the Neuroptera are a more
ancient group than the Diptera ; but I am not the less of
opinion that the Lindia type itself is more ancient than
the Neuropterous,

How far the form of any given existing larva is adap-

tive and how far it is hereditary, isa comparatively minor, -

though interesting question, and I am glad to find that
there is less difference of opinion than I had supposed
between Mr. Packard and myself as to the various stages
through which in the long lapse of geological ages the
existing types of insects have gradually been evolved.
JoHN LuBBOCK

NOTES ON THE HONEY-MAKING ANT OF
TEXAS AND NEW MEXICO*

Ape natural history of this very curious species (JZy7-

mecocystus mexicanus Westwood) is so little known,

that the preservation of every fact connected with its

economy becomes a matter of considerable scientific im-

portance, and the following observations, gleaned from

Capt. W. B. Fleeson of this city, who has recently had

an opportunity of studying the ants in their native haunts,
may, it is hoped, be not without interest.

The community appears to consist of three distinct
kinds of ants, probably of two separate genera, whose
offices in the general order of the nest would seem to be
entirely apart from each other, and who perform the
labour allotted to them without the least encroachment
upon the duties of their fellows. The larger number of
individuals consist of yellow worker ants of two kinds,
one of which, of a pale golden yellow colour, about one-
third of an inch in length, acts as nurses and feeders of
the honey-making kind, who do not quit the interior of the
nest, “their sole purpose being, apparently, to elaborate a
kind of honey, which they are said to discharge into pre-
pared receptacles, and which constitutes the food of the
entire population. In these honey-seeking workers the
abdomen is distended into a large, globose, bladder-like
form, about the size of a pea.” The third variety of ant
is much larger, black in colour, and with very formidable
mandibles. For the purpose of better understanding the
doings of this strange community, we will designate them
as follows :—

No. 1.—Yellow workers ; nurse and feeders.

No. 2.—Yellow workers ; honey-makers.

No. 3.—Black workers ; guards and purveyors,

The site chosen for the nest is usually some sandy soil
in the neighbourhood of shrubs and flowers, and the space
occupied is about from four to five feet square. Unlike
the nests of most other ants, however, the surface of the
soil is usually undisturbed, and but for the presence of the
insects themselves, presents a very different appearance
from the ordinary communities, the ground having been
subjected to no disturbance, and not pulverised and ren-
dered loose as is the case with the majority of species.

The black workers (No. 3) surround the nest as guard

* By Henry Edwards, Californian Academy of Sciences. Communicated
by Mr. Charles Darwin, F.R.S.

NATURE

|Fuly 24, 1873

or sentinels, and are always in a state of great activity:
They form two lines of defence, moving different ways,
their march always being along three sides of a square,
one column moving from the south-east to the south-west
corners of the fortification, while the other proceeds in the
opposite direction. In most of the nests examined by
Captain Fleeson, the direction of the nest was usually
towards the north; the east, West and northern sides
being surrounded by the soldiers, while the southern por-
tion was left open and undefended. In case of any enemy
approaching the encampment, a number of the guards
leave their station in the line and sally forth to face the
intruder, raising themselves upon their hind tarsi, and
moving their somewhat formidable mandibles to and fro_
as if in defiance of their foe. Spiders, wasps, beetles,
and other insects are, if they come too near to the hive
attacked by them in the most merciless manner, and the
dead body of the vanquisbed is speedily removed from
the neighbourhood of the nest, the conquerors marching
back to resume their places in the line of defence, their

aes aan ves rere

eet
CA ee
t=

object in the destruction of other insects being the
protection of their encampment, and not the ob-
taining of food. While one section of the black
workers is thus engaged as sentinels, another and still
more numerous division will be found busily employed
in entering the quadrangle by a diagonal line bearing
north-east, and carrying in their mouths flowers and frag-
ments of aromatic leaves which they deposit in the centre
of the square. A reference to the accompanying sketch
will give a more clear understanding of their course ;—
the dotted line @ representing the path of this latter
section, while the mound of flowers and leaves is marked
c. If the line @ be followed in a south-west direction,
it will be found to lead to the trees and shrubs upon
which another division of the black workers is settled,
engaged in biting off the petals and leaves to be collected
and conveyed to the nest by their assistants below. On
the west side of the encampment is a hole marked @
leading down to the interior of the nest, which is probably
chiefly intended for the introduction of air, as in case of
any individuals carrying their loads into it, they imme-

;

Suly 24,

1873] —

NATURE

251

diately emerge and bear them to the common heap, as if
conscious of having been guilty of an error. A smaller

‘hole near to the south-east corner of the square, is the

only other means by which the interior can be reached,
and down this aperture, marked 4, the flowers gathered
by the black workers are carried along the line ¢, from
the heap in the centre of the square, by a number of
smaller yellow workers (No. 1), who, with their weaker
frames and less developed mouth organs, seem adapted
for the gentler office of nurses for the colony within. It
is remarkable that no black ant is ever-seen upon the
line ¢, and no yellow one ever approaches the line a, each
keeping his own separate station and following his
given line of duty with a steadfastness which is as
wonderful as it is admirable. By removing the
soil to a depth of about three feet, and tracing the
course of the galleries from the entrance (4) and (@),
a small excavation is reached, across which is spread in
the form of a spider’s web, a net work of squares spun by
the insects, the squares being about one-quarter inch
across, and the ends of the web fastened firmly to the
earth of the sides of the hollow space which forms the
bottom of the excavation. In each one of the squares,
supported by the web, sits one of the honey-making
workers (No. 2), apparently in the condition of a prisoner,
as it does not appear that these creatures ever quit the
nest. Indeed it would be difficult for them to do so, as
their abdomens are so swollen out by the honey which
they contain, as to render locomotion a task of difficulty,
if not to make it utterly impossible.

The workers (No. 1), provide them with a constant
supply of flowers and pollen, which, by a process analo-
gous to that of the bee, they convert into honey. The
fact that the remainder of the inhabitants feed on the
supply thus obtained, though it is surmised, has not been
established by actual observation ; indeed with reference
to many of the habits of these creatures, we are at present
left in total ignorance, it being a reasonable supposition
that, in insects so remarkable in many of their habits,
other interesting facts are yet to be brought to light re-
specting them. It would be of great value to learn the
specific rank of the black workers (No. 3), and to know
the sexes of the species forming the community, their
season and manner of pairing, and whether the honey-
makers are themselves used as food, or if they excrete
their saccharine fluid for the benefit of the inhabitants in
general, and then proceed to distil more. I regret that
at this time I am only able to bring before the notice of
the Academy, specimens of the honey-makers (No. 2),
the other members of the community, except from Captain
Fleeson’s description, being quite unknown to me. It is,
however, my hope that at a future meeting I may be
enabled to exhibit the other varieties, and to give some
more extended information upon this very interesting
subject. The honey is much sought after by the Mexi-
cans, who not only use it as a delicate article of food, but
apply it to bruised and swollen limbs, ascribing to it great
healing properties. The species is said to be very abun-
dant in the neighbourhood of Santa Fé, New Mexico,
in which district the observations of Capt. Fleeson were

ic

NOTES
Tne artangements for the forty-third meeting of the British
Association at Bradford, have been pretty nearly completed.
The General Committee will meet on September 17, the

opening day, at 1 P.M., for the election of sectional officers, |

and the despatch of business usually brought before that body.
The concluding meeting takes place on September 24. We
regret very much to hear that Mr. Joule, on account of ill-
health, has been compelled to resign the presidency; Prof.
W. A. Williamson, will, it is said, be appointed in his place.

THE forty-sixth meeting of the German Association of Natu-
ralists and Physicians will be held this year at Wiesbaden from
September 18 to 24. Communications are to be addressed to
Drs. Fresenius and Haas Senior,

WE are glad to see so influential a paper as the Times give
so prominent a place to a notice of Sir Charles Wheatstone’s
election to the French Academy, which we ourselves noted a
fortnight ago. There is no doubt that if we take into considera-
tion the amount and value of the services Sir Charles has
rendered to Science, both in its theoretical and practical aspects,
he must be ranked as among the most eminent men of the time,
The followingis the notice in the Zivtes :-—

“Sir Charles Wheatstone was elected, on the 30th ult., Foreig

Associate of the French Academy of Sciences, to fill the vacancy
occasioned by the death of Baron Liebig. He was for many
years previously corresponding member of the Academy ; but
the honour recently conferred upon him is the highest which it is
in the power of that body to confer upon a foreigner. The elec-
tion was nearly unanimous, as he obtained 43 out of 45 votes.
Sir Charles has also lately received from the French Society for
the Encouragement of National Industry the great medal of
Ampére, which is awarded every six years for what is consi-
dered the most important application of Science to Industry.
The former recipients of this medal were Henri Sainte-Claire
Deville, who introduced the manufacture of aluminum; De
Lesseps, the Engineer of the Suez Canal; and Boussingault,
distinguished for his researches in agriculture.

GusTAv Ross, the celebrated mineralogist, died after a few
days’ illness on the 15th inst., in the 75th year of his age and the
5oth of his connection with the University of Berlin, His mind
and power of work remained unimpaired almost to the last, and
he was able on his sick bed to dictate to his son the results of
his last researches.

Mr. J. S. DAVENPORT was elected on Wednesday, the 16th
inst., Assistant-Secretary to the Royal Horticultural Society, in
the place of Mr. Richards, who has accepted a post under the
Commissioners of the International Exhibition.

THE Chair of Physiology at Edinburgh is likely to be soon
vacant, we believe, by the resignation of Prof. Hughes Bennet,
from ill health. There are several likely candidates for the
prospective vacancy, all of them good men :—Dr. McKendrick,
who has for some time efficiently discharged the duties of the
chair, and a paper by whom in conjunction with Mr. James
Dewar, on the Physiological Action of Light, we published a
fortnight ago; Prof. Rutherford, a former assistant of Prof.
Bennet’s, and Dr. J. Bell Pettigrew, F.R.S., who has distin-
guished himself as an investigator in comparative anatomy.

) There is a rumour that Prof. Burdon Sanderson is also a candi-

date.
WE regret very much to hear that Mr. Saville Kent has
resigned his position in connection with the Brighton

Aquarium. We do not desire to express any opinion upon
the misunderstanding which has resulted in Mr. Kent’s
resignation, but we cannot help saying that we consider it
a great loss to Science that the Aquarium is now without
a resident naturalist. The Brighton Aquarium offers un-
equalled opportunities for studying the habits of fishes, and
during Mr. Kent’s short connection with the establishment he
has considerably increased our knowledge of this department of
Natural History, and we confidently looked to the Aquarium to
add still more to scientific knowledge in this direction. It would
be a grievous thing, indeed, if the Directors should allow their
fine establishment to degenerate into a mere place of popular
amusement, :

252

NATURE

| Fuly 24, 1873

Mr. GrorGE SMITH returned on Saturday last from his suc-
cessful labours in Assyria,

THE number of institutions in America devoted to education
of all kinds and of all grades, endowed and supported both by
the State and by the generosity of private individuals, theoreti-
caily and practically open to all-comers, is almost sufficient to
fill a Briton with envy and chagrin, when he contrasts it with
the comparative meagreness of the educational means of his own
country, hampered with so many traditional restrictions. One of
the most admirable, best organised, and most successful of these
American institutions is the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale
College, the Eighth Annual Report of which for 1872-73
we have just received. The School forms the Scientific Faculty
of Yale College, on the same footing as the other faculties of
Arts, Medicine, Law, and Divinity, and, to judgefrom the Report,
must be one of the most successful and efficient scientific
schools in the world. It owes its name to Mr. Joseph E. Shef-
field, who, in 1860, presented it with a magnificent building
and a liberal endowment, and has since frequently munificently
increased his original gifts, his last one being an additional
building of five stories, with ample accommodation, which was
very much needed to meet the rapid increase in the number of
students, which, during the last session, was 201. The educa-
tion supplied is in all branches of Science, students being at
liberty to choose a course of instruction to fit them for pure
scientific research, or for some practical application of scientific
principles, as engineering, agriculture, &c. The school is
most liberally supplied with scientific apparatus in all de-
partments, seems to have plenty of funds at its command,
furnished both by the State and by private individuals, and,
to judge from the prospectus, provides students with a
thoroughly well-organised and complete course of scientific
instruction in each of its numerous departments. ‘‘The
benefit,” the report says, “which the Scientific School
has conferred upon the State in turning out young men who, on
leaving the institution, are enabled to assume the position of
leaders in their several callings, and of educators of the people
to a higher grade of culture, increasing the productive brain
capacity as well as the material wealth of the country, cannot
be estimated in dollars and cents. From all parts of the
country come back most favourable reports of the graduates
who have been sent out, and their influence, already great, is
constantly on the increase. The people of this state cannot do
too much for an institution which has already done and is
continuing to do so much for them, by developing the material
resources of Connecticut, and by extending its reputation
throughout the entire country.”

IN this month’s number of the American Fournal of Science
and Art Mr, Sellack gives a short but interesting account of his
photographic work among the southern star-clusters at the Ar-
gentine National Observatory, Cordoba, where, for this purpose,
he has been for some time at the expense of some gentlemen from
Boston, U.S.A. On his arrival at Cordoba Mr. Sellack found
the lens of the photographic refractor he was to use, broken,
but by dint of perseverance and ingenuity he managed to put
the pieces together in such a manner as to enable him to obtain
a well-defined, nearly circular, photographic image of stars of
the first and second magnitude ; and with exposures of eight
minutes, even stars of the ninth magnitude, of white colour,
give a photographic impression. We have -received a lunar
photograph obtained by Mr. Sellack, and although it will
not bear comparison with the well-known photographs
obtained by other astronomers who have devoted attention to the
subject, nevertheless the impression submitted to us reflects great
credit on Mr, Sellack, considering the difficulties he had to con-
tend with in getting it taken. The picture has suffered

somewhat by too long an exposure in the telescope and over
development.

WE have received from Mr. Gerard Krefft, Curator of the
Sydney Museum, what he calls ‘‘a splendid bit of mimicry,” in
the shape of a photograph of the chrysalis of Pafilio sarpedon.
The chrysalis seems to be attached to a leaf, and has itself con-
trived to assume the shape of a leaf, or rather of a part of the
leaf to which it is attached. Its colour, Mr. Krefft says, is pale
green, or sea-green.

THE last number of the Journal of the Linnean Society is
entirely occupied by Mr. Bentham’s important paper on the
structure, classification, and history of development of the Com-
positz, the largest and most natural order in the vegetable
kingdom. In accordance with the system proposed in the
‘Genera Plantarum,” he divides the order into 13 sub-orders,
viz. : 1, Vernoniacez ; 2, Eupatoriaceze ; 3, Asteroidex ; 4, Inu-
loidese ; 5, Helianthoidez ; 6, Helenioidez ; 7, Anthemidez ;
8, Senecionidez ; 9, Calendulacez ; 10, Arctotidese ; 11, Cyna-
roidez ; 12, Mutisiaceze ; 13, Cichoriaceze ; the most important
diagnostic characters depending on the structure of the pistil (in
the hermaphrodite flowers), fruit, andrcecium, corolla, and calyx
(pappus). A very exhaustive account is given of the geographi-
cal distribution of the sub-orders and principal families ; and the
first appearance of the order is traced with probability to Africa,
Western America, and probably Australia; the difference
between the forms now observed in the northern and southern
hemispheres having become developed only after the tropical belt
introduced an impassable barrier between them. It is one of the
most important contributions to structural and systematic botany
which has issued from this country for many years.

Dr. RoBERT SCHLESINGER publishes (from the house of —
Orell, Fiissli & Co., Zurich) a small work on the microscopica
examination of Textile Fabrics in the raw and coloured state,
with a note on the mode of detecting ‘*shoddy-wool.” It con-
tains a complete account of the fabrics made from the various
vegetable fibres in more or Jess common use, also from hair and
silk, with their distinguishing characteristics, as exhibited under
the microscope, when raw, spun or woven, and dyed, illus-
trated with 27 woodcuts, and introduced by a preface by Dr,
Emil Kopp.

THE current number of the Zoo/ogist commences with a paper
by Mr. F. H. Balkwill, having the pretentious title ‘* A Diik-
culty for Darwinists,” in which, like many others who do not
fully understand the subject, he lays too much stress on the
possibility of slight variations in an iz/imite number of direc-
tions. No doubt it is theoretically possible for an in-
finite number of variations to occur in living bodies, if they
are within the influence of an infinite number of different
forces, just as the result of a very large number of forces
acting on a particle, may cause it to take one of almost an
infinite number of directions. But the forces acting on the
living body are comparatively limited, and when as in the cases
of the Thylacine and the Dog, or of the Wombat and the
Rodent, which are the author’s stumblingblocks, the forces
which have been called to act on the Marsupial and Placental
types of organism have ben practically identical, they having
had to undergo the struggle for existence under similar circum-
stances, it is not to be wondered at, but only to be expected,
that similar organisms should be the result, especially as the
two types to start with are not separated by any great interval, —
It is just as probable, external circumstances being similar, that.
the isolated Marsupial ancestor should give rise to carnivorous,
rodent, and herbivorous forms, as that they should be developed
from a Placental type.

Fuly 24, 1873]

THE current part of Mr. Dresser’s “‘ Birds of Europe” com-
menced with the description of the Imperial Eagle (Agwu:/a
mogitnik), to which two plates are devoted, in one of which the
young of that species is contrasted with that of the distinctly
separated White-shouldered Imperial Eagle (4g. adalberti), from
Spain. This is followed by illustrated descriptions of the
Algerian Black-headed Jay (Garrulus cervicalis), the Siberian
Jay (Perisoreus infaustus), the White Stalk (Crconia alba),
several Anserine birds, and the Isabelline Lark (Gaéerita
isabellina), which, by the way, does not occur in Europe.

Ir is locally stated that among the collections made by the
Chilian exploring expeditions on the west coast of Patagonia in
the Chacabuco, is a specimen of the huemul, an animal which
had altogether been lost sight of. There are five well-prepared
skins in the National Museam of Chile. Molina mentions it in
his ‘‘ Natural History of Chile,” published in 1782. He de-
scribes a species of horse (Zyuus bisulcus), or rather an ass, with
its hoofs divided like ruminants. He says it inhabits the most
inaccessible parts of the Andes, and is difficult to be taken. Mr.
E. C. Reed, of the National Museum of Chile, pronounces it to
be a stag of the genus Cervus, and as not belonging to any new
genus.

THE record of the ‘‘ Astronomical and Meteorological Obser-
vations made during the year 1870 at the U.S. Naval Observa-
tory” occupies a bulky quarto volume of about 1000 pages, and
contains in its numerous carefully-constructed tables sufficient
evidence of the amount and value of the work done at the
Observatory. The U.S. Government contribute liberally
to the support of the Observatory, the work of which is
performed by an efficient s‘aff. One of the most interesting parts
of the record of work for 1870 is that describing the details
of the Transit Circle.

WE would recommend to all interested in education a pam-
phlet by Mr. Henry Leedam, a practical teacher, entitled ‘‘Com-
plete School Education.” It is evidently the result of much
thought and observation, and of advanced views of what consti-
tutes 2 complete education even for boys intended for business.
Weare glad to see that in his system he gives great prominence to
science, as one of the most efficient instruments in general
training.

Tue Liverpool papers report that a sharp shock of earth.
quake was felt at Southport on the evening of Wednesday, July
16, accompanied by a loud report. It was thought at first by
many that a colliery explosion must have taken place in some of
the collieries near Ormskirk, so loud and distinct was the first
report. The other three—for there were four shocks—followed
much quicker after each other than did the second after the first.
There was no undulatory motion such as accompanied the severe

- shock which occurred about two years since.

ON May 10 strong shock of earthquake, lasting two seconds,
occurred at Opiape, in North Chile.

A COLLECTION of stone implements from Costa Rica, in Cen-
tral America, has been sent to the American Museum of Natural
History in New York.

Don Cartos MogstTa, formerly Director of the Astronomical
Observatory at Santiago, in Chile, has been appointed Chilian
Consul-General in Saxony.

THE sixth annual report of the Provost of the Peabody Insti-
tute of Baltimore, to the trustees, dated June 5 of this year, is
in all respects very satisfactory, and shows that the Institute
forms an important means of education, literary and scientific,
in the city to which it belongs, The library is a large one, up-
wards of 50,000 volumes, and the number of readers has in-

NATURE

253

creased considerably during the year, the proportion of scientific
works sought for being on the whole, as things go, large.
During the year 120 lectures were delivered, of which 20 were
popular, and go special class lectures in particular departments.
Though scientific lectures seem to be much less attractive than
lectures in literature, still the Provost rightly thinks they should
be persisted in, especially as this is one of the main objects of
the institution, which is well supplied with scientific apparatus.
We have no doubt that by judicious arrangement of subjects and
hours, and by securing competent lecturers who know how to
make their subjects attractive, scientific lectures will become in-
creasingly popular.

WE give the following on the authority of the American
Artisan :—The President of Rutgers College, New Jersey, Dr.
Campbell, recently found beneath: some of the trees in the
campus, numerous carpenter bees, each minus its head, Having
called the attention of Rev. Samuel Lockwood, the eminent
naturalist, to the fact, careful observations were made with
interesting results. It was first noted that these bees were all
of the same species, and were all honey-gatherers. The case at
first appeared to be one of wanton massacre; the merciless
executioners being common Baltimore orioles. On making a
more thorough examination of the headless trunks, it was dis-
covered that every body was empty, the insect having been
literally eviscerated at the annular opening made at the neck by
the separation of the head. The interesting fact disclosed by
these observations is that these b'rds had learned that the body
of these pariicular bees—the stingless males—were filled, or
contained honey sipped from the blossoms of the horse-chestnut ;
and so they watched the insects until they were fully gorged, then,
darting upon them, snipped off their heads, and always at one
place, the articulation, thus showing themselves acquainted with
the anatomy of their victims as well as their habits, and taking
advantage of both for the gratification of their love for sweets,

THE Journal of the Franklin Institute says that the splendid
telescope designed for the National Observatory at Washington
will, in all probability, soon be erected and in use. The work
upon the new tower and dome, intended for its reception, is
being rapidly brought to completion. The object-glass—the
largest in the world, twenty-six and a half inches diameter, and
thirty-two feet focal length—is now finished, and ready for the
instrument. The cost of the new instrument, with the necessary
machinery, will be about 30,000 dols., and that of the tower
and dome, erected to receive it, about 15,000 dols. If to this
we add the list of new apparatus already acquired or in process
of construction for the Observatory, for the observation of the
coming transit of Venus, the Institution will shortly be as well
or, perhaps, better equipped than any other of its kind in the
world,

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include two Argus Pheasants (Avgus giganteus) from
Malacca, presented by his Excellency, Sic H. Ord; a Jaguar
(Felis onca) from America, preseated by Mr, J. H. Murchison ;
a Himalayan Bear (Ursus tibetanus) presented by Mr. G. R.
Taylor ; two Mulita Armaillos (Zu¢usia hvbrida) from Buenos
Ayres, presented by Mrs. Mackinlay ; two White-crested Guans
(Pipile jacutinga) from British Honduras, presented by Mr. S.
Carmichael ; a Patas Monkey (Cercopithecus ruber) from West
Africa, presented by Mr. E. Hoad; three Black Vultures
(Cathartes atratus) from America, presented by Mr. C. C.
Lovesy ; three Fournier’s Capromys (Cafromys pilorides) from
Cuba, presented by Mr. J. R. Watkins; a Rhesus Monkey
(Macacus erythreus) from India, presented by Miss E. D.
Wishart ; a Sable Antelope (Hippotragus niger), from South
Africa, deposited,

254

RESEARCHES ON EMERALDS AND BERYLS*

Part I, ON THE COLOURING-MATTER OF THE EMERALD.
PROM the time of Vauquelin’s analyses, the colour of the
j emerald was always regarded as due to the presence of
oxide of chromium, until the publication of the memoir of
Lewy, who ascertained that emeralds contained that element, and
concluded that the colour was due to the presence of some
organic substance. Lewy also affirmed that the deepest tinted
emeralds contained the most carbon. Wohler and Rose, on the
other hand, having exposed emeralds to a temperature equal to
the fusing-point of copper for one hour, without their losing
colour, and also having fused colourless glass with minute
quantities of oxide of chromium and obtained a fine green
glass, considered chromium and not organic matter to be the
cause of the colour,

Boussingault, in the course of an investigation of the ‘‘ mo-

rallons,” arrived at the same conclusion as Wohler and Rose ;
and although admitting them to contain carbon, denied that it
was the cause of their colour, inasmuch as they endured heating
to redness for one hour without loss of colour. This result has
been confirmed by Hofmeister. I have carefully repeated and
extended these experiments. The emeralds employed were
canutillos from Santa Fe de Bogota. Their specific gravity was
2°69.
Oke of the above emeralds was exposed for three hours in a
platinum crucible to a bright reddish-yellow heat. At the end
of the operation it was rendered opaque on the edges, but the
green colour was not destroyed. This experiment completely
confirms those of Wéohler and Rose and Hofmeister. The
power of the colouring-matter to resist a red heat having made
me inclined to disconnect the question of the colour from that of
the presence of carbon, I made experiments to determine
whether beryls contained that element, and, if so, to what
amount. ‘The experiments given further on, were made at this
stage of the inquiry, and the result showed that the beryl ana-
lysedt contained the same amount of carbon as Lewy’s emerald.

Although demonstration had been obtained of the presence of
carbon in the beryl A, it was still possible that it might have been
derived from the decomposition ofa carbonate. To settle this ques-
tion, an apparatus was so arranged that the beryl could be treated
with sulphuric and chromic acids successively. It was found
that no carbonic anhydride was liberated by sulphuric acid, but
the addition of chromic acid caused it to appear immediately.
The numerous precautions taken are fully described in the origi-
nal paper.

Strictly comparative experiments were then made upon minute
quantities of charcoal and graphite, the results indicating the
carbon contained in the beryl A to be in a condition which is
more slowly attacked than either charcoal or graphite, and it is
probably in the form of diamond, as has been shown to occur
with the carbon contained in artificially crystallised boron,

The presence of carbon in beryls does not appear to be in-
variable. After repeated experiments upon another large beryl
from Haddam County, North America, I was unable to satisfy
myself that it contained carbon.

The next point I wished to ascertain was the’ relation borne
by the quantity of carbon in the beryl A to that in the emerald.
For this purpose I employed a similar apparatus to that used by
Dumas in his researches on the atomic weight of carbon pre-
viously alluded to. The following percentages were obtained :—

Beryl A. Lewy.
SS Emerald. Emerald
I, Hig (mean).
Carbon anhydrid o°31 0°31 0°26 0°28
Wrater 0. es 1°35 1°73 1°20 1°89
Il.—ON THE EFFECTS OF FUSION UPON EMERALDS AND
BERYLS.

On the Effects of Fusion upon Opaque Beryls—In order to
study the effects of fusion upon beryls or emeralds, I found it
necessary to use the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. My first experi-
ments were made upon the beryl A; it weighed 62°54 grms.,
and its density was 2°65.

The phenomena observed on submitting a fragment of beryl
to the action of the flame are very beautiful. Having so ad-
justed the flame that the beryl fuses tranquilly, and is yet at the
exact point of maximum heat (if the substance is not too large

* Abstract of paper read before the Royal Society, June 19. By Greville
Williams, F.R.S.

+ As this beryl will be repeatedly alluded to in this paper, and especially

in the second part, I shall, for convenience of reference, call it *‘ beryl A.”
It was found in Ireland.

NATURE

[Fuly 24, 1873

for the apparatus), it no longer lies as a shapeless mass on the
car bon support, but gathers together, rises up, and forms a per-
fect bead—round, clear, and trilliant. To obtain the adjust.
ment of position necessary for this result, it is indispensable to
wear very dar k glasses, so dark, indeed, that objects can scarcely
be discerned through them in broad daylight. Without this

precaution, the minute details of the globule cannot be observed.

The heat and glare would also seriously affect the sight. If all

is working properly, the bead should Be quite mobile ; and ad-

vantage of this must be taken to keep it incessantly rolling, and

yet not remove it from the point where it gives out the most

brilliant light. By this means the whole globule is rendered

transparent. If, on the other hand, it is allowed to remain with-

out motion on the carbon (unless the globule be very minute), it

will be found, when cold, to have a white opaque base, passing

into the centre of the bead in a conical form, and entirely de-

stroying its beauty.

The globules thus obtained from the beryl A were clear and
colourless, but generally contained a few minute air-globules and
strize, which become obvious under the lens. Towards the end
of this part of the investigation I succeeded in almost entirely
avoiding these defects ; but I have been compelled for a time to
abandon experiments in this direction in consequence of the
strain thrown upon the eyes.

When chromic oxide is added to the beads, and they are again
carefully fused, they acquire a fine green colour ; the tint is,
however, inferior to that of the emerald. The green beads may,
by anintense and prolonged heat, be rendered colourless. With
cobalt oxide the beads afford beautiful blue glasses of any de-
sired shade ; and in all cases the results are the same as with the
artificial mixture of beryl ingredients to be described further on.

The effect of fusion upon the beryl is to lessen the hardness
and lower the specific gravity. The globules may be scratched
by quartz. The specific gravity was found to be 2°41.

The beryl, therefore, lost nine per cent. of its density in pass-
ing from the crystalline to the vitreous state.

I was desirous of carefully comparing this loss of density under-
gone by beryls with that of rock crystal fused under the same
circumstances. I have repeated with great care the determina-
tion of the specific gravity of rock-crystal, both before and after
fusion. Before fusion it was 2°65, and afterwards, 2°19.

Rock-crystal loses, therefore, no less than seventeen per cent.
of its specific gravity on passing from the crystalline to the
amorphous state, or about half a per cent. less than is undergone
by garnets, according to the observations of Magnus; whereas
the beryl A only lost nine per cent., or little more than half as
much. ;

On the Lffects of Fusion upon Emeralds,—On heating alone
before the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, emeralds bear a bright red
heat without losing their colour; and at a heat which causes
incipient fusion, the edges turn colourless and opaque, while the
centre remains green. After fusion for a short time they yield
an opalescent greenish glass, which, kept for a long time at the
maximum temperature of the blowpipe, becomes quite trans-
parent and almost colourless. The addition of chromic oxide
causes the bead to become of a dull green colour, which is not
improved by moderate heating. The fact that emeralds endure
a temperature capable of fusing the edges, without the centre
losing colour, appears conclusive against the idea of the colouring-
matter being organic. The beads produced by the fusion of
emeralds resemble those formed in the same manner from beryls ;
the phenomena during the fusion are also nearly alike ; but it
takes longer and a higher temperature to produce a colourless
transparent bead with emeralds than with colourless beryls. The
beads can be scratched by quartz, and the density is reduced to
2°40, The density of fused emeralds is therefore almost exactly
the same as the globules obtained in a similar manner from the
beryl A.

On. the. Effects of Fusion upon an Artificial Mixture of Beryl
Ingredients.—Being desirous of trying the effects of fusion upon
an artificial mixture of the same composition as that of a beryl,
I made a series of careful analyses of the beryl A, Even my
earlier analyses enabled me to obtain a sufficiently close approxi-
mation to the compositions of the beryl A. The following were
the proportions used ;—

Silica’ (eyemedeas oa. eGR
Aluminaege ere 29 20% 18°5
Glucina iiiees -. te ciety 14’0

100°9

v

‘
t

| Fuly 24, 1873)

wees” 7

I did not introduce any iron or magnesia, as I regard them as
accidental impurities varying in amount.

When a mixture of the above composition is exposed to the
flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, it fuses with almost exactly
the same phenomena as with the natural beryl. It is, however,
as might be anticipated from the absence of iron and chromium,
much easier to get a colourless transparent bead with the mix-
ture than with either emeralds or beryls. The greatest difficulty
in this respect is, of course found with emeralds. The specific
gravity of the artificial fused globules was 2°42, or almost
exactly the same as the density of native emeralds and beryls
after fusion.

When a small portion of chromic oxide is added to the
artificial mixture and the whole is subjected to fusion, the re-
sulting bead is of a rich yellowish green, and in many experi-
ments approached to the emerald tint; but, asa rule, the
colour is more of a faded leaf-green; and, although I have
never obtained a globile of the vivid tint of a fine emerald, the
glasses, when well cut, are quite beautiful enough to serve as
jewels. Prolonged heating gradually diminishes the colour,
the bead gradually becoming of the palest bottle-green, and,
finally, nearly colourless. This result is the same as with the
emerald. |

The metallic oxide which yields the finest tints when fused
with opaque beryls, or the artificial mixture, is that of cobalt.
The manner in which this oxide withstands the intense heat of
the oxhydrogen flame is remarkable. All tints, from nearly
black to that of the palest sapphire, can be obtained, and the
resulting glasses, when cut, are extremely beautiful, and have
almost the lustre of crystallised gems.

The globules obtained by fusing the artificial mixture of
beryl ingredients with didymium oxide show the characteristic
absorption-spectrum of that metal in a very perfect manner, the
lines being intensely black. Even when the bead is quite
opalescent from insufficient heating, the black lines are beauti-
fully distinct in the spectroscope. With a large quantity of
didymium oxide the beads are of a lively pink, becoming more
intense by artificial light, and, when cut, form very pretty gems.
The presence of didymium in sufficient quantity raises the specific
gravity to 2°59,being nearly the same as that of the emerald
before fusion.

Conclusions.—The evidence given in this paper, showing that
colourless beryls may contain as much carbon as the richest
tinted emerald, taken in conjunction with the ignition experi-
ments, and the results of the fusion cf chromic oxide with colour-
less beryls, and with an artificial mixture of the same composi-
tion, leave me no room to doubt the correctness of Vauquelin’s
conclusion, that the green colour of the emerald is due to the
presence of chromic oxide.

The fact that emeralds and beryls lose density when fused
cannot properly be cited as proving that they have been made in
nature at a low temperature ; for it is quite possible that they were
crystallised out of a solution in a fused mass, originally formed
at a temperature high enough to keep the constituents of the
emerald in a state of fusion, and that the crystals developed
themselves during a slow process of cooling or evaporation. The
method employed by Ebelmen for the artificial production of
chrysobery], namely, heating alumina, glucina, and carbonate of
lime with boracic acid in a porcelain furnace until a portion of
the menstruum had evaporated, yielded crystals of the true
specific gravity, showing the density of minerals to be less de-
pendent on the temperature at which they are produced than
upon their crystalline or amorphous state.

One crystalline gem (the ruby) has undoubtedly been pro-
duced in nature at a high temperature. I-have frequently
repeated Gaudin’s experiment on the artificial formation of this
stone, and can confirm most of his results. I did not, however,
find the density to be quite the same as the native ruby or
sapphire, which is, in different specimens, from 3°53 to 3°56.
Artificial rubies of the finest colour made by me by Gaudin’s
process had a specific gravity of 3°45, which is not 3 per cent.
lower than that of the ruby. The reason for this close approxi-
mation will be found in the fact that fused alumina crystallises
on cooling, The crystallisation is, however, confused and im-
perfect, which causes the resulting product to be only partially
transparent, and to have a slightly lower specific gravity than
the natural gem. It is consequénfly scarcely correct to call the
fused stones made by Gaudin’s process “‘ artificial rubies.”

I have convinced myself that rubies have been formed in
nature at a temperature equal, or nearly equal, to that of the

a

NATURE

255

fusing-point of alumina, from the circumstance that the reaction
between chromic oxide and alumina, which results in the deve-
lopment of the red colour of the gem, is not effected at low or
even moderately high temperatures, but requires a heat as high
as that of the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. It is not necessary that
the chromium should be presented to the alumina in the form
of chromic acid. It appears, therefore, that the red colour of
the ruby is not caused by the presence of chromic acid. It is,
in fact, a colour reaction sui generis between alumina and chromic
oxide, which, as far as my experiments have gone, only takes
place at very elevated temperatures,

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Royal Horticultural Society, June 18.—Scientific Com-
mittee.—Dr. Hooker, C.B., F.R.S., in the chair.—Dr. Capa-
nema, from Rio Janeiro, described the destruction in Brazil of
orange, peach, and cotton plants, more especially at Milagres,
in the provincé of Ciara, from the attacks of a Coccus. An
orange tree of historic interest more than 200 years old had
been destroyed by this insect.—Dr. Masters, F.R.S., reported
upon a double-flowéred variety of Lobelia erinus. The calyx
was normal, the corolla was affected by a dédoublement, the
stamens were more or less petaloid, the ovary was represented
by obscure carpellary leaves bearing ovules on the margins.—
Mr. Lane, of Berkhampstead, sent a cutting of a yellow-leaved
variety of Laburnum which had broken from an old stem of the
ordinary kind previously budded some time before with the
yellow one. The bids which were inserted died, but as in other
cases the tendency to variegation in the foliage had been com-
municated to the stock.—The Rev. M. J. Berkeley stated that
he had provisionally referred the thread blight which had attacked
the tea plantations in India to Corticium repens Berk.

July 2.—A. Smee, F.R.S., in the chair.—Prof. C. Babington
sent flowers of a potato in which the petals were replaced by
stamens.—Dr. Denny sent a Pelargonium which showed an in-
teresting reversion to one of the original wild forms (P. znguinans).
It had been raised from Wellington as the seed parent, and
Marathon as the pollen parent, both varieties of the nose-gay
class.

EDINBURGH

Scottish Meteorological Society, July 2.—Sir Thomas
Buchan Hepburn in the chair.—The Council reported to the
General Meeting, that there are 92 Stations in Scotland in con-
nection with the Society, 5 in England, 4 on the Continent, 2 in
Iceland, 1 in Fard, and 1 in South America; that there are 9
honorary, 16 corresponding, and 557 ordinary members ; that
the value of the Instruments at the Society’s Stations amounts to
1,173/., of which 218/. belongs to the Society, and the rest to
local parties ; and that during the past ten years, 63 certified
Barometers, 59 louvre-boarded boxes, on Stevenson’s pattern,
for holding thermometers, had been despatched to the Society’s
Stations, and about 800 thermometers compared in the office.
In reply to an application from a Committee of the British
Association, the Council have intimated that they will, as
hitherto, be glad to make the unpublished meteorological obser-
vations in their possession available to scientific men, and free of
charge, in so far as the limited means of copying at their dis-
posal will enable them to do so,—Mr, Buchan gave in the report
from the Committee which had been appointed to inquire into
the subject of the Herring Fisheries in relation to Meteorology.
The returns of the fishings at Wick, Buckie, Peterhead, and
Eyemouth, for six seasons of thirteen weeks each (1867-1872)
had been examined, and the catches of herring compared with
the mean daily temperature of the sea and that of the air with
the height of the barometer, the direction and force of the wind,
storms of wind, thunderstorms, Auroras, and rain. The fishing
season at these places, in common with the whole cf the east
coast of Great Britain, from Scotland to Flamborough Head,
occurred during July, August, and September, ending some-
what earlier at the northern than at the southern stations.
From the mean daily catch at Wick and Buckie, from
which daily returns had been made, it is seen that during
the six years the largest average catches were taken be-
tween the 13th and 22nd August, and the whole herring season
began about the 19th July, and ended on the 2nd September.
That period agreed exactly with the highest mean daily
temperatures of the sea during the year, and the period of the

256

heaviest catches coincided with that of the absolute maximum
temperature of the sea. It is premature to affirm that there is
any absolute connection between those two facts, seeing, for
example, that the herring season at Stornoway occurred in May
and June, but it is, to say the least, a striking coincidence. The
relations of the temperature of the sea to the migrations of the
herrings will receive further elucidation when, the returns from
Stornoway and other places being discussed, it is exactly deter-
mined with what critical epochs of the annual march of the
temperature of the sea, the herring seasons, and the periods of
maximum catches in different districts correspond. In almost all
cases the largest catches occurred with a high, steady baro-
meter and light winds, indicating settled weather; and very
light catches, in the height of the season, with thunder-storms,
a low and unsteady barometer, northerly and easterly winds, and
weather more or less stormy. It was recommended that, in the
further prosecution of the inquiry, attention be given to investivate
the causes which determine the time of the commencement of the
fishing, the fluctuations of the catches in different districts or on
different days, and the end of the fishing season. Self-registering
thermometers, similar to those now in operation at Peterhead
Harbour, established at different points on the coast, and obser-
vations on the temperature of the sea, by the more intelligent
fishermen on their fishing excursions, could not fail to contribute
very material assistance to this difficult inquiry. The Committee
was re-appointed to contiuue their investigation of this im-
portant question, Mr. Thomas Stevenson, convener.—Mr. Robert
Louis Stevenson then read a paperon “ Local Conditions in-
fluencing Climate in Scotland ;” in which the effect of shelter
from the East and West, and of relative proximity to the sea,
were chiefly considered. The mean annual temperature of Unst
and Monach, two of the Society’s stations, which, being situated
on outlying islands, are almost wholly removed from the influ-
ence of the land, was found to coincide with the mean sea tem-
perature in their neighbourhood. A series of observations was
proposed at three or four stations, provided with thermometers
similarly placed and protected, one set being close to the shore,
another a mile inland, and the others at intermediate distances,
in order to decide in what manner the climatic influence of the
sea extends inland, Mr, Milne Home stated his belief that the
Society would he able to carry out the proposal,

BERLIN

German Chemical Society, July 14.—C. Béttinger has
obtained a new acid from pyruvic acid, by heating it to
130° with a small quantity of baryta, It is well crystallised,
and having two atoms of hydrogen more than uritric acid, has
obtained the name of hydruritic acid. Its mode of formation
is expressed by the formula

4C,H,O,; = C,H,,0, + C,H,O, + CO, + 2H,O.
(new acid) (oxatic acid)
A. Kekulé and A. Fleischer have treated camphor with iodine
and thus transformed it into oxy-cymol, a phenotic body boiling
at 231° of the formula C,)H,,0. Prof. Kekulé considers this
reaction as a proof for a new graphic formula for camphor, which
he intends to prove by further researches.—F. Landolph re-.
ported on the action of nitric acid on various cymols. Cam-
phor-cymol yields mono-nitrocymol and mono-nitro-toluyic
acid, which is volatile below its fusing point. Cymol
from ptychotis-oil yields dinitro-cymol and a mononitro-
toluyic acid different from the above and fusing at 184°.—
I’, Fittica ,has obtained identical products from the cymols of
camphor, ptychotis-oil and thymol. All of them yield two diffe-
rent mono-nitro-cymols, one solid, the other liquid.—A, Kekulé
has found amongst the products of PCI; on phenol-parasulfuric

acid a body of the formula PO. tale yielding with water

2
a corresponding acid and chlorophenol.—V. y. Richter has found
that benzoate and formate of potassium fused together yield
both terephthalic and isophthalic acids, a fact which renders
untrue many conclusions on the constitution of aromatic bodies
which have been founded on the production of either one or the
other of the above acids with derivatives of benzol and formate
of potash. Prof, Richter thinks that either one or the other of
those isomeric acids are formed according to the temperature
employed in fusing. —F. Baumstark has found in urine a new
neutral crystallised substance of the formula C,H,N,O,
which with alkalis yields lactic acid and ethylamine.—K.
Birnbaum reported on the attraction of water by super-
phosphate of calcium exposed to moist air.—G, Barbag-

NATURE

<

[ Fuly 24, 1873 ;

lia_ reported’ on ‘the impurities contained "in commercial *
isobutylic aldehyde (chiefly acetone) derived from propylic
alcohol, and on the conditions under which isobutylic alcohol
yields acetone.—A. Oppenheim communicated the continuation
of his researches on cymoles derived from various C,)H, ¢ isomers,
Those from terpene and from citrene yielding both paratoluyic
as well as terephthalic and acetic acils, can only differ in the
position of the 2 atoms of hydrogen which they contin in addi-
tion to cymol. . This renders improbable that all C,,H,, yielding
cymoles should be constituted according to the view lately ex-
pressed by Kekulé,
Paris

Academy of Sciences, July 7.—M. Bertrand, president,—
The proceedings commenced with the announcement, the
perpetual secretary of the award of the Albert Medal of the
Society of Arts to M. Chevreul.—During the meeting the com-
mission charged with the recommendation of a candidate for the
place left vacant by the decease of M. de Verneuil, presented its
report, It recommends, Ist, M. de Lesseps; 2nd, MM. Bré-
guet, du Moncel, Jacqmin, and Sedillot.—The following papers
were read :—Theory of the planet Saturn, by M. N. J. Leverrier.
—On an isochronous regulator constructed by M. Bréguet forthe
Transit of Venus at Yokohama, by M. Yvon Villarceau.—On
the method of action of the water during the reactions accom-
panying the mixing of neutral, acid, and alkaline solu-
tions, by M. Becquerel.—On the definition attainable with
small astronomical telescopes, by M. d’Abbadie.—A direct
demonstration of the fundamental principles of thermo-dyna-
mics ; the laws of friction and concussion, by M. A. Ledieu. |
—Thermal researches on saline solutions by M, P. A, Favre,—
On the fossils ot the phosphatic chalk of Quercy, by M. P. Ger-
vais. —On the development of the plague in the mountainous
countries and plateaus of Europe, Atrica, and Asia, by Dr.
Tholozan.—On the iron ores of the department of Ille-et-Vil-
laine, by M. Delage.—Experiments on the action of ammonia
and the prolonged action of water on the Phylloxera, by M.
Gueyraud.—On magnetism, by M. du Moncel.—On the variable }
period of the closing of a Voltaic circuit, by M. Cazin.—On an

|

‘absolute ” barometer, by MM. Hans and Hermary.—On the
dissociation of mercuric oxide, by M. H, Debray.—On a method
of comparing different gunpowders, by M. de Tromenec.—On
the oxalins, or evhers of glycerin and the polyatomic alcohols, by
M. Lorin, Oxalin is produced by the action of oxalic acid on
glycerin. —On the zoological position and séle of the acarians
known as Hypopus, Homopus, Trichodactylus, by M. Mégnin—
Experimental contributions to the history of digestion in birds,
by M. Jobert.—Observations on certain of the organic liquids of
fish, crustacea, and cephalopoda, by M. F. Papillon—QOn the
heat of combustion of explosive substances, by MM. Roux and
Sarrau.— New experiments relating to the theory of the thrust of
earthworks, by M. J. Curie.

DIAR

FRIDAY, Juty 25. -
Queketr Cus, at 8.—Anniversary. :

SATURDAY, Jury 26.
Botanic Society, at 3 45.

CONTENTS

Pace
Tue ENpowMeENT oF Resgarcu, III... . 2 ee ee
ALEXANDER VON HuMBOLDT . arte Eo ee + = 238
Stiruine’s ‘‘ PHrvosopHy,OF LAW” . .. . . sa ve 241
Our Book SHELF . SSS 8 0 we jo 6 Mn) feline
Lerrers TO THE Epiror:—
The Pay ot Scientific Men.—Prof. W. H. Frower, F.RS.. . . 243
Habits of Ants.—Cuarves Darwin, F.R.S.; J.D. Hague . . 244
Fertilisation of Viola tricolor and cornuta.—W. E. Haxt, F.L.S, 24
Spots on the Cherry-Laurcl —Prof. W. Tuisecton Dygk, F.L.S, 245
alomitra—H H. Hiccins . . MC
Periodicity of Rainfall—Rawson W. Rawson. . . 1, |! 245
Norss FROM THE Chadlenger, IV. By Prof. Wyvitte Tuomson, F.R.S.
(With Lilustrations) Soe Su eee 0s +e
Pee el or Insacrs. By Sir Joun Lupsock, Bart., M.P.,
SaNene eek 8 8 ee ee ees 8 St dt ie ee
Nores oN THE Hongy-MAKING ANT or Texas AND New Mexico, ig
By Henry Epwarps (i!2th Ullusteation) . . . © citar NO:
Norms. <-.) os = ceenienin bel seis cee 2. 4 (ou epee
wala et ON EMERALDS AND Bexyis, By GREVILLE WILLIAMS,
SociETIES AND ACADEMIES. . . . « . vo) ot iw (uel aia a

Diary, , . °° CURES pois. is 2 9 a

NATURE

a3

THURSDAY, JULY 31, 1873

THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH
TV.

N accordance with the heading, deliberately adopted
for this series of articles, the main object of them
has been to insist upon the national importance of a
direct endowment of research, and to indicate a way
whereby scientific investigators, relieved from any inci-
dental duties, may be placed upon a footing of security
and competence. In justice, however, to the letter from
Professor Flower, published in our last number, it is
necessary to give some explanation why the indirect
endowment of scientific men by means of the existing

professvriate has been comparatively ignored.

Though it is very far from our intention to quarrel with
the main driftof that tter, yet itwere vain toattempt todis-
guise the real point of disagreement between Prof. Flower’s
proposals and those herein aavocated. To augment the
salaries of distinguished men of Science, whether govern-
ment officials, executive members of the wealthy scientific
bodies, or University professors, and to increase their
numbers, is no doubt an object to which certain classes
of the public require that their attention should be drawn,
as it is also one of the means by which original scientific
work would be encouraged. At this point, apparently,
Professor Flower would tor the present stop ; yet we think
that there are many and weighty reasons why those who
are not content with such a scheme as final, should hold
that a favourable time has now arrived for putting for-
ward a more complete system sufficiently elastic to
comprehend within its future development the liberal
subsidy of all forms of unremunerative Scientific Re-
search,

As to the funds at the disposal of scientific bodies, it is
well known that they are so small as to form a scarcely
appreciable element in the consideration of the present
question, nor is it likely that they will receive much in-
crease ; but yet it would be desirable that the method of
their distribution should form an example to guide the
application of a more complete system. Again, with re-
ference to the Government appointments, the prospect
does not appear more encouraging. Our practical poli-
ticians are not unnaturally offended by the anomaly that
the holders of these offices should confessedly receive pay,
not for the work they do, but in honour of their general
scientific attainments. ‘he Mastership of the Mint has
not been saved even by the illustrious character of its
previous occupants, and along with it have gone several
subordinate posts which also were honoured by the scien-
tific men who held them. It only remains for some
Chancellor of the Exchequer or Minister of Public Works
to arise, wholly given over to the less noble doctrines of
Political Economy, and Science will lose the remainder of
those places which open competition could fill so much
more cheaply, and then the public scientific work of which
the popular voice demands the accomplishment, may be
resigned to the enterprise of pushing newspaper proprie-
tors. This sort of indirect eudowment of research may
be said to have had its day ; it was of a piece with the
public sinecures which used to be awarded indiscrimi-

No, 196—Vot, vit,

nately for literary or other ill-recognised merit. It was
extremely uselul when no particular kind of work was re-
quired in return, and when the national benefits arising
from the advancement were less thought of than they
are now.

It is, without doubt, to the professoriate at the Uni-
versities that the advocates of indirect endowment must
turn in the first place, both for the wealth and the organisa-
tion they require, and it is on this ground that issue with
them must be joined. It is our purpose, therefore, to point
out, first, that the Science professors at the Universities
are already in a fair way to get both the position and the
emoluments which they deserve, and secondly, that to
subordinate original research to the paramount duty of
teaching is a clumsy expedient which should not, on*
principle, be systematically adopted.

In the first place it hardly needs to be said that all the
tendency of ancient and modern endowment has been in
favour of the Professoriate, so that the interests of teach-
ing are already in possession of the field. Inthe old days
when all instruction was of necessity oral, to found a
chair was the one means by which the highest forms of
new learning could be promoted ; and the force of this
tradition, acting in harmony with the practical character
of Englishmen, who always expect visible results from
money spent, has been a guarantee that modern Science,
while growing to its present dimensions, should not fail to
receive this sort of attention at the Universities. At
Oxford, for example, the present holders of the three
leading chairs of Chemistry, Physiology, and Physics re-
ceive from various academical sources endowments of
800/ each per annum, and if the other Science Professor-
ships are inadequately endowed, the same may be said of
many of those subjects which enter directly into the
course for the Arts degree. According to a rough esti-
mate of Mr. M., Pattison’s, Science on the whole receives
nearly 5,500/., whereas Philology, the next highly en-
dowed faculty, gets but 4,000/.* It must also be borne
in mind that the University Commission of twenty years
ago gave a stimulus in this direction which has not died
away. Both the University and College authorities are
not unmindful of the duty of extending the Professoriate,
and endowing it worthily : new chairs are even now in
process of foundation, and at Oxford at least it is the rule
rather than the exception to confer a full fellowship upon
a hardworking professor in whatever department of
knowledge, whose statutable endowment is comparatively
small. From these statements it would be manifestly
wrong to draw the inference that either the physical
sciences or the other branches of scientific study are as
yet fully represented or adequately endowed at Oxford
and Cambridge: the purport of them rather is to show
that teaching at the Universities in Science as in other
matters has gained a position which can well take care of
itself. If the plan were adopted which has worked so
well at Glasgow, viz. to allow the professors an official
house, and to leave to the fees of their pupils the further
augmentation of their salaries, Prof. F lower’s demand for
a simple competency would be completely satisficd.

The real difficulty, however, will yet remain, for on the
one hand we have not yet attained any assurance that we

* It should be noticed that the anomalous chairs of Divinity have been
throughout excepted from these calculations,
P

258

_"

NATURE

[Fuly 31, 1873

shall get from our endowments anything more than first-
rate teaching, and on the other hand we have a large
proportion of the University revenues yet to dispose of.
It would, of course, be a possible alternative to endow so
large a number of professors as to reduce their teaching
duties to a vanishing point, and thus avoid the appear-
ance of a radical change and escape the reproach which
apparently attaches to the direct endowment of Research.
It is not to be supposed that the advocates of indirect
endowment intend deliberately to take up with such a
subterfuge, yet on any other hypothesis it is as certain as
anything can well be, that the original investigation which
they put in the second place will come off second best.
It were invidious to allude to particular instances, but it
- is past denial that the original discoveries in Science which
once made England famous, and now more or less maintain
that fame, neither were nor are achieved by the holders of
teaching posts, and it is equally clear that many of the forms
into which modern Science is developing are not of such
a character as to be capable of being transmitted by oral
instruction. The truth seems to be that the intimate
connection sought to be established between original in-
vestigation and professorial teaching is borrowed from
the artificial institutions of another country. It is the chief
characteristic of a German University that the full pro-
fessor, the extraordinary professor, and the Zrivat docent
make up the class which is there engaged in scientific
study not less than in academical teaching, a peculiarity
which may be partly attributed to the laborious character
of the people, but yet more to the pecuniary poverty of
the Institutions. It is in fact from the want of endow-
ments that the emulous spirit of German patriotism has
been compelled to exact double work from a single in-
strumentality. The renowned University of Berlin is
indebted for the whole of its resources to the state, and
that, a state which is the most frugally administered of
any in Europe: and from this cause it has learnt to
elaborate an organised system of student teachers and
inchoate professors, from whom research is expected as
a duty co-ordinate with instruction, while the natural
docility and perseverance of the German character have
caused these expectations to be abundantly realised. Yet
one of the most celebrated of modern German pro-
fessors is reported to have said, that “the life of a
professor would be a very pleasant one, if it were not for
the lecturing.” No doubt there are many English pro-
fessors who secretly to themselves would re-echo the
sentiment ; yet what could sound more absurd if regarded
from the ordinary point of view which is popular in this
country? Germany indeed has set an example of the
novel forms of scientific industry which should flourish at
a living University, but the attempt to transfer to Oxford
and Cambridge the German system in its integrity would
in some respects be a backward step, and would probably
prove a failure. The history of our Universities is
against it, and their wealth alone serves to vitiate any
analogy borrowed from the parsimonious Teuton. They
possess, however, a large number of appointments, uncon-
nected for the most part with teaching duties, and origin-
ally destined to be held on the condition of study. It
would be easy by means of amalgamation and modifica-
tion of tenure to make these appointments worthy of the
acceptance of those who devote their livés to Scientific

research ; nor ought it to be styled “a visionary ideal,”
to recognise that natural division of labour, which is per-
mitted to us by the magnificent wealth at our disposal,
agreeable to English precedent, and in close accordance
with the intentions of the founders of Colleges.

c

2

CARNE’S “ TRAVELS IN INDO-CHINA”

Travels in Indo-China and the Chinese Empire. By
Louis de Carné, Member of the Commission of Explo-
ration of Mekong. With a Notice of the Author by
the Count de Carné. Translated from the French.
(London : Chapman and Hall, 1872.)

HE work, a translation of which is before us, is a
history of the expedition despatched in 1865, under
the auspices of the French Government, for the purpose
of exploring the river Mekong, of which expedition Mons.
Louis de Carné was a member. In consequence of his
death the work has been carried through the press by
his father, the Count de Carné. Mons. Louis de Carné,
with every allowance being made for a father’s very natu-
ral expressions of eulogy and admiration, seems to have
been a young man of rare ability and promise, and his
untimely death at the early age of twenty-seven, the re-
sult of the hardships he had to encounter during the
expedition, marks a devotion to the cause of Science
worthy of the emulation of all those who are desirous of
helping forward scientific inquiry and research, The
expedition, the history of which is here detailed, origi-
nated in a suggestion by the Governor of the French
colony of Cochin-China to his Government, that the
river Mekong, at the mouth of which Saigon, the capital
of the colony, is situate, might be made the principal route
for the commerce passing between Europe and China.
There can be no doubt that, could this route be satisfac-
torily established, the advantage to Europe would be
immense, for in addition to a saving of about 1,200 miles
in point of distance, the perilous navigation of the China
seas, so much dreaded on account of the terrible mon-
soons by which they are periodically ravaged, might be
entirely avoided. Accordingly, in the year 1865 the
Marquis de Chasseloup, the French Colonial Minis-
ter, sanctioned the scheme of an expedition which should
serve the interests of Science, as well as those of the
colony, and which, ascending the Mekong from its mouth,
where it empties itself into the Indian Ocean, to its sources
amid the mountains of Thibet, should report fully on the
navigability of that great river, which was then almost
unknown beyond the Lake of Augeor, through which the
boundary line between the kingdoms of Siam and Cam-
bodgia passes. M. de Carné thus sums up the objects
of the expedition :—“ It was desired, first, that the old
maps should be rectified, and the navigability of the -
river tried, it being our hope that we might bind together
French Cochin-China and the western provinces of China
by means of it. Were the rapids, of whose existence we
knew, an absolute barrier? Were the islands of Khon
an impassable difficulty? Was there any truth in
the opinion of geographers who, with Dumoulin, be-
lieved that there was a communication between the
Meinam and the Mekong? To gather information re-
specting the sources of the latter, if it proved impossible

—- Fuly 31, 1873]

to reach them ; to solve the different geographical pro-
blems which would naturally offer, was the fitst part of
the programme the Commission had to carry out. We
were required, besides, to report any miscellaneous fac\s
which might throw light on the history, the philology, the
ethnography, or the religion of the peoples along the
great river, which was to be as much as possible the
guiding-thread of our expedition. We had instructions
to seek for a passage from Indo-China to China ; an en-
terprise in which the English have always failed as
yet.”

M. Drouyn de Lhuys, theMinister of Foreign Affairs,
heartily approved of the scheme, and appointed young
de Carné to represent his department on the expedition.
The exploration party started from Saigon in June,
1866, but they were doomed to disappointment, so
far as regarded their main object, for it was ascertained
that the Mekong abounded in rapids, cataracts, and
obstructions of various kinds, which precluded all possi-
bility of a route being found to China in that direction,
and after encountering severe sufferings and hardships to
which some of their number succumbed, including M. de
Lagrée, the chief of the expedition, they returned to
Saigon after an absence of about two years and a
half.

M. de Carné claims, as the actual results of the enter-
prise, so far as it was successful, to have “corrected the
errors, and set at rest, by lifting the veil from the doubts
which had hitherto led geographers to false and uncertain
conclusions in describing the eastern zone of the Indo-
Chinese peninsula. The capricious windings of the
Mekong; the prolongation of its course to the west, at
the 18th parallel of latitude ; the importance of its afflu-
ents ; the strength and volume of its waters, and, if I
may venture to say so, the proof of its individuality,
which, contrary to the received opinion (viz. of the union
of the waters of the Mekong and Meinam), continues to
the end of its course ; the certainty of its entry into
Yunan, where it receives the waters of Lake Tali, and
into Thibet, where it has its source—all these points were
cleared up. Ina word, we brought back precise infor-
mation respecting the whole course of an immense river,
which rises amidst the snows, and completes its course
under a burning sun. On the other hand, there are the
exact observations and seemingly well-founded informa-
tion respecting the other rivers of Indo-China; as to
their position in different parts of their course, and the
limits of their basins ; and, in addition, many particulars
respecting a part of China itself, which had been hitherto
the least known.”

We understand that an official report of the expedition
is in course of preparation, and we have no doubt
the present work will be found to form a very useful
supplement to it. The volume would, however, be ren-
dered more valuable and complete by the addition
of a few maps, the only one it at present possesses being
a somewhat rough sketch of the route followed by the
exploring party. Whether France will be able, as M.
de Carné suggests, to establish a communication between
her colony and China by the river Songkoi, which flows
along the north of the Annamite peninsula, is a problem
which yet remains to bé solved.

GiAF.G

NATURE

259

“MOTHER EARTH’S BIOGRAPHY”

Chronos: Mother Earth's Biography. A Romance of
the New School. By Wallace Wood, M.D. (Triibner
and Co.)

AP RERE can be but few with active minds who have

not occasionally found, after having grasped the
essential points of any inclusive theory, that in mo-
ments of ease and quiet thought, it is far from unpleasant
to attempt to apply it, by arunning analogy, to some
series of phenomena entirely different from those to which
it was originally intended to relate, and by taking detail
after detail, rebuild it on a fresh foundation. Few, how-
ever, have the confidence to put their results on paper,
and fewer still to submit them to the criticism of a ruth-
less public.

The theory of evolution has an intrinsic fascination of
this kind, especially to those with a cynical turn of mind ;
for though developed on a purely physical basis, never-
theless its entire applicability to the intricacies of society,
puts the facts of every-day life in a manner so bold, and
yet so evidently truthful, that, as it were, scales fall from
the eyes of its disciples, and the panorama of moral
philosophy flashes out in a manner so vivid and unmis-
takable as never to.be effaced. The picture is a mono-
chrome, and negativism is the colour !

As the title of this work indicates, the history of the
world from the beginning of time has to be sketched, and
the author commences with a vivid exposition of the
nebular hypothesis, and the cooling down of the earth to
the commencement of geologic time, under the headings
of its Birth and Infancy. He then describes the com-
mencement and development of vegetable and animal
life. Just as in a tree all life is found in the terminal
twigs, so “the species of animals we see on the earth are
the twigs of the great animal tree, the body and branches
of which have long since perished,” and the struggle for
existence by which the present forms have been arrived
at, leads to the adoption of the fundamental maxim, “ Be
hungry and you will be great,” which is proposed in place
of the old adage—“ Be virtuous and you will be happy.”
Further on the same principle is illustrated in a very
different manner : “ only iron-clad and zinc-covered trunks
are seen on the Western American railroads, all others
being smashed up by the remorseless pitching of the
baggage-men, employed, it would seem, for the purpose ;
this is the Survival of the Fittest.”

After the world had passed through the early ages of
only protoplasmic and invertebrate forms, the vertebrate
era commences with “the fishy period.” From the
amphibian type was developed the reptile, as we are told,
thus : “ The lizard differed from the frog, and the newt
&c., chiefly by breathing entirely through lungs instead
of gills, and thus dispensing with water, except as a
beverage ; forced to magnificent temperance by long ages
of death ; driven to it by the great propelling power to
which welare all more or less victims—the force of cir-
cumstances. Thus a second nature is given, and a new
type is created. The fish became a reptile. There was
no more longing for the good old times ; a more glorious
prospect in life the world has never seen. The untrod

earth was a garden of thick fleshy plants ; whole oceans”

of appetising insects and delicious worms awaited only

260

NATURE

[Fuly 31, 1873

the eating. And the new-comers grew and throve as
never has any immigrant race before or since.” The ten-
dency in animals, as we ascend in the scale of life, to
assist one way or another in the further maintenance of
their offspring, either by development of a nutritive yolk
or by feeding them after they are hatched, is certain.
“ The explanation of this is very simple. As the popula-
tion of the earth ever increases and competition grows
sharper, it is those who have this assistance in their
younger days that are enabled to succeed in the world,
and to arrive at maturity. And these possess the inherit-
ing tendency to do the same, or very likely a little more,
for the new generation than their parents had done for
them. ‘If I could only give John a thousand dollars
when he is twenty-one, I shall be satisfied,’ says the sire ;
‘my father was only able to give me a hundred and a
freedom suit.’”

The Reptilian Period is followed by “the Age of
Brutes,” wherein the maxim “might is right” was the
ruling power. This is followed by “the Anthropological
Age,” that of the present time ; a time of advance accord-
ing to evolution, and not of decadence, for all we know
tends to show that “ the course of history is one of pro-
gress, and that consequently man is an elevated and not
a fallen being ; that he is a perfected creature and not a
degraded divinity ; that his course is Excelsior, onward
and upward, and not downward.” And if we consider
the age of Man, in contradistinction to that of brute and
reptile, to have been that in which man first appeared on
earth, what may the present be considered—but the age
of Woman. “ Historically considered, her case is very
strong. Ifthe position of woman continues to become
exalted in the future at anything like the rate it has
advanced in the past—granted that she began as the
slave of a brute—that future will show not an equality,
but woman the ruler, the subordinate man ; and these
are advantages in her favour which none but the naturalist
dreams of.”

“ A complete equilibrium—when for every desire there
shall be a gratification,” is the author’s deduction as to
the future, things being as they are ; but “it would seem
that life on earth is doomed to die a violent, and not a
natural death. Man proposes, but the attraction of gravi-
tation disposes,” and so “ we must be resigned, remem-
bering that after all we are but a mere speck in the
great celestial economy, which will lose nothing by our
death.”

The above short account of this eccentric and amusing
work, which excels more by the quaint way in which well-
known facts are put, than by anything original in itself,
will be best supplemented by a perusal of the original.

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Elements of Chemistry. Theoretical and Practical.
By William Allen Miller, M.D. D.C.L. LL.D., late
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London.
Revised by Herbert M‘Leod, F.C.S., Professor of Ex-
perimental Science, Indian Civil Engineering College,
Coopers Hill. Part I. Chemical Physics. Fifth

» Edition, with additions. (Lendon : Longmans, 1872.)

ALTHOUGH Parts II. and III. of this well-known

manual have needed frequent alteration and revision —
as the science advanced, Part I. has, until quite Te- |

cently, experienced but little change from its well-known
form. The recent great advances which have been made
in what is now so well known, or at least so often heard
of, as solar chemistry, have necessitated considerable
additions to the edition of 1867, the last that left the
hands of the lamented author.

The name of Mr. M‘Leod is a guarantee that the
work thas fallen into good hands® At page 196, a
most complete and well-condensed statement of the
present aspect of the subject will be found. The early
Indian observations of Captain Herschel and others
are referred to, and an account of the discovery of
the method of observing the chromosphere without an
eclipse is given, and also a sketch of the nature of the
phenomena thus observed. A very good statement of
the present state of our knowledge with regard to the
thickening of the F line, and of Frankland and Lockyer’s
researches on that subject, is also given, and reference
is made to their remarkable observation of the different
lengths of the metallic lines above the pole, an obser-
vation which has since lead to such important results
in connection not only with solar and stellar, but with
terrestrial spectroscopy. The additions conclude with a
very clear and succinct account of our knowledge of the
movements of the gaseous masses on the surface of the
sun, and the means of measuring their rapidity and
direction. The nature of the spectroscopic phenomena
of sun-spots is also described, but somewhat briefly. The
added portion is illustrated with twelve woodcuts.

Mr. M‘Leod’s hand is again visible in the chapter re-
lating to atomicity, where he has added in notes several
important points in modern chemical theory, which had
not been sufficiently explained in the original work of
Dr. Miller ; and we also notice in the body of the book a
short explanation of the graphic and symbolical formule
now so much used in explaining chemical facts to the
student. We most cordially welcome this new and
improved edition of an old friend, and congratulate the
present editor on the share he has had in producing it.

R. J. F.

The A BC of Chemistry. By Mrs. R. B. Taylor.
Edited by W. Mattieu Williams, F.RA.S., F.C.S.
(London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1873.)

THIS little bovk is intended apparently for the use of
very young children. The attempt to explain the nature
of the elements by analogy with the letters of the alphabet
is somewhat obscure, though it would perhaps be difficult
to find a different method. The book is divided into
lessons, and each lesson followed by questions which are,
on the whole, well selected. The same cannot, however,
be said of the experiments at the end of the book, which
all smack strongly of the “ conjuring trick.” We cannot
coincide with the editor in recommending the book to
artisans and business men, who, we think, might attempt
something a little more advanced, even as a first book,
For those, however, who wish to teach children chemistry,
it will no doubt be useful.

Third Annuai Report of the Wellington College Natural
History Society, December 1870 to December 1872.
(Weilington College : George Bishop, 1873).

IT is disappointing that the first words of this report, as
in the case of the Rugby Society which we noticed re-
cently, should be a confession of partial failure : “ Natural
History,” the Preface begins by telling us, “does not
flourish at Wellington College . . . The chief reason un-
doubtedly is, that during the past two years the older
Fellows—and in particular the Sixth Form—have ignored
the existence of the Society altogether.” Judging from
what is said at p. 36, the apathy of the older members of
the school is owing to some antagonism which exists be-
tween the Natural History Society and the Debating
Society attached to the school. But, with Mr. Penny, we

Fuly 31, 1873]

NATURE

261

cannot see that there is any reason why the two Societies
should be in the slightest degree antagonistic. On the
contrary, they might be mutually helpful, both having
ultimately the same end in view—to teach the boys to
examine, think, and act for themselves. Of course it
ought to be remembered what a great innovation a society
like that of Wellington College is on the traditional
methods of instruction belonging to a school. The work
is entirely voluntary, not clearly defined, as in the regular
task-work of the school ; and the only rewards held out,
rewards which it is difficult to get the traditional school-
boy to understand and appreciate, are, besides the direct
acquisition of knowledge and the pleasure attending it,
development of the power of observation, keenness of in-
sight, and general intellectual vigour, A debating society,
with all its undoubted advantages, is apt to become a
nursery of boyish vanity ; the reward of successful speaking
is immediate and very sweet toa tyro, and can be obtained
without much labour. The work of a Natural History So-
‘ciety involves much plodding patience, with very little glory
to follow ; the rewards are intangible, invisible, especially
to the boys themselves, and it will take the training of
a few generations to teach boyish human nature to love
knowledge for its own sake. One of the most valuable
means to accomplish this purpose in a school is a society
like that of Wellington College, and therefore we would
counsel those who are anxious for its prosperity not to
be discouraged, but to work on so long as they can get
any boys to work with them, using all possible means to
insure success. We hope the merely local obstacles will
be overcome, and that the next report will have a more
lightsome beginning ; also that it will contain many
papers by the boys themselves, nearly the whole of the
papers in the present report being by Mr. Penny and
Mr. Lambert, and not one by a boy, though we are glad
to see that some papers by boys were read at the meet-
ings. The Rev. C. W. Penny, president of the Society,
deserves the greatest credit for the interest he displays in
the Society, and the amount of work he does to help on
the objects for which it is established. A large number
of the papers, full of instruction and interest even to boys,
are by him ; his predecessor in the presidentship, Mr. Lam-
bert, has also contributed much to make the meetings
of the Society attractive and instructive. Appended to
the report are pretty full botanical, zoological, and ento-
mological lists,

Familiar History of British Fishes, By Frank Buckland,
Inspector of Salmon Fisheries of England and Wales,
Corresponding Member of the “ Deutscher Fischerei
Verein,” &c. &c. (London Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge.)

THISs is a new edition of the above work, Mr. Buckland
having found it necessary, he says, almost to re-write the
book. It may be described as a free-and-easy gossip
about fishes, the book being largely made up of extracts
from all quarters, Lavd and Water especially being very
fruitful in material, As might be expected, Chapter xv.,
treating of Sa/monid@, and occupying upwards of 100
pages, a fourth part of the volume, is the most original
and valuable. The chapter will be found useful to all
who take an interest in the rearing and preservation of
salmon. The numerous illustrations are very fairly exe-
cuted, and the general reader will find the book enter-
taining and informing.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice ts taken of anonymous
communications. |
Endowment of Research
Direct and Indirect Endowment
I sHOULD like to make one or two remarks on Prof, Flower’s
letter in your last number,

He modestly suggests that his views respecting the endowment
of research unencumbered with teaching, or as he felicitously
calls it, the direct endowment of résearch, may be considered by
members of the Association for the Organisation of Academical
Study as ‘‘heretical.” I venture to think that he is orthodox on
the main theoretical position that, iv the long run, research must
be endowed directly as well as indirectly (by the subsidy of teach-
ing professors) and with an eguadly liberal hand. He is at issue
with us only, if I take him rightly, as to the ze when it will be
desirable or possible to make a claim for such direct endowment.
We contend that row is the only time for making such a claim,
and for a reason which I will give presently. Mr. Flower, on
the contrary, says that while zzdirect endowment of research, by
raising the salaries of teachers, may be carried out at once with
less opposition from old prejudices, ‘‘ the far more difficult ques-
tion will follow more appropriately and [the endowment] be
carried out more efficiently when the body of educated scientific
men in the country is larger than it is now, and the public gene-
rally, especially those in high places, have more appreciation of
the claims of Science for its own sake,” z.e. in the more or less in-
definite future.

In answer to this I would say :— ;

(1) The ‘* public in high places,” by which I suppose is meant
Mr. Lowe, who make a conscience of Political Economy, appear’
to appreciate the fact that the support of an useful and necessary
but essentiaily unremunerative employment like research, out of
public money is economically a sound investment; whilst the
subsidy of a remunerative employment like teaching, out of
public funds, though perhaps unavoidable, is nevertheless,
economically speaking, an unsound one. We have no fear of
Mr. Lowe’s opposition.

(2) If by ‘‘the opposition of old prejudices” is intended the-
atti'ude of the Conservative party towards the claims of know-
ledge, I would call Mr. Flower’s attention to the fact that some
of the warmest supporters of ‘‘ direct” endowment are poli ical
Conservatives, It is, indeed, one of the soundest elements in the
Conservative consciousness, the distrust of immature generalisa-
tions resting upon insufficient inquiry ; and the suspicion that, if
we insist too much upon exposition, and throw the weight of our
endowments into that, and if we make it every man’s duty to be
continually expounding, instead of insisting upon research and
throwing the weight of our endowments into study, the heads of
the rising generation run the risk of being inflated with imma-
ture and windy generalisations. Depend upon it, the Conserva-
tives are prepared for keeping the endowments of our colleges
for the support of that lifelong and uninterrupted study for which
the founders originally intended them.

(3) Thirdly, Mr. Flower desires to wait till the demand for
these supports of knowledge is much increased, and the body of
scientific men wanting them is larger than itis now. But has he
ever asked himself whether it is likely, that when this millennium
of expectancy arrives, there will still be any university or college
endowments undistributed, out of which this increased demand
is to be satisfied? If Reformers of our old Institutions content
themselves with sketching merely a teaching organisation on the
German modcl, and with asking to have that amply endowed,
and take no thought for the morrow when this larger body of
trained investigators shall have come miraculously into exist-
ence—and I think this would bea real miracle, the emergence
of a set of phenomena for which the conditions do not
previously exist—if, Isay, they are afraid of asking now
to have a large fund gradually put in reserve, to be
gradually drawnupon as the occasion arises, for the support of
study and of those engaged in it—dves Mr. Flower imagine that
the remainder of the College endowments which are not taken
up by the teaching establishment upon the German model, will
be allowed to lie dead? That no claim will be put in for them
by the county towns for the erection of more teaching establish-

262

ments, or for the support of the lectures to ladies, or as Mr.
Walter Morrison desires, for the improvement of the incomes of
village schoolmasters ?

Assuredly all these claims, and more, will be put in for the
residue of the funds—and I think it will be more than half—
which will remain unemployed when we have pulled down our
old Universities and set up our German teaching establishments
in their stead. And shall we be able to offer any resistance to such
de ands, unless we can come forward vow with the courage
of our opinions, and present the whole of our scheme for a
scientific as well as a teaching organisation, the former on a no
less complete scale than the latter, instead of keeping half of our
scheme, and the more important half of it, in our pockets? Mr.
Flower will remember the old lines :—

*¢ When land is gone and money spent
Then learming is most excellent.”

In conclusion, I would refer for a moment to Mr. Flower’s
fifth paragraph, in which he seems to say that the interruption
of research and study by teaching work or by official duties, is
rather an assistance to them. As this statement is very often
made, but always without the addition of any reasons for the
opinion, I would respectfully ask Mr. Flower to let us know
why an interrupted employment is more likely to prosper than
a continuous one? what is the precise advantage of distracting
intellectual force from the work it has to accomplish? and why
the members of the Government, or, say, the jury in the Tich-
borne case, should not also be compelled to deliver at least one
course of lectures during the London season ?

July 25 C. E. APPLETON

Method of Endowment

I HAVE read with much interest the three articles which have
appeared in NATURE under the above title. The author of
these articles has not as yet indicated the manner in which the
object which he proposes is, in relation to the Universities, to
be attained. He may intend to do this hereafter; but as the
absence of any really practical scheme has been mentioned in
the public journa's as an objection in the way of such endow-
ment as that proposed, I may perhaps be permitted to offer one
or two suggestions on the matter. First, it appears certainly
desirable that the Fellowships at the Universities should not be
abolished, but that the conditions of their tenure should be
changed. Scholarships of considerable yalue, and tenable for a
limited number of years, might still be awarded after strict ex-
amination ; but the Fellowships should be reserved exclusively
for the recognition of a capacity for original research, proved by
the publication of memoirs, or otherwise.
there would be little need for an Order of Intellectual Merit.
The title of ‘* University Fellow” might well suffice. I have
used the expression ‘‘ University Fellow,” for though it would
still be desirable that a certain proportion of the Fellows should
be required to reside at the several colleges, yet it would pro-
bably be considered preferable that the power of election should
be transferred from the colleges to a University Council. Such
a Council would have to discharge a function similar to that
annually performed by the Council of the Royal Society. To
prevent favouritism and nepotism, it would be requisite that the
names of all candidates should be published, together with the
grounds on which each bases his candidature. Similarly the
names of the selected candidates should be published, toge-
ther with the reasons by which the Council have been influenced
in their selection. But, it will probably be said, supposing that
the Council have in their seleciion exercised a wise and un-
biassed judgment, what is there to preveut the Fellowships from
degenerating into mere sinecures? How is the continuance of
original research to be secured? Probably there would be, in
this respect, little danger in the case of those who have already
proved their capacity for original work. But if it be contended
that the danger is real, it would not be difficult to provide
against ic by granting Fellowships, not for life, but for ten or
fifteen years, and by renewing them, on the expiry of the original
term, only to those who have given strict proof of the continu-
ance of their researches, making exception, of course, in the case
of persons disqualified from work either by age or disease,

NATURE

Under such a system |

aay

ey gee

‘
» *

| Fuly 31, 1873"

Such a scheme as that I haye suggested would, I venture to
think, be both practical and useful, though many matters of de-
tail would still remain to be considered.

July 24

M. A.

Mechanical Combination of Colours

As you have kindly requested me to give a short account in
Narure of the instrument I designed’ to illustrate the “ com-
bination of colours,” I haye much pleasure in complying with your
request. The instru-
ment was designed to
show the colour that
resulted from the
mixture of all or any
of the colours of the

spectrum given by
any light. The con-
struction is as fol-
lows :—

To the centre of a
disc, A, which can be
caused to revolve by
the wheel G, a plain
mirror, B, is fixed at
an angle of 45° to the
surface of the disc.

In front of the mirror

is placed a prism, D.

At the edge of the A...
disc there are placed )
different slides, E,
for cutting off any
particular rays ; also,
above the mirror, is a
small slit cut in a
piece of brass, C, to
admit the ray under
examination.

xx isa ray of light,
which passing through
the slit C, is deflected
at right angles by the
mirror B through the
prism D, and is then
received in the form
of a spectrum upor
the screen SS. As
soon as the wheel G
is set in motion the ;
spectrum also moves round the conical screen SS, and when a
certain velocity is arrived at, the colours combine and form the
original coloured light which is entering at the slit C. In the
same way, by using the slides, any two or more colours may be
combined to form the resultant colour.

FREDERICK J. SMITH

denen ee ene a see ee eee nese aan eee emeenen

On seeing the Red Flames on the Sun’s Limb with a
Common Telescope

ON observing the partial eclipse of the sun on Dee, 22, 1870,
it occurred to me whether it might not be possible to see the
red flames on the sun’s limb without waiting for a total solar
eclipse, or whether it was possible to make an artificial eclipse
sufficiently perfect to admit of the red flames being seen. Ac-
cordingly I cut out several circular discs of thin brass (blackened
on both sides), leaving three arms projecting from the periphery
of each of such length that when the ends were bent they
should slide into the tube of the eye-piece. I placed one
such disc in the eye-tube as near to the field lens as possible to
avoid its getting hot ; but here a difficulty presented itself which
I had not foreseen,—the disc was a trifle too large, and it shut
out the sun altogether. I put in a smaller one which admitted
too much of the sun’s light. I afterwards tried several, and
it required a considerable amount of filing and scraping to
produce one just the right size to cover the sun’s disc and no
more; especially as the least jarring or vibration of the telescope
would cause the edge of the sun to be seen first on one side and
then on the other. After several trials at different times I suc-
ceeded on January 16, 1872, in seeing on the south-western limb
axed flame. It appeared rather wider at the top than the bottom

ai

NATURE 263

with a smaller one growing out from the bottom or root close to
the sun’slimb. There was another tongue of flamea little to the
right, which appeared to be detached from the larger flame and
also from the sun’s limb. a

On September 20, 1872, I saw a red flame which went up a
little distance from the sun’s limb and then divided in three.
Close to this, on the edge of the sun’s disc, was a group of nine
small spots, and a large space was covered with facule.
The flame—which was of a deep red colour—did not appear
to be projected against the sky, but upon a very delicate purple
background. ,

No coloured glass was used in either of these observations, but
a sheet of letter paper was held between the eye and the tele-
scope which was removed the instant the sun was brought into
the centre of the field of view. R. Lancpon

The Huemul

In the number of Narure for July 24, p. 253, I see it is
stated that ‘‘the Chilian Exploring Expedition has discovered
a specimen of the Huemul, an animal that has been altogether
lost sight of.”

The late Earl of Derby received a female specimen of this
animal from Port Famine, in the Straits of Magellan, described
and figured by me in the Proc. Zool. Soc, 1849, p. 64, t. xii.,
as Cervus leucotis, which is now in the Derby Museum at Liver-

ool. Mr. Bates has sent to the British Museum a male and
female of the Huemul, which were obtained by Don Enrique
Simpson in a valley of the Cordilleras, lat. 46S. These speci-
mens have been described, the horns of the male figured, and
the history of the animal given in detail by me, under the name
of Huamela leucotis, in the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1872, x.
p- 445; 1873, xi. p. 214, and p. 308.

The animal, like all the American deer, differs from the stags
of the Old World in having no tarsal gland.

British Museum, July 24 J. E. Gray

Colour of the Emerald, &c.

In the valuable and important paper given on this subject in
NATURE (July 24), the writer has not made it quite clear what
kind of emerald was experimented on.

Taken in conjunction with the beryl, it may be assumed that
reference is intended to the green beryl, a silicate of alumina and
glucina, commonly called emerald, from its colour; but the
name of emerald is also applied to green varieties of corundum,
which is crystalline alumina.

It would be interesting to understand fully the distinction of
colour constituents.

» July 25 Ay Hy

Parasites of the House Fly

Some of your readers may not be aware that the common
house fly is at this time frequently found with from one to twenty
parasites on its body. To such I recommend the observation
of them as an interesting microscopical study. They are usually
on the under part of the fly and can be seen with an ordinary
lens of high power. A. R.

Regent Street, July 23

Bees and Aphides

In his interesting communication respecting the relations sup-
posed to exist between 7rigona and MJembracis, Dr. H. Miiller
appears to have overlooked the Abbé Boisier’s observation
(Kirby and Spence, ‘‘ Introduction to Entomology,” 7th edition,
p. 384) that hive-bees will collect the honey-dew excreted by
Aphides. I have also observed the same habit in humble-bees.

Kilderry, Co. Donegal W. E. Harr

Flycatcher’s Nest

Some flycatchers have built their nest zwside a temporary shed
erected for the masons at present employed upon the rebuilding
of Llanfrechfa Church. The nest is now full of young ones,
and the old birds fly in and out of the shed with perfect con-
fidence, carrying food to them, and quite regardless of the
carving and sawing going on close to them.

July 16 ELIZABETH H. MITCHELL

Relics of the Pyramids

GLANCING over a number of your periodical I find depicted
(vol. vii. p. 147) a grey granite ball, recently discovered in the
Great Pyramid, and surmised to be an ancient Egyptian weight.
It does not seem to have struck the author of the article that
this ball could be anything else than a standard weight, but the
description he gives leads me to assign to it quite a different use.

=
==

bil aD i!

ARI

i il a ( il
a fi ith
EN Syst dt ne heel RU TNK et Hs Why

I believe it to be a naturally formed granite pebble, selected
on account of its nearly spherical form, for a mason’s ‘* plumb-
bob.” The small white spots of lime found on the ball were
probably the result of its impact against the narrow cement
joints whilst the masonry was in progress and the mortar not

et set.
: The bronze hook and cedar rod may have formed part of the
same tool, which possibly resembled the accompanying sketch.

Mangalore, June 20 E. H. PRINGLE

FISH DISTINGUISHED BY THEIR ACTION

S the trained eye of a constant resident in the country
enables him to recognise the various species of
birds that cross his path by their flight, irrespective of
their form and colour, so the observer of fish as they wander
at will in the tanks of a large aquarium soon learns to
invest them with an additional marked individuality im-
parted by their mode of action. In some instances these
distinctive characters are instructive, as illustrating the
varied mechanical principles on which locomotion is
effected, while in others they are highly valuable as
affording accessory means of discriminating the zoological
affinities of the ditferent races and species.
Commencing with the Plagiostomous order, we find in the
two primary sub-groups, including respectively the Sharks
and Rays, that progression is effected on very distinct
principles. With the Sedachozdea, or shark tribe, the fish
move by the even, powerful swaying from side to side of the
largely developed and unsymmetrical caudal fin and whole
posterior part of the body, the other fins remaining quies-
cent and being merely subservientas balancers. Descend-
ing to the species we find again that each form exhibits a
peculiarity of action distinct from its congeners, and one
which readily enables us to discriminate between them.
Thus in the Smooth Hound, A/uste/us, the pectoral fins
are so largely developed that their balancing powers are
highly augmented ; comparatively slow motion of the
caudal extremity suffices to propel the fish through the
water, and the whole body being flexible, it pro-

ae et ©

264

gresses with a measured grace of action surpassed
by no other species of its tribe. In the Picked
Degfish, Acanthias, the general contour of the body is
very similar to that of the last species, but the pectorals
being much smaller, more rapid action of the caudal
extremity is requisite for supporting it in the water, and to
this has to be added a great rigidity of the anterior half
of the vertebral column, causing the fish to swerve from
side to side with each stroke of the tail, the same cause
preventing it also from turning corners with ease and
rapidity, and altogether imparting to it a want of grace of
action compared with that of other members of its tribe.
For the foregoing reason this species requires a tank of
larger size for its preservation in good health than other
Dogfish, as if confined within the boundaries of a small
one, it beats its head against the sides and rockwoik to
such an extent, that the cartilage of the skull is frequently
exposed toview. Inthe Spotted Dogfish, Scy//e2m, the whole
body is more elastic even than in A7zs¢elus, a character ad-
mirably fitting it for its ground-loving habits, and enabling
it to explore, and adapt itself to every sinuos ty of the
ground while hunting for its prey. When swimming in
open water, ic is distinguished by a more rapid action and
swifter progress than A/wste/us, though at the same time
the greater amount of force expended in its movements
deprives it of the peculiar grace associated with that
species.

One anomalous form standing as it were between the
Sharks and Rays, the Monk, or Angel fish, AAzna
sguatina, affords in its locomotive characters an inte-
resting link further indicating its close affinity rather
with the former than the latter group. The habits of this
fish are essentially nocturnal, and throughout the daytime
it usually reclines sluggishly at the bottom of its tank,
Its depressed body and broadly expanded pectoral tins,
resemble those of a Ray more than a Shark, and like the
former fish it seeks concealment by burying itself beneath
the sand or shingle, excavating a hole with the shovel-
like action of these broad fins, and thus waits in ambush
for passing prey. Immediately the Monk fish rises above
the surface of the ground, its true affinities become ap-
parent, progression being effected entirely by the lateral
action of the caudal extremity, as in the Sharks, though
in a more slow and clumsy manner. The lateral position
of the gill openings in this fish forms its chief shark-like
anatomical character, and to this has to be added its
viviparous habits.

In the Batoidea, or Ray tribe, onward motion is ac-
complished by a singular, even, and wing-like action of
the broad pectoral fins, the aitenuated caudal extremity
remaining perfectly quiescent, and serving only to preserve
the fishes’ equilibrium. Swimming towards the surface
of the water, these fish present a most remarkable bird-
like aspect, their large flapping fins reminding the ob-
server of the flight of the heron or some other unwieldy
representative of the Grallian order, while the slender tail
dependent in the rear suggests the characteristic mode in
which those birds hold their long legs, while pursuing
their course through the more subtle medium which they
inhabit.

Proceeding to the Teleostean group, we find the means
by which the same organs are made subservient to the
faculty of locomotion, still more highly diversified ; space,
however, will only admit of a few selections.

In the Gurnards, 77Zg/a, during rapid movement, all the
fins are pressed closely against the body, the broad wing-
like pectorals being shut up like a fan, while the fish is
propelled swiftly through the water by the vigorous undu-
lations of the tail ; when the fish moves leisurely the pec-
torals are opened to their full extent, acting as balances,
In many species, such as the Striated Gurnard, 7. déxeata,
these fins are brilliantly coloured, reminding the observer,
especially when regarding them from above, of gorgeous
ropical butterflies, gliding along with the smooth action

AS DPA a Sa ne eae

NATURE - .

[Fuly 31, 1873

characteristic of the Vanessa tribe. Yet a third property of
motion is possessed by these remarkable fish, Settling on
the ground at the bottom of the water, they are capable of
literally walking overit by means of the three free rays of
the pectoral fins, which are situated a little in advance of
the others, and are curved and especially thickened, to
adapt them for their anomalous be

The Gemmeous Dragonet, Callionymus lyra,a small
and beautiful fish sonewhat resembling the Gurnards in
outward appearance, is distinguished by an essentially
different mode of progression. The habits of this species
are rather sluggish ; it spends much time reclining on the
ground, occasionally moving for short distances just
above its surface, by the flitting action of the delicate pec-
toral fins. Onascending towards the top of the water, its
swimming capacities are shown to be very limited, being
restricted to the weak vibrations of the pair of fins above
mentioned, and which impart to it a peculiar jerky
action. The male in this species is recognised by
the extraordinary length of the first ray of the anterior
dorsal fin, which is raised and depressed at pleasure
like the latteen sail of a Mediterranean fishing yawl.
This singular appendage appears, from my own observa-
tions of the species in connnement, to be subservient to
the same end as the wattles, crests, and other abnormal
adjuncts of the male in the Gallinaceous birds—for the
purpose of fascinating their mates; to this is added a
similar heightening of the colour, which is carried to such
an extent in this fish, that the two sexes were long re-
garded and described as separate species, under the
respective titles of Cal/ionymus lyra and dracunculus.

In the Pipe-fish and Sea-Horses, Syugnathus and
Hippocampus, representatives of the Lophobranchii, the
organs of locomotion are reduced to their minimum,
being often restricted, in the former genus, to a single
median dorsal fin, and being at the most supplemented
by a pair of diminutive pectorals and a rudimentary
caudal. In all cases this dorsal fin is the chief propelling
instiument, and in motion, rapidly undulating from end
to end, illustrates the action of the Archimedian screw,
driving the fish through the water on the same principle.
Dr. J. E. Gray was the first to point out this remarkable
peculiarity, in the case of Syugnathus, from observing
these fish in the Aquarium at the Zoological Gardens.
In both Syngnuathus and Aippocampus the animal
usually assumes a vertical position while progressing
through the water.

The John Dorée, Zeus fader, affords us an example of
the same principle noticed in the Syngnathidee, applied
to the purposes of locomotion, though to a still more re-
markable and extensive degree.

One of these singular looking fish added to the
Brighton tanks about two months since, has continued in
perfect health up to the present time ; and although of
shy and retiring habits, has already yielded many points
of interest in connection with its life history. The ordi-
nary position assumed by this fish is the neighbourhood of
some projecting rock near the bottom of its tank, and
against which it sometimes inclines in a leaning posture,
remaining motionless for hours together. Its ordinary
progress from place to place is remarkably slow, and it is
only when on rare occasions it rises high in the water,
that the beautiful mechanism that guides its movements
can be appreciated. It may then be seen that the only
organs calied into action are the narrow and delicate
membranes of the posterior dorsal and anal fins, each of
which vibrates in a similar manner to the single dorsal of
the pipefish ; the lor g filamentous first dors.l, pectorals,
ventrals, and caudal fins meanwhile remaining perfectly
motionless. Thus this wary fish, with an almost imper-
ceptible action, silently and stealthily advances upon its
intended prey, engulphing it in its cavernous mouth
almost before the hapless victim is aware of its enemy’s
approach, W. SAVILLE KENT

| uly 31, 1873]

THE ORIGIN OF NERVE FORCE

iP

pe any one taking a general view of the present posi-
a tion of physiology, there are few things more striking
than the deficiency of our knowledge respecting the source
of the current which traverses the nervous system, and is
brought into play through the instrumentality of its
various parts. That the current itself is electricity in some
form or another, is almost universally acknowledged, but
in what part of the body it originates, or from what store
of energy it is derived, is more than most have attempted
to answer. The question is made more difficult than it
would otherwise be, from the fact that in all those animals
which exhibit external electrical phenomena to any extent,
such as the Torpedo and Gymnotus, there are large and
elaborate special organs for the development of the
shocks they produce, but no similar mechanicism,
and nothing approaching to it, can be detected in man or
other animals, whereby an electrical current or charge
might originate. The brain and the various ganglia are
often compared to the batteries of a system of electric
telegraph, but how they would act if they were such, it is
almost impossible to explain.

Direct evidence, therefore, failing to give a satisfactory
solution of the problem as to whence nerve force
Originates, it is necessary to appeal to the indirect in
endeavouring to obtain an answer. The hypothesis of
“the survival of the fittest” evidently presupposes that
after the struggle for existence has lasted a certain time,
the individuals which remain, economise to the utmost all
the forces at their disposal, because the more perfect use
that a living being can make of the limited forces at its
command, the easier will it be for it to continue to live.
The Rev. Samuel Haughton from the resulting very
strongly marked economy of the animal mechanicism,
has deduced the principle termed by him that of “least
action in nature.” The generalness of this principle makes
it necessary, if there is evidence of the existence of any
store of energy in the living body apparently unemployed,
to endeavour to find whether its effects have not been
overlooked, or included with those of some other force ;
and if, at the same time, a force is at work whose origin is
unknown, to try and prove whether the two are in any way
related to one another. As shown above, there is a force
which is in continuous action, with an unexplained origin ;
the question then resolves itself into whether there is a
source of energy in-the living body, whose effects have
not been explained, and if so, can it on any known or
probable grounds, be considered competent to give rise to
the nerve current? An endeavour will now be made to
show that both parts of the question may be answered
in the affirmative; in other words, that there is an
available source of energy, as yet unrecognised, of
which the function is therefore not yet explained, and
which is quite capable of giving rise to the nerve
current.

This physiologically new source of energy is she
differences of temperature between the interior and
surface of the living body. Those who are unac-
quainted with the principles of the modern doctrines
of thermo-dynamics, will readily perceive that a difference
of temperature in two bodies is a source of power, when
they consider that a low-pressure steam engine depends,
for its power of doing work, on the difference of tempera-
ture between its boiler and condenser ; and that a current
may be maintained through a copper wire, if it is connected
with a thermo-electric battery of which the two ends are
kept at different temperatures. In what are termed hot-
blooded animals, that is, in mammals and birds, the
difference of temperature between the surface and the in-
terior is considerable under all natural circumstances, and
in them there is a regulating action of the skin, by which
they maintain a uniform internal temperature, always
hotter than the surface, whatever that of the external

~

Ss NATURE

265

medium may be. In the sluggish so-called cold-blooded
animals, the temperature of the interior of the body is
but slightly different from that of the air or water in which
they live ; that it must be higher is evident from the fact
that destruction of tissue is continually going on in their
bodies, which is always necessarily attended with the
evolution of heat.

Such being the case, it is evident that in the difference
of temperature between the surface and the interior of
the living body there is an available source of energy,
which is almost certainly employed advantageously
throughout the whole animal kingdom; and what is
more, it may reasonably be supposed to be that which
gives rise to the electrical nerve current, as only one
assumption is involved, and that not an improbable one,
it being that a thermo-electric current is capable of being
generated between soft tissues of different composition or
structure. Physicists will be able to decide this question
experimentally, and if they do so, they will do a service
to physiology.

For the distribution of a current so generated, the con-
struction of the nervous system is perfectly suited. Two
sets of conductors are necessary, the one to carry the
currents from the skin to the central organ, which
arranges the direction that they must take, and the other
to send them on to their destination ; these are to be
found in the afferent and efferent nerves. As in the
telegraph system, no return conductor is necessary ; for
as the ends of the wires are put into connection with the
earth, by which they are able to communicate, so the
terminations of the nerves in the skin, muscle-cor-
puscles and otherwise where they lose their insulated
coverings, place the extremities of the afferent and efferent
nerves in communication through the intervention of the
mass of body tissue. The brain and minor ganglia would
then act like greater and lesser offices for the reception
and transmission of currents in the required directions,
being in fact the commutators of the system,

There are several of the most important phenomena
exhibited by the nervous system which are very satisfac-
torily explained on the above hypothesis. For instance,
in cold weather the impulse to action is much more
powerfully felt, than in summer when the air is hot, and
therefore the temperature of the surface is higher. It is
well known that it is impossible to remain for more than
a very short time in a hot water-bath, of which the tem-
perature is as high as, or a little higher than, that of the
body, on account of the faintness which is sure to come
on, and this may be reasonably supposed to be the result
of the cessation of the nerve current, which is consequent
on the temperature of the surface of the body becoming
the same as that of the interior. This faintness is imme-
diately recovered from by the application of a cold douche.
When great muscular exertion has to be sustained, as in
running or rowing, it is always necessary to have the
clothes very thin, and it is felt during the time that it is
necessary for the continuance of the effort, that the sur-
face of the body must be kept cool.

As the termination of the nerves in the skin must
correspond, on this hypothesis, with the cooled end of a
thermo-electric battery, therefore the brain, which is very
abundantly supplied with blood, and is the part of the
body to which most of the nerves are directed, must
be compared with the heated end; and as it is by the
conversion of heat into electric current that the nerve
force is developed, it is evident that heat must, to a certain
extent, disappear as such in the brain, and that that organ
must consequently be colder than the blood which enters
it. This is exactly what Dr. John Davy observed in the
case of the rabbits he experimented on, and his results
have not been shown to be incorrect.

A paper on this subject by the present writer appeared
in the June number of the Fournal of Anatomy and
Physiology. A, H. GArropD

266

NOTES FROM THE “CHALLENGER”
V.

O* Wednesday, March 26, we sounded (Station
25) in lat. 19° 41’ N., long. 65° 7’ W., nearly go
miles north of St. Thomas, in 3,875 fathoms. The
bottom brought up in the hydra tube was reddish
mud, containing, however, a considerable quantity
of carbonate of lime, It is singular that the colour and

composition of this mud were not uniform. The upper
layer, that which had been forced farthest into the tube,
was much redder than that which was nearest the mouth
of the tube, and which had consequently come from a
greater depth.

I am inclined to attribute this to the

> (

Fic. r.—Deidamia crucifer, vy. W.-S.

steepness of the slope from the plateau of the Virgin
Islands. It is easy to conceive that, under the influence
of currents varying from time to time in force and direc-
tion, the calcareous mud, the product of the disintegration
of the coral reefs, may be washed down the incline in
varying proportions.

Two thermometers were sent down in this sounding,
and aslip water-bottle. The thermometers were unable to
bear the extreme pressure, and both were broken. I
have already (vol. vili. p. 109) in a former report described
the circumstances connected with the loss of these two

NATURE

[Fuly 31, 1873

instruments. The water bottle appeared to have
answered its purpose. Mr. Buchanan finds that the
bottom water has a specific gravity slightly greater than
usual at great depths, but not materially so. The
amount of carbonic acid is somewhat in excess.

As this was the deepest sounding which we had taken
we were anxious to try whether the dredge would sti
prove serviceable. The small @redge was accordingly
lowered with the usual bar and tangles, and from the
centre of the bar a “ hydra” sounding tube weighted with
4 cwt. was suspended about two fathoms behind the dredge.
A two-inch rope was veered to 4 400 fathoms ; a toggle
was stopped on the rope 500 fathoms from the dredge, and
when the dredge was well down two weights of one cwt.
each were slipped down the rope tothe toggle. Wecom-
menced heaving in about 1.30, and at 5 P.M. the dredge
appeared, with a considerable quantity of reddish-
grey ooze, mottled like the contents of the sounding-tube.
lhe whiter portion effervesced freely with acids, the redder
only slightly. The mud was carefully examined, but no
animals were detected except a few small foraminfera, with
calcareous tests, and some considerably larger of the
arenaceous type. This dredging, therefore, only con-
firmed our previous conviction, that very extreme depths,
while not inconsistent with the existence of animal life,
are not favourable to its development. In the afternoon
a series of temperatures were taken at intervals of 100
fathoms from the surface to 1,500. The temperature at
the surface was 24°°5 C,, and that at 1,500 2%4C. The
curve constructed from this series indicates a very rapid
and uniform fall of about 20 C. during the first 600
fathoms, and generally a distribution of temperature
almost identical with that of some of the later stations
on the section from Santa Cruzto Sombrero. . In this way
we pursued our course northwards under all plain sail.

On the following day we sounded in much shallower
water—2,800 fathoms. The bottom was much of the
same character, and on the 28th in 2,960 fathoms with a
like result, but at our next sounding in 2,850 fathoms on
the 29th, the calcareous element in the mud had almost
entirely disappeared, and the contents of the tube seemed
to be identical with the “red clay” which occupied so
large a portion of our first section.
this clay is a large and important phenomenon. In the
section of the Atlantic, from the Canaries to the West
Indies, it occupies about 1,900 miles, a distance twice as
great as that occupied by the globigerina mud. What its
lateral extension from that line may be, we do not know;
but we now find that it extends more or less from over
the greater part of the distance between St. Thomas and
Bermudas. The nature and source of this deposit, and
the causes of its peculiar distribution in the deeper parts
of the ocean, are therefore questions of the highest
interest,

On the 2nd of April, at a distance of 134 miles from
Bermudas, a series of temperature soundings was taken
at intervals of 20 fathoms from the surface to 300
fathoms. (

The pilot came on board in the afternoon of April 4
and we passed through the narrows, the reefs which make,
the navigation of this singular little group of islands so
dangerous spreading round us in rich purple patches,
contrasting with the vivid pale green of the channels of
deeper water between them. :

The evening was falling as we anchored in Grassy Bay
and received our first impressions of Bermudas. On the
Monday following we moved from Grassy Bay to the
Camber, in the great Dockyard. We remained there till
the 21st of April, and employed the interval in taking such
a general survey of the natural beauty of the island as
our time allowed.

As Bermudas, on account of its isolated position, its
structure, and its peculiar conditions of temperature, pre-
sents many points of great interest, I will defer giving a

The occurrence of

’
{

a:

NATURE

267

- detailed account of it until some investigations which we |

have stili in hand are completed.

We met at Bermudas with a singular confirmation and
illustration of our view as to the organic origin of the
“red clay” of the Atlantic sea-bed.

The Islands of Bermudas consist exclusively of lime-
stone, in some places very compact and hard, almost
crystalline ; more usually soft and crumbling easily when
first quarried, but hardening on exposure to the air.
The limestone is very irregular in the direction of its
dip. In amount, however, the dip seems never to exceed
30°. The beds are thrown about in a curious way, every
quarry or road-cutting showing contortions of all kinds
in the strata and every amount of irregularity consistent
with uniformly low angle of dip. One would imagine at
first sight that the islands exhibited, on a small scale, an
epitome of the geological phenomena of a disturbed
palzeozoic district.

Lieut. (now General) Nelson, R.E., at that time a young
man, stationed at Bermudas, communicated to the Geolo-
gical Society of London on April 23, 1834, a very valuable

paper on the geology of Bermudas, which was published

in the fifth volume of the Transactions of the Society,
Lieu. Nelson pointed out that the great proportion if
not the whole of the Rocks of Bermudas are formed
simply by the blowing up by the wind of the fine cal-
careous sand the product of the disintegration of the coral,
shells, serpula-tubes, and the other constituents of the
Bermudas reefs, that white sand which we found to extend
at varying depths through a radius of about 20 miles round
the island. The sand is washed in by the sea; it is then
caught at certain exposed points by the prevailing winds,
blown into sand-hills 4o to 50 ft. in height, which slowly
move along, forming shoreward a glacis at the angle of
repose of loose sand, on which lamina after lamina is
deposited, overwhelming a large tract of country with
its fields, gardens, and cottages, in a comparatively short
time, and advancing until its progress is stopped by
an opposing slope of sufficient height, or by the binding
of the sand by vegetation. On these wind-blown beds of
lime, aptly called by Lieut. Nelson, Zolian formations,
which are originally formed at a considerable inclination,
changes in the direction and force of the wind-floods of
sub-tropical rain and other transitory and accidental

Wr. 2-—Roéks of Coral Sand in Bermudas in process of formation, showing Stratification, and the Stumps of Cedars which have been overwhelmed.

causes produce with great rapidity all the appearances,
denudation, unconformability, curving, folding, synclinal
and anticlinal axes, &c., which are produced in real rocks,
if I may use the expression, by combined aqueous and
metamorphic action, extending over incalculable periods
of time.

Rain-water contains a considerable quantity of free

carbonic acid. Water thus charged dissolves the lime |

rapidly, and the solution of bicarbonate of lime percolat-

ing through the bed, loses a portion of its car-_

bonic acid, and deposits a cement of carbonate of
lime between the particles of the coral sand. This
process is kept up not only by the surface rain but
by the water of the sea, which, as we shall see, percolates
through the porous stones of the islands. As evidence of
the universality of this process, we have every crack and
fissure of the rock filled with semi-crystalline stalagmite,
-and every here and there the rock is hollowed out into

caves which in some places assume the proportions of
magnificent caverns with lofty roofs, supported by huge
stalagmitic columns, and fretted and enriched by curtains
and fringes of stalactite.

One very striking thing about Bermudas is the total
absence of running water. There is not a trace of a
stream or pool, or even of a ditch. The rain, which often
falls in great quantities, sinks through the soil at the spot
where it falls as it might sink through a sieve. The
islands are perfectly permeable to water horizontally as
well as vertically, so that below the level of the sea the
stone is saturated, or filled with salt water. The fresh
water lakes and wells, of which there are many, are thus
merely catches of fresh water lying upon the surface of
salt water, and they are nearly all slightly brackish, and
those near the sea rise and fall perceptibly with the tide,

WYVILLE THOMSON

fo Mw
+e : ‘ : dalle a0

268 NATURE [Faby 3%, 1873

toe.
nite ae

. parisons are made, &c., including also a computation of
ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND | the probable errors of the final results,

MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF The whole subject will therefore be treated under the

AN. following general heads :—
MAIGHT AND AOA I. Definitions of weight and measure.
Ji II. Standards of imperial weight and measure.
1D geeks the last few years public attention has been | _IIJ. Scale of multiples and parts of imperial standard
frequently drawn to the subject of our national pats 7

IV. The metric system.
V. Weighing and measuring instruments and their
use.

weights and measures. The administrative and social |
questions of oe nopervement of ous existing es: and
of the proposed introduction into this country of the deci- eal 3
mal ee system—first established in mone and now I. Definitions of Weight and Measure. ;
being generally adopted on the Continent of Europe, and Weight or gravity has been defined as the quality in
indeed extending to the other quarters of the world—have | physical bodies by which they tend towards the centre of
formed the subjects of debate in every Session of Parlia- | the earth, in a line perpendicular to its surface ; or it may
ment, and are still awaiting solution. The scientific ques- | be defined more generally as a property inherent in all
tions involved in the use of weights and measures have | bodies, by which they are drawn to some common point,
for a much longer period engaged the attention of many | called the centre of gravity, and with a velocity in propor-
of our most eminent men of Science, several of whom | tion as they are more or less dense, and as the medium
have been members of the various Standards Commissions | through which they pass is more or less rare.

from time to time appointed by the British Government. In following out his discovery of the theory of universal
These questions are also at the present time the objects | attraction and gravitation, Sir Isaac Newton demon-
of investigation and deliberation by the large body of | strated, first, that the weights of all bodies at equal dis-
scientific men from all civilised countries, who compose | tances from the centre of the earth are directly propor-
the International Metric Commission at Paris. It may, | tional to the quantity of matter that each body contains ;
therefore, be useful to bring together and place before the | whence it follows that the weights of bodies have no de-
public the several points involved in the science of weigh- | pendence on their shapes or textures, and that all spaces
ing and measuring, and to give some account of our stan- | are not equally full of matter. Up to the time of Newton
dards of weight and measure, as well as to describe in | the earth was considered to be spherical, but it was de-
some detail the scientific construction of our existing im- | monstrated theoretically by Newton, as well as by
perial standard yard, and pound. No sufficient means have | Huygens, that the earth must be flattened at the poles.
hitherto been adopted for making the general public ac- | Whence it was shown by Newton, secondly, that on diffe-
quainted with this part of the subject, although they are di- | rent parts of the earth-surface, the weight of the same
rectly interested in it, the information hitherto published | body is different, owing to the spheroidal figure of the
respecting it having been confined to afew papers in the | earth, which causes the body on the surface to be nearer
“ Philosophical Transactions,” and to reports of the | to the centre in going from the Equator towards the
several Standards Commissions, and other Parliamentary | Poles; and that the increase of the weight is nearly in
Returns. Of these papers the most important are those | proportion to the versed sine of double the latitude, or,
on the construction of the imperial standard pound, by | which is the same thing, to the square of the sine of the
Prof. W. H. Miller, in ‘ Phil. Trans.,” 1856, and on the | latitude. He assumed the weight at the Equator to that
construction of the new imperial standard of length, by | at the Pole to be in the proportion of 229 to 230, and con-
the Astronomer Royal, now Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., in | sequently the whole increase of weight from the Equator
1857. In the following treatment of the subject use will | to the Pole to be the 229th part of the weight at the
be made of these papers, as well as of other authoritative | Equator.

works relating to weights and measures. In accordance with the principle the discovery of
The science of weighing and measuring comprehends | which is ascribed to Archimedes, that all bodies im-
the following points :— mersed in a liquid suffer a loss of weight precisely equal
The scientific definition of weight and measure. to the weight of the liquid displaced, it was also demon-

The authoritative establishment of fundamental units | strated that a body immersed in any fluid specifically
of weight and measure of length and the construction of | lighter than itself loses so much of its weight as is equal
their material representatives as primary standards, in | to the weight of a quantity of the fluid of the same bulk
relation to which all numerical amounts of weight and | with itself. Hence a body loses more of its weight in a
measure are to be expressed. heavier fluid than in a lighter one, and therefore it weighs

The establishment of determinate aliquot parts and | more in a lighter fluid than in a heavier one, for instance,
multiples of the primary units of weight and measure, | more in air than in water. '
and of other units derived from them, such as the unit of The foregoing principles laid down by Newton are —
measure of capacity, &c.; and the construction and veri- | universally admitted as correct, with the exception of the
fication of their material representatives, as secondary | numerical proportions of the weight of bodies at different
standards, by comparison with which the accuracy of all | parts of the earth’s surface ; for it is important to observe
weights and measures in ordinary use is to be ceter- | that Newton founded his calculation of the earth’s ellip-
mined. ticity on the hypothesis of its being homogeneous, which

The scientific methods of using standard and other | is not the case ; and hence he makes the equatorial dia-
weights and measures in which special accuracy is re- | meter greater than the polar axis, as 230 is to 229. But
quired, as well as auxiliary scientific instruments, such as | from the numerous experiments since made with the
balances, thermometers, barometers, micrometers, and | pendulum at different parts of the earth, it has been found
other comparing apparatus. that the earth is not homogeneous, or composed of con-

The determination of the just results of weighing and | centric strata of equal density, and that the ellipticity is
measuring with these scientific mstruments, after allowing | not so great as Newton supposed.
for all indirect influences affecting the accuracy of the The method of measuring the intensity of gravity on
direct results of weighing and measuring ; for instance, | different parts of the terrestrial spheroid, by means of the
differences arising from the physical composition of | seconds pendulum, is said to be due to Borda, as origin-
bodies, variations of temperature and consequently of the | ally described in a Memoir inserted in vol. iii. of the
expansion or contraction of the several substances, | Base du Systeme Métrigue. From the results of Borda’s
changes of condition in the medium in which the com- | experiments, made towards the close of the last century,

place computed the ellipticity of the earth to be shy,
t later experiments and computations of other men of
ence concur in making it nearly 535.
"In the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
for 1818, Capt. Kater has stated the results of his pendu-
Jum experiments in London, and determined the length
of the pendulum vibrating seconds, or completing one
vibration in .gigo part of a mean solar day, when
easured in a vacuum at the mean level of the sea and
a temperature of 62° Fahr. to be 39°13842 inches of
Standard yard, which was legalised in 1824 as the
arliamentary Standard of length. The latitude of his
lace of observation in London was 51° 31'4” N. He
subsequently made a slight correction in this determina-
‘on, making the length of the seconds pendulum to be
13929 inches, as shown in Phil. Trans. 1819, and this
ih, or rather 39°1393 inches, was declared to be the
e length in the Standards Act of 1824.
It was, however, discovered by Bessel that the correc-
tion which had ordinarily been applied, and was applied
Kater, for reducing the vibrations of a pendulum, as
obs: rved in ord nary air, to vibrations in a vacuum, ought
“to be greatly increased. The experiments were conse-
"quently repeated by Capt. (now Sur Edward) Sabine, with
oe reference to the form of pendulum usually em-
ployed in England. In Phil. Trans. 1821, Sir Edward
"Sabine has shown as the results of his experiments on
the acceleration of the pendulum in different latitudes,
that the mean diminution of the force of gravity from the
pole to the equator was 0°0955138, in other words, that a
weight of 100 Ibs. at the equator would be less by 0°55 1381b.
at the pole; whilst the resulting mean ellipticity of
the earth deduced from his pendulum observations, was

a6 Sir Edward Sabine has also shown as the result

of his experiments on the length of the seconds pendulum
in Greenwich Observatory, that its length vibrating 86,400
seconds in the 24 hours, at the temperature of 62° F., and
jn a vacuum, was found to be 39°13734 inches.

In his paper on the Yard, the Pendulum, and the
Metre, Sir J. Herschel has observed that the true measure
of the earth’s attraction (independent of centrifugal force

arising from its rotation), is best to be derived trom an
~ ideal seconds-pendulum supposed to vibrate at the extre-
mity of the earth’s polar axis ; and that the mean length
of the polar or of the equatorial pendulum must be de-
rived from the general result of observations of the lines
of oscillation of one and the same invariable pendulum
* at a multitude of geographical stations in all accessible
latitudes in both hemispheres ; but that no two combi-
nations agree in giving the same precise length, in conse-
quence of the local deviations of the intensity of gravity,
due to the nature of the soil or crust of the earth, and the
configuration of the ground immediately beneath and
i around the places of observation. And further, that since

the pendulum cannot be observed at sea, the whole sea-
~ covered surface of the globe is of necessity excluded from
furnishing its quota of observations to the final or mean
conclusion. Water being on the average not more than
one-third the weight of an equal bulk of land, such as
the earth surface consists of, and only 74 of the mean
density of the globe, the force of gravity at the surface
of the sea is less than at the sea-level on land by the
attractive force of as much material taken at twice the
specific gravity of water (or at 7; that of the globe),
as would be required to raise the bottom to the surface.
With regard to the determination of the earth’s ellip-
ticity, as shown by actual measurements of the dimen-
sions of our globe, and the relauve length of the equatorial
diameter and the polar axis of the earth, the most recent
determination is that by Major Clarke, as stated in his
“ Comparison of Standards of Length,” published in 1866,
This memoir has been declared by Sir J. F. M. Herschel,

to be the most complete and comprehensive discussion yet

~

269

received on the subject of the earth’s figure, and to be
held as the ultimatum of what scientific calculation is as
ue enabled to exhibit as to its true dimensions and
orm.

Major Clarke’s results were computed, not from
pendulum experiments, but from the combination of all
the separate measurements of arcs of meridians in Peru,
France, Prussia, Russia, Cape of Good Hope, India, and
in the United Kingdom. They are as follows :—

Metres ac-
cording to
Feet. Inches. Metres. Capt. Kater’s
equivalent.
Length of Polar axis.) 41,706,858 | 500,482,296 | 12,712,136 | 12,712,020 -
Longer equatorial axisi :
(long. 15° 347 E.)...0+f 41,853,700 | 502,244,400 | 12,756,588 | 12,756,470
Shorter equatorial axis
(long. Tos? ge ck 41,839,958 | 502,079,496 | 12,752,701 | 12,752.588
Length of meridian}
Aaanvarit of Dene 32,813,524 | 393,762,292 | 10,001,472 | 10,001,38r
Length of minimum
Prk we (long x5 32,808,772 gee 10,000,024 | 9,999,953
34 E.).ccossee .

In computing these equivalents, Major Clarke takes
the metre at the temperature of 32° F. from his own
measurements to be equal to 1°09362311 yard at 62°, that
is to say to 3°28086933 ft., or to 3937043196 in., instead
of the more generally received determination by Capt.
Kater of 39°37079 in. The metric length according to
both these equivalents is here given.

From the determination of the earth’s dimensions, it
may be easily computed, that the earth’s ellipticity in
the longitude of Paris, is z4,, whilst its mean ellipticity
in all longitudes is s}5.

Hence also the mean length of a degree of latitude in

the longitude of Paris is 32,813.524'38 _ 364,591 ft., or

69'05 miles. The mean diameter of the earth is 41,800,173
ft., or 72162 miles, and its mean circumference 23,871
metres,

Thus not only each longitudinal meridian, but also the
equator is slightly elliptical.

Sir H. James has shown in his preface to Major
Clarke’s paper that the longest meridian in 15° 34’ east
longitude, nearly corresponds to the meridian in the
eastern hemisphere which passes over fhe greatest
quantity of land ; and in the western hemisphere to that
which passes over the greatest quantity of water, as it
passes through the centre of the Pacific Ocean. The
shortest meridian in 105° 34’ east longitude nearly
corresponds to that which passes over the greatest
quantity of land in Asia; and in the western hemisphere,
and that which passes over the greatest quantity of land
of North and South America.

The connection here shown to exist between the de-
finition of weight and the measurement of the dimensions
of our globe, leads naturally to the definition of the
second principal head of the subject, viz. of measure.

Measure is generally understood to mean the determi-
nations of a body with relation toa fixed standard unit, or
the measure of extension; and it is in this sense that it
will now be taken in discussing the “ science of measuring.”
The measure of extension comprehends

The measure of length, or linear extension ;

The measure of suriec2, or square measure ;

The measure of volume, or solid or cubic measure ;

The measure of capacity, or the cubical quantity con-

tained in any vessel for measuring dry goods,
liquids, or aériform fluids.

All these measures of extension are based upon one
fixed standard unit of length; and as all measures of

length vary according to their temperature from expan- ©

sion or contraction, the length of the standard must be
fixed at a normal temperature,

270

Strictly speaking, measure includes weight, which is the
measure of the gravitation of bodies towards the centre
of gravity. And measures of capacity also are almost uni-
versally derived, not from their cubical dimensions, but
from the weight of pure water contained in them under
determinate conditions as to temperature and atmospheric
pressure,

The measure of temperature is based upon the observed
rate of linear expansion by heat of a body selected
for this purpose, generally mercury, taking as constant
units the temperature of melting snow or ice, and of
water boiling under determinate atmospheric pressure.

In defining measure, it should be added that itis also
applied to the measure, or (as it is termed) admeasure--
ment of the tonnage of ships, being a determination of
the weight a ship is capable of carrying, with relation to
its measure of cubic capacity ; to value in relation to
a monetary unit ; to timeand duration in relation to the
unit of a mean solar day or a second, its 86,400th part ;
to velocity, by combining the measure of extension with
that of time or duration ; to mechanical work, the unit of
which is a horse power, as it is commonly termed, or more
properly the power of raising 33,000 lbs. one foot in
one minute, thus combining the measures of linear
extension, weight, and time ; to angles, the unit being a
degree or the 360th part of a circle described from the
point of junction of the two straight diverging lines
forming the angle ; &&. &c. It is not, however, proposed
here to refer further to these measures or to the scientific
questions connected with them.

The measure of volume, or bulk of a body, as compared
with that of another body differing in volume but equal
in weight, is shown by its density, and is also expressed
in terms of a fixed standard unit. The densities
of bodies are in the direct ratios of their masses, or
quantity of matter, and in the inverse ratios of their
volume.

The density of a body is defined to be the mass con-
tained in a unit of volume, when referred to a uniform
standard. The specific density is to be distinguished from
its specific gravity, which shows its weight in relation to
its volume, also when referred to a uniform standard.
The specific gravity of a body is defined to be the
weight of a unit of its volume.

The specific gravity of a body is the quotient of its
density when divided by the density of that substance
which is considered as unity. Pure water is generally
adopted as such unity. But since both these densities
vary with the temperature—because the same invariable
quantity of matter which the body contains is always
distributed over its whole volume, and this is variable with
the temperature ; so that, generally speaking (with some
exceptions, pure water, for instance, at certain tempe-
ratures), the body, at a higher temperature, has less den-

NATURE
a

| from the programme, the meeting

sity than at a lower temperarure—we must fix a certain |

temperature at which the body, as well
be considered. It is not necessary that this fixed tem-
perature should be the same for the body and the water,
its choice for both being quite arbitrary.

For bodies the most convenient standard temperature

for expressing their density seems to be that of one of the
fixed points of the thermometer; and the temperature of
melting ice or snow (32° F. or 0° C.) is generally
adopted. For pure water, there is a maximum of density
which occurs at nearly 39° F, or 4° C., and this maximum
density of pure water is generally adopted as the unit of
density.
_ The sign A prefixed to the symbol of any weight, with
its numerical value following, denotes the ratio of the
density of the weight at the temperature of melting snow
to the maximum density of pure water.

The relation of the bulk or volume of a body to its
weight is expressed both by its density and its specific
gravity, these terms being often used indiscriminately.

as the water, must |

AS GR ae) Coy ae
“ St

| Fuly 31, 1873,

But the former term is more strictly applicable to solid
bodies, and the latter to liquids and gases.

To ascertain the density of a body, it is requisite that
its volume should be determined, as the density cannot
be directly found. The actual volume may be deter-
mined—

1. Either by cubic measurement, when the form of the
body admits of this measurement being actually made ;
but this occurs but rarely.

2. Or by ascertaining its specific gravity, from de-
termining the difference of its weight when weighed in
air and in water. This is the readiest and most accurate
mode of determining both its volume and its density, but
the immersion of a body in water is not always prac-
ticable, or it may be injurious to the body under expe-
riment. H, W. CHISHOLM

(To be continued.)

NOTES

Art the Meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences, M. Fer-
dinand de Lesseps was elected an “* Academicien libre” in the
place of M. de Verneuil, deceased. M. de Lesseps obtained 33
votes ; M. Breguet, 24; MM. du Moncel, Jacquemin, and Sedillot
teach. M. de Lesseps thus obtained 2 votes beyond the abso-
lute majority required to render an election valid, and was
therefore declared elected. The number voting, 60, was large.

THE forty-first Annual Meeting of the British Medical Asso-
ciation will be held in King’s College, London, on Tuesday,
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, August 5th, 6th, 7th, and
8th. The President-elect is Sir William Fergusson, Bart.,
F.R.S. The following are the six sections into which the meet-
ing will be divided, and in each section a very large number of —
papers is already entered to be read :—Section A, Medicine;
B, Surgery ; C, Obstetric Medicine; D, Public Medicine; E,
Psychology ; F, Physiology. The sections will meet in rooms
of the College appropriated for the purpose, and the Annual
Museum of objects of interest in connection with medicine, sur-
gery, and their allied sciences will be arranged in the Library of
the College. The President’s address will be delivered at 3 P.M.
on August 5, and in the evening the Lord Mayor will hold a re-
ception at the Mansion House. The following public addresses
will be delivered :—On August 6, an address on Medicine, by Prof.
E. A. Parkes, M.D., F.R.S. ; on August 7, an address on Surgery,
by Prof. John Wood, F.R.S. ; and on August 8, an address on ;
Physiology, by Prof. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S. The President
and Council of the Royal College of Surgeons hold a reception —
on the evening of August 6, and several excursions have been
arranged to take place during the meeting. Altogether, to judge
promises to be a very success-

ful one.

Tue Royal Archeological Institute commenced its annual
session at Exeter, on Tuesday, when the Mayor and Cor- -
poration held a reception at noon. The President, the Earl of
Devon, thereafter delivered his inaugural address on the adyan-
tages of the study of Archeology, and in the afternoon an
excursion took place to Rougemont Castle. In the evening,
again, the Mayor held a reception in the Albert Museum. The
Sectional Meetings commenced yesterday, and several interesting
excursions have been arranged. The Sections are, Antiquities,
Architecture, and History. One of the most attractive accoms
paniments of the Exeter meeting is the formation of a temporary
Museum and Portrait Gallery,

THE French Association for the Advancement of Science
commences its second session at Lyons on August 21, the con
cluding meeting to be held on August 28. As was the case a
Bordeaux, there will be General Meetings, Meetings of Sec-
tions or Groups, Scientific Excursions, and Public Lectures. A

nee f
:

+1873]

Ping -
NATURE

271

e number of papers has already been entered to be read at
ectional Meetings, by well-known scientific men, and
interesting excursions have been planned, including one
mous pre-historic station at Solutré. So far, this year’s
of the Association promises to be very successful. Im-
y after the session of the Association is concluded, the
cal Society of France holds its annual meeting at Roanne.

Gorrer?, of Breslau, the veteran writer on the subject of
plants, is desirous of disposing of his immense collection,
uring which he has spent more than thirty years, and made
haps the finest in the world, embracing, as it does, type
secimens of 94 different works and 400 minor essays, repre-
snted on about 1,000 plates. The number,of specimens exceeds
0, and includes Sigillaria from sixteen to twenty feet in
, and other specimens of equal magnitude. There are also
specimens of different kinds of amber with their inclosed
ants, and also a series of diamonds, with various objects
cluded in them. In addition 'to the fossil objects there is also
very large collection of recent plants, which serves to illustrate
ie first-mentioned series, such as palms, tree-ferns, cycades,
amboo, algz, sections of wood, fruits, seeds, &e. Numerous
inal drawings also accompany the collection, which add
much to its value.

_ Mr. SmirH gives some very interesting details in the Daily
‘Telegraph of his excavations at Nimrod. We think, however,
the main result of his expedition is to show the necessity of a
nore thorough and longer continued exploration of the ruins of
ria than Mr. Smith has been able to give ; and the sooner
ch an exploration is undeitaken, the more fruitful are the
results likely to be.

f
| THE New Vor Herald of the 17th inst. publishes a letter from
D r. Petermann, the eminent German geographer, to Dr, Strasnecky,
the Secretary of the American Geographical Society. In it he
says :—As at the departure of the expedition much stress was
laid on its prospect of reaching the North Pole, the public at
large, which has no idea of the difficulties surrounding the solu-
tion of geographical problems, might look upon it as a complete
failure. It should not be made a reproach to Captain Hall that
he held out sucha prospect, for without it he would not probably
have obtained either ship or money, or any other support.
Placed in a similar condition, the same thing has happened to
me and my friends in Germany, and it will always remain thus
as long as the civilised Governments of the world devote their
millions principally to the increase of their armies, and the
scientific objects-only figure in the Budget for the crumbs, and
‘aslong as people who are willing to add to the little knowledge
we have of our own earth have to go begging for small contribu-
tions. To me the geographical results of the expedition appear
of an extraordinary value. At any rate they are the highest that
_any vessel among the numerous expeditions of all nations to the
"North and South Poles have ever accomplished for many
centuries. I shall speak of the subject at greater length in my
next Arctic report (No. 80).

Ar the commencement of 1874, says the Deutsche Zeitung,
“one or two ships of the German navy are to be sent ona scien-
tific mission to observe the transit of Venus. These vessels will
have to submit their observations, which are to be extended to
ocean currents and tides, to the hydrographic office of the
_ German Admiralty.

THE first three numbers of a work on indigenous and exotic
_ Lepidoptera have been issued by Mr. Hermann Strecker, of
Reading, Pennsylyania, U.S. the object of the author being prin-
cipally to bring to the cognizance of the public the many new
species from all parts of the world embraced in his very exten-
‘sive cabinet. While the preference will be given to those from

North America, he, unlike Mr. William H. Edwards, includes
some species from other countries. The illustrations, which
occupy one plate for each number, are ‘all drawn, printed, and
coloured by Mr, Strecker himself in the intervals of his daily
labours, and the whole work is extremely creditable to him.
The work is in quarto, and it is proposed to publish one number
every two months, each with a single plate, crowded as fully as
possible with figures. The enterprise is well worthy of commen-
dation, and persons desirous of obtaining the work can do so
by addressing Mr. Strecker, as above. A few copies only are
printed, and the drawings then erased to make way for a new
set.

Pror. MEEK announces the existence of primordial species
among the fossils collected by Dr. Hayden, in 1872, from near
Gallatin City, Montana, U.S.—a very important geological fact.
He has also found carboniferous fossils in various localities. Some
of these are from the ‘‘ divide” between Ross’s Fork and Lin-
coln Valiey, Montana, embracing many of the same species as
occur in the noted Spurgen Hill locality, in Indiana, of the age
of the St. Louis limestone.

AT noon of July 8 Prof. Agassiz formally opened the Anderson
School of Natural History on Penikese Island, thus bringing to
a practical beginning the great idea of a summer school of natural
science as first suggested by Prof. Shaler, Our readers are suf-
ficiently familiar with the details of the circumstances which led
to the establishment of this magnificent educational enterprise—
first, the donation by Mr. John Anderson, of New York, of
Penikese Island, one of the Elizabeth group, situated at the
entrance of Buzzard’s Bay, and valued at 100,000 dollars ; then
his endowment of it in the sum of 50,000 dollars to meet the
current expenses; and {subsequently the presentation to the
professor by Mr. Galloupe, of Swampscot, of a yacht worth
20,000 dollars, for use in deep-sea dredgings and other explora-
tions in connection with the school. Ina circular Prof. Agassiz
gives notice to the public that the island affords no accommoda-
tion to strangers, and that no guests can be received except-
ing those who have been accepted as members of the school.
The limit of fifty has long since been made up, one-third of
them being ladies, while more than a hundred have been rejected
in consequence of the limitation. A caterer has been engaged,
who will provide for the table, and keep the rooms in order.
There is to be no charge whatever for tuition, and as the dormi-
tories have been built at the expense of the fund, no rent will be
charged beyond a percentage of the value of the bed-room fur-°
niture. The board is to be charged at cost. Should any persons
desire to make collections of specimens to carry away with them,
cans and alcohol will be furnished at cost to those who are not
already provided.

Tue Russian astronomers haye decided upon occupying
twenty-four stations on the important occasion of obserying the
Transit of Venus. It is found that the weather will probably be
highly favourable to astronomical observation at all the stations
in Siberia and on the Pacific coast, as there is an average of only
three cloudy days in the month of December in these parts of the
Russian possessions. The extreme cold of November is well
regarded as an almost insuperable hinderance to the proposed
work. The following very complete outfit has been ordered
for use on this occasion, viz., three heliometers and three photo-
heliographs, for use in measuring the position of the planet on
its passage across the sun’s disc ; ten equatorials, for observing
the apparent contacts of the limbs ‘of the planet and sun by the
use of the spectroscopic method, and for the determination of
the same moments by observations with the filar micrometer ;
ten telescopes, for simply observing the instant of each contact ;
and besides these, there is for each station a complete outfit of
clocks, chronometers, and instruments for determining the local

time. The observers are all to practise beforehand at the Im-
perial Central Observatory at Pultowa, The geographical posi-
tions of those stations at which the observations result success-
fully will be afterwards determined by a special geographical
expedition by the Russian navy. To perfect this portion of the
work, a line of telegraph will be built through Siberia to
Nicolaevsk.

WE have received the programme for Session 1873-74 of the
University of Durham College of Physical Science, at New-
castle-on-Tyne. It contains ample information as to the
amount and kind of instruction to be obtained at the Newcastle
College, and full details as to the arrangements, fees, examina-
tions, exhibitions, and scholarships. There are three exhihi-
tions of 15/7. each to be awarded after examination in October,
one scholarship, the T. Y. Hall scholarship, of 20/, yearly
value, tenable for three years, and two scholarships offered by
Mr. Hugh Taylor, consisting of the expense for maintenance and
education at the Newcastle College, for two years: those last
are for sons of overmen, deputies, or pitmen, who are engaged
ia coal mines in the counties of Northumberland or Durham,
and are between sixteen and eighteen years of age. So far as
it goes, the Newcastle College seems to furnish a thorough
training in scientific knowledge and method,

WE have received from Mr. F. Abbott a paper read before
the Royal Society of Tasmania, giving the result of his recent
observations at the Private Observatory, Hobart
Tasmania, of 7 Argus. He thus summarises the results
of his most recent observations. In the eye draft of the
object Argus, Feb. 1873, the principal stars appear to have
retained their relative position as showa in the drawing of last
year. The dark spaces are extending and becoming more un-
defined, gradually filling up with small stars, fully hal’ as many
again as shown in last iyear’s drawing; the whole field of the
telescope when directed to 7 is studded with stars from the 7th
to the 12th magnitude, too numerous to count, I have on the
present occasion omitted to make a drawing of the object, asin all
probability before long photography will be applied both to this
and other portions of the dense Nebuia between it and x Crucis—
a thing much required. ;

Town,

A MAGNIFICENT work, in the shape of a Photographic
Album of Ethnology (‘ Anthropologisch-Ethnologisches Al-
bum”), from the collections of the Berlin Anthropological
Society, is about to be published in parts, by Wiegandt and
Hempel, of Berlin, the photugraphs by C. Dammann, of Ham-
burg. Each part will contain five leaves 48 centimetres in
length by 64 centimetres in breadth, each Part in a separate
portfolio. The contents will be arranged in tables con
from ten to twenty photographs each, and the Price of each part
is twelve thalers. The first part contains two tables illustrative
of the East Coast of Africa, and three tables for Asia, illus-
trating Eastern Siberia, Japan, Siam, &c. «\ppended to each
portrait is a brief description indicating the country, particular
district, sex, and age of the original. The immense value of
such a work to ethnologists is evident.

taining

Fao the ‘Report of the Radcliffe Observer to the Board of
Trustees,” we see that a considerable amount of regular obser-

vatory work has been done during the past year, and that the
establishment is in good condition,

In a letter to the British Medical Journal, My. J. C. Galton
refers to a sprcimen of a human heart in which the ‘ moderator
band” recently found by Prof, Rolleston in the Cassowary, and
long known to be well developed in Ruminants as a stron.
fibrous cord, running in the right ventricle between its outer
wall and the septum, is well developed as a thick muscular band.
But he remarks that from it “ some of the chordze tendinece of the

NATURE

RR gare met Ry ae

| Fuly 31, 187, |

tricuspid valve take origin.” Prof. Rolleston also considers th:
one at least of the column carne in man, which are unal
tached in the middle of their course, and are in connection witl
the musculi papiilares of the tricuspid valve, is homologous witk
it. In the Ruminant, however, the band is quite free and a
fibrous structure, and is apparently a much more specialise:

z F '
development than the uncertain muscular cords found in the
human heart. .

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THE report of work contained in the “ Proceedings of th i
Liverpool Naturalist’s Field Club for the year 1872-3,” appears)
to us, on the whole, gratifying. The Society made nine fiel
excursions during last summer, and, considering the unse'
state of the weather, these were well attended. The worki n
members of the Society, during these excursions, devote th em
selves mainly to botanical collecting, though the majority o
those who make up the parties spend their time in visiting plac
of antiquarian and historical interest. Prizes are given for bo
tanical collections, and we are afraid the Society do not ta
the precaution of urging upon collectors the danger of exti
pating the rare plants of the districts visited in their eagerness te
make up prize-taking collections. Several evening meetin
were held during last winter, at the first of which Mr. Fishe
gave a résumé of the Botanical gains of the Society during the
excursions. The following valuable papers were also read al
these meetings :—‘*On the Respiration and Germination of
Plants,” by Dr. Carter; ‘Corals and Coral Islands,” by the)
Rev. H. H. Higgins, President ; ‘‘On the Intimate Relation
between the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms,” by rt
Chantrell; ‘*On the Sap of Plants, the Physical Causes of :
its Ascent, and its Composition,” by Mr, Davies. We have ©
also received an ‘‘ Appendix to the Flora of Liverpool,” con.
taining a considerable number of additions to that valuable
work, which we noticed on its appearance about a yearago.

:
i
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,

.

IT is said that the scheme which has been on foot for some
time past, having for its object the closer connection of St
Andrew’s University with the neighbouring town of Dundee,
by the establishment of an affiliated college there, on the same
principle as the Science College at Newcastle is connected w th
the University of Durham, has fallen through, several of the
St. Andrew’s professors being of opinion that if this arrange.
ment were entered into it would ultimately end in the University
being transferred across the Tay.

’

THE first four parts of an ‘Illustrated International Review
of the Universal Exhibition of Vienna, 1873,” have come to
hand. It isa handsome and well-illustrated folio, printed in
French, German, and English, 2nd promises to be an “abso
lu:ely complete encyclopzedia of the Vienna Exhibition of 1873
at once descriptive, artistic, scientific, anecdotic, wand biogras
phical.” If the prospectus is faithfully carried out, the wor

will be very valuable both in a scientific and an industrial point
of view. i

ADVICES to the 12thof June, dated Denver, U.S., make mens
tion of satisfactory progress in the explorations conducted by
Professor Hayden and his parties. One of the divisions of the
survey a’ that time was established near Central City, in
charge of Mr. Jackson, and cons st-d of Mr, Coulter as botanis'
Mr, Carpenter as naturalist, and Mr. Cole as assistant natus
ralist. They had already obtained a large collection of plans
and zoological objects, having spent two weeks high up in th
mountains. Mr, Jackson had made about fifty negatives of the
higher peaks, principally in the vicinity of Long’s Peak. They
expected to proceed shor!ly to the ‘Garden of the Gods.” Mr
Gardner has been occupied in establishing his base line of trian-
gulation, He has already erected three signal monuments thirty
feet high, and twelve miles apart, all of which can be seen from
the main range of mountains. One party is at work on Long’s

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Fuly 31, 1873]

, in charge of Mr. Marvin, accompanied by Mr. Gardner,
ad another under Mr. Gannett, accompanied by Dr. Peale, as
ngist, and Mr, Batty as naturalist. According to the Denver
, the cattle, finding these constructions extremely con-
enient places for scratching, and thinking them apparently
rected for their accommodation, have at once commenced
opriating them to that purpose, and evidently with great
faction, as it is said that they concentrate in their vicinity for
es around,

_ ‘© ANNALEN des Physikalischen Centralobservatoriums ” is the
nan title of the record for 1871 of the work done at the
eat Paysical Observatory of St. Petersburg. It isavery thick
rto in Russian and German, and contains full and well-
rranged me’eorological statistics for fifty-five Russian towns for
he year 1871.

THe following are the principal additions to the Brighton
Aquarium during the past week :—1o0 Thornback Rays (Raia
lai ata), 1 Large Tope (Galeus canis), 1 Large Smooth Hound
clus culgaris) 3 Thee-bzarded Rockling (Motella tricirrata),
000 Sticklebacks (Gasterosteus spinosus), 1 fine group of Ac-
finoloba dianthus (orange variety) ; a Smooth Hound (AZustelus
vulgaris) gave birth to seven young ones, which died imme-
ly, or were born dead.

_ THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
ast week include two Maugé’s Dasyures (Dasyurus maugei)
from Australia, presented by Mr. George Heath; a Tytlers
Paradoxure (Paradoxurus tytleri) from the Andaman Islands,
presented by Mr. J. S. Campbell ; a Bactrian Camel (Camelus
bactrianus ) from Asia; a Gibbon (/y/obsates sp. ?) ; a Crowned
gle (Spizaétus coronatus) from Senegal; three Blue crowned
hanging Parrakeets (Loricul/us galoulus) {rora Malacca; an
Egyptian Fox (Canis niloticus) ; an Egyptian Vulture (Meophron
cnopteros), purchased; an Ocelot (Felis pardalis) from
America ; a Hobby (AyJotriorchis subbuteo) from this country,
and four red-billed Tree Ducks (Dendrocygna autumnalis) from
America, deposited.

ON THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH BAC-
TERIA, VIBRIONES, AND THEIR SUPPOSED
GERMS ARE KILLED*

HILST a heat of 140° F. (60° C.) appears to be destruc-

tive to Bacteria, Vibriones, and theic supposed germs in
neutral saline solution, a heat of 149° or of 158° F. is often
mecessary to prevent the occurrence of putrefaction in the inocu-

ed fluids when specimens of organic infusions are employed.
What is the reason of this difference? Is it owing to the fact
hat living organisms are enabled to withstand the destructive in-
fluence of heat better in such fluids than when immersed in neu-
tral saline solutions? At first sight it might seem that this was
he conclusion to be drawn. We must not, however, rest satis-
fied with mere superficial considerations.

The problem is an interesting one; yet it should be clearly
inderstood that its solution, whatever it may be, cannot in the
east affect the validity of the conclusion arrived at in my last
paper, viz., that living matter is certainly capable of arising de
yovo. We were enabled to arrive at the conclusion above men-
ioned regarding Archebiosis by starting with the undoubted
fact that a heat of 158° F. reduces to a state of potential death
all the Bacteria, Vibriones, and their supposed germs which an
organic infusion may contain. The inquiry upon which I now
propos= to enter, therefore, touching the degree of heat delow
this point which may suffice to ki'l such organisms and their sup-
posed germs in an organic infusion, and touching the cause of the
delayed putrefaction apt to take place in inoculated organic intu-
sions which have been heated to temperatures above 140° and
below 158° F., is one lying altogether outside the chain of fact
and inference by which the occurrence of Archebicsis is proved.

_* Extrects from a paper by Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., read before
Royal Society May 1, 1873.

NATURE

273

It seems to me that the solution of the problems which form
the subject of the present communication can only be safely
attempted by keeping constantly before our minds two main con-
siderations :—

Thus, in the experiments whose results it is now our object
to endeavour to explain, the fluids have been inoculated with a
compound consisting partly (a) of living units, and partly (4) of
a drop of a solution of organic matter in a state of molecular
change; so that in many cases where putrefaction has been
initiated after the inoculating compound has been heated to cer-
tain temperatures, there is the possibility that this process of
putrefaction may have been induced (in spite of the death of the
organisms and their germs) owing to the influence of 4, the dis-
solved organic matter of the inoculating compound ; that is to
say, the heat to which the mixture has been exposed may have
been adequate to kill all the living units entering into the inocu-
lating compound, although it may not have been sufficient to
prevent its not-living organic matter acting as a ferment upon the
infusion.

And there are, I think, the very best reasons for concluding
that in all the cases in which turbidity has occurred after the
organic mixtures have been subjected to a heat of 140° F. (60°
C.) and upwards, this turbidity has been due, not to the survival
of the living units, but rather to the fact that the mere dead or-
ganic matter of the inoculating compound has acted upon the
more unstable organic infusions in a way which it was not able to
do upon the boiled saline fluids.

The reasons upon which these conclusions are based are the
following :—

I. Because the turbidity which has occurred in inoculated
organic infusions that have been subjected to a temperature of
140° F, has always manifested itself appreciably later, and ad-
vanced much more slowly than in similar mixtures which had
not been heated above 131° F. ; whilst it has commenced even
later, and progressed still more slowly, when occurring in mix-
tures previously heated to 149° F. Such facts miglit be
accounted for by the supposition that exposure in these organic
fluids to the slightly higher temperature suffices to retard the
rate of growth and multiplication of the living units of the
inoculating compound, although the facts are equally explicable
upon the supposition that the later and less energetic putre-
factions are due to the sole influence of the mere organic matter
of the inoculating compound.

2. So far as the evidence embodied in the Tables goes, it
tends to show that the more unstable different specimens of
similar infusions are (that is, the stronger they are), the more
rapidly and frequently does late turbidity ensue, and the more
this late turbidity approaches, both in time of onset and in rate
of increase, to that which occurs when inoculated infusions are
not heated to more than 131° F.—when both living and non-
living elements of the inoculating compound act conjointly as
ferments. Such facts show quite clearly that where the in-
trinsic or predisposing causes of change are strong, there less
potent exciting agencies are more readily capable of coming
into play ; but they still do not enable us to decide whether the
exciting cause of this delayed turbidity is in part the living
element whose vitality and rate of reproduction has been
lowered by the heat, or whether the effects are wholly attri-
butable to the mere organic matter of the inoculating com-

ound,

F So far, therefore, we have concomitant variations which are
equally compatible with either hypothesis. But it wili be
found that each of the three succeeding arguments speaks more
and more plainly against the possible influence of the living
element, and in favour of the action of the organic matter of the
inoculating compound, as an efficient exciting cause of the
delayed putrefactions occurring in the cases in question.

3. As stated in my last communication,* when single drops of
slightly turbid infusions of hay or turnip previousy heated to
140° F, are mounted and securely cemented as microscopical
specimens, no increase of turbidity takes place, although drops
of similar infusions heated only to 122° F. do notably increase
in turbidity (owing to the multiplication of Bacteria) when
mounted in a similar manner. Undersuch restrictive conditions
as these, in fact, a drop of an inoculated and previously heated
organic infusion behaves in precisely the same manner as a drop
of a similarly treated ammonic-tartrate soluticn. In each case,
when heated to 140° F., turbidity does. not occur, apparently
because there are no living units to multiply, and because in

* See NATURE, vol vii. p. 435.

ae SS Pe Ee eee

274

these mere thin films of fluid dead ferments are as incapable of
operating upon the organic fluids as they are upon the ammonic-
tartrate solutions. :

4. Because, in the case of the inoculation of fluids which are
not easily amenable to the influence of dead ferments, such as
asolution containing ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate, this
delayed turbidity does not occur at all. Such inoculated fluids
become rapidly turbid when heated to 131° F., though they
remain clear after a brief exposure to a temperature of 140° F.
When the living units in the inoculating compound are boiled,
there is nothing left to induce turbidity in such solutions. The
mere fact that these fluids do not undergo change when ex-
posed to the air proves conclusively that they are very slightly
amenable to the influence of the ordinary dead organic particles
and fragments with which the atmosphere abounds. The
absence of delayed turbidity in these fluids serves, therefore, to
throw much light upon the cause of its occurrence in the organic
infusions.

5. And, lastly, I can adduce crucial evidence supplied by the
“Method of Difference,” speaking with its accustomed clear-
ness. Two portions of the same hay- or turnip-infusion can be
inoculated in such a manner as to supply us with the information
we require. In the one case we mayemploy a drop of a turbid
ammonic-tartrate solution previously heated to 140° F., in which,
therefore, the living units would certainly be killed : whilst in
the other we may add an unheated drop of the same turbid saline
solution to the organic fluid, and then heat this mixture also to
the temperature of 140°°F. The comparative behaviour of these
two inoculated fluids (placed, in the ordinary manner, in pre-
viously boiled corked phials) should be capable of showing us
whether the living elements of the inoculating compound were
able to survive when heated in the organic infusion. If they did
survive, the fluids inoculated in this manner ought to undergo
putrefaction earlier and more rapidly than those inoculated with
the drop of turbid fluid, in which we know that the Bacteria,
Vibriones, and their supposed germs would have been reduced
toastate of potential death. With the view of settling this
question, therefore, the following experiments were made :—

Description of Experiments. Results. Inferences.

That boiled ammonic-tartrate
solution is a fluid inoculable
by living Bacteria, &c., and
favourable for their growth
and rapid multiplication.

That Bacteria, Vibriones,
and thcir supposed germs
are either killed or deprived
of all power of multiplica-
tion when heated to rgo” F.
in this fluid.

The precisely similar beha-
viour of the turnip- and
hay-infusions of series C
and series D respectively
shows that Bacteria, Vi-
briones, and their sup-
posed germs are as ino-
perative in series D as
they are known to be in
series C ; whilst the beha-
viour of the hay-infusions
shows that they are little
amenable to the influence
of the drop of the saline
fluid when its living units
are killed.

Shows that a heat of 131° F,
is not sufficient to kill Bac-

|

A. Boiled ammonic-tartrate|Turbid in 40
solution, inoculated with an} hrs,

unheated drop of a similar

solution turbid with Bacteria,

c.
B. Boiled ammonic-tartrate
solution, inoculated with a
drop of a turbid saline solution
previously heated to rqo° F.

Clear at Cg
tion of &t
day.

Turnip-infu-
sions turbid
in 2} days.

Hay-infusions
clear at expi-
ration of 8th
day.

Turnip-infu-
sions turbid in
24 days.

Hay-infusions |
clear at expi-
ration of 8th
day.

C. Boiled turnip- and hay-
infusions, inoculated with a
drop of a turbid saline solution
previously heated to ryo° F.

D. Boiled turnip- and hay-
infusions, inoculated with aj
drop of an unheated turbid
saline solution, the inoculated
fluid being subsequently heat-
ed to r40° F

E. Boiled turnip- and hay-/Turnip-infu-
infusions, inoculated with aj sionsturbidin

drop of an unheated saline} 28 hrs. fo teria, Vibriones, and their
solution, the inoculated fluid Hay-infusions supposed germs in organic
being subsequently heated to| turbid in 38 infusions, and, again, that
13r Ff. hrs. turnip-infusions are more

rapidly influenced by such
an inoculating agent than
some hay-infusions.*

No experiments could speak more decisively. Those of series
B show that Bacteria, Vibriones, and their supposed germs are
either actually or potentially killed when heated to 140° F. in
the neutral saline fluid, which the experiments of series A show

* These experiments of series C, D, and E were many times repeated with
specimens of the same turnip- and hay-infusions, the specific gravity of the
former being about roo8 and that of the latter 1005. Different specimens of
hay especially vary so much that it becomes absolutely essential to use
portions of the same infusion for the comparative experiments of these diffe-
rent series,

BO Bie Aha) SON

NATURE

[Fuly ai 187

to be eminently favourable for their growth and reproductior
Being certain, therefore, that the living units are killed in the
drops with which the fluids of series C were inoculated (becaus
they were drops of the same fluid as was employed in series B
we may be equally certain that the turbidity and putrefaction
which did ensue in the turnip-solutions of series C were du
to the influence of the mere dead constituents of these drops
the turbid saline fluid ; whilst, seeing that the behaviour of th
fluids of series D was precisely Similar to those of series C,

have a perfect right to infer that this series of fluids (D) was <
devoid of living units as those of C are known to be—that i
that Bacteria, Vibriones, and their supposed germs are killed b
the temperature of 140° F. in organic fluids, just as they are j
saline fluids, although, as shown by the experiments of series |
they do not succumb toa heat of 131° F.

The evidence now in our possession shows, therefore,
whilst the temperature at which living ferments cease to
operative varies within very narrow limits (131°--140° F.), th
which destroys the virtues of non-living ferments varies withi
much wider limits, and depends not only upon the amount ¢
heat employed, but also upon the nature of the putresci
fermentable liquid to which such ferment is added, in conj
tion with the degree of heat and other conditions to wh
the mixture is subsequently exposed.* Here, therefore,
have evidence as to the existence of a most important di
ference between living and not-living ferments, which ha
always been either unrecognised or more or less delib
rately ignored by M. Pasteur and his followers. This differens
is, moreover, thoroughly in accordance with the broad physic
chemical theory of fermentation which has been so ably 6
pounded by Baron Liebig and others, and the truth of whi
may now be regarded as definitely established. According |
this theory ‘‘living” matter, as a ferment, would take rar
merely as a chemical compound having a tolerably definite cot
stitution ; and this, we might reasonably infer, would, Iil
other chemical compounds, be endowed with definite prope
and amongst others that of being decomposed or radi
altered by exposure to a certain amount of heat. Looked a
also from this essentially chemical point of view, it would b
only reasonable to expect that the molecular movements of livin
ferments with a lowered vitality might not be more marked ¢
energetic than those which many not-living organic substance
are apt to undergo ; and this being the case, we might exp
that there would often be a great practical difficulty in asce
taining whether a ferment belonging to the arbitrary and artifici:
(though, in a sense, justifiable and natural) category of “ living
things had or had not been in operation. d

Dr. Bastian then refers to certain statements made by —
Pasteur, and afterwards classifies the various fermentable fui
under three main divisions :—I. Self-fermentable fluids; I
Fluids which will not ferment without the aid of unheate
organic matter, either not-living or living; III. Fluids whi
will only ferment under the initiating influence of living matter

Dr. Bastian’s conclusions from these investigations are thi
expressed :—

Thus it can now be proved, by evidence of a most unmis
takable nature, that the process ef putrefaction which invariabl
occurs in previously boiled putrescible infusions contain
flasks with narrow but open necks is not commonly (is, perl
only very rarely) initiated by living germs or organisms d
from the atmosphere ; it can also be proved that putrefac
and the appearance of swarms of living organisms may o
in some boiled fluids when they are simply exposed to air whiel
has been filtered through a firm plug of cotton-wool or thous

1
.

the narrow and bent neck of a flask, to air whose particles hay
been destroyed by heat, or even in fluids hermeticaliy seal

* See “The Beginnings of Life,” vol. i. p. 437.

+t See, for instance, all M. Pasteur’s celebrated experiments in whicl
had recourse to an “ensemencement des poussiéres qui existent en
sion dans I'air,” as recorded in chaps. iv. and v. of his memoir in “A
Chimie et de Physique,” 1862. M Pasteur was engaged in an investiga
one of the avowed objects of which was to determine whether fermentatic
could or could not take place without the intervention of living organisi
which M. Pasteur held (in opposition to many other chemists) to be the
true ferments. In his inoculating compound (dust filtered from the 2
sphere), there was, as M. Pasteur was fully aware, a large amount of
his scientific opponents considered non-living ferment, whilst possibly ré
existed a certain number of living ferments. In explaining the results of hi
experiments, however, M. Pasteur and others thought he was pursuing :
logical and scientific method when he attributed these results to the.
of the possibly existing element of the inoculating compound, whils
ignored altogether the other element which was certainly present in ¢
ratively large quantity, and the testing of whose efficacy was the ost
object of his research, ~

isks from which all air has been expelled. The evidence in
possession is therefore most complete on this part of the
ibject : it shows beyond all doubt, not only that putrefaction
“may and does very frequently occur under conditions in which
| the advent of atmospheric particles, whether living or dead, is
no longer possible, but also that living particles derived from
e atmosphere can only be very rare and altogether exceptional
‘initiators of the putrefaction which invariably occurs in pre-
| viously boiled infusions exposed to the air.
| Again, the evidence which we now possess with reference to
the influence of heat upon Bacteria, Vibriones, and their sup-
ed germs is no less decisive. It has been unmistakably
proved that such organisms and their imaginary germs are either
actually or potentially killed by a brief exposure to the tempera-
ture of 140° F. when in the moist state ; and it had also been
previously established that they are invariably killed by desicca-
ion even at much lower temperatures. *
| But if living germs do not come from the air to contaminate
the previously boiled fluids, and if it is not possible for any of
_ them to have escaped the destructive influence of heat in the boil-
fluid or on the walls of the vessel in which the fluid is con-
ed, what can be the mode of origin of the swarms of living
which so rapidly and invariably appear in such infusions
when contained in open flasks, and which so frequently appear
_ when the infusions are contained in flasks whose necks are closed
against atmospheric particles of all kinds? They can only have
arisen by the process which I have termed Archebiosis.
i ConcLusIONS

If a previously boiled ammonic-tartrate solution remains free
from Bacteria and Vibriones when exposed to the air, it is because
the air does not contain living organisms of this kind or their
supposed germs, and because mere dead organic particles are
not capable of initiating putrefaction in such a fluid.
And if ordinary organic infusions previously boiled and ex-
_ posed to the air do rapidly putrefy, though some of the same
infusions when exposed only to filtered air remain pure, it is
because such fluids are, in the absence of living units, quite
_ amenable to the influence of the dead organic particles which the
air so abundantly contains, although they are not self-ferment-
able.
Whilst if other more changeable fluids, after previous boiling,
when exposed to filtered air or cut off altogether from contact
with air, do nevertheless undergo putrefaction or fermentation,
it is because these fluids are self-fermentable, and need neither
living units nor dead organic particles to initiate those putrefac-
tive or fermentative changes which lead to the evolution of
living organisms.

NATURE

275

hard on drying.—Prof. Rutherford tabulates experiments proving
that the retardation of the pulse in the rabbit, which follows
closure of the nostrils, depends on the obstruction of the respi-
ration, and not as Drs. Brown-Séquard and Sanderson supposed,
on direct reflex action. Mr. Dewar and Dr. McKendrick describe
experiments on the Physiological Action of Light, an account of
which has already appeared in this journal.—Mr. Blake, of San
Francisco, has a paper ontheaction of thesaltsof the metalssodium,
lithium, cesium, &c., when introduced directly into the blood.
Mr. A. II. Smee, in a paper on the physical nature of the
coagulation of the blood, endeavours to prove that it coagulates
in obedience to a purely physical law, namely, the power of
soluble colloid matter to pectinise, or spontaneously to coagu-
late. Mr. Garrod, on the law which regulates the frequency of
the pulse, proposes as a substitue for that given by Marey, the
following :—the heart re-commenccs to beat when the arterial
tension has fallen an invariable proportion, this being the only
possibleSexplanation of the facts that pulse rate varies with arte

rial resistance and not with blood pressure. He also gives a new
theory of the source of nerve force.—Dr. Charles, Prof. Curzon,
and Prof. Drachmann, record peculiarities in anthropotomy, the
first in the arterial system, the second in the muscular and ner-
vous system, and the third in the muscular.—There is an excel-
lent and very careful review, by Mr. Trotter, of the Rev. Samuel
Haughton’s “ Principles of Animal Mechanics,” which will be
very valuable to many physiologists, who here have the oppor-
tunity of seeing the opinion of a mathematician, who is also a
biologist, of a work which might by itself lead them to think
that the physiogical basis for work was in a better position
than it really is,

Bulletin Mensuel de la Société d’Acclimatation de Paris
for June. A great portion is devoted to the description of
the best modes of rearing silkworms and the more suitable
kinds of food for feeding them. A paper is devoted to the
Japanese Mulberry (Morus japonica), which is being intro-
duced into France as producing a superior food for the silkworm.
—The ‘cultivation of various kinds of beans and melons
is advocated by M. Bossin, and his paper might be read with
advantage in this country, where these vegetables are not suffi-
ciently valued as an article of diet. Not only the acclimatisation
of useful, but the destruction of hurtful animals, plants, and in-
sects, forms part of the programme of the society, and we have
therefore some remarks on insecticides and on the preservation of
insectivorous birds.—The American notes on pisciculture, on the
grey wolf, and the commerce of Chicago are interesting. A
black monkey from Sumatra has just arrived at the Jardin
d’Acclimatation, but it is not expected to live,

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

{ THe June number of the Yournal of Anatomy and Physiology
contains several papers of special interest, as well as the excellent
summaries by Profs. Turner and Rutherford, of the progress of
Anatomy and Physiology during the last six months. Prof.
Turner describes, for the first time, the Visceral Anatomy of
the Greenland Shark (Zemargus borealis) from two specimens
caught near the Bell Rock. The larger was 11 feet 8 inches long,

_ and the other 84 feet: they were both females. The most im-
portant peculiarities of this fish, wherein it differs from other
sharks are, that the dursa entiana is not developed ; that there
are two large duodenal ceca, one of which is closely adherent
“to the pyloric tube, as well as a true pancreas, corresponding
with the similar condition found by Alessandrini in the Stur-
geon ; and that there are no oviducts, so that the ova must be
Becharred into the peritoneal cavity. From these peculiarities
the author places Zemargus in a family by itself, named by
him Lemargide.—Prof. Turner also, in a short paper on the so-
called claw at the end of the tail of the lion, shows that no true
_ claw exists, but that the tip of the tail is hairless, and becomes
* See the experiments and conclusions of Dr. Burdon Sanderson in Thir-
teenth Report of Med. Officer of Privy Council, p. 61: This fact of the
_ inability of these*organisms and their germs to resist desiccation shows the
futility of some objections which have been from time to time raised by those
_ who thought that Bacteria, Vibriones, and their germs might resist the de-
structive influence of heat by adhesion to the glass above the level of the fluid,
4

am

= =

or even in the fluid itself, just as dried and very thick-coated seeds have

- been known to do. Dry heat would seem to be even more fatal to such or-

anisms and their germs than a moist heat of the same degree, owing to

7 heir extreme inability to resist desiccation ; if they become dry they are

Bid at atemperature of 104° F., whilst if they remain moist they succumb,
as we have seen, to a temperature of 140” F. .

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Quekett Microscopical Club, July 25.—Dr. Braithwaite,
F.L.S., president, in the chair.—This being the annual
meeting, the report of the committee for the past year
was read, and testified to the continued prosperity of the
club, which now numbers 570 members.—The president
delivered the annual address, in the course of which he
noticed the progress of microscopical investigation in Botany
and Zoology during the past year.—The ballot then took place
for the election of officers. Dr. Braithwaite was re-elected pre-
sident ; Dr. Matthews, Messrs. b. T. Lowne, T. W. Burr, and
C. F. White, vice-presidents; and Messrs. Bywater, Crisp,
Hailes, Hind, Waller, and T. C. White, were elected to fill the
six vacancies on the committee. Mr. J. E. Ingpen succeeded
Mr. T. C. White, who retires from the office of hon. sec.
(owing to increase of his professional duties), after four years of
unremitting and valuable service. The proceedings terminated
with the usual conversazione.

BELGIUM

Royal Academy of Sciences, May 13.—Reports were
given in on the following papers :—On the Superficial Tension
of Liquids considered in reference to certain movements observed
on their surface, by M. G. Van der Mensbrugghe, which it
was resolved to print in the Memoires.—On_ the Osculatory
Sphere, a note by M. L. Saltel, which is printed in the Bulletin.
—On the chloric acetonitriles, by M. L. Bisschopinck, also
printed in the Aud//etin.—Essay on the state of vegetation at the

276

epoch of the Heersien Marls of Gelinden, by Count G. de
Saporta and Dr, A. F. Marion, It was resolved to print this
paper with the plates in the Memoires.—The following com-
munications were made :—On frozen alcoholic drinks carried to
very low temperatures, and on the cooling and freezing of ordi.
nary or sparkling wines, which will appear in the Bud/etin for
June.—Third addition to the synopsis of the Caloptergines, hy
M. de Selys Longchamps. His first list was published in 1853,
and additions in 1859 and 1869; the present long list cont:ins
descriptions of many new species, as well as corrections of and
additions to species already described. The author is indebted
for the greater part of his material to Mr. MacLachlan.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, May 6.—Dr. Carson,
vice-president, in the chair. Double Flowers in Zpieca repens.
—Mr. Thomas Meehan observed, that on several occasions,
during the few past years, it had been noticed among the
variations in nature, that the tendency to produce double flowers
was, by no means, the special prerogative of the florist to ori-
ginate. Many of our commonest wild flowers, which no one
would think of cultivating, had double forms in cultivation
which were no doubt originaliy found wild. Thus we had
a double Ranunculus acris, R. bulbosus, RK. Ficaria, R.
repens, and some others. There were, in plants, two methods
by which a double flower was produced. The axis of a flower
was simply a branch very much retarded in its development, and
generally there were, on this arrested branch, many nodes
between the series forming the calyx or corolla, and the regular
stamens and carpels, which were entirely suppressed. But when
a double flower was produced, sometimes these usually sup-
pressed nodes would become developed, in which case there
was agreat increase in the number of petals, without any dis-
turbance in the staminal characters. But at other times there
was no d sturbance in the normal character of the axis. The
stamens themselves merely became petaloid. This was the case
in the Zfzgea, recently found by Dr. Darrach.—Influence of
Cohesion on Change of Characters in Orchidee. —Mr. Meehan al.o
said thatin the early part of the winter he had exhibited some
flowers of Phaius Tankerville, in which, by the mere cohesion of
one of the dorsal petals with the column, a flower differing very
much from the general condition was the result. Since that
time Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, in the issue of the Gardeners
Chronicle for April 12th, notices the receipt of a Phaius Wakichii
in which there had been produced three spurs and regular petals,
looking, Dr, M. says, rather like those of a gladiolus than of an
orchid. %

May 13.—Dr. Ruschenberger, president, in the chair. The
. following paper was presented for publication :—‘‘ Observations
on Nests of Sayornis fuscus,” by Thos. G. Gentry.—Prof. Cope
exhibited and described some extinct turtles from the Eocene
strata of Wyoming.

May 20.—‘‘ Descriptions of new species of Orthoptera, col-
lected in Nevada, Utah, and Arizona, by the Expedition under
Lieut. G. M. Wheeler,” by Cyrus Thomas.—‘‘ Observations on
the Habits of the Neuters of Formica sanguinea,” by T. G.
Gentry.—Lilium Washingtonianum.—Mr.. Thomas Meehan
referred to a paper by Prof. Alphonso Wood, entitled a
‘*Sketch of the Natural Order of Liliacex,” of the Pac fic
coast, published in the volume of the P oceedings for 1868, in
which he describes a “new species” of Lilium, as Z. Washing-
tonianum, giving, as a reason for the name, that it was gene-
rally known as the ‘‘ Lady Washington” by the miners, Prof,
W. said, in his paper, that it was remarkable so fine a plant
had been overlooked by other botanists. It so happens that it
had not been overlooked, but had been described ten years pre-
vious'y by Dr. Kellogg, in the Proceedings of the Califoma
Academy for 1858.—‘‘ On a Species of Delphkinus,” by Dr, H,
C. Chapman,

PaRIs

Academy of Sciences, July 21.—M. de Quatrefages, presi-
dest, in the chair—The following papers were read :—Note on
changes of rate in isochronous regulators, by M. Yvon Villar-
ceau.—Third note on guano, by M. Chevreul.—New researches
tending to prove that the co-ordinating power over bodily move-
ments lies in the cerebellum, &c., by M. Boudlaud.—The laws
of friction and concussion on the thermo-dynamical theory, by
M.A, Ledieu.—On the movement of a spherical segment on an
inclined plane, by Gen. Didion.—On the spectra of iron, and

i 6S Maen ote Lg a OES ee Ce ee

NATURE

a Rely sad Mid
aes el
7A ea

eae

[Fuly 31, 87:

some other metals, by Father A. Secchi. The author had failed
when examining the iron spectrum given by a battery of fifty
cells, to observe the line 1474K, and he gave, in the present
paper, an account of a further search for it. The same batter
power, with new acids, was used ; various samples of iron wer
burnt in the are, ei'her as iron poles or placed in hollow carbon
points, and the sunlight was reflected into the spectroscope with
heliostat. The line in question could not be found in any
sample of iron used. His other observations are on th
“structure” spectra of carbon and aluminium; he observe:
that each line of the columnar bands is itself resolvable int
a mass of fine lines.—On the permeability of the Fon.
tainbleau sands, by M. Belgrand.—On the movement of
the wash produced in artificial canals, and on causing watel
to rise along an inclined bank to a sensibly constant height.
letter from Mr. Nordenskidid, dated Mossel Bay, latitude 79
54 N. was read by’ M. Daubrée.—New spectroscopic obs
vations of the sun which do not agree wih certain sun-spot
theories, by Father Tacchini. The theories are those of M,
Fave and Father Secchi, The author describes watching
facula over the sun and observing its appearance on the limb
which was accompanied by the reversal of large numbers
metallic lines in the chromosphere. This, Tacchini considered
as evidence of an e:uption, and as miliiating against Faye’s
theory because he considers that theory not to allow of eruptions,
and against Secchi also, he having stated that faculze wei
eruptions, and spots the erupted mater, and yet this facula h
no spots during half a revolution.—On Euler’s constant a)
Binet’s function, by M. E. Catalan.— Researches on electric
condensation, by M. V. Neyreneuf.—Studies on nitrification it
soils, by M. T. Schlcesinz.—On a combination of picric aci
with acetic anhydride, by MM. Tomma-i and David, 1T
authors considered this body as a picrale, in which one atom of
metal is replaced by acetyl.—On pyrogallic acid in the presence
of iodic acid, by M. Jacquemin.—On a natural combination of
ferric and cuprous oxides, and on the production of atacamie, by
M. C, Friede!l.—On the spontaneous changes of eggs, by M.
Gayon.—An attempt to determine, by comparative emoryology,
the analogous portions of the intestines in the superior verte:
brata, by M. Campana, During the mecting, an election was made
to the place of Membre libre, vacant by the death of M. Ver-
neuil, M. de Lesseps obtained 33 votes, M. Breguet 24 votes,
MM. du Moncel, Jacqueminand Sedillot, 1 each. M. de Lesseps
was therefore declared duly elected.

BOOKS RECEIVED

AmeERICAN.— Views of Nature: Ezra C, Seaman (Scribner & Co., N.Y.).

FrencuH.—Traité Générale de Photographie. 6th ed.: D. v. Monckho
(G. Masson, Paris),

CONTENTS Pac
THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH, IVY... . <« « s 0) 0) ol Sine
Carnes TRAVELS IN INDO-CHINA . . . oe «eh
MOoTHER EarTH’'s BIOGRAPHY . . . . « «© 6 « © = )jstetsnnmnae
Ouk BOOK SHELF. . . © eo art ee) 00 te eRe en

Lerrers To THE EpIToR:—
Endowment of Research.— Dr. C. E. APPLETON. - . . . ~ «
Mechanical Combination of Coluu's.—F. J. smira (With Tilus-

tration). Soames © ee ee ee 50. en
On seeing the Red Flames on the Sun’s Limb with a common

Telescope—R. LANGDON. .. . » 0)» «sie eeeee
The Huemul—Dr iE Gray. .°... 5. «| 5 eee
Colour of the Emerald . aS ee .

Parasites of the House Fly . . . . . oe 0
Bees and Aphides.—W. E. Hart, F.L.S.. . . . « . + « . 263
Flycatcher’s Nest.—Exiz. H. MircHELL . . . . . .. . « 26
Relics of the Pyramids.—E. H. Prince (With Jilustration) . . 263
FISH DISTINGUISHED BY THEIR Action. By W. Savitie Kant, F.L.S. 263
Oricin oF Nexve Force By A.H Garrop ..... . . . 265
Norss FRoM THE Challenger, V. By Prot. WyviLLe THomsoN, F.R.S.
(With Illustrations) See 0 ee ele 8 mw 6 ae
On THR SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS
oF WE'GHT AND Mgasurg, I. By H. W. CHIsHoOLM, Warden of the
Standards 5 .'. cae ee tacaecs We en crn ke ence
Norges : ee ee rey
ON 1HE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH BACTERIA, VIBRIONES AND THEIR —
SUPPOSED GERMS AKE KILLED. By Dr. H. CHARLTON BASTIAN,

ScjgnrTisic SERIALS iain is es. .s 3 0 ence © inte 27S
Societigs AND ACADBMIES.s 2+. «5 « + « » © «© s 6) aye
Booxs KECBIVED .. ~ [els shee 0 je + se (oan

Errata.—P, 201, col. 1, rst line below table, after

2 =insert A, P, ,
title of Fig, 2, for Salenica read Salenia. ne »

ey 7 eee es ee. Se Ty ee
yin ee LI pe 7 : .

NATURE

297

THURSDAY, AUGUST 7, 1873

GUSTAV ROSE

HE son-in-law of Gustav Rose, Professor G. vom

Rath, has sent us the Nekrolog which affection and

custom in the Fatherland unite in issuing in honour of
those who are no more.

The first line of this tribute to the memory of the great
mineralogist tells truly that Germany has lost one of her
great ones in this learned and noble man: but it is for us
to say that it is even a wider world than his fatherland that
has lost in him one of its conspicuous citizens. For the
two brothers Heinrich and Gustav Rose formed a double
Star in the constellation of illustrious men who have illu-
minated with a brilliancy all its own the first half of this
great century ; and, indeed, for now fifty years their twin
lights have guided the course of their contemporary and
of a younger generation of wayfarers on the track of
Science.

Certainly the death of a man like Gustav Rose is cal-
culated to call up some wonderment in our minds as we
look back over the brief period that even his 76 years or
life embrace, and think in what relation that little space
of time stands to the long history of man in regard to
the sciences that these two illustrious brothers cultivated

- so pertinaciously and so well. Berzelius spoke of look-

ing back within his own memory to the dark age of
phlogistic chemistry. Heinrich Rose first reduced to a
scientific system the methods of inorganic chemical
analysis, as J. von Liebig did! afterwards for organic
chemistry ; it is but yesterday that the one, and but a
few brief years since the other died. And now Gustav
Rose, the first man in Germany who used the reflective
goniometer, has followed them and Mitscherlich and
Haussmann, and Haidinger. There still remain Breit-
haupt and Naumann, Wohler, and a few other honoured
men on whom the patriarch’s mantle must successively
devolve. Let us at least pay the tribute due to the
memory of the last of these illustrious workers whose
chair is empty by endeavouring to take a survey of the
work he did, and by recognising the debt we owe him for
the results that have accrued to our knowledge from the
toil “Ohne Hast und ohne Rast,” of fifty out of his
seventy-six years, and no less for the example he has set
of method and of energy in achieving them.

The sciences that Gustav Rose devoted himself to,
crystallography and mineralogy, have been for many
years so little or so superficially studied in England, that
probably few of our countrymen are familiar with the
continuous succession and admirable quality of the work
turned out from the study of one of the soundest-minded,
and, let us add, one of the soundest-hearted men that
Germany ranked among her sons.

His country’s troubles, though they ended as far as the

great war was concerned in 1815, had called into the | for acknowledging such a classification.

ranks even the youngest of the four brothers Rose. Their
father, a not undistinguished pharmaceutical chemist in

SS ee ———— SSS

days of the terrible conflicts to have borne his musket.
But he was seventeen, in time to make the long march
from Berlin to Orleans; and after the peace in 181 5 he
set himself to obtain a livelihood in the occupation of
mining. Overtaken by an attack of inflammation of the
lungs, his thoughts became directed into a new direction.
For the contagious passion for the pursuit of truth in its
most tangible form by the path of natural science seized
him by contact with his elder brother Heinrich ; and
Gustav followed his example in going to Stockholm for a
similar object to that which has drawn so many English-
men and English-speaking men since to Germany.
Berzelius was then in Sweden what afterwards were
Heinrich Rose, Woéhler, Liebig, in the Fatherland; the
great master in the science as in the practice of chemistry.
Gustav Rose was twenty-six when he ceased to be a
student, and of the fifty years that have run out their
sands since 1823, there is scarce one that has not recorded
some work or memoir by the great crystallographer ; and
in some of those years he produced several.

And Gustav Rose was a crystallographer and mineral-
ogist in the completest sense. The first manin Germany,
as we have said, who adopted the use of Dr. Wollaston’s
reflective goniometer, he aided Mitscherlich in his dis-
covery of Isomorphism ; and this must have been one
of his earliest labours. :

His first paper was an exercise in Latin on the Crystallo-
graphy of Sphene; and in 1830 he brought out his
treatise on Crystallography, in which recognising the
simplicity introduced by the use of geometrical axes as
emp.oyed by Weiss, he adopted that method of expression
for the relations of the faces of a crystal, a method which
has in fact been only carried out to its last logical form
and simplest expression by the admirable system of our
countryman Prof. W. H. Miller.

It is not easy now to transport ourselves back to the
time when scientific men of high eminence deliberately
closed, or rather refused to open, their eyes to the chemical
composition of a mineral as the most fundamental point
in its definition and description, and to its chemical
relations as affording the only philosophical basis on which
to form a classification of minerals. But this difficulty of
placing ourselves in the position taken up by Mohs and
his school, very much arises from our not appreciating the
situation of chemical and crystallographic research in
their mutual valuation twenty years before the death of
Mohs. We may for instance take two garnets, one con-
sisting of aluminium and magnesium silicate, another of
iron and calcium silicate. The two minerals containnotably
differing proportions of the only ingredient they have in
common, namely silica ; and yet their crystalline forms
are the same, and the mineralogist could not fail to
recognise so close a parallelism and similarity between
the two minerals as to compel him to unite them under
one general “natural-history” division.

The chemistry of that day, however, was not yet ripe
But when, on
the other hand, the mineralogist assembled under one
group minerals that differed in the way that, for instance,

Berlin, had died in 1807, leaving his children to the care | Linavite and blue copper carbonate (chessylite) differ in
of his widow, who appears to have borne out the tradition '

of able men owing much to remarkable characteristics in -rals as diamond and topaz, on the ground that they were
hard and lustrous, and had the character of precious

‘their mothers. Young Gustav was not old enough in the

No. 197—VOL, VIII.

their chemical composition, or such widely different mine-

- Q

278

stones; then the remonstrance of the chemist was founded
in truth and reason, ‘

It was the discovery of isomorphism that explained the
anomalies and enigmas which thus in many cases seemed
to justify the mineralogist in standing apart from the
chemist, and preferring to discriminate, define, and classify
minerals by appealing to superficial characteristics, rather
than to the most fundamental feature_of such bodies, their
chemical molecular structure.

It came now to be seen that in the language of the
earlier chemistry alumina and sesquioxide of iron, on the
one hand, were able to represent the same ingredient in
the garnet, while on the other hand, also, the lime, the
magnesia, and the protoxide of iron might equally re-
present one another in the silicate in question, provided
that the chemical structure of the compound was not
altered, that is to say, could be expressed by a general
formula that was equally applicable to each variety of the
mineral ; the identity of the crystallographic features of
all those garnets being the evidence that the unity of the
mineral type had not been overstepped by the inter-
changes of the elements. The application of this great
discovery left chemistry master of the situation, and
relegated into the regions of darkness the systems of
classification that were not built on chemical and crystal-
lographic principles. It was Mitscherlich, aided as vom
Rath tells us by the young Gustav Rose, who made this
grand announcement to the world in the year 1823.
The light which was thus shed on the dark and till then
uncertain problems that might connect the crystalline
form with chemical structure, gave, as it were, new life to
the vigorous school that owed its chemical precision to
the great Professor at Stockholm, the school to which the
two Roses and Wohler belonged. The purely chemical
problems of mineralogy received their constant attention ;
and Gustave Rose, by publishing his crystallography,
asserted the co-ordinate functions of the goniometer and
the balance in the future discussions of all the larger
questions of the mineralogist.

He, in fact, unconsciously perhaps, was now initiating
the method to which, with a fine unity of purpose, he
adhered through his life.

Thus, for instance, we find him in 1831-33 discussing
the somewhat paradoxical resemblance in the crystallo-
graphic constants of the minerals augite and hornblende,
as suggested by Uralite, a mineral uniting the outline
form of the one with the internal structure of the other ;
in fact a pseudomorph of hornblende after the form of
augite,

Then in 1836 came his masterly memoir on the forms
of Aragonite, the distinction of which from calcite had
been established by Haiiy in the beginning of the
century. Afterwards, among a mass of works, we find
memoirs on the differences of crystallographic habit in
Albite, and the nearly related variety of the same felspar
pericline, a subject to which he returned in later times ;
on the dimorphism of iridium, of palladium, and again of
zinc ; several treating on the marvellous connection by
which certain kinds of hemisymmetry in crystals are
associated with the localisation on them of opposite
electric conditions under changes of temperature (pyro-
electricity), which he illustrated in the case of the tour-
maline, and among his latest memoirs by a most masterly

NATURE.

one on pyrites and cobalt-glance. Quartz he made an
object of especial study, explaining the character of its
twin forms; and no memoirs in the whole range of
crystallographic research, not excepting the splendid work
in which Des-Cloiseaux capped, as it were, the labour of

this great master on the crystallography of quartz.

challenged the attention and been a sort of exercising-
ground for several of the great mineralogists of Germany.

in 1825, measured the first olivine crystal from the Pallas
meteorite, and he, Haidinger, Breithaupt, and Wéhler,

| Aug. 7, 1873

Rose, can surpass, in originality and precision, that by

Meteorites and the minerals which they contain have
Berzelius, indeed, set the example, but it was Rose who,

have all contributed invaluable material for the scientific
history of these very difficult and interesting objects of
investigation. And to G. Rose we owe the most pene-
trating insight into their structure, and the best attempt
thus far made at classifying them. So, too, the sum of
his thought and labour on the classification of minerals
was given in his “ crystallo-chemische mineral-system,”
published twenty-one years ago, in which he, so to say,
demolished, by leaving no further excuse for perpetuating,
the system which was identified with the name of Mohs,
or indeed any other system to which chemical law was
not the master key.

But one great work that Gustave Rose might have
done, and better done perhaps than any living man, was
the writing a treatise on Petrography. Mineralogy, the sci-
ence of minerals, stands to petrography, the science that
describes rocks and investigates their history, somewhat as
biography stands to history itself, or as histology to physio-
logy, The reason why a geologist is hardly ever a master of
petrography is that he is so seldom, in England, at least,
amineralogist. And itis precisely because Gustav Rose
was, and Naumann is, a complete mineralogist and crys- —
tallographer, and that both have profoundly studied the
characters of the minerals in association which form rocks,
that either of these two veteran professors might have
written—alas ! a month ago we might have said may yet —
write—such a treatise on rocks as probably no other living
man could write. Gustav Rose began an admirable
training in the field for such a study when, in the com-
pany of A, von Humboldt and G, Ehrenberg, he traversed
European Russia and found himself among the rocks
of the Ourals in 1829. The results of this historical
progress were given to the world in two volumes in 1837-
1842, The memoirs which he published subsequently to
this time and to his becoming full professor (he had been
extraordinary professor since 1826) of mineralogy at
Berlin, treat very frequently of rock minerals; and in-
deed deal, in the majority of instances, with those more
ordinary minerals which perform an important function
as constituents of rocks; quartz, felspar, mica, horn-
blende, augite, seem never to weary him in observation or
exhaust his powers of telling some new fact regarding
them. One of his latest papers on the very common
mineral, mica, is one of the most admirable of his re-
searches. It was published, like most of his memoirs, in
Poggendorft’s Azalen, and treated on the interpenetration
by one another, of various kinds of mica, and of these,
with hematite and pennine.

It would be unnecessary, for the purpose of this slight
sketch of Gustav Rose’s labours, to go further into de-

le

‘Aug. 7,1873|

NATURE

279

tails regarding his works. Heis gone; but his work lives
after him.

The two Roses were men of a distinguished presence.
Heinrich was the taller, but each was a man of spare and
somewhat stately figure, with an eye of peculiar force and
truthfulness of glance; an eye that spoke out the
character of the man, that beamed with kindliness and
was ever staunch to truth, N. S. M.

CHALLIS’S “MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES
OF PHYSICS”

An Essay on the Mathematical Principles of Physics, &c.
By the Rev. James Challis, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow
of Trinity College. (Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, and
Co., 1873.)

HIS essay is a sort of abstract or general account
of the mathematical and physical researches on

_ which the author has been so long engaged, portions of

which have appeared from time to time in the Phzlo-
sophical Magazine, and also in his larger work on the
“Principles of Mathematics and Physics.” It is always
desirable that mathematical results should be expressed in
intelligible language, as well as in the symbolic form in
which they were at first obtained, and we have to thank
Professor Challis for this essay, which though, or rather
because, it hardly contains a single equation, sets forth
his system more clearly than has been done in some of his
previous mathematical papers.

The aim of this essay, and of the author’s long-con-
tinued labours, is to advance the theoretical study of
Physics. He regards the material universe as “a vast
and wonderful mechanism, of which not the least
wonderful quality is, its being so constructed that
we can understand it.” The Book of Nature, in
fact, contains elementary chapters, and, to those who
know where to look for them, the mastery of one
chapter is a preparation for the study of the next.
The discovery of the calculation necessary to deter-
mine the acceleration of a particle whose position is
given in terms of the time led to the Newtonian epoch of
Natural Philosophy. The study from the cultivation of
which our author looks for the ‘inauguration of a new
Scientific epoch,” is that of the motion of fluids, commonly
called Hydrodynamics. The scientific method which he
recommends is that described by Newton as the “ foun-
dation of all philosophy,” namely, that the properties which
we attribute to the least parts of matter must be con-
sistent with those of which experiments on sensible bodies
have made us cognizant.

The world, according to Professor Challis, is made up
of atoms and wether. The atoms are spheres, unalterable
in magnitude, and endowed with inertia, but with no other
property whatever. The ether is a perfect fluid, endowed
with inertia, and exerting a pressure proportional to its
density. It is truly continuous (and therefore does not
consist of atoms), and it fills up all the interstices of the
atoms.]

Here, then, we have set before us with perfect clearness
the two constituents of the universe : the atoms, which

“we can picture in our minds as'so many marbles ; and the

ether, which behaves exactly as air would do if Boyle’s
law were strictly accurate, if its temperature were invari-
able, if it were destitute of viscosity, and if gravity did not
act on it.

We have no difficulty, therefore, in forming an adequate
conception of the properties of the elements from which
we have to construct a world. The hypothesis is at least
an honest one. It attributes to the elements of things no
properties except those which we can clearly define, It
stands, therefore, on a different scientific level from those
waxen hypotheses in which the atoms are endowed with a
new system of attractive or repulsive forces whenever a
new phenomenon has to be explained.

But the task still before us is a herculean one, It ig
no less than to explain all actions between bodies or parts
of bodies, whether in apparent contact or at stellar dis-
tances, by the motions of this all-embracing ether, and
the pressure thence resulting,

One kind of motion of the zther is evidently a wave-
motion, like that of sound-waves in air. How will such
waves affect an atom? Will they propel it forward like.
the driftwood which is flung upon the shore, or will they
draw it back like the shingle which is carried out by the
returning wave? Or will they make it oscillate about a
fixed position without any advance or recession on the
whole ?

We have no intention of going through the calculations
necessary to solve this problem. They are not contained
in this essay, and Professor Challis admits that he has
been unable to determine the absolute amount of the
constant term which indicates the permanent effect of the
Waves on an atom. This is unfortunate, as it gives us no
immediate prospect of making those numerical com-
parisons with observed facts which are necessary for the
verification of the theory. Let us, however, suppose this
purely mathematical difficulty surmounted, and let us
admit with Professor Challis that if the wave-length of
the undulations is very small compared with the diameter
of the atom, the atom will be urged in the direction of
Wwave-propagation, or in other words repelled from the
origin of the waves. If on the other hand the wave-
length is very great compared with the diameter of the
atom, the atom will be urged in the direction opposite to
that in which the waves travel, that is, it will be aétracted
towards the source of the waves.

The amount of this attraction or repulsion will depend
on the mean of the square of the velocity of the periodic
motion of the particles of the zther, and since the ampli-
tude of a diverging wave is inversely as the distance from
the centre of divergence, the force will be inversely as the
square of this distance, according to Newton’s law,

We must remember, however, that the problem is only
imperfectly solved, as we do not know the absolute value
of this force, and we have not yet arrived at an explana-
tion of the fact that the attraction of gravitation: is in
exact proportion to the mass of the attracted body, what-
ever be its chemical nature. (See p. 36.)

Admitting these results, and supposing the great ocean
of zther to be traversed by waves, these waves impinge
on the atoms, and are reflected in the form of diverging
waves, These, in their turn, beat other atoms, and
cause attraction or repulsion, according as their wave-
length is great or small, Thus the waves of shortest

280

NATURE

[Aug. 7, 1873

period perform the office of repelling atom from atom,
and rendering their collision for ever impossible, Other
waves, somewhat longer, bind the atoms together in mole-
cular groups. Others contribute to the elasticity of
bodies of sensible size, while the long waves are the cause
of universal gravitation, holding the planets in their
courses, and preserving the most ancient heavens in all
their freshness and strength. Then besides the waves of
aether, our author contemplates its streams, spiral and
otherwise, by which he accounts for electric, magnetic,
and galvanic phenomena.

Without pretending to have verified all or any of the
calculations on which this theory is based, or to have
compared the electric, magnetic, and galvanic phenomena,
as described in the Essay, with those actually observed,
we may venture to make a few remarks upon the theory
of action at a distance here put forth.

The explanation of any action between distant bodies
by means of a clearly conceivable process going on in
the intervening medium is an achievement of the highest
scientific value. Of all such actions, that of gravitation
is the most universal and the most mysterious. What-
ever theory of the constitution of bodies holds out a
prospect of the ultimate explanation of the process by
which gravitation is effected, men of science will be found
ready to devote the whole remainder of their lives to the
development of that theory.

The only theory hitherto put forth as a dynamical
theory of gravitation is that of Lesage, who adopts the
Lucretian theory of atoms and void.

Gravitation on this theory is accounted for by the
impact of atoms of incalculable minuteness, which are
flying through the heavens with inconceivable velocity
and in every possible direction, These “ultramundane
corpuscules ” falling on a solitary heavenly body would
strike it on every side with equal impetus, and would
have no effect upon it in the way of resultant force. If,
however, another heavenly body were in existence, each
would screen the other from a portion of the corpuscular
bombardment, and the two bodies would be attracted to
each other. The merits and the defects of this theory
have been recently pointed out by Sir W. Thomson. If
the corpuscules are perfectly elastic one body cannot
protect the other from the storm, for it will reflect exactly
as many corpuscules as it intercepts. If they are in-
elastic, as Lesage supposes, what becomes of them after
collision? Why are not bodies always growing by the
perpetual accumulation of them? How do they get
swept away ? and what becomes of their energy? Why
do they not volatilise the earth in a few minutes? I shall
not enter on Sir W. Thomson’s improvement of this
theory, as it involves a different kind of hydro-dynamics
from that cultivated in the Essay, but in whatever way
we regard Lesage’s theory, the cause of gravitation in the
universe can be represented only as depending on an
ever fresh supply of something from without.

Though Prof. Challis has not, as far as we can see,
stated in what manner his ethereal waves are originally
produced, it would seem that on his theory also the
primary waves, by whose action the waves diverging from
the atoms are generated, must themselves be propagated
from somewhere owéséde the world of stars.

On either theory, therefore, the universe is not even

temporarily automatic, but must be fed from moment to
moment by an agency external to itself.

If the corpuscules of the one theory, or the zthereal
waves of the other, were from any cause to be supplied at
a different rate, the value of every force in the universe
would suffer change. *

On both theories, too, the preservation of the universe
is effected only by the unceasing expenditure of enor-
mous quantities of work, so that the conservation of
energy in physical operations, which has been the subject
of so many measurements, and the study of which has
led to so many discoveries, is apparent only, and is merely
akind of “moveable equilibrium” between supply and
destruction.

It may seem.a sort of anticlimax to descend from these
highest heavens of invention down to the “equations of
condition” of fluid motion. But it would not be right to
pass by the fact that the fluids treated of in this Essay are
not in all respects similar to those met with elsewhere.
In all their motions they obey a law, which our author
was the first to lay down, in addition—or perhaps in some
cases in opposition—to those prescribed for them by
Lagrange, Poisson, &c,

It is true that a perfect fluid, originally at rest, and
afterwards acted on only by such forces as occur in
nature, will freely obey this law, and that not only in the
form laid down by Prof. Challis, in which its rigour
is partially relaxed by the introduction of an arbitrary
factor, but in its original severe simplicity, as the con-
dition of the existence of a velocity-potential.

But, on the one hand, problems in which the motion is
assumed to violate this condition have been solved by
Helmholtz and Sir W. Thomson, who tell us what the
fluid will then do; and, on the other hand, Professor
Challis’s fluid is able, in virtue of the new equation, to
transmit plane waves consisting of transverse displace-
ments. As this is what takes place in the luminiferous
zether, other physicists refuse to regard that zether as a
fluid, because, according to their definition, the action
between any contiguous portions of a fluid is entirely
normal to the surface which separates them.

It is not necessary, however, for us to say any more on
this subject, as the Essay before us does not contain, in
an explicit form, the equation referred to, but is devoted
rather to the exposition of those wider theories of the
constitution of matter and the phenomena of nature, —
some of which we have endeavoured to describe.

HENSLEV’S “SCHOLAR’S ARITHMETIC”
The Scholar’s Arithmetic. By Lewis Hensley, M.A.
(Clarendon Press Series, 1873.)
ae is scarcely any subject more carelessly taught
= than arithmetic ; and, if one would wish to ascer-
tain the reason of this, he has merely to glance at the
text-books which have been hitherto most commonly em-
ployed. Lately, however, several books of some worth
have been presented to the public, and for these we are
indebted in a great measure to the late Prof. De Morgan,
whose “ Elements of Arithmetic,” published so far back
as 1830, is still regarded as the very best handbook for
advanced students. It has, nevertheless, some pecu- —
liarities—we cannot call them defects—which have pre~ —

Aug. 7, 1873)

vented schools from adopting it up to the present time as

_a text-book ; it presupposes too much special talent on
the part of the teacher, and contains but few of the modern
methods of calculation.

Two main points should ever be kept in view in teach-
ing a subject like arithmetic : first, its principles ; secondly,
the application of these principles to the affairs of life.
In our opinion, the former is undoubtedly the more im-
portant if the subject be regarded as an instrument of
education. For arithmetical principles are, if properly
explained, so very readily comprehended, that a beginner
is not likely to find a more delightful path along which he
may proceed to the extensive domains of mathematics ;
but, being generally regarded as a mere catalogue of em-
pirical rules and as a means for exercising the memory,
arithmetic becomes, not educational, but instructive, an
act of drudgery, and of no more real assistance as a
branch of education than needlework or spelling. Explain
the ordinary system of numeration to a pupil, let him
thoroughly understand the meaning of digit-value and of
grade-value, and he will then require but little deep
thought, though it will be excellent mental training, to find
out for himself the reasons of the four simple rules with
respect both to integers end decima/s. Or, in some cases,
let him construct a rule for himself. We do not remember

to have ever seen what could fairly be called an arithme-
tical rider ; ordinary problems are not riders, for they are
scarcely more difficult than a geometrical theorem with
the position and letters of the figure altered. The teacher
would occasionally be called in to assist at these exer-
cises ; but assistance sought for is far more valuable than
that which is spontaneously proffered, and its effect more
lasting. Mr. Hensley’s “Scholar’s Arithmetic” is one of
the very few books in which we find decimals discussed
in their proper place ; indeed it is difficult to understand
how this branch of the subject can be logically postponed
till a later period if our system of numeration is rationally
explained, as of course it should be, at the very com-
mencement of the course.

Pursuing the subject systematically, the pupil should be
introduced next to othcr systems of numeration ; and
should have at least a little practice in such complex
contrivances as long measure <nd troy weight. Certainly
the contrast would be abundantly sufficient to mould any
young rational being into a most ardent advocate of the
metric system, But we cannot say that Mr. Hensley
brings out so strongly as perhaps he might the vast
difference between the two methods; his chapter on
decimals, treating as it does of conceptions and quantities
almost unknown to the great majority of British pupils, is
somewhat too abstract. Yet we are glad to recognise in
him an outspoken adherent of a universal decimal system,
and he seems to look with becoming contempt upon our
insular stupidity in fondly cherishing our marvellous
weights and measures.

Fractions and proportion are the only other important
branches of elementary arithmetic ; and, when these are
mastered, not only is the attainment of a first-rate know-
ledge of mental and commercial arithmetic a matter that
requires merely time and practice, but algebra becomes
thereby most highly attractive as a now comprehensible
generalisation, and geometry more alluring even to the

unmathematical pupil,

NATURE

281

The above-mentioned fundamental divisions and their
applications to business, the reader will find fully and
ably discussed in the “Scholar’s Arithmetic” ; and Mr.
Hensley has wisely interspersed these all-essential chapters
with a few on short methods of calculation, processes of
verification, engaging problems, and other similar topics
which usually attract the attention and excite the interest
of a thoughtful student. There is a short though very
lucid chapter on involution and evolution ; but, as Mr.
Hensley remarks in his preface, he has intentionally
passed over subjects which are most easily explained
algebraically. There! are also more than thirty pages of
examination papers from various sources, over and above
the numerous examples scattered through the book, as
well as a short though sufficient index and glossary. The
book is perhaps rather too bulky, and in parts very un-
equal as regards the difficulty of adjacent sections; but
these are trivial failings which will not interfere with its
use in schools, and we feel no hesitation in pronouncing
it to be one of the most attractive educational works that
have appeared on this subject, and it will doubtless be of
very great assistance to every earnest teacher.

TEMPLE ORME

OUR BOOK SHELF
The Human Mind ; A System of Mental Philosophy for
the General Reader, By James G. Murphy, LL.D.,
Author of Commentaries on Genesis, Exodus, and
Leviticus. (Belfast: William Mullan.)

THIS book shows that its author possesses at least
one common characteristic of mental philosophers,
namely, an inordinately good opinion of his own ability.
And, lest the reader should not discover for himself what
Prof. Murphy has actually done in psychology (which
might happen), he is explicitly told in the preface that,
while building on the foundations laid by Reid and
Hamilton, Prof. Murphy has, in his own opinion, pro-
duced a work which he can venture to submit to “the
mental philosopher, as a somewhat nearer approach to
the real character of the mind than that of Reid, the
founder, or even Hamilton, the lucid and eloquent expo-
sitor and defender, of the true system of mental philo-
sophy.” Another recommendation put forward in the
preface is that this treatise is “among the briefest of
those that have gone over the whole field of the mind.

Perhaps, we cannot tell. But to us the marvel is that
the book should have ever come to an end. We have
made several honest attempts to read portions of the re-
spectable looking volume, but have never been able to
get beyond a few sentences ; for we felt as if launched on
ashoreless ocean where we might sail on and on, or
round and round for ever, and we could not keep our
eyes open on the prospectless outlook, We fear some of
the mental philosophers, to whom the book is submitted,
will not give it very earnest consideration. What seems to
bea main object with Prof. Murphy, and which is, as it ap-
pears tous, rather inconsistent with a scientific treatment
ofthe phenomena of mind, is to establish the existence and
discover the attributes of Deity. But there are few readers,
we should think, who will find much interest or pleasure
in his mode of handling this part of his theme. There is
not a little of the irreverent jargon with which meta-
physical theologians have so often shocked all truly
religious people. Here, for example, is a reflection that
ought perhaps to leave no doubt as to the honesty of the
Almighty, whatever other effect it may have on a reli-
gious mind: ‘He is the Creator of all actual things,
which are therefore already His own by an absolute and
indefeasible right. He has therefore no temptation to
take that which does not belong to Him,” 5,

282

Second Report of the Winchester College
Society. Second and Third Years.
J. Wells, 1873.)

Tus Report contains a record of the doings of the
Society from May 1871 to February 1873, and is
thoroughly encouraging, and certainly a great contrast to
the Reports of the two other public schools recently noticed
in these pages. The Winchester Report proves that, by
judicious management, a School Natural History Society
may be made to yield most gratifying results,

The present Report for the two last years, although its
record of the earlier papers is incomplete, shows that the

Natural History
(Winchester :

Society has been fully alive, and has been growing quietly.

and steadily, and doing real and satisfactory work. The
numbers of the Society are not at this time actually full.
But it appears that the elder half of the members are nearly
all of them real workers, and it is hoped that the younger
half are learning to be the same. It is of more conse-
quence, as the Preface rightly says, that those who belong
to the Society should be working members, than that its
numbers should be swelled by names, The meetings of
the Society have been well attended, and there has been
apparent an increasing appreciation of the opportunities
afforded by the meetings for showing and seeing objects
of interest, as well as for reading and hearing papers.

It is satisfactory to see that old members take an
interest in the society after leaving school, several of
them contributing valuable papers.

In general, however, we are extremely glad to see, the
papers have been those of actual members, and the
Society may well feel satisfaction at the increasing readi-
ness, ability, and completeness shown by the leading
members in supplying papers at its meetings. The
papers which have been read by the Secretarics, Hall,
Goddard, and Forbes, may, perhaps, the Preface says,
and we think justly, be specially remarked, as com-
bining ability with knowledge based upon personal ob-
servation. It isin these papers that the growth of the
Society’s work has be2n chiefly seen, and in which its
main value consists.

The collections belonging to the School have been con-
siderably increased. The cabinets attached to the Moberly
Library now contain about 4,000 specimens, and more are
waiting to be mounted and added.

Among the “ desiderata” the Preface mentions the fol-
lowing, in case old Wykehamists, or other friends of the
School, may be able and willing to supply them :—In
Entomology, specimens of Notodontidz and Pyralides,
amongst Lepidoptera; and of any other orders than
Lepidoptera. In Conchology, recent Brachiopoda, and
Pteropoda. In Geology, Fossils from any of the Primary
Formations, Wealden Beds, Red Crag, and Coralline
Crag.

The Report contains a number of very interesting
papers, mostly by Messrs, E, H. Goddard, W. A. Forbes,
and C, S. Rayner, evidently three of the most industrious
members of the Society: all the papers are evidence
of original observation and independent thought on the
part of the writers. The first-mentioned contributes the
following papers :—“ Hymenoptera,” “ Botany and Ento-
mology” (in which the localities in the district are indi-
cated in which the collector will reap the best harvest of
flowers and butterflies), and one on “ Gall Insects.” Mr.
W.A. Forbes contributes papers on “Coleoptera,” “British
Reptiles,” and “ Mimicry and Protective Resemblance.”
Mr. Raynor contributes a useful paper “On the Different
Methods of obtaining Lepidoptera,” and a very careful
and interesting one “ On the Different Modes of Conceal-
ment and Defence practised by Insects.” The Report
also contains a paper on “ The Diamond Fields of South
Africa,” sent by Mr. E, A. Hall. Appended are very full
and carefully compiled Botanical, Entomological, and
Geological Lists. We hope the next Report will contain
a list of the local Fauna, which it is proposed to form.

NATURE

Pe ES 1 ae Ne ee

v

.

[Aug. 7, 1873

I&@TTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Perception and Instinct in the Lower Animals

I HAVE waited some timé in the expectation that some of
your readers would have asked Mf Wallace a very obvious
question with regard to the incident he adduces of a doz finding
his master five months after having been lost, and in a house
which the latter ‘‘had not contemplated going to or even seen
before the loss of the dog.” (NaTuRE, vol. viii. p. 66.) In
seeking to account for this thoroughly authentic and highly
remarkable case, Mr. Wallace observes: ‘Could it have
obtained information from other dogs ....? Could the
odour of persons and furniture linger two months in the streets ?
These are almost the only conceivable sources of information ;
for the most thorough-going advocates for a ‘‘sense of direction”
will hardly maintain that it could enable a dog to go straight to
his master, wherever he might happen to be.” Now, there is
yet a third supposition open to us, and it is one which, in the
absence of information, is certainly the most probable. Can
Mr. Wallace’s friend remember whether he had been walking in
the vicinity of his new house during the day upon which the dog
returned? 7.¢. can he be sure the dog did not trace his footsteps ?
That a keen-scented terrier is able to distinguish and to follow
his master’s track in a public thoroughfare, however densely it
may be crowded, I know from the success of searching expe-
riments.

With regard to dogs communicating information to one
another, I may mention that I have often observed them
doing so. According to my experience, the dogs must be much
above the average in intelligence, and the gesture they inyariably
employ is a contact of heads witha motion between a rub and a
butt. It is quite different from anything that occurs in play, and
is always followed by some definite course of action. I must
add, however, that although the information thus conveyed is
always definite, I have never known a case in which it was
complex—anything like asking or telling the way being, I
believe, quite out of the question ; so far, at least, as this action
is concerned. One example will suffice. A Skye terrier (not
quite pure) was asleep in the room where I was, while his son
Jay upon a wall which separates the lawn from the high road.
The young dog, when alone, would never attack a strange one,
but was a keen fighter when in company with his father. Upon
the present occasion a large mongrel passed along the road, and,
shortly afterwards, the old dog awoke and went sleepily down
stairs. When he arrived upon the door-step his son ran up to
him and made the sign just described. His whole manner im-
mediately altered to that of high animation, and, clearing the
wall together, the two animals ran down the road as terriers
only-can when pursuing an enemy. I watched them for a mile
and a half, within which distance their speed never abated,
although the object of their pursuit had not, from the first, been
in sight.

ic the instinct question seems to have come to a close it is
desirable to observe that the only outcome of its discussion has
been to intensify the previous belief in the existence of some
unexplained faculty, which may be provisionally termed a sense
of direction. Mr, Wallace, in his general reply, avowedly
ignores all those cases adduced by your correspondents in which
his theory cannot possibly apply ; ¢.”. dogs describing the third
side of a triangle, or returning by land whence they had been
taken by sea. He says: ‘‘Several of the writers argue as if I
had maintained that in all cases dogs, &c. find their way, wholly
or mainly, by smell ; whereas I strictly limited it to the case in
which their other senses could not be used” (vol. viii. p. 65).
Now, whether or not Mr. Wallace originally intended his letter
to raise the general issue as to the presence in dogs of a sense
of direction, this has certainly been its effect, so that the in-
stances he here refers to are not in any way beside the question
which immediately arose. I have much too high an esteem for
Mr. Wallace to say anything that might lead to a discussion with
him, but it is evident that these remarks have no such tendency ;
for, if he admits, as he candidly does in the sentence just quoted,
that his theory cannot apply to all cases, it necessarily follows
that, even could he proveit to be true in some, the fact, although
of considerable psychological interest, would leave the question
as to a sense of direction just where it was before.

It should be borne in mind that dogs are not the only animals . —

NATURE,

oh _ as \ ol ae oe >

283

in which this sense appears to be present.
believed to occur in members of at least two orders of Insects,
viz. white ants and bees, but I am not aware that any authentic
cases have been recorded. Horses and cats seem to possess it
_ in a high degree, and sheep must either have wonderful memo-
ries, or owe their return, in numerous cases, to the faculty in
question. Still more wonderful, if we deny them this faculty,
must be the memory of migratory birds, some of which return,
_ after months of absence and over thousands of miles, to the same
nests in successive seasons. If we allow them this faculty it is
not, from analogy, improbable that migratory mammals and even
fishes are likewise endowed with it. The most conspicuous
example, however, is perhaps that afforded by carrier pigeons.
To take one case: two or three years ago some of these birds
were flown from the Crystal Palace to Brussels, and it stands, if
I remember correctly, upon the authority of Mr. Tegetmeier, that
_ they arrived within a few minutes of a telegram despatched from
_ the Palace at the moment they were liberated. Now, in this
case, even the extravagant supposition sometimes made that
carrier pigeons are guided by the sight of their destination is ex-
cluded, for, as these birds are not high-flyers, the curvature of
the earth between London and Brussels would prevent them
from seeing the latter. And, even if we imagine that these par-
ticular pigeons occasionally towered to obviate this difficulty, yet
the curvature of the intervening clouds would have imposed
another quite as effectual.

There is still one important point which has not been noticed
during the discussion of this subject. We possess indications
that this sense of direction, like other mental capacities, admits
of cultivation by exercise, and, indeed, that it may remain
altogether latent and useless until thus developed. If these
indications represent generalities we have at once an adequate
explanation of the apparently capricious manner in which this
faculty occurs.* As this communication is already too long, I
shall here be brief.

It is, I believe, a recognised doctrine among fanciers that
carrier pigeons, however purely bred, must be educated by
flying short distances before they can be depended upon for long
ones. Iremember having myself lost a valuable bird by flying
him, for the first time, at a distance of 500 yards from his nest.
Although in full view of it he became utterly confused, taking
long flights in various directions, and ultimately went straight
out to sea,

Here is an analogous case in a mammal :—I kept a terrier, of
highly intelligent parentage, enclosed in a yard with high walls
from the time of its birth until it was eighteen months old, and
then took it out for the first time, along the sea-shore. The ex-
periment elicited several facts of psychological interest, and one
of them has bearing upon the present subject. Part of the coast
over which we went and returned was rough with large shingle,
and the terrier’s locomotive power being very limited, it was unable,
on the homeward journey, to keep up with my pace. Desiring to
see what it would do if left alone, I continued for half a mile,
and waited to see it come up. As it did not doso, I returned,
and found that the animal had actually reversed its direction and
gone fully a quarter of a mile from the place where I had left it.
After having been taken out short distances seven or eight times,
it was inadvertently lost in a neighbouring wood. Now, it had
only been in the wood once before, yet its appreciation of direc-
tion had made so great an advance that it returned an hour after-
wards. As this terrier never evinced any disposition to track
footsteps, I do not think its return was due to scent. Anyhow,
in a few weeks it became an inveterate wanderer, roaming over
the country far and wide. GEORGE J. ROMANES

Dunskaith, Ross-shire, July 7

Comte on the Survival of the Fittest

Mr. JEvons called attention some time ago to the desirability
of preparing a list of past thinkers and writers who have held, in
strength or weakness, the doctrines of Darwin and Spencer.
Mr. Darwin has himself named a few of those authors, and Prof.
Haeckel has extended the number. Recent communications in
NatuRE show that the list is as yet incomplete. In reading
Comte’s ‘‘Cours de Philosophie Positive” a few years ago, I
was impressed with the general similarity of certain doctrines
therein stated with some of Darwin’s theories. Referring re-

_* In connection with these points compare the suggestive remarks of Mr.

Darwin, contained in the two concluding paragraphs of his article on Instinct
(Natourz, vol, vii, p. 418).

-

It is popularly

cently to the 42nd lesson of that course (t. iii.) —‘ Considerations
générales sur la philosophie biotaxique,” I find that Comte, in
reviewing the Lamarck-Cuvier controversy, says :—

‘* Toute la célébre argumentation de Lamarck reposait finale.
ment sur la combinaison générale de ces deux principes incon-
testable, mais jusquici trop mal circonscrits: 1°, l’aptitude
essentielle d’un organisme quelconque, et surtout d’un or-
ganisme animal, a se modifier conformément aux circon-
stances extérieures ott il est placé, et qui sollicitent l’exer-
cise predominant de tel organe spécial, correspondant a telle
faculte devenue plus nécessaire ; 2°, la tendance, non moins cer-
taine, 4 fixer dans les races, par la seule transmission hérédi-
taire, les modifications d’abord directes et individuelles, de
manicre 4 les augmenter graduellement 4 chaque génération
nouvelle, si ’action du milieu ambiant persévére identiquement.
On congoit sans peine, en effet, que, si cette double propricté
pouvait étre admise d’une manicre rigoureusement indéfinie, tous
les organismes pourraient étre envisagés comme ayant étre, a la
longue, successivement produits les uns par les autres, du moins
en disposant de la nature, de l’intensité, et de Ja durée des influ-
ences extérieures avec cette prodigalite illimitée qui en cotitant
aucun effort 4 la naive imagination de Lamarck.” (1st ed.
**Cours de Philosophie Positive,” t. iii. pp. 560 and 561.)

Modification and heredity are here strongly asserted, and the
conditions of unlimited transformation as strongly sketched. In
continuance of the same argument, Comte, on p. 563, objects to
Lamarck’s hypothesis, of ,;which he thought very highly as a
logical effort :—

““Qu’il repose, ce me semble, sur une notion profondément
erronée de la nature générale de l’organisme vivant. Sans doute,
chaque organisme determiné est en relation nécessaire avec une
systeme egalement déterminé de circonstances extérieures, comme
je ’ai établi dans la quaranti¢me legon. Mais il n’en résulte
nullement que la premicre de ces deux forces co-relatives ait di
étre produite par la seconde, pas plus qu’elle n’a pu Ja produire :
il s’agit seulement d’un ¢quilibre mutuel entre deux puissances
hétérogénes et indépendantes. Si l’on congoit que tous les orga-
nismes possibles soient successivement placés, pendant un temps
convenable, dans tous les milieux imaginables, la plupart de ces
organismes finiront, de toute nécessite, par disparaitre, pour ne
laisser subsister, que ceux qui pouvaient satisfaire aux lois géné-
rales de cet équilibre fondemental: c'est probablenient d’aprés
une suite a’éliminations analogues que Vharmonie biologique a
dd séablir peu a peu sur notre planite, o% nous la voyons
encore, en effet, se modifier sans cesse d'une maniére semblable.
Or, la notion d’un tel équilibre général deviendrait inintelligible
et méme contradictoire, si l’organisme était supposé modifiable
4 Vinfini sous l’influence supréme du milieu ambiant, sans avoir
aucune impulsion propre et indestructible.”

The struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest or
natural selection are here acknowledged. What is more, the
fact that the eliminations due to unfitness for the environment or
medium have produced and is producing biological harmony, is
pointed out. I have not met with any passages outside of the
writings of the new school, which are more explicit than these,
though it must not be understood that their author was a trans-
formationist. ‘The preface to the volume in which this occurs is
dated ‘‘ Paris, le 24 Février, 1838.” In his general table ap-
pended to the sixth volume of his work, Comte says that the
Lecon from which these extracts are taken was written between
the 9th and 15th of August, 1836. J. D. BELL

New York

The Glacial Period

CAN you inform me if anyone has suggested the following
explanation of the existence of the glacial, period? And is the
explanation I am about to offer a possible one? I put the ques-
tion in all diffidence, for I have not carefully studied the theory
of heat : you must therefore regard any utterance of mine cn
the subject as merely ‘‘a random arrow from the brain.” ‘Well,
then, it seems to me that the quantity of heat given out in a
unit of time from a unit of surface of an intensely heated globe,
such as the sun, does not follow the law of radiation of bodies
moderately heated. What I mean is this:—It is quite possible
that at a time when the sun’s mean temperature was higher than
it is now, his rate of radiation might have been less ; the “quantity
of heat emitted by him in a unit of time less than it is now.
For since his chromosphere must have been thicker, and his solid
or fluid nucleus somewhat less in diameter, I suppose that the
radiation of the nucleus must have been more retarded by the

.

284

chromosphere than is at present the case. It is true, that owing to
the increased pressure at the surface of the nucleus due to a
thicker chromosphere, the temperature there may have been a
little higher ; but Ido not think that difference would make up
for the increase in absorption of the chromosphere.

Assuming then that the sun gives out more heat now in a given
time than he did during the glacial period, and that the earth
had already so far cooled down that her surface was not sensibly
more warmed by internal heat than it is in our own epoch, the
mean temperature of the earth’s climate would have been lower,
and the sea-level line of perpetual snow nearer the Equator in
both hemispheres ; and glaciers would have covered vast tracks
of country which are now denuded of them.

Again, let us go back some millions of years in the world’s
history, till we arrive at the carboniferous period. The sun then
would probably be emitting less heat than even during the glacial
period ; but the earth would not have cooled down to such an
extent, and her internal heat would be sensible at the surface.
The mean climate of the globe would have probably been
warmer then than it is now, and the temperature more equally
distributed, depending not so much on solar as on terrestrial
radiation. This being supposed, the vegetation of England and
India in those days must have presented less difference than
what we find at present. Does the flora of our English and
Indian coal-beds support or upset this conclusion? Can any of
your correspondents answer this query, or set me right if I am
wrong in my hypothesis of solar radiation ?

Hampstead, July 22 J. H. Rours

P.S.—Is there any good mathematical treatise on heat, Eng-
lish or French, up to the latest information on the subject?
Can you or any of your correspondents recommend me such a
treatise ?

Telescope Tube for Celestial Photography

I HAVE not yet seen any satisfactory plan suggested of getting
over the difficulty experienced in celestial photography by the
expansion and contraction of telescope tubes, by changes of
temperature in metal tubes.

I therefore venture to suggest the following plan, which may
be so arranged as to keep the object-glass and camera-slide
exactly the same distance apart, and so keep the true focus when
once found. The arrangement would have to be modified ac-
cording to the metal of which the tube is made, but taking a
brass one (the most common), with the camera attached to the
eyepiece-slide, the correction will be effected by attaching to the
main tube, near the eyepiece, two zinc rods the length of the
main tube, upon which they must rest loosely ; to the free ends
of these, near the object-glass, attach a rod of iron extending
to the eye-tube ; let this iron rod be attached to the eye-tube
when the sensitive-plate is exactly in focus ; any change in tem-
perature will then have no effect on the focus, for the expansion
and contraction of the three metals will keep the distance from
object-glass to sensitive-plate constant, All who have worked
with a telescope giving sharp definition, will know that this is
not an unnecessary precaution, as it may seem to some.

Sydney Observatory, June 14 H. C. RussELL

Colour of the Emerald, etc,

T Have to beg “A. H.” to refer again to NATURE (July 24)
p. 254, col. 1, line 23, where he will find it stated that ‘‘ the
emeralds employed were canutillos from Santa Fé de Bogota.
Their specific gravity was 2°69.” It is evident, therefore, that
they could only be the green silicate of alumina and glucina.

The green sapphire, known also as the “‘ oriental emerald,” is
the rarest of all gems; and Mr. Harry Emanuel, in his work,
‘Diamonds and Precious Stones,” speaking of it says, ‘‘In the
whole course of my experience I have only met with one speci-
men.” Its specific gravity would at once distinguish it from the
true emerald.

The Beryl A. was colourless, opaque, and had a specific
gravity of 2°65. GREVILLE WILLIAMS

INSTINCT, PERCEPTION, AND REASONING
POWER OF ANIMALS

HE correctness of the following facts, bearing on the
above question, 1 can warrant :—
A beautiful greyhound bitch in my possession

NATURE

aa

Regis Gy cea” ioe eRe tome Wn Ret Se

| Aug. 7, 1873

had puppies, and I gave one of them, about a
month old, to a friend of mine who was also living in
Montpellier at that time. Some few days subsequently,
on going to call at my friend’s house, I took the grey-
hound with me. She appeared delighted at finding her
puppy again, and expressed her strong feeling by lavish-
ing on it, in her own way, the most tender marks of affec-
tion. After a few days I paid a second visit to my friend
(unaccompanied by the greyhound), when he informed
me that, in consequence of the earnest request of one of
his friends, he had been induced to give him the puppy,
which had thus been removed to a considerable distance.
I returned home, and on my arrival was struck with the
peculiar manner in which the animal met me. There was
nothing of her usual expression of delight—no barking,
no jumping to and fro—but she met me with a serious and
thoughtful look, and began slowly to smell my clothes in
different places, with the most earnest perseverance.
Nor was she content with a mere cursory effort to dis-
cover the particular object, whatever it was, which, no
doubt, she had in view; but she continued the same
course of proceeding for at least a quarter of an hour, in
fact, till i found it quite necessary to bring it to a
close.

From the above statement of the conduct of the animal,
the impression on my own mind was that I must have
carried away from my friend’s house some subtle effluvia,
which tended to bring back to the mother the recollection
of her puppy. And this caused me some additional sur-
prise, inasmuch as greyhounds are possessed of great
keenness of sight, but are generally considered as rather
deficient in their power of smelling. The conclusion is
still more remarkable. During the space of about two

years I usually paid my friend a visit twice a week, and —

on every occasion, on my return home, the greyhound
would invariably go through the same ceremony. At
length the proceeding became altogether so striking that
it was quite unnecessary for my wife and family (perhaps

from a little innocent curiosity) to ask, “‘ Where have you ©

been?” They could save themselves the trouble of a

question and say “I see that you have been calling on

your friend.”

My cousins were residing in a small village about thirty

kilom. from Montpellier, and on one occasion, when I
was going to spend some days with them, I took, for the
first time, my greyhound with me. It so happened that
not far off there was a hound bitch that belonged to one
of my cousins’ neighbours, and between these two animals
(from the beginning of my short stay) there arose the
deepest hatred and animosity, and conflicts of the most
ferocious kind were matters of daily, almost hourly, oc-
currence. Time altogether failed in producing any better

feeling between them, and to the end of my visit each was"

ever ready and anxious to try their strength whenever the
opportunity offered. In the course of the following year
I paid a second visit to the same place, accompanied by
my greyhound, and about three-quarters of an hour before
I reached the village the animal, as if struck with a sudden
idea, rushed forward at her full speed, and all attempts to
call her back proved quite ineffectual. On reaching the
village I found that a terrible encounter had already taken
place between the two heroines, who were on the point of
ee the attack after a temporary cessation of hos-
tilities,

The following anecdote relating to the same greyhound
seems to prove that these animals may sometimes exhibit
a higher standard of reasoning power than according to
general opinion they possess.

I was passing some days in the country with my aunt,
who had a middle-sized spaniel bitch, of a somewhat sul-
len and treacherous temper. This spaniel observed, with
an evident feeling of jealousy, that my greyhound was
making herself quite at home in my aunt’s kitchen, and

whenever she had a favourable opportunity, without

Bes 2a i:
a +

Aug. 7, 1873]

exposing herself to too much danger, she never failed to
give an angry bite to her unsuspecting rival, and imme-
‘diately to rush for shelter under a kneading-trough, from
which position my greyhound was unable to dislodge her.

After a short time the spaniel had puppies, and she was

placed with two of them in a corn-loft, over the kitchen,
from which there was a door which led to it by a flight of
stairs ; the door was usually kept closed in consequence
of the known animosity between the two rivals. For some
days the new mother, entirely occupied with the care of
her little ones, did not descend to the kitchen, and my
greyhound occasionally showed a strong desire to go up
to the loft and see what was going on there. When the
puppies were about seven or eight days old, their mother
began to re-appear in the kitchen, and to observe to-
wards the greyhound the same line of conduct, with the
exception only of an appearance of increased hatred. At
length, on one occasion, when the spaniel was eating
her dinner, and the corn-loft door happened to be partly
open, my greyhound, taking advantage of the opportunity,
sprang up the stairs of the loft. I observed the cir-
cumstance, and on calling her down she immediately
obeyed, and made her appearance before me with a look of
perfect satisfaction. About an hour afterwards my aunt’s
husband, on going to the loft, found both the puppies
dead, without the least mark of external violence, and he
was at a loss to imagine what could have caused their
death. For myself I had an impression on my own mind
‘as to the cause of death, but I did not consider it neces-
sary at the time to mention it to others. I opened
the bodies of the puppies, and found my opinion
confirmed. The skin was externally sound through its
elasticity, but the fangs of the greyhound had done their
work, and the liver had been bruised into a kind of mar-
malade—exactly in the same manner as the greyhound
usually crushes the liver of the hare or the rabbit, which,
literally speaking, are no sooner seized than dead.

In November last, when I was staying with my cousin,

I was much interested in observing the proceedings of
various kinds of poultry in a field almost contiguous to the
house. There were six or seven young guinea fowls,
ducks, hens, &c., and also a pair of old guinea fowls,
which kept always by themselves, and continued running
to and fro with that perpetual restlessness which is natural
‘to them. In the midst, however, of their wildest pro-
ceedings they always appeared to keep an eye on the
young guinea fowls, and whenever any of the other poul-
try happened to approach the spot where they were, the
old guinea fowls invariably ran with all speed and drove
them away. Two large hens alone seemed to be exempt
from this rough treatment, and to have full permission to
come near the young guinea fowls or not, just as they
liked. One of the hens, in particular, seemed to enjoy
some special privileges, and in case of any apparent
danger, there was some immediate proof of care and pro-
tection on the part of the old guinea fowls.

The above circumstances excited my curiosity, and I
obtained the following explanation:— ~~

One of these hens had hatched some guinea fowls’
eggs, but after three days had neglected to perform the
new functions incumbent on her, and had left the young
brood’to themselves, Fortunately, the other hen, which
had previously exhibited the well-known symptoms of the

fever of incubation, adopted the deserted young ones, and

had nursed them with the greatest affection till they were
able to take care of themselves. The old guinea fowls,
it appears, had observed all these circumstances, and had
retained a grateful recollection of them.

Under the roof of a small tower at my father’s house
in the country, a large number of sparrows (consulting
their own convenience, rather than that of others), had es-
tablished their nests ; but in consequence of the extensive
injury caused to the corn-fields by theiz depredations, at
harvest-time, my father, with a yiew -to Jessen, their num-

NATURE

285

ber, gave direction that all the nests should be removed,
and thus, by this wholesale order of destruction, about So
nests with 366 eggs suddenly disappeared. Their fondest
hopes being thus blighted, and the expected fruit of all their
labour nipped, as it were, in the bud, the sparrows be'ook
themselves to noisy meetings, and, in their own Way, to
expressions of anger and resentment. This procecding
continued for at least a week, after which they dispersed,
and went in search of some other less dangerous shelter
for their future progeny. In the following year some
sparrows, which had built their nests under other build-
ings of our country house, and which had been left un-
molested, returned to them; but from that time to the
present day (forty-eight years) I can safely affirm that no
sparrow has ever rebuilt her nest under the roof of the
tower. The singular facts of the case are these: the
sparrows decidedly object and decline to build any more
nests under the roof of the tower, but they are quite
willing to avail themselves of the shelter of the position
during the severe nights of the winter season,
Montpellier DR. PALADILHE

THE GROWTH OF SALMON

ee the time of Magna Charta it has been an object,

directly or indirectly, on the part of the Legislature,
to protect the supplies of salmon with which our
rivers used to be so abundantly stocked: but not vith-
standing the laws which have at various times been
enacted, this fish gradually became scarcer till, in 1861,
all the old laws were repealed, and fresh and more
stringent regulations made for protecting and increasing
our salmon supplies. In addition to the fostering care
which is bestowed, under the Salmon Fishery Acts of
1861 and 1865, on the fish in the rivers, means have been
adopted to artificially rear salmon, so as to increase
their numbers more rapidly than could be done in
the ordinary course of nature. Mr. Frank Buckland has
been the pioneer of this system of artificial breeding of
salmon and trout, and the experiments and opcrations
which have been carried on during the last few years
have thrown great light on the hitherto unknown habits
of this “ king of fish.”

Anyone who looks into the fishmongers’ shops just now
can see what a clean, fresh-run salmon, ready for cooking,
is like—a silvery, plump creature, whose “lines” are
made for speed in water, and whose graceful curves give
the completest idea of vigour and strength instemming a
rapid current of water.

But very few people, probably, know what sort of an
appearance this beautiful fish presents in its infancy.
Hidden away during that period in the upper waters of
our salmon rivers, and ultimately in the depths of the
sea, it is lost to sight till it grows large enovgh to be
taken by the salmon nets ; and until lately very little was
known of its natural history, or of its habits, though the
experience of the last few years has revealed many in-
teresting facts concerning the development of this fish,
through the egg, fry, smolt, and grilse stages, till it be-
comes a full-grown salmon,

Fig. 1 represents the egg—natural size—of a salmon
just laid. Each female salmon carries, on an average,
800 to g00 of such eggs to every pound of her weight,
They are-generally of a pinky opal colour, elastic to ‘the
touch, covered with a soft horny membrane, with a
minute opening through which a particle of the spawn~-
the soft roe—of the male fish enters, and the egg is fer-
tilised. - From this moment the young fish gradually de-
velops, under the influence of the cold running water:
At the end of about 35 days—more or less’ according to
the. temperature, which should; be about 40°—two little
black specks can-be seen, as at Fig.;2,,.whichvare the eyes
of, the. embryo) fish ; the, vertebrae »mayybe> discerned
in the form of a faint red line, and a smalkredigl

86

which shortly afterwards appears, represents the vital
organs of the embryo fish,

At the end of about 80 to 100 days from the deposition
of the egg the fish has so increased in size that it bursts
the “shell” and makes its débu¢ in the form represented
at Fig. 3. The sac or umbilical vesicle attached to the
under part of the fish contains a secretion resembling
albumen, which affords nourishment to the infant fish for
the first six weeks or so of its existence. By that time it
is quite absorbed, and for the first time we see a perfect

Fic, x. Fic. 2.
Fig, r=New-laid Salmon Egg. Fig, 2.—Egg after about 35 days.

fish, Fig. 4, with its fins, gills, and scales, which have
hitherto been present, but imperceptible except under the
microscope, fully formed: and now the young salmon
begins to feed. His growth is not very rapid for some
months, the lines a 4 ¢ representing the average length
of a salmon at 2, 3, and 4 months old. At 2 years old
the fish is about 9 to 12 inches long.

As soon as they are large enough and strong enough,
the “ smolts,” as they are now called, descend to the sea ;
here they are lost sight of until they return up the river as
srilse.” The actual duration of their stay in the sea is
not yet known, from one to three years being variously
estimated as the probable length of time. The object of
this migration to the sea is to find the food which is
necessary for the secretion of the fat of the fish, who lives
on the Znfusoria, smaller fish and crustaceans, and the
spawn of sea-fish which abound in our seas, The
length of their stay in salt-water is regulated, no doubt,
by various circumstances, and is not the same in every
case. When the salmon has laid up a sufficient supply
of fat in its body and on its pyloric appendages, which
are a wonderful provision of Nature for the secretion of
an amount of fat sufficient to supply it during its sojourn
in fresh waters, it ascends the river, its roe or spawn
developing as it ascends; till, about Christmas-time, or
sometimes earlier, it reaches the shallow headstreams of
the river, in the gravelly beds of which it deposits its
eggs, returning immediately afterwards to the sea, no

Fic. 3.—Fish coming out or egg.

longer in the bright, plump, muscular condition in which
it ascended, but a lean, lank, ugly, wounded beast, which
one would hardly recognise as Salmo salar. Fig. 5
represents the head of a “ kelt,” as those salmon are called
which haye newly spawned. The curved projection, or
hook, on the lower jaw, is a cartilaginous membrane, the use
of which nobody knows. The fish is in a very weakly con-
dition, as his fat is gone, and he perhaps assumes this
appearance, to frighten other animals, which might
otherwise be tempted to attack him. The drawing
is taken from the photograph of a salmon, weighing
20lb., which was found dead on the banks of one off our
Welsh rivers, al & Lo sertol Of

NATURE

v

Toe AS pol ee ee eter
, ‘ 7

[Axug. 7, 1873

This fish, had it survived, would have returned to sea,
recovered its fat, and presently come back worth 2/. or
3/., whereas, by dying in this condition, it was worth
nothing. It had, however, done its duty by depositing
perhaps 16,000 eggs. Only a very small percentage,
however, of the eggs laid ever become adult fish. Floods
wash them out of their gravel nests; ducks, and other
birds, eat them; beetles and ‘warious insects attack
them ; they are smothered with mud, or left high and
dry on the shore; the young fish are poisoned by pollu-

«1 P

Fic, 4.—Young Salmon six weeks old. a, 2, c, size of salmon at two, three,
and four months respectively.

tions, or diverted into mill leats and canals, and so lost ;
trout eat them wholesale; in fact the whole of their
earliest existence is a very living death, and it is a wonder,
with all the ordeals they have to pass through, that we
have any salmonleft. To kill them legitimately for food for
ourselves is bad enough, and we ought to do all we can
to protect them when young.

In the artificial system of breeding salmon the adult
fish are caught just as they are on the spawning beds, and
the eggs taken from them ; the ova and milt are properly
mixed together, and the eggs placed in troughs of water
so arranged as to imitate as closely as possible the natural
conditions necessary for the development and growth of
the fish, Properly managed, go per cent. of the eggs will
hatch out ; the young fish are turned into the river when
they are about a year old; if they can be kept two years
in tanks large enough, with plenty of running water, so

Fic. 5.—Head of a Kelt.

much the better for the prospect of their reaching the
sea in safety.

When we can make up our minds to keep all our pollu-
tions out of our rivers, and build ‘salmon ladders” over
all the weirs, so as to give the fish a fair field, and enable
them to run up stream unimpeded, then, and then only,
shall we see salmon as plentiful throughout the country
as it is said to have been in the North a century ago,
when apprentices are reputed to have stipulated in their
indentures that they should be fed on salmon not more
than three days a week. Without this all our efforts to
stock our barren rivers with artificially bred fry will prove
comparatively unavailing. C, E, FRYER

Aug. 7, 1873]

NATURE

i
"
opis
5,

287

THE GLACIAL DRIFTS OF NORTH LONDON

"TRE landscape memorials of the great glacial period
4 in Britain have hitherto been chiefly looked for by
the tourist in the northern and mountainous districts of
our island. The vast and wide-spreading products of the
same epoch which lie in the lower and more southerly
districts of England, as far as the Valley of the Thames,
have had to wait longer for their due recognition. In the
interval, the Londoner addicted to geologising has been
fain to go to Snowdonia, Borrodaile, and the Highlands
of Scotland—to the region of perched blocks and ter-
minal moraines—for memorials of the Ice Age within
our own coasts. Nor is it to be wondered at that the

districts in which glacial action on a grand and cosmical
scale was first detected in Britain, and which still afford
the more obvious monuments of the glacial period,
should so long have monopolised attention. But the time
seems now to have come for the drifts of the southern
regions to take their proper place in the gallery of glacial
phenomena.

So recently have these drifts changed their character
in the eyes of geologists that it may be worth while to
summarise their history, and indicate the conclusions
which have now been arrived at with regard to them as
well as one or two important moot points which will per-
haps remain doubtful for some time to come.

It seems only yesterday that the glacial drifts of the

GLACIAL PLATEAU
NORTH LONDON,

AND ITS HYDROGRAPHY:

he

Mill Hitt

oe ea

OF, THE

ch rn
oR EXER
he ae Z

Sas ee
Rx SX xx

East Barnet

SSS

to Enfield

ie

S scuthgate

Colney Hatch
Lunatic Asyluny

x!
Lig rnsey

Pe

\ Fast Lah
< 7

ee
Dds Crovch Ena*

Bishops Wood a Q

Fic. 1.—A, Glacial Sands and Grayels, B, Glacial Clay. Unshaded Parts—London Clay.

lower and southern districts of England were looked upon
as a mere congeries of rubbish heaps and “ diluvium ”—
chaotic and unintelligible relics of some mysterious and
partly hypothetical period. Now, however, these deposits
are no longer slighted by geologists. In the hands of one
or two earnest workers—notably Mr. Searles V. Wood,
jun.—the glacial clays, and sands, and gravels of England
are rising into the dignity of a system. The North Lon-
don glacial drifts may be taken as typical in most respects
of the great and wide-spreading deposits which are found
in the inland counties most remote from the homes of the
old British glaciers. -

The Finchley and Muswell Hill drift lying on the north-

ern heights of London overlooking the Thames Valley
occupies a position of great geological interest and signi-
ficance. Muswell Hill figures in the very early annals of
the beds which are known to be of glacial origin. In
the year 1835, Mr. N. T. Wetherell, of Highgate,
made the discovery which has given such repute to
the spot. In Coldfall Wood, just beneath the vegetable
soil, Mr. Wetherell found one of those strange medleys
which geologists were then wont to dismiss as “diluvium.”
Here, as far south as the Thames Valley, were water-
worn fragments of granite, mountain limestone, coal, red
chalk—indeed rock-specimens from all the northern
formations, with a similarly heterogeneous collection of

288

fossil remains. Agassiz had not as yet broached the great
conception of the glacial period; the diluvium reigned
supreme. Year by year more extensive patches of
fossiliferous clays and gravels were found adjacent
to Muswell Hill. From Finchley and Whetstone an
abundance of fossils proper to the chalk and oolite
formations was obtained, and whole hampers of belem-
nites were sent off to Prof. Phillips at Oxford for the
purpose of his monograph on that genus. But the drift
itself remained an isolated phenomenon. It was left to men
of the younger generation to attack a problem as worthy
of solution as the problems of Cambria and Siluria.
During the last five or six years, the Finchley and
Muswell Hill drift has excited fresh attention. The
Great Northern Branch Railway from East End to
Finchley has exposed some fine sections, and a body of
earnest field-geologists—the Geologists’ Association—has
been at hand to take advantage of the opportunities thus
afforded. In the same period Mr. Wood has published
his “Sequence of the Glacial Beds,” and the Geological
Survey a map of the superficial deposits of the district,
Lying on the hills and plateaux, the North London
drifts have a scenic interest. They form noticeable
features in the Middlesex landscapes, as may be seen in
the accompanying geological map of the district (Fig. 1).
The valleys and streams around the plateaux delineate
in an instructive manner the extent of the glacial beds,
whilst they suggest the action of those meteorological

NATURE

forces which have reduced these beds to their present
limits since their elevation above the sea.

Royston Down
(Zerzs )

Lhames Valley Brow
350 SP 507%
'

Finchley

Ficg 2.—Secticn showing the degree of submergence indicated by the upper Glacial Deposits,

Boulder Clay. c, The Purple Clay without Chalk,

where these second-hand accumulations of the Lower or |
Middle Bagshot, disturbed or redeposited, are free from
the quartzites of the glacial gravels, and exhibit an un-
mixed Eocene lineage,

Alter years of untold labour, which offer a noble
example of private enterprise in the cause of geology, Mr,
Searles V. Wood, jun., has established the succession of
the glacial beds of the east of England and the central
counties, which is here given in abstract :-—

Post-glacial Beds

I. UPPER GLACIAL—1. The purple boulder clay of
Yorkshire without chalk. 2, The purple boulder clay
with chalk. 3. Zhe Great Chalky Boulder Clay of the
South of England (e.g. at Finchley and Muswell Hill).

II, MIDDLE GLACIAL.— The Middle Glacial Sands and |
Pebbly Gravels of the South-East of England and the |

Central Counties (e.g., the Finchley and Muswell Hill
sands and pebbly gravels).

III. Lower GLACIAL.—The Contorted Drift of Nor-
folk, the Cromer Till, and the Pebbly Sands of Norfolk
and Suffolk (Upper Crag).

A few words further in explication of this sequence will
show how wide an area of England is concerned in the
zeae with which the Finchley drifts are thus corre-
ated,

+, The Ice Sheet, 4, The Ice-foot,

The deposit to which the F inchley chalk boulder clay
belongs stretches in an intermittent way from the lower

[dug. 7, 1873
: ar Se

But unlike the moraines of Snowdonia and other
mountain districts, these much older lower ground
accumulations are not, in the view of most English
glacialists, the immediate deposits of land ice. Contrary
to the beliefs of the Scotch geologists, who would regard
them as the equivalents of the Till, they are referred to
the era of the great submergence of England beneath the
glacial sea. They are the transported material of the
submarine terminal moraine. As the ice-foot retired
before the submerging sea, it left behind it the débris of
the rocks it had degraded to be transported by bergs and
rafts over the Middlesex of the future.

The glacial deposits at Finchley station, although they
conform to the general character of such beds in the
south-western counties, have certain features which may
prove to be more developed here than elsewhere, and may,
at some future time, help to connect these deposits with
their more local sources of supply. The preponderance
of the characteristic Oxford clay fossil Gryptea dilatata is
remarkable, and whilst the chalk and the Oxford clay are
the most largely represented, the formations of which the
fewest traces are found are the gault and the London
clay. Foreign blocks, transported by ice, are generally
absent from the district. Blocks of Sarsen sandstone are
not uncommon, but it is worthy of notice that they are
only found in the drift.

The vast sources of supply for the flint pebbles which
abound in the glacial gravels of the district are still repre-
sented in the small and local remainders which cap the
high ground at Totteridge, and are found at Barnet,

Lorkshire Moorlands
Basi
7500 Zo 1400 fe

Westmoreland
fells

References—-a, The Middle Glacial.

6, The Chalky
2, Floating Ice.

Thames Valley to Central Lincolnshire,
Eastern Counties of Norfolk and Suffolk to East Stafford-
shire, The Finchley sands and gravels extend (mostly
covered by the boulder clay) over nearly all the three
large counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, and are
present in Herts, Bucks, and Leicester. So there is no
insignificant number of geologists, away from the region
of the old glaciers, who may study in their own locality
the memorials of the great glacial period in England.
Inasmuch as the maps which Nature has laid down
in the ground beneath us are historical as well as physical,
this sequence introduces us to a series of consecutive
events in the earlier history of the great Glacial Period.
In the lower glacial the age of Ice begins, In the next
deposit we notice a pause in the Arctic conditions which
had prevailed. The formation of that characteristically
glacial deposit, the boulder clay, was arrested, and the
sands and gravels (middle glacial), of milder waters, took
its place. Then the Arctic conditions returned, and
brought in the chalky boulder clay, At length the higher
rocks were brought within the reach of the sea, until the
Yorkshire Wolds were submerged, and eventually the
Westmoreland fells yielded their dééris to be spread over
the sea-bottom (Fig 2). That the glacial period should
have left its memorials so far south in our island as the
valley of the Thames, was a matter of incredulity among
many geologists, even so recently as ten years since, when
Sir Charles Lyell had compelled attention to the Mus-
well Hill drift in the “ Antiquity) of _Man?’.. That the

and from the

NATURE 289

as the results of their individual experiences. With
wings there comes to the bird the power to use them.
Why, then, should we believe that because the human
infant is born without teeth, it should, when they do make
their appearance, have to discover their use? The
swallow, the first time it is in the air takes care, or rather
does not need to take care, not to dash its brains out
against a stone wall. Why, then, should we believe man
to have no instinctive faculty of interpreting his visual
sensations ? ; DOUGLAS A. SPALDING

Aug. 7, 1873]

drift of the glacial period did not once extend over
the counties south of the Thames has yet to be demon-
strated, and those geologists who hold that we have
already discovered the original southern limits of the
glacial clays and gravels in England, have yet to explain
the condition of these deposits of the north brow of the
Thames Valley, where they are as pelagic in character as
they are a hundred miles farther north,

The dwellers in the south of England havethus been com-
pensated for their distance from the bolder region of the old
British glaciers, of perched blocks, and terminal moraines.
The glacial period has now been brought home, as it
were, to their own doors. By the classification of the
glacial beds which we now possess, patches of clay and
gravel which seemed to have a sporadic and insignificant
character are seen to belong to a great and historical
series. Inthe presence of such “diluvium” as that of
Muswell Hill, with its astonishing medley of organic
remains, it needs no longer to be asked,—

‘¢ What seas receding from what former world
Consigned these tribes to stony sepulchres ?”

We know now that it was an icy sea.

BRITISH ARCHAOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

HE annual meeting of this Institute commenced at

Exeter on Tuesday, July 29, the President for the
year being the arl of Devon. Many valuable papers
were read, and many interesting excursions made in the
neighbourhood ; the reception by the Mayor, the local
authorities, and the inhabitants generally, has been most
enthusiastic. The Congress was brought to a close on
Tuesday last, and is declared to have been the most
successful meeting of the kind ever held. Of the many
valuable papers read we give the following by Dr.
E. A. Freeman, on “The Place of Exeter in English
History.”

He remarked that it sometimes came into the
mind of an English traveller in other lands that the
cities of his own country must seem of small account
in the eyes of a traveller from the land which he
visited. He spoke of course as an antiquary and not
of modern prosperity and splendour. As a rule an
English town did not make the same impression as an
artistic and antiquarian object as did towns of Italy,
Germany, Burgundy, France, or Aquitaine But whilst
we had few cities as rich at once in history and art as
many of those on the Continent, yet we need not grieve ;
for whatever was taken from particular districts was
added to the general history of our country. Why was the
history of Nuremburg greater than that of Exeter?
Simply because the history of England was greater than
that of Germany, The domestic history of an English
town which had always been content to be a municipality,
and had never aspired to be a sovereign commonwealth,
seemed tame beside the stirring annals of the free cities
of Italy and Germany. But for that especial reason it had
a value of its own, it had not struggled for the greatness
of its own, but it had done its work as part of a greater
whole—it had played its part in building up a nation.
And the comparison beween the lowly English munici-
pality and the proud Italian or German commonwealth
had also an interest of another kind, The difference
between the two was simply the difference implied in the
absence of political independence in the one case and its
presence in the other. The difference was purely external
~_the internal constitution—history and revolutions—often
presenting the most striking analogies. In both might
often be seen the change from democracy to oligarchy, and
from oligarchy to democracy. In both they might see
men who, in old Greece, would have taken their places as
demagogues, perhaps tyrants. Exeter had something to
tell of Earl and Countess of Devon ; Bristol of its half-
citizens, half tyrants, the Lords of Berkeley. In the free
cities of the Continent we saw what English cities might
have been if the royal power in England had been no
stronger than that of the Emperors, and if England had
therefore split up into separate states like Germany, Italy,
and Gaul. In England the constant tendency had been
to unity and to make every local power subordinate to
that of the king, and it was this that had made the
difference between a municipality like Exeter and a
commonwealth like Florence. In Exeter reflections of
this kind had a special fitness. No city in England had
a history which came so near to that of the great conti-

HENRY WALKER

o

FLIGHT NOT AN ACQUISITION

A FEW weeks ago, when at Ravenscroft (the residence

of Lord Amberley), I shut up five unfledged
swallows in a small box not much larger than the nest
from which they were taken. The little box, which had a
wire front, was hung on the wall nearthe nest, and the
young swallows were fed by their parents through the
wires. In this confinement, where they could not even
extend their wings, they were kept until after they were fully
fledged. I was not at Ravenscroft when the birds were libe-
rated, but the following observations were made by Lord
and Lady Amberley, who have kindly communicated them
tome. On going to set the prisoners free, one was found
dead—they were all alive on the previous day. The re-
maining four were allowed to escape one ata time. Two
of these were perceptibly wavering and unsteady in their
flight. One of them after a flight of about 90 yards dis-
appeared among some trees; the other, which flew more
steadily, made a sweeping circuit in the air after the
manner of its kind, and alighted, or attempted to alight,
on abranchless stump of a beech ; at least it was no more
seen. I give the unabridged account of No. 3 and of
No. 4 as it stands in the notes made at the time by Lady
Amberley. “No. 3 (which was seen on the wing for about
half-a-minute), flew near the ground first round Welling-
tonia, over to the other side of kitchen garden,’ past bee-
house, back to the lawn, round again, and into a beech
tree. No. 4 flew well near the ground, over a hedge
twelve feet high to the kitchen garden, through an open-
ing into the beeches, and was last seen close to the
ground.” ‘The following remarks were added _subse-
quently : “The swallows never flew against anything, nor
was there in their avoiding objects any appreciable dif-
ference between them and old birds. No, 3 swept round
the Wellingtonia, and No. 4 rose over the hedge just as
we see the old swallows doing every hour of the day.”
It remains to add that each of these birds was weighted
with a small collar of coloured cloth, put on for the pur-
pose of marking them ; and that an old swallow on being
set free encumbered by a similar adornment, exhibited
the same unsteadiness in its flight.

There is little need to make any remark on the above
facts. In proving the flight of birds, and their power of
guiding their course through the air in accordance with
their sensations of sight, not to be an acquisition, they
support the general doctrine that. all of what may be
called the professional knowledge and skill of the various
species of animal$ come to them by intuition, and not

a

2g0

nental cities; none could boast of a longer unbroken
existence nor was so directa link between the earliest and
the latest days of the history of our island, None had in
all ages more steadily kept the character of a local
capital, ‘the undisputed head and centre of a great
district. And none had come so near to being some-
thing more than a loca] capital, none had had so fair
a chance as Exeter of once becoming an independent
commonwealth, the head of a confederation of smaller
boroughs, perhaps the mistress of dependent towns and
subject districts. 5
form that he might congratulate the Institute on finding

themselves at last within the walls of the great city of

Western England. They had been to many other places, to
York, Lincoln, and Chester, and if Exeter must yield to
these in the wealth of actually surviving monuments, it
assuredly did not yield to any of them in the historic
interest of its long annals.
interest of its own in which it stood alone amongst the

cities of England ; she was among cities what Glastonbury

was among churches, it was one of the few ties which

directly bound the Englishman to the Roman and the

Briton, It was the great trophy of that stage of English

conquest when our forefathers, weaned from the fierce

creed of Woden and Thunder, deemed it enough to
conquer and no longer sought to destroy.

Exeter, Isca, Caer Wisc was a city of the same class as
Bourges and Chartres. Here was what was found commonly
in Gaul but rarely in Britain—the Celtic hill-fort which had
grown into the Roman city, which had lived on through
‘Teutonic conquest, and which still, after all changes, kept
its place as the undoubted head of its own district. In
Wessex such a history was unique; in all Southern
England London was the only—and that but an imperfect

—parallel. The name carried on thesame lesson which was
taught by the site. Caer Wisc had never lost its name,
It had been Latinised into Isca, Teutonised into Exancester,

and cut short into modern Exeter, but through all con-
quests, through all changes of language, it had proclaimed
In this respect the con-
tinuity of its being had been more perfect than that of
The name and the
site of Exeter at once distinguished it from most of the

itself as the city by the Exe,
most of the cities of Northern Gaul.

ordinary classes of English towns. . . .

‘The first question which now suggests itself was one which
he could not answer—when did the city first become a West
Saxon possession? When did the British Caer-Wisca,
the Roman Isca, pass into the English Exancaster?
that he could find no date—no trustworthy mention. The
first distinct and undoubted mention of the city he could
find was in the days of Alfred, where it figured as an
English fortress of great importance, more than once
taken and retaken by the great king and his Danish
enemies. He was as little able to fix the date of the
English conquest of Isca as he was to fix that of its
original foundation by the Britons. John Shillingford
said that Exeter was a walled city before the incarnation
of Christ, and though it was not likely to have been a
walled city in any sense that would satisfy either a modern
or Roman engineer, yet it was likely enough to have been
already a fortified port before Czesar landed in Britain.
At all events the first definite mention of it was in the
time of the wars of Alfred. But though it was English
by allegiance, it was not until two centuries later that it
became wholly English in blood and speech. In Athel-
stan’s day the city was still partly Welsh, partly English,
each forming a city within a city. To this state of things
Athelstan deemed it right to put a stop and to put the
Supremacy in the chief city of the western peninsula
beyond a doubt. Exeter was a port which needed to be

“Strongly fortified, and to be in the hands of none but

what were thoroughly trustworthy, The British inhabi-
tants were driven out, and to the confusion of those who
say Englishmen could not put stones and mortar together

NATURE

It was not then with mere words of

It had, in truth, peculiar

Of

| Aug. 7, 1873

until a hundred and forty years later, the city was
encircled by a wall of square stones and strengthened by
towers, marking a fourth stage in the history of English
fortification. If anyone asked him where the wall of
Ethelstan was now he could only say that a later visitor
to Exeter took care that there should not be much of it
left for them to see. Still there were some small frag-
ments, but suppose not a stone was left, yet as he under-
stood evidence, the fact that a thing was recorded to have
been destroyed was one of the best proofs that it once
existed. The distinguishing point in this stage of the
history of Exeter was this, that it alone of the great cities
of Britain did not fall into the hands of the English
invaders till after the horrors of conquest had been
softened by the influence of Christianity. When Caer
Wisc became an English possession there was no fear
that any West Saxon prince should deal with it as Ethel-
frith had dealt by Deva. When Isca was taken the West
Saxons had ceased to be destroyers, and deemed it
enough to be conquerors, Thus it was that Exeter stood
alone as the one great English city which had lived an
ae ie life from pre-English and even from pre-Roman
ays.

Whatever was the exact date when it became
an English possession, it was with the driving out of
the Welsh inhabitants under Ethelstan that it became
purely English, As such it filled during the whole
of the tenth and eleventh centuries a prominent place
among the cities of England and a place altogether
without a rival among the cities of its own part of
the country, Later in the century the fortress by the
Exe was the chief bulwark of Western England during the
renewed Danish invasions of the reign of Ethelred. It was
a spirit-stirring tale to read how the second millennium
of the Christian era was ushered in by the record which
told how the heathen host sailed up the Exe and strove to
break down the wall which guarded the city, how the
burghers bore up against every onslaught, and how they
withstood the invaders. Exeter was saved, but the
unready King had no help or reward for the men who
saved it, and the local force of Devon and Somerset had to
strive how they could against the full might of the invader,
and the devastation of the land around followed at once
upon the successful defence of the city. In the next

year Exeter became part of the “Morning gift” of the _

Norman Lady, and Hugh, “The French Churl,” as our
chroniclers call him, was sent by his foreign mistress to
command in an English city, and through his cowardice
or treason Sweyn was able to break down and spoil the
city. It was not clear whether all the walls were broken
down then, but it was quite certain that sixty years after-
wards, Exeter was strongly fortified according to the
best military art,

After the city’s capture by Sweyn nothing more
was heard of it during the Danish wars, and the
only further knowledge of it between the Danish and
Norman invasions consisted of the foundation of the
bishopric, and this was accompanied by several circum-
stances which marked it as an event belonging to an age
of transition. It was among the last instances of one set
of tendencies, among the earliest instances of another.
The reign of Edward the Confessor was the last time
(excepting the reign of Edward the Sixth) when two
English bishoprics were joined together without a new one
being formed to keep up the number. It had happened
more than once in earlier times ; it happened twice under
Edward when the bishoprics of Devonshire and Corn-
wall were united, and those of Dorset and Wiltshire.
But this also was the first instance of a movement
for bringing into England the continental rule that the
bishopric should be placed in the greatest city of the
diocese.

The great ecclesiastical change of the eleventh cen-
tury had carried him on beyond the*great time which

NATURE

2901

Aug. 7, 1873]

er out above all others in the history of Exeter, when
ey might say that for eighteen days Exeter was England.
The tale of the great siege he had told elsewhere in full
detail, and he would not tell it again now, but the story of
the resistance of the western lands and their capital to the
full power of the Conqueror, was one that never ought to
pass away from the memories of Englishmen. The bravery
of the inhabitants formed a tale which, even in that stirring
time, spoke more than any other—save the tale of the
great battle itself—to the hearts of all who loved to bear
in mind how long and hard a work it was to make England
yield to her foreign master. But whilst our hearts beat
with those of the defenders of Exeter, yet we saw none the
less now that it was for the good of England that Exeter
fell. A question was here decided, greater than that
whether Harold, Edgar, or William should reiga—the
question whether England should be one. When Exeter
stood forward for onc moment to claim the rank of a free,
imperial city, and her rulers expressed themselves willing
to receive William as an external lord, but refused to admit
him within her walls as her immediate sovereign, they saw
that the tendency was at work ia England by which the
kingdom of the continent was split up into loose collections
of independent cities and principalities, and the path was
opening by which Exeter might have come to be another
Lubeck, the head of a Damonian house, another Bern,
the mistress of the subject lands of the Western Penin-
sula. Such a dream might sound wild in our ears,
and we might be sure that no such ideas were present
in any such definite shape to the minds of the defenders
of Exeter. But any such designs were probably just
as little known to the minds of those who in any German
or Italian city took the first steps in the course by which
from a municipality, or less, the city grew into a sovereign
commonwealth. Historically, the separate defence of
Exeter was simply an instance of the way in which, after
Harold was gone, England was conquered bit by bit.
York never dreamed of helping Exeter, and Exeter, if it
had the wish, had not the power to help York. But
it was none the less true when we saw a confederation
of western towns, with the great city of the district at
their head, suddenly starting into life to check the progress
of the Conqueror—we saw that a spirit had been kindled
which, had it not been checked at once, might have
grown into something, of which those who manned the
walls of Exeter assuredly never thought. We could
hardly mourn that such a tendency was stopped even by
the arm of a foreign conqueror. We could hardly mourn
that the greatness of Exeter was not purchased at the
cost of the greatness of England. But it was worth
while to stop and think how near England once was to
running the same course as other lands. From the sacri-
fice of the general welfare of the whole to the greater
brilliance of particular members of the whole, we had
been saved by a variety of causes, and not the least of
them by the personal character of a series of great kings
working in the cause of national unity, from West Saxon
Egbert to Norman William. The tendency of the
patriotic movements in William’s reign was to division ;
the tendency of William’s own rule was to union. The
aims of the Exeter patricians could not have been long
reconciled with the aims of the sons of Harold, nor could
the aims of either have been reconciled for a moment
with those of the partisans of the Etheling Edgar, or of
the Danish Sweyn. We sympathised with the defenders
of Exeter, York, Ely, and Durham, but from the moment
England lost the one man of her own sons who was fit
to guide her, her best fate in the long run was to pass as
-an individual kingdom into the hands of the victorious
rival.

With the subjection of Exeter by William might fairly
be ended the tale of the place of Exeter in English
history. It was then settled for Exeter that she was

-to be an English city—no separate commonwealth—a

member of the individual English kingdom, but still
a city that was to remain the undisputed head of its
own district. Its history from this time was less
the history of Exeter than the history of those events
in English history that took place at Exeter, It
still had its municipal, ecclesiastical, its commercial
history, but no longer a separate political being of its
own. It was no longer an object to be striven for by men
of contending nations, nor something that might be cut
off from the English realm either by the success of a
foreign conqueror or the independence of its own citizens.

In the other sense of the word, as pointing out those
events of English history of which Exeter was the scene,
the place of Exeter in English history was one which
yielded to that of no other city in the land save London
itself. It was with a true instinct that the two men who
open the two great eras in local history—English Ethel-
stan and Norman William—both gave such special heed
to the military defences of the city. No city in England
had stood more sieges. It stood one, and perhaps two
more, before William's own reign was ended—indeed
before William had brought the conquest of the whole
land to an end by the taking of Chester. The men of
Exeter had withstood William as long as he came before
them as a foreign invader ; when his power was once fully
established, when the Castle on the Red Mount held
down the city in fetters, they seemed to have had no
inclination to join in hopeless insurrections against him.
When, a yearand ahalf after the great siege, the Castle
was again besieged by West Saxon insurgents, the citizens
seemed to have joined the Norman garrison in resisting
the attack. According to one account they had already
done the like to the sons of Harold and their Irish
auxiliaries. The wars of Stephen did not pass without a
siege of Exeter, in which king and citizens joined to be-
siege the rebellious lord of Rougemont, and at last to
starve him within the towers of which legend was
already beginning to speak as the work of the Czesars,

To pass to later times, the Tudor era saw two
sieges of the city, one at the hands of a pretender to
the crown, and another at the hands of the religious
insurgents of the further West. Twice again in the wars
of the next century Exeter passed from the one side to the
other by dint of siege, and at the last she received an in-
vader at whose coming no siege was needed. The entry
of William the Deliverer through the Western Gate
formed the balance—the contrast—to the entry of
William the Conqueror through the Eastern Gate. The
city had resisted to the utmost when a foreign invader,
under the guise of an English king, came to demand her
obedience. But no eighteen days’ siege, no blinded host-
ages, no undermined ramparts were needed when a kins-
man and a deliverer came under the guise of a foreign
invader. In the army of William of Normandy Eng-
lishmen were pressed to complete the conquest of Eng-
land, but in the army of William of Orange, strangers
came to awake her sons to begin the work of her deliver-
ance. In the person of the earlier William the Crown of
England passed away for the first time to a king wholly
alien in speech and feeling; in the later William it in
truth came back to one who was even in mere descent,
and yet more fully in his native land and native speech,
nearer than all that came between them to the old stock
of Hengist and Cedric. The one was the first king who
reigned over England purely by the edge of the sword,
the other the last king who reigned over England purely,
by the choice of the nation. The coming of each of
the men who entered Exeter in such opposite characters
marked an era in our history. The unwilling greeting
which Exeter gave to the one William and the willing
greeting which she gave to the other, marked the wide
difference in the external aspect of the two revolutions,
And yet both revolutions had worked for the same end ;
the great actors in both were, however unwittingly

292

NATURE

[Aug. 7, 1873

fellow workers in the same cause. It was no small
place in English history which belonged to the city whose
name stood out in so marked a way in the tale alike of
the revolution of the eleventh and the seventeenth cen-
turies. It was no small matter, as we drew near by the
western bridge or the eastern isthmus, as we passed where
once stood the eastern and the western gates, as we trod
the line of the old Roman streets, to think that we were
following the march of the Conqueror and the Deliverer ;
it was no small matter, as we entered the minster of
Leofric, Warlewast, and Grandison, to think that the Zz
Deum was there sung alike for the overthrow of English
freedom and for its recovery. It was no mean lesson if we
had to connect with the remembrances of this ancient city
—among so many associations of British, Roman, and
English days—the thought that rose above all the rest, the
thought that there was no city in the land whose name
marked a greater stage in the history of the Conquest of
England, that there was none whose name marked a
greater stage in the history of her deliverances.

NOTES

FOREIGN honours have been recently falling in showers on
the heads of English scientific men. Not long ago the Emperor
of Brazil nominated as Knights of the Imperial Order of the
Rose, the following gentlemen :—Sir G, ‘B. Airy, Dr. Warren
De La Rue, Dr. Birch, Prof. Abel, Major Moncrieff, Capt.
Andrew Noble, and Mr. J. Norman Leckyer. The other day,
King Oscar II. of Sweden, at his coronation at Stockholm,
marked his appreciation of the services rendered by science by
conferring distinctions on several men of learning, both Swedes
and foreigners. Among the latter were the following eminent
scientific men of this country :—Sir Charles Lyell and Sir George
B. Airy, named Commanders of the First Class of the Order of
the Polar Star ; and Professor John Tyndal, Professor Thomas
Henry Huxley, and the|Director of the Botanical Gardens at
Kew (Dr. Joseph Daiton Hooker), named Knights of the same
Order.

We understand that one of the evening discourses at the
meeting of the British Association next month will be delivered
by Prof. W. C. Williamson, of Manchester, on ‘‘Coal and
Coal Plants.” It is also hoped that Prof. Clerk-Maxwell will
deliver a discourse on ‘‘ Molecules.” Several papers on subjects
of local interest have also been promised. The following is a
list of the vice-presidents and other officers of the Association,
the president-elect, as we have already announced, being Prof.
A. W, Williamson, F.R.S, :—Vice-Presidents elect : the Earl
of Rosse, F.R.S. ; Lord Houghton, F.R.S.; W. E. Forster,
M.P. ; the Mayor of Bradford ; J. P. Gassiot, F.R.S.; Prof.
Phillips, F.R,S. ; John Hawkshaw, F.R.S. Local Secretaries
for the meeting at Bradford: the Rev. J. R. Campbell, D.D. ;
Mr. R. Goddard ; Mr. Piele Thompson. Local Treasurer for the
meeting at Bradford; Mr, Alfred Harris, jun, General Secre-
taries; Capt. Douglas Galton, C.B. R.E, F.R.S., Dr, Michael
Foster, F.R.S., Trinity College, Cambridge. Assistant General
Secretary : George Griffiths, M.A. General Treasurer: William
Spottiswoode, F.R.S. Auditors : John Ball, F.R.S.; J. Gwyn
Jeffreys, F.R.S. ; Colonel Lane Fox, F.G.S. Thesections are the
ollowing :—A, Mathematical and Physical Science. —President :
Prof. Henry J. Stephen Smith, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents : Prof.
Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., and Prof. Henrici. Secretaries : Prof.
W. K. Clifford, M.A.; J. W. UL, Glaisher, Prof. A. S.
Herschel, and Prof. Forbes, B, Chemical Science.—President :
Dr. W. J. Russell, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents: Prof. Roscoe
and I. Lowthian Bell. .Secretaries : W. Chandler Roberts, F.C.S.;
Dr, Armstrong; and Prof. Thorpe. C, Geology.— President :
Prof. Phillips, D,C.L, Vice-President; W. Pengelly

Secretaries: Louis’ C. Miall; William Topley, F.G.S. ;
R. Tiddeman, OD, Biology.—Vice-Presidents: Dr. Beddoe
and Prof. Rutherford, M.D. Department of Zoology and
Botany.—Secretaries: Prof. Thiselton-Dyer and Prof. Lawson, -
Department of Anatomy and Physiology.—Secretaries : E. Ray
Lankester and Dr, Pye-Smith. Department of Anthropology. —
Secretaries: F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., and J. H. Lamprey. E,
Geography.—President: Sir Rutherford Alcock. Vice-Presi-
dents : Major-Gen. Sir Henry Rawlinson and John Ball. Secre-
taries: H. W. Bates, F.R.G.S. ; Keith Johnston, F.R.G.S.; and
Clements R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S. F, Economic Science
and Statistics. —President : Mr. W. E. Forster, M.P. Vice-Presi-
dents: Dr. Farr; Lord Houghton, F.R.S. ; E. Baines, M.P.
Secretary: J. G. Fitch, M.A. G, Mechanical Science.—Pre-
sident: W. Froude, LL.D. Vice-President: A. Bessemer,
Secretaries : H. M. Brunel ; J. N. Shoolbred ; H. Bauerman.

On Tuesday the forty-first annual meeting of the British
Medical Association was opened in King’s College, London, the
large hall of which was crowded on the occasion of the general as-
sembly, at 3 o’clock. The General Meeting was presided over by
Mr. A. Baker, surgeon to the General Hospital, Birmingham, and
president of the Association. Afte: the retiring president had ad-
dressed the meeting, Sir W. Fergusson took the chair as president
of the Association for the coming year, and read an address of
considerable length. It was difficult in the present time, he said,
for a president of an association like that to find a suitable sub-
ject for an address, as, whatever topic he started with he was
immediately surrounded with so many specialists, who of course
knew everything better than himself, that he did not know
where to stand. The president then entered at much length on
the subject of the valley of the Thames and the importance of
pure water ina hygienic sense. He suggested that, without having
recourse to the expensive process of going to the lakes of Cumber-
land and Westmoreland for a supply of pure water, there were
many streams and rivulets and water sheds where the waters
could be confined in lake above lake, and utilised for the supply
cf London and the large towns. In the evening the Lord and
Lady Mayoress held a reception at the Mansion House, which
was attended principally by medical gentlemen and their wives
and daughters. More than 3,000 were received during the
evening,

Amonc the distinguished foreigners now attending the meet-
ing of the British Medical Association in London, may be men-
tioned—Professors Virchow, Oscar Liebreich, and Baron von
Langenbeck, of Berlin; Prof. Busch, of Bonn ; Prof, Marey, of
Paris ; Prof, Chauveau, of Lyons: Prof, Spiegelberg, of Bres-
lau; Prof. Lazarewitch, of Charkow ; and Dr, Fordyce Barker,
of New York,

ON Monday, the annual meeting of the Cambrian Arche-
ological Association was opened at Knighton, Radnorshire.
This Association was established some thirty years ago for the
purpose of investigating and preserving the objects of antiquity
which abound in the Principality. The first Congress was held
at Aberystwith, and the present is the 28th of the series. The
President for the past year was Sir J. Russell Bailey, M.P., and
the President-elect is the Hon. A. Walsh. The week’s programme
opened on Tuesday night with the annual meeting and reception
of report, after which the President for the year, SirJ. R. Bailey,
was to resign the chair to his successor, the Hon. A, Walsh, who
was to deliver the inaugural address, The rest of the week will be
occupied with excursions, and meetings for the reading of papers.

Mr. G, KiTcHENER has been elected to the headmastership of
the High School, Newcastle-under-Lyne, Staffordshire, in the
middle of the Potteries. It is to be the first ‘‘ First Grade”
established as a semi-classical school (7.2 without Greek in the

Aug. 7, 1873]

ordinary school course). The time thus made available, will
enable more attention to be given to Mathematics and Science.
The scheme directs that Chemistry and Design should be spe-
cially taught, with a view to the Potter’s art. The school is to be
opened in the spring of 1875.

Ir has long been familiar to geologists that the western and
southern coast-line of Scotland is pierced with caves at different
levels, indicating former successive levels at which the sea waves
worked. Unfortunately, owing to the want of limestone or very
calcareous rocks, these caves as arule present none of that stalag-
mite deposit which has elsewhere served so abundantly to cover
over and preserve the remains of the ancient denizens of our
country with traces of the presence of man himself. The caves
usually open directly upon the coast, with free exposure to the
air, so that their floors show nothing but damp boulders and
pools of water from the drip of the roof. Recently, however,
a remarkable exception to these ordinary conditions has been
observed on the wild cliff line to}the south-west/of the bay of
Kirkcudbright ; the Silurian greywacke is there traversed with
strings and veins of calcite along lines of joint and fracture, and
at one point where an old sea cave occurs, the walls and floor
at the cave mouth, and for a few yards inwards, have a coat-
ing of solid calcareous matter. Beneath’this coating in the
substance of the breccia, which extends across the cave mouth,
as well as throughout the cave earth behind the breccia, a great
quantity of bones, with traces of human ‘occupation, has been
found. A systematic investigation of the cave, commenced last
autumn, is being carried on under the direction of Mr. A. J.
Corrie and Mr. W. Bruce-Clarke, the discoverers of the osseous
layer. At the present time the following, among other remains,
have been noted: bones of ox, red-deer, goat, horse, pig, pine-
marten, rabbit, watermole, and other small rodents, together
with numerous remains of birds, and a few frog and fish bones.
Intermingled with these occur fragments of bronze, bone needles,
and other bone implements, to the number of more than twenty.
One piece of worked stone (a fragment of greywacke) has been
found, but as yet not a single chip of flint. A full account of
the cave will be published as ‘soon as the investigations are
completed.

A CONFERENCE of the City Companies, under the presidency
of his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, was held at Marl-
borough House, on Monday, July 21, with the view of discussing
how technical education might be promoted by those companies
acting in concert with the International Exhibition. It was
unanimously agreed that the City Companies should give theiy
best support to the object which the meeting had in view,
and Mr. Cole, C.B., explained that the Commissioners had de-
termined that, during the months of August, September, and
October, schools should be admitted to the Exhibition by ticket,
at three-pence each scholar, and that, during the month of
August at least, frequent lectures each day would be given on
the various subjects and processes exhibited. He suggested that
the City Companies, in addition to sending their own schools to
attend these lectures, might’purchase tickets, and place them at
the disposal of the London School Board, to enable them to
award them as prizes. Such tickets might also be distributed
among other public schools.

AT a meeting held at Grosvenor House on July 17, a Pro-
visionaland an Executive Committee were formed for the esta-
blishment of a National Training School for Cookery in connec-
tion with South Kensington. The Committee of Management
ofthe Lectures on Cookery at the International Exhibition have
been urged to take this step from the comparatively great success
monetarily and otherwise, of these lectures, The meeting agreed
that the Executive Committee of the present School for Cookery
be an Executive Committee to prepare a scheme and issue the

NATURE 293

same. The meeting also agreed to the following resolutions :—
1. That the establishment of a Training School for Cookery, to
be in alliance with the School Boards and Training Schools
throughout the country, is most desirable at the present time.
2. That the aim of the proposed school should be to teach the
best methods of cooking articles of food in general consumption
among all classes. 3. That an Association should be formed
with ‘the intention of making the School self-supporting. 4.
That it would be prudent to secure a capital, say 5,000/., which
might be raised by means of donations giving the privilege of
nominating students in the School, as well as by means of a
guarantee fund ; it is estimated that an expenditure of about
1,000/, would be required to fit upa practical school or laboratory.
The Provisional Committee, containing several Royal and noble
names, were authorised to take the necessary measures to esta-
blish the school by means of shares, donations, and guarantees,
Assuming the necessary capital to be provided—and we hope
there will be no difficulty nor delay in doing so—the Executive
Committee hope that they may be able, before the end of the
year, to establish courses of practical instruction im the kitchen,
as well as lectures. Arrangements will be made se that courses
may be severally attended by pupil-teachers in training for public
education, by domestic servants, and by ladies. The experi-
ment of this school will be first tried in London, and if it suc-
ceeds, similar schools will be established in the large towns.
We sincerely hope such a laudable scheme will meet with per-
fect success. All communications on the subject of the school
should be addressed to the Secretary (fro tem.) of the school,
Annual International Exhibitions, Kensington Gore, London,
S.W.

ARRANGEMENTS have been made with Mr. P. Simmonds for
the delivery each day of six short lectures on the industries illus-
trated in this year’s International Exhibition. These lectures will
be commenced on Saturday next.

ON Saturday a deputation from the Trades’ Guild of Learning

which was formed for the promotion of technical education in
the various trades and industries of the United Kingdom, waited
upon the Marquis of Ripon at the Privy Council Office, with
a view of urging upon the Government the desirability of taking
further steps to promote a higher technical ecucation. The
deputation included Sir A. Brady, Mr. H. Solly, and others,
Sir A. Brady said what the working-men wanted was not money
but a fair start. They felt that enough had not been done in
utilising the resources of the South Kensington Museum. The
Chancellor of the Exchequer had acted very penuriously in the
matter. One way in which they could be assisted was by the
establishment of a class of instructed teachers and the attaching
art schools to the museums. The Rev. Mr. Solly said that the
great body of the intelligent artisans, who were largely represented
on the council, found that the benefit of the services they re-
ceived from the Educational Department almost wholly failed
to reach themselves. This failure arose principally from the
following causes :—First, because the sources of information
were not readily accessible as to what the Department really
aimed at with a view to asslst them. Secondly, the workmen
in the East-end of London found the cost of the journey to the
South Kensington Museum to be too great in time and money,
and therefore they desired that two or three other well-furnished
museums should be established in other parts of the metropolis.
The next point was that the Department should not only assist
classes which had made some progress, but classes in their inci-
pient stages, and which required nursing. The last and most
important point of all was, that however able the Government
teachers were to instruct in Science and Art, they were not able
to give that practical instruction in any trade which the work-
man might pre-eminently need and desire. The apprenticeship
system had practically broken down, The Marquis of Ripon

294
said that if Mr. Solly’s paper were sent in it should receive
careful consideration, é

NoTWITHSTANDING the yast importance of St. Paul’s Cathe-
dral and the impossibility of making up for its loss were it
destroyed, until recently it was in imminent danger of being
shattered by every thunderstorm that passed over it, The
lightning-rods that were supplied to it 120 years ago have long
been utterly useless, and from its position, size, and certain
peculiarities of structure, the noble building formed a tempting
object of attraction to the destructive stroke of lightning. Hap-
pily, we learn from the Zilegraphic Journal, this is no longer the
case. Theauthorities, dissatisfied with the electrical state of the
building, upon the report of Mr, John Faulkner, Associate of
the Society of Telegraph Engineers, of Manchester, commis-
sioned him to prepare a plan for the fitting of the cathedral with
an eflicient system of conductors. The plan submitted was
approved, and the fitting is now completed. In metallic con-
nection with cross and ball and scrolls are eight copper con-
ductors, each being a 4-inch strand of copper wires. The
octagonal strand has been adopted as giving most metal in
the least space. These eight conductors then pass to the
metallic railing of the Golden Gallery, with which they are in
metallic connection. Thence they are carried down to the

dome, to the metallic surface of which they are again connected |

at several portions of their length. Then down the rain-falls,
over the leaden roofs of the aisles, in the angles formed by the
aisles themselves, again down the rain-falls to the sewers.
Further, the choir and nave roofs are connected together by a
saddle or conductor stretching over them both, and joined to
the conductors proceeding from the summit of the west towers,
Even this did not satisfy the zealous care of Mr. Faulkner, who
tes'ed, sheet by sheet, the electrical condition of the leads, con-
necting the worse insulated sheets by copper bands to the better
conducting surfaces. Thus the dome, aisle-roofs, and ball and
cross, and the two west towers, form one immense metallic con-
ductor, and the danger arising from interior gas-piping is
remoyed ; for Coulomb and Faraday haye proved beyond doubt
that electricity accumulates upon the surface only of bodies. In
the sewers, Which always afford a moist earth connection, the
copper strands are riveted to copper plates, and these again are
pegged into the earth. By this means as good an earth con-
nection is obtained at the top of the cross, at the very summit
of the Cathedral, as is found in the sewers at its base,

THE Examinations in the Crystal Palace School of Practical
Engineering, for the Easter term, commenced last Saturday,
and will close on Friday, August 9th. The Autumn Term will
commence on Monday, September 8, The Principal will
attend in the school from ro till 4 each day, from Saturday,
August 2nd, to Friday, the 8th, to pass Candidates for ad-
mission,

AN earthquake occurred at Jamaica at 0°30 A.M. on July 1,
which created much alarm, It lasted nearly five seconds.

Amonc Mr. Murray’s announcements of forthcoming works
are—*‘ Personal Recollections, from Early Life to Old Age,”
by Mary Somerville; ‘‘ The Geography of India, Ancient and
Modern,” by Colonel Yule, C.B.; ‘The Naturalist in Ni-
caragua,” by Thomas Belt, F.G.S.; and a popular edition
of Mr, H. W. Bates’s “ The River Amazons,”

A NEw and cheap edition of Mr. James B, Jordan’s ‘‘Ele-
mentary Crystallography ” has been published by Mr. Murby as
one of his series of science manuals. To any one commencing
the study of crystalldgraphy this manual wiil be very useful,
especially as appended to the letterpress is a series of carefully
drawn nets for the construction of models illustrative of the
simple crystalline forms,

NATURE
Ger el se

[Aug. 7, 1873

THE report of the annual meeting of the Perthshire Society of
Natural Science shows that Society to be in a prosperous and
good working condition. The number of members is large,
and among them is a fair proportion of workers. We are
glad to see that excursions haye been started, and hope they
will be continued ; no richer field, we are sure, than the County
of Perth, especially for Botany, exists in this country. The
Society, under the energetic management of Dr. Buchanan
White, of Dunkeld, is publishing a Fauna and Flora of Perth-
shire, and it is under its auspices the Sco/fish Naturalist is
brought out. During the last summer Mr. J. Allen Harper
turned out, for the purpose of acclimatisation, about 7,000 living
specimens of the following molluscs : Aelix zirgata, H. pisana,
and Bulimus accutus. The annual address of the president,
Co]. Drummond Hay, occupies the greater part of the report,
and gives many interesting details concerning the birds of Perth-
shile. The Society has entered on the seventh year of its
existence, .

THE following are the chief additions to the Brighton Aqua-
rium during the past week :—4 Corkwing Wrasse (Crenilabrus
melops) ; 7 Pogge (Agonus cataphractus) 3 1,000 Prawns (Pa/e-
mon serratus) ; several groups of Serpula contortuplicata and
Alcyonium digitatum, Four young rough-hounds (Scy//inm cania
cula) have been hatched from eggs laid during the last week in
January. The period of their development in ovo is therefore
six months. A large number of young Squid (Loliga vulgaris)
haye also been hatched from spawn brought in by fishermen,

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week include an Ocelot (/v/is pardalis) from America, pre-
sented by Mr, A. B. Keymer and Mr. C. C. Lovesy ; a Togue
Monkey (AZacacus pileatus) from Ceylon, presented by the Ser-
geants of the Ist Batt. Scots Fusiliers ; a grey Ichneumon (Hers
estes griseus) from India, presented by Mr. G. S. Daintry ; a
starred Tortoise ( Zzstudo stellata) from India, presented by Capt.
C. S. Sturt ; two lesser black-backed Gulls (Larus Juscus), pre-
sented by Mr. C. W. Wood ; two crested Pigeons (Ocyphaps
/ophotes), hatched in the Gardens ; a Hoffmann’s Sloth (Cholopus
hoffmanni) from Panama, and a black-eared Marmoset (Hepale
jacchus) deposited.

METEOROLOGY IN HAVANNA *

/ T° judge from the pamphlets mentioned below, the prac-

tical study of Meteorology seems to be pursued at the
Cuba Observatory with diligence and a harvest of good results.
The care and skill with which they are compiled must lead to
the conclusion that science will receive very valuable aid both in
meteorological and magnetic research from this station of the
West Indies.

The observatory is situated at a height of 19 ‘297 metres above
the sea level, in N, lat. 23°8' 145, its longitude being 76° 9 428
west of San Fernando, and therefore 82° 22’ 6-95 west of Green-
wich. The first volume is a yearly meteorological and magnetic
report, and consists entirely of monthly tables and curves of the
daily mean results of the barometer, thermometer, tension, humi-
dity, wind, evaporation, rain, and state of sky. For each month
the daily maximum, minimum, and mean values are given, and
then follows a table of the monthly means for every even-hour
of the day and night. The direction and force of the wind are
shown on a circular diagram, and the mean daily values of the

barometer, thermometer, tension, and humidity are exhibited by -

broken lines. Rain curves are added from May.

Regular two-hourly obseryations of the Magnetic Declination
were commenced on April 1, 1871, and the same details are
given as for the barometer, &c. To these were added at the

* Observaciones Magneticas y Meteorologicas del real Colegio de Belen
de la compania de Jesus en la Habana, de 30 Nov. 1870 a 30 Nov. 1871.

Memoria de la Marcha regular o periodica, et irregular, del Barometro en
la Habana des de 1858 a 187x inclusive, porel R. P. B. Vines, S

Observaciones correspondientes al mes de Octubre de 1870, con la de-
scripcion de los huracanes ocurridos en la Isla en dicho mes.

|
|
j
;
‘
-

ee ve : ; -
Aug. 7, 1873|
commencement of the following month similar observations of
the horizontal magnetic force. For these elements of terrestrial
magnetism two-hourly, as well as daily mean, curves are traced
for each month.

In the general table that closes the report, we notice that the
prevailing wind never deviates, in any season, more than 13° 31’
from the east, and in spring it is only 3° 36’N. of E. The
rainfall for the seasons given in millemetres was in winter, 71'1 ;
in spring, 181°0; in summer, 480’0 ; and in autumn, 547°2 ; the
number of rainy days being respectively 13, 15, 33, and 39.

The coincidence of magnetic disturbances with local storms,
with hurricanes in Florida and St. Thomas, with Auroras visible
in distant lands, and with similar magnetic perturbations in
England, was remarked in August, September, and November.
The frequent disturbances of the needle noted in October cer-
tainly do not agree with photograghic records in England, this
month having been remarkably free from perturbations of this
nature,

The second book contains the results of acontinued series of
barometric observations between the years 1858 and 1871. The
reliance we may place on the accuracy of the work can he esti-
mated from the fact, that the correction of 1‘07mm, for sea level
was the result of 2,000 comparisons.

A very regular double period is apparent in the daily range,
which may be represented by the expression A= sin (a+?)
+#' sin (6+ 2¢) ; but the range for the day hours is somewhat in
excess of that of the night. The minima occur at 2—4 AM. and
3—4 P.M., andthe maxima at9—I0 A.M, and 10 P.M., the times
varying slightly with the seasons,

In December, January, and February, the amplitude of the
daily range is greatest, and then gradually decreasing it attains
its minimum in June and July. This confirms the law of
Ramond, cited by Kaemtz, that the amplitude of the baro-
metric range within the tropics is least in the rainy season. This
annual variation-of the daily range is, remarks our author, the
more worthy of note, as it is directly opposed to what has been
observed in Europe, where the range is greatest in summer.
This remark appears to me to require some modification, for on
turning to the monthly mean range observed, forinstance, at
Stonyhurst, during the last quarter of a century, I find a perfect
agreement with the annual variation for Cuba. The mean
values for the several months at Stonyhurst are 1°448, 1°415,
1378, 1167, 0°970, 0°896, 0°869, 0°927, 1'217, 1°323, 1°45],
1°449. These means are, it is true, obtained from the extreme
monthly maxima and minima, but our author informs us that the
amplitude of the extraordinary oscillations, if we eliminate the
four greatest which were due to hurricanes, resembles the mean
annual variation of the range, being greatest in January and
least in July. The mean values of the extraordinary oscillations
being almost identical in November, December, February,
and March, give this annual daily range curve at Cuba a sin-
gular symmetry. The periodic recurrence of summer storms
at fixed hours will account for the diminution of the range in that
season.

The mean values of the Daily Range have been deduced by
several methods : 1. From the absolute maxima and minima, by
which the irregular oscillations are not sufficiently eliminated.
2. By Humboldt’s method, from the maxima and minima at
fixed hours. 3. By Kaemtz’s method, from the arithmetical
means of the maxima and minima, 4. From Bravais formula,

R=/d*+d?,+..d",;d, d,... being the differences between
n

the monthly mean and those of certain fixed hours. There is a
striking agreement in the results from all these methods, but the
second shows in certain cases signs of a suspicious irregularity.

Besides the Daily Range, and an annual variation of this
range, there exists a yearly variation of the mean value analo-
gous to the diurnal, having its principal maximum and mini-
mum in January and October, and secondary ones in July and
May. This double inflexion of the mean annual curve is peculiar
to Cuba, since there is generally in the same latitude only a
single maximum in January, and a minimum in July.

The abnormal inflexion occurs during the month of June,
July, August, and September. Kaemtz, in his ‘‘ Météorologie,”
who is followed by Marie Davy, fixed the principal minimum in
August, but this and other lesser differences arise probably from
not eliminating extraordinary perturbations, and from the con-
fessed imperfection of his series of observations.

The observations of fourteen years are insfficient to determine
any certain law respecting the years of hurricanes; but an in-

NATURE

295

spection of the yearly curves shows that 1865 and 1870 are dis-
tinguished from the rest by the almost identity of the means for
February, March, and April, followed by a rapid rise from May
to July, a fall from July to October, and a still more marked rise
from October to January.

The third pamphlet gives a very interesting and detailed ac-
count of the terrible hurricanes that caused such wide-spread
desolation in the October of 1870. The first storm occurred ol
the 7th and 8th, the second on the 19th and 2oth.

The author adopts the theory of cyclones first enunciated by
Redfield in 1831, and since accepted and modified by many emi-
nent meteorologists, Situated N. of the Equator he considers
the storm to be rotating in the direction from E. to W. through
N. and the centre to be at the same time moving N.W. within
the tropics, and N.E. in higher latitudes. The resultant path
he finds to be a spiral wrapped round a parabola, the folds of
the spiral being closest at the apex of the curve. The position
of the centre or vortex is given at any moment by the height
of the barometer and the direction of the wind. The barometer
being lowest at the centre, the reading of the mercurial column,
corrected for daily range and for the particular wind, furnishes
data for determining the distance of the centre, whilst the
angular bearing of the latter is known from its being at right angles
to the direction of the wind, and to the rigtht hand of an observer
facing the wind. This follows necessarily from the circular
motion of the cyclone, and falls, asa particular case, under the
general law of Buys Ballot, since we know that the barometer
is lowest at the vortex. The latteris thought to move in a
cycloidal curve with loops at the cusps, which just fall on the
parabolic trajectory. The vortex is thus almost always to the
E. of the parabola. The double motion of translation and
rotation causes the effects of the hurricane to be much more
disastrous in the N. hemisphere to the E, of the parabolic path
than on the W, side, and the velocity of the wind ata given
distance from the vortex for any points of the compass may be
found from the formula V =\/7* + 7? + 2¢r cos @, where ¢ and 7 are
the velocities of translation and rotation, and @ is measured from
the E. point when the storm is moving N. The calm at the
centre of the cyclone gives a ready means of estimating the
velocity of translation. The storm of the 7th was felt from the
4th to the 13th, the maximum humidity lasting till the 12th. The
rate at which the vortex crossed the island was only four miles
an hour, and this remained almost constant throughout, The
second storm was much more sudden and rapid, and the in-
creasing rate, from 93 to 20 miles an hour, at which the vortex
‘was travelling, showed that the second branch of the parabola
had been reached before passing Cuba.

Equal heights of the barometer combined with the directions
of the wind enable the meteorologist to lay down the parabolic
trajectory with considerable accuracy, either from observations
at a single station, or at several, Thus on the 7th at 2 P.M,
the corrected barometer read the same at Havannah and at
Cienfuegos, the wind being S. by W. at the latter, and N.E. at
the former station, the vortex was therefore at that time S.E. of
Havannah, and a few degrees N. of W. from Cienfuegos, but
equally distant from the two places. The more rapid changes
and greater fall of the barometer, together with the increase in
the velocity of the wind, show that the storm passed more cen-
trally over Havannah than over Cienfuegos. ‘The discharges of
electric fluid were very intense, and at Cardenas an appearance
similar to the aurora borealis was visible for ten minutes. The
magnetic needles were much disturbed. The inundations from
the rising of the sea were very destructive, and on the 7th
the existing wind favoured the rise. This rise under the centre
of the cyclone seems to follow from the removal of pressure,
and the inrush of air of different temperatures fully accounts for
the heavy rainfall. The diminution of atmospheric pressure is
also offered as a probable explanation of the slight shocks of
earthquake, due perhaps to the violent expansion of certain gases
confined within the cavities that abound in the island.

A careful consideration of the accounts published in the local
papers, and a personal inspection of the localities, tended
strongly to confirm the results of theory. p

Cuba, from its situation just within the Tropic of Cancer, and
at the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, is admirably placed for
the study of these cyclonic storms, and eight of those which
have been best observed are traced on a map appended to the
pamphlet, showing that in most cases the apex of the parabolic
curve is not far from the island. It is a subject of congratulation
that an observatory so well conducted, and so situated, has, by

296

NATURE

[Aug. 7, 1873

1
the kind assistance of Sir E. Sabine, been provided with a set
of magnetic instruments by which the connection of terrestrial
magnetism with the most violent of our tropical storms may be
thoroughly investigated.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Monthly Microscopical Fournal for this month com-
mences with a paper by Mr. W. H. Dallinger and Dr. Drysdale,
entitled ‘Researches on the Life History of a Cercomonad: a
lesson in Biogenesis,”—in which they describe, as the result of a
very thorough and long-continued series of observations, the life
history of a new Cercomonad, which is thus summarised :—
‘‘When mature, it multiplies by fission for a period extending
over from two to eight days. It then becomes peculiarly amz-
boid ; two individuals coalesce, slowly increase in size, and
become a tightly distended cyst. The cyst bursts, and incalcul-
able hosts of immeasurably small sporules are poured out, as if
in a viscid fluid, and densely packed ; these are scattered, slowly
enlaige, acquire flagella, become active, attain rapidly the parent
form, and once more increase by fission.” They show also that
the granules can withstand a temperature much higher than can
the mature forms.—Dr. Royston-Pigott makes remarks on the
Confirmation given by Dr. Colonel Woodward to the ‘‘ Colour
test,” which comes into play in proving that spherical aberration
is reduced to a minimum in objectives.—Dr. Dawson remarks
on Mr, Carruthers’ views of Protataxites, the latter author having
described it as a gigantic seaweed, called by him Mematophycus.
Dr. Dawson gives further reasons for maintaining his original
opinion that it is fphzenogamous.—Prof. Rupert Jones con-
tinues his excellent papers on Ancient Water-flees of the Ostra-
codous and Phyllopodous tribes (Bivalve Entomostraca). This
is followed by an article on the pathological relations of the
diphtheritic membrane and the croupous cast, by Mr. Jabez
Hogg, which would have been'more in place ina medical journal.
The Wenham-Toller controversy is maintained by the latter and
some others, and there are abstracts of several interesting papers,
with notices of Vol. III. of Stricker’s Histological Manual and
Dr, Frey’s work on the microscope.

foggendorff’s Annalen der Physikund Chemie; No. 4, 1873.—In
this number appears the sixth of the series of papers on internal fric-
tion of gases, by O. E. Meyer and F. Springmiihl. The authors,
having formerly examined the transpiration of atmospheric air
through capillary tubes, have further observed that of carbonic
acid, of oxygen, and of hydrogen, and find the Poiseuille law to
hold good for these gases also. In most of the experiments the
gas streamed from one vessel into another containing the same
gas at lower pressure ; but the case of a gas streaming into a vessel
containing another kind of gas was also examined. The velocity
of transpiration proved the same, and there was no counter-
current of the second gas through the capillary tube, as in the
case of diffusion. In an appended note the authors criticise some
experiments of yon Lang.—Dr. Réntgen gives details of a care-
ful determination of the relation of specific heat at constant pres-
sure to that at constant volume, for the gases, air, carbonic acid,
and hydrogen; the mean numbers obtained being 1:4053,
1°3052, and 1°3852 respectively. The writer discusses these
results in their bearing on the mechanical equivalent of heat,
and the velocity of sound, and compares the work of previous
experimenters on the subject.—The concluding part of a paper
by F. Rudorff on solubility of salt mixtures appears in this
number; and A. Potier replies to certain strictures, by Quincke,
On some recent observations of his, as to reflection from metals
and glass. Among the remaining matter may be noted an im-
portant memoir by G. Rose (communicated to the Berlin
Academy), on the behaviour of the diamond and graphite on
being heated, The author describes and illustrates “the regular
forms produced in the diamond through combustion, treats of the
general heating effects where air is excluded and where it is not,
the natural blackening of diamonds, the so-called carbonate, and
connected topics.—A note by F. Zéllner, detailing further ex-

periments to show that electrical currents are produced by cur-
rent water (a statement which was questioned by Beetz a short
time since), also deserves attention.

Der Naturforscher, June 1873.—Among the more important
papers in this issue we may note the account of Pettenkofer and
Voit’s recent researches on the value of fat as a nutritive sub-
Stance, They find that fat is very largely absorbed from the
alimentary canal, but after long feeding with great quantities of

fat the absorption becomes less ; also that (contrary toa common
opinion), fat is much more readily decomposed into simpler pro-
ducts than albumen, The decomposition of food-fat depends on
that of albumen, on the amount of albumen present, and on the

‘proportion of it fixed in the organs, to what is in circulation.

The results given in this memoir have an important practical
bearing. Another physiological paper treats of the influence of
food on the structure of digestive organs: the experimenter,
H. Crampe, thinks that the nature.of food, alone, affords no
sufficient explanation of the differences found in these.—An
article on the loss of free nitrogen in putrefaction describes
some interesting experiments by Messrs. Konig and Kiesow. In
physics and chemistry we find notes on the change of length
and electricity produced by the galvanic battery, on the ac-
tion of electricity on carbon compounds, on Dr. Gladstone’s
new air battery. on the action of electrical force on non-con-
ductors, &c.—There are two French astronomical papers, one
on an attempt to measure the diameter of Sirius ; the other, on
MM. Cornu and Baille’s new determination of the mean density
of the earth. Geology, meteorology, and other branches of
science, are also represented.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Paris

Academy of Sciences, July 28.—M.,'de Quatrefages, presi-
dert, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—On the
exponential function, by M. Hermite. —An examination of the
theory of the thrust of earthworks against their sustaining walls,
by M. de Saint-Venant. This was a criticism on M. Curie’s late
papers on this subject.—On a proposed regular service of train
transports between Dover and Calais, by M, Dupuy de Lome.
The author, in conjunction with Mr. Scott Russell, has devised a
method of transporting entire trains by means of large steamers.
Part of the paper was devoted Sto a project of a new port west of
Calais, as that place is useless for the purpose ; at Dover every-
thing is ready for such a purpose, there being now 40 ft. of water
at the end of the Admiralty pier at low tide. The proposed
scheme would be able to carry 800,000 passengers, and
870,000 tons of goods annually. —On electric cauterisation applied
to surgery, by M. Sédillot—New researches on the solar
diameter, by Father Secchi. The author had found the sun’s
diameter, observed spectroscopically in the lines C and B, to
be less than that given by the Nautical Almanac; he
hence advocated the use of monochromatic images for making
such determinations, and replied to some obiections of S. Respighi,
who, on repeating these experiments, agreed with the almanac. _
—M. Ledieu’s paper on thermo-dynamics was continued.—On a
new method of condensing liquefiable bodies}held in suspension
in gases, by MM. Pelouze and Audouin.—On different forms of
curves of the fourth order, by M. H. G, Zeuthen.—On the
respiration of submerged aquatic vegetables, by MM. P. Schut-
zenberger and F, Quinquaud.—On the structure of the cerebral
ganglia of Zonites algirus, by M.H. Sicard.—On the planet
Mars, by M. C. Flammarion.—On a new system of pneumatic
telegraphy, by MM. D. Tommasi and R. F. Michel.

eelleleoeoeoeleleleleleeeeeeee ee

CONTENTS Pace
GusTav Rose... 6 ageuers) « «+ +) + 0S eee
Cnacuis’s ‘* MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES OF Puysics”. . » . « « 279
HENSLEY’s “ SCHOLAR'S ARITHMETIC.” By Temple OrME. . . . 280
Our Boox'SHELE . . agg as vee 6 oe enn
LETTERS To THE Ep1ToR:--
Perception and Instinct in the Lower Animals.—G. J. Romanes . 282
Comte on the Survival of the Fittest—J.D. Bern >... . . 283
The Glacial Period —Ji-H ROBES. .... 1+: ) lisesi eee 283
Telescope Tube for Celestial Photography.—H. C. Russert . . 284
Colour of the Emerald-—Grevitte Witttams, F.R.S. . . . . 284
InsTINcT, PERCEPTION, AND REASONING PowERS OF ANIMALS. By
Dr. PALADILHE .« i ee
Tue GrowTu or Satmon. By C. E. Frver (With Lilustvations), . 285
Tue Graciat Drirts or Nortu Lonpon. By Henry WaLker,
F.G.S. (With Maps) .." < geatges uc Ass oc acl nn 287
FLIGHT NoT aN Acquisition. By Douctas A. SPALDING . . . , 289
British ArcHoLoGicAL InstiTuTE.—“‘The Place of Exeter in
English History.” By E. A. FREEMAN, D.C.L. . ... . . « 289
NOTES!6! 606) 40. eI, Py Ms os ek a ee
METEOROLOGY IN HAVANA .. . eee) OO eae, 204
Screntiric SERIALS . Cee es MN eT air ie 8 Tc
, a

SocieTIEs AND ACADEMIES. . 4 5» ss 0 ea

NATURE

297

THURSDAY, AUGUST 14, 1873

THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH
v.

ALTHOUGH it is not within the purpose of these

articles to propose an elaborate scheme in which the
Endowment of Research in all its branches may be com-
pletely provided for, yet it may be reasonably expected
that some suggestions should be now put forward to serve
as an answer to those who urge the hopeless imprac-
ticability of the attempt, and as a foundation upon which
a definite plan may be constructed, by the help of criti-
cism, from those who can speak with authority in their
own particular subjects.

In the first place, it is above everything important that
the need of a systematic organisation of a central cha-
racter with entire freedom of action should be at once
recognised. It is absurd to suppose that the lack of
pecuniary means can be the main difficulty which has
hitherto, in the richest country in the world, hindered
original investigation in the Sciences, The natural
harvest of scientific discoveries which England ought
annually to reap has rather been checked by the irregu-
larity with which the labourers have been rewarded, and
the comparative indignity with which they have been
treated. For a certain class of scientific investiga-
tions of a strikingly practical character the public will
always be willing to sanction large parliamentary grants ;
but for the permanent Endowment of Research, and the
continuous support in a worthy position of the re-
searchers, not only the aid of the nation at large, but
the wealth and the prestige of our ancient Univer-
sities are required. There is, of course, no reason
for any interference with the valuable work at present
accomplished by the London Societies, but their work
is of a different character. The new organisation
would not grow into a monopoly, but would naturally
take to itself those departments of knowledge which
are least cared for, and in which the benefits of
endowments will be most felt. Its wealth would enable
it to be liberal, and its public position would impose just
that amount of responsibility which should protect it
from ‘those dangers to which its wealth might render it
exposed.

It is impossible to give a precise account of the actual
manner in which the endowment should be distributed.
To advance a crude scheme would be disadvantageous to
the cause at heart, and to descend into detail would be to
offer an unnecessary advantage to the enemy. Much
must be left for the future to develope, and much must be
left to the men to whom the administration is entrusted.
If a scheme were to be worked out in detail in accord-
ance with the demands of Science as understood at the
present day, and if strict rules were to be adopted for its
application, it might very well happen that before many
years have gone our new Foundation would become an
obstruction rather than a help to the advancement of
Science. That a system may be vague, and yet eminently
useful, and that its managers may safely be trusted with
~ powers almost irresponsible,may be learnt from the ex-
ample of the Smithsonian Institution in the United States.
No, 198—VoL, vit.

It is there found that to the Secretary of that institution,
who at present is Professor Henry, may be confided the
management of about 8,000/. a year, subject only to the
nominal control of a board of American politicians, upon
the trust to further “the advancement and diffusion of
knowledge.” Many incidental lessons may be gathered
from the manner in which the funds of this Institution
are applied. There are no professors, and no oral in-
struction of any kind: 'money is advanced to individual
investigators,' not to support them while engaged in their
scientific labours, but merely to provide the apparatus and
the materials necessary for their researches; but the
largest part of the funds would appear to be devoted to
the publication of jthe work which they have encou-
raged, and which under the title of “ Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge,” are well known all over Europe.
In this case, therefore, Research is indirectly endowed
by means of a moderate pecuniary assistance to the
investigators, whereas in Germany it is indirectly endowed
through the professoriate ; but our proposal is that nothing
but a direct endowment will satisfy the peculiar wants of
this country.

There is yet a further reason why any plan now put
forward should be purposely indefinite and incomplete.
The funds which the colleges will ultimately yield can
only fall in very gradually. It is, according to the modern
practice, quite impossible to make anything out of the ~
present holders of fellowships, who are in most cases
young men, who may retain their appointments if they
choose up to the limit of their lives. It would also, for
manifest reasons, be inexpedient to divert each several
fellowship as it becomes vacant from its present destina-
tion. The machinery of the University organisation is
so delicate that the occasions for introducing changes
into it must of necessity be left to those who are best ac-
quainted with the manner in which it works. Many years
must elapse before that portion of the College revenues
to which original research is now putting in a claim can
be handed over to this account. In the meantime it is
the duty of all those who support this claim not to dis-
pute about details, but to force a hearing for that prin-
ciple which they advocate in common, and which, when
once publicly recognised, will render easy the remainder
of the task.

It is not, however, difficult to point out roughly the
lines in which the endowment will have to proceed, and
so to meet by anticipation the apparent objections which
are certain to be alleged.. The form the endowment
should take, the persons who are to be entrusted with the
distribution, and the guarantee that the appointments
shall not degenerate into sinecures, are all matters which
require explanation. With regard to the first question,
it is necessary to clear away a prevalent misunderstand-
ing, which would seem to be based upon the existing
system of Fellowships. It is not an essential part of the
new scheme that a given number of Research Fellowships
should be forthwith founded, to be awarded to young
students who have passed successful examinations in
Science. The very opposite course is the one which would
commend itself to those who are aware of the evils of the
present practice. The number of the new appointments
should not be fixed; at first it should be small, but
capable of increase as the suitable candidates come for-

R

298

NATURE

[Aug. 14, 1873

ward; and above all, the principle of selection should be
other than that of competitive examination. The man
with the peculiar talents and proved industry which are
wanted for the post must be carefully sought for, and the
place must be made for him, rather than the man manu-
factured for the place. The managing body must be al-
lowed perfect liberty either to found a new Fellowship for
the particular man, or to refuse to fill up a vacant appoint-
ment. All our Research Fellows will be, according to
the German system, in extraordinary posts. From this it
will follow that direct endowment of this kind, though
the ultimate aim of our efforts, and by far the principal part
of our scheme, is not the manner in which a beginning
should be made. This form of endowment, so far as can at
present be foreseen, must be comparatively exceptional,
and therefore, when the right man is found, his position
should be made one of handsome emolument, and it
ought to be rendered impossible that he should be negli-
gently passed over.

The other ways in which research should be
endowed may be regarded in the ultimate scheme
as chiefly subsidiary to this, but in the order of
time they must come first, The funds of the Colleges
which are not wanted for teaching purposes, may at o:.ce
be utilised for our object in an infinite number of indirect
ways. They ought to be regarded as an abundant
reservoir, from which may be continually drawn generous
encouragement and ready help for those who happen to
be carrying on some special investigation in any branch
of Science. The Colleges should take the place which was
occupied in England some century ago by those noble and
wealthy patrons to whom Science, Art, and Literature all
owe somuch. They should give in no grudging spirit,
for they may be assured that an apparent waste in one
direction will be amply compensated by the unlooked-for
returns which they will reap in another. By throwing
open their libraries, by -uilding museums and labora-
tories, by supplying instruments or needful materials, by
paying for laborious calculations or expensive publica-
tions, as well as by subsidising any particular investiga-
tion, they would breed up, so far as any artificial means
can, that race of men from whom the selection must after-
wards be made for their new Fellowships. To those
who have had unfortunate experience of the management
of college business, and of the sort of matters which come
before a college meeting, such a reform as has been
sketched out will doubtless appear as a visionary ideal ;
yet it might be realised with very little trouble if the
richest Colleges would transfer some of the attention
which they now bestow upon ecclesiastical and educa-
tional interests, to the cause of original research, and when
realised, the result would be more nearly akin than the
present, to that which the original statutes contem-
plated,

To answer the two other questions proposed need
not take long, for an implicit reply to them has
already been given. Fortunately, modern Science has
taken such definite shape, and is pursued in such full
publicity, that each branch has even now, at its
head, certain acknowledged leaders, to whose judg-
ments and recommendaticns in their special subjects, all
deference is due, Until the Universities and the Colleges
become sufficiently penetrated with the new scientific

spirit, it will be natural that they should endow research
under the guidance of the scientific societies, and of
course it will be always necessary that they should be
fully conscious of their responsibilities to the public for
the appointments they confer upon the candidates, how-
ever selected. The analogy of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion will here again come in, for its assistance is never
given in any case unless after a favourable report from a
Commission of scientific men, who are experts in the
particular matter submitted to them.

With regard to the objection that the plan will
inevitably tend to the foundation of a new store of
sinecures, it is not incumbent to say more than that
scientific posts, where the duty itself is of absorbing
pleasure, are the least likely to degenerate in the way
suggested, and that the in sinuation comes with an ill grace
from those who are the present recipierts cf benefactions
which they do so little to deserve. es

ON LOSCHMIDT’S EXPERIMENTS ON DIF-
FUSION IN RELATION TO THE KINETIC
THEORY OF GASES

HE kinetic theory asserts that a
separate molecules, each moving with a velocity
amounting, in the case of hydrogen, to 1,800 metres per
second. This velocity, however, by no means determines
the rate at which a group of molecules set at liberty in
one part of a vessel full of the gas will make their way
into other parts. In spite of the great velocity of the
molecules, the direction of their course is so often altered
and reversed by collision with other molecules, that the
process of diffusion is comparatively a slow one,

The first experiments from which a rough estimate of
the rate of diffusion of one gas through another can be
deduced are those of Graham.* Professor Loschmidt, of
Vienna, has recentlyt+ made a series of most valuable
and accurate experiments on the interdiffusion of gases
in a vertical tube, from which he has deduced the co-
efficient of diffusion of ten pairs of gases. These results
I consider to be the most valuable hitherto obtained as
data for the construction of a molecular theory of gases.

There are two other kinds of diffusion capable of experi-
mental investigation, and from which the same data may
be derived, but in both cases the experimental methods
are exposed to much greater risk of error than in the
case of diffusion. The first of these is the diffusion
of momentum, or the lateral communication of sen-
sible motion from one stratum of a gas to another,
This is the explanation, on the kinetic theory, of
the viscosity or internal friction of gases. The inves-
tigation of the viscosity of gases requires experiments of
great delicacy, and involving very considerable correc-
tions before the true coefficient of viscosity is obtained,
Thus the numbers obtained by myself in 1865 are
nearly double of those calculated by Prof. Stokes from
the experiments of Baily on pendulums, but not much
more than half those deduced by O. E. Meyer from his
own experiments. The other kind of diffusion is that of
the energy of agitation of the molecules. This is called
the conduction of heat. The experimental investigation

* Brande's Fournal for 1829, pt. ii. “On the Mobility of Gases,”
Phil. Trans. 1863, 9» pt. 1, DP. 74, waty

t Sitzb, dik. Akad. d. Wissench, 10 Miirz, 1870.

gas consists of

Aug. 14, 1873)

of this subject is confessedly so difficult, that it is only
recently that Prof. Stefan of Vienna,* by means of a very
ingenious method, has obtained the first experimental
determination of the conductivity of air, This result is,
as he says, in striking agreement with the kinetic theory
of gases.

The experiments on the interdiffusion of gases, as
conducted by Prof. Loschmidt and his pupils, appear
to be far more independent of disturbing causes than any
experiments on viscosity or conductivity. The inter-
diffusing gases are left to themselves in a vertical cylin-
drical vessel, the heavier gas being underneath. No
disturbing effect due to currents seems to exist, and the
results of different experiments with the same pair of
gases appear to be very consistent with each other.

They prove conclusively that the co-efficient of diffusion
varies inversely as the pressure, a result in accordance
with the kinetic theory, whatever hypothesis we adopt as
to the nature of the mutual action of the molecules during
their encounters,

They also show that the co-efficient of diffusion in-
creases as the temperature rises, but the range of
temperature in the experiments appears to be too small
to enable us to decide whether it varies as T?, as it should
be according to the theory of a force inversely as the fifth
power of the distance adopted in my paper in the
Phil. Trans, 1866, or as T! as it should do according to
the theory of elastic spherical molecules, which was the
hypothesis originally developed by Clausius, by myself in
the Phil. Mag. 1860, and by O. E. Meyer.

In comparing the co-efficients of diffusion of different.
pairs of gases, Prof. Loschmidt has made use of a
formula according to which the co-efficient of diffusion
should vary inversely as the geometric mean of the
atomic weights of the two gases. Iam unable to see
any ground for this hypothesis in the kinetic theory,
which in fact leads to a different result, involving the
diameters of the molecules, as well as their masses.
The numerical results obtained by Prof Loschmidt do
not agree with his formula in a manner corresponding to
the accuracy of his experiments. They agree in a very
remarkable manner with the formula derived from the
kinetic theory.

I have recently been revising the theory of gases
founded on that of the collisions of elastic spheres, using,
however, the methods of my paper on the dynamical
theory of gases (Phil. Trans, 1866) rather than those of
my first paper in the Phil. Mag., 1860, which are more
difficult of application, and which led me into great con-
fusion, especially in treating of the diffusion of gases,

The co-efficient of interdiffusion of two gases, accord-
ing to this theory, is—

120 / 7
Parr asap ans) ox anes

where w, and w, are the molecular weights of the two
gases, that of hydrogen being unity.

Sy is the distance between the centres of the mileeutes
at collision in centimetres,

V is the “velocity of mean square” of a molecule of
hydrogen at o° C,

V= a/ of = 185,900 centimetres per second.
* Sitzh. d, k, Akad,, Feb, 22, 1874,

NATURE PEt bags

Wis the number of molecules in a cubic centimetre at
0° C. and 76 cm. &, (the same for all gases),
ee is the co-efficient of interdiffusion of the two gases

(centimetre)?
second measure.
We may simplify this expression by writing—
4 I I I
a= —— _, o,,2 = — — a= 2
aon iN). * gees Wy, | We @)

Here a is a quantity the same for all gases, but involv-
ing the unknown number N,
o is a quantity which may be deduced from the corre-
sponding Segment of M. Loschmidt. We have thus—
Sig = 4049 (3)
or the iaage between the centres of the molecules at
collision is proportional to the quantity o, which may be
deduced from experiment.
If d, and d@, are the diameters of the two molecules,
Sia = 3(G, + 4).
Hence if@= a8... oy = $(5, + 4,). (4)
Now M. Loschmidt has determined D for the six pairs
of gases which can be formed from Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Carbonic Oxide, and Carbonic Acid. The six values of ¢
deduced from these experiments ought not to be inde-
pendent, since they may be deduced from the four values
of § belonging to the two gases. Accordingly we find, by

assuming
TABLE I,
d(H) = 1'739
6(O) = 2'283
6(CO) = 2°461
8(CO,) = 2°75
Observed
Calculated wh I SSS
Lae] = I I
(3, + 5) *“D a, + Te
For H and O 2'OIL I'992
For H and CO 2"100 2116
For H and CO, 2°257 2°260
For O and CO 2°372 2°375
For O and CO, 2°529 2°545
For CO and CO, 2°618 2°599

NOTE.—These numbers must be multiplied by 0°6 to
reduce them to (centimetre-second) measure from the
(metre-hour) measure employed by Loschmidt.

The agreement of these numbers furnishes, I think,
evidence of considerable strength in favour of this form
of the kinetic theory, and if it should be confirmed by the
comparison of results obtained from a greater number of
pairs of gases it will be greatly strengthened.

Evidence, however, of a higher order may be furnished
by a comparison between the results of experiments of
entirely different kinds, as for instance, the coefficients of
diffusion and those of viscosity. If » denotes the co-
efficient of viscosity, and p the density of a gas at o° C,
and 760 mm, B, the theory gives—

Bit iste
Bead a/2 a (5)

so that the following relation exists between the viscosi-
ties of two gases and their coefficient of interdiffusion—

= He f
Dy = 5 mal Fs (6)

‘ae

300

NATURE

[Aug. 14, 1873

Calculating from the data of Table I., the viscosities |
of the gases, and comparing them with those found by
O. E. Meyer and by myself, and reducing all to centi-
metre, gramme, second measure, and to 0° C._— i

TABLE II,
Coefficient of Viscosity
Gas. | Loschmidt. O. E. Meyer. Maxwell.
H o'000116 9'000134 "000097
Oo 0000270 0'000306
co 0000217 0°000266
co, 0°000214 0'00023I O‘OOO161

The numbers given by Meyer are greater than those
derived from Loschmidt. Mine, on the other hand, are
much smaller. I think, however, that of the three, Lo-
schmidt’s are to be preferred as an estimate of the abso-
lute value of the quantities, while those of Meyer, derived
from Graham’s experiments, may possibly give the ratios
of the viscosities of different gases more correctly. Lo-
schmidt has also given the coefficients of interdiffusion of
four other pairs of gases, but as each of these contains
a gas not contained in any other pair, I have made no
use of them,

In the form of the theory as developed by Clausius, an
important part is played by a quantity called the mean
length of the uninterrupted path of a molecule, or, more
concisely, the mean path, Its value, according to my
calculations, is

Sit: ys
J2nsN Inv &
Its value in tenth-metres (1 metre X 10~*°) is

TABLE III.

For Hydrogen. . 965 Tenth-metresato°C.and 760B
For Oxygen . . 500

For Carbonic Oxide 482

For Carbonic Acid 430

(The wave-length of the hydrogen ray 7 is 4,861 tenth-
metres, or about ten times the mean path of a molecule
of carbonic oxide.)

We may now proceed for a few steps on more hazar-
dous ground, and inquire into the actual size of the
molecules. Prof. Loschmidt himself,in his paper “Zur
Grésse der Luftmoleciile” (Acad, Vienna, Oct. 12, 1865),
was the first to make this attempt. Independently of
him and of each other, Mr. G. J. Stoney (Phil. Mag. Aug.
1868), and Sir W. Thomson (NATURE, March 31, 1870),
have made similar calculations. We shall follow the
track of Prof. Loschmidt.

The volume of a spherical molecule is 5% where s

(7)

is its diameter. Hence if Vis the number of molecules
in unit of volume, the space actually filled by the mole-

cules is = Ns.

This, then, would be the volume to which a cubic
centimetre of the gas would be reduced if it could be so
compressed as to leave no room whatever between the

molecules. This, of course, is impossible ; but we may,
for the sake of clearness, call the quantity— ~

* The difference between this value and that given by M. Clausius in his
paper of 1858, arises from his assuming that all the molecules have equal
velocities, while I suppose the velocities to be distributed accurding to the
“Jaw of errors,”

e= 4 Ns3 (8)

the ideal coefficient of condensation. The actual coeffi-
cient of condensation, when the gas is reduced to the
liquid or even the solid form, and exposed to the greatest
degree of cold and pressure, is of course greater than e.
Multiplying equations 7 and 8, we find—

s=6/2¢/ (9)
where s is the diameter of a molecule, e the coefficient
of condensation, and Z the mean path of a molecule.

Of these quantities, we know Z approximately already,
but with respect to € we only know its superior limit. It
is only by ascertaining whether calculations of this kind,
made with respect to different substances, lead to con-
sistent results, that we ¢an obtain any confidence in our
estimates of «.

M, Lorenz Meyer* has compared the “ molecular
volumes” of different substances, as estimated by Kopp
from measurements of the density of these substances
and their compounds, with the values of s? as deduced
from experiments on the viscosity of gases, and has
shown that there is a considerable degree of correspon-
dence between the two sets of numbers.

The “ molecular volume” of a substance here spoken
of is the volume in cubic centimetres of as much of the
substance in the liquid state as contains as many mole-
cules as one gramme of hydrogen. Hence if po denote
the density of hydrogen, and » the molecular volume
of asubstance, the actual coefficient of condensation is—

e— pat (10)

These “ molecular volumes” of liquids are estimated at
the boiling-points of the liquids, a very arbitrary condition,
for this depends on the pressure, and there is no reason
in the nature of things for fixing on 760mm. B, as a
standard pressure merely because it roughly represents
the ordinary pressure of our atmosphere. What would
be better, if it were not impossible to obtain it, would be
the volume at — 273° C. and oB.

But the volume relations of potassium with its oxide
and its hydrated oxide as described by Faraday seem to
indicate that we have a good deal yet to learn about the
volumes of atoms.

If, however, for our immediate purpose, we assume the
smallest molecular volume of oxygen given by Kopp as
derived from a comparison of the volume of tin with that
of its oxide and put

(Gl 16) = "27
we find for the diameters of the molecules—
TABLE IV.
Hydrogen. . . . 5'8 tenth-metres,
Oxygen. 2.94 . 76
Carbonic Oxide. .
Carbonic Acid®. . 9°3

The mass of a molecule of hydrogen on this assump-
tion is

4°6 X 10-4 gramme.

The number of molecules in a cubic centimetre of any
gas at o° C. and 760 mm. B. is

N= 19 X 1038,
Hence the side of a cube which, on an average, would
contain one molecule would be
JV —- = 37 tenth-metres, :
J. CLERK-MaXWELL
Annalen d, Chemie u Pharmacie V; Supp, bd. 2, Heft (1867).

Aug. 14, 1873]
THE LAST GLACIAL EPOCH
Cun the Cause, Date, and Duration of the Last Glacial

Epoch of Geolozy, and the Pretable Antiquity of Man,

With an investigation and description of a new move-

ment of the Earth. By Lieut.-Colonel Drayson, R.A.,

F.R.A.S. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1873.)

"THE author of this work allows the existence of the

motion of rotation of the earth on its axis and its
revolution round the sun. That motion, however, of the
axis of the earth, to which is due the precession of the
equinoxes, is to him a great stumbling block. He denies
the possibility of this motion as generally accepted, and
gives us a theory of his own, which is very novel, and the
results of which are startling in the extreme.

Lieut.-Colonel Drayson either knows nothing of
dynamics or despises the science: the one key he
makes use of to unlock the secrets of astronomy
is geometry; he does not believe in the existence
of a change in the plane of the ecliptic, and apparently
is not aware that the attractions of the other planets on
the earth mist produce periodic changes in the plane of
the earth’s orbit. In consequence of this he persuades
himself that all astronomers teach (and perhaps believe)
that while the pole of the earth is describing a circle
round the pole of the ecliptic, the obliquity of the ecliptic,
which is the angular distance between these poles, is con-
stantly changing. He calls this a geometrical impossi-
bility, and nobody would hesitate to agree with him that it
is ; but astronomers would at once deny that they either
teach or believe anything of the kind. The popular be-
lief is that the pole of the earth describes a circle of
radius 23° 28’ round the pole of the ecliptic as a centre,
and that the whole circle would be described in something
Over 25,000 years,

Lieut.-Colonel Drayson tells us that the true motion

of the pole of the earth is in a circle whose radius
is 29° 25' 47”, and whose centre is at a distance of
6° from the pole of the ecliptic. He attempts to prove
this, and, we believe, has succeeded in persuading
himself that he has proved it. He does this by show-
ing that this particular circle will satisfy all the neces-
sary conditions, as he puts them, and also (we as-
sume) as he understands them. The author next pro-
ceeds to deduce the consequences of this motion. His
circle would be described in 31,840 years, so that at inter-
vals of 15,920 years the obliquity of the ecliptic would
vary as much as 12°. The consequence of this would be
that about 13,700 B.c., Great Britain would have had
during the winter an arctic climate, the sun in lat. 54°
not being 1° above the horizon at the winter solstice, and
during the summer a tropical climate. This is supposed
to have been the last glacial epoch, and the author has
such confidence in his theory that he promises us glacial
epochs every 31,840 years.

The book, as a whole, we look upon as most unsatis-
factory. Had the author mastered the principles of
dynamics, he probably would not have been led by a
mistaken interpretation of movements which he only
partly understood, into the fatal error of attempting to
solve one of the most abstruse problems in astronomy by
mere geometry, The days of such attempts were, we
hoped, past for ever,

NATURE 301

The motion of the earth’s axis is well illustrated by the
motion of a boy’s top when it is spinning with its axis in-
clined to the vertical. Every one has seen a top while
spinning on its own axis, revolve round the vertical with
approximately constant speed, while its axis remained
inclined to the vertical at an approximately constant
angle : but who has seen a top spinning so that its axis
revolved with constant speed round a line inclined to the
vertical at an angle of 6°, or any other angle? Till
Lieut.-Colonel Drayson produces a top which will do this,
thereby proving experimentally that such a motion is
possible, or till he demonstrates by analysis the possibility
of such a motion, we shall feel confident in rejecting his
theory of the earth’s motion, as the theory of a para-
doxer, and in regarding the cause of the last glacial
epoch as a secret still unknown.

DR. SMITH ON FOODS
Foods. By Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S.
King and Co.)
bs ia tendency during the last thirty years or so to the
equalisation, throughout the country, of the prices
of the several articles employed as food, has done much
to make the subject of Foods one of much greater inte-
rest to a larger class ef the community than heretofore.
The products of a district being now scarcely, if at all,
cheaper than those that can be obtained from a consider-
able distance, a knowledge of the relative nutritive value
of foods becomes essential to a larger number. We
therefore look with great interest to the results of Dr.
Edward Smith’s considerable experience, especially with
regard to some of the articles of more modern intro-
duction.

The classification adopted is the following. Foods are
first divided into solid, liquid, and gaseous, an arrange-
ment which has the disadvantage of separating closely-
allied substances from one another, milk having to be
considered removed from cheese and butter. The solid
foods are then divided into animal and vegetable, and
each of these are subdivided into nitrogenous and non-
nitrogenous. The source, composition, and alimentary
properties of each article are then discussed in detail. The
analyses are mainly those of Fresenius, Frankland,
Wanklyn, and other well-known chemists. The author
in most cases is able to introduce the results of his own
observations on the physiological action of each sub-
stance, which are also to be found in the Transactions ot
the Royal Society. Taking arrowroot as a fair example
of the manner in which the subject is treated, after a short
account of its origin we find that “the proximate elements
in 100 parts are water 180, and starch 82'0; so that it
is or should be free from nitrogen. There are 2,555
grains of carbon ini lb, ... Ten grains of arrowroot when
thoroughly consumed in the body produce heat sufficient
to raise 10°06 lbs. of water 1° F., which is equal to lifting
7,766 lbs. one foot high.” The author observes that when
eaten alone on an empty stomach it gives no sense of
satisfaction, but one of malaise. Eating 500 grains in-
creased the emission of carbonic acid o°154 grains per
minute. The rate of respiration was somewhat lessened,
and the pulse was increased four beats per second (sic).
As each subject is similarly described, it is evident that

(Henry S.

4.7 em’

302

eee ee.
there is a large amount of needless repetition, for the
estimation of the heat of combustion is a simple calcula-
tion, which might have been made once for all with refer-
ence to each proximate principle, especially since the bare
facts, as they are put, convey but little idea to the general
reader, The chemistry of foods is very superficially and
imperfectly treated, not nearly so full as it deserves ; and
the botany would have been better if a more thorough
study of materia medica had been undertaken. There is
one sentence we have in vain attempted to understand.
When speaking of the sweet chestnut, the author, after
remarking that at present it may be regarded as a luxury,
says, “ The first step to a great extension of its use would
be to make the ordinary horse-chestnut a safe and agree-
able food, since it grows in our climate, and could be
obtained in large quantities.” How this can be, seems
extremely difficult to understand ; as is well known, the
two fruits having nothing whatever to do with one
another.

The descriptions of the various methods that have been
proposed for the preservation of meats which have to
travel long distances and through hot climates is very
complete and clear. The preference is given to the
method of heating, and that adopted by Mr. Jones, in
which the meat is heated in vacuo, to 280° F., in the cans,
is fully described. It is shown, however, that by this
process the meat is stewed, and over-stewed, not roasted
nor boiled. In this, and all similar processes, it is found
impossible to expel all the air without over-cooking the
meat.

Another subject of particular interest which is dis-
cussed is the preservation of milk, Two methods, it
appears, are adopted in America, one in which the milk
is simply evaporated to one-fourth its original volume,
when it will often keep for a month, and another in which
sugar is added ; by the latter process it remains good for
an indefinite time, and contains about one-third of its
weight of sugar. The author agrees sufficiently with Dr.
Daly in his condemnation of the employment of this pre-
served milk for infants, to quote an article by him which
appeared last year in the Lancet.

Extract of meat, especially Liebig’s, occupies the greater
part of one chapter, and we think the author has done good
service in setting in a clear and unmistakable light the true
value of that expensive luxury. He shows that its chief
value depends on the meaty flavour it is capable of im-
parting, and that its nutritive value is #2. He remarks—
“Tts proper position in dietetics is somewhat more than
that of a meat-flavourer, but all that is required for nutri-
tion should be added to it. . . . Used alone for beef-tea
it is a delusion.” That this is correct is evident from a
consideration of the method by which it is prepared, for
“during the process, all the ‘fat and as much of the
gelatin and albumen as can be extracted are removed
from the solution of flesh, whilst the fibrin, being insolu-
ble, is necessarily left behind. Hence there remain water,
salts, osmazone, and the extractives of flesh, or, in general
terms, the flavouring matters and the salts of meat—thus
leaving out all that is popularly (and correctly) regarded
as nutritious.”

Many tables are given to show the [effects of different
substances on the respiration, pulse, exhalation of carbonic
anhydride and aqueotis vapour, There seems to be a

NATURE

Sh
‘¢

[Aug. 14, 1873

want of association between the great mass of facts,
which must have been the result of long and continuous
labour ; and they are undoubtedly put forward in a way
which is not best suited to convince the scientific student.
For example, the effects on the pulse, &c., of tea dissolved
in water is given in full, but under the head of water no:
mention is made of its physiological action, though de-
cidedly, by itself it changes the pulse rate, if nothin
else. :

Several recipes of the fourteenth century are quoted
from “ Cury,” a copy of ancient manuscript recipes of the
master cook of Richard the Second. There are also
many scriptural references, and a very inappropriate ab-
stract of an incident which occurred at the Worship Street
Police Court.

OUR BOOK SHELF

A Manual of Metallurgy. By George Hogarth Makins,
M.R.C.S., F.C.S., &c. (Ellis and White, 1873.)

THE present edition of this work presents a marked im-
provement over those which have preceded it, but it is
still far from being all that even a small manual might
be. In the preface the author expresses a hope that the
volume, “in which the leading points connected with the
principal metals are set forth, may be found useful,” and
as there are singularly few metallurgical works in the
English language, we have but little doubt that this hope
will be realised. Mr. Makins has long enjoyed the repu-
tation of being a most accurate assayer, and the descrip-
tions of the processes of assaying gold and silver are
careful and valuable. The portion of the work which is
the least satisfactory is that devoted to iron.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

The Huemul

Tue Huemul of Chili and Patagonia, referred to in NATURE,
pp. 253 and 263, was first recognised in modern scientific
literature by MM. Gay and Gervais, who in the Annales des
Sciences Naturelles for 1846 (v., p. 91), showed that the so-called
Equus bisulcus of Molina, was a species of Deer (Cervus), which
they proposed to call Cervus chilensis. ;

In Gay’s “ Fauna Chilena” (plates 10 and rz), the female and
skull are figured. Concerning the nomenclature of species, I
have published some remarks in the last volume of the “ Annals
of Natural History” (ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 213), to which I beg
leave to refer such of your readers as are desirous of further
information on this subject. P. L, SCLATER

11, Hanover Square, W., Aug. 6 :

Perception and Instinct in the Lower Animals

In answer to Mr. George J. Romanes (NATURE, August 7) I
beg to say that I particularly inquired of my friend whether he
had been to or near his old house on the day the dog returned,
or shortly before, and he assured me that ‘the had never been
near it since he left.” I ought to have stated this in my
account of the circumstance.

I shall make no further remarks on the subject, because I be-
lieve that nothing satisfactory can be arrived at till experiments
of the nature indicated in my last letter have been systematically
carried out, ALFRED R, WALLACE |

Collective Instinct

THE writer of one of the books on Indian sport relates how
he saw a herd of antelopes, driven backwards and forwards by
four wolves, which surrounded the herd, each guarding a diffes

Aug. 14, 1873]

rent side, until at length the antelopes passed over a ditch in
which a fifth wolf lay concealed. This wolf, jumping up as the
antelopes crossed, secured one of them, upon which his four
companions joined him, and assisted in making a meal of the
captured animal.

A civilian of the N.W.P.* told me that he witnessed a very
similar occurrence in Oudh. He saw two wolves standing to-
gether, and shortly after noticing them was surprised to see one
of them lie down in a ditch, and the other walk away over the
open plain. He watched the latter, which deliberately went to
the far side of a herd of antelopes standing in the plain, and
drove them, as a sheep dog would a flock of sheep, to the very
spot where his companion layin ambush, As the antelopes
crossed the ditch, the concealed wolf jumped up, as in the
former case, seized a doe, and was joined by his colleague.

Here are two well-authenticated instances of an action or
series of actions requiring the exercise of combined sagacity of a
high degree on the part of two or more individual animals, being
performed in exactly the same way by different members of the
same species. Was the method employed by the wolves to se-
cure their food, which they could not have caught single-handed,
the result of separate experience or of inherited habit? The
identical character of the stratagem employed in the two cases
points to the latter,

I have noticed some similar instances of collective action on
the part of other animals which I believe to be as much in-
herited as the habitual actions of individual animals. I have
constantly seen a flock of pelicans when on the feed form a
line across a lake, and drive the fish before them up its whole
length, just as fishermen would with a net. The capture of the
fish is rendered doubly easy by this method. I have witnessed
exactly a similar plan pursued by a large number of Ganges
crocodiles which had been lying or swimming about all day in
front of my tent, at the mouth of a small stream which led from
some large inland lakes to the Ganges. Towards dusk, at the
same moment, every one of them left the bank on which they
were lying, or the deep water in which they were swimming,
and formed line across the stream, which was about twenty yards
wide, They had to form a double line, as there was not room
for all in a single line. They then swam slowly up the shallow
stream, driving the fish before them, and I saw two or three fish
caught before they disappeared.

Where a large number of individuals constantly repeat in
continuation the same action, it is possible that the younger
members may merely copy the older members of the species,
and so carry on the habit generation after generation. This is
less likely where few are concerned, as in the case of the wolves.
A pair of wolves are probably of the same age. It isa marked
habit of some species of birds to hunt in pairs, and assist each
other in the capture of their prey. The wokhad, or common
eagles of the Indian plains, hunt in this way. When one of the
pair misses in its swoop, the other descends on the victim'before
it has time to make afresh attempt to escape. The circumstance
that some species of birds of prey are in the habit of combining
for the capture of their food, while others hunt singly, would
tend to prove that the combined habit is as much inherited as
the habits of individuals are known to be.

Gregarious actions, which require combination of purpose on
the part of two or more individuals, entail the exercise, if not of
a higher degree of intelligence, at any rate of a greater number
of intelligent qualities than the isolated actions of single indivi-
duals. This class of actions possesses, therefore, a special in-
terest. Those instances in which different individuals perform
totally different acts for the attainment of the same end, as in
the case of the wolves, are the most interesting, as requiring the
most intelligent qualities. I should be glad to learn if any of
your readers have ever witnessed or heard of the stratagem de-
scribed above being employed by wolves for the capture of their

prey.
Allahabad, June 29 E. C, Buck

Ants and “the Taint of the Hand”

In NaturE, July 24,-Mr. James D. Hague, writing on the
habits of ants, attributes their dislike to the place across which
a finger has been drawn to ‘the taint of the hand.”

Now, Sir, I have frequently drawn a line with a piece of
chalk across the track of ants, and observed. in them the same
symptoms of dislike as Mr, Hague’s ants showed to the finger-
mark,

* Mr, Elliott, B.C.S., now Secretary to Government, N,W.P,

NATURE

303

Thave also drawn a small circle with chalk round one or
more ants, who will seek a spot untouched by the chalk through
which to make their escape ; but should there be no such open-
ing, they will presently cross the circle. Tf, however, this en-
closure be made upon a perpendicular wall, &c., they will
frequently drop to the ground rather than walk across the line,

Now, as I have never observed this same dislike—exhibited
by dropping—of the ‘‘taint” when ants have been running
over my hands, and as the chalk-line has the same effect as the
finger-mark, may it not be something else than the “ taint of the
hand” to which the ants object when their usual track is inter-
fered with ?

Stamford, Aug. § G. B.C,

Venomous Caterpillars

WiTH reference to a paper published by Mr. Murray in
NATUuRE, vol. viii. p. 7, on Venomous Caterpillars, I wish, in
corroboration, to add my testimony from personal experience,
that a species of caterpillar has the power of inflicting a very
painful sensation (I will not say wound, as such was not visible)
by its sting.

In 1868, when travelling in company with Capt. Street in the
Burmese forests on a botanical trip, and whilst in the act of de-
taching a specimen plant of Dendrobium farmerii, from the
naked branch of a tree, I felt a severe and painful sting on my
thumb. On examination I noticed I had seized hold of a large
caterpillar lodged amongst the roots of this orchid. It was about
two inches long, clothed with erect hairs; its colour was a
reddish brown, the lower part of the abdomen being darker,
with well-developed legs. :

My thumb continued painful for three days ; it was consider-

ably swollen, the skin having a drawn glazed appearance,
_ The Burmese told me that this kind of caterpillar was exceed-
ingly venomous, and one fellow was particularly consoling by
informing me that unless the pain subsided in three days the
sting might prove fatal, Iam inclined to think that the cater.
pillar for self-protection has the power of detaching these hairs;
whether any propelling force is present at the time of detachment
it would be difficult to prove.

I found steeping my thumb in Eau de Cologne gave me the
greatest relief.

Whether these hairy caterpillars have a special venom or
otherwise I do not feel qualified to express my opinion either
one way or the other ; but I lean towards the conclusion that
the irritation is set up by the mechanical action of the spine
during its penetration of the skin, and my reason for inclining
towards this opinion is because we have a somewhat parallel case
in the irritation caused by the hairs of the prickly pear,

I was present when an officer was thrown off his horse into a
prickly pear hedge ; he suffered the greatest pain, and could not
bear the parts, where these minute spines had penetrated the
skin, to be touched. On his being placed in a warm bath the
relief was almost immediate, especially to those parts capable of
total immersion, and this I attribute to the prickles or hairs
floating and becoming removed from the skin by the oscillatory
motion of the water,

Madras, July R, Benson

Abnormal Ox-eye Daisy

In 1868 I gathered among the ruins of Pompeii a very curious
monstrosity of the common ox-eye daisy. The flower and flower-
stalk were confounded into a strap-shaped mass which was
fringed with the florets. I showed it to Prof. Wyville Thomson,
who told me it was an instance abnormal in this species, of the
form of inflorescence which is normal in the coxcomb,

JosEPH JOHN MurrHy

Old Forge, Dunmurry, Aug. 1

Canarese Snakes

Fam. Erycide, Gen. Gongylophis? Sp.?—Captured in Man.
galore, December 2, Gape wide ; fangs in sup. and inf, maxile
laris.

Body moderate, tail short, obtuse scales, smooth, ‘48 ;—-
yentrals narrow, 197, terminating with three rows of scales
between last ventral and anal ; latter entire, Subcaudals single,
24, last forming conical point,

304

Head flat, not very distinct from neck, scaled, with following
exceptions :—Roostril, anterior frontals ; nasals (double, with the
nostril between); mental; upper (12) and lower labials.

Gular depression; small groove anterior to orbit; orbit
surrounded by scales ; eye small, pupil vertical, iris silver grey,
with dark longitudinal streak.

Rudimentary hind limbs, scales small, greatly increasing in size
as they approach ventrals ; colour above greyish brown, verte-
bral series of dark brown irregular spots, confluent towards neck ;
lateral series of dark brown spots. Belly whitish, mottled with
dark brown ; post orbital dark brown streak.

Length of specimen 21 in, A sand snake of sluggish dis-
position, especially during day-time.—Did not attempt to bite
when handled.

Fam. £/apide. Gen. Ophiophagus. O. Elaps.—The Hama-
dryad, a male specimen caught by snake charmers at Agumbi,
Western Ghauts, South Canara. Since dead, the skin having
been secured by a member of the Basil Mission, I measured
the snake when alive, and found it to be 10 ft. 6 in. but it was
probably more, as it strongly resisted being stretched out.
Colour brownish black, with about thirty bands on fore part of
body, formed by dull yellowish interstitial skin. A yellow V
mark with the apex towards head on upper part of hood: dark
band beneath hood.

The Canarese call the snake ‘‘ Kalinga havre,” and state it
to be common in the jungles along the Ghauts. I hope before
long to procure a live specimen.

Fam. Crotalide. Gen. Trimesurus, Sp.—Scales 21, ventrals
153, subcaudals 58. Head scales strongly heeled. Colour dark
reddish brown, irregularly marked with pale reddish brown,
forming pale centred lateral ocelli. A series of ‘pale yellow
irregular dots arranged in a Jatera] stripe. This specimen has
been forwarded to Dr. J, Shortt, F.L.S.

A specimen of the Dadoia elegans, the Tic Polongo of
Southern India and Ceylon, was lately brought me having the
belly pure white, unmarked with the usual brown spots.

A Tahsildar ina Northern Talug reports the occurrence of a
large venomous snake, black above and red beneath, This
I think will prove to be Callophis (Elaps) nigrescens.

Mangalore. E. H. PRINGLE

BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. — AB-
STRACT OF DR. SANDERSON’S ADDRESS
ON PHYSIOLOGY

N his address on Physiology before the British Medical
Association, Dr. Sanderson gave a résumé of the
most important physiological work that has been done
during the past year. Commencing with the circulation
of the blood, he considered it to be resolved into several
constituent processes, such as arterial pressure, velocity
of blood-current, and contraction or relaxation of mus-
cular fibre. He referred to a very elegant method adopted
by Dr. Marey of Paris, and illustrated by him to the
members of the Association, by which the influence of
arterial resistance on the heart’s rapidity may be demon-
strated on the excised heart of the tortoise, the number of
pulsations being proved to vary inversely as the vesistance
and not as the blood pressure, a fact previously known,
but not before so clearly illustrated. He then referred to
the observations of Mr. Dewar and Dr. M‘Kendrick, in
which they have shown that the normal electromotive
force in the optic nerve is reduced in intensity when it is
receiving the impression of light, a “negative variation ”
of the current being the result. Dr. Jackson’s and Dr.
Ferrier’s pathological and physiological studies as to the
localisation of the sources whence originate some
of the voluntary movements in certain parts of the
surface of the brain were shown to have a very
important bearing on the progress of cerebral phy-
siology; Dr. Ferrier having arrived at a method
by which one at least of the highest functions
of the nervous system can be brought under the control
of experimenta investigation. With reference to the part
played by Bacteria in the living organism, Dr, Sanderson
remarked that observations respecting them were, though
very numerous, not sufficiently connected to allow of a

NATURE

| Aug. 14, 1873

ready summary ; the facts added during the year being,
first, that in certain persons apparently healthy, and in
many animals, organisms belonging to this class are
always found in the blood ; secondly, that in all acute
inflammations which are attended with the destruction of
living tissue, Bacteria are to be found in the exudation
liquids ; and thirdly, that in relapsing fever living beings
are present in the blood, which exhibit characteristic
forms.

Dr. Sanderson in the latter part of his address gave
many reasons in favour of the combination of the study
of medicine with that of physiology. It has been said
that theoretical physiology has led to injurious medical
treatment, ¢.g., to the over-feeding and over-stimulating
treatment of disease ; to the unreasonable disuse of vene-
section ; to the neglect of antimony and other so-called
antiphlogistics, and to the purgative treatment of cholera.
But are the theories on which these changes of treat-
ment have been based, physiological in the proper sense?
Decidedly not. Taking the action of mercury as an
example. It has been proved to have no influence in
increasing the secretion of the liver; nevertheless, blue-
pill is of undoubted value in certain well-defined dis-
turbances of the digestive organs. From these facts,
however, it is not right to assume that mercurial remedies
are useless, or that they act beneficially by exciting the
secretion of bile ; such inferences are not physiological,
but result from the manner in which practical men
throw undeserved discredit upon Science by attempting
to apply its facts without any sufficient knowledge of their
bearing. Therefore it is highly desirable for the welfare
of both Medicine and Physiology that a distinct line of
demarcation should be drawn between them.

The speaker then entered upon subjects of a more
purely medical nature, giving an excellent vészmé of the
present position of our knowledge respecting the nature
of fever and pyrexia generally.

LAKES WITH TWO OUTFALLS

Go years ago a discussion took place concerning the

possible or actual existence of lakes possessing out-
lets into two distinct watersheds, so as to render one
watershed continuous with the other, If even one such
lake could be shown to exist, the question would of course
be resolved in the affirmative. I have frequently heard
mentioned as an instance a certain lake at the summit of
the Romsdal in Norway, and having lately spent a day or
two at each end of this lake, I have taken advantage of
the opportunity to examine each of the outlets with care.
I have thus convinced myself that it ought not to be
quoted as a proof of the natural existence of such lakes.

The piece of water in question is called the Lasdés-
kougens Vaud, or sometimes the Lesje Veerks Vaud ; it
lies between the posting stations of Mélmen and Lesje
Jernverks, at an elevation of 1,992 Norwegian feet, or
2,050 English feet above the sea level, occupying, for a
length of about seven miles, the highest part of the great
valley which in its south-eastern part is known as the
Gudbrandsdal, and in its north-western part as the
Romsdal. There can be no doubt that from the eastern
extremity of the lake flows a small stream, which forms
one of the sources of the Laagan or Logen River, while
from the western extremity descends a much lar,
stream, which is the principal source of the river Rauma.
Since the Logen, after passing through Midsen Lake, be-
comes a part of the great river Glommen, and thus falls —
into the Skaggerat at Frederichshald, while the Rauma
reaches the sea through the Romsdal Fjord, it follows
that the whole of the south-western part of Norway is en-
circled by water.

On examining the eastern exit of the lake, however, it —
soon becomes apparent that the outflow is artificially re- —
gulated, The water is retained at this end by a great

it i ed ae ane
me we ‘ . ‘
Aug. 14, 1873] NATURE 305

barrier of boulders, gravel, and sand, which has doubtless
been heaped up by glacial action. At the north-eastern
extremity this barrier is narrowed until it resembles an
artificial embankment, and at this point a channel has
apparently been cut for the purpose of supplying water
power to the works situated immediately below. The
actual stream of water forming the first source of the
river Logen had a depth at the time of my visit of three
feet, with a width of about six feet; it flowed through a
rectangular channel, paved at the bottom and sides with
large boulders, and sustained by timbers. Although
these timbers are now nearly rotted away, it is evident
that the channel had at some time or other been carefully
formed. The water power is at present used for a saw-
mill, but it was, no doubt, originally employed to furnish
the blast for an old iron furnace, which has given the
name of Lesje Jernvzerks to this place. The furnace has
been abandoned, as I was informed, for the last eighty
years, and from the dates upon the ironwork of a neigh-
bouring house I think it likely that the works were
erected at least 150 years ago, a length of time which
would perhaps be sufficient to account for the natural ap-
pearance of the stream below the works.

I also examined the western exit of the lake with care.
The first break in the level of the water occurs at a
wooden bridge which slightly restrains the outflow. The
stream flows strongly here, with a width in all of about
45 ft., a maximum depth of about 2 ft. 9 in. at the time of
my visit, and an average depth of about 2ft. After fall-
ing about 9 in. at this point, the river flows in a steady
deep stream through a perfectly natural channel for about
an English mile, with a very slight fall, after which its
descent becomes gradually accelerated. I have no doubt
that this considerable stream forms the natural outlet of
the lake, but that a lowering of the water in the lake to
the extent of three or four feet would stop this outflow
altogether.

Now when we speak of a lake with two outfalls, I pre-
sume we mean one with two natural and permanent out-
falls, and in this sense the Lasdskougens Vaud can-
not be adduced as an instance at the present day. It is
just possible that the lake had a natural outlet at Lesje
Verks before the artificial channel was cut, but it is
highly improbable, and we should require good traditional
or documentary evidence to that effect before we could
assume it to be so. Such evidence would probably be
very difficult to obtain, and could only be obtained by
some person intimate with the Norsk language More-
over, I judge from the nature of the outfall at this end,
that if it were not looked to from time to time, the stream
would eventually widen and deepen the channel through
the barrier of loose sand and gravel, and finally lower
the level of the water by many feet, so as to destroy the
outflow into the river Rauma.

I write the above without having previously entered

- into the subject, and without being able to refer to any
information about it. On @ Jriorz grounds it seems very
unlikely that there should exist any lake with two dis-
tinct outflows. For in order that such a state of things
should exist permanently, either there must be no erosion
of the channels whatever, or the erosion must proceed
with exact equality, otherwise one stream will augment at
the expense of the other, and its eroding power being
thus increased, it will more and more tend to sap the
supplies of the other stream. The condition of things
would, in fact, be that of unstable equilibrium, which
could not long continue to exist.

Colonel George Greenwood, who is, I presume, the
same as the former active correspondent about this sub-
ject, visited this lake last summer, as appears from the
entry of his name in the day books. I am not aware that
he has since published any opinion, but the lake seems, so
far as I can judge, to support his view of the matter,

W. STANLEY JEVONS

THE NEW BIRD OF PARADISE

At the last scientific meeting of the Zoological Society

of London for the past session, I had the pleasure
of exhibiting and describing specimens of a new Bird of
Paradise recently discovered by Signor Luigi Maria
D’Albertis, in New Guinea. As it will be some time
before the part of the Society’s “Proceedings” containing
the record of the business transacted at the meeting on
June 17 can be issued, and as I am informed that some
knowledge of the existence of this singular bird has been
obtained in another quarter, I am anxious to secure to
Signor D?Albertis the honour of his discovery by a
somewhat earlier publication of such a description and
figure as will enable the bird to be recognised by other
naturalists.

Drepanornis* albertisi, as I have proposed to call this
fine bird, in honour of its energetic discoverer, belongs
to the long-billed or Epimachine section of the Paradiseze,
and is, perhaps, more nearly allied to E/imachus than to
any other described form, But it is very distinct from
Epimachus as regards its long, thin, and much curved
bill, shorter legs, and shorter, squarer tail, not to speak of
the peculiar tufts of feathers which are characteristic of
the male sex only. The general colour of the plumage of
the male Drepanornis is brown above, and lavender-grey
below. The naked rim round the eye, anda bare space at
the back of them on each side, are of a bright blue. On
each side of the front before the eye rises a short tuft of
bright, coppery, metallic green feathers. A large patch
of similar scaly feathers covers the chin and throat. Two
large tufts of feathers spring from each side of the breast,
and form conspicuous ornaments when erected. The
upper pair of these peculiar tufts have a mass of brilliant
coppery red at the base of their, feathers, terminated by
a dark band. This metallic colour is only exposed when
the plumes are raised. The lower pair of tufts, which
are much lengthened, and ina state of repose reach be-
yond the lower third of the tail, are margined by a splen-
did purple band. The lower part of the breast is likewise
crossed by a narrow band of bright green. The middle
of the belly and vent are white, the tail of a nearly uni-
form pale chestnut.

The above description will give some idea of the
special peculiarities of the male Drefanornis in full

lumage. The female, as is the case in all the true
Psa is very different in colour, though alike in form.
Hex plumage is above of a nearly uniform bright brown
or rufous, below paler, and crossed on the throat, breast,
and sides of the belly, by numerous small irregular black
wide cross-bars._ The naked space round and behind the
eye is coloured bright blue, as in the full-plumaged male.
The beak, in the single specimen sent, is still longer than
in the male, but this may be an individual peculiarity, The
whole length of the male Drepanornis, from the tip of the
bill to the end of the tail, is about 14 in., that of the wing,
from the carpal joint, 6in., of the tail, from the base,
54in., the outer tail feathers being about 1in. shorter
than the middle pair. The bill measures 3} in, from the
front along the curvature, the tarsus 1} in. 7 :

The figure of the Drefanornis herewith given is re-
duced from the lithograph prepared for the “Proceedings ”
of the Zoological Society, which will form the 47th plate
of the volume for 1873, aud will be published as soon as
the second part is ready. : :

Signor D’Albertis obtained his examples of this remark-
able bird during his recent excursion into the interior of
New Guinea, at a place called Atam, which is situated at
an elevation of about 3,500 feet above the sea-level in
the Arfak mountains. In an account of his journey

* The name originally given at the Zoological Society’s meeting of June
17 was Drepanephorus (Secravigcpes) falcem gerens. (See NATURE, vill. p.
195.) But this term havirg been previously applied by Sir Philip Egerton

to a genus of fossil fishes, 1 proposed (NATURE, viii. p. 192) to convert the
bird’s name into Drefanornis (Sréravev falx et prs avis).—P.L,S.

306

NATURE

[Aug. 14, 1873 4

recently published in the Sydney Mail, he speaks thus of
the present sp‘cies ; —

“A adag otier Sirds obtainel at Atam, [ muy mention
a azw species of Bird of Paradise-bird which perhaps mty
even prove to be of a new genus. [ secured oaly a mile
and fe.nile, whici have bea transmitted to th: Zoological
Society of London by the last A oril mail steamer, and they
are wnigie specineas. It is evidently a very rare bird,
for miny of tne natives dd not kaow it. bit others cilled
it Qeamz. The peculiarity of tris bird consists in the
formitioa of the bill, and the softness of the plumage.
At first it does not apper to have the beauty usually seen
in the birds of this group, but when more closely ob-
served, and under a strong light, the plumage is seen to
be both rich and brilliant. The feathers that arise from

the base of the bill are of a metallic green and of a red- |

dish cosp2r-colour; the feathers of the breast, when |

| Laid quite smooth, are of a violet-grey, but when raised,

form a semicircle round the body, reflecting a rich golden
co’our. Other violet-grey feathers arise fron the flanks,
edz2d by a rich metallic violet tint; but when the
plumage is entirely expanded, the bird appears as if it
had formed two semicircles around itself, and is certainly
a very handsome bird. Above the tail and wings the
feathers are yellowish, und2raeath they are of a darker
shade. The head is barely covered with small round
feathers, which are rather deficient behind the ears ; the
shoulders are of a tobacco-colour, and underneath the
throat of a black blending into olive colour; the feathers
of the breast are violet-grey, banded by a line of olive,
and those of the vent white. The bill is black, eyes
chestnut, and the feet of a dark leaden colour. The

The new Bird of Paradise, Drefanorn.s Albertisi. Upper figure, Male; lower figure, Female.

food of this bird is not yet known, nothing having
been found in the stomachs of those I prepared but clear
water.

Besides this Paradise-bird, M. D’Albertis procured from
the natives, in the vicinity of Orangeri Bay, on the
western coast of New Guinea, opposite to Salawatty, two
imperfect skins of a second apparently new species. This
is a true Paradisea, nearly allied to the Greater and
Lesser Birds of Paradise (P. afoda and P. papuana), but
having the long lateral plumes more of an orange-red, as
in P. rubra. These skins were likewise exhibited at the
Zoological Society’s meeting on June 17 last, and the
species, in accordance with M. D’Albertis’ wishes, was
proposed to be called Paradisea raggiana, after the Mar-
quis Raggi.

As the collection of birds which contained these two
new Paradise-birds only reached me on the morning of
the same day as the meeting of the Society, it was not
possible to make an accurate examination of all of them
before the meeting, and the two Paradise-birds, being the
most remarkable among the novelties, were alone de-
scribed. But I have now had time to examine the whole
series carefully, and find that it contains 70 specimens
referable to 53 species. Twelve of these (besides the two
Paradise-birds) appear to be new to Science, and will be
described and named at the first meeting of the Zoological
Society in the autumnal session. Besides these novelties
there are examples of several other birds recently described
by Dr. Schlegel from Rosenberg’s collections, and of other
rare species, P. L. SCLATER

oy

| Aug. 14, 1873]
ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND
MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF

WEIGHT AND MEASURE*
II,

i has already been mentioned that the gravitation or
weight of bodies varies with their density, and the
density of the medium in which they are placed. In order
_ to ascertain the true relative weight, as well as the actual
weight of standard weights differing in density when they
are weighed in air, it is necessary to allow for the weight
of air displaced by each. It thus becomes necessary to
reduce these weighings to a vacuum, dy deducting from
the apparent weight in air the weight of the volume of
air displaced by each standard.
But the weight of a given volume of air is necessarily
more or less according to its temperature, the pressure of
the atmosphere, and other conditions affecting it; and

PS.1844.1.06

= e
ce
Fic. 1.—Imperial Standard Fic. 2.—Official Standard Pound, Gilt
Pound of Platinum. Gun Metal. No. 3r.

Diameter = 1°15 inch. Size: Diameter at a = 1°25 inch,
. A = 281572. 4 »
Displaces 0'403 grains of
air,
P A = 8'5144
Displaces 1’9or grain of air,

Upper Surface of Gilt Gun Metal
Standard Pound shown.

Upeer Surface of Platinum
itandard Pound shown.

the following data are requisite for ascertaining the weight
of air displaced by each standard.

1. The mean temperature of the air during the weighings,

2, The mean barometric pressure reduced to 32° Fahr.
and corrected for the pressure of vapour and of carbonic
acid gas in the air.

3. The density of the metal of which each standard
weight is composed.

_4. The co-efficients of expansion of the metals and of
air.

5. The relative weight of each standard.

From data 1 and 2 the ratio of the density of the air
to the maximum density of water must be ascertained.
This ratio is also affected by the height above the mean
level of the sea, and the latitude of the place where the

* Continued from p, 270,

Ts a

NATURE

307

comparison is made, as the force of gravity differs ac-
cordingly. ut in practice the determination of the
weight of air displaced in weighing is easily and quickly
effected, either by the more accurate mode of making
the computations from the above-mentioned data, with
the aid of a logarithmetical formula and tables for re-
duction of weighings, or approximately by special tables
showing the mean weight of ordinary air displaced by
standards of various densities. The mean ord nary air
taken as the standard air in this country is of the normal
temperature of 62° Fahr., the barometer being at 30 inches,
with the mercury reduced by computation to the tempera-
ture of 32° Fahr., the amount of aqueous vapour in the air
being assumed to be two-thirds of the quantity in satu-
rated air, and the amount of carbonic acid contained in it
being taken at o'0004 of its volume.

The actual mode of ascertaining the weight of air dis-
placed by standard weights when compared by weighings
in air, will be described more at length afterwards.
But some illustrations may here be given of the
effect of the difference of density in standard weights,
upon their weight in ordinary air. The following 1lb,
avoirdupois weights are of the actual form and size :—

Fic. 3.—Quartz Pound in Standards Department, bearing no mark,
Size = 2'17 inches cube, edges rounded.
A=2'6505. Displaces 3'216 grains of air.

It may here be seen that the difference of air displaced
by the imperial standard lb. P.S. (Fig. 1), and the gilt gun
metal lb. No. 31 (Fig. 2), is 0'598 gr.; and if they were
equal in weight when in a vacuum, No. 31 would be
0'598 gr. lighter in air of the given density. No. 31 is
one of the gilt gun-metal secondary standard weights,
intended to regulate the weighings in air of all com-
mercial weights. As the primary platinum standard P.S.
from its greater density displaced so much less air than
ordinary brass and iron weights—the density of cast-iron
being about 7'408, and a cast-iron lb, displacing about
1150 gr. of air—the weight of all the gilt gun-metal lbs.,
of which No. 31 was one, was referred by Prof. Miller to
a theoretical commercial standard lb. of brass of the
average density of brass and bronze weights (A\=8. 143),
and thus displacing 1'047 gr. of standard air. This com-
mercial standard Ib. denoted as W. was assumed to be of
the same weight in a vacuum as P.S., and consequently
in standard air P.S. was 0°644 gr. heavier than W.

The standard pound of quartz (Fig. 3) displaces 3'217
grains of air. It was constructed as an auxiliary standard
on account of the invariability of. quartz, and its apparent

308

fay 4 den ee el 8 LI apy ee

NATURE

vee rr. yao tok A

BS ge.
~ >? oy ye oli

weight in air was made intermediate between that of a
pound of platinum and a pound of brass, being o'401 gr.
lighter than P,S,, and 0'232 gr. heavier than W. in standard
air,

As the determination of the density of bodies has thus
been referred to the maximum density of an equal
yolume of water, it was evidently necessary to determine
the absolute weight of a normal measure of water at its
maximum density, in order to determine the true weight
in air of a given yolume of any substance, the density of
which has been ascertained. It is claimed to be one of the
important advantages of the decimal metric system, that
this relation may be at once ascertained from the circum-
stance of the unit of weight, the kilogram, having been
determined by its being the weight of a cubic decimetre
of pure water at its maximum density. Thus the volume
of any body expressed in cubic decimetres, or the
measure of capacity of liquids expressed in litres, the litre
being the measure of a vessel holding a cubic decimetre
of water at its maximum density, when multiplied by its
density, at once gives the weight in kilograms ; or, if ex-
pressed in centimetres, the weight will be given in
grammes, There is not the same simple relation between
the unit of weight and of volume or capacity in the im-
perial system, the same definite ratio not being established
between the unit of cubic capacity derived from the unit
of length and the unit of weight, which is found in the
metric system. This relation has therefore been deter-
mined experimentally in England from ascertaining the
weight of a cubic inch of pure water, and the determina-
tion by Sir George Shuckburgh in 1798 was accepted by
scientific men in this country, and has been legalised by
Statute, by which a cubic inch of water at the temperature
of 62° F. weighed in air of the same temperature, with the
barometer at 30 inches, weighs, 252°458 grains of brass.
From this ratio, the cubic capacity of the standard gallon,
containing 10 lbs. weight of water, is declared to be
277'274 inches, and a cubic foot of water is declared to
weigh 62°321 lbs. avoirdupois. But this ratio does not
agree with that adopted in France, nor indeed with other
and different ratios adopted in Sweden, Austria, and
Russia respectively, as determined from separate experi-
ments made in each of these countries. As respects the
metric system, even assuming the weight of a cubic deci-
metre of water to be exactly a kilogram according to its
theoretical definition, as to which doubts exist, it is only
equal to this weight when the water is at the temperature
of about 39° F. or 4° C, and when weighed in a vacuum,
When of the ordinary temperature (say 62° F.) and
weighed against brass weights in ordinary air (say, the
barometer at 30 inches), it would weigh not a kilogram
or 1,000 grammes, but about 999'012 grammes, the diffe-
rence being the loss of weight by the weight of air dis-
placed by a cubic decimetre of water. According to the
English ratio, the cubic decimetre of water would weigh in
air 999°515 grammes. Andif the French ratio were applied
to our imperial measures a cubic inch of water would
weigh 252'336 grains, the capacity of the gallon would be
277'141 inches, and the cubic foot of water would weigh
62°291 lbs, But in point of fact, a new and authoritative
international determination of the weight of a standard
unit of water is very much needed, in order that its true
weight may be satisfactorily ascertained and uniformly
adopted in all countries.

I1.— Standards of Imperial Weight and Measure}

The English standard units of weight and length, the
pound and the yard, have come down to us from the
Saxons, The Mint pound of the Tower of London, which
continued to be the legal unit of weight up to the time of
Henry VIII., was the old pound of the Saxon Moneyers
in use before the Conquest ; whilst the earliest recorded
standard of length in this country was the yard or gird
of the Saxon kings, kept at Winchester. re Edgar is
recorded to have decreed, with the consent of his Wites,

[Aug. 14, 1873

the standard.” No change was made by the Normans in
the system of weights and measures established in Eng-
land, and bya statute of William the Conqueror it was
ordained that the measures and weights should be true
and stamped in all parts of the country, as had before
been established by law. vl

The old Tower pound was the ancient pound sterling of
silver, containing 20s., each of 12d. or pennyweights, It
was also divided into 12 ounces, and was thus used as the
apothecaries’ weight. The Tower pound was less than
the Troy pound by 15 dwt., and contained 5,400 Troy
grains. It was discontinued by law in the 24th year of
Henry VIII., the Troy pound, which appears to have been
first introduced into this country from France at the
close of the reign of Edward III., being substituted for it.
The mark of 8 ounces was % of the Tower pound, and was
identical in weight with the ancient unit of money weight
in Germany, known as the Cologne Mark. The Tower
pound was also nearly identical in weight with the ancient
Alexandrian pound, the 125th part of the Great Talent of
the Ptolemies, from which it was probably derived. The
Troy pound is said to have owed its origin to the Arab
roth or pound of the Caliph Almamoun, of very nearly
equivalent weight, sent as a present to Charlemagne.

The earliest English weight for heavy goods was the
merchants’ pound, declared in a Statute of Henry III. to
be equal to 25s., or one-fourth more than the Tower
pound. It must thus have been equal to 6,750 Troy grs.
Another ancient authority declared the merchants’ pound
to have contained 15 ounces, and if these were Troy ounces
this merchants’ pound must have contained 7,200 Troy gers.
The merchants’ pound seems to have merged insensibly
into the avoirdupois pound of 7,000 Troy grs,, not later
than the time of Edward III. It is certain that commer-
cial pounds nearly equivalent to each of the three weights
here specified were largely used in different parts of
France and Germany. Our existing avoirdupois pound
can be distinctly traced to the time of Edward III. ; and
there is good ground for believing that no substantial
difference has occurred in its weight, or that of the Troy
pound, since either of them was first established as a
standard in this country,

There can also be little doubt that the length of the
English yard has continued unchanged from the earliest
times. The standard yard of Henry VII., which is still
preserved in the Standards Department, is hardly ;4pth of
an inch shorter than the imperial standard yard, and
being an end-standard, it must have lost a little of its.
original length. The standard weights and measures
made in the eleventh year of Henry VII., which are the
earliest English standards now known to exist, are all de-
clared to have been taken from the older standards of the
Exchequer, as were also the later standards of Queen
Elizabeth, which continued to be the legal standards of the
country up to the year 1824. Although there is no direct
evidence of the origin of the Saxon yard, it is highly pro-
bable, from its {length agreeing very nearly with that of
double the natural cubit (of about 18 English inches) and —
from its third part, the foot, being very nearly identical
with the ancient Egyptian and Greek foot, that these two
English unit measures of length owe their origin to the
cubit of a man, the earliest known standard measure of
length recorded in ancient history.

The Troy pound was the standard unit of weight in this
country from the time of Henry VIII. up to the year
1855, when the imperial pound avoirdupois was made the
legal standard of weight. The actual primary units of ©
imperial weight and measure are now the standard pound
avoirdupois and the standard yard in the custody of the
Warden of the Standards, and deposited at the Standards
Department, Old Palace Yard, Westminster. They
were constructed under the superintendence of the Stan- —
dards Commission, appointed in 1843 for the restoration —
of the standards of weight and measure which had been

Aug. 14, 1873]

or Council, that “the measure of Winchester should be

NATURE

309

_ placed in the custody of the Clerk of the House of

Commons, and were destroyed by the burning of the
Houses of Parliament on October 11, 1834. The members
of this Standards Commission had previously given their
services as a preliminary committee, having been ap-

_ pointed in 1838 to consider the steps to be taken for re-
_ storing the standards, the Act of 1824 (5 Geo. IV. c. 74),

_ under the authority of which the lost standards had been

ied

legalised, having directed that, in the event of their loss

or destruction, new standards should be constructed in

accordance with provisions contained in the Act, by re-
ference to an invariable natural standard.

These provisions were as follows :—In regard to the
Standard of Weight, it was recited in § 5 of the Act, that
a cubic inch of distilled water, weighed in air against
brass weights, at the temperature of 62° Fahr. the
barometer being at 30 inches, had been determined by
scientific men to be equal to 252°458 grains, of which the
Standard Troy pound contained 5,760; and if this
Standard were lost or destroyed, a new Standard Troy
pound was to be constructed, bearing the same propor-
tion to the weight of a cubic inch of water, as the
Standard pound bore to such cubic inch of water.

It will thus be seen that the new unit of weight was
declared to be dependent upon the new unit of length, it
being based upon the capacity of the cubic inch, or the
cube of the thirty-sixth part of the Standard yard,

With respect to the Standard unit of length, § 3 of the
Act recited that the Imperial Standard yard, when com-
pared with a pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time
in the latitude of London, in a vacuum at the level of the
sea, had also been determined to be in the proportion of
36 inches to 39°1393 inches, and it was provided that if
lost or destroyed, a new Standard yard should be con-
structed bearing the same proportion to such pendulum,
as the Imperial Standard yard then bore to it.

After long deliberation, the Committee made a very
full Report, dated. December 21, 1841, and declared their
opinion that the several elements of reduction of the
pendulum experiments referred to in the Act of 1824,
were doubtful or erroneous. It was evident, therefore,
that the course prescribed by the Act would not neces-
sarily reproduce the Standard yard. It appeared also
that the determination of the weight of a cubic inch of
water was still doubtful, differences being found between
the best English, French, Austrian, Swedish and Russian
determinations amounting to about 755 of the whole
weight, whereas the results of the mere operation of
weighing might be determined within yogdp05 of the
whole weight. The Committee were fully persuaded that
with reasonable precautions, it would always be possible
to provide for the accurate restoration of Standards by
means of material copies which had been compared with
them. And they had ascertained that several measures
existed which had been most carefully compared with the
former Standard yard ; and several weights, which had
been most accurately compared with the lost Standard
pound ; and by the use of these, the values of the original

standards could be restored without sensible error.

They recommended that no change should be made in
the values of the primary units of the weights and
measures of the kingdom, or in the meaning of the
names by which they were commonly denoted ; that the
construction of the Standards be entrusted to a Committee
of scientific men, under certain instructions contained
in the Report, and by comparison with the most carefully
selected specimens ; that the Parliamentary standard. of
length be one yard, there appearing no sufficient reason
for departing from the length hitherto adopted for the
standard ; and that the Avoirdupois pound be adopted
instead of the Troy pound as the Parliamentary standard
of weight, the avoirdupois pound being invariably known
and generally used, and the Troy pound being wholly

unknown to the great mass of the British population, and
comparatively useless. They also recommended that no
new specific standard of capacity be established, the unit
of capacity, the gallon, being continued to be defined by
its containing Io lbs, weight of distilled water, as specified
in the Act of 1824. ;

Many other important recommendations were also made
by the Committee in relation to the official Secondary
Standards, and the verification and legalising of local
Standards for the use of Inspectors of Weights and
Measures throughout the country, and for the Colonies,
in order to secure the requisite uniformity in commercial
weights and measures, and their accordance with the
scientifically constructed primary standards.

For more effectually carrying out these recommenda-
tions for the construction of the new Standards, the
Standards Commission was appointed on June 20, 1843,
and continued their labours until 1854, their definitive
Report being dated on March 28 in that year.

The preliminary Committee was composed of the fol-
lowing scientific men :—G. B, Airy, Astronomer Royal,
Chairman (now Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., and President of
the Royal Society) ; F. Baily, V.P.R.S.; J. E. D. Bethune ;
Davies Gilbert, V.P.R.S.; J. G. S. Lefevre (now Sir J. G. S,
Lefevre, K.C.B.) ; J. W. Lubbock (afterwards Sir J. W.
Lubbock, Bart.) ; Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S. Dean of
Ely and Lowdian Professor of Astronomy; Rev. R.
Sheepshanks, F.R.S.; Sir J. F. H. Herschel, Bart.
With the exception of Mr. Davies Gilbert, who died in
the meantime, all these scientific men continued their
services as members of the Commission for constructing
the new Standards. The Marquis of Northampton,
P.R.S., Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S., and Prof. W. H. Miller
were also appointed members of the Commission. On
the death of the Marquis of Northampton, the name of
the Earl of Rosse, his successor as President of the Royal
Society, was added. H, W. CHISHOLM

OREODON REMAINS IN THE WOODWARD-
IAN MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE

N addition to the valuable collection of recent skele-
tons lately given by Lord Walsingham to the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, he also presented a series of
mammalian remains from the Miocene deposits of the
Mauvaises Terres in Nebraska. These were, fortunately,
for the most part brought to England in masses of the
original rock, and have therefore had the great advantage
of Mr. H. Keeping’s care and skill in developing them
from the matrix. His long-continued labour has resulted
in the most interesting collection of fossils referred to in
this notice, and now deposited in the Woodwardian Mu-
seum. Professor Hughes has entrusted me with the exa-
mination and determination of the remains, and has
afforded me every possible assistance. The species
revealed, some of which may possibly require the esta-
blishment of a new genus, at any rate appear to be new
to science, and much larger than any hitherto described
in America. We have thought that, pending the pre-
paration of a complete description, your readers would be
interested in a general account of the fossils ; and espe-
cially it has been thought desirable that an account of the
skull and dentition should be given in as simple a form as
possible ; for I have not yet seen any description of the
skull other than the complete one of Prof. Leidy. At
any rate, fresh interest will be excited in the Oreodontidz
now that so splendid a series of remains can be seen in
an English Museum. : :

A summary of our fossils may be thus given :—

1. Alarge nearly complete skull, with lower jaw at-
tached; the zygomatic arches being, however, almost
destroyed.

2, The greater portion of a large skull preserving very
completely one zygomatic arch with posterior crest.

310

3. Another skull of the same species showing the part
anterior to the bifurcation of the sagittal crest.

4. Another large skull of the same species, wanting the
greater part of the face.

5. A nearly complete skull of another species.

6. The greater part of two skulls of Oveodon Culbert-
soni (the original and typical species), smaller than any
of the above.

7. Half of the frontal region of an individual larger
than any of the others.

8. Casts of the brain of a large and of a small species,
with determinable parts of bones attached.

9. Many pieces, more or less complete, chiefly parts of
upper and lower jaws with teeth, including a number
which show the canine and incisor teeth.

10, Portions of limb bones, and a number of vertebrze.

Besides these, the collection includes Carnivorous,
Rodent, and other very interesting remains,

“The deposits of the Mauvaises Terres,” seys Prof.
Leidy, “are remarkable for the great quantity of fossil
remains of mammals and turtles they have yielded with-
out further exploration than picking them up from the
surface of the country. Detached from the neighbouring
soft and readily disintegrating rocks, the fossils lie strewn
about, and have often attracted the attention of the least
curious of those who have traversed the district. Many
of the loose fossils have gradually been collected by tra-
vellers and others, so that few of a conspicuous character,
I am told, now remain. Of those collected, by far the
greater part have been submitted to my investigation,
and these have amounted to the enormous quantity of
between three and four tons in weight.” The first descrip-
tion of fossils from the Mauvaises Terres, was by Dr.
Prout, who, in 1846 and 1847, described a jaw of a large
animal supposed to be a Paleotherium, in the American
Fournal of Science and Art. Gradually specimens came
to light, many of which were described by Prof. Leidy,
who collected and completed his descriptions in 1852,
when he published, in the Smithsonian Contributions,
“The Ancient Fauna of Nebraska,” of 126 pages, and 24
splendid plates. In succeeding years the Mauvaises Terres
were further explored by Dr. David Dale Owen, Dr. John
Evans, and Dr. F. V. Hayden, who brought to Phila-
delphia large collections of fossils. Altogether Prof,
Leidy supposes that he has seen entire skulls or portions
of skulls of about 500 individual Oreodonts, a very large
proportion of which belong to one species, Oreodon Cu/-
bertson?, In 1869 the results of his twenty years’ labour
were published as the seventh volume of the second series
of the “Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia,” under the title of the “ Extinct Mammalian
Fauna of Dakotah and Nebraska,” 472 pages, and 29
plates, large quarto. This great work includes also a
synopsis of the entire mammalian remains of North
America, with the most complete references and the
author’s valuable critical opinions. The interest is not
merely in the artiodactyle ungulates, but also in the
perissodactyles, including the famous Hipparion and
Anchitherium, as well as the Rhinoceros, Machairodus,
Mastodon, and Edentate remains. Quite recently Prof,
Marsh has described a new medium-sized species of
Oreodon in the current number of the American Fournal
of Science and Art.

The family Oreodontidz is characterised by the
possession of an elongated massive skull, of which the
portion in front of the articulation of the lower jaw con-
stitutes more than three-fourths. The upper surface
slopes gradually from behind forwards. Posteriorly is a
high sagittal crest (I}in. at the greatest height in large
species), reaching far back, so as to project on a level
considerably behind that of the occipital condyles. The
crest is flanked by large and wide temporal fossze, their
floor being chiefly formed by the squamous bone, which
1s internally strongly convex, and bears a blunt ridge

NATURE

| Aug. 14, 1873.

proceeding from behind forwards, downwards, and out-
wards. The sagittal crest bifurcates anteriorly to form
the postero-lateral sides of a nearly flat lozenge-shaped
frontal region, whose lateral angles overarch the com-
pleted bony orbits. The upper surface of the face is
terminated by elongated convex nasals, which extend, I
think, quite to the level of the front of the premaxilla, and
project further in the middle line than at the sides. The
nasal cavities are very large, high at the anterior opening,
and do not open laterally on the face near the orbit,
They have complicated turbinals. The frontal region is
alternately gently convex and concave, being more
convex near the lateral angles. The frontals have, near
the middle line on each side, a considerable supra-
orbital foramen, appearing at about the level of the
posterior boundary of the orbit.

On the lateral aspect of the skull there is first to be
noticed the lateral occipital crest which extends out-
wards and backwards, as the outer margin of the post-
occipital fossa, which varies in size. It then bifur-
cates, giving an inferior branch continuing the margin of
this fossa, and a lateral branch which passes far out-
wards, bounding the great temporal fossa. This ridge
rises higher as it recedes from the occipital region, and
external to the articulation of the lower jaw developes
into a curved crest, which is remarkably large and thick
in one specimen. Further forward this crest does
not exist. The widest part of the skull is just in front
of this; in one of our species the width at this point
is twice as great as the distance from the occipital
to the orbit. The zygomatic process of the squamosal
comes forward to the under part of the orbit, and is
received into a long concavity of the malar. The latter
passes above this process, to join the post-orbital process
of the frontal, and bound the large oval or circular orbit.
The malar is often of great vertical depth, and joins a pro-
minence of the maxillz above the alveoli of the posterior
molars. Inside and above this elevation, the lachrymal
occupies a considerable space on the face, and has an
antorbital fossa of varying size. Anteriorly the face
continues comparatively high, generally convex, and
nearly vertical.

The base of the skull presents the occipital condyles,
which have their anterior and posterior portions obliquely
bent upon each other at an acute angle; they approach
very close to one another in the median line below. The
basi-occipital has a strong raised median ridge, which
gradually dies away on the basi-sphenoid. The basi-
cranial axis is set at an angle of about 4o° to the palatine
axis. Externally there is a large nipple-shaped post-
glenoid process of the squamosal (the transverse diameter
being the greater). Immediately on its inner side is a
large auditory bulla, somewhat compressed ; and applied
to its external surface, and at the same time nearly
touching the post-glenoid process is a long and strong
paroccipital, The external meatus opens obliquely up-
ward in front of the paroccipital. ‘

Between the teeth, the palate is of almost uniform
width, is regularly concave, and smooth. It extends for
some distance behind the molar teeth, being narrowed ;
and has a concave posterior margin of different form in
the various species. The pterygoid continues the lateral
part of the concavity to the alisphenoid region,

The horizontal ramus of the mandible is of moderate
height, each half being separated slightly from the other
in the specimens. The symphysis is considerable, and
shows serrated sutures. The anterior end of the mandible
is very little diminished in height, has less of the spatulate
form than ordinary ruminants, and is somewhat expanded
in consequence of the size of the canines. The rami are
very nearly parallel throughout their whole extent. The
ascending ramus is high, with a small coronoid process,
and a transversely elongated condyle. ;

The dental formula is—

NATURE

311

Bae i
=—— = 44
| sais:

_ Inthe middle line above there are six small somewhat
_ chisel-shaped incisors, increasing in size from within out-
wards. Next succeeds a large curved conical canine,
- flattened on its external aspect, and bearing a slight
- median longitudinal groove. There are seven teeth in
the molar series, of which the first four appear to be pre-
molars. These teeth present characters common to most
ruminant genera, the premolars showing one double
crescent, and the true molars two double crescents ; the
convexity of the crescents being turned inwards as in the
upper jaw of ail ruminants, They are very square in
eneral shape, and the crescents are very convex. The
unction of the anterior and posterior crescents externally

_ is raised into a strong column, and a similar column pro-
_ jects as a third lobe on the posterior molar,

In the lower jaw eight teeth appear in front ; the six
middle ones of about the same size as the incisors of the
__upper jaw, but more cylindrical. The extreme tooth on
each side, homologically a canine, is considerably larger
' and more chisel-shaped. The upper canine bites imme-
diately behind this tooth ; and behind this again is a long
curved caniniform tooth similar to the canine of the upper
jaw. Three premolars and three true molars succeed.

They are generally similar to those of the upper jaw,

' but have the convexities of the crescents turned out-
wards. Throughout the series of teeth there is no dias-
tema, except just as much as will allow the canine teeth
to fit compactly above and below.
The following are, roughly, the dimensions of the large
skull No. 1 :—Length on upper surface, 13} or 14 inches ;
height posteriorly 8} inches ; anteriorly, nearly 6 inches ;
length of lower jaw, 10} inches ; length of molar series of
upper jaw, 6 inches.

A brief comparison with some other skulls will assist
in giving an idea of the affinities of the Oreodonts, The
Peccary presents perhaps the greatest number of resem-
blances. The sagittal ridge and frontal surface are some-
what alike, but the sagittal ridge is much longer and
higher in Oreodon. The part of the squamosal (with the
high crest) posterior to the glenoid cavity is similar, but
not nearly so elevated or so widely diverging from the
middle line. The supra-orbital foramen is on the level of
the anterior, and not the posterior of the orbit. The post-
occipital fossa and the condyles are very much alike ; so
is the narrowing of the palate behind the molars ; but the
palate is wider and not so long proportionally:in Oreoden.
The posterior edge of the mandible is similar.

But the differences between Oreodon and the Peccary
are many and important ; the characters.of the teeth are
very different: the Peccary has a large diastema; the
mandibular rami are not parallel, the nasal cavities are
smaller in proportion ; there is no lachrymal fossa ; the
orbit is incomplete ; there is scarcely any post-glenoid
process of the squamosal.

The pig exhibits somewhat more likeness to Oreodon
in the relations and size of the par-occipital and the
auditory bulla ; but differs still more importantly in the
wide separation of the two temporal fossz by the inter-
vening flat parietals.

The Camel agrees with Oreodon in the large size and
close proximity of its temporal fossze, which are separated
by a sagittal crest, but the latter is low, and the floor of
the temporal fossa is exceedingly convex. There are vast
re ge in the face, teeth, mandible, and auditory
bulle.

In the ordinary Ruminant, as the sheep, it is the face
which presents most resemblances to our specimens.
These consist in the shape of the nasals, the nearly ver-
tical maxillz, the complete orbits, the antorbital fossa of
the lachrymal, the Ruminant molars, and the form of the
palate between the molars, But the posterior part of the

i ee

skull is very unlike. Even in the molar teeth, while the
type is the same there are considerable difierences which
will be hereafter fully described.

The Llama is much less like Oreodon than the
camel is.

The casts of brains and the limb and trunk-bones and
vertebrz promise to afford very interesting matter, but I
have not yet made a careful examination of them.

G. T. BETTANY

ASTRONOMICAL ALMANACS,

A COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF THE “ CONNAISSANCE
DES TEMPS,” THE “ NAUTICAL ALMANAC,” AND THE
“ JAHRBUCH” OF BERLIN.*

I.—The “Connaissance des Temps” of Picard and Lefebvre.

lies 1666 a celebrated bookseller of Paris, Jean de la

Caille, at the sign of the “ Fontaine d’or,” in the Rue
Jacob, published, at his own expense, the “ Astronomical
Ephemerides” of Hecker, the Astronomer of Dantzig,
These Ephemerides were calculated on the observations of
Tycho Brahe and Kepler, according to the rules given in
the Rudolphine tables—tables constructed at the expense
of Rudolph II., Emperor of Germany, by Tycho Brahe,
Kepler and himself. Their title was, “ Johannis Heckeri
Motuum Czlestium Ephemerides, ad anno 1676, ad
annum 1680, ex observationibus correctis nobilissi-
morum Tychonis Brahei et Johannis Kepleri. Hypo-
thesibus Physicis, tabulisque Rudolphinis ad meridianum
Uraniburgicum in freto Cymbrico.”

These tables gave for the meridian of Uranibourg
(island of Heven, between Copenhagen and Elsinore)—
which derived considerable importance from the immortal
observations of Tycho Brahe—and for each day the longi-
tudes and latitudes of the sun, of the moon, of Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ; the longitudes in de-
grees and minutes for the planets and the sun, in degrees,
minutes, and seconds for the moon; the latitudes in de-
grees. They contained, moreover, an announcement of
the eclipses of the sun and of the moon for the whole
period indicated, and a table of geographical co-ordinates
(latitude and longitude reckoned from Uranibourg) of the
principal towns.

These Ephemerides, the best that then existed, stop-
ping at the year 1860, Picard, the creator of exact astro-
nomy, resolved to continue them. But on account of
a voyage which King Louis XIV. was about to undertake,
and during which the work which Picard proposed might
be useful, the French astronomer decided to advance by
a year the date of his publication, and to commence
with the year 1679.

The Ephemerides of Picard are thus titled :—* La
Connaissance des Temps ou Calendrier et Ephémérides
de lever et coucher du soleil, de la lune et des autres
planétes, avec les éclipses, pour l'année 1679, calculées
sur Paris, et la manére de s’en servir pour les autres
élévationsy ; avec plusieurs autres tables et traités d’astro-
nomie et de physique, et des Ephémérides de toutes les
planétes en figures.”

This work contains the following information :—1. The
time, almost to the minute, of the rising and setting of
the sun and moon at Paris, for every day of the year,
2. The time of the rising and setting of the sun (every
fortnight) and of the moon (every ten days) for Calais,
Paris, Lyon, and Marseille. From these tables the pre-
ceding time could be calculated for every point of France.
3. Announcement of eclipses of the sun and moon.
4. The time of the passage of the moon across the me-
ridian and the rght ascension of the sun for every day
of the year. We have thus the time of the tide. Be-

* Translated from La Revue Scientifique, July x
+t The word é/évation is synonymous with /atitude,

312

sides, the solar dials could be used to obtain the
hour during the night by the shadow of the moon;
and indeed the time at night could be obtained by
observation of the fixed stars. The same table con-
tains the value of the equation of clocks and pen-
dulums, what we now call the “ equation of time.”
5. A summary of the movements of all the planets for the
year, containing little but an indication of the epochs
when they were visible and of the constellations through
which they passed. 6. A plate in which the preceding
data were graphically traced. 7. A tabie of the latitudes
and longitudes (adjusted to the meridian of Paris) of the
principal cities of France. 8. An appendix, relating to
physical questions, containing an account of the winds
which prevailed in Paris for every day of the preceding
year, and an exact account of barometric indications for
the same period.

In 1680, Picard completed his volume by the follow-
ing additions :—A note on the inquiry into longitudes
(recherches des longitudes) by means of clocks and pen-
dulums ; a table of lengths of the pendulum corresponding
to an increasing number of vibrations per second, and in-
tended for the regulation of clocks ; a table of declinations
of the sun for each day (by degrees and minutes) ; and
lastly, a table indicating the weights of the unit of volume
(a cubic foot) of different substances.

These Ephemerides, although less complete, so far as
pure astronomy is concerned, than those of Hecker, were,
however, superior to them from a practical point of view,
by the-substitution of the right ascension of the sun and
moon for the longitude and latitude of these bodies ; it is,
in fact, the right ascension and declination which are
directly useful to astronomers.

Picard, who published the “ Connaissance des Temps ”
at his own expense and his own risk, was naturally inte-
rested in the success of his work. Thus, after having
sought to satisfy the wants of astronomers and mariners,
he added to this publication a list of the days on which the
posts to the various towns of France set out from Paris.
The custom of adding to the astronomical tables physical
or statistical data altogether foreign to astronomy, has
been continued to the present time in the “ Annuaire du
Bureau des Longitudes.”

Still the great labour required in editing these Epheme-
rides soon tired the Abbé Picard, who tried to find a
successor. There was then at the college of Lisieux, at
Paris, a professor of rhetoric named Pierre, who was a
good astronomer, and on that account was intimate with
all the astronomers of his time. Thelearned Abbé asked
him one day if he knew any one capable of assisting him,
and afterwards of carrying on the “Connaissance des
Temps ;” Pierre proposed Jean Lefebvre, weaver at
Lisieux, who, in the intervals of leisure which his work
allowed him, amused himself by reading some books on
astronomy, and was familiar enough with that science to
be known to Pierre, originally of the same town : he had
sent the latter, among other things, calculations of eclipses
which quite agreed with observation. Pierre and Picard
then asked Lefebvre to calculate a table of the passage of
the moon across the meridian, and this having been
accurately performed, they offered him an academician’s
annuity to come to Paris and continue the “ Connais-
sance des Temps.” We owe to his calculations the
volumes from 1684 to 1702. Profiting by the new tables
of the equation of the sun of Picard and Cassini, he was
able to calculate the ‘ Connaissance des Temps” with
more accuracy than had ever been done before.

To Lefebvre also are due several additions and modifi-
cations. Thus in 1686 he added a table of the exact posi-
tions of the planets, the sun, and the moon for every ten
days ; in 1690 he gave the immersions and emergences of
the first satellite of Jupiter ; im 1691 maxims in reference
to the movement of a ship, a list of ports and coasts, &c.
In 1692 he added a table of refractions from 0° to 90° of

NATURE

[Aug. 14, 1873

apparent height, calculated to a minute up to 48° and to
a second from 48° to 90°, as well as a value of the declina-
tion of the needle according to the observation of La
Hire.

In 1693 Lefebvre, having left Paris to take part in the
geodetic operations of Picard, one of his colleagues of the
Academy, Lieutaud, edited the Comnatssance des Temps
in 1693 and 1694; but on his return he resumed the edi-
torship, and continued it without interruption till 1702.

At that time, in consequence of an incident curious
enough to bear relation, the publication of the Connazs-
sance aes Temps was taken up by the Academy of
Sciences.

The son of De Ja Hire, a very popular academician,
who had considerable influence among his colleagues,
published, for 1701, a collection of Ephemerides intended
to rival those of Lefebvre, in which he said, “I hope, at
least, that there will not be found here errors (é/o¢gnements)
of calculation so great as are seen in certain popular and
much praised Ephemerides,” &c. Wounded to the quick
by such a reproach, altogether untrue, Lefebvre wrote in
the preface of the Conmatssance, for 17c1, “I cannot
avoid replying to the invectives of a certain small novice
[De la Hire //s], supposed author of an annual Epheme-
rides published a short time ago. This new author, filled
with a spirit of vanity, presumption, and falsehood. . .
We reply to this youthful novice . . .”

De la Hire, himself, was not spared. At this uncouth
reply the enemy’s camp winced, and resolved on re-
venge ; success was easy, for Lefebvre was by no means
a general favourite. Little by little the meetings of the
Academy were rendered insupportable to him, and when
he had absented himself for a certain number of meetings,
his name was struck out of the lists of that body. De-
prived of his Academician’s pension, Lefebvre could no
longer continue the Connatssance des Temps. The
Academy then took possession of the publication, which
became a public undertaking; so that the volume of
1702, instead of being, like the previous ones, dedicated
to the king, is published “by order of the Academy of
Sciences.” The old title is changed, and it is simply
called “ Connaissance des Temps, pour le Méridien de

: Paris,”

(To be continued.)

NOTES

In reference to the meeting of the British Association at
Bradford, the Reception Room will be opened on Monday,
September 15, at 1 P.M., and on the following days at 8 A.M.,
for the issue of tickets to members, associates, and ladies, and
for supplying lists and prices of lodgings, and other information,
to strangers on their arrival. No tickets will be issued after
6 p.M. On and after Monday, September 15, members, and
persons desirous of becoming members or associates, or of ob-
taining ladies’ tickets, are requested to make application in this
room. In the Reception Room there will be offices for supply-
ing information regarding the proceedings of the meeting. The
“Journal,” containing announcements of the arrangements for
each day, will be laid on the table on Wednesday, September
17, and the following mornings, at 8 a.M., for gratuitous distri- _
bution, Lists of members present will be issued as soon as
possible after the meeting, and will be placed in the same room
for distribution. The first general meeting will be held on
Wednesday, September 17, at 8 P.M. precisely, when Dr, Car-
penter, LL.D, F.R.S., &c., will resign the chair, and the
President Elect will assume the presidency, and deliver an ad-
dress. On Thursday evening, September 18, at 8 P.M., a
Soirée ; on Friday evening, September 19, at 8.30 P.M., a Dis-
course ; on Monday evening, September 22, at 8.30 P.M., a Dis-
course ; on Tuesday eyening, September 23, at 8 P,M., a Soirée;

on Wednesday, September 24, the concluding General Meeting
will be held at 2.30 P.M. We omitted to mention in last week’s
_ number that the President of Section D, Biology, is Prof.
| Allmann, M.D., F.R.S.

_ Str Henry Rawrinson has received a letter dated Khar-
toom, July 2, from Sir Samuel Baker. Sir Samuel expresses a
_ hope that he will be in Englandin September. In reference to
the oneness of Lakes Tanganyika and Albert Nyanza, he says:
_ —‘* The envoys sent by M’tése all assured me that the Tangany-
_ the eastern border ; that you can travel by boat from Ujiji to the
north end of the Albert Lake; but you must have a guide, as
Some portions are very narrow and intricate, From my experi-
~ ence of the high-water grass, I should expect islands and floating
‘vegetation in the narrow passes described. Iam by no means
fond of geographical theories, but the natives’ descriptions were
so clear that I accepted as a fact that the Tanganyika and Albert
Lakes are one sheet of water, with marshy narrow straits over-
| grown with water grass, through which you require a guide.”
Tue Session of the British Medical Association in London
| during the last week seems in all respects to have been most suc-
_ cessful: a great many papers were read, and a great quantity
of pleasuring hurried through. Many of the papers were valu-
_ able from a medical point of view, and some of importance
_ even from a general scientific standpoint. This week we give
_ a short abstract of Dr. Sanderson’s address.

AT the annual general meeting of the Royal Botanical Society,
on Monday, the Council congratulated the Fellows on the fact
that since the last anniversary meeting the progress which had
' characterised the operations of the society during the last few
years had been maintained. The number of new Fellows elected
| during the year was 114, being an increase of ten above that of
last year; few resignations had occurred. The total number
_ of Fellows and members at the present time was 2,502, the
largest on the books of the society since its commencement.
The total amount received in subscriptions was 25 0/. in excess
of that of last year, and considerably above the average of the
last few seasons. From the auditor’s report it appeared that the
total receipts for the year, including the balance of 529/. from
the previous year, amounted to 13,434/. 6s. 11d., and the pay-
ments, exclusive of the balance in hand, 2,170/. 9s. 4¢., to
11,2637. 17s. 7¢. The report of the secretary was also read,
and was equally satisfactory with the other reports. The Council
for the next year was elected by ballot.

Pror, G. SCHWEIZER, Director of the Moscow Observatory,
died on July 5, after a long illness.

Tue death of Sir Francis Ronalds in his 86th year, at Battle,
in Sussex, has just been announced. Sir Francis was well
kriown, many years ago, for his experiments in electricity. In
1823 he published a pamphlet containing an account of some of
his experiments, and explaining, with the help of illustrations,
his plan of an electric telegraph. He had erected in his own
garden, first at Highbury and then at Hammersmith, a number
of poles supporting eight miles of wire, and through this wire
_ he sent his messages. Each message was read at the further end
by means of two needles moving on a dial plate, a plan much
the same as that which afterwards came into general use. The
spark in his telegraph system was however created by an elec-
trical machine, and not, as in existing systems, by a galvanic
battery. In recognition of the value of his discovery, the Go-
yvernment bestowed on him the honour of knighthood in 1870,
when the same mark of appreciation had been conferred on Sir
Charles Wheatstone for his improvement of the telegraph. Sir
_ F. Ronalds superintended for a short time the Meteorological
Observatory at Kew on behalf of the British Association, and
_ the Government conferred upon him a small pension for his ser-
vices to Science, For some years he lived in the north of Italy,

NATURE

ten: ari

313

studying the works of Italian writers on electricity. Lately he
was engaged in his home at Battle in preparing a catalogue of
the published books and papers on electrical science, which we
believe is quite ready for print, and will be of great value to
students,

To the notice which appeared some few weeks back stating
that the large female Octopus had deposited a quantity of sp2wn
on the rock-work of her tank, we have now to add the still
more interesting intelligence of the successful development ard
escape of the perfected embryos. It will be remembered that
the first of these eggs were deposited on June 19, and as the
earliest arrivals of the young Octopods into the outer waters of
their tanks took place on Friday the 8th inst., we have just
eight weeks as the period of incubation. Mr. Saville Kent,
having personally witnessed the congress of the two sexes in
April last, we are also in a position to record an almost
similar period occupied during the process of gestation, and
which together constitute an important addition to our previous
knowledge of the habits of the Cephalopoda. Since Mr. Saville
Kent’s resignation of the Curatorship, the Brighton Aquarium
has unfortunately lost the older and tamer example of the two
porpoises, commented upon by that gentleman in NATURE for
July 17, as also the unique specimens of the Sturgeon and
John Dorée, which have likewise received a share of attention
from the same pen in the pages of this journal.

THE Lords of the Committee of Council on Education are |
about to appoint a keeper of the Natural History Depart-
ment of the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. The
salary will be 350/., rising to 450/. per annum. Candidates
should apply to the Secretary, Science and Art Department,
South Kensington.

THe German African Exploration Society has received a
despatch, dated July 1, announcing the arrival of Professors
Bastian and Goeschen at Cabinna Clougd, for which place
Dr. Guesfeldt had started on June 28 from Sierra Leone.
Dr. Falkenstein, Dr. Anatoin, physician, and Herr Linder,
engineer, are hourly awaiting, at Berlin, further intelligence, cn
receipt of which they leave to join the expedition.

Xanthorrea australis, one of the grass gum trees of Australia,
is coming into flower for the first time in Europe, in the succu-
lent-house at Kew. There is also a fine plant of Agave jacgui-
niana, removed to the palm-house for the sake of space, which
is now in full flower.

Dr. PETERMANN has sent us advanced sheets of some of the
articles to appear in the forthcoming number of his AZi/theilungen.
One of these gives an account of the Po/aris Arctic Expedition
under the unfortunate Capt. Hall, and points out the main scien-
tific results, which Dr. Petermann rightly regards as of the
highest importance. He animadverts with considerable severity
on the conduct of the English for the last nine years with regard
to Arctic exploration; we, he says, having during that time
endeavoured to depreciate the efforts of others, while we our-
selves have done nothing. Even the expedition of the daring
Hall, he declares, we sneered at when it set out, and since
its fate was known, have spoken slightingly of the results. We
must acknowledge that Dr. Petermann’s taunt as to our inaction
during the last nine years in the direction of Arctic exploration
is to some extent justified by facts; that inaction, however, is
not due to the apathy of English men of Science but to the par-
simony of the British Government. We have done much in the
way of private effort for discovery, but no amount of private effort
is equal to the fitting out of an adequate Polar Expedi-
tion. It is, we believe, the earnest desire of all classes
that Government should provide the means of enabling this
country to take that foremost part in Arctic exploration which
was formerly hers without dispute, by fitting out a thoroughly
equipped expedition, an expedition which should have for one ofits

314

aims the finding of the Pole. As to Captain Hall’s expeilitioa’
so far as we are aware, the high value of its results has been
everywhere in this country gratefully acknowledged, as well as
the indomitable bravery and enthusiasm and high intelligence of
the leader ; one of its most important results, for which all men-
of Science must be thankful, is that it has left the most prac-
ticable path to the Pole no longer questionable. That the Fo/aris,
however, was ill suited for ice-navigation, and that there was a
want of that thorough discipline on board, without which no
expedition of the kind can hope to be perfectly successful,
we still maintain is borne out by what was elicited dur-
ing the official investigation. We sincerely hope with Dr.
Petermann that the magnanimity and liberality of the American
Government will be the means of putting an end to the ‘‘ mere
talk of Englishmen,” and of inducing our Government at last
to set about organising on the most liberal scale an expedition to
leave our shores in the spring of 1874. Other papers in the
forthcoming number are ‘‘ With the Russian Army against
Khiva,” being two letters to Dr. Petermann from Lieut. Hugo
Stumm, of the Westphalian Hussar Regiment, and a paper by
Dr. D. Sievers, dated Tiflis, May 7, full of geographical infor-
mation of great importance. The same number will contain
the conclusion of Baron von Richthofen’s account of his travels
from Pekin to Sz’-tshwan.

TuE last issued number (vii.) of Petermann’s JZ tleilungen
-contains the conclusion of Ernest Marno’s Travels in High
Sennaar; the Results of the Observations made during the
voyage cf the Albert in November and December last, by Prof.
Mohn, Director of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute ;
and a well-constructed map of the Chinese Province of Kuang
Tung, from native and foreign authorities, by Dr. Hirth, with
accompanying description.

Pror. AGASSIZ, in his address to the students, at the opening
of the American School of Natural History, on Penikese Island,
said :—‘‘ Our chief work will be to watch the aquarium. I
want you to study principally marine animals. The only way to
do that properly, is to have them alive by your side. Ina very
few days I shall place at your disposal a series of these ap-
pliances. I have ordered one for every person admitted to the
school, so that each of you will have means to make these inves-
tigations. I have never had, in my own laboratory, better
opportunities for work than I place at your disposal. Our way
of studying will be somewhat different from the instruction
generally given in schools. I want to make it so very different,
that it may appear that there is something left to be done in the
system adopted in our public schools, I think that pupils are
made too much to turn their attention to books, and the teacher
is lefta simple machine of study, That should be done away
with amongus. I shall never make you repeat what you have
been told, but constantly ask you what you have seen yourselves.”
The following men of science will, it is said, assist Prof.
Agassiz in the conduct of his new charge :—Dr. Burt G. Wilder,
of Cornell; Dr. A. S. Packard, of Peabody Academy of
Science, Salem ; Count Pourtales, of the Coast Survey ; Prof.
Waterhouse Hawkins, of England ; Paulus Roetter, artist of the
Museum at Cambridge; Prof. Mitchell, of the Coast Survey ;
Prof. Joseph S. Lovering, of Harvard University ; Prof. Fr. W.
Putnam, of Peabody Academy of Science, Salem ; Prof. N. S.
Shaler, of Harvard ; Prof. Arnold Guyot, of Princeton, N, J. ;
Prof, Brown-Séquard,

AccorDING to the Melbourne Argus, H.M.S. Basilisk, Capt.
Moresby, while cruising in Torres Straits and neighbourhood for
the suppression of the Polynesian labour traffic, has added a
valuable fact to the knowledge we possessed of the geography of
New Guinea by the discovery of a new port and harbour in lat.

[Aug. 14, 1873

9° 30’ S., lon. 147° 10' E., about 38 miles east of Redscar Bay,
on the south-eastern coast. The discovery was made in February,
when Captain Moresby, while searching for a river supposed to”
flow into the sea east of Redscar Bay, entered an inlet which
proved to be the entrance to a magnificent harbour, with an
outer and inner anchorage, to which the names of Port
Moresby and Fairfax Harbour haye been given. The natives
are much lighter complexioned than those of the opposite coast, —
and are evidently of a much more friendly disposition,

A GREAT earthquake occurred at Valparaiso early on the
morning of July 8. There were six shocks in succession. Many
families took refuge in the streets, the damage to private houses
as well as to the public buildings being considerable ; and many
deaths were reported. A statue lately erected to Lord Cochrane
was wheeled half round on its pedestal. The earthquake was
observed to come from the east, and was felt as far south as
Curico.

THE Telegraphic Fournal intends to offer to its students from
time to time prizes for the best and most carefully considered
paper on a given subject. The first of these students’ prizes is
one of 25/. to be awarded to the author of the best paper on
‘*The Evidence of the Theory of Correlation of Physical lorces
as applied to Electricity and Magnetism,” received by the editor
of the journal on or before January 1st, 1874. The funds for
this prize have been kindly given by Mr. Edward Sabine, C.E,
The prize paper will be printed in the columns of the Ze/e-
graphic Journal,

WE understand that I,000/7. has been generously presented to
the Oldham School of Science and Art, by Mrs. Platt, widow
of the late John Platt, M.P., who was its founder in 1865, and
life-president. Since the opening, its artisan students have
gained four Whitworth Scholarships of 1oo/, each for three
years (two have been awarded this year); two Whitworth
Fellowships of 257, each; one Studentship at the Royal School
of Mines; three gold, six silver, and five bronze Queen’s —
Medals (the Medallists of 1873 are not yet announced), —
Twenty-four artisan students were examined by the Department
last May, in Inorganic Chemistry—eighteen passed (nine first
class, nine second class)—and twelve in Laboratory Practice,
The Committee have granted funds to enlarge the Chemical
Laboratory, also to establish one for practical work in Heat,
Steam, Light, and Acoustics.. Mr. J. T. Hibbert, M.P. for
Oldham, has given a Local Scholarship of 25/, for the coming
session. We have received a well-arranged time-table of Classes
under the direction of Mr. Phythian, C.E., and Mr. Philip, M.A.

In accordance with the resolution passed at the meeting, —
noted in last week’s NATURE, for the promotion of technical
education, at which H.R.H. the Prince of Wales presided, the
Haberdasher’s Company have sent to Lord Lawrence, for
distribution by the London School Board, the sum of 20/. as
their contribution towards the purchase of tickets of admission to
the International Exhibition.

DuRING the month of October, we learn from the Journal of
the Society of Arts, notwithstanding the Anarchical State of
Spain, an exhibition is to beheld at Madrid, of national pro-
ducts and manufactures, of agriculture, mines, chemicals, indus-
tries, and graphic arts. Foreign products will be received by
the executive at Madrid if carriage paid. Goods will be sold by
the executive on a small commission charge. This is to be the —
first of a proposed series of Spanish exhibitions. ‘

Pror. Cope sends us, as No, 14 of his ‘‘ Palzeontological
Bulletins,” the description of two new mammals from the ter-
tiary ‘fof the plains.” One, Aelurodon mustelinus, is only —
known from some teeth of the molar series ; the other, dcera-
herium megalodus, is represented by a perfect cranium with —

PM entition of both jaws nearly complete, with other bones of
- other specimens. The wording of the description is intricate
~ and short.

A PAPER “entitled “ A Study of North American Noctuide,
by A. R. Grote, was read on July 2 before the Buffalo Society of

Natural Sciences, declaring that six new genera (Ufeus, Able-

_pharon, Ommatostola, Argillophora, Harveya, Spilolom7) and

_ twenty-seven hitherto undescribed species (Agrotis, 7 ; Ufeus, 2;

Mamestia, 1 ; Dianthoecia, 1; Oncocnemis, 3; Hadena, 1 ; Om-
matostola, 1; Cucullia, 1; Xylina,1; Heliothis, 6; Argillo-
phora, 1; Harveya, 1; Spiloloma, 1), occur in the N, American
Tnsect Fauna.

Sir Henry RAwLinson’s presidential address at the last

_ anniversary meeting of the Geographical Society has been pub-

lished in a separate form by Messrs. Clowes and Sons. We are
glad to see it reproduced in a handy and well-printed form, for
it contains a masterly summary of the progress of geographical

_ knowledge during the past year.

WE have received the prospectus of what promises to be a
handsome and valuable work, ‘‘ The Fenland, Past and Present:
its History, Geography, Geology, Natural History, Scenery,
Antiquities, Climatology, Drainage, Agricultural Produce, and
Sanitary Condition ; illustrated with Wood Engravings, Maps,

_and Diagrams; by Samuel H, Miller, F.R.A.S., Fellow of the
- Meteorological Society; and Sydney B. J. Skertchley, F.G.S.,

H.M. Geological Survey.” It will be published by Leach and Son,
Wisbech ; and Longmans, Green, and Co. London. Under the
head ‘‘Fenland,” the authors include that area of low, once
marshy lands, in which the rivers Witham, Welland, Nene, and
Ouse interlaced, including nearly 2,000 square miles, and roughly
bounded by a line drawn from Lincoln by Bourn and Peter-
borough to Cambridge on the west ; from Lincoln to Skegness
on the north ; from Cambridge and St. Ives to Brandon on the
south ; and from Brandon to Lynn on the east (thus including
Boston, Sleaford, Spalding, Croyland, Thorney, Wisbech,
March, Huntingdon, Ely, besides the border towns.)

A VERY deserving institution has recently been established in
Cincinnati, under the title of the Cincinnati Acclimatisation
Society, its object being to effect the introduction of such foreign
birds as are worthy of note for their song or their services to the
farmer or horticulturist. The society announces that during
last spring it expended 5,000 dols. in introducing fifteen ad-

ditional species of birds, and that it had already successfully

accomplished the acclimatisation of the European sky-lark,
which is stated to be now a prominent feature of the summer
landscape in the vicinity of Cincinnati. Among the species
which it is proposed to introduce is the European titmouse, con.

sidered abroad as one of the most successful foes of insects

injurous to vegetation.

THE addditions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a Harnessed Anntelope ( Zvagelaphus seriptis),
a Double-crested Pigeon (Zopholemus antarticus), two Senegal
Touracous (Corythaix fersa), two Chilian Tinamous (2LAynchotus
perdicarius), a White-fronted Dove (Leptoptiva jamtaicensis), a
Glossy Ibis (Zéis falcinellus), a Mauge’s Dasyure (Dasyurus
mauget), a Barbary Ape (Macacus nuns), and others,

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie Neue Riche, Band xci.
Heft 2 und 3, June 14. This number begins with communication
No. 83 from the Griefswald Laboratory, the subject of which is
Phenathren, by M. Hayduck. The author describes several of

_ the compounds of this body.—From the same laboratory we

have a notice on the compound C,,H,S,, byC. Pauly. —B. Rathke
contributes a paper on the chloro-sulphides of carbon, and an-

NATURE

315

other on the compoundsof the amides with that body, Oneof these
chloro-sulphides has the formula CSC 4— perchloromethylmer-
captan, another the formula CSCl,, several of their compounds
are described. The same author also contributes a short paper
on the changes nitro-compounds undergo in sulpho-acids, —
Messrs, Maunder and Tollens communicate a paper on 8 Bibro-
mopropionic acid, in which they give an exhaustive account of
this body and its compounds.—Messrs. Caspary and Tollens
have _conyerted 8 Bibromopropionic acid into acrylic acid
and give an account of the process, and of the salts of acrylic
acid.—Mr. B, Tollens communicates a paper on the constitution
of the allyl and acryl derivatives. —Prof. Max. von Pettenkofer
hasa paper on ‘‘ Nourishment in general, and on flesh extract
as an essential portion of human nutriment in patticular.’’—
Messrs. Lieben and Paterné have a paper on the dry distillation
of calcic formate.—J. Wislicenus communicates a paper on the
optically active lactic acid of flesh extract, and on paralactic acid.
The same author also communicates some observations on ethyl-
lactic acid. The next paper is by C. E. Groves on the formation
of naphthaquinone by the direct oxidation of naphthalene,
which has already appeared in the March number of the Chemi-
cal Society’s Journal. Messrs. Hlasiwetz and Kachler, in a
postscript to their paper on a new derivative of sulpho-carba-
minic acid, mention the discovery of the body in question by
Zeise in 1842. H. Ranke finishes the number with some experi-
a proofs of the possibility of the spontaneous combustion of
ay.

Reale Instituto Lombardo di Scienze e Letiere Rendiconti, serie ii.
vol. vi. Fascicoli x.—We notice papers on elolates fuscus, by
Prof. Emelio Cornalia ; on the Italian earthquake of March 12,
by A. Serpieri ; on some geological theories, by G. Cantoni ;
on the inversion of currents in electromotors, by A. Ferrini.
Besides these there are papers on Manzoni and on Kant’s philo-
sophy, the first by A. Buccellati, and the second by C. Cantoni.
Fascicolo XI. contains only social papers, none of scientific
interest. In Fascicolo XII, S. A. Lemoigne contributes a
paper on the mechanism of rumination, and J. A. Serpieri one
on the earthquake of March 12; S. A. Cantoni has a paper
on the molecular movements of gases, The rest of the number
is devoted to the section of moral and political science,

In the Annali de Chimica applicata alla Medicina for June
is a paper on the cremation of the dead, which practice
is strongly advocated. The author, who is anonymous, states
that in Belgium 7,500 hectares (1 hectare = 2°47 acres) are un-
productive of food, through being used as cemeteries. He estimates
the value of this land at from 38 to 40 millions (lire ?).

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNDON

Royal Horticultural Society, July 16.—Scientific Com-
mittee.—Dr. M. T. Masters, F.R.S., in the chair.—A letter was
read from the locomotive superintendent of the Brighton Railway
stating the results of the company’s experience in using a mixture
of chalk with coal for fuel. It was found that used for any other
purpose than that of saving the fire-bars from Welsh coal (for
which it is admirably suited) or for reducing the area of heating
surface it increases the ordinary consumption of fuel considerably.
—The Rev. M. J. Berkeley showed female flowers of Zychnis
diurna, in which the calyx was reduced by arrest of development
to a mere rim.

August 6.—General Meeting—W. B. Kellock in the chair, —
The Rey. M. J. Berkeley commented upon the fruits and vege-
tables exhibited. He mentioned the remarkable improvement
in the quality of W. Indian pines owing to the introduction from
England of the better cultivated kinds.—Prof. Thiselton Dyer
pointed out that a curious cucurbit which had lately been intro-
duced, rather as a curiosity than for any useful purpose, under
the name of Sooly Qua, was a form of Luffa egyptiaca, the
common washing gourd. Another cucurbit known as the'Toong
Qua appeared to be identical with Benincasa cerifera.—A new
method of propagating ipecacuanha had been devised in India
by Mr. Jaffray, and promised to be of great importance. It
simply consisted in striking the leaves upright in pots. These
produced roots and the most superficial of these eventually pro- -
duced buds.—As an interesting fact bearing upon the distribution
of plants, an extract of a letter from Mr. Moseley, naturalist on
board H.M.S. Challenger, was read. A vessel laden with
grapes was wrecked on the coast of Bermuda a short time ago.-

316

The boxes of grapes were washed ashore, and the seeds germi-
nated in abundance, so that the governor was able to collect
plants for his garden.
BERLIN
German Chemical Society, July 28.—O, Liebreich, vice-
president, in the chair.—A, Laderburg described a simple way of
obtaining zinc-methyl and its action on silicic ether. The result
is a liquid boiling at 150° of the formula SiCH,(OC,H;),, to
which he gives the name ortho-silico-acetic ether. The same
chemist, conjointly with Demole, has transformed chlorhydrine
into acetochlorhydrine of glycol. The latter by treating oxide of
ethylene with aniline has obtained a single base of the formula of
phenylated mono-oxyethylene-amine CH,OHCH,NHC,H,.—-0.
Jacobsen has been able to investigate human bile obtained from
a fistula of a strong and healthy man. It contained no tauro-
cholic acid, while other human biles obtained from patients con-
tained both glyocholic and taurocholic acids in variable propor-
tions.—A. Faust has transformed monochlorinated phenol into
resorcin (and not, as Peterssen communicated lately, into hy-
drochinon.—H. Limpricht has compared sulfo-ortho-tolindinic
acid, and many of its derivatives, with those of sulfo-pseudo-tolui-
dinic acid. —Thomas Dykes Barry described several derivatives of
propiophenone C,H;COC,H, : viz., two isomeric mononitro-
propiophenones, amido-propiophenone, and secondary propyl-
benzol-alcohol C,H;CH.OH.C,H;.—G. Goldschmiedt, in treat-
ing benzol and bromal with sulphuric acid obtained diphenyl-
tribrom-ethane (C,H;),CH.CBrg. This treated with potash
yields diphenyl-dibrom-ethylene (CgH,;),C,Br,, and heated with
zine powder, it is transformed into stilbene C,,H,,.—P. Liechto
has determined the atomic weight of molybdenum=95'86, and
describes the following chlorides :—MoCl,, MoCl,, MoCl,,
MoCl,, and MoO(OH),Cl,.—A. Michaelis and G. Kéthe find
that iodide of lead treated with sulphite of sodium yields sulphite of
lead and iodide of sodium, and that the salt formerly described
by Zinero 1,59,(ONa), does not exist.—A, Michaelis and
O. Schifferdecker describe the following compounds of
sulphur :—SCl,, existing only at temperatures below — 20°,
$,0;Cl,, (a solid body obtained by treating SO,HCI with
SCl,), and its product of decomposition by moist air S,0,Cl,.
—A. Mitscherlich described a new method of organic analysis.
He replaced oxide of copper by that of mercury, weighs the
reduced mercury, CO, and H,O in the ordinary way and thus
determines the oxygen contained in the substance, as well as
the Cl, I, Br retained by the mercury or the sulphur and phos-
phorus transformed into sulphate and phosphate of mercury.—
A. Borodin in treating valeric aldehyde with solid caustic
potash at o° obtained aldolic products of condensation of the
following formula; C,)H,g0 Cy9HggQ3. The former left for
three years with diluted soda yielded crystals of the composition
Cy Hg205 = (Cy) H299,) + HO.
(polymeric valeral)
C. Engles, by treating monochlorinated acetonitrile NC.CH,Cl.
with aniline replaced Cl by NHC,H,, thus obtaining a base,
anilido-acetonitril.—A. Emmerling and C, Engles have obtained
from acetophenone the corresponding pinacone and secondary
alcohol. — E. Baumann, by treating cyanamide with sulphuric acid
and water, has obtained a body of the composition of urea, but
hygroscopic giving a nitrate of a different crystalline form, and a
double salt with chlorive of platinum, n iat differences that
seem to i dicate that this body is a new compound isomeric with
urea,—E. Mulder described several derivations of uric acid and
of urea.—C, Tiemann compared two methods for determining
nitric acid in water. The wells of Berlin yield water con-
taining terrific quantities of nitric acid, viz. 17 in 100,000 instead
of 04 which is generally admitted to be the maximum quantity
allowed for drinking purposes. It should be known, however,
that the water-works supply the town with river water of good
quality.—C. Biedermann showed beautitully coloured salts of
mononitropheno! with alkalis and alkaline earths. —W. H. Pike,
of London, has succeeded in obtaining some of the higher
homologues of oxaluric acid by heating a moiecular mixture of
urea or sulpho-carbamide with an anhydnde of a dibasic
acid. The acids already obtained are succincarbaminic acid
NH,—CO—NH—CO—C,H,—COOH,, succin-sulpho-carba-
minic acid OH,—CS—NH—CO —C,H,—COOH, and citra-
con-sulpho-carbaminic acid NH,—CS—NH—CO—C,H,—
COOH.—The next meeting of the society will take place the
13th of October.
Paris
Academy of Sciences, Aug. 4.—M. Bertrand, president,

in the chair.—The following papers were read :—A further

NATURE

[Aug. 14, 1873

portion of M. Hermites’ paper on the exponential function.—A

reply to M. Vicaire’s theory of the sun, by M. Faye. The
author controverted the statement that the sun is a cold mass of
combustible matter burning at the surface only, in an atmo-
sphere of oxygen. —On the determination of the wave-lengths of
the lines in the ultra-violet, and also in the ultra-red parts of ©
the spectrum by means of phosphorescence, by M. Ed, Bec-
querel.—On the action of armatures applied to compound
magnets, by M. Jamin.—On the reciprocal displacements be-
tween the hydracids, by M. Berthelot. The author has been
investigating the heat phenomena produced by these reactions.—
Note on the cubic capacity and on the volume of air requisite to
insure the healthfulness of inhabited places, by General Morin.
The general vives the results of observations on barracks and
hospitals. As regards the former, he thinks that 16—20
cubic metres of space are required per man, equal to 565—
706 cubic feet.—The fourth part of M. A. Ledieu’s paper —
on thermodynamics was then read.—An analysis of Dewalgnite
from Saim Chateau, Belgium, by M, I. Pisani.—On the
Cocuyos of Cuba, by Sefior de dos Hermanas. The cocuyo is
a luminous insect, said by M. Blanchard, at the conclusion of
the paper, to belong to the genus Ayrophorous, to which also a
Mexican insect of the same name belongs. —Memoir on cerebral
localisations, and on the functions of the brain by Dr. Fournie.
—On polychromic photography, by M. L, Vidal. This was a
description of a recently patented method of obtaining coloured
prints by the use of various pigments, as in carbon printing.—
M. Lichtenstein communicated a paper on the present state of
the Phylloxera question, and M. Signoret one on the evolution
of the Phylloxera.—Fourth note on the maximum resistance of
magnetic coils, by M. T, du Moncel,—-On electric condensation, —
by M. Neyreneuf.—Studies on nitrification, II., by M.Schlcesing,
— On the corundum of North Carolina, Georgia, and Montana,
by Mr. Laurence Smith.—On Roman essence of chamomile, by
M. E. Demargay.—On the characteristics of the true polyatomic
alcohols, by M, Lorin. —Cn the variation in the amount of urea
excreted under normal nourishment, and under the influence of
tea and coffee, by M. E. Roux. The author found that these
substances very largely increase the amount of both urea and
chlorine voided in the urine, if they be taken after abstinence
from them, but that when continuously used, the quantity
gradually returns to its normal amount. Hence he regards this
action as that of the washmg out of accumulated urea.—On the |
uniformity of the action of the heart when that organ is free from
external nervous influences, by M. Marey.—On some effects
preduced by lightning at Troyes, on July 26, 1873, by M. E.
Parent.

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Enc.isH.— Improved Method of Recording Telegrams ; Richard Herring,
—Report of the kKadcliffe Observer to the board of ‘Trustees, read at their
meeting at Oxford.

ForeiGn. - Medizinische Jahrbucher heraus geben von der K. K. Gesell-
schaft der Arzte, redigirt von 5. Stricker, Jaurgang 1873, Heit i. and ii.
(W. Braunmuller, Wien.).—Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens
Férhandiingar, Trettionde Argangen, 1873, Nos. 2, 3, 4 (Stockholm). —Bul-
letins de la Société d’Anthropolugie de Paris, Masc. i, jan. et Feb, 1873.

CONTENTS

Pace
Tue ENDowMENT OF RgsgaRCcH, V. - . . » + © «© » © « «© » 297
On Loscumipr s EXPERIMEN fs ON DIFFUSION IN RELATION TO THE
Kinetic UHgory oF Gases. By Prof, J, Cuerk-MAXxweuL, F.R.S, 298
Tue Last Gracia Epoch . «ss - eee = pres ete BOD
Dr. SMITH OW\FoopS, © Vers © 6 +. « oe le pee Ry ee vat atoms
Our BOOK SHELF. 0s Wer 2 6 te 8 ee ee » 302
Lerrers TO THE EpIToR:— 2 ’
The Huemul.—P. L. Schaver, F.R:S.. . . « s « «= eo sy goa
Perception and Instinct in the Lower Animals.—A. R. WALLACE, }
IBZ i> =a a) Re oe. ke 0 aS eee
Collective Instinct.—E.C Buck, B.C.S, . . . . » « » « « 302
Ants aad the lamtofthe Hand. . . . . . 5 » © =) see gum
Venomous Caterypillars.—Culonel R. Benson, F.L.S. « « « « + 303
Abnormal Ox-eye Daisy.—). J. Murpny, F.G.5, . . . « « + 303
Canarese Snakes.—E H. PRINGLE oe le eens Rien eT
British MepicaL AssociATIONmABSTRACT OF Dr. SANDERSON’S ~ :
ADDRESS ON PHYSIOLOGY. 5 . . . «1» » =» « =) Reeeeennee
LAKEs WITH TWo OuTFALLS. By Prof. W. STANLEY JEVONS. . .

Tue New Eirp or ParaDisE.
Tikustration) . ‘5 %\ aaeeeeas> ge. is lel ls us| “sh cae
On THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS
OF WEIGHT AND Mzasurg, II. By H. W. CuisHo~m, Wardenof the

By P. L. Scrater, F.R.S. (With

Standards (With Jitustrations) . . . » . « «© + 2 1 + © « 307
Or-opon RemaAINs IN THE WOODWARDIAN Museum, CAMBRIDGE,

ByiG. T. BETTANY, Bisset ae te Re oe ets BDO.
ASTRONOMICAL ALMANACS. . + «2 + + « oe os Oa om iE.
NODES alesse. ic. 920 a 6 ueve Pere yee, Lie!
SciENTIFIC SERIALS,.,.ceme iets «<= Lepage a wh aes
SOCIETIRS|AND ACADEMIES) S «(06 sc + os 5 on eoee 315
PAMFHLETS RECEIVED Jlisis. 0 ss) «0. «6 slo) sh ¢ MOnReeREREG

WATORE

317

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1873

THE REPORT OF THE SCIENCE COMMIS-

SION ON THE OLD UNIVERSITIES
I,

O*E of the two Royal Commissions appointed to

inquire into University matters has just issued its
Report, and it comes in the very nick of time ; for while on
the one hand the question of University reform is day by
day attracting a larger share of public attention, on the
other the Financial Commission may be expected to report
shortly and make us acquainted with the actual resources
available for fundamental reforms which all acknowledge
must be made, though opinions differ as to the precise
direction they shouid take.

When we state that the Report to which we refer has
been drawn up by a Commission, the Chairman of which
—the Duke of Devonshire—is the Chancellor of Cam-
bridge University, and that to it are appended the names
of Stokes, H. J. S. Smith, Sharpey, Huxley, Lubbock,
the Marquis of Lansdowne, and Mr. B. Samuelson as
Commissioners, the importance of the document becomes
manifest, Nor is it lessened by the way in which the
Report at its outset refers to “all those parts of human
knowledge and culture which are not usually regarded as
having any scientific character ;” adding, “ Least of all
should we wish to imply that there is any antagonism
between the literary and scientific branches of education
and research; it is rather our conviction that neither
branch can be neglected without grave detriment to the
other ; and that an University in which the Mathema-
tician, the Experimental Philosopher, and the Biologist
are actively engaged in the endeavour to advance human
knowledge in their own provinces, is not on that account
less likely to be productive of original labours in the fields
of Literature and Learning.”

The subjects are dealt with in the following order :—

I, The Courses of Study and the Examinations.

II. The Professoriate.

III. The Scientific Institutions within the Universities,

IV. The Colleges.

V. The Relation of the Universities to Technical
Education, and to Education for Scientific Pro-
fessions.

VI. The Duty of the Universities and the Colleges

with regard to the Advancement of Science.

Under the first head an examination on leaving school
equivalent to the German aditurienten examen, to be
controlled by the Universities, is proposed, “so that the
scientific student who had shown the requisite literary
proficiency in the ‘ Leaving Examination’ would find him-
self absolutely free, except so far as the examination in
Divinity is concerned, from the first moment of his
entrance to the University, to devote his whole time and
energy to his scientific studies.” The Commissioners
adding their opinion that “any system which does not
concede, from the first, this freedom to those students of
Science who have given proofs of sufficient literary ac-
quirements, involves an interference with their course of
study which in many cases is prejudicial.”

The opinion is also expressed that, in addition to the

No, 199—VoL. vit.

College Scholarships, University Scholarships in Natural
Science should be founded at both Universities ; scholar-
ships comparable to those which already exist for various
branches of classical learning, and, at Oxford, of Mathe-
matical Science.

Under the heading of the Professoriate, lists of the Pro-
fessorial and Collegiate teachers at Oxford and Cambridge
are given and compared with similar lists for Berlin, with
the remark that “it is impossible not to be impressed
with the evidence which the list affords of the abundance
and variety of the scientific teaching given in the Univer-
sity of Berlin by professors of great eminence. We
would particularly call attention to the fact that the list
includes not merely general courses adapted to the re-
quirements of those students who are interested in Science
only as a part of a liberal education, but also special
courses on subjects taken from some of the newest and
most interesting fields of scientific inquiry ; so that in-
struction of the kind most likely to develop a scientific
spirit in the mind of the learner, and given by the most
competent teachers, is put within the reach of every
student.”

With regard to the proposed additions to the
Scientific Professoriate, without attempting to decide
what should be the ultimate organisation of the
Scientific Faculty in Oxford, the Commissioners are
of opinion that arrangements should be made at
the earliest possible opportunity for the establishment
of two Professorships in Physics, and two in Che-
mistry, in addition to those already existing ; for the
redistribution of the biological subjects (exclusive of those
assigned to the Faculty of Medicine) in such a manner as
to secure their being represented by five independent
professors ; and for the addition of two chairs, one in
Pure Mathematics and one in Mathematical Physics,
Lastly, they are disposed to recommend the establishment
of a Chair of Applied Mechanics and Engineering.

Somewhat similar additions are proposed in regard to
Cambridge.

So far we have dealt with professors of the first order,
so to speak, but the appointment of adjoint professors,
demonstrators, and assistants is also proposed in the
following words :—

“Although the witnesses have been unanimous as to
the necessity of strengthening the professorial staff, they
do not entirely agree as to the way in which this should
be done. Mr. Pattison would increase the number of in-
dependent Chairs of Science to twenty or even to thirty.
On the other hand, there appears to be a feeling that the
principal subjects should not be too much divided
although it is admitted that at present they are too much
grouped together.

“Tt must not be forgotten that an increase in the num-
ber of independent Chairs would render it necessary for
the Universities to provide increased accommodation in
laboratories, and additional apparatus. With the view of
utilising to the utmost the existing appliances of this sort,
some of the witnesses have suggested that the increase
of the professoriate should, as far as possible, be pro-
vided for by an abundant supply of skilled assistants,
of demonstrators, and of assistant professors, rather than
by increased numbers of independent lecturers.

“The necessity for skilled assistants and for demon-

s

318

strators of course made itself felt at a very early period,
and though a certain number of such assistants and
demonstrators have been supplied, yet the need for an
increase in the number of these subordinate offices has
already become apparent. It may be mentioned, for
example, that at neither University is any assistance of
this kind at present afforded to the Chair of Geology, or
to that of Botany.

“A Natural Science Professor should have, in the first
place, sufficient skilled assistance to relieve him from all
mere drudgery in the preparation of his lectures. In the
second place, he should have such further assistance as
may be necessary to enable him to carry on original
researches. And, thirdly, although no professor would
wish to hand over the superintendence of the practical
teaching in his laboratories entirely to others, he should
be enabled to discharge this duty of superintendence with-
out an undue sacrifice of time. The work should be
done under the professor’s eye, but its details should be
entrusted to competent demonstrators, appointed by and
responsible to him.

“ So far there is a general agreement ; but the question
whether assistant professors should be appointed at all,
and if so, how far the dependence of the assistant pro-
fessor upon the principal professor of the subject should
be carried, has given rise to some divergence of opinion.
We have already stated that we regard as indispensable
the establishment of a certain number of new Chairs, to be
independent of, and to take equal rank with, the existing
Chairs. Ifthe Universities are to become great schools
of Science, it is of the first importance to secure for them
the permanent services of a very considerable number
of scientific men of established reputation; and
we cannot perceive how this object is to be attained
otherwise than by offering to such men, without any
reservation whatever, the same academical s¢atws which
has hitherto been enjoyed by the University Professors.
We consider, therefore, that in any extension of the
Professoriate, this is, without doubt, the first point to be
attended to. But we are also disposed to attach great
weight to the suggestion that, in addition tothe Professor-
ships representing the great divisions of Natural Science,
University Teachers, who might be termed Adjoint Pro-
fessors or Readers, should be appointed to undertake the
instruction in special branches. It would be undesirable
to place an Adjoint Professor in a position of complete
subordination to the Principal Professor of the subject ;
and it would probably be very difficult to arrange any
plan of partial subordination which could work satisfac-
torily. We are, therefore, of opinion that the Adjoint
Professors should not be regarded as assistants to the
Professors, but should be responsible for the due dis-
charge of the duties assigned to them to a Board or
Council, appointed by the University, and not to any
individual Professor.

“Tt is important that the Universities should be able to
secure the services of men who have shown their ability
to promote Science, and to become successful teachers of
it, by offering them places, such as the Adjoint Professor-
ships, which would give them an opportunity of distin-
guishing themselves; and, with this view, it is very

esirable that as much independence as possible should
be allowed to the Adjoint Professors, in order to make

NATURE

[Aug. 21, 1873

the appointments attractive to the best men. On the
other hand, as it is obvious that the perfection of the
means and system of instruction in the Universities is of
primary importance, an organisation of, and control over,
the courses of instruction would be necessary, as other-
wise there might be an excess of lectures in some sub-
jects, and a deficiency in others. We are of opinion that
these difficulties might be overcome, and a sufficient
amount of liberty combined with systematic organisation,
if, as we shall presently recommend, a Central Board, or
Council, should be formed, representing the Scientific
Faculty, and having definite functions with regard to the
scientific teaching within the Universities.

“ We may observe that the financial argument in favour
of extending the Professoriate (at least in the first in-
stance) by the institution of offices not intended to take
equal rank with the existing Chairs, rather than by in-
creasing the number of the Principal Professorships, will
probably lose some of its force when a careful estimate is
made of the difference which the adoption of the one plan
or the other would make in the charge to be laid upon
the funds of the Universities. It is quite true that the
emoluments of an Adjoint Professor need not be so great
as those of one of the Principal Professors ; and that to
this extent there would be a saving. But whether an
additional professor of any subject be termed an Adjoint
Professor, or whether his Chair be regarded as co-ordi-
nate with the existing Chairs, the difficulty would always
remain that if he is to be of any use at all he must be fur-
nished with the necessary apparatus ; he must havea room
tolecture in,a room orrooms to workin, andthe classification
of the students will also probably require additional space.
Laboratories of chemistry, physics, and physiology have
been already provided ; it would, therefore, not be neces-
sary to create a large establishment for any new pro-
fessor. Butit is certain that the only way in which the
Universities can increase the usefulness, at the same
time that they increase the number, of the professors, is
by being ready to make, from time to time, such moderate ©
additions as may be necessary to the buildings which
they appropriate to Science.”

Under the heading “ Duties of Professors,” we have
the following :—

“It has been suggested that, in the case of certain pro-
fessorships at both Universities, the functions of Original
Research might be separated from direct instruction. To
a professor the duty of teaching is a matter of daily
routine; whereas, original research is a duty which
belongs to no day in particular, and which is, therefore,
very likely to be neglected in comparison with the other.
Nevertheless, we cannot see any just and sufficient reason,
in the case of the professorships, for a total separation of
the two functions ; and even Sir Benjamin Brodie, who
has supported the view that some distinction should be
made between offices appropriated to teaching and those
appropriated to original research, would not have the
separation absolute, and would consider it of importance
that even 4 professor whose chair was founded chiefly
with the latter view, should be called upon to produce,
from time to time, in the form of lectures, the results of
investigations in new departments of Science. Lecturing
is not the only mode in which scientific instruction may
be imparted. A professor who should undertake the direc-

Aug. 21, 1873]
tion of a laboratory in which advanced students were to
be trained in the methods of scientific research, would be
very far from holding a sinecure office, and would be ren-
dering the highest, as well as the most direct, service to
scientific education.

“We have no doubt that for a professor the duty of
teaching is indispensable, but we agree with the witnesses
whom we have examined that original research is a no
less important part of his functions. The object of an
university is to promote and to maintain learning and
science, and scientific teaching of the highest kind can
only be successfully carried on by persons who are them-
selves engaged in original research. If once a teacher
ceases to be a learner it is difficult for him to maintain
any freshness of interest in the subject which he has to

‘teach ; and nothing is so likely to awaken the love of

scientific inquiry in the mind of the student as the
example of a teacher who shows his value for knowledge
by making the advancement of it the principal business
of his life.

“Tt has been, to a certain extent, a complaint against
the School of Natural Science in Oxford that hitherto it
has produced but very few original workers. The com-
plaint (if well founded) may, perhaps, be accounted for
by the circumstance that the school has not been long in
existence ; but there can be no question that it is of the
utmost importance to impress upon teachers and learners
alike that one, and perhaps the chief criterion of success
in the teaching of Science is its leading to new disco-
veries, To promote this end the Universities probably
can do nothing more useful than to increase the number
of persons employed, under whatever name, in the teach-
ing of Science, taking care at the same time that while
such duties are assigned to them as may prevent their
offices from being sinecures, they shall be left with time
and energy enough to carry on original work. We con-
sider this to be a point of great importance, and we should
regret to see any scientific office whatever established in
either of the Universities without its being understood
that it is expected from the holder that he shall do what
is within his power, not only for the diffusion, but also for
the increase of scientific knowledge.

“Tt has been stated in some parts of the evidence
which we have taken, that the duties of lecturing and
teaching which are required from the professors are such
as seriously to interfere with their leisure for original in-
vestigation, and a wish has therefore been expressed that
the provisions of the Professorial Statutes as to the
number of lectures to be given should be relaxed. We
cannot concur with this suggestion. In estimating the
amount of teaching and lecturing which can properly be
required from a professor, we do not forget that he is ex-
pected to keep himself well acquainted with all the latest
advances in some very wide department of knowledge, a
task which, at the present rate of scientific productive-
ness, is no light one. But, on the other hand, we cannot
leave out of sight that the University duties of a professor
last for only six months, and that he has thus the invalu-
able privilege of being master of his own time for fully
one half of the year. It is, therefore, only reasonable that
during the University Terms he should devote a fair pro-
portion of his time to the work of teaching. And we fee]
it to be our duty to say that, in recommending, as we |

NATUR

319
Se ee
have done, the foundation of a considerable number of
new Scientific Professorships, our intention is that duties
of a very substantial kind should be attached to each of
these offices, with a view to the establishment of an effi-
cient and complete course of instruction.”

From the limited scope of the functions of the various
existing administrative bodies, as well as from the consti-
tution of one of them, the Commissioners consider that
they cannot be regarded as representing, in any adequate
manner, the Scientific Faculty of the University. They
then add, “ We are of opinion that the best mode of pro-
viding for this important object would be to replace them
by a Single Administrative Body, representing every
department of Science, and having wider but still definite
powers entrusted to it. Without attaching any import-
ance to the name, we shall, for the purposes of the present
Report, designate this proposed administrative body as
“the University Council of Science,’

“The duties of the Council would, we conceive, be two-
fold—educational and financial.”

(To be continued.)

HARMONIC ECHOES

Ay SOS GING to Dr. Brewer * “ The harmonic echo

repeats in a different tone or key the direct sound.
The harmonic is generally either the third, fifth, or tenth
of the tonic. ... On the river Nahe, near Bergen, and not
far from Coblentz, is an echo thus described by Barthius :—
It makes seventeen repetitions at unequal intervals, Some-
times the echo seemis to approach the listener, sometimes
to be retreating from him; sometimes it is very distinct,
at others extremely feeble ; at one time it is heard at
the right, and the next at the left ; now in unison with
the direct sound, and presently a third, fifth, or tenth of
the fundamental. Occasionally it seems to combine two
or more voices in harmony, but more frequently it re-
sembles the voice of a single mimic.

“At Paisley, in Scotland, there is a somewhat similar
echo in the burying-place of Lord Paisley, Marquis of
Abercorn. Musical notes rise softly, swell till the several
echoes have reverberated the sound either in unison or
harmony, and then die away in gentle cadence.

“At the Lake of Killarney, in Ireland, is a very cele-
brated harmonic echo, which renders an excellent second
to any simple air played on a bugle, +

“There was formerly, according to the authority of Dr,
Birch, an harmonic echo no less remarkable, seventeen
miles above Glasgow, near a mansion called Rosneath.
If a trumpeter played eight or ten notes, the echo would
repeat them correctly a third lower. After a short silence
another repetition was heard, still lower than the former ;
and after a similar pause the same notes were repeated a
third time, in a lower key and feebler tone, but neverthe-
less, with the same undeviating fidelity. This echo no
longer exists.”

It is difficult to believe that these descriptions are
accurate, but that they have a basis of truth there can be
little doubt. My attention was first drawn to the subject

* “Brewer on Sound and its Phenomena.” (1864.) P. 305.

+ This must be a near connection of the equally celebrated Irish echo,
which in reply to “‘ How do you do?” answers, “* Very well, thank you.”—R.
Or of that celebrated echo at Shoreditch Station, illustrated by poor Leech
in Punch, where, to the old gentleman’s call of “ Porter,” is replied *! Don’t
you wish you may get him,”—Ep,

320

by an echo at Bedgebury ‘Park, the country residence of
Mr. Beresford Hope. The sound of a woman’s voice was
returned froma plantation of firs, situated across a valley,
with the pitch raised an octave. The phenomenon was
unmistakeable, although the original sound required to be
Joud and rather high. With a man’s voice we did not
succeed in obtaining the effect.

At the time I had no idea that such an alteration of
pitch had ever been observed, or was possible ; but it
soon occurred to me that the explanation was similar to
that which I had given of the blue of the sky a year or two
previously (Philos. Mag., Feb. 1871). Strange to say, at
the very time of the observation I had in my portfolio a
mathematical investigation * of the problem of the dis-
turbance of the waves of sound by obstacles which are
small in all their dimensions relatively to the length of
the sound waves. In such a case (precisely as in the
parallel problem for sight) it appears that the reflecting,
or rather diverting, power of the obstacle varies inversely
as the fourth power of the wave-length. When a compo-
site note, such as that proceeding from the human throat,
impinges on the obstacle, its components are diverted in
very different proportions. A group of small obstacles
will return the first harmonic, or octave, sixteen times
more powerfully than the fundamental. After this, it is
not hard to understand how a wood, which may be con-
sidered to be made up of a great number of obstacles,
many of which, in two or three of théir dimensions, are
small in comparison with the wave-length, returns a sound
which appears to be raised an octave.

The increased reflection is, of course, at the expense of
the direct sound. If we conceive a group of small ob-
tacles to act on a train of plane waves of sound, the etect
will be a diffused echo, which may be heard on all sides,
appearing to proceed from the group, and the direct waves
which maintain their direction. If the original sound be
composite, the diffused echo contains the higher elements
in excessive proportion, and for the same reason the
direct wave, being shorn of these higher elements, will ap-
pear duller than the original sound, Itis well known that
pure tones are liable to b2 estimated an octave too low,
and thus it may be possible that a note in losing its har-
monies may appear to fall an octave.

What is here called the direct sound may itself be
converted into an echo by regular reflection. For ex-
ample, if a plane wall were covered with small projections ,
there would be a diffused echo, due to the projections in
which the higher elements preponderated, and an ordi-
nary echo, obeying the law of reflection, in which the
wave elements would preponderate.

I shall be much obliged if any one under whose obser-
vations echoes of this description may happen to fall,
would communicate particulars of them to NATURE.

RAYLEIGH

LEITH-ADAMS? “ FIELD AND FOREST
RAMBLES”
Field and Forest Rambles. By A. Leith-Adams, F.R.S.
(Henry S. King & Co.)
Dia: on our expressing surprise to a friend at the fact
of his having forsaken his usual line of study for
another of avery different character, he remarked, “ Well,
* Since communicated in an amplified form to the Mathematical Society.

NATURE

[Aug. 21, 1873

you see it does not matter much what I take up, for what-
ever it may be, I am sure to make some discovery of
value.” The reply was sufficient to enable anyone to form
an idea of the results that might be expecied. He was
an assiduous and earnest worker, but there was a certain
deficiency in the quality of all he produced,

Mr. Leith-Adams is an assiduous and earnest worker ;
his opportunities in connection with his military avoca-
tions, have been considerable, and he has used them well.
He has already given us the results of his experience in
India and elsewhere in his “ Wanderings of a Naturalist
in India,” as well as in the “ Natural History and Archze-
ology of the Nile Valley and Maltese Islands,” and in
the work before us he takes us to New Brunswick,
vividly portraying the beauties of its short summers and,
the discomforts of its dreary winters. An intense love for
natural history has led him to make careful and prolonged
observations as to the habits of most of the animals in-
habiting the province of which he treats, together with
the dates and direction of migration of the numerous
migratory birds which are there met with. He has also
paid considerable attention to the fish, and the geology
of the district.

Our author, in endeavouring to obtain an accurate
account of the past history of the native Indians of New
Brunswick, found the task of more than ordinary diffi-
culty, “inasmuch as, even apart from their persistent in-
difference to treat on any subject connected with their
past history or present condition, there would seem to be
an absolute incapacity to comprehend the meaning of
such inquisitiveness on the part of the interrogator.”
Drink is the ruination of the remnant of this doomed
race, a race so little advanced in the scale of humanity,
that when it has disappeared, there will not be left a
trace even of written or monumental record ; “indeed,
were it not for implements of the chase picked up occa-
sionally, we should have few other data to establish the
existence of the human inhabitants of the region, previous
to the arrival of the first European travellers.” The
European colonist, as long as he is the possessor of the
mens sanus in corpore sano, however, stands a better
chance of surviving; nevertheless leprosy produces
painful ravages among the original French settlers, on
the north-east frontier of the province.

No explanation is attempted of the fact quoted
from Dr. Gilpin, that many of the wild animals, as
the bear, racoon, and beaver, which were driven
from their haunts on the clearing of the forests, are
again returning to the same districts, “to cultivated
fields instead of primitive forests, to corn and maize, in-
stead of wild fruits and berries.” We cannot help
thinking that this does not say much for the present
assiduity of the farmers.

Albinism and Melanism, the tendency for certain indi-
viduals of a species to be white or black, is one of Mr.
Adams’ favourite subjects, and he gives it as his opinion
that the reason why they in the wild state do not continue
to prop igate their peculiarity is because “the very decided
difference as regards outward appearance would be suffi-
cient to forbid intercourse between them and the typical
individuals.”

- There is a want of point in many of the author’s at-
tempts at explanation of the various phenomena which

Aug. 21, 1873]

excite his curiosity. In considering the fact that the Cat-
bird (A/imus carolinensis) has a strongly marked anti-
pathy against the animal whose name it bears, he says,
“TJ have often wondered if this inherited distrust of the
cat could be explained in any way with reference to the
imitative peculiarities of the bird. In other words, is it
possible that some ancestor began to mew like a cat
whenever it saw the wild cat in his haunts, and that in
process of time it came to be an established habit ?” Again,
the answer given to the question, why such migratory
birds as the ruby-throated Hummer (Zvochilus colubris)
are not content with the eternal summer of the south? is
equally inconclusive: “ All that we can say is that some
inherited instinct is at work, perhaps to them as precious
as is the longing for the holidays to the schoolboy, full of
pleasant reminiscences, which of course would grow by
experience.” And we do not feel any nearer the truth as
to the reason why the peculiarity of the beak of the Cross-
bill is so well marked, when we know that in the bird’s
attempts to extract the seeds from the red spruce and
other cones, “the bill, which is not so strong and conica]
as that of the pine bullfinch, became curved, until at
length the condition became hereditary and trans-
missible.”

An interesting remark is made, which illustrates how
very susceptible the animal body is to the influence of
slowly-acting external circumstances, For it is the popu-
lar belief in New Brunswick that the severity of an
ensuing winter may be predicted by the amount of fat
present on the intestines and omenta of animals, whether
wild or domesticated ; and as the coldness of the winter
must depend on the previous climatic condition, that may
reasonably be supposed to affect the constitution in a
manner favourable to the individual.

In conclusion, we think that both sportsmen and natu-
ralists will find this work replete with anecdote and care-
fully recorded observation, which will entertain them; at
the same time they will not put down the book without
feeling that they have acquired much new information on
the physical geography and natural history of New
Brunswick.

“HISTORY CF PHYSICS AND
CHEMISTRY ’

HOEFER’S

Histoire dela Physique et de la Chimie. Par Ferdinand

Hoefer. (Paris: Hachette, 1872.)

ORE than twenty years ago M. Hoefer published a
4 History of Chemistry, the first which had ap-
peared since the publication of Dr. Thomas Thomson’s
History. M. Hoefer has since been known to us as the
author of the biographies of various scientific men in the
Nouvelle Biographie Générale, and of a small work en-
titled La chimie enseignée par la biographie de ses Fonda-
teurs. The volume before us is one of a series which
treats of universal history, and is published under the
direction of M. V. Duruy. The works which it comprises
are intended to be used in colleges and schools, and M.
Hoefer’s volume has no doubt been included, because the
promoters of the serics have wisely considered that the
listory of matter, and of motion, are as worthy the atten-

NATURE

"gar

tion of the rising generation as the history of languages
numbers, peoples, faiths.

Out of the 553 pages which the work contains, no less
than 314 are devoted to the history of Physics, while the
remainder contain in a condensed form the substance of
M. Hoefer’s larger Histoire de la Chimie, The History
of Physics is divided into two books, entitled respectively
“Matter” and “ Motion,” the former including—1. The
immediate properties of matter (weight, volume, density,
elasticity, compressibility) ; 2. The terrestrial atmosphere ;
3. Liquefaction and solidification of gases; 4. Hygro-
metry ; 5. Acoustics.

The second book on Motion includes—tr. Gravity ; 2,
Heat ; 3. Light ; 4 Electricity and Magnetism.

We feel bound to take exception to this arrangement,
which is both immature and ill-considered. For why has
M. Hoefer classed weight with matter, and gravity with
motion ? and why liquefaction and solidification of gases
with szatder, when they are operations distinctly connected
with motion? But, worse than all, why has he classed
acoustics with matter? Again, he has omitted all men-
tion of certain sciences which were among the earliest—-
Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics. These
sciences, from their antiquity, lend themselves with great
facility to the apt illustration of the various phases of the
history of science. Archimedes has received an alto-
gether insufficient amount of notice: we may not forget
that several of our sciences actually owe their origin to
him; and how M. Hoefer, with Peynard’s fine edition
of the works of Archimedes in his own language, can have
overlooked him, we are quite at a loss to understand
Then the Archimedian screw, the pumps of Ctesibius, the
Avvawers of Hero of Alexandria, should all have full men-
tion in the work. And if it be urged that space did not
permit mention of these things, we would reply that
they are of far more importance than Hygrometry, which
finds mention in the book. Also such sections as “ Pése-
liqueur d’Hypatie,” “ Manométre,” “ Hygrométre con-
denseur,” “ Porte-voix,” “‘ Clavecin et carillon electrique,”
“La beatification de Bose,” might all have been replaced
with advantage by more important matters.

We notice with regret a tendency to attribute dis-
coveries to men who were not first in the field. Thus,
although Boyle discovered his law of the compression of
gases, no less than fourteen years before Mariotte, it is
called Lot de Mariotle. Again, M. Hoefer says, “ Gas
sendi parait s’étre le premier occupé de la question de la
vitesse du son, sans préciser les résultats auxquels il était
parvenu.” But if M. Hoefer will read Lord Bacon’s
Historia Soni et Auditus, he will finda good deal of
valuable and suggestive matter, among other things, a
suggestion for determining the velocity of sound.

Let us iurn to the comprehensive little treatise on the
history of chemistry, beginning with Herme: Trisme-
gistus, nay, with Moses, and endiag with Wurtz, William-
son, Frankland, and Kolbe. This part of the work, as
derived from M. Hoefer’s larger treatise, is altogether
more matured than the preceding; yet it is not without
evidence of hasty selection and ill-considered statements.
We cannot agree with M. Hoefer when he tells us that
the word chemistry was used in the fourth century, and
that we are to trace it to yvikoyand y/o. Neither, for
various reasons, which we have stated elsewhere, can we

322

accept the Greek MSS. attributed to Zozimus, Pelagius,
Olympiodorus, Demecritus, Mary the Jewess, and Sy-
nesius, as exact evidences of date or knowledge. In re-
gard to more modern matters we regret to find no account
of Robert Hooke’s important theory of combustion. We
are glad to observe that M. Hoefer does not echo the
Wurtzian aphorism : “ La chimie est une science Francaise,
elle fut instituée par Lavoisier d’immortelle memoire.”
More liberally our author says, “ Tout en suivant chacun
une route différente, trois chimistes ont fondé, vers la fin
du dix-huitiéme siécle, la chimie moderne: Priestley,
Scheele, et Lavoisier, un Anglais, un Suédois, et un
Frangais.”

We should be glad to see in our own country the his-
tory of matter and of motion studied side by side with
the history of languages and of numbers. Prof. Kopp
lectures on the History of Chemistry in the University of
Heidelberg, and no doubt his example is followed in other
of the German universities. M. Hoefer’s work is in many
ways suitable for use as a text-book; it is cheap, it is
anything but dull, and whatever the errois of arrange-
ment may be, it contains a great deal of information.

G, F. RODWELL

OUR BOOK SHELF
An Essay on the Physiology of the Eye. By S. H.
Salom, (Published by the Author.)

THAT the study of formal logic is not in itself conducive
to sound reasoning will be acknowledged by many, but it
is seldom that the truth of the statement is’so fully illus-
trated as in the short work before us. The author has
studied the writings of Hamilton, Mill, Bain, and others,
and with a creditable enthusiasm endeavours to employ
the new powers he thinks he has thereby acquired, in
developing a hypothesis of his own to account for the
phenomenon of vision more satisfactorily than those
already accepted. An outline of the arrangement, which
is partly disguised at first sight by the many technicali-
ties and circumlocutions employed, will be almost, if not
quite, sufficient for most ot our readers. Commencing
with a notion broached by Erasmus Darwin, that visual
perception ensues from retinal motion derived through
the motile force of light, the author hopes, “ by turning
the light of modern histological discovery on Darwin’s
theory of involuntary animal action, to succeed in con-
vincing associational psychologists that this theory must
henceforth be included in the creed of @ fosterioré
thinkers.” With this as a basis, the doctrine pro-
mulgated may be thus summarised. The eyeball being
in a constant state of reflex action on account of
the light acting dynamically on the retina, the motion
thus produced exerts in the muscles surrounding the eye
feelings of muscularity similar to those excited when we
voluntarily determine ocular direction, and consequently
without any voluntary effort, we are constantly aware
of visual space properties. To prove this novel hypo-
thesis the structure of the retina has to be fully entered
into, and in a most ingenious manner solid fact is distorted
to satisfy unsubstan iil theory. Taking a single example
of the reasoning employed, we find that it is necessary jor
the theory that the fovea centralis of the retina shou'd
be elastic ; that it is so is evident from the foilowing con-
siderations :—“In the copious index of that exhaustive
anatomical work, ‘Quain’s Anatomy,’ under the heading
“yellow,’ we find, in addition to ‘yellow spot,’ four sub-
stances oy, namely—

NATURE

[Aug. 21, 1873

Yellow cartilage,
» fibres of areolar tissue,
» ligaments of the vertebrze,
tissue.

And on referring to the pages of the book in which these
subjects are treated, we discover that ¢hey have the com-
mon property of being elastic.” “From this on one of
Newton’s rules for philosophising “ we are bound to frame
the following physiological induction,—a// yellow anato-
mical substance ts elastic” We can hardly think that the
author is not attempting to fool us.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Atoms and Ether

ATTEMPTS to dispense, in physics, with the ideas of direct
attraction and repulsion, however interesting, lead generaily to
a petitio principi, and I fear Prof. Challis’s view, to which atten-
tion is called in NATURE of August 7, cannot be received as an
exception.

For an ether of which the density can be varied is a substance
that can be compressed and expanded, and what idea is in our
minds when we speak of compression and expansion in a really
continuous substance? Continuity implies space, and space that
is full. Can space be more than fuil? When we say thata
fluid is compressible and elastic, do we mean anything else than
that it is made of parts which can be pushed closer together,
and which, being so pushed, will push each other back? But
this is repulsion and action at a distance. We do not alter
the fact by calling the substance ether, and relieving it from the
influence of gravitation.

Is a continuous substance, which is capable of compression,
conceivable? I think not; or if it is, the conception is at once
more difficult and more opposed to sensible experience than
that of attraction and repulsion.

The substance of a bar of iron is not continuous. If I draw
one end of it towards me, why do¢s the other end follow ?
What can be the relation between the movement of my end of
the bar and the ethereal vibrations which must propel the other
end and all intermediate parts in the same direction ?

Liverpool, Aug. 9 ALBERT J. Morr

Instinct
Sense of Direction

THE perusal of the correspondence published in the February
and March numbers of NATURE now to hand, and als» your
article on “* Perception and Instinct in the Lower Animals,” in
the number of March 20, has induced a belief in my mind, that
I may perhaps be able to contribute some evidence beating upon
the question at issue ; and also that it may have some value from
having been obtained from a field of observation not generally
accessible, and from the fact that cattle and horses in Australia
are subject to very different conditions to those obtaining in
England.

I may commence by stating that the question, whether animals
have or have not a peculiar power of finding their way from
place to place, suggested itself to my mind very shortly after I
first went into the Australian bush, now more than twenty years
ago. It was not long before I satisfied myself that in many
horses this faculty was strongly developed, but yet unequally in
different individuals. I afterwards ascertained that it also
existed in cattle,

Not only did I find that horses had extensive memories for
places, being enabled to recollect a track they had followed some
time previously, but also to remember the way from one place to
another where no track existed. I found that not only had
horses this exact memory, but that they possessed another gift
which at first appeared to me inexplicable. This was, that when
r dden through the bush, many horses would never, for a moment,
as it were, lose the recoliection of home, but ‘bear away” in its
direction, I remarked this not only in a district with which the
horse might be acquainted from grazing in it, but also when
travelling and absent for the day from my camp, and from the
other horse or horses, the ‘‘ mates” of the one I rode. ,

cee ee e
m4 rs, , q

.
od
4

Aug. 21, 1873] |

NATURE

323

Further than this, I also found that as regarded myself, I
never lost the distinct perception of the direction in which my
home, or camp, or starting-point for the day was situated, and
in endeavouring to trace out and analyse this feeling, I at last
came to the clear perception that it depended upon an un-
conscious action of the memory thus recording the alterations of
the courses I had followed, and which by an effort of the
memory I could recall. On this point I feel quite clear, for
from the practice of paying especial attention during constant
explorations to the course travelled, both for the purpose of
keeping a correct dead reckoning, as also for the delineation of
the features of the country passed over, I have found the faculty
intensified, and the process more evident to myself. I may say
that during the course of those twenty years’ experience, I have
never found the faculty at fault.

I believe in this lies the explanation of the power possessed
by cattle and horses of finding their way from one place to the
other irrespective of the road they may have gone.

I now propose to record some instances showing how cattle
and horses in this district have endeavoured to reach the places
where they were reared, and the truth of which I do not in the
least question. To show how frequently such cases are met with
here, where horses and cattle are bred in a half wild state at large
in the bush, I may note that on determining to make this com-
munication, I spoke to the first persons I met with who were
likely from their pursuits to have noticed instances of the nature
I required ; of these persons, four at once gave me the ‘particu-
lars I am about to relate. But before doing so I must further
remark, as bearing perhaps not remotely upon the question, that
T have not met with aboriginal natives, either as savages or as
“tame blacks,”’ who possessed any power of finding their way
from pl ace to place differing i1 its nature, though perhaps in its
degree, from that to be found in every good “ bushman” among
the whites. Their knowledge of country is entirely local—special
as regards the district belonging to their tribe or family—general
as regards the country of the neighbouring tribes. They know
it thoroughly because they have been born in it and have roamed
oyer it ever since. Out of their own locality I have found them
to be inferior to a good wh'te “ bushman,” in so far that they
are unable to reason out ary problem relating to the features of
the country, and my experience has shown that out of their local
knowledge I could never rely upon one of them in preference to
my own judgment. I have remarked also that very few could,
even in their own districts, travel straight from one place to an-
other, say at twenty miles’ distance. I now refer especially to
the aborigines of that part of the interior of the continent lying on
each side, north and south, of Sturt’s Desert and including
Cooper’s Creek. Asa rule they would ‘‘ give and take” some
30° on each side of the course, correcting the direction from time
to time as they recognised the “ lay of the country ” from rising
ground.

In order that the instances I shall now quote may be more
clear, it will be necessary to say in the first place that all the
localities mentioned below will be found named in the maps
published by the Surveyor-General of Victoria, and no doubt
also in others. The only exception is Deadcock Creek, which
is however shown as a small stream falling into the Mitchell
River, on the west side below Cobbannah Creek. All cattle and
horses brought down from the Maneroo table-land in New South
Wales to the Gippsland market, travel by one road vd the
Black Mountain, Buchan, Bruthen, Bairusdale, and Stratford ;
the distance from the centre of Maneroo district, say where the
149th meridian crosses the Snowy River, to Stratford, is about
180 travelled miles, and the number of cattle brought down
annually may be about 12,000 ; of these a certain percentage
escape and make their way back to the place where they were
bred unless recovered on the way or hindered by natural obsta-
cles. There is no other way from Maneroo into Gippsland ex-
cepting the one mentioned, and the country northward between
that road and the Great Dividing Range is occupied by high and
rugged mountains, dense forests, and thick scrubs. The road
from Maneroo crosses the rivers flowing from the Great Dividing
Range.

1. About four months ago a mob of cattle was brought down
from O’Rourke’s Station, the Black Mountain, Snowy River,
and sold at Stratford. After being two months on the Bushy
Park run near Stratford, fourteen bullocks escaped from the
paddocks, and on search being made were recovered at the junc-
tion of Deadcock Creek with the Mitchell River. The line they
had taken if carried out would go near the Black Mountain.

2. A horse bred by Mr. Sheen of Omeo was taken down via
Bruthen, Bairusdale, and Stratford, and sold ; was broken into
harness, and worked by Mr. McFarlane, a contractor; was lost
near Stratford, and on search being made was found at the
junction of the Wentworth and Mitchell rivers. The line taken
in this case is direct for Omeo.

3. Mr. Dougald McMillan of Stratford some little time back
bought a mare from a Maneroo ‘‘mob.” About a month ago
she was lost from near Stratford in hobbles and was seen a day
or two afterwards crossing ‘‘ Iguana Creek still in hobbles and
as fast as she could go.” The people from the Glenalladale
Station (Iguana Creek) being then engaged gathering some wild
horses at Deadcock Creek, found her with them. This line
taken was the usual one, and if carried out would cross the
centre of Maneroo.

These three cases were related to me by the stock-keeper at
Glenalladale Station.

4. A year or two back Mr. Kreymborg of Bairusdale pur-
chased a mob of horses from O’Rourke Station, Black Moun-
tain, and sold one, a black mare, broken to lead to a person
named Gee, living at Cobbannah Creek. The mare remained
with Gee’s horses for some time, but was then missed from
Lower Cobbannah Creek and next heard of at Tabberabberah,
and was recovered on Pettersen’s Station, at the foot of Mount
Baldhead.

This line bears a little away from the Black Mountain, but the
nature of the country is such that the Mount Baldhead and
Notch Hill tier of mountains form the end of a cz/ de sac, of
which the open country at the junction of the Wentworth and
Mitchell rivers is the mouth. This tract of forest country ~
fenced in by mountains a few years ago swarmed with stray
cattle and their progeny ; three hundred bulls were shot by the
then proprietors in, I believe, about two years.

5. Mr. Freitag, who follows the occupation of packing up
goods to the Crooked River gold-workings, tells me that he is
in the habit of buying Maneroo horses at Stratford and breaking
them in for use in his pack-train. He finds that for the first few
trips they require watching carefully when camped at Iguana
Creek, where the road to Crooked River turns northward, as
they are very apt to make away at that place. When reco-
vered they are usually found either at Deadcock Creek or up
the river towards Tabberabberah, thus conforming strictly to the
direction taken by cattle and horses in other instances.

6. Thomas Dowling, employed in the stations of Messrs.
Degraves, at Omeo, bought a mare from Mr. McKeachie, of
Delegete in Maneroo. The mare was kept in the Hinnomungie
paddock (Omeo) for two or three years. Being then taken to
Bindi, about twelve miles distant, she escaped, and after being
seen at Nannyong, was recov.red at Gelantipy, on the Snowy
River. Nannyong is a smal open piece of country on the sum-
mit of the mountain east of Bindi, and the country crossed over,
fifty miles, is very difficult, the mountains being some 4,000 to
5,000 ft. in altitude, and almost unknown even now except to
stock-men, I came through, last summer, nearly in the line the
mare must have taken. It is almost direct for Delegete.

7. A buliock-driver named Richardson purchased a working
bullock which had been sent down from Maneroo by the usual
road forsale. He sold the bullock at Omeo—going up there
with leading—to Mr. Lewis, the manager of Messrs. Degraves’
stations. The bullock was kept in the Hinnomungie paddock,
but got out two or three times, and in each case made away
across country direct for Maneroo, being recovered by the Messrs.
Pendergast, of Mt. Leinster, and sent back to Mr. Lewis.

These cases I have obtained from Mr, Lewis, and they are
remarkable as showing the length of time during which cattle
and horses retain the recollection of their native places, and also
as showing, in even a more marked manner than those quoted
first, that they return homewards without any regard to the track
by which they have reached their place of departure. The cases
from Stratford, on the other hand, illustrate the distances from
which cattle will start for home.

8. Mr. Mackiotosh, of Dargo, informs me that about two
years ago, when gathering wild cattle on the Ayon River, he
got away from his men down that river for many miles before
he ascertained that he was astray. Finding, then, that his horse
persisted in going in a certain direction, he gave him his head,
and the horse went ina straight line to the place where the camp
was fixed, a distance of some ten miles through a scrubby
country, and without a track.

I could continue quoting examples still further, but I fear that

324

I have already trespassed too much on the columns of NATURE,
and I shall conclude by saying that these instances are not
thought extraordinary here, and that the belief that cattle and
horses can find their way “straight” is firmly held by all bush-
men. I have heard similar instances at Lake Torrens, the Dar-
ling River, and Maneroo.

I am aware that they do not affect the question as to how a
cat finds her way home when conveyed shut up in a bag, but I
conceive that they bear out the view suggested by Mr. Darwin,
and with which my own experience coincides.

A. W. Howitt

Bairusdale, Gippsland, Victoria, May 21

Ingenuity in a Pigeon

THE following facts (having been witnessed by myself) may,
perhaps, be considered worthy of insertion in your journal, as
bearing on the subject of ‘‘ Perception and Instinct in the Lower
Animais,” which has lately been brought into such prominent
notice.

On the Richmond road (Surrey), at about a mile from the
town, stands an old roadside inn, yclept ‘‘The Black Horse,”
owned by one R. Ketley. Attached to the house are a number
of domestic pigeons cf various breeds, chiefly “ Pouters.”

Having occasion to wait for my pony to be harnessed at this inn
a few years since, my attention was directed by a gentleman (a
resident of the neighbourhood) with whom I was acquainted, to
the strange conduct of one of these birds.

A number of them were feeding on a few oats that had been
accidentally let fall while fixing the nose-bag on a horse standing
at bait. Having finished all the grain at hand, a large ‘* Pouter”
rose, and flapping its wings furiously, flew directly at the horse’s
eyes, causing that animal to toss his head, and in doing so, of
course shake out more corn, I saw this several times repeated ;
in fact, whenever the supply on hand had been exhausted.

I Jeave it to your readers to consider the train of thought that
must have passed through the pigeon’s brain before it adopted
the clever method above narrated, of stealing the horse’s
provender,

Was not this, indeed, something more than mere instinct ?

RIcHARD H. NaPIiER

Upton Cottage, Bursledon, Southampton, Aug. 13

The Origin of Nerve Force

T notice in NATURE for July 21 a paper by A. H. Garrod,
Suggesting that nervous force has its origin in thermo-electric
currents due to the difference of temperature between the surface
and interior of the body. Without presuming to any opinion
from the physiological point of view, I venture to mention one
or two obvious difficulties.

Although, as the writer observes," ‘‘in cold weather the im-
pulse to act is much more powerfully felt than in summer, when
the air is hot, and therefore the temperature of the surface is
higher,” yet even 98° F. (the internal temperature of a healthy
body) is not uncommon for the air in tropical climates, where
the natives can undergo great exertions. But, according to the
thermo-electric hypothesis, the nerve force must in this case be
nil, Again, temperatures of 140° to 160° F. are easily sustained
for a considerable time in the Turkish Bath. Under these con-
ditions the direction of the current should be reversed ; and, even
supposing that positive and negative currents both acted in the
same sense on the muscles and nervous ganglia, it would seem
that there must be an instant of transition when the two should
be balanced, and nervous force at zero, and the powers both of
sensation and motion lost with it.

The thermo electric theory is not required to explain the cases
to which Mr. Garrod alludes. We have only to consider that
the body must be kept at a constant temperature of about 98° F.,
while heat is being continually evolved internally by nervous and
muscular action, to see that the surface of the body must be
cooler than the interior in order to get rid of the superfluous heat
without consumption of work in increased perspiration and eva-
poration. At high external temperatures there will naturally be

disinclination to muscular exertion ; not only because it pro-
duces heat which tends to upset the equilibrium of temperature,
but because the force that would have been expended in it is
consumed in increased action to get rid of the heat. That the
exhausting effect of hot water is much greater than that of hot
air is accounted for both by its greater conductivity and specific

NATURE

——$—<—— $$” OS anor

[ Aug. 21, 1873

heat, and still more because it checks evaporation, which is one
of the most powerful outlets for waste heat. It must be familiar
to everyone that rapid exhaustion is produced by immersion not
only in hot water but in that of almost any temperature. Taking
7o° as an average external temperature, we shall find that im-
mersion in water at 30° would be quite as rapidly destructive of
nervous energy as in that of 110°; and that while air of the latter
temperature could be sustained by theynaked body for long
without inconvenience, that of 30° would be rapidly tatal unless
the temperature was kept up by violent exercise.

Supposing the brain to be really colder than the blood, I shall
be glad if some physiologist will inform me if this is not due to
the consumption of heat in building up the complicated and un-
stable matter of the brain from the comparatively stable and
simple constituents of the blood, and in this case, if there is any
difference of brain temperature between times of rest and nuiri-
tion (sleep) and those of active exertion.

Knowing as we do that chemical action is constantly going on
in the body and that electrical disturbance is an almost constant
result of such action, it seems hardly neces:ary to look further
for the source of nerve force, though we are in almost complete
ignorance of the details of its production.

Henry R. PRrocTer

The Flight of Birds

Your correspondent, J. Guthrie (vol. viii. p. 86), has struck 4
note which will, I think, echo. The question he raises is one which
has exercised more minds than one. It has been present to me
individually almost ever since I was able to reason. The oppor
tunities enjoyed by exiles, especially in tropical coun'ries, for
the study ot the phenomenon of a body, poised in mid-air, with
no apparent support, is considerable, owing to the boldness and
number of kites and birds of that class. I have watched them
from the point of view—figuratively speaking—of your Cape
correspondent, scores of times, and sometimes under peculiar
conditions: but I am unable to add anything certain to the bare
statement that birds of prey ca# maintain a position of absolute
apparent rest. . i

it is some fourteen or fifteen years since I first watched an
eaglein a telescope, with a view to test an explanation—the same
as that suggested by Mr, Guthrie—hazarded as a conceivable
po:sibility by my father, long before. Since that day I have
had innumerable opportunities for close watch—some of which I
will describe—and never have I seen anything to support it.

Not to go back too far, as I must trust to memory, [ was,
two or three years ago, on the summit of a long-backed solitary
hill, 500 or
Southern India. There was alight breeze blowing, and I saw an
eagle stemming it, on the leeward side of the hill, which was steep.
Sometimes he was within (say) fifty yards, and having a goo
glass at hand, I rested it ona stone heap, and watched him. It was
irequently possible to see him thus, stationary in a motionless ficld’
of view, at anapparent distance of 10 or 12!t. Not a feather
quivered : the head was turned from side to side as he scrutinised
the hill-side : occasionally a foot was brought up to the beak;
the roll of the eye was perceptible: but otherwise he was af
vest to all appearance, Of course the tips of the wings came in’
for a share of my scrutiny. They may have been quivering, but
they looked as steaciy as those of a stuffed specrmen. And here’

I may observe, that for this appearance to be compatible with’

an unperceived vibration, the position of rest must have existed’
alternately with successive excursions, and the time occupied by’
the latter must have been insignificant as compared with the’
duration of rest. I find it impossible to accept this explanation,
even as a first step, and need not inquire how it would produce’
the supporting effects. The tail, 1 should mention, was not at
rest. It was frequently feeling, as it were, the passing breeze. _

It is tobe understood that in the course of frequent changes of
general position, I had the bird under examination from different
directions—not always of course so favourably,

On another occasion I spent a fortnight on the summit of a-
peculiar hill in this neighbourhood, with nothing to do but
recruit as fast as possible. The hill resembles a dish-cover at-
top, and being the resort of fugitives from the dust and drought
and heat of Bangalore in April and May, who occupy every avail«
able dwelling on a very restricted space, there is plenty to attract’
the kites from far and wide, to say nothing of vultures. There
are two or three kinds of kite, but for the present subject they
are all the same—fine, powerful, bold birds, with a stretch of

600 ft. high, in the Coimbatore plains of

"i
:

_I see the less I like it.

Aug. 21, 1873]

three or four feet of wing—who will swoop and take meat from
a basket on a man’s head, any day, or even from his hand. A
score or two of these circling about the kitchen and outhouses,
may be watched with advantage from the house-top, as is evi-
dent. The difficulty is to reproduce, in description, anything
definite, from the copiousness of the evidence. I can therefore
only express distinctly the conclusions I formed :—(1) that it was
utterly incomprehensible ; (2) that there mst be some unper-
ceived source of motion ; (3) that it mzght be (and probably
was), a subtle utilisation of the varying air currents met with or
sought for. This conclusion lands one in a new set of perplex-
ities, it is true ; but it is the least opposed to reason, however ill
it may accord with some of the facts as interpreted by us.
Vultures are large heavy brutes, with comparatively little
wing-power, and their flight is far slower and heavier. They very
commonly rest on the ground, doing nothing, and if disturbed,
the effort to rise is evidently a toilsome one. Nevertheless, they
too possess, and largely exercise the power, of sustaining them-
selves in mid-air without apparent action, Not that they ever
rest motionless, but they sweep about in endless paths with
hardly ever a beat of the wing except on occasion, in this respect
seeming to husband their strength much more than the kites,
who are always on the move, and wheel in much sharper curves.
Iwas a good deal impressed, at one time, with the notion that
the secret lay in slants of wind taken advantage of, but the more
It is impossible to conceive upward
currents as commonly strong enough to support a dead bird simi-
larly extended. And though I am not prepared to assert that I
have ever seen birds floating motionless where there was 7o wind,
yet if we are to take the vertically resolved portion of wind,
considered as essential, as the supporting agency, what becomes
of the horizontal force? Given a sufficient momentum, one
could conceive an economic expenditure of it, but not enough to
explain the endless wheelings of vultures, much less the long
continued poising without forward or backward movement of
eagles.
in fine, I can only echo Mr. Guthrie’s appeal for further ex-
planation ; but I beg that we may have no nonsense about
“bones filled with air.” One is tempted to ask in that case if
death solidifies the bones, to account for the undeniable weight
and density of a goose. J. HERSCHEL
Bangalore, July 6

Earthquakes in the Samoan Islands, South Pacific

ON two former occasions I have contributed to NATURE notices
of the earthquakes experienced in these islands. I will now
continue my list from the commencement of 1872,

On Marck 22, at 1.25 P.M., there was ‘a shock from N.E.,
motion horizontal, Vibration continued 15 seconds. For
several seconds before the motion was fclt, and during the whole
time of vibration, there was a noise like distant thunder.

On April 8, at 3.10 P.M., there was .a slight shock, hori-
zontal.

May 11, at 10.20 A.M., we had a double shock. This was
rather severe. Motion horizontal ; interval between shocks, 15
seconds ; total duration, 25 seconds.

May 28, at 10.30 P.M., a slight horizontal shock.

Sept. 9, at 10.20 p.M., double, horizontal shock from N.E. ;
interval !25 seconds. This was a more severe shock than we
usually feel here.

Nov. 12, at 5.10 A.M., a slight horizontal shock,

Dec. 3, at 9.20 P.M., a slight horizontal shock,

Jan. 2, 1873, at 7.40 A.M., a shock which, in these islands, is
considered very severe. The motion was horizontal. The main
undulation was followed by rapid oscillations for 45 seconds,
followed by a sea-wave. tens

I regret that I cannot give full and definite information re-
specting this earthquake. I was away from home at the time,
staying at the inland residence of the British Consul, on the
island of Upolu, where I was unable to note with precision any
of the accompanying phenomena. The Consul’s residence is a
wooden building with a ground floor only. It stands due east
and west. This shook very severely with the rapid undulations
of the earth-waves, apparently, longitudinally from east to west.
I at once'thought the centre of impulse was to the east of my
position. Of this, however, I am by no means certain ; in fact,
I have reason to doubt whether my observation on this point was
correct. The sea-wave was almost entirely confined to the south
coast of the islands of Upolu and Saraii. On the island of Tu-
tuila (forty miles to the east of Upolu) it rose equally on the

7

NATURE

325

south and north sides. I have at present no information from
Manua (three islands about sixty miles east of Tutuila) except
that both earthquake and sea-wave were felt there. None of
those who saw the sea-wave noticed particularly the time which
elapsed between the earthquake and the rolling inland of the

sea-wave, All my informants from Saraii (the most westerly
island) agree that the one followed the other almost
Immediately. They felt the earthquake and almost im-

mediately afterwards saw the reef bare much lower than
it is at low tide. The tide was at about halfebb at the
time. Following closely on this efflux came the reflux in a large
wave which rolled inland and flooded /the sites of villages lying
low at the back of deep bays. This wave rose about 6 ft. above
high-water mark during spring tides. ‘he rise and fall during
spring tides in this group being about 4 ft. 6in. The first great
wave was followed by a number of smaller waves, and the oscil~
lation continued for some time. No efflux of the sea was noticed,
as far as I can learn, on Upolu or Tutuila. At the latter island
the sea-wave rolled inland more than half-an-hour after the earth-
quake, and 10 :e about 6 ft. above high-water mark. No damage
of importance was done by the wave.

Two days after the above earthquakes, we had three others in
rapid succession, and three more have followed them on different
days since, viz. :—

On Jan. 4, at 10.45 A.M., we had a heavy horizontal shock, or
rather a succession of shocks, two of which were severe. These
continued 55 seconds, and were accompanied by great rumbling
and a hissing noise.

Four minutes afterwards, viz., at 10.50 A.M., we experienced
another sharp shock, accompanied by similar noises. The
vibrations of this shock continued 15 seconds. We had scarcely
recovered our equilibrium and quieted our nerves after this second
shock when, at 10.57 A.M., we were startled by another, the
oscillations of which lasted 20 seconds. This also was accom-
panied by great rumbling.

No damage was done by these earthquakes, The buildings
in these islands are all low, and nearly all are built with wood,
so that only a very severe earthquake could do much injury.

On Jan. 8-9, at midnight, another slight horizontal shock
was felt.

oon Jan. 13, at 8.45 A.M., we had another {which was also
slight.
: = Jan. 14, at 5.24 A.M., there was another slight horizontal
shock.

The Samoan Islands owe their existence to volcanoes, as they
consist almost entirely of volcanic rock. There has, however,
been no eruption for a very long period until in 1867, when, it
will be remembered, a submarine volcano burst out between Tait
and Olosenga, two of the Manua islands in the eastern end of
the archipelago. This subsided after a fortnight’s activity.
A few months afterwards I was on board H.M.S. Falcon when
soundings were taken over the spot where the volcano had been.
We found a cone 180 feet above the bed of the surrounding
ocean: the average depth of the sea around it being 120 fathoms,
while the depth on the apex of the cone was only go fathoms.
There has been no further e:uption from this volcano up to the
present time. Almost ever since this has been quiet, there has
been great activity in the volcano of Nina Foou, in the neigh-
bourhood of the Friendly group of islands.

Samoa, S. Pacific

THE ARITHMOMETER

Is espe of our readers who have anything to do with

calculations have heard of the above calculating
machine, the invention of M. Thomas de Colmar. A few
remarks, therefore, on its construction and operation may
be of interest to those who have not seen this really useful
calculating machine.

The instrument is of small size, the one which we are
about to describe being only 22 in. long, 64 in, wide, and
34 in. deep.

We can best give an idea of the great saving of time
effected by this instrument when we state that with it
eight figures (tens of millions) can be multiplied by eight
figures in eighteen seconds, sixteen figures be divided by
eight figures in twenty seconds, and a square root of six-
teen figures be extracted, with the proof, in less than two
minutes.

Our illustration shows a top view of an arithmometer

S. J. WHITMEE

326

NATURE

[Aug. 21, 1873

the lid of the box being removed. It is constructed
chiefly of a brass plate, A, furnished with eight slots, as
shown ; directly under these slots are mounted eight
drums, each having nine elongated cog teeth of succes-
sively decreasing length ; over each drum, and between
it and the slot,{is mounted a square shaft, on which slides
a pinion wheel so as to catch any number of teeth on the
drum, Each of these pinion wheels is moved by a but-
ton, a, of which there is one in each slot, the figures at
the sides of the slots showing the proper position of each
button a, for any work to be performed by the in-
strument.

The cogged drums gear by bevil wheels with a long
horizontal shaft, which is also in gear with the vertical
shaft moved by the handle 6, by which the instrument is
worked. B is a moveable brass plate, which can turn and
slide on a round bar-hinge at the back; in this plate
there are sixteen holes, c, under each of which is a moveable
disc numbered from o to 9, and arranged so that any one
figure of each disc may be brought under its correspond-
ing hole ¢, These discs have bevil wheels which gear
with bevil wheels on the before-mentioned square shafts.
The moveable plate B is also furnished with the holes d,
having discs numbered from 0 to 9 underneath, and are
for showing the number of turns of the handle, giving by
this means the quotient in division, and showing the mul-
tiplier in multiplication. The knobs C and D are for
bringing the figures under the holes ¢ and @ to zero before

commencing an operation, and the knob E is for setting
the instrument to work addition and multiplication, or
subtraction and division. F is a small slate for memo-
randa. ’

Before further describing the working of the machine,
we would remark that, if the knob E be placed at Add‘,
each turn of the handle will carfy the figures marked by
the buttons a, under the indicator-holes ¢, or add them
to the figures already under the holes ¢, while if the
knob be placed at Sub", each turn of the handle will
subtract from the figures under the holes c, the numbers
marked by the buttons a,

Such being the general construction and principle of
the machine, we will now proceed to give an example of
its operation for multiplication, the operations for addi-
tion and subtraction being sufficiently explained in the
preceding paragraph,

Thus, to multiply 76847235

by 6583

Mark the multiplicand on the plate A by the buttons 2,
as shown in the illustration ; set the knob E at Add® and
Mulp", then turn the handle 4 three times for the unit
fizure of the multiplier, and three times the multiplicand,
viz. 230541705, willappearunder the holes cin the moveable
plate B ; this plate must now be raised, and moved one
figure or station to the right, and the handle turned eight
times for the second figure of the multiplier, and

oc ° ° °

B
ie
SUB" &DIVS
i)

—- ,

-9-9-9-0-6.

2G) © @* G+ Grae

O-wWUPnOVNeo

c
-@->:
° (e}
82 62

Su 84

ee 2 9 9 9 r) 9
8 sou 8 8 8 8 8 At
arz. 7 7 my 7 7 7 A
ey? 6 6 6 6 6 6 “
5 5 5 5 6 6 5
* 4 420 + 4 4 a °
3 3 z 3 3 s<qja 3 3
2 2 2 2 243 2 2
’ 1 1 1 ' ' '
C) o o rt o 0 r)

Colmar’s Arithmometer

6378320505 will appear under the holes c; move the
plate B again to the right, and turn the handle five times
for the third figure of the multiplier, and 44801938005
will be brought under the holes ¢; and finally, by moving
the plate B once more to the right, and turning the
handle six times for the last figure of the multiplier, the
total product, 505885348005, will appear under the holes
c, and the figures of the multiplier, viz. 6583, will appear
in the holes @.

In division the operation is as simple as for multiplica-
tion, and is performed as follows: thus, to divide
414591904 by 4768, set up the dividend on the plate B,
and the divisor on the plate A, commencing with the unit
figure in each case to the right hand ; place the knob E
at Sub" and Div", and move the plate B to the right until
the second figure (from the left) of the dividend is over
the first figure (4) of the divisor; turn the handle eight
times, and 8 will appear in the quotient holes d, and will
give the first figure of the quotient, while the dividend
will now show 33151904, having been reduced by eight
times the divisor, as in ordinary arithmetic ; move the
plate B one place to the left, and turn the handle six times
for the second figure of the quotient, and the dividend
will be further reduced by six times the divisor, and will
mark 4543904; again move the plate, and turn the
handle nine times, and after moving the plate B, and
turning the handle five times and three times respectively,
the holes ¢ will all show noughts, and the quotient holes @

will show 86953, which is the quotient required ; if there
had been any remainder, it would have appeared in the
holes ¢,

Although by the ordinary limits of the machine a pro-
duct of 16 places of figures and a quotient of 9 places of
figures only can be obtained, yet by an intermediate re-
cord by the operator these limits may be virtually doubled
for multiplication ; while for division, provided the divisor
does not exceed eight places of figures, the dividend and
the quotient may be unlimited. ;

The use of the arithmometer in actuarial and other cal-
culations has been shown in the papers read by Major-
General Hannyngton and Mr, Peter Gray, F.R.A.S.,
F.R.M.S., respectively at the Institute of Actuaries (see
the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, p. 224, vol. xvi.,
and p. 249, vol. xvii.); and Mr. Thomas T. P. Bruce
Warren, in a paper read before the Society of Telegraph
Engineers, has shown the application of the instrument
to electrical computations.

The Arithmometer is now, we believe, used in many
Government Offices, in nearly all the Life Insurance
Offices in England, in several Observatories; Sir W.
Thompson, Prof. Tait, Prof. Galbraith, and Dr, Ball,
also use them in the Universities and Colleges with which
they are respectively connected. ;

The instrument canbe seen, and all information ob-
tained, of Mr. W. A. Gilbee, of 4, South Street, Finsbury,
who, we understand, is sele agent for the Arithmometer;

Aug. 21, 1873]

NATURE

327

ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND |

MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF
WEIGHT AND MEASURE *
, III.
IMPERIAL STANDARD POUND
THE standard unit of imperial weight is the avoirdu-
pois pound of platinum, constructed under the

superintendence of the Commission for Restoration of the
Standards. The mode of constructing this new standard

Fic. 4.—Form and size of the lost Standard Troy Pound.

of weight, together with full details of all the scientific
processes employed, have been described by Prof. W.
H. Miller, to whom its construction was more imme-
diately entrusted. A drawing of the imperial standard
pound has already been shown in Fig. 1.

For constructing this standard, the first point to be

Fic s5.—Queen Elizabeth's Standard Troy Pound of eight and four ounces

determined was the exact weight of the lost standard
Troy pound, from which the weight of the new standard
Avoirdupois pound was to be derived. Upon investiga-
tion, this proved to be the most difficult problem to be
solved by the Commission. The old standard had been
constructed in 1758, together with two similar pounds,
under the direction of the Parliamentary Committee of

* Continued from p. 309.

that year. Itis stated to have been composed of gon
metal, but unfortunately no record exists of its volume or
density, and it is not probable that it was ever weighed
in water. An accurate drawing of the lost standard pound
had been made in 1829 by Captain Nehus, who measured
its dimensions with the greatest care. (See Phil. Trans,
1836, p. 361) Itvery nearly resembles a Troy pound now
in the Standards Department, which was constructed at
the same time, and is said to be the original from which
the lost Standard was made, Its form and size are shown
in Fig. 4.

_When the Troy pound was constructed under the
direction of the Committee of the House of Commons in
1758, it was made as nearly as possible of the genuine
weight of the Troy pound according to the ancient
Standard. For this purpose comparisons were made of
the Exchequer Troy Standards with each other, and with
other Troy standards belonging tothe Mint and the prin-
cipal scale-makers. At the period when the Troy pound
of 1758 was constructed, there existed no distinct Stan-
dard Troy Pound at the Exchequer. The Exchequer
Troy Standards of Queen Elizabeth, which were the legal
standards in 1758, consisted of a binary series of Troy

Fic. 7.—Platinum Troy Pound,
T, of the Standards Department.

Fig 6—Platinum Troy Pound,
RS, of the Royal Society.
The form and size of the two platinum Standard Troy Pounds, RS and T,
are as follows :—RS being a truncated pyramid surmounted by a knob, T
cylindrical with a groove. The length of the side of the base of RS is o 95 in.,
the total height 2 66 inches; the diameter of the base of T is 1125 inch, the
height 1'07 inch.

ounces from 258 0z. to 40z.,in the form of cup weights,
fitting into each other. To obtain a Troy pound it was
necessary to take the two Exchequer Standard weights
of 8 and 40z., represented in Fig. 5.

The two other Troy pounds constructed in 1758 were
found by the Commission to be in existence, as well as
two similar Troy pounds made at the same time and
bearing similar marks, though all differed slightly in their
dimensions, as well as in volume and weight. They were
all in good preservation and were carefully examined by
Prof. Miller, but there was no satisfactory evidence of
their having been accurately compared with the lost
standard’ so as to identify its weight, and thus to render
them available for determining the proper weight of the
new standard. One of the two last-mentioned pound
weights (denoted as O by Prof. Miller) is shown in Fig. 4.
This weight was purchased by the Commission, and is
now deposited in the Standards’ Department. It differs
very slightly in its dimension from the lost standard, as
shown above, and its,weight in air was computed by Prof.
Miller to be 5759°85625 grains of the lost standard.

For ascertaining the exact weight of the lost standard

328

pound, the following weights, which had been accurately
compared with it, were examined :—

The brass Troy Exchequer Standard pound, con-
structed in 1824 under the superintendence of Capt.
Kater, and legalised as the official Standard ;

Three similar brass pounds, constructed for the Cities
of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin ;

A platinum Troy pound and two brass pounds belong-
ing to Prof. Schumacher ;

The platinum Troy pound of the Royal Society.

It was found, however, from examining the results of
several weighings of the brass Troy pounds that great
discrepancies existed, attributable to the effect of oxida-
tion or other causes. It was consequently resolved to
rest entirely for evidence of the weight of the lost standard
on the comparisons of the two platinum Troy pounds ;
denoted by Prof. Miller as Sp and RS. These two plati-
num weights had been constructed in 1829, and were
intended to be equal to the lost Standard (denoted as U)
when weighed in air. Each of them had been compared
with V by Capt. Nehus at Somerset House in 1829, with
the following results :—

Mean of 300 observations, Sp = U — 0'00857 grain,

(mean ¢ = 65°62 F. 6 = 29'722 in.)

Mean of 140 observations, RS = U — o'00205 grains,

(mean ¢ = 65°73 F. 6 = 29 806 in.)

The density of Sp had been determined by weighing it
in water, to be 21°1874, and it was found to displace
0°32544 gr. of air of the stated mean temperature and
atmospheric pressure. The density of U had never been
determined, but it was assumed to be of the same density
as one of the Troy pounds constructed at the same time,
viz. 8151, which is nearly the average density of brass
and bronze weights, and to have therefore displaced
084646 gr. Whence in avacuum Sp = U — o'52959 gr.

The density of RS also had not been determined by
weighing in water, but it was assumed to be of the same
density as Sp, and therefore to have displaced 0'32629
gr. of air, whilst U displaced 084865 gr. Whence ina
vacuum RS = U — o'52441 gr. The mean value of the
lost Standard Troy pound thus determined through Sp
and RS, was the basis upon which the new Standard
Avoirdupois pound was to be constructed. As a_preli-
minary operation, a new platinum Troy pound, denoted
as T, was constructed very nearly equal in weight to Sp and
to RS, and taking the mean of 286 comparisons of T with
Sp, and of 122 comparisons of T with RS, it was found
that in a vacuum

T = Sp + o’oo1os5, whence T = U — 0'52851
T = RS — 000429, whence T = U - 052870
From the mean of these two results, giving to the
first twice the weight of the second, in consequence of Sp
having been compared about twice as many times with
U and with T as RS was compared, it was finally deter-
mined that in a vacuum

T = U — 052857 gr., or = 5759°47143 grs.

It was aiso found that in air ¢ = 65°66 F. 6 = 29°753°
which was the mean of the comparisons of Sp and RS
with U, and was adopted by Prof. Miller as the standard
air,

T = U — 000745 gr.

It should be observed that all the standard Troy
pounds were intended to be of their true weight in ordinary
air, whilst the new standard imperial avoirdupois pound
was to be made of its true weight when weighed in, or
reduced to, a vacuum.

The next process was to determine the weight of the
new avoirdupois standard pound, of 7,000 grains from
the Troy pound T of 5,760gr., and for this purpose four
new platinum weights of 1,240 gr. each were constructed,
all accurately verified in terms of T, and by employing
other platinum weights of 800, 500, 400, 80, and 40 gr,

NATURE

the true weight in a vacuum of each of the 1,240 gr.
weights was separately determined by numerous compari-
sons with T and with each other as follows :—

Grains.
123988622
1239-88605
1239°88597
1239°88580

1239°88601

Mean
T + Mean = 6699°35744

It thus required only a weight of 0°64266 gr. to make
up the full weight of 7,000 gr. The approximate weight
0°645 gr. was obtained from T in the following manner,
By comparisons with the 4o gr. platinum weights, two
platinum weights of nominally 20 gr. each, were found
to weigh 19'998 gr. each, from which were derived
W = 12’901 gr., V = 60451 gr. From V was derived Q
the mean of ten weights of platinum wire, and equal to
0645 gr. very nearly, It will be shown, hereafter, in
describing the mode of weighing witha scientific balance,
that small differences between two Standard pound
weights of less than o'l grain are ascertained by the
index scale of the balance. Means were thus afforded
of determining the exact weight of 7,000 gr., which was
the weight in a vacuum of the new standard pound, con-
structed of platinum, and denoted as PS, or Parlia-
mentary Standard.

The weight of PS was actually determined by the
mean results of 80 comparisons with each of the following
sets of weights :—

Now Wl tl

ek@lesi-

: gn 4 mm.
PS=T + Q + A — 0002936 in air 4 = 19°47 C. d. = 758°38
PS#T+Q+4+B —o'001731 ,, 19°19 759°31
PS2T+Q+C-—ooor621 ,, 18°83 75438
PST +Q+D—0°000774 ,, 19 63 74°43

Mean of all,

PS=T+Q+}A+B+C+D)— ae in air ¢ = 19°28 C. 3. = 759'12
The density of PS was determined by weighing in
water to be 21°1572, and that of T and the smaller plati-
num weights to be 211661. PS consequently displaced
0°397 gr. of air, and T+Q-+A displaced 0°39727 gr.
Hence
PS = 7000'00093 grains of which U contained 5760,

Having arrived at this very close approximation to the
desired weight of the new standard, it was resolved by
the Commission that PS should be constituted the new
Imperial Standard pound, and be consequently deemed
to contain 7000’00000 grains of the new standard.

Four similar platinum pounds were also constructed,
and their weight in terms of the new standard PS accu-
rately determined. These were intended as auxiliary
Standards of Reference, with the view that either of them
might replace PS, in case of its destruction or damage.
They were termed Parliamentary Copies (P.C.), and were
deposited as follows :—

PC, No. 1, at the Royal Mint. -

PC, No. 2, with the Royal Society.

PC, No. 3, in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich,

PC, No. 4, immured in the New Palace at West-
minster.

Thirty-six other standard pounds of bronze gilt were
also constructed, and their standard weight, both in a
vacuum and in the standard air, adopted by Prof. Miiler,
was accurately determined, as well as the densities of all
the new standard pounds. These gilt bronze pounds were
distributed amonyst different countries and public institu-
tions of this country.

All the numerous weighings, both in air and in water, of
the new standard pounds for determining their weights and
densities were made by Prof. Miller himself, and full details
of all these operations are given by him in his “ Account

21, 1873|
of the Construction of the new National Standard of
Weight.” _
The new imperial standard pound is of the true weight
of an avoirdupois pound when ina vacuum. The prin-
cipal advantage of the metal of which it is composed
. inum), consists in its not being affected by oxidation,
hich would unavoidably alter its absolute weight. But
latinum has this disadvantage, if used as the material of
standard for regulating ordinary weights of precision
e of brass, viz. that when weighed in air against a
s or bronze standird weight of so much greater
me, although of equal weight in a vacuum, its appa-
ent weight is always about half a grain greater than that
f the brass or bronze standard. To obviate this disad-
ntage, the weight in standard air of all the bronze
ndard pounds verified by Prof. Miller were computed
him, zot tn ternts of the platinum standard pound, but
Vf an ideal brass commercial standard pound, denoted by
im as W. He assumed W to be of the same density as
lost standard, and of the average density of brass or
onze. In standard air, ¢. = 65°°66, 6. = 29°75 in. PS
with a density of 21°1572 displaced 0°39644 grain of air,
W was assumed to displace 1'03051 grain. And as
official standard weights, by reference to which all
mercial weights are veritied, are made of brass or
ze, it was intended that they also should be regulated
‘their weight in air when referred to the brass commer-
standard W. This has in fact been done. The
change since made has been under the sanction of
ie late Standards Commiission, by which the standard
r recited in the Act of 1824 for determining the weight
air of a cubic inch of water, viz. 7. = 62° F., 6. = 301n.
s been substituted for that adopted by Prof. Miller in
msequence of its being the air in which the weight of
the Jost standard pound had been most accurately deter-
nined. The object of this change was to adopt one
uniform normal temperature and barometric pressure
for all standard purposes. In the new standard air
(log ZX =7 0852825 — 10), PS displaces 040282 gr., and
W, with a density of 8°1430, displaces 1'04706 grain of
air, H. W. CHISHOLM

(To be continued.)

THE TUSCAN MEMORIAL TO GALILEO

ap ARI, in speaking of Savonarola, and the men of
his time, says :—‘“ The world stood aghast at this
new race of Titans, who arose to fight with the old idols,
‘and it soon began to oppress them ; but it worships their
remains and lingers in their footsteps.” And this is
literally the case : the descendants of those Italians who
burnt Savonarola at the stake, preserve, with religious
‘care, the cell in which he wrote, morsels of his monkish
garments and of his hair, his manuscript notes, indeed
every memorial that remains of him. The custodian
“who showed us these remains, together with a picture
‘representing Savonarola at the stake in his own Piazza
della Signoria, of Florence, abused Alexander VI. and
the Inquisitors, and the whole body of ecclesiastics con-
cerned in the matter, so roundly and so fiercely, that we
were led to wonder what manner of Catholic he could
be; and to compare the Catholicism of 1872 with that
of 1472. Thus, too, Galileo, persecuted during his life-
time, is now almost worshipped : the Tuscans have built
him a shrine worthy of a saint ; in the inscription on his
house at Arcetri, they call him Divinws Galileus ; and in
the shrine itself they have preserved, after the manner of
a saintly relic, one of his forefingers which was detached
from his body when it was removed from the chapel of
SS. Cosmo and Damianus to Santa Croce. This relic is
preserved in a small reliquary urn, upon the base of
avhich is the fo!lowing inscription written by Thomas
Perelli :—

NATURE

329

“* Leipsana ne spernas digiti quo dextera cceli
Mensa vias nunquam visos mortalibus orbes
Monstravit, parvo fragilis molimine vitri

Ausa prior facinus cui non [itania quondam
Suffecit pubes coagestis montibus altis

Ne quidquam superas conata ascendere in arces.”

Again we have Via Galileo and Biblioteca Galileina.
The Pisans point with pride to the Lampada Galileina
in their Cathedral, and honour his statue in their Uni-
versity ; and these are the descendants of the men who
paid Galileo tenpence a day for his services in’ the Uni-
versity; who made him abandon his professorship
because he proved that Aristotle was not infallible ; and
who said derisively to his followers—* Ye men of Galilee,
why stand ye gazing up into heaven?” or, as Ponsard
has it :—

“Ecoutez c que dit l'Apétre : Dans les cieux
Pourguot Galiléens, promenez-vous vos yeux ?
C'est ainsi que d’avance il lancait l'anathéme
Contre toi, Galilée, et contre ton systéme.’’

The Tuscan Memorial to Galileo is in Florence, in
the Museo di Fisica e di Storia Naturale. It is entirely
the work of Tuscans, and is said to have been con-
structed at a cost of 1,000,000 lire (nearly 40,0007.) It
consists simply of a vestibule, from which opens a small
rectangular hall, with a semicircular tribune, in which is
placed the statue of Galileo, by Prof. Costoli. The
interior of the hallis entirely lined with white marble,
and with frescoes in admirable taste. The frescoes in
the vestibule represent Leonardo da Vinci in the presence
of Ludovic Sforza, Duke of Milan, to whom he is making
known some of his great inventions. Apropos of this,
there exists in the Ambrosian Library, in Milan, a large
folio full of MSS. notes, and drawings, by Leonardo da
Vinci, which the courteous director of the library is
always willing to place in the hands of interested strangers,
and which well repays the most careiul examination.
Some of the sketches of hydraulic apparatus, appeared to
us to be worthy of minuter study than they appear to
have received. The opposite fresco of the vestibule
represents Volta explaining his invention of the pile to
the members of the French Institute, in the presence of
the first Consul, Napoleon, and Lagrange. In the
vestibule are also placed marble medalions of Leo
Baptista Alberti, and Baptista della Porta. A fresco in
the hall by Bezzuoli, represents Galileo lecturing in Pisa,
on the laws of falling bodies. This is a really striking
and well-conceived painting : Galileo in his professorial
toga stands by the long inclined plane, showing his
results to his colleague, Mazzoni. In the foreground is a
professor in a monastic habit, kneeling near the inclined
plane, and counting the time of descent of the falling
body, by the beats of his pulse. Young students are
pressing round Galileo, in order, if possible, to aid him in
his experiments ; while on another side the Aristotelian
prolessors are looking on with derision, and searching in
vain in the writings of the Peripatetic for explanations of
the new facts. Inthe background appear the cathedral and
the leaning tower. The whole conception is noble and
spirit-stirring, and one longs fora similar treatment of
other great discoveries in science :—Davy discovering
potassium, Faraday obtain ng the first magneto-electric
spark, and magnetising a ray of light. The opposite
paintingrepresentsameeting of the Accademia delCimento:
the patron of the Society, the Grand Duke Ferdinand Lye
is eagerly watching an experiment which is being made
by Redi, Viviani, and Borelli, on the apparent (to them
real) reflection of cold by a parabolic mirror :—one of the
rough spirit thermometers recently invent-d by the
Academy, is placed in the focus of the mirror, and a
block of ice is used as the source of cold.

The three frescoes in the Tribune immediately ar. und
the statue of Galileo, represent three notable events of
his life: in the first he is seen intently watching the
swinging of a lamp in the Cathedral of Pisa; in the
second we see him in the sct of presenting his telescoze

33°

to the Venetian Senate ; and in the third he is repre-
sented as an old man, in his house at Arcetri, dictating
the geometrical demonstration of the laws of falling
bodies to his disciples Torricelli and Viviani, On the
arch above the statue, the astronomical discoveries of
Galileo—the Italians claim for him the Milky Way, the
Nebula of Orion, the Phases of Venus, the Mountains
of the Moon, the Satellites of Jupiter, the Solar Spots,
and the Ring of Saturn—are represented very effectively
on a blue ground, Bas-reliefs in marble on the pillars of
the arch represent his terrestrial discoveries—his country-
men claim for him the Pendulum, the Hydrostatic
Balance, the Thermometer, the Proportion Compass, the
Keeper of Magnets, the Telescope, and the Microscope.
Beneath the frescoes and around the statue are niches,
containing some of Galileo’s instruments, his telescope,
an objective made by the astronomer himself, a propor-
tion compass, and a magnet, with a keeper which he con-
structed for it. Immediately surrounding the statue we
notice the busts of his most celebrated followers, Castelli,
Cavalieri, Torricelli, and Viviani. In the hall there are
six cases containing old apparatus, chiefly that of the
Academy of Cimento. The various thermometers figured
in the “ Saggi di Naturali esperienzi” of the Academy
are here to be seen; the vessels they used for showing
the incompressibility of water; hygrometers ; together
with astronomical and geodesical instruments. Here,
also, is the large burning-glass constructed by Bregaus
of Dresden, employed by Averani and Targioni in their
experiments on the combustion of the diamond, and after-
wards employed by Sir Humphry Davy. The various
inventions and discoveries of the Academy are shown in
bas-relief on the pillars of white marble.

The memorial is altogether worthy of the man, and of
the fine taste of the Florentines. It is, perhaps, the only
sanctuaire scientifique which exists, but we may hope that
the example of the Florentines will be followed in this
and other countries. The Milanese have recently bought
the collection of apparatus and the MSS. of Volta (for a
sum, we believe, of 100,000 lire); a suitable museum for
them will, no doubt, soon be fitted up. It is much to be
wished that Faraday’s apparatus could be collected to-
gether in one place, as a memorial to the man. This
reminds us that soon after the death of Faraday a sub-
scription was set on foot for the purpose of providing
some suitable memorial, but we are unable to remember
whether the designs of the committee were fully carried
out, and whether the subscription attained the desired
amount ; if not, it is to be hoped that the matter will be
kept well before the public.

We have spoken above of the discoveries attributed to
Galileo by his countrymen. We are inclined to think
that some of his claims have been pressed too far ; but
on such a subject an almost endless controversy might be
carried on, for we may remember that even the invention
of the telescope has been claimed for others of his own
countrymen (Antonio de Dominis and Baptista Porta),
and by the Dutch ; and the invention of the thermometer
has been attributed to Cornelius Drebbel, Sanctorio
of Padua, and others. But if we put all this aside,
Galileo still stands out pre-eminently as one of the fathers
of experimental philosophy ; he did not create it, but he
introduced a taste for it, and enlarged it, and he possessed
in an eminent degree the true spirit of philosophical in-
quiry, the ardent love of research, the “ Provando et
Riprovando” which the Academy of Cimento adopted as
its motto,

G, F, RODWELL

THE SPHYGMOGRAPH AND THE PULSE

HERE are few valuable instruments or methods of
: research which have been brought before the scien-
tific world under circumstances less auspicious than one,

NATURE

tras 3 eC ars Nae Rah be! i

| Aug. 21, 187.

the inventor of which, the illustrious M. Marey, has quit
recently visited this country. The sphygmograph, shortl}
after its first construction, was introduced into thi
country as an instrument which gave promise of being ar
invaluable aid in diagnosis, and of such universal appli
cability as the stethoscope and thermometer. Neverthe
less, after an existence of mofe than ten years, it may bi
said that the general impression respecting it is that it
a failure, that it has not answered its expectations, an
that it may as well be put aside, together with othe
curiosities of the physiological laboratory. How this rest
has come about is not difficult to discover. The instr
ment is a complicated one, and its indications are eve
more so. The stethoscope. when introduced, gave resull
at first sight palpable to the most ordinary minds, an
the amount of mechanical knowledge necessary for t
comprehension of some of its most striking result
scarcely exceeded that of the principle of the commo!
pump. But with the sphygmograph the case is different
Its indications are so detailed and so precise that befo
they can be understood, it is absolutely essential
several intricate and elaborate problems of hydrodynamic
and physiology should be thoroughly investigated, a
more than one of these have not, we are surprised to sz
yet left the hands of the mathematicians in any decid
form. How then is it to be expected, as it has been t
many, that the sphygmograph should be found a valuabl
assistance in the diagnosis and prognosis of diseasé
before the physicist and physiologist can give an explané
tion of the language in which it appeals to them? Ther
is no doubt that the instrument must be in the hands ¢
the student of the healthy body for some time to com
before its true value in the elucidation of disease will b
appreciated ; and all additions to our knowledge concern
ing it must be carefully weighed. ;

In a thesis for the M.D. Cantab.,* Dr. Galabin ha
published several results of his sphygmographic work |
the study of renal disease, and what is more to the poin
on the present occasion, he gives his own ideas as to th
analysis of the same trace in health. The fact of th
author’s being. an accomplished mathematician, as we
as a student of biology, gives more than ordinary weigh
to his remarks, and enables him to put several points
a light which is clearer and more precise than usual. —

The author does not enter fully into the reasons i
favour of his views, and does little more than simpl
state them ; but as they differ in some respects from thos
generally accepted, they present features of interest t
workers on the subject. He is one of those who con
sider the trace as it appears on the recording paper a
a decidedly duplicate phenomenon, resolving it into th
true pulsation, together with the oscillations of the leve}
which necessarily result from the momentum acquired by
its sudden movement. This he illustrates by superim
posing on an ordinary pulse curve, as taken by the sphyg
mograph, an ideal one, such as, according to his concef
tion, it would be if the instrument correctly followed th
changes in the diameter of the artery under observation
the latter being little more than a uniform rapid ris
followed by a similar but slower fall, that is slightl
broken by the “dicrotic ” wave, which is produced by thi
closure of the aortic semilunar valves. The excessiy
height of the primary rise is supposed to be due to th
powerful impulse given to the lever at the commencemen
of the flow of fluid in the artery ; and the small secon
dary, or “tidal” wave, which occurs just before th
“ dicrotic,” is supposed to indicate the true arterial expan
sion, which the lever meets on falling from the height 6
its impulse. We quite agree with part of this explané
tion, being fully convinced, from many reasons, thal
the primary rise, or so-called “ percussion” wave
is not a percussion wave at all in the ordinar

* “On the Connection of Bright’s Disease with Changes in the Vascul
System.” By A, L, Galabin, M.A. M.D., Fellow of Trinity Coll , Camb,

| Aug. 21, 1873]

NATURE

331

acceptation of the term; in other words, that it
does not result from the shock produced by the opening
of the aortic valve, but that it is coincident with the flow
of liquids, one reason being, as the author remarks, that
_ the most violent impulse in an artificial model or schema
_ ofthe circulation so communicated, as not to cause any flow
_ of liquid, produces no upstroke, but only a slight quivering
ofthelever. However, that the primary oscillation of the
lever in a sphygmograph trace is not, in a great measure,
‘a genuine representation of the movements in the artery,
it is equally impossible to believe, for in very slow
pulses, where the main rise is not very decided, this wave
is particularly pronounced, being gradual in its rise, and
_ more gradual and paraboloid in its fall. Itis also seen
_ equally clearly by employing a reflecting sphygmoscope,
‘in which the ray of light which acts as the long arm of
the lever, has no weight, and consequently cannot produce
any oscillation, Another great objection is that the notch
_ between the first and second (the percussion and the
tidal) waves always occurs at the instant at which the
aortic valve closes at the heart,* the time it appears after
he commencing pulsation varying with the length of the
] pulse-beat. In fact, the tendency of all observations is to
“make it evident that the second or tidal wave is a post-
"systolic act, being the oscillatory indication of the
secondary tidal wave, which appears as such in the
dicrotic rise, and originates from the closure of the aortic
valve, as Dr. Galabin agrees with most in thinking ;
though Dr. Sanderson holds the very different view that
the second beat is a restoration of equilibrium which takes
_ place by increase of pressure towards the heart and dimi-

-nution towards the periphery, a consequence of the sudden
projection towards the capillaries of the blood during the
systole.

: Or: Galabin remarks that, “if the sphygmograph used
have a secondary spring to keep down the long lever, the
tidal wave may be replaced by two or even by a jagged
line. Such a spring is better omitted, because it is apt to
introduce oscillations of its own.” It is this idea which
has misled him. Tracings taken as he proposes appear
much in favour of his explanation, but they are so be-
cause they are in reality less truthful than they might be.
We have never seen the least indication of any imperfec-
tions caused by the employment of the small spring, but
we have seen the “ percussion” wave divided into two by
it in very slow pulses, the former being a small true
shock-rise, and the latter the real primary rise.

In conclusion, we cannot refrain from quoting a remark of
Dr. Galabin, which, from the precise way in which it sets
the question referred to at rest, is worthy of being quoted
in every text-book. Referring to the rhythmical contrac-
tion observed by Wharton Jones and Schiff in the wing
of the bat and the ear of the rabbit, and its supposed in-
fluence in assisting the circulation of the blood, he re-
marks, “ Now a peristaltic wave in a tube would tend to
produce a current in the liquid of its own velocity, and it
would, therefore, accelerate a slower current, but retard a
quicker one. Therefore, no peristaltic wave could accele-
rate the arterial stream, unless it travelled with the ve-
locity of the pulse-wave. It is thus evident that no such
slow rhythmical motions as have been observed could as-
sist the arterial ow. And it is inconsistent with the usual
character of involuntary muscle to suppose it capable of
transmitting a very rapid wave of contraction, The
arteries themselves indeed, when made to contract by
artificial stimulus, do so slowly and gradually,”

A. H. G.

AMERICAN EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS IN

THE GREAT WEST ;
1 epee are several imporiant expeditions more or less
employed upon scientific work in ,the least known
portions of the Western territories. From some of these
* See Proc. Roy. Soc., 1871, p. 320.

parties, a considerable amount of fragmentary infor-
mation comes at irregular intervals ; but in other cases
the explorers prefer to withhold details as to their move-
ments and work, whether scientific or otherwise, till
after their return, when their report can be prepared
officially. There is, however, a general and widespread
interest taken in these explorations. It seems desirable
for the sake of a clear understanding of news from time
to time received, that a general éswmé of the status and
work of at least the more prominent expeditions should be
presented. :

What is known as the Yellowstone Expedition will first
be mentioned, because in size it is much the most for-
midable. It proceeds through a region where itis deemed
advisable to strike terror among hostile savages, and
with that view has a military force of 1,900 men. Its
movements also have reference to the establishment of
two new military posts in the north-west, for which
purpose Congress has appropriated 200,000 dollars. The
force serves as an escort to surveying parties of the
Northern Pacific Railroad, with reference to its comple-
tion from the town of Bismarck on the Missouri River
in Dakota—about the centre of that territory, and near
the lorst parallel west of Washington—to the Rocky
Mountains ; a distance of between 500 and 600 miles, on
a line drawn in general east and west, and south of 47°
N. lat.

This line may be divided into three parts ; (1) from the
Missouri River to the Yellowstone, about 200 miles,
coming into the territory of Montana; (2) along the
Yellowstone River about 100 miles ; (3) thence west-ward,
reaching the Rocky Mountains south of the town of
Helena. At the date of latest advices, the expedition had
passed over the first division, and was on the banks of
the Yellowstone. The navigability of that river had just
been demonstrated by the successful ascent of a steam-
boat, built at Pittsburg for the purpose, which brought
supplies from Fort Buford.

Of the scientific party accompanying the Yellowstone
Expedition, the following names may be mentioned :—
Dr. J. A Allen, of Cambridge, Mass., in charge of
zoology, botany, and paleontology, ani chief of the
scientific party; Dr. L. R. Nettre, mineralogist and geo-
logist ; W. R. Pywell, of Washington, photographer; E.
Konipucky, of the Museum at Cambridge, artist; and
C. W. Bennett, taxidermist.

The Hayden Expedition, as that under the manage-
ment of Dr, F. V. Hayden is generally termed, might be
more properly designated as the United States Geolozical
and Geographical Survey. It has a much larger scien-
tific staff than any of the other expeditions. Its history
dates from 1867, when what was then the territory of
Nebraska was the subject of a survey by the United
States, Prof. Hayden being appointed chief geologist to
the survey under the Act of Congress by which the under-
taking was authorised. The next year the survey was
extended into Wyoming Territory, and in 1869, into
Colorado and New Mexico. In 1870, a more careful
survey of Wyoming Territory was made; and in 1871,
portions of Montana, including the natural wonders of
the Yellowstone region, became the subjects of explora-
tion ; ultimately resulting in the setting apart as a public
pleasure-ground of the Yel'owstone National Park, a
district of 3,575 square miles. The survey of 1872
reached the region of the Yellowstone by separate routes
of two divisions, of which one proceeded from Fort
Ogden, Utah, and passed up the Valley of the Snake
River in Idaho Territory; the other started from
Boseman, a town in Montana near the Rocky Mountains,
and on one of the Upper Forks of the Missouri River.
The appropriations for this series of surveys have been
increased year by year, starting with 5,000 dollars in 1867,
and rising to 75,000 dollars for the survey now takin
place. ,

332

The district of this year’s operations may be specified
as the eastern half of mountainous Colorado, includes
about 32,000 square miles, and is bounded east by long.
104° 30’, north by lat. 40° 25’, west by long. 107°, and
south by the southern boundary of Co'orado, lat. 37°. It
is divided for the purposes of the survey into three parts
by latitude lines 38° 30’ and 39° 30’; the northermost
being called the “ Middle Park Division,” the middle one
the “ South Park Division,” and the southern one the
“San Luis Division.” The examinatios of the gold and
silver mines of the region, and the measurement of its
mountains, are among the more important duties of the
survey. Unusual prominence is given to procuring pic-
tures by photographs and otherwise.

The camp was organised at Denver College in May ;
the expedition started thence July 1, numbering 41 men.
The season has been unusually favourable, the streams
being low and but little snow or rain falling. The loca-
tion of the camp at the latest advices was on the eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains, at the head-waters of the
Platte, Arkansas, and Blue Rivers. Accurate measure-
ments of some of the more prominent peaks, among
which are Pike’s, Long’s, Evan’s, Gray’s, Lincoln’s, and
the Holy Cross, have been obtained. The views from
these summits where the snow melting on one side flows
to the Atlantic, and on the other to the Pacific, are of
vast scope and magnificence. There were in sight from
one point by actual count, 150 peaks of not less than
13,000 ft., and at least 50 of 14,000 ft. in height. By the
middle of July 150 stereoscopic views, and 50 11 X 14 in.
negatives of this scenery had been secured. The moun-
tains have, very generally, at a depth of 50 to 200 ft. from
their surface, a limestone stratum 30 to $0 ft. thick, con-
taining silver and lead, yielding on the average in the
best mines 250 to 300 ounces of the former metal, to the
ton of ore. ‘he carboniferous and silurian rocks identi-
fied are said to contain rare fossils, The entomologists
of the expedition have classified no less than 227 different
kinds of grasshoppers. The direction of march projected
at last accounts was to be toward the valley of the Upper
Arkansas River and the unexplored region beyond.

There are more than 20 scientists taking actual part
in the expedition : among them may be mentioned Dr.
F. V. Hayden, geologist-in-chief; Mr. J. T. Gardner,
chief geographer, who has attained great reputation in
his connection with previous geodetic surveys in Colorado
and on the Pacific coast; Mr. Marvine, geologist of the
Middle Park Division; Mr. Henry Gannett, meteorolo-
gist and astronomer, and topographer, in charge of the
South Park Division; Mr, W. H. Jackson, in charge of
the photographic party ; Dr. Endlich, geologist ; Lieut.
W. L. Carpenter, naturalist; Mr. Seward Cole, ornitho-
logist ; Mr. J. M. Coulter, botanist; Dr. A. C. Peale,
geologist ; Prof. W. D. Whitney, of Yale College, who is
writing a series of interesting letters concerning the work,
to the New York Tribune.

On some accounts the expedition of Prof. O. C. Marsh,
sometimes known as the Yale College Expedition, because
the fossils collected are sent to that institution, ranks
next in importance. This is purely a private under-
taking, at the expense of the persons composing the
expeaition. The United States Government furnishes a
small but sufficient mlitary escort. The reports are
published under Government auspices. This is the fifth
of aseries of expeditions similarly undertaken by Prof.
Marsh, has no reference to surveying or topography, and
is devoted exclusively to research for the remains of
extinct vertebrates in the tertiary and cretaceous forma-
tions. The districts explored hitherto with such remark-
able success will probably supply the fields of the present
undertaking. The directions previously taken were as
follows :—

First expedition, in 1868, to Lake Como, Wyoming
Territory. Second, in June, 1870, to the Loup Fork

NATURE

[ Aug. 21, 1873,

River, in Nebraska ; the Bad Lands east of the Black
Hills and between the North and South Forks of the
Platte, in Wyoming and Colorado ; and the Great Basin
of the Green River, southward from Fort Bridger, bor-
dering Utah. There were also minor trips during this —
expedition to Green River, im Wyoming, and to the
Smoky River, in Kansas, which were productive of valu-
able results. The third expedition started in the summer
of 1871, and again explored the Smoky River region. in ©
Kansas, the Green River Basin, above mentioned, and in-
vestigated two basins, likewise of the Tertiary age, one in
Idaho and the other in Oregon. The fourth was a trip
with a comparatively small party in the autumn of 1872.
It concentrated at St. Louis, went to Fort Wallace by way
of Kansas City, and, receiving escort, proceeded to
Smoky Hill Fork. On this expedition some explorations
were made near Cheyenne, and several days were spent in
researches, with varying’ success, at Crow’s Creek, Colo-

rado, "

At the most recent dates the present expedition, leav-
ing North Platte Station on the Union Pacific Railroad,
had made a nine days’ march through a desert country,
undergoing great hardships ; had reached the Niobrara
River, made investigations on both its banks for more
than 100 miles below the mouth of Rapid River, and
had returned, laden with fossils, to Cheyenne, expecting
to make the next start from Fort Bridge in Wyoming
Territory. This expedition may extend its researches, as
Professor Marsh informed the writer, to the Pacific
Coast, and is not expected to return till late in the
autumn,

The expedition known as the Wheeler Exploration
Party is under the management of the U.S. War Depart-
ment, Bureau of Engineering. Its chiet is Lieut. G. M,
Wheeler, of the U.S. Engineers. The operations of the
present season will consist of exploration and survey west
of the 1ooth meridian and south of 40°, principally in
New Mexico and Arizona, down to the borders of Mexico.
The following are named amongst the scientific force :—
Messrs. Henry Leubbers, G. Thompson, J. J. Young, and
E. Somer, topographers ; G, R. Gilbert, E, E. Howell, J.
J. Stevenson, and Oscar Loew, geologists ; H. W. Hen-
shaw and John Wolfe, naturalists ; B. Gilpin, meteorolo-
gist ; J. H. Clarke, Dr. F. Kampf, W. W. Marryatt, and
Prof. H. B. Herr, astronomical observers. The establish-
ment of an astronomical observatory, substantially built
of brick, having three observing-rooms, at Ogden, Utah,
will form part of the labours of this expedition, which
concentrated its forces to start from Denver in June
last.

There is an expedition under command of Capt. W. A.
Jones, of the U.S. Engineers, which started from Omaha
on the 2nd of June. Its objects are mainly topographical,
having direct reference to the Yellowstone National Park;
but it may be extended to the Big Horn country, a wild
region imperfectly known, and suid to be fabulously rich
in minerals, situated south of 44°,and between meridians
106 and 108. Among the scientific men attached to this
party are Lieut. S. E. Blunt, astronomer ; P, Le Hardy,
topographer ; Dr. C. C. Parry, botanist and mineralogist ;
and Mr. T. B. Comstock, of New York, geologist.

Whether there is a surveying party under Mr. Clarence
King, geologist, stiil in the Wasatch Mountains, at work
on the line of the 4oth parallel; whether that of Major
J. W. Powell has returned from its investigations having
principal reference to the canfons of Colorado; and
whether a party that went from Philadelphia—consisting
principally of Prof. Joseph Leidy, paleontologist, Dr.
Henry Chapman, zoologist, Mr. Joseph Willcox, mine-
ralogist, all of that city, and Prof. Porter, of Easton,
Pennsylvania, botanist—is still in the wilds of Wyoming
and Colorado, the writer is unable, at the present date,
to determine.

New York, Aug. 8

‘Aug. 21, 1873]

® NOTES

_ From a private lettcr just received from Prof. Wyville Thom-
son, we learn that the Chalienger left St. Vincent, Cape Verde
Islands, on August 2, for Bahia, for the purpose of making her

F fourth section across the Atlantic. As it is now the middle of

_ the rainy season, and as part of the course of the Challenger lies
‘along the coast of Africa to the southward, the members of the

__ expedition expect to be very uncomfortable for a time. On July

y 15 a very successful month's cruise from Bahamas was com-

_ pleted, some of the details of which we expect to be able to pub-

lish next week. ‘‘ We are getting on first rate,” the letter
says ; ‘‘the arrangements continue very complete and satisfac-

tory.”
Tue French Association for the Advancement of Science opens
to-day at Lyons, under the presidency of M. de Quatrefages.
Tuis year’s meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute opened on

Monday at Liége, where the members received a most enthusi-

astic reception. The first meeting was held at the Academic

Hall of the University, when Mr. Lowthian Bell, the President,

delivered a speech, in which he warmly thanked the Belgian iron-

masters for their friendly reception, and then spoke at length on
various technical matters. On Tuesday a second meeting was
held, when several papers were read. It was announced that

3 the members were invited to hold their meetings next year in

4 the United States. Many fétes, receptions, and other entertain-

_ ments have been got up for the members, who are also to visit

the principal mines and iron foundries of the district, To-day

- the members are to be received by the King of Belgium at the
Royal Palace in Brussels.

Tue British Archeological Association commenced its yearly
meetings at Sheffield on Monday, under the presidency of the
Duke of Norfolk, who entertained the members, and others, at
dinner in the evening. The members received a hearty wel-
come from the town, and have been visiting several places of
interest in the neighbourhood. On Tuesday evening severa]
papers were read in the Cutlers’ Hall on Yorkshire archzeological
and antiquarian subjects. Among these was a paper by Mr.
J. R. Planche, Somerset Herald, on “The Early Lords of
Holderness,” and one by the Rey. Dr, Gatty, on “ The Town
and Parish Church of Sheffield.”

THE twenty-fi'th annual meeting of the Somersetshire Ar-
chzological and Natural History Society commenced at Wells
on Tuesday. The opening meeting was held at 12 o’clock at
the Town Hall, the retiring president, Mr. W. A. Sanford, of
Minehead Court, taking the chair. After a brief speech he re-
signed the pre-idency to Lord Hervey, the Lord Bishop of the
diocese. In the report of the Council, the following subjects,
among others, were referred to :—The druidical circles of Stan-
ton Drew, the chambered tumulus of Stoney Littleton and Cad-
bury Camp have, through the influence of the Council, been
enumerated in Sir John Lubbock’s Bul for the preservation of
public monuments. It is proposed to purchase the castle of
Taunton as a museum for the rapidly growing collections of the
society; 3,000/. are wanted. Mr. Ayshford Sanford, in urging
the purchase of Taunton Castle, mentioned that it is the oldest
fortress of English origin in the west of which the date is cer-
tain, It was built by King Ina, about the year 700, and has a
Norman keep, and specimens of architectural additions of every
date down to the Perpendicular. The earthworks are in good
preservation, Mr, E. A. Freeman, D.C.L., in speaking on the
question whether the next meeting should be held out of Somer-
setshire, said the study of the Church architecture of the district
was incomplete unless it included Sherborne Minster at one
extremity and St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, at the other. Sher-
borne, too, was the old bishopric out of which Wells was
carved. After some routine business, the Bishop gave his ad-
dress, He pointed out some peculiarities of Somersetshire as a

q ee ee oe ae re

NATURE

333

county, its many double-named places, its number of small
holders, and the absence of any old baronial seats.

THE Gazette d’ Augsbourg contains some interesting details in
connection with the recent meeting at Copenhagen of the Scan-
dinavian Scientific Congress. This is the oldest of the many
northern societies, having been instituted at Gothembourg in
July 1839. Among the original members are the names of
E. H. Cérstedt, J. F. Schouw, Forchhammer, E. Fries, Nilson,
Berzelius, Hansteen, all men of the highest eminence in their
own departments. The meetings of this Association are held
alternately at longer or shorter intervals, in each of the three
Scandinavian kingdoms, at Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Chris-
tiania, the kings of the countries always showing an active
interest in the doings of the Association. At the recent—the
eleventh—meeting at Copenhagen, the number of members was
400, the President being M. Steenstrup, who delivered the
opening address in the presence of the King and Crown Prince
of Denmark. The meeting was divided into ten sections, in
each of which many papers were read; general meetings were
also held, and several excursions made to places in the neigh-
bourhood.

Mr. SMITH, the leader of the Daily Telegraph Assyrian Ex.
pedition, gives in the Ze/egraph of Tuesday a number of inte-
resting details of his work. He gives a translation of the tablet
which relates the curious legend of the descent of Ishtar, the
* daughter of Sin” (the moon-god), into the infernal regions. The
boxes containing the more portable of the treasures exhumed by
Mr. Smith have, after many hazardous adventures, safely reached
this country. These, with several very valuable memorials pur-
chased in Mesopo'amia by Mr, Smivh, and the expense of which
the proprietors of the Z/egraph have very generously charged
themselves with, are now safely lodged in the British Museum.
The heavier articles are expected to arrive in this country very
shortly.

THE following among other exhibitors have received diplomas
of honour at the Vienna Exhibition :—In the Mining Depart-
ment : the Geological Survey Office, Calcutta. In Group 22:
the South Kensington Museum, London, Educational matters :
the National Educational Bureau, Washington ; Dr. Leitner,
Lahore, India; the Government of Massachusetts; and the
Smithsonian Institution, Boston, U.S.

Mr. G. F. RoDWELL, Science Master in Marlborough College,
has resigned the Lectureship on Natural Philosophy in Guy’s
Hospital.

WE should advise all connected “with Science teaching in
schools connected with the Science and Art Department, to ob-
tain a copy of the new syllabus in the following subjects,
just issued by the Department :—Subject XIV., Animal Phy-
siology ; XV., Zoology; XVI., Vegetable Anatomy and
Physiology ; XVII., Systematic and Economic Bo'any, From
the Syllabus it wiil be seen that (@) Subj-ct XIV, Animal
Physiology, is altered in certain details. (4) Subject XV., has
now become ‘‘ Elementary Botany,” being a modification of
the former Subject XVII., Systematic and Economic Botany,
(c) Subjects XVI. and XVII. together now form a new subject,
Biology, into which the former subjects of Zoology and Vege.
table Anatomy and Physiology are absorbed. The elementary
stage is the same for both Subjects XVI. and XVIL., the ad-
vanced stages of these subjects being respectively Animal Mor-
phology and Physiology, and Vegetable Morphology and
Physiology. As respects the existing qualifications of teachers
for earning payments oa the results of instruction, the deduc-
tions in those payments on account of the previous success of
the pupil, and the prizes to the pupils—(a) Subject XIV.,
Animal Physiology, will be in no way affected by the change
now made inthe syllabus. (4) Subject XV., Elementary Botany,
will be treated as if it were the same as the former Subject

334

XVII., Systematic and Economic Botany. (c) Subjects XVI.
and XVII. will be treated as perfectly new subjects, except that
all persons will be qualified to earn payments on results in those
subjects who are now qualified in Subject XV., Zoology, and
Subject XVL, Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, and also
all those persons who have obtained a class at the courses in
Biology and Botany respectively for teachers at South Kensing-
ton. (d) As the elementary stage of Subjects XVI. and XVIL.
is the same, payments can only be made on account of a pupt!’s
success in one or the other, and not in both. Payments for the
advanced stage and for honours can be obtained in both.

THE following are the regulations for exhibiting Recent
Scientific Inventions and Discoveries of all Kinds, at,the Inter-
national Exhibition of 1874 :—Division III. Recent Scientific
Inventions and Discoveries will consist of objects the excel-

lence and novelty of which are considered by the Committee of

Selection to be so great as to render it undesirable that their
introduction to the public should he delayed until the proper
year for the exhibition of their Classes of Manufacture in Di-
vision II. No objects will be admitted into Division III. which
have been shown in previous International Exhibitions of this
series, unless very important alterations or improvements have
been added to them since the date of their previous exhibition.
The latest day appointed for receiving objects in this Division is
Wednesday, March 11, 1874.

Tue Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society
propose to undertake a novel and commendable enterprise in
the shape of a marine excursion. The sub-committee appointed
to consider the practicability of the proposal are of the opinion
that if such an excursion be properly carried out, it cannot fail
to be productive of interest and enjoyment to the members.
Taking all matters into consideration, the sub-committee are of
opinion that the South Coast of Devon is the most favourable
for the proposed excursion ; and if Teignmouth be selected as
headquarters, it will allow of dredging and shore collecting in
the vicinity, and in Tor Bay, and off Berry Head, as well as
botanical and geological excursions in the neighbourhood, and
(if time permits) visits to the wilds of Dartmoor and the beautiful
and picturesque scenery of the River Dart, Holne Chase, Lust-
leigh Cleave, Becky Falls, &c. It is proposed that the excur-
sions commence on Monday, September 1, which would allow
six clear days dredging in the neap tides after the August new
moon, and some shore collecting during the September full
moon, A first-class yacht, with two men and a boat, can be
hired for a very moderate sum, and the Midland Railway Com-
pany offer return tickets at very moderate rates with the privilege
of staying in Devonshire for 17 days. Various members have
undertaken to superintend the dredging, botanical, microscopical,
and geological work, and altogether the arrangements proposed
are very complete and seem likely to make the excursion a suc-
cess. We hope it will prove so, and that the example of the
enterprising Birmingham Society will be followed by others,
either singly or in combination. Inquiries should be addressed
to Mr. W. G. Blatch, Hon. Secretary, Green Lane, Small
Heath, Birmingham.

Tue Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society has deter-
mined to collect facts in connection with the Natural History of
Sussex, for the purpose of verifying existing Lists, and prepar-
ing (with a view to ultimate publication) an authentic systematic
record of tke land and marine fauna and flora of the county.
The Society will be much obliged to all who can render assist-
ance in any or all of the following ways :—(1) By forwarding to
the Society lists of such species as may have fallen under one’s
own personal notice ; (2) by contributing facts relating to such
points as apffrvoximate locality (in order to prevent the extir-
pation of rare species, the approximate, and not the exact,

NATURE

pro raté amongst the landowners.

= > <r

[Aug. 21, 187

locality is asked for); whether rare, local, or common; acci-
dental variations ; apparent extinction ani re-appearance ; times
of appearance ; any noteworthy matters connected with the life
history of species ; and (3) by sending specimens to be deposited
in the Brighton Free Museum or other Museums in the county,
Communications will be thankfully received by Mr. R. Glaisyer,
Honorary Curator, Dispensary, Queen’s Road, Brighton ; or by
T. W. Wonfor, and Jno. Colbatch Onions, Hon. Secs,

SCHIAPPARFLLI has recently published two very interesting
memoirs, the one an elaborate historical monograph on “The
Precursors of Copernicus,” and the other on “ Falling Stars.”

SicNor Aucusto RiIGuI, Demonstrator of Physics in the
University of Bologna, has published a very interesting memoir, —
Sul Principio di Volta (Bologna: Tipi Gamberini e Parmeg-
giani, 1873). In this he discusses at great length Volta’s theory
of electrical excitation. A number of original experiments are
given, and photographs of a new apparatus employed for them,

ENGINEERS have been busy on the estate of Mr. W. Gilford,
at Dalby-on-the- Wold, aad other places in Leicestershire, inves-
ligating the allegation that the Midland coal measures extend in
an almost direct line from near Leicester to Melton Mowbray,
and through the Vale of Belvoir, embracing an area of many
square miles. As the reports made are of a highly favourable
character, and as the importance of having a coal-field close to
the town of Leicester can scarcely be over-estimated, it is pro-
posed to bore to a depth of 1,000 ft., and to divide the expense
Several of those most inte-
rested have signified their desire to have the problem solved in
the only practical manner. Mr. Harrison, of the Mining School,
Nottingham, is of opinion that ‘‘coal exists under East Notts
and East Leicestershire, there being an anticlinal fault throwing
out all the measures in the western part of Notts, and throwing
them all in on the eastern side. From this and other considera-
tions” he is convinced ‘‘that there isan immense coal-field
stretching along the county of Nottingham, by Bingham, through
the Vale of Belvoir, as far as Melton Mowbray, and will be
found at a workable depth.” !

AT the last monthly meeting of the council of the Victoria
Institute, it was announced that seventy-nine new members had
joined during the past seven months. It was also reported that
in accordance with a resolution passed at the previous meeting
the Institute had joined in the application made to the Goyern-
ment for adequate aid to the expeditions to observe the transit
of Venus, more especially those so strongly urged by the Green-
wich board. ;

THE valuable library of Conchological and other Natural His-
tory books belonging to the late Mr. Thomas Norris, of Preston,
was sold by auction on July 30, by Mr. J. C. Stevens, for 3227.
Mr. Stevens also sold, on Aug. 7, the library of the late D, H.
Beaumont Leeson, F.R.S., of Bonchurch, for 58o/, '

THE recent earthquake in South America extended, it is
stated, over 30,000 square miles.

THE following is from the Gardener's Chronicle :—** We learn
that Baron von Mueller is about to retire from the directorship
of the Botanic Garden, Melbourne. On scientific grounds this
is much to be regretted, for no one has done so much as the
Baron to forward the interests of Botanical Science and practical
applications in Australia as he has done. We cannot profess to
judge the circumstances which may have led to this step ; but if,
as is alleged in some of the Melbourne papers, ‘the gardens are
henceforth required more as an ornamental adjunct to the Vice-
regal domain than as the centre of Botanical Science and experi-
ment in Australia,’ then undoubtedly the authorities manifest an
ignorance of the proper functions of a botanic garden which is;

unhappily, not confined to Australia. Everyone must desire
that the garden should not be a ‘cheerless ’ ‘scientific desert’ at
the same timeit is equally clear that it should not be transformed
merely into ‘a pleasure-ground worthy of the name.’ It is satis-
ctory, however, to learn that the Baron's services to the State
will not be lost, that he will not suffer in pocket by the change,
‘and that additional and much needed assistance will be given
”

“THE Canadian Ornithologist is the name of a serial started
Jast month, ‘‘ with the object of making a monthly depository
of facts, theories, and anecdotes relating to our feathered
friends.” Dr. Ross of Toronto is the editor. The first number
leaves much room for improvement in its successors.

TuE last number of the Yournal of the Society of Arts contains
‘report by Dr. R. J. Mann, on ‘“‘ Recent Scientific Inventions
New Discoveries at the International Exhibitions.”
THE following is the list of candidates successful in the com-
petition for the Whitworth Scholarships, 1873 :—Samuel Dixon,
3, draughtsman, Manchester ; Roger Atkinson, 20, analytical
chemist, Crewe ; Joseph Amscow, 22, chemist, Crewe; W. R.
usfield, 18, student, Cambridge; W. H. Warren, 21, engi-
er, Wolverton ; William Barber, 20, draughtsman, Notting-
m; William H. Fowler, 19, engineer, Oldham ; Thomas
ugden, 23, mechanic, Oldham; Cyrus Bullock, 22, mill-
ight, Worsley, near Manchester ; John Lockie, 20, engineer,

_ Tue following gentlemen have passed in the First Division on
he First B.Sc. Examination for 1873, in the University of Lon-
don :—P. Bedson, E. B. Cumberland, T. F. Harris, S. A. Hill,
W. Hudson, J. Viriamu Jones, O. Lodge, J. G. MacGregor,
‘W. R. Parker, T. S. Tait, C. M. Thompson, A.,T. Wilkin-
son, B.A.

_ THE “ Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association,” for July,
% almost wholly occupied with an account of the interesting
ard instructive excursions of the Association during the summer
months of last year. It contains, besides, a paper by Mr. John
Paterson, “‘ On a Visit to the Diamond Fields of South Africa,”
“and another by Mr, John Curry, ‘‘ On Columnar Basalts.”

Tue ‘‘ Mineral Statistics of Victoria for 1872,” are made up
as usual of a host of tabulated details of all kinds, relating to the
minerals and mines of that colony. Owing to changes in the
law it seems to be more difficult than heretofore to collect
accurate statistics as to the quantity of gold raised, many mine-
owners being unwilling to furnish retums. According to
returns furnished by the Commissioners of Trade and Customs,
the quantity of gold exported in 1872 was 1,160,554 oz. 19 dwts.,
the estimates of the Mining Registers being 1,331,377 0z.

18 dwts.

A spEcIAL Report on Emigration by the American Govern-
ment has been sent us, containing a great amount of information
likely to prove very valuable to intending emigrants, as well as
to statisticians. Not only does it contain statistics as to the
number, nationalities, &c. of emigrants during the last few years,
but much information as to rent of land, staple products, kind of
labour in demand, wages to be earned at various trades and
occupations, &c.

THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Silvery Gibbon (Aylobates leuciscus) from
Java, two Slow Loris (WVycticebus tardigradus) and a Binturong
(Arctictis binturong) from Malacca, a Tiger (Felis tigris) from
India, presented by Sir Harry Ord, C.B. ; a Malay Bear (Ursus
malayanus) from Borneo, presented by Mr, A. C. Crookshank ;
acommon Marmoset (/efa/e jacchus) and a Black-eared Mar-
moset (/. fenicillata) from Brazil, presented by Mr. J. Stanley ;
a Cornish Chough (Fvegilus graculus), presented by Mr. G.
Holford ; a Gazelle (Gazella dorcas) from Muscat, presented by

NATURE

335

Major C, B. E, Smith ; two Blue-headed Pigeons (Starnaenas
cyanocephala) feom Cuba, a White-headed Saki (Pithecia leucoce-
hala) from Demerara, and a Hawk-headed Parrot (Deroptyus
accipitrinus) from Brazil, deposited.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Zoologist for this month commences with an interesting
paper by Mr. T. H. Potts, who is paying so much attention to the
birds of New Zealand, on the habits of the Night Parrot of that
country (Stringops habroptilus). One of its favourite foods is the
younger part of the fern Asplenium bulbiferum, called Piki-
piki, which, being only partly diges*ible, forms large pellets of
excreta on the floor of their tunnel homes. All those who have
kept a bird of this species as a pet, agree in testifying to its in-
telligence and companionableness.—Mr. Cecil Smith, among his
ornithological notes from Somersetshire, records experiments,
suggested by Prof. Newton, with a view of ascertaining how far
birds in general, and especially some of the foster-parents of the
cuckoo, have any objection to eggs of a different colour being
placed in their nest. In nearly every case the exchange was per-
fectly successful.—Mr. Gatcombe had an opportunity of ex-
amining a Night Heron obtained near Ivybridge, in Devon; he
also records other ornithological notes. —A specimen of Sey//arus
arctus is mentioned by Mr. J. S. Bowerbank, as having been
obtained by him at St. Leonard’s (it was five inches long), as well
as an Angel Fish.—Mr., A. G. Butler finds, as one of the effects
of the Wild Birds Protection Act, that farmers employ boys to
collect and break up all the eggs on their grounds, as they are
now deprived of the satisfaction of destroying the birds.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

EEEDS

Naturalist’s Field Club and Scientific Association,
Aug. 5.—Mr. Louis C. Miall read a paper on ‘*The Permian
Rocks of the Neighbourhood of Leeds.” He first described the
base of the Permian System. The carboniferous rocks having
been disturbed, thrown into anticlinals and faulted, were greatly
denuded, and the Permian rocks were then deposited upon the
new surface thus produced. The conditions of deposit of the
magnesian limestone were then considered. The abundance of
mineral salts, exclusive of carbonate of lime, the scantiness of
animal life and the dwarfed state of the mollusca, all po‘nt to
deposition in an inland sea or confined basin similar to the Cas«
pian, Dead Sea, or Great Salt Lake of the present day. In
parts of he Triassic period the previous marine surface appears
to have become, in part at least, terrestrial or fresh water. Ata
much later period the Permian rocks, with others of subsequent
formation, were denuded extensively, and reduced to the state in
which they now occur. The Permian series of the neighbour-
hood of Leeds were then specially referred to. The Lower New
Red Sandstone of South Yorkshire (the Pomfret Rock of Smith)
does not appear to be present, at all events in a conspicuous
state, in this district. The so-called Lower New Red Sandstone
of Plumpton is undoubtedly of carboniferous age. The Upper
and Lower Magnesian Limestone are well displayed. Various
sections of these rocks at Rigton, East Keswick, Collingham,
Whin Moor, and Knaresborough, were described in the paper.
Remarks on the colour of the soil produced by underlying Per-
mian rocks on the few fossils which have occurred at Garforth
and Cold Hill, near Sherburn, and on the superficial drift, con-
cluded the paper.

VIENNA

Imperial Academy of Sciences, April 24.—Dr. Wiesner
presented a work on the influence of temperature on the deve-
lopment of Penicillium glaucum. Germination of spores takes
place between 1°5° and 43° C. ; development of mycelia between
2°5° and 40°; and formation of spores between 3° and 40°. These
processes attain maxima of rapidity, the first and third at 22%
the second at 26°.—Dr. Hause gave a paper on the decrease of
heat with the height in Asiatic monsoon countries. The decrease
is less on the windy side than on the lee. The yearly average
decrease is not less in the tropics than in central Europe.

May 8.—Dr. Thin presented a memoir on the structure of
touch bodies.

May 15.—Dr. Boué read a paper on petrified bod es which
have been forced from their place of deposition ; and another on

330

the formation of the dolomitic Alpine Breccias, as compared
with some tertiary mountains in Lower Austria, which resemble
them, but are quite distinct im origin.

May 23.—A communica'ion from Prof, Horsford, of Cam-
bridge, U.S., treated of the reduction of carbonic acid to car-
bonic oxide through phosphate of iron.—MM. Hlasiwetz and
Habermann concluded their account of researches on protein-
stuffs. They find the decomposition-products of casein to be,
exclusively, these : glutamic acid, aspartic acid, leucin, tyrosin,
and ammonia.—Dr. Heitzmann gave a paper on the relation
between protoplasm and ground substance in animal bodies.

June 13.—-Dr. Basch presented a note on the retardation of
intestinal motion through the nervus splanchnicus.

June 19.—M. Fritsch presented the third part of his normal
flower-calendar for Austro-Hungary.—Prof, Maley described re-
searches made along with Dr. Donath on the chemistry of bones.
One chief object was to ascertain whether the substance of bones
is a combination of calcic phosphate with the lime-furnishing
mass, in chemical sense, or whether it is not rather an intimate
mechanical mixture of the two constituents, They adopt the
latter view.—Pro’. Tépler described two applications of the
principle of air friction to measuring instrumeits. A suspended
magnet has, connected with it below, and in the same plane, a
vertical plate, moving in a closed case, the vertical section of
which it nearly fills. By inserting cross walls in the case, the
motion of magnet and plate may be deadened by air friction ;
and that in proportion as the cross plates are pushed far in or
not. The other application is for levelling purposes. The
observer looks through a telescope at a little square mirrcr sus-
pended by two threads in a glass case scarcely larger than it.
The mirror moves as if in a viscous liquid.—Prof. Suess pre-
sented a memoir on the earthquakes of Lower Austria. Two
lines of direction are distinguished.—Dr. Holetschek discussed
the path of the first comet of 1871.—Dr. Heitzmann described
experiments in which he had fed carnivorous animals with lactic
acid, and also injected it subcutaneously ; the result being arth-
ritis and osteomalacia.

June 26.—Dr, Heitzmann read a paper on the life phases of
protoplasm,

July 10—M. Simony gave the principal results of a large
theoretical work occupying him, in which a new molecular theory
will be developed, requiring only one matter and one principle
of force.—Dr. Bohm gave a note on the germination of seeds in
pure oxygen gas. In such gas, of ordinary density, seeds did not
get beyond the first stages ; but, curiously, if the gas was diluted
with # of its volume of hydrogen, or rarified to a pressure of
150 mm, they germinated as in air—Dr. Heitzmann read a
paper on the development of periosteum, bone, and cartilage,

July 17.—Dr. Bébm presented a note on the influence of car-
bonic acid on the verdure and growth of plants. In an atmo.
sphere containing only 2 per cent. CO, the formation of chloro-
phyll was retarded ; while 20 per cent. suppressed it entirely in
most cases. The gas was also found prejudicial, in various
degrees to the germination of seeds,— Dr. Sigmund Mayer de-
scribed some experiments on direct electrical stimulation of the
heart in mammalia.—Prof, Suess gave a paper on the formation
of mountains in central Europe, and Dr. Heitzmann one on in-
flammation of periosteum, bone, and cartilage,

G6TTINGEN

Royal Society of Sciences, June 14.—M. Waitz read a
note on some lost Mayence Annals.—M. Benfey presented a
philological paper on the suffixes anti, Gi, and ianti iéti, in
Sanscrit, Latin, and Greek; also a notice of some Mongolian
and Cingalese legendary fragments ; and sketched the design of
a trealise on ‘‘eye-speech,” pantomime, gestures, and modula-
tions of the voice, phenomena which he urges travellers to make
careful note of, and grammarians to study more than previously,
as throwing light on the development of speech and languages.
—M. Quincke described a new method of observing circle divi-
sions in telescopic work. —Dr. Voss communicated mathematical
notes on the simple transformation of plane curves, and the
geometry of surfaces,—Dr. von Brunn described certain smooth
muscular fibres jound in the suprarenal bodies, accompanying
the larger veins, and forming cylindrical or flat bundles.—M.
Enneper presenied a second note on orthogonal surfaces.—M.
Bjerknes made some historical observations on Dirichlet’s pro-
blem of a ball at rest in an agitated, unelastic, infinite liquid,
and generalised some results previously obtained on the subject.
—M. Klinkerfues made some remarks on the method of deter-
mining parallax by radiants; the results of this method, for

Sirius, agree pretty clozely with observation.—M. Lolling con.
tributed a lengthy memoir on the topography of Athens. From
local study, and the Greek authors, he seeks to determine th
position and niture of the Pnvx, the Bema, the cave of Apollo
in the Acropolis, and the Metroon. He is now prosecuting
these inquiries further.

July 5.—M. Benfey made som@ remarks on the dual nomina-
tive “ asmritadhri ” occurring in the Rigveda.—Fr. Wie-eler

P.
Academy of Sciences, Aug. 11.—M. de Quatrefages, pres
dest, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—A re
to M. Tacchini’s new objections, by M. Faye. Tre author a

contradiction with the theories which he atiributes to me,
but not with those which I have really published.”—On the
Cyanides, by M. Berthelot—On the 1e-solution of pre-
cipitates, by M. Berthelot.—On the palms of New Caled

by M. Ad. Brongniart.—On the carpellary theory applied t
Ranunculaceae, by M. Trécul.—M. Elie de Beaumont frunished
some further descriptive matter on the detailed geolo:
France.—M., A. Ledieu read the fifth portion of his pap
on thermo-dynamics.—On the movements of the tide on
the coasts of France, change in the time of high water at
Havre since the embankment of the Seine, by M. L. Gaussin.—
On the passage of gases through colloidal vegetable membranes,
by M. A. Ba;thélemy.—Note on the methods employed for the
analysis of the natural phosphates employed in agriculture,
M.C. Mene. The author strongly advocated the use of

prehistoric human relics, and upwards of 500 cubic metres of
ashes. The human relics include a drawing, on rein-deer horn, |
of a heath-cock.—Analytical solution of curve traces of several
centres by means of Perronet’s geometrical process, by M. Reyellat.
—On fluorene, by M. Barbier. This is the name given to a hydro-
carbon exhibiting great fluorescence, and occurring in coal-tar
boiling between 300° and 340°.—On the action of platinum and
palladium on the hyd ocarbons, by M. Coquillion.—On the
variations of hemoglobin in various diseases, by M. Quinquaud,

CONTENTS Pace

Tue Report oF THE ScrENcE CoMMISSION ON THE OLv Universities 317 _
Hakmonic Ecnogs. By The Lord RaYLzIGH, FR:S,) 5. eens 319
Leiru-Apams' “ Fietp AND Forest RAMBLES”. . . eee pi:
Hoerer's “History oF Puysics AND Cuemistry.” By-G, F,
RopWELi,, E.GiS,\: cae Gls, See ee)
Our Book SHELF. 3 sis evs eo ss
Lerrers To THE Epitor:— 4
Atoms and Ether.—Atzert J. Morr... . . <. seae
Instinct—A. W. Howitt ; Commander RICHARD H. Napier. .
The Origin of Nerve Force.—Henry R, PROCTER 5 0, ee 324
The Flight of Birds —J. Herscuet . . . . , os ee
Earthquakes in the Samoan Islands, S. Pacific.—S. J. WHITMER . 325
THE ARITHMOMETER (2th Illustration) . o>? 0 Weta a
ON THe SclENCE oF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS
oF WEeGuT anp Measurg, III. By H. W. Cuisuoim, Wardenof the
Standards (With Iliustrations) . . . . °° 6, i Bouse eae
Tue Tuscan Memoria To GALILEO. By G F Ropwett, F.C.S. ; 329
Tue SPHYGMOGRAPH AND 1HE PULSE . >

American ExpLorinG EXPEDITIONS IN THE GREAT Wasted aa ‘
iOS MMR ICn 8

SCIANTIRIC SERIATS, . |)" EMME es) cc Thane = ° 2: Seal gas

SocieTigs AND ACADEMIES... . . . 7 oe ae + 335

Errata.—Vol. viii. p. 299, col. 2, at bottom, Equation (6), should
read :—

x \M= 4 2)Ea(er)4(2)b 4 (om) 2)
“GING. + ae)! + (=a
The calculations were not made by means of this equation, either in it
right or wrong form, but irom the values of 6 given in iaule I.—Jj. Crexx

AXWELL,

P. 300, xst col. equation (7) should be 2= = ice
. ons?
P. 309, transfer top line of col, 1 to top Ine of col, 2, Pp. 308.

- NATURE

337

THURSDAY, AUGUST 28, 1873

THE REPORT OF THE SCIENCE COMMIS-
SION ON THE OLD UNIVERSITIES

Il.

N relation to the Colleges, the attention of the Com-
missioners has been principally directed to the
following points :—1. The Scholarships. 2. The Fellow-
ships. 3. The Organisation of the Instruction given in
the Colleges in relation to the Instruction given in the
Universities. 4. Contributions from the Colleges to a
fund for University purposes.

After giving a list of the Scholarships filled up in Ox-
ford from January to December 1872, it is remarked that
“it is evident upon a comparison of the numbers contained
in this list that the Scholarships offered for Natural
Science are but a small fraction of the whole number.
The state of the case appears to be that the Colleges do
not offer Scholarships for Natural Science because they
fear they would not get good candidates from the schools ;
and the schools do not teach Natural Science because
they are afraid of injuring the prospects of their pupils
by diminishing their chances of obtaining a Scholarship.
It cannot be doubted that the effect upon the schools of
this unequal distribution of rewards has been, and is,
very disccuraging to scientific study; and that it has
_ exerted a most unfavourable influence upon the number
of Natural Science students.”

Without being prepared to concur in this estimate of
the relative value of the two objects, we are nevertheless
of opinion that it is of great importance, with the view
of promoting the study of Natural Science in the first
grade schools throughout the country, that there should
be an immediate, and ultimately a large, increase in the
number of Scholarships offered for this subject by the
Colleges.

The part of the report which deals with the Fellowships
is of great importance.

After quoting from the evidence of the Chancellor of
the University of Oxford and others, evidence to the
effect that the present application of the revenues to
Fellowships is exceedingly unsatisfactory, the report
proceeds :—

“Whilst giving every weight to the considerations
urged by Prof, Jowett, and admitting to the fullest extent
the great stimulus which the higher education has re-
ceived at Oxford from the system of election <o Fellow-
ships by open competition, we are nevertheless satisfied
by the evidence laid before us that an unduly large pro-
portion of the revenues of the Colleges is expended in
sinecure Fellowships ; and we have reason to believe that
this opinion is shared by a large and increasing number
of the resident members of both Universities. :

“Tt is doubtless advantageous to the country at large,
as has been urged by some of our witnesses, that young
men of ability, who choose to enter into one of the great
professions, should be supported, or nearly so, in the
early years of their professional career, and thereby be
enabled to apply themselves at once to the higher studies
of their profession, instead of wasting their energies in
drudgery of some kind, for the mere purpose of obtaining

No, 200—Vot, vit.

a temporary livelihood. But this end may be secured by
means of Fellowships tenable only for a limited period.
It has been urged that the feeling of security given by
the system of unlimited tenure greatly enhances the value
of a Fellowship. No doubt it is a very comfortable thing
for a young man to feel that, come what may, he is secure
of an income so long as he chooses to remain single.
But we can see no adequate reason why he should be
thus comforted at the expense of the College, when he
has preferred the more attractive prospect of a profes-
sional career in the outer world to the work of the
College.

“We are therefore decidedly of opinion that the Fellow-
ships awarded as prizes are excessive in number if not in
value, and that the system ought to be remodelled. We
are further of opinion that in any such remodelling a con-
siderable proportion of the Fellowships should be sup-
pressed or consolidated for the purposes of contributing
to the general fund of the University and of endowing,
within the Colleges and the University, new institutions,
new offices, in aid of education or research. But it must
be remembered that, as Prof. Jowett has stated, the pro-
perty of the Colleges at Oxford, in some instances at least
is greatly increasing, so that quite independently of the
suppression of Fellowships there will in all probability be
considerable sums available for these purposes. In any
case, therefore, we are prepared to admit that a great
part of the Fellowships ought to be retained as Fellow-
ships, and the problem that has to be solved is how to
employ those which are so retained in the most useful
manner possible.

“ The following are the chief purposes to which, in our
judgment, the Fellowships should be applied :—

“Tn the first place, a certain but not a very large pro-
portion of the Fellowships will be always required, as at
present, for the payment of the persons entrusted with
the management of the College estates, and with the go-
vernment and administration of the Colleges themselves.

“ Secondly, a large number of the Fellowships is at pre-
sent employed, and probably a still Jarger number ought
hereafter to be employed, in Connection with the instruc-
tion given in the Colleges.

“Thirdly, a smaller, but still a considerable number of
Fellowships ought to be employed as Terminable Prize
Fellowships.

“Fourthly, a certain number of Fellowships ought, as
we have already said, to be united with Professorships in
the University; the University professor becoming ex
officio a Fellow of the College and a member of its
governing body.

“ Lastly, it is,in our opinion,’most important that a cer-
tain number of Fellowships should be appropriated to the
direct promotion of learning and research in various
directions. It has been objected to this proposal that the
Fellowship system, as hitherto administered, has not
shown any great tendency to encourage original research,
either in the field of learning or in that of Science ; that,
when an office is created simply and solely with the view
of giving a man leisure and opportunity for original re-
search, there is always the appearance, to say the least,
of creating a sinecure ; and that it is impossible, as Prof.
Jowett has said, to get a man for money who can make a
discovery. But, though you cannot get a man for money

T

338

to make a discovery, you may enable a man who has
shown a special capacity for research to exert his powers ;
and we are of opinion that, unless an effort is made to do
this, one of the great purposes for which learned bodies,
such as the Colleges, exist, may run the risk of
being wholly lost sight of. Scientific discoveries rarely
bring any direct profit to their authors, nor is it desirable
that original investigation should be undertaken with a
view to immediate pecuniary results. ‘ Research, as
Lord Salisbury has observed, is ‘ unremtinerative ; it is
highly desirable for the community that it be pursued,
and, therefore, the community must be content that funds
should be set aside to be given, without any immediate
and calculable return in work, to those by whom the re-
search is to be pursued.’

“Tt may be that properly qualified candidates. for such
scientific offices would not at. first be numerous, but we
believe that eventually a considerable number of Fellow-
ships might be advantageously devoted to the encourage-
ment of original research.

We think that such Fellowships as might be expressly
destined for the advancement of Science and Learning
should only be conferred on men who by their successful
labours have already given proof of their earnest desire,
and of their ability, to promote knowledge ; and we believe
that appointments, made with a due regard to this prin-
ciple, would be abundantly justified by results. A man
who has once acquired the habit of original scientific
work, is very unlikely ever to loseit, excepting through a
total failure of his health and strength; and even if it
occasionally happened that a Fellowship awarded on the
grounds of merit, as shown in original research, should
only contribute to the comfort of the declining years of an
eminent man of science, there-are many persons who
would feel that it could not have been better expended in
any other way.

“We should not wish to attach any educational duties
properly so called to a Fellowship awarded with a view of
encouraging original research in Science, But for many
reasons we should think it desirable that the holder of
such a Fellowship should be expected to give an account,
from time to time, in the form of public discourses, of
the most recent researches {in his own department of
Science.”

The last section of the Report dealing with the duty of
the Universities and Colleges with regard to the advance-
ment of Science is so important that we give it at length :—

“ Research a primary Duty of the Universities

“ Qn no point are the witnesses whom we have exa-
mined more united than they are in the expression of the
feeling that it is a primary duty of the Universities to
assist in the Advancement of Learning and Science, and
not to be content with the position of merely educational

bodies. We entirely concur with the impression thus con-
veyed to us by the evidence, and we are of opinion that
the subject is one to which it is impossible to call atten-
tion too strongly. We think that if the Universities should
fail to recognise the duty of promoting original research,
they would bein danger of ceasing to be centres of intel-
lectual activity, and a means of advancing Science would
be lost sight of which, in this country, would not easily
be supplied in any other way. There is no doubt that at
the present time there is a very strong feeling in the

NATURE

country in favour of the wide diffusion of education, and —
of the improvement of all arrangements and appliances —
which tend to promote it, from the simplest forms of pri- —
mary instruction up to the most advanced teaching that —
can be given in*an University. ,But there is some reason —
to believe that the preservation and increase of knowledge
are objects which are not as generally appreciated by the
public, and of which the importance is not so widely felt
as it should be. On this point we would direct especial
attention to the remarks of Sir Benjamin Brodie: ‘For —
education we construct an elaborate and costly machinery,
and are willing, for this end, to make sacrifices: but, on
the other hand, the far more difficult task of extending —
knowledge is left to the care of individuals, to be accom-
plished as it may ; and yet it is this alone which renders ~
education itself possible. I really am inclined to think that
in former days a more real and earnest desire must have -
existed to preserve knowledge as a valuable national com-
modity for its own sake than exists now ; and the reason
that I say this.is, that we have existing in the Universities
of Oxford and Cambridge records of another condition
of things with regard to knowledge than that which —
exists at present. In the first place we have extensive
libraries which could only have been founded and pre-
served for the sake of the preservation of knowledge
itself; and in the next place the collegiate foundations in —
the Universities were originally and fundamentally,
although not absolutely and entirely, destined for
the same objects. . . . This object is certa‘n'y not
less important in modern than in ancient society. I
presume that in the middle ages knowledge would
altogether have perished if it had not been for such
foundations, and it appears that now from other causes
the pursuit of knowledge and of general scientific inves-
tigation is subject to very real dangers, though of another
kind to those which then prevailed, and which make it |
very desirable for us to preserve any institutions through
which scientific discovery and the investigation of truth
may be promoted. . The dangers to which I refer are
dangers which arise partly even from the growing percep- |
tion of the practical importance of knowledge, which
causes a very great draught indeed to be made upon the
scientific intelligence of the country. In the first place,
almost every scientific man is caught up instantly for
educational purposes, for the object of teaching alone ;
and, in the next place, a very great draught indeed is
made upon Science for economical purposes ; I mean for
purposes connected with practical life. In sanitary
matters we have numerous examples of the vast amount
of work done by scientific men for public and practical
objects. So that the supply of scientific men is not equal
to the demand for those objects alone. Manufactures
offer another great field of scientific employment, and it is
to ‘be observed that these are the only ways through
which an income can be obtained, the pursuit of scientific
truth being an absolutely unremunerative occupaticn.’ -

“We believe that the dangers referred to in these
remarks are real ; and their existence induces us to lay
down, as emphatically as possible, the position that the
promotion of original work in Science should be regarded
as one of the main functions of the Universities, and
should be specially incumbent upon the holders of those
fellowships which, as we have already recommended,

le

Ss eS

wee

prs 28, 1873]

a

should be awarded with a view to encouraging original
research. As regards the professors, we have already
insisted on the importance of so arranging their duties as
to give them abundant leisure, and, what is no less indis-
pensable, abundant opportunities for original investiga-
tion, by providing the external appliances necessary for it
We think that the great national interests connected with
the advancement of Science form one, although only one,
of the grounds upon which the endowment of professorial
offices is defensible, and regard it as a great advantage
that an opportunity is afforded by the peculiar circum-
stances of the Universities of giving encouragement and
maintenance to a class of persons who are competent to
advance Science, and who are willing to make its ad-
vancement the principal business of their lives.

“We have already stated, but we would repeat it here,
that we would on no account have offices founded
within the Universities without special duties attached to
them. It is an absolute advantage, if not in all, at least
in many cases, to a man who is engaged in some abstract
part of Science, to be compelled to produce, in the form
of public discourses, the results of his labours ; and it can
be no disadvantage to him, under any circumstances, to
be obliged to devote some moderate part of his time to
showing, if it were only by the example of his own work,
to younger men, how scientific studies should be carried
on with the view of promoting human knowledge. We
believe that in all ordinary cases a certain amount of
educational work is of advantage to the scientific worker,
and wealso believe that for the promotion of the highest
Scientific education it is very desirable to bring the
original worker into direct personal contact with the
student.

“We have also already spoken of the propriety of
awarding Fellowships in certain instances, not, as at
present, by an examination test, but for services rendered
to Science in Original Research. Although we should
wish, as we have already said, to see this done from
time to time (as it has already been done at Cambridge)
in the case of persons who have already made themselves
eminent in Science, and whose accepting the Fellowship
is rather to confer an honour upon the office than to
receive one from it, we also think that a wider application
should be given to this principle ; and, that whenever a
Fellowship in Natural Scienceis offered for competition
among the younger Graduates of the University, such
evidence as any candidate can offer of his aptitude to
become an useful worker in Science, should always be
taken into account in the award. Nothing, we believe,
would tend to give the students at the Universities so just
an idea of what Science is, or of what the objects are
which those who pursue it should have in view, as the
adoption of the principle by the Universities and the
Colleges, that the highest honours and rewards in Natural
Science are to be conferred upon men who can offer some
evidence that their names are likely afterwards to find a
place on the list of those who have added to human
knowledge.

“ The proposals to which we attach the most import-
ance with a view to the encouragement of Original
Research at the Universities are the two to which we
have just referred: (1) the establishment of a complete

_ Scientific Professoriate; (2) the appropriation, under

"

oa»

_ NATURE

ae, eee eS OY et
7 iy a aah Riad

339

certain conditions, of Fellowships to the maintenance of
persons engaged in Original Research. But, in addition
to these main proposals, other suggestions are contained
in the evidence before us, to which we would call especial
attention ; (1) that Laboratories should be founded ex-
pressly intended for Research, and for the Training of
Advanced Students in the methods of research ; (2) that
Scientific Museums and Collections should be maintained
to an extent beyond what is required for purely edu-
cational purposes ; (3) that a Doctorate in Science should
be instituted.
“ Proposed Laboratories for Research

“Tt is one of the disadvantages of an University course
that a young man, up to the time of taking his degree,
is straining every nerve in order to master a certain
amount of knowledge in which he has to pass an exami-
nation ; and however improving this process may be to
him in certain respects, the impression is widely enter-
tained that it is not caculated to develope the originality
of his mind, or those peculiar qualities which fit a man
to become a discoverer in Science. As it is indispensably
necessary that the student should be well grounded in his
work, and should have a thorough comprehension of the
methods and principles of his branch of Science, before
he attempts to add to it, it is not easy to see how this
disadvantage could be remedied during his undergra-
duate course; but as soon as his examinations are passed,
it is surely time that he should be led to regard his studies
from another point of view, and to give them a different
direction, He should then be placed in a laboratory
devoted to original research, and under the immediate
care of persons who are principally engaged in work of
that nature.

“On this point we would again refer to the evidence of
Sir Benjamin Brodie: ‘I should like (speaking of my
own department and departments which are cognate with
it, and I have no doubt that the same remark would also
apply to Physiology and to other subjects) to see those
professors have under their control laboratories suited
for scientific research and investigation, in which they
should take a certain limited number of students who
would work, partly as their pupils and partly as their
assistants, for those ends. And I should myself
say that this is an educational function of the most
important character possible, because you would here
really carry scientific education to its end. If you
do not do this you stop short of the most important
part of all in scientific education. Now the real per-
fection of Science is shown only in scientific inquiry—
the perfection of Science not only in its general results,
but the perfection of Science as an instrument for educa-
tion ; and if you leave out in the University system any
provision for scientific research, you are leaving out the
most important feature of the subject. Those pupils
would be persons who would ultimately pursue the science
as their main business in life, and become in their turn
the teachers and the professors of the subject. I am not
giving a mere chimera or dream, but this is already,
though not exactly in the way that I am suggesting,
carried out to a great extent in Germany.’

“No less important, as giving one view of this question,
is the evidence which we have received from Dr. Frank-
land, who says, ‘In my opinion the cause of this slow

ot MRSS ali SOE EE SOLS Ee Ca LS Tay Oe a
ee Eves Se . mart bea sa nae, ee ‘
340 NATURE [Aug. 28, 1873

progress of original research (in England) depends, in the
first place, upon the want of suitable buildings for con-
ducting the necessary experiments connected with re-
search ; secondly upon the want of funds to defray the
expenses of those inquiries, these expenses being some-
times very considerable; but, thirdly and chiefly, I
believe that the cause lies in the entire non-recognition
of original research by any of our Universities. Even
the University of London, which has been foremost in
advancing instruction in experimental Science, gives its
highest degree in Science without requiring any proof that
the candidate possesses the faculty of original research, or
is competent to extend the boundaries of the science in
which he graduates. I consider that this circumstance is
the one which chiefly affects the progress of research in
this country, because if we inquire into the origin of those
numerous Memoirs upon original investigations that
come from Germany, we find that a considerable propor-

tion of them are investigations made by men who are '

going in for their Science degrees, and who are compelled,
in the first instance, to make those investigations, and
they attain by that means the faculty and liking for
original research, and frequently follow it out after-
wards ; so that a considerable proportion of the papers
themselves are contributed in the first place by those
men going in for degrees, and a considerable propor-
tion of the remainder are obtained, I believe, through
the influence of this previous training in research
upon the men who have taken the degrees. Further, the
entire ignoring of research in the giving of degrees in this
country diverts also, or has a tendency to divert, the at-
tention of the professors and teachers in this country from
original research. They have not to take it into their
consideration in the training of their students ; they have
not to devise, as is the case in Germany, suitable subjects
for research to be pursued by their students ; and thus
their attention is, as it were, taken away entirely from this
highest field of Science. And, indeed, if they themselves
devote some of their time to original research, it almost
appears to them to be a neglect of their class duties-
because their class duties do not require it. Their stu,
dents are to be trained for subjects which are foreign to
original research ; they are to be trained chiefly in sub-
jects that are to be taught by lectures, and by what I should
call “descriptive,” as distinguished from “experimental” or
“practical” teaching ; and, consequently, i think that in
both ways—both by not bringing students into contact
with original experimental work, and by diverting the
attention of the teachers and professors in this country
from such work, great damage is done to the progress of
investigation in Great Britain by the attitude of our
Universities.’

“ Sir William Thomson has gone even further, and has
expressed an opinion that the systems of examination in
the Universities, as at present arranged, so far from doing
anything to encourage the spirit of scientific research,
have an exactly opposite tendency. ‘That, to some de-
gree, competitive examinations produce an elementary
smattering of Science I have no doubt whatever, but I
cannot see that they produce much beneficial influence ;
and in the higher parts especially, they have, I fear, a very
fatally injurious tendency in obstructing the progress of
Science.’

“The kind of assistance which we should desire to see
given in the English Universities to young men who have
completed their university course, and who propose to
adopt a scientific career, has been from time to time
afforded at various institutions in the United Kingdom,
among which we may particularly mention the Laboratory
of the University of Glasgow, under the direction of

Sir W. Thomson. The plan has been adopted in some
of the German Universities, and even in the great Poly-
technic Schools of that country. In France it has re-
cently been organised on a most complete and extensive
scale. The Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes is a
Government Institution of which the object is toencourage
young men todevotethemselves to scientific research, and to
give them opportunities of learning its methods. The course
pursued by this institution is to take young men who have
completed their preliminary scientific studies, and, allow-
ing them an annual stipend to defray the expenses of
their maintenance, to place them under the care of com-
petent professors, who give them assistance and advice in
their first researches, and to whom they afterwards be-
come useful. This plan appears to us so excellent in
itself, and at the same time so academic in its general
character, that we desire to recommend it for adoption at
Oxford and Cambridge. To insure due attention to both
classes of students, it would be proper that the labora-
tories intended for training in the methods of research
should be distinct from those in which more elementary
instruction is given.

“ We are also of opinion that arrangements should be
made in some of the public buildings of the Universities,
for giving opportunities to members of the Universities,
no longer zz statu pupiliari, of prosecuting researches ;
although we should regard it of primary importance that
these arrangements should be such as not to interfere
with the teaching duties, or with the scientific work, of
the professors. We agree with Dr. Frankland that one
‘cause of the slow progress of original research’ in Eng-
land is ‘ the want of suitable buildings for conducting the
necessary experiments connected with research ;’ and we
think that the Universities might, with great propriety,
supply this want, so far as their own members are con-
cerned. We also think that collections of apparatus
should be formed, which would be available for the use of
such independent workers in Science. There are some
obvious difficulties involved in this plan, which has been
strongly recommended by some of our witnesses, but
which, so far as we are aware, has not been anywhere
practically tried. We should, however, look with confi-
dence to such a body as the proposed ‘ University Coun-
cil of Science’ to frame suitable regulations as to the
fitness of the persons admitted to the privilege of working —
in an University laboratory, and as to the securities to be ~
taken for proper care in the use of valuable instruments. —
Weare disposed to think that, under the special circum-
stances of the Universities, they would do more to pro-
mote original work by offering facilities of the kind which
we have described than by making grants of money simi-
lar to those which are made in aid of special researches
by the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society.
The plan would have the collateral advantage of render~
ing residence at the Universities attractive to scientific
men,

NATURE

341

“Proposed Special Scientific Collections

Although we think it desirable that Scientific Museums

and Collections should be maintained in the Universities
to an extent which would render them available for

original research, as well as for the purposes of education,
_ we do not attach the same importance to this point as to

the preceding, because museums and collections have
been formed and will be formed in other places than in
Universities, whereas laboratories adapted for the instruc-
tion of students in the methods of scientific investigation
are not likely to be founded except in connection with
educational institutions; and although it is a disad-
vantage to a scientific man not to have all the collections
“that he desires immediately at his hand, yet, considering
the proximity of the Universities to London, it cannot be

said that this disadvantage amounts to more than an in-

convenience.

“We also are of opinion that it is very desirable that
such more extensive collections as may be formed in the
Universities should, as far as possible, be kept separate
from the more limited collections intended for educa-
tional purposes. A Museum may be very easily made
too large for these purposes, and instead of giving the
student clearer ideas, may serve to confuse him,

“ Proposed Doctorate in Science

“We have already referred to the possibility of institut-
ing Higher Degrees, to be conferred upon students, not
in accordance with the results of an examination, but
upon their giving proof of capacity for original research.
The evidence of Dr. Frankland and of Sir William
Thomson, which we have already quoted, and to which
we might add that of the late Prof. Rankine, appears to
us conclusive upon the point that there is a real danger
in the examination system; and in our opinion this
danger might be guarded against by instituting a higher
degree in Science, the obtaining of which should be re-
garded as a great honour, and which should not be
awarded except with reference to original work. The
plan of requiring from a candidate forgthe Doctorate in
Science a dissertation embodying an account of some
original research of his own is strongly approved by
such competent witnesses as Dr, Siemens, Dr. Carpenter,
and Prof. Frankland. This plan has been adopted in
several of the German Universities, and has now become
the established rule in France,”

METEOROLOGICAL CONFERENCE AT LEIP-
SIG DURING AUGUST 1872*

F the Congresses which have recently been held,
none were more urgently called for than an Inter-
national Congress of Meteorologists, Doubtless even
under the diverse systems of observation which have been
in use at national observatories and among meteorolo-
gists of different countries, large and valuable contribu-
tions have been made to Climatology and other depart-
ments of Meteorology. We need only refer to the various
charts which have been published, showing the geogra-
phical distribution of atmospheric and oceanic tempera-

* Report of the Proceedings of the Meteorological Conference at Leip-
sig. Protocols and Appendices Translated from the Official Report,
Append)x to Vol. vii, of the “Zeitschrift fiir Meteoroiogie.” Published by
the authority of the Meteorological Committee, London, 1873.

ture, of atmospheric pressure, of humidity, of prevailing
winds, and of rainfall, and to the enormous amount of
materials now being amassed, illustrative of the nature
and course of storms, to show the important results which
have been obtained. It must, however, be confessed that,
as respects nearly the whole of this information, it can be
regarded as valuable only in the sense of its being suffi-
ciently approximate so as to meet the requirements of
some of the more pressing practical questions of the
science, and not because it is precise.

It is when we attempt inquiries into such questions as
the-diurnal and annual march of the different meteorolo-
gical elements, and the relations of these elements zzfer
sé, and of weather on a large scale, that the general
unsatisfactoriness of the systems by which observations
are made in different countries comes to be forcibly felt,
owing to their want of precision and uniformity. The
want of uniformity is most conspicuous as respects tem-
perature, humidity, and wind—or just those fundamental
facts which must be scientifically observed and discussed
before we can hope to solve the problem of weather
changes.

In order to bring about a greater uniformity of proce-
dure in different countries, it was proposed to hold a
Meteorological Congress at Vienna in 1874. In June
last, Bruhns of Leipsig, Wild of St. Petersburg, and
Jelinek of Vienna, issued an invitation to meteorologists to
attend a preliminary conference to be held at Leipsig in
August, for the purpose of preparing the programme for
the Vienna Congress, to instigate preparatory experiments
on some of the more important questions, and thereby
render it possible for the Congress to arrive at immediate
conclusions on many points. The Conference was thus
only consultative. Accompanying the invitation were a
series of twenty-six questions, which it was proposed to
submit to the consideration of the Conference.

Upwards of fifty persons attended the meetings of the
Conference, which lasted three days. The opinions of
the different speakers on the points raised by the 26
questions are detailed in the pamphlet before us, which
contains also the written opinions of 14 meteorologists
who were unable to be present, including the well-known
names of Dove, Ribenson, Mohn, Miihry, and Wolf, as
well as the results of the deliberations of the French
meteorologists at Bordeaux in September. The subjects
treated of may be conveniently classed under the heads
of instruments, their position, the methods of discussing,
publishing, and utilising the observations.

Barometers.—To those who have attempted to discuss
weather, it is well known that nothing exact or satisfac-
tory need be looked for in the result, unless observations
from numerous barometers well distributed be available.
It is thus desirable that barometers be procurable at a
moderate price for stations of the second order. Are
Board of Trade barometers—barometers fitted with a
float—or aneroids, suited for such stations ; or is there
any other cheap form of barometer that would serve the
purpose? After a lengthened discussion it was referred
to Dr. Hann of Vienna to prepare a report for the Vienna
Congress. The most diverse opinions were expressed
regarding the aneroid, arising probably from the experi-
ence of the different writers and speakers—some aneroids

going well for years with no permanent alterations occur-

342

NATURE

[Aug. 28, 1873

ring in their indications ; some going well so long as a
small range of pressure is recorded, but undergoing altera-
tions after every great barometrical depression; some
constantly altering in one direction, others in either direc-
tion, &c. Since, however, it can be safely affirmed of no
aneroid, how good soever it may have proved itself to
have been, that it will continue to indicate correctly for
even a brief time to come, the Conference came to the
sound conclusion that the aneroid should not be used
instead of the mercurial barometer, but only as an inter-
polation instrument, to fill up blank when the mercurial
barometer is out of order, or when it cannot be observed
on board ships in rough weather.

Maximum and Minimum Thermometers.—Ruther-
ford’s minimum spirit thermometer was regarded as
satisfactory. On it being pointed out by several mem-
bers that this thermometer is liable to go out of order by
the spirit evaporating and condensing in the upper end of
the tube, Ebermeyer, of Aschaffenburg, stated that this
objection could be removed if the tube were at its en-
trance into the bulb inserted nearly up to the inner side
of the bulb. We commend this suggestion to opticians ;
for if Ebermeyer’s experience be confirmed, a source of
serious and not infrequent error will be remoyed. On
the other hand the performance of no maximum thermo-
meter was considered to be so satisfactory that a uniform
construction could be generally recommended ; and the
opinion was expressed that it was very desirable that a
trustworthy maximum thermometer was devised, not
liable for instance to have the mercury disturbed during
high winds like Negretti and Zambra’s, or the index por-
tion go out of order as Rutherford’s or Phillip’s,

Instruments for Radiation—Mr, Symons, who has
paid much attention to this question, has been requested
to give a report to next Congress on the modes of obser-
vation adopted in England for radiation. But it must
be confessed that the methods of observation in this im-
portant inquiry are still in a very primitive state. Mr.
Salt well pointed out that at present the results obtained
with different instruments were not comparable with each
other, and one hardly knew with the instruments now in
use what was really observed.

Aygrometers—Since the dry and wet bulb hygro-
meter is not trustworthy at low temperatures and in cases
of extreme dryness, and the hair hygrometer fails also at
the dew points, and since there is no hygrometer yet de-
vised, at least for regular observations at stations, which
gives approximately exact results as to moisture in all
cases, it was recommended to make further experiments
and collect the experience of meteorologists on the sub-
ject. From the favourable opinions expressed by Wild
and others of the action of the hair hygrometer, further
experiments with this instrument are very desirable, so
that it might be made available for more accurate ob-
servations on the hygrometry of the air at temperatures
below the freezing-point than the dry-and-wet hygrometer
admits of. Another desideratum is an extensive series of
experiments with Regnault’s hygrometer in conjunction
with the dry-and-wet bulb hygrometer in dry hot climates
such as N.W. India, for the purpose of ascertaining how
far the readings of the dry-and-wet bulbs can be used as
data from which the dew-point may become known ; and

~ determining the requisite data for the correction and com-

pletion of the present hygrometric tables, particularly at
points below freezing, and at high temperatures combined
with great dryness.

Wind.—Curiously enough, the question of proper in-
struments for measuring the velocity and force of the
winds does not seem to have been under discussion, even
though it is one of the most important and pressing ques-
tions of the science. Anemometers, both for velocity and
pressure, are indispensable to properly equipped observa-
tories, Now it cannot yet be said that the anemometers
for velocity give quite correct indications that they are
comparable, ztex se, and that we have a practicable
means of ascertaining their errors from time to time.

Equally remarkable was the omission in the discus-
sions, to consider what are the required conditions which
anemometrical stations ought to fulfil, so that the instru-
ment shall indicate the true movement of the air over
the region where it is placed ; or, if this cannot be ac-
complished, what observations should be instituted in
order to ascertain how far the direction of the wind is
deflected by the physical configuration of the surface,
and its force diminished (or in rare cases accelerated) as
compared with the general movement of the air over the
place.

Pressure anemometers at a moderate cost are a great
desideratum. Little satisfactory is known of the relation
of pressure to velocity.

Rain.—The Committee proposed that a report of all
the experience regarding the position, size, height aboye
ground, and time of reading the rain gauge which has
been yet gained should be prepared for the Vienna Con-
gress. For the preparation of such a report the great
storehouse of facts at hand are those collected by Mr.
Symons in the successive parts of his “ British Rainfall”
and “ Meteorological Magazine,” which the members of
the Congress would do well to consult.

Evapometer.—The present state of the evapometer is
one of the least satisfactory of all the meteorological
instruments. Considering the importance of the drying
property of the air in relation to meteorology generally,
but especially as one of the most important constituents
of climate, it is to be hoped that some method will be
devised by which results, at least roughly a a to
begin with, may be obtained.

The difficult, but vital question of the position of the
thermometer does not seem to have been faced by the
conference, Itis earnestly hoped that the Vienna Con-
gress will not shirk this question, but will seriously dis-
cuss it and arrive at some decision, or suggest some steps
to be taken, that will ultimately lead to the degree of
uniformity which is so imperatively called for. Till this
be secured, the expensive systems of horary or contin-
uous registration of temperature carried on at the great
observatories of this and other countries, cannot supply the
data for the determination of temperature “constants,” see-
ing that they are incomparable with each other, as well as
with the observations made at those numerous stations of
the secondary order to which we must look for the work-
ing out of the great national question of local climates in
their bearing on the health, productions, and commerce
of the country. The question would be of comparatively
easy solution were it possible, in the interests of cosmical
inquiries, to ignore the past, But it is essential in the

es

— =

case of the older observatories to adhere to the same
system of observing hitherto in use; until at least four or
five years’ observations have been made simultaneously
with a second set of instruments placed in uniformity
with those of other observatories.

The question of the practicability and utility of
Weather and Storm Signals in Europe was considered,
and it was remitted to Messrs. Buys Ballot, Scott, and
Neumeyer, to collect the opinions of meteorologists on
this important question, and draw up a report for the
Vienna Congress. As it is understood that the committee
have collected a good deal of information, some valuable
results may be expected.

In the “Sequel to the Suggestions,” Dr. Buys Ballot
has suggested for the consideration of the Congress, the
establishment, by societies, of stations in regions which
are at present a blank, The Smithsonian Institution,
the Dutch Meteorological Institute, and, in our country,
the Scottish Meteorological Society have, with the means
at their disposal, done a good deal in this direction, with
results which have aided much in the furtherance of
the science. But to fill up the enormous blanks which
still disgrace British America, South America, most of
Africa, and the Pacific, some concerted action on the part
of meteorologists is indispensable. In connection with
this proposed development, reference may be made to
the scheme in contemplation by the Chinese Govern-
ment, in carrying out which Mr. Campbell has been
sent to this country to request advice from scientific
authorities as to the general crganisation of the stations,
and to procure the necessary instruments, registers, &c.
Towards the carrying out of this plan, the Congress will
doubtless give Mr. Campbell very hearty support.

THE TYPHOID EPIDEMIC IN LONDON

HE recent outbreak of enteric fever in the West End
of London presents many points of remarkable in-
terest and teaches many useful lessons. Typhoid, Enteric,
or Pythogenic fever, although a disease about which all
our accurate knowledge is quite recent, is a fever about
the causes of which we really know a great deal, but
which, for all that, seems to appear from time to time in
the places where it might be least expected.

About the nature of the poison which produces it we
know as yet but little ; we know that its habitat is in the
refuse matters excreted from human intestines ; we know
that it is, under certain circumstances, developed in such
excretal matters during their decomposition, but it is yet
a moot point whether it is from time to time produced de
novo under suitable conditions, or whether it is always
necessary that some of the poison, however small a
quantity, be introduced from without to cause such de.
composing matters to become infectious. We are accus-
tomed to regard this as the least specific of the diseases
of its kind, but each outbreak which is traced to its source
gives a rude shock to such ideas. The “ filth-born ” fever
dar excellence, it ought not, one would think, to need
to wait to be introduced to the country places where, year
after year for centuries, the shallow wells from which
drinking water is obtained are, in effect, the drains of
the premises ; or to the town houses, in which the only

NATURE

343

ventilator to the sewer is the waste pipe which opens
directly over the surface of the water in the cistern ; but
yet such is the case so universally, that when we cannot
find out how the poison has been introduced, we should
acknowledge our inability to do so, and not cut the knot
by saying that it has originated on the spot, a conclusion
for which, in the present state of our knowledge, we have
no real proof whatever. The number of instances in
which epidemics have been traced to single imported
cases is now so great that, although it does not actually
prove that such is always the case, still it should make
us hesitate before declaring that the disease has broken
out without direct importation in any given place.

The facts relating to the epidemic which still engages
general attention in England, are, in order of sequence,
and independently of any theory at all; as follows :—

The disease was noticed to be prevalent, in the middle
and latter part of July, in certain houses in the parish of
Marylebone, and notably in houses inhabited by medical
men, houses where every possible precaution was believed
to have been taken: it was observed by Dr. Murchison
that an undue proportion of the persons attacked obtained
their milk from a particular dairy, and on further investi-
gation the conviction grew upon him that this milk was,
somehow or other, contaminated with typhoid poison, and
was spreading the disease. A difficulty arose, inasmuch
as the locality in which the fever cases were was only a
small part of the district supplied with milk from the sus-
pected dairy ; but Mr. Radcliffe, on examining the mode
of distribution of the milk, showed that on the hypothesis
that the milk from one of the several farms was contami-
nated before coming to the dairy, a localised outbreak or
several localised outbreaks of fever must have been the
result ; so that any suspicion which may have existed as
to the cause being possibly to be found in the precincts
of the dairy in London, vanished at once.

On the other hand it was found that the owner of one
of the dairy-farms had died on June 8 ; that he had been
out of sorts since early in May, and sufficiently so for his
two medical men to consult with a third on the subject ;
that the medical men all suspected that he had enteric
fever ; that this suspicion became stronger when the
patient passed a large quantity of blood and putrid
niatter on June 1, which blood, &c., was ordered to be
buried away from the house, as being most probably
infectious ; that the patient became considerably better
towards the end of the first week of June, but that he
died suddenly on June 8 while getting out of bed, no
medical man being present ; and finally that the medical
attendant not being sure of the diagnosis of enteric fever,
and considering that, anyhow, the man had got over it,
certified that he died from heart disease, as he had for
years been suffering from the effects of a “fatty heart ;”
nevertheless he took the precaution to have the body
buried as speedily as possible, thinking that it might be
infectious.

Taking all the facts together, these two series of events
present at any rate a most remarkable coincidence ; and
when we find that enteric fever is and has for some
months been prevalent in the villages near the farm and
in daily communication with it, and that a son of the
farmer has since had the disease, the conclusion is irre-
sistible that the farmer died of enteric fever, and that he

omc

344

had it at a time most singularly adapted to account for
the outbreak in London.

The description of the farm-yard itself has been given
elsewhere; suffice it to say that the well really drained
the premises, and there is little doubt but that the poison
got into the water, which was so bad that it had long been
condemned as unfit to drink.

Hitherto epidemics of typhoid spread by means of milk
have been attributed to the admixture of water as an adul-
teration with it ; in this case no such suspicion arises, the
milk was exceptionally rich, and was daily tested with
sufficient accuracy to show adulteration with any but a
small amount of water ; but the water from the well was
conveyed to the dairy pump by a pipe, and was used for
washing the dairy utensils, so that it is easy to account
for the presence of a small amount in some of the
“churns,” an amount, however, enough in so favourable
a pabulum as milk to infect a very large quantity of it.

The lesson to be drawn is that all dairy-farms must be
subject to regular sanitary supervision, especially as to
their water supply, that such details of arrangement with
regard to the cleansing of the vessels as may seem to offer
least chance of the possibility of mischief should be
adopted, and that the presence of infectious disease
among the ep/oyés should be noted at once, and the
proper precautions, which are now well known, taken.

W. H. CORFIELD

DOLMEN-MOUNDS v. FREE-STANDING AND
TRIPOD CROMLECHS

R. W. COPELAND BORLASE, the talented author
of “Nzenia Cornubiz,” in his communication to
NATURE (vol. viii. p, 202), calls attention to the struc-
ture of Lanyon Quoit as an undeniable example of a
British tripod cromlech or free-standing dolmen, by way
of “protest against the dzctwm of Mr, Lukis being ex-
tended to our British examples, before a careful scrutiny
has been made of every monument of the kind, from one
corner of our isles to the other.”

To my friend Mr. Borlase I owe my personal acquaint-
ance with the numerous non-historic rude stone monu-
ments in the Land’s End district ; and, as he is a life-long
resident in the immediate vicinity of these interesting
relics, to which I am a mere casual visitor, it is with
feelings of great delicacy and diffidence that I now ven-
ture to place in a somewhat different aspect the state-
ments and conclusions which he would wish your readers
to adopt.

It were strange if Mr. Borlase did not turn out the best
authority on early Cornish remains, for within six or
seven miles of his residence at Castle Horneck (itself the
site of an ancient Cornu-British encampment) there are
at least twice as many dolmens as in all the rest of Eng-
land; and though there may be perhaps as many in
Anglesea, and twice as many in Wales, still West Corn-

NATURE

wall has an advantage over both these districts, viz., that
in Wales and Anglesea, the country of the Silures, there
are no circles but only dolmens; in Cornwall, as in the
Isle of Man, there are both circles and dolmens, the re-
sult, as Fergusson tells us, of an Ibero-Aquitanian admix-
ture with Celtic and other (Scandinavian ?) blood in the
inhabitants. (Vide “ Rude Stone Monuments,” p. 163.)
Inheriting the tastes and following in the footsteps of
his great-grandfather of antiquarian renown, Mr. Borlase
has made great use of his opportunities, and is continu-
ally adding to, or accumulating store of facts with re-
gard to the ancient history of our country. On the other
hand, most antiquarians will probably agree with me in

Ps

ar. we ee Wt he ES Mame OVP aS = ba a a igi
V8 fA «ape Nae a

maintaining that the Lukis family may be reckoned some
of the best, if not the very best authorities, on the cham-
bered barrows of France and the Channel Islands,
Enormous numbers of these structures have been scien-
tifically examined and exhaustively described by the
Messrs. Lukis : and the Rev. W. Lukis, in company with
Sir Henry Dryden, is now employed in drawing to scale
plans and elevations of the Isle of Man remains, and
thereby carrying out his share of that scrutiny which Mr,
Borlase anxiously demands in his letter.

When such authorities disagree, it would seem almost
impertinent to interfere ; but knowing my friend Mr, W.
Lukis to be busily engaged in the Isle of Man, and too
far off to personally examine the monument in dispute,
whilst I was within a three hours’ journey of the structure
I determined to see the cromlech myself, and having
done so, cannot allow Mr. Borlase’s letter to remain un-
challenged.

In taking up the cudgels for Mr. Fergusson, Mr. Bor-
lase must not be looked upon as an implicit follower of
that author, whose work he characterises as “ umre-
liable,’* although, with him he is convinced “that the
barrows and. the cromlechs (if not the circles too) were
the sepulchres of the dwellers in the hut circles and the
earthworks ; and that these Jatter were the residences of
the Romanised Britons in the earlier centuries of the
Christian era ;” for before the appearance of “‘ Rude Stone
Monuments,” he struck out for himself the formation of
“a small class or species of dolmen,” viz. the tripod
cromlech, or dolmen proper (see “ Nzenia Cornubiz,”
p. 14, e¢ seg.), “ where, as Col. Forbes Leslie remarks,
‘the vertical supporters of the tabular stone are co-
lumnar,’ and cannot be said to enclose a space.”

Before proceeding, it may be as well to remark what
Mr. Borlase ignores, viz. that (as may be seen from the
title to his paper) the criticism of Mr. Lukis (deserved, if
severe) of “ Rude Stone Monuments,” was based upon the
application of the “ Fyee-standing” theory, by the author,
to the monuments of France, where he proved it was in-
applicable. He said nothing at Somerset House about
English monuments, although I believe it is his intention
to say something about them on a future occasion, Mr.
Borlase severely attacks Mr. Lukis, as though, in remoy-
ing the French monuments from the supposed “free-
standing class, he condemned all persons who held their
own views on Sritish ones. Mr. Lukis’ views are not
“hypotheses.” He simply declares that the plans of
French monuments which he produced before the Society
of Antiquaries in London teach the proposition he laid
down, and that it is the duty of those who are unac-
quainted with these examples to verify or disprove his
statements and descriptions by visiting and inspecting
them, and not to try and write him down when they have
a very imperfect knowledge of them, or none at all.

Previous to taking stock of Mr. Borlase’s weighty evi-
dence in support of Lanyon Quoit as originally a dolmen
proper, ze. a tripod cromlech, it should be noted what
Fergusson states in respect to the West of England
dolmens. In “ Rude Stone Monuments,” p. 163, he says :
“ Even a cursory examination of these West Coast dol-
mens would, I think, be sufficient to prove to any one that
the theory that all were originally covered with earthen
mounds ts utterly untenable.” Exactly so! A cursory
examination (which, if we are to believe Mr. Borlase, it
appears that Fergusson never took the trouble to make,
at least as regards the Cornish circles)t is very likely to
lead the uninitiated hasty observer to suppose as above.
What a prolonged investigation will prove I leave the
reader to find further on. It is, at all events, unfortunate
for this theory that Mr. Borlase can only produce two

* See Mr. Borlase’s letter to the Anfiguary, July 27, 1872.

t Letter to the Antiguary, July 27, 1872.

t Mr. Borlase mentions a pussible third example, in his “ Neenia,” p. 26.
A fallen cromlech, which may haye possibly belonged to the “tripod class,”
is to be found near Helmen Tor, in the parish of Lanlivery.

[Aug. 28, 1873

_ examples of the tripod class in all Cornwall, viz. those
of Lanyon and Caerwynen, and those are both modern
_vestorations of dilapidated ruins: not a single stone of
either of these examples is as it originally stood “ 27 sitze.”

Idid not see Mr. Borlase’s letter to NATURE until the
_ 3rdinst. On the sth I obtained old Dr. Borlase’s quaint

volume on the “ Antiquities Historical and Monumental
of the County of Cornwall” (2nd ed. 1769), from a chap-
fer in which volume Mr, Fergusson borrows his title
of “ Rude Stone Monuments,” and on the following day
_ visited Lanyon Quoit itself, sketched it, and compared the
accounts of it on the very spot, and the following is the
result of my investigation. I will take Mr. Borlase’s
statements categorically :—
(1) Lanyon Quoit “always was, as it is now, a free-
_ standing dolmen.”

(©) I humbly submit that Lanyon Quoit could not
_ possibly have been always as it is now, from the fact of
_ its having fallen, during a violent storm in 1815, whilst a
comparison of its plan, as it now is in its restored state,
_ and as it is given by Dr. Borlase, shows that the stones
7 have been moved. The supporters were originally pa-
-

rallel, and are now at different angles to one another.
(2) “A tripod dolmen consisting of three slim pillars
_ supporting on their summits a horizontal stone.”
: (2) I leave it to my readers to judge from the accom-
_ panying representation (from a photograph) of the crom-
Blech whether, from the flat nature of the component
_ Stones, the supporters have not more or less the character
of slabs rather than that columnar shape necessary for the
_ so-called “Table stone proper :” and whether the ¢hree slim
pillars would not have been more accurately described as
_ stout stone slabs. The good Rector of Ludgvan, more
_ than a hundred years ago, more aptly described these
_ Cornish monuments.* “Three or four large flags or thin
_ stones capped with a much larger one, which go by the
British name of cromléhs;” and again, “In several parts
of Cornwall we find a large flat stone in a horizontal posi-
tion (or near it) supported by other flat stones fixed on
their edges and fastened in the ground.” He never men-
tions pillars or columnar supports.

Mr. Borlase omits to mention the fourth slab (D) which is

R oe to the north (see plate), and the fytk and sixth

- flat stones (E and F) (possibly one broken in two) which lie
imbedded in the soil at the foot of the south supporter, in
which position they were apparently placed by the re-
storers in 1824 to prop up the upright slab. ¢

(3) Two drawings of it in its pristine condition by Canon
Rogers, 1797, and Dr. Borlase, 1747, “agree in represent-
ing the slimness of the pillars, their distance apart, and
great height of monument, features which render it not
unlike a gigantic three-legged milking-stool.”

Dr. Borlase’s drawing shows four upright slabs, al-
though the fourth does not apparently touch the cap-
stone. I think that the supporters A, B, C, may be
identified with those in Dr. Borlase’s drawing with toler-
able certainty, and D, now prostrate, was the fourth
upright : that E and F were once also upright is highly
probable.

(4) Then, as now, there was no mound about it. It
stood on a low bank of earth and the area had been often
disturbed by treasure-seekers.”

(4) Dr. Borlase says “this cromléh stands on a low
bank of earth not two feet higher than the adjacent soil,
about 20 feet wide and 70 feet long.” The cromlech
stands as much in as on the long mound which, accord-
ing to the above measurements, would contain at least
2,000 cubic feet of earth, besides the many rough stones
“not the natural furniture of the place,” which Dr. Borlase
also mentions. It bears every appearance of having
formed the base of a long barrow,

* Antiquities, pp. 159 and 223.
+ The younger Borlase acknowledges that “‘several of the stones had
been broken,” .“ Nzenia,” p. 18,

345

(5) “ No houses are near it which could have received
the stones of a denuded mound.”

(5) A good road with rough stone walls on each side
of it, which runs within a few yards of tae cromlech,
would well account for a portion of a denuded mound or
cairn whose stones would be well adapted for building
the walls and metalling the road.

(6) “It is difficult to see how a kist-vaen or septum of
any kind could have been formed beneath the cap-stone.
Had a wall of sm2// stones been built from pillar to pillar
the height of the superincumbent mound must have forc2d
them inwards, a catastrophe which the “‘dolmen-builders”
were always careful to avoid.”

(6) Mr. Borlase must have had experience in his re-
searches among the underground bee-hive caves to know
how extensively microlithic dry masonry'can be so built
up as to resist any outside pressure of a superincumbent
mound.

(7) “Had Jarge stones placed on edge formed the
walls of the kist, how is it they are a// removed, while
every other cromlech in the district retains them ?”

(7) In “Neenia Cornubiz,” p. 43, Mr. Borlase writes,
with regard to Lower Lanyon Cromlech, “Two stones
are all that now remain, viz. the covering stone and one
of the supporters ; the others having been split up and
carried away for building.”

(8) “My strongest proof is yet to come, The inter-
mént was not in the kist at all, A grave had received the
body six feet under the natural surface of the surrounding
soil, and within the area described by the structure. This
being the case, of what use could an enclosed kist have
been, or why should the cenotaph be covered in at all ?”

(8) Dr. Borlase discovered a pit within the area of the
kist-vaen of Mulfra Quoit ; and Mr. Borlase himself re-
lates in his Nzenia “a small pit seems to have been sunk
in the centre” of Chywoone cromlech which he acknow-
ledges was buried inatumulus. This method of irter-
ment would therefore seem common to these three struc-
tures,

(9) “On the southern side of the structure, and so near
it that a mound over the monument must have inevitably
covered it up, stands a little circular ring cairn of the or-
dinary type, in the centre of which I found the remains of
an inner ring which, though now rifled, had doubtless
contained an interment.”

(9) Dr. Borlase mentions with regard to the long low
bank above-mentioned “ at the south end, has (sc) many
rough stones, some pitched on end, in no order ; yet not
the natural furniture of the surface, but designedly put
there ; though by the remains, it is difficult to say what
their original position was.”

Should Mr. Borlase’s recognition of the confused ag-
gregation of stones as a ring cairn be correct, it is by no
means inconsistent with the theory that a mound once en-
veloped the cromlech and (as Mr. Borlase suggests would
be the case) included the ring cairn in its area.

A parallel case occurs at Moustoir Carnac in Brittany,
a plan and section of which, after M. Galles, is given in
Fergusson’s work, p. 358, and which I have personally
examined. Here we find a true dolmen, éwo ring cairns,
and a kist within one large long tumulus or barrow.

From my own inspection, I agree with the older Por-
lase, that “nothing is to be absolutely concluded, there
having happened so many disturbances,” but I have liitie
doubts that whatever it was it formed some part of a
structure in connection with and belonging to the crom-
lech.

Whilst comparing Cornish cromlechs with French dol-
mens, a comparison should be made between Chywoone
cromlech* and Mr. Fergusson’s characteristic example at
Grandmont} in Bas-Languedoc (woodcut No. 128), with
regard to which he says, “The umbrella form is hardly

* Nenia Cornubiz, p. s5-

ers Rude Stone Monuments,” pp. 343, 344. Figured in Nature, vol. y.
p. 387,

346 } NATURE

such as would ever be used for a chamber in a tumulus,
but as a pent-roof is singularly suitable for an open-air
monument.”

The Chywoone cromlech has a peculiar convex-shaped
cap-stone or pent-roof ; so much so, that “ the Quoit itself,
seen from a distance, looks much like amushroom.” Mr,
Borlase calls it the most perfect and compact cromlech
in Cornwall. On exploration, “fit was first of all dis-

Fic. 1,—Restoration of sole remaining chamber of Lanyon Cromlech, showing fallen side slabs, View from the east.

in such a manner as to make it impossible for any of the
rubbish of the mound to find its way into the kist.”

Mr. Borlase remarks that “the xoscitur a socio is a
principle too lightly regarded by those on whom it forces
a conclusion they do not like. In the case of antiquities
it is, if judiciously used, extremely valuable.” Applying
this principle to the two Lanyon cromlechs, is it not just
possible that some former owner of the upper cromlech

om
js
“
_oUTAS
Wy ¢ —

Ne Sie a 2 LI VU, SX
Ne a ee LGN yi

: iF A ws
sisiyss ar 20s oe ee
sans ity Spas > k feng,

Fig, 2.—5ketch of Lanyon Quoit. from the north-west,

gentleman’s park, more as an ornamental monument than
as an archzological record, It is noticeable that in its
immediate vicinity is a heap of stones overgrown with
thicket, which evidently had some connection with the
structure, which was composed of more than four stones,

In conclusion, it seems to me that the distinction be-

TO RE FE MR a ie Bo oe AA ae
—--t— +. a bee ae ee Ss ae ed

t

[Aug. 28, 1873,

covered that the building rested on the solid ground, and
not on the surrounding tumulus in which it had been
subsequently buried.” . . “The barrow or cairn,
which in some places nearly reaches the top of the side
stones on the exterior, is thirty-two feet in diameter, and
was hedged round by aring of upright stones.” . . .
“Tt was discovered that the interstices between the side
stones had been carefully protected by smaller ones placed

has done what the late owner of the lower one did, viz.,*
“remarking that the earth was rich, he thought it might
be useful for a compost. Accordingly he sent his servants
soon after to carry it off, when, having removed near
hundred cartloads, they observed the supporters of a
cromléh.” : ae

After the above it is hardly necessary to allude to the
Caerwynen cromlech, which has been re-erected in

es
wa

Yoder sitwestes
; nett” ate
inp o

tween the dolmens proper and the kist-vaen cromlechs
only adds to the difficulties surrounding the subject, and
I fear that Mr. Borlase’s letter will not tend to strengthen
an already weak cause, : 4
Pendennis Castle S. P, QLIVER ©

* “Nenia Cornubiz,” p. 43.

wel

where we anchored for the night.

NATURE

NOTES FROM THE “CHALLENGER”
VI.

WE left Bermudas on Thursday, June 12, for the
Azores. His Excellency Gen. Lefroy, C.B., F.R.S.,
Governor of the Island, with his private secretary, Capt.
Trench and Capt. Aplin, R.N., Captain Superintendent of
the Dockyard, and a party of ladies, came on board in
the afternoon, and we bade farewell, with great regret, to
the friends from whom we had received such unvaried
kindness during our stay. At half-past five we steamed
out of the Camber and passed among the reefs to
Murray’s Anchorage, on the north-east side of the island,
Next morning we
proceeded through the narrows, and early in the forenoon,
having seen the last of the treacherous and beautiful
purple shadows in the bright green waters of Bermudas,
we set all plain sail and stood on our course to Fayal.
In the afternoon we got up steam and sounded, lat. 32° 37’
N., long. 64° 21’ W., in 1,500 fathoms, with the usual
grey-white chalky bottom which surrounds the reefs.

Our position, at noon of the 15th, was lat. 33° 41’ N.,
long. 61° 28’ W., 1,610 miles from Fayal.

On the morning of the 16th we sounded in 2,575
fathoms, the bottom a reddish ooze, containing a large
number of foraminifera. The bottom temperature was
15 C, A small, rather heavy trawl, with a beam 114 feet

_ long, was put over in the morning, but when it was

hauled in, about five in the afternoon, it was found that it
had not reached the bottom. This was the first case of
failure with the trawl. It was probably caused by the
drift of the ship being somewhat greater than was sup-
posed. The net contained a specimen of one of the
singular and beautiful fishes belonging to the Sternop-
tychidz, an aberrant family of the Physostomi, distin-
guished by having on some part of the body ranges of
spots or glands producing a phosphorescent secretion.
The surface of the body is, in most of the species, de-
void of scales, but, in lieu of them, the surface of the skin
is broken up into hexagonal or rectangular arez, or sepa-
rated from one another by dark lines, and covered with a
brilliant silvery pigment, dashed with various shades of
green or steel blue. We have taken, in all, four or five
species of these fishes, all in the net, when dredging or
trawling, at great depths. I do not think they come
from the bottom, however. It seems more probable that
they are caught in the net on its passage to the surface,
possibly at a depth of two or three hundred fathoms,
where there is reason to believe there is a considerable
development of a peculiar pelagic fauna.

On Tuesday, the 17th, the trawl was lowered at seven
in the morning, and in the forenoon a sounding was taken
in 2,850 fathoms.

Several examples of a large and handsome species of
the genus Sca/pellum came up in the trawl, a few still
adhering to some singular-looking concretionary masses
which they brought up along with them. One of these
lumps, to which a large example of the barnacle was
attached, was irregular in form, about three centimetres
in length, and two in width. The surface was mammel-
lated and finely granulated, and of a dark-brown colour,
almost black. A fracture showed a semi-crystalline
structure, the same dark-brown material arranged in an
obscurely radiating manner from the centre, and mixed
with a small quantity of a fragment of greyish-white
clayey matter. This nodule was examined by Mr. Bu-
chanan, and found to consist, like the nodules dredged in
2,435 fathoms at Station 16, 700 miles to the east of
Sombrero, almost entirely of peroxide of manganese.
Some other concretionary lumps were of a grey colour,
but all of them contained a certain proportion of pyro-
lusite, and they seemed to be gradually changing into
nodules of pyrolusite by some process of alteration or
substitution, This is undoubtedly very singular, and it is

difficult to conceive what can be the source of so wide-
spread a formation of manganese. It is, of course, a
matter of great difficulty to make anything like accurate
analyses on ship-board. Mr. Buchanan is giving his
careful attention to the whole subject of the chemical com-
position of the sea-bed, and I hope that the determination
of the composition of a number of samples, when a favour-
able opportunity occurs, will throw additional light upon
this andanumber of other obscure points connected with
the chemistry of modern geological formations.
Scalpellum regium,n. sp. (Fig. 1), is by far the largest
of the known living species of the genus. The extreme
length of a full-sized specimen of the female is 60 mm., of
which 40 mm. are occupied by the capitulum, and 20 mm.
by the peduncle. The capitulum is much compressed,
25 mm. in width from the occludent margin of the scutum

to the back of the carina, The valves are 14 innumber ;-

they are thick and strong, with the lines of growth
strongly marked, and they fit very closely to one another,

rn
a aA

Fic. 1.
Fic, x.—Scalpellum regium, Wy. Thomson. a, Males lodged within the

edge of the scutum. Fic. 2.—Male of Scalpellum regium.

in most cases slightly overlapping. When living, the
capitulum is covered with a paie-brown epidermis, with
scattered hairs of the same colour.

The scuta are slightly convex, nearly once and a half
as long as broad. The upper angle is considerably pro-
longed upwards, and, as in most fossil species, the centre
of calcification is at the apex. A defined line runs down-
wards and backwards from the apex to the angle between
the lateral and nasal margins, The occludent margin is
almost straight. There is no depression for the adductor
muscle, and there is no trace of notches or grooves along
the occludent margin for the reception of the males ; the
interior of this valve is quitesmooth. The terga are large,
almost elliptical in shape, the centre of calcification at
the upper angle. The caripa is a handsome plate, very
uniformly arched, with the umbo placed at the apex,
Two lateral ridges, and a slight median ridge run from the
umbo to the basal margin. The lower part of the valve
widens out rapidly, and the whole is deeply concave. The
rostrum, as in Scalpellum vulgare, is very minute, entirely

348

hidden during life by the investing membrane. The upper
latera are triangular, the upper angle curving rather grace-
fully forwards ; the umbo of growth is apical.

The rostral latera are long transverse plates lying be-
neath the basal margins of the scuta. The carinal latera
are large and triangular, with the apex curved for-
wards very much like the upper latera, and the infra-
median latera are very small, but in form and direction of
growth nearly the same.

The peduncle is round in section and strong, and
covered with a felting of light-brown hair. The scales of
the peduncle are imbricated and remarkably large, some-
what asin S. ovvatum Darwin. About three, or at most
four scales, pass entirely round the peduncle. The base
of attachment is very small, the lower part of the pe-
duncle contracting rapidly. Some of the specimens taken
were attached to the lumps of clay and manganese con-
cretions, but rather feebly, and several of them were free,
and showed no appearance of having been attached.
There is no doubt, however, that they had all been more
or less securely fixed, and had been pulled from their
places of attachment by the trawl. On one lump of clay
there were one mature specimen and two or three young
ones, some of these only lately attached. The detailed
anatomy of this species will be given hereafter, but the
structure of the soft parts is much the same as in Sca/ed-
lum vulgare.

In two specimens dissected there was no trace of a testis
or of an intromittent organ, while the ovaries were well
developed ; I conclude, therefore, that the large attached
examples are females, corresponding, in this respect, with
the species otherwise also most nearly allied, S. oxzatum.

In almost all the specimens which were procured by
us, several males, in number varying from five to nine,
were attached within the occludent margins of the scuta,
not imbedded in the chitinous border of the valve, or even
in any way in contact with the shell, but in a fold of the
body-sac quite free from the valve. They were ranged in
rows, sometimes stretching—as in one case where there
were seven males on one side—along the whole of the
middle two-thirds of the edge of the tergum.

The male of Scalpellum regium (Fig. 2) is the simplest
in structure of these parasitic males which has yet been
observed. It is oval and sac-like, about 2mm. in length
by ‘9mm, in extreme width. There is an opening
at the upper extremity which usually appears narrow,
like a slit, and this is surrounded by a dark, well-defined,
slightly raised ring. The antennz are placed near the
posterior extremity of the sac, and resemble closely in
form those of S. vulgare. The whole of this sac, with
the exception of a small bald patch near the point of
attachment, is covered with fine chitinous hairs arranged
in transverse rings. There is not the slightest rudiment
of a valve,and I could detect no trace of a jointed
thorax, although several specimens were rendered very
transparent by boiling in caustic potash, There seems
to be no esophagus nor stomach, and the whole of the
posterior two-thirds of the body in the mature specimens
was filled with a lobulated mass of sperm-cells. Under
the border of the mantle of one female there were the
dead and withered remains of five males, and in most
cases one or two of the males were not fully developed ;
several appeared to be mature, and one or two were
dead, empty, dark-coloured chitine sacs.

On Wednesday, June 18, we resumed our course with
a fine breeze, force 5 to 7, from the south-east. In this
part of our voyage we were greatly struck with the absence
of the higher forms of animal life. Not a sea-bird was
to be seen, with the exception of a little flock of Mother
Carey’s chickens, here apparently always 7halassidroma
wzlsont, which kept playing round the ship, on the watch
for food, every now and then concentrating upon some
peculiarly rich store of offal as it passed astern, and stay-
ing by it while the ship went on for a quarter of a mile,

SURAT a EL ew, ENRON LS, ene ea

' NATURE

i

[Aug. 28, 1873

fluttering above the water and daintily touching it with
their feet as they stooped and picked up the floating

crumbs, and then rising and scattering in the air to over- ©

take us and resume their watch.

The sea itself in the bright weather, usually under a
light breeze, was singularly beautiful—of a splendid in-
digo-blue of varying shades as it passed from sunlight
into shadow, flecked with curling white crests ; but it was
very solitary: day after day went by without a single
creature (shark, porpoise, dolphin, or turtle) being visible.
Some gulf-weed passed frem time to time, and bunches
of aspecies of Fuczs, either F. nodosus or a very nearly
allied form, evidently living and growing, and partici-
pating in the wandering and pelagic habits of Sargassum.
The floating islands of the gulf-weed, with which we have
become familiar as we have now nearly made the circuit
of the “ Sargasso Sea,” are usually from a couple of feet to
two or three yards in diameter, sometimes much larger ;
we have seen, on one or two occasions, fields several
acres in extent, and such expanses are probably more
frequent nearer the centre of its area of distribution.

They consist of a single layer of feathery bunches of
the weed Sargassum bacciferum, not matted together, but
floating nearly free of one another, only sufficiently en-
tangled for the mass to keep together. Each tuft has a
central brown thread-like branching stem studded with
round air-vesicles on short stalks, most of those near the
centre dead, and coated with a beautiful netted white
polyzoon. After a time vesicles so encrusted break off,
and where there is much gulf-weed the sea is studded
with these little separate white balls. A short way from
the centre, towards the ends of the branches, the serrated
willow-like leaves of the plant begin, at first brown and
rigid, but becoming, farther on in the branch, paler, more
delicate, and more active in their vitality. The young
fresh leaves and air-vesicles are usually ornamented with
the stalked vases of a Campanularia, The general colour
of the mass of weed is thus olive in all its shades, but
the golden olive of the young and growing branches
greatly predominates. This colour is, however, greatly
broken up by the delicate branching of the weed, blotched
with the vivid white of the encrusting polyzoon, and
riddled by reflections from the bright blue water gleaming
through the spaces in the network. The general effect of
a number of such fields and patches of weed, in abrupt

and yet most harmonious contrast with the leaves of in-

tense indigo which separate them, is very pleasing.

These floating islands have inhabitants peculiar to
them, and I know of no more perfect example of protec-
tive resemblance than is shown in the gulf-weed fauna.
Animals drifting about on the surface of the sea with such
scanty cover as the single broken layer of the seaweed,
must be exposed to exceptional danger from the sharp
sea-birds hovering above them, and from the hungry
fishes searching for prey beneath, but one and all of these
creatures imitate in such an extraordinary way, both in
form and colouring, their floating habitat, and conse-
quently one another, that we can well imagine their de-
ceiving both the birds and the fishes. Among the most
curious of the gulf-weed animals is the grotesque little
fish, probably Anfennarius marmoratus, which finds
its nearest English ally in the “fishing frog” (Lo-
Dphius piscatorius), often thrown up on the coast of Britain
and conspicuous for the disproportionate size of its head
and jaws, and for its general ugliness and rapacity. None
of the examples of the gulf-weed Axtennarius which we
have found are more than 50mm. in length, and we are
still uncertain whether such individuals have attained
their full size. It is this little fish which constructs the
singular nests of gulf-weed bound in a bundle with
cords of a viscid secretion, which have been already men-
tioned as abundant in the path of the gulf-stream,

Scillea pelagica, one of the shell-less mollusca, is also”
a frequent inhabitant of the gulf-weed, A little short

.

tailed crab (Nautilograpsus minutus) swarms on esi | Pe eis oF linear: weed
and on every floating object, and it is odd to see how the
little creature usually corresponds in colour with whatever
it mayhappen toinhabit. Mr, Murray, who has the general
_ superintendence of our surface work, bringsin curious stories
_ ofthe habits of these little crabs. We observe that although

every floating thing upon the surface is covered with them,
they are rarely met swimming free, and that whenever
they are dislodged and removed a little way from their
resting place, they immediately make the most vigorous
efforts to regain it. The other day he amused himself
teasing a crab which had established itself on the crest of
_ a Physalia. Again and again he picked it off and put it
on the surface at some distance, but it always turned at
once to the Physalia and struck out, and never rested
until it had clambered up into its former quarters.

On Thursday, the 19th, we sounded in 2,750 fathoms
in a grey mud containing many foraminifera. Position
of the ship at noon, lat. 35° 29’ N., long. 50° 53’ W.

The wind now gradually freshened, and for the next
three days we went on our course with a fine breeze, force
from 4 to 7, from the southward, sounding daily at a depth
of about 2,700 fathoms, with a bottom of reddish grey
ooze. On ‘Tuesday the 24th the trawl was put over in
2,175 fathoms, lat. 38° 3’ N., long. 39° 19’ W., about 500
_ miles ircm the Acores. "As in’ most of the deep
_ trawls on grey mud, a number of the zocecia of delicate
branching polyzoa were entangled in the net. One
of these on this occasion was very remarkable irom the
extreme length (4 to 5 mm.) of the pedicels. on which its
avicularia were placed. Another very elegant species was
distinguished by the peculiar sculpture of the cells, re-
minding one of those of some of the more highly orna-
mented Lepralia. WYVILLE THOMSON

(To be continued.)

ee a

;
:

THE FRENCH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

HE second session of the French Association was
opened at Lyons last Thursday, by an inaugural
address from the President, M. de Bie who
pointed out the almost inconceivable advance of Science
during the past century, and the importance of Science
in education.

In speaking of scientific education, the President said
that the devotees of literature accused Science of stifling
sentiment and imagination ; she kills, say they, the ideal
and stunts intelligence by i imprisoning it within the limits
of reality; she is incompatible with poetry. The men
who speak thus have never read Kepler the astronomer,
Pascal the geometer, Linnzus the naturalist, Buffon the
zoologist, Humboldt the universal savant. What ! says
the President, Science stifle scntiment, imagination,
she who brings us every hour into the presence of
wonders! She lower intelligence, who touches on all the
infinities ! When ///¢érateurs and poets know Science better,
they will come and draw from her living fountain. Like
Byron of our time, like Homer of yore, they will borrow*
from her striking imagery, descriptions whose grandeur
will be doubled by theirtruth. Homer was a savané for
his time. He knew the geography, the anatomy of his era ;
we find in his verses the names of islands and. capes,
technical terms like clavicle and scapula. None the less
he wrote the Iliad.

No, the study of Science will never suppress the genius
of an inspired poet, of a true painter, of a great scuiptor.
But she will bring more light to the path of an erring
soul. She will perhaps transform into a wise man, or at
least into a citizen useful to himself and others, one who
without her would only have been one of those pretended
incomprehensible geniuses, destined to perish of misery,
of impotency, and of pride. While fully admitting the

WATURE 349

important place of literature in education, he would wish
to see children initiated at an early age into the facts, the
ideas, the methods of Science.

Governments, such as they have hitherto been, have al-
most always acted as if they had no need fer the men
who study Nature and her forces. But when any critical
or important event occurs, then it is found necessary to
appeal tothem. Of whom are the j juries of International
Exhibitions composed? No doubt each State sends its
worthy merchants, its tried chiefs of industry, its eminent
agriculturists, but it also, and above all, sends its
men of science. At these important times peoples are
comparirg their real strength, and each feels that
it is for its honour in the present and its prospects in the
future that the truth should appear; and to enlighten
them, whether it be concerning cannons or silk- manufac-
tures, telescopes or crystals, jewellery or hardware, it is
felt that Science is indispensable, and men of science are
appealed to.

But once the Exposition is closed, the State leaves the
men of science to return to their studies. I wish, said
M. de Quatrefages, it kept them in the service of their
country. These men whcm we ask to understand and
jucge of woncers would certainly be able to show how to
produce thim. When Science is everywhere, it would
certainly not ke useless to Government to have it in their
power to be enlightened at any time on scientific ques-
tions. Although less pressing, less impe rious than in the
days of peril, the wants of agriculiure, of industry, of
commerce, like those of the army and ravy, co not
change their nature.
ing to the savants ?

A day will come when every great Administration will
have its Consulting Committee, composed almost exclu-
sively of men of science, and then many mistakes
will be avoided, and many forces utilised which are at
present lost. "But in order that such an institution
should be born and developed, it is necessary that the
function of Science be universally comprehended and
accepted, To attain this result is one of the chief aims
of the French Association,

Why wait the necessity for appea!-

CHRISTOPHER HANSTEEN

es the 11th of April Jast, Hansteen died at Christi-

ania at the advanced age of 88, having been born
on the 26th September, 1784. On leaving the cathedral
school of Christiania, where he received his early edu-
cation, he entered the University of Copenhagen in 1802,
as a student of law, which, however, he soon abandoned Jor
the more congenial study of mathematics. In 1806, he
began his work as a public instructor in the capacity of
mathematical tutor in the gymnasium of Fredricksburg,
in the island of Zealand, and there he began also his life
work as an original investigator by instituting researches
into terrestrial magnetism. He first acquired distinction
by taking the prize which had been offered for the best
essay on this subject, by the Royal Society of Science of
Copenhagen ; and shortly thereafter, viz. in 1814, was
appointed to the chair of ‘Astronomy in the University cf
Christiania, which had been recently founded by Frederick
VI. of Norway.

His great work, entitled “ Untersuchungen tiber den
Magnetismus der Erde,” was published in 1819, at the
expense of the King. ‘his work was illustrated with an
Atlas of Maps, and was the most satisfactory collection of
observations on the variations of the needle, and was
besides distinguished for its broad philosophical. general-
isations. In the iurther prosecution ot his physical
researches, he made his well-known journey into Siberia
as far as Kiachta and Irkutsk, accompanied by Erman
and Due, the expenses of this journey being libcraiiy

defrayed by the Norwegian Government. The establisi-

ere ae Gee OTe) Cae! hal fe

359

ment, on the recommendation of Humboldt, of the ten
magnetical and meteorological observatories, by the Em-
peror of Russia, was one of the most valuable fruits of this
journey.

Among Hansteen’s contributions to our knowledge
of magnetism, may be mentioned the establishment
by him of a period of rrr years as the length of the peri-
odicity of the magnetic declination—a cycle which has
recently assumed such remarkable significance in con-
aecting astronomical with meteorological and other ter-
restrial phenomena. r

Soon after his return from Siberia, the Government
voted the necessary sum for building an astronomical and
meteorological observatory at Christiania, which was
erected under Hansteen’s direction. This observatory
has done much good work, of which the meteorological
department deserves very special commendation. The
trigonometrical and topographical survey of Norway,
which was begun in 1837, was conducted under Hans-
teen’s superintendence.

In 1856, the completion of his fifty years public services
was celebrated, and a medal was struck in commemo-
ration of the event. Shortly after this he ceased to lec-
ture publicly, and in 1861 retired from public duty.

THRE NOTORNIS OF LORD HOWE’S ISLAND

HE last number of the Jézs (July 1873, pl. x.) contains
a representation of a very interesting bird, about
which, though discovered and described in the last century,
naturalists have for a long time been doubting. This is
the species said to be first mentioned by Callam in 1783
(Voy. Bot. Bay), and subsequently figured in the works of
John White (Journ. Voy. New South Wales, p. 238, App.)
and Governor Phillip (Voy. Bot. Bay, p. 273, pl.), and
designated by Latham (Ind. Orn. ii. p. 768) Gadlinula
alba, No specimens are known to have been brought to
Europe for upwards of ezghty years, and only two are
believed to exist in museums—one in that of Liverpool,
which was figured by White, and the other in Vienna, now
for the first time portrayed. The species is most likely
extinct in Norfolk Island, but a passage in a pamphlet by
Mr. Edward Hill, published at Sydney in 1870, seems to
show that it may still exist in that of Lord Howe—though,
if so, doubtless on the verge of extermination through
the pigs, with which the island is said to be overrun, for the
bird is believed to be unable to fly. Should any examples
-be still living, it would certainly be better that their re-
mains should be placed in our museums, than that they
should contribute to the formation of pork ; and I write
these lines that they may attract the attention of some
Australian readers of NATURE, who may be disposed to
do a good turn to the University of Cambridge.

This bird, which has been variously assigned to the
genera Gallinula (moor-hen), Fudica (coot), and Porphy-
rio, is now referred to the genus Woforn?s, containing only
one other species, the “ Takahe” of New Zealand (JV. man-
ze//i)—ttself nearly, or quite, extirpated. It was about
the size of a barndoor-fowl, with the bill and legs red.
The Vienneses pecimenseems to be entirely white; the
example at Liverpool is mottled with purple, but not
enough to gainsay the name of “ White Bird,” by which
it seems to have been known both in Norfolk and Lord
Howe’s Islands. It would no doubt, if taken alive, be
easily kept in confinement, and I need scarcely say how
highly a living example would be valued by the Zoological
Society ; but this is perhaps more than can be reasonably
hoped for, and, so far as I am concerned, I should be well
content with a specimen in spirit, or a skin with all the
bones accompanying it, for the Cambridge Museum.

I may perhaps be allowed to conclude by remarking
that the history, and especially the distribution of the
family of birds, to which the subject of this notice refers

’

~

NATURE

is indeed worthy of far more attention than they have —
hitherto received, and could that accomplished zoological —
writer who has lately in the columns of a sporting contem-
porary made the not very distant family of Gruid@ the —
theme of an admirable series of essays—far probably
from being fully appreciated by his readers—be induced
to employ his pen on the Ralide, the results would be of
the greatest interest. The Rails—employing the word in
a very wide sense—are cosmopolitan in the highest de-
gree. Some of the best known genera have their repre-
sentatives all over the world, occurring even in oceanic
islands, where birds generally are so scarce—Gal/inuda and
Fulica, for instance ; and some at least of the former,
when they get to such remote spots, seem to lose their
volatile powers, though otherwise undergoing but little
change, as witness the G. weszo¢zs of Tristan d’Acunha,
made known a few years ago by Mr. Sclater, and a form
still undescribed, of which three examples were obtained
by my brother from Denis Island, an outlier of the
Seychelles group (/ézs, 1867, p. 358). Then there is a
genus equally flightless, which has lately been restored to
light and knowledge, but, alas ! too Jate for us to knowit in
the flesh. This is the Aphanapteryx, which survives only in
a few bones, recovered from the mud of a Mauritian lake,
and now in the Cambridge Museum, a painting at Vienna,
and a fewnotices by early voyagers—a bird with a lon
bill and dishevelled plumage, almost, it would seem, like
that of the Afferyx, In the opposite direction almost, as
to structure, we have Z7zbonyx ; but I should occupy far
too much space were I now to dwell upon even the chief.
forms of the family, From whatever point of view it be
regarded, it will be found one of the most interesting in
the whole series of birds,
ALFRED NEWTON

ASTRONOMICAL ALMANACS *
IL.

I1.—The “ Connaissance des Temps,” under the direction
of the Academy of Sciences ,

"THE first to whom the Academy entrusted the editor-
ship of these Ephemerides was Lieutaud.

The only real modification introduced into the volume
was the substitution, for the table of refractions published
by Lefebvre, of a table of the refractions of Cassini, giving
the values of that quantity in minutes and seconds for all
degrees of height, from o” to 90°. The book was also
somewhat increased in size. In 1707 Lieutaud introduced
into the Coznazssance des Temps a notice of the occulta-
tions of stars, the observation of which is of use in de-
termining longitudes, Lieutaud edited the Connaissance
des Temps till 1730, when it passed into the hands of a
young academician, Louis Godin. foo

Godin, a pupil of Delisle, was born at Paris on Febru-
ary 28, 1704, and entered the Academy as é/eve at the age
of 21 years. He was then known only by a keen desire
for knowledge and a strong predilection for astronomy.
On taking the direction of the Connaissance des Temps,
he suppressed the aspects of the planets, which were use-
less, and introduced the right ascension of the sun for
every day of the year; calculated this co-ordinate and the
declination to a second, and added the eclipses of the
satellites of Jupiter, so that the Connaissance des Temps
contained from this time the announcement of the eclipses
of the superior satellites. '

In 1735 Godin set out for Peru for the purpose of mea-
suring with Bouguer and La Condamine an arc of one
degree of the meridian, and to Jean-Dominique Maraldi, —
grand-nephew of Cassini the elder, was committed the care
of the Connatssance des Temps. He enriched the work with
the configuration of the satellites of Jupiter for every day
in the year, but he suppressed the notice of occultations

* Continued from p. 312, i

'NATURE

351

mistake, certainly ; though perhaps these phenomena
e of little service in his time. Having become a fen-
‘sionnatre of the Academy in 1760, he resigned the editor-
ip of the Connatssance des Temps to Joseph-Jeréme Le
cois de Lalande,
De Lalande, born at Bourg-en-Bresse, July 11, 1732,
was sent at the age of 20 to Berlin, under the patronage
of Le Monnier, his master, to take observations of the
moon, which, combined with those which La Caille at
that time effected at the Cape of Good Hope, were the
means of giving the parallax of that planet. On his re-
turn he was presented to a place vacant for many years
in the Academy, and shortly after, in 1760, he was
entrusted with the editorship of the Conmnatssance des
emps. A distinguished astronomer, possessing a tho-
rough knowledge of all the advances which had been
e during later years in astronomical science, Lalande
ry much improved the work of which he had charge.
e shall mention the most important of the changes
which are due to him.
His first care was to take for the basis of his calcula-
tions new tables, more exact than those which Godin had
continued to employ. He employed for the sun the tables
the Abbé of La Caille ; for the moon, those of Tobie
Mayer* ; for the planets, the tables of Cassini ; and for
the eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter, those of the Swede
Wargentin, of which he had published a new edition.
The rising of the sun and the planets is calculated for the
true noon of each day ; but, says Lalande, “the Connais-
ance des Temps being intended mainly for astronomers,
the positions of the moon are given for the instant of her
passage across the meridian.” The following year, how-
" ever, “ on account of the inconveniences attending such a
_ mode of indication,” this astronomer resolved to give the
longitudes for midday and midnight of each day. Finally,
‘in a short and well-written memoir appended to the Cow-
naissance des Temps,t+ he investigated the different
methods for finding the longitude at sea by a single ob-
Servation of the moon. Some years later he restored the
- announcement of the occultation of stars.
In 1774, the Connaissance received from Jerome Lalande
a most important improvement, which was the means of
' making this work, hitherto almost exclusively intended
- for astronomers, of great use to mariners. But, before
_ stating in what this modification consisted, some historical
details are necessary concerning one who was the real
' pioneer, and at the same time one of the glories of French
astronomy in the 18th century.
_ 1n1737,the savant Fouchy presented to Cassiniof Thury,
son and successor of the first director of the Observatory
of Paris, celebrated for his fine work on “The Size and
_the Figure of the Earth,” a young deacon of 23 years,
ho, alone, without instruments and almost without
ooks, had acquired a remarkable astronomical educa-
m. Cassini welcomed the frotégé of Fouchy, lodged
lim at the Observatory, and allowed him to take part in
this work. This young Abbé was Nicolas-Louis de la
Caille, born on March 15, 1713, at Rumigny, near Rozoy,
\ Thiérache. J. D. Maraldi, grand-nephew of Cassini
_ the first, and who also lived at the Observatory, became his
friend, and a year after his arrival (1738), La Caille made
_ along with him the geographical description of the coast
of France, from Nantes to Bayonne ; in 1739 La Caille
took part in the work connected with the meridian of
France.[ Shortly after, Dr. Robbes nominated him pro-
‘fessor of mathematics at the Mazarin College. He insti-
tuted a small observatory where he made a very large
number of observations of rare precision, In 1741, at
* “a Tabularum motuum solis et June et longitudinum methodus pro
? oy Lalande afterwards regularly followed the custom of accompanying the
Connarssance des Temps with short astronomical memoirs, entitled “ Addi-

tions to the Connaissance des Temps.” This custom has continued to the
Present day.

ni

.

lished by La Caille in x744, and bore the name of Cassini de Thury.

1 The work done by Cassini de Thury, Maraldi, and La Caille, was pub-”

the age of 27 years, La Caille entered the Academy of
Sciences.

In 1744 the astronomer of the Mazarin College pub-
lished the first volume of a series of Ephemerides, entitled
“Ephémérides des monuments célestes depuis 1745
jusqen 1754,”in which he was the first to give—and
Lalande afterwards imitated him in the Conxnaissance des
Temps of 1760—the distance of the sun at the equinox,
or, what amounts to the same thing, the right ascension
of the sun in time.

Some years later, in 1749, La Caille proposed to the
Academy that he should spend a year at the Cape of
Good Hope, for the purpose of making an accurate
catalogue of the stars of the southern sky, intended to
replace the first rough sketch made in 1677, by Halley,
at St. Helena; to measure the parallax of the moon, of
Verius, and of Mars, by means of comparative obser-
vations made simultaneously in Eurepe; and finally to
determine carefully the geographical position of the
Cape of Good Hope.*

The proposal of La Caille was adopted, and the States-
General of Holland having given their assent, La Caille
set out in 1751, after having published the list of stars
which he wished to be observed by the European astro-
nomers, for the purpose of rendering his voyage fruitful
in scientific results. We do not intend to recount all the
incidents of this expedition. Let us, however, mention a
fact which illustrates well the character of this astrono-
mer, “reserved, modest, and disinterested.” He received
for his expedition, the purchase of instruments, and other
expenses, for his maintenance and that of an artist, the
sum of 10,000 livres; on his return, he found he had
spent only 9,145 livres. He scrupulously carried back the
balance to the royal treasury; the officials, surprised,
would not accept it. “You require it,” they said to him;
“it will take it to remunerate you.” Moreover, when he
set out from the Cape, the minister had charged him to
make maps of the Isles of France and of Bourbon, which
were not comprised in the original plan, and “ for which
most others would have asked, and certainly obtained, a
supplementary indemnity.” +

The observations made during this expedition (1751
and 1752) by La Caille with his telescope of 26 inches
focus, and an inch and a half aperture, were published by
himself, and after his death, by Maraldi, in 1763, under
the title, “ Ccelum australe stelliferum, seu observationes
ad construendum stellarum Australius catalogum insti-
tutee, in Africa ad Caput Bonze-spei, 4 Nicolao-Ludovice
De La Caille.”

A new edition of this catalogue was published in 1847,
under the superintendence and at the expense of the
British Association and the British Government, under the
editorship of Messrs. Bailly and Henderson, the latter, at
the time, Director of the Edinburgh Observatory. t

But, besides, this voyage to the Cape of Good Hope
had a mostimportant result. During the two journeys, La
Caille tested and compared all the methods employed till
then to determine longitude at sea. Among these he
noted that which the celebrated Halley had given in 1678,
and which is based upon the observation of the distance
of the moon from the sun or froma stare The experi-
ments which he made in reference to it having convinced
him of its excellence, he strongly recommended it on his
return to France; and in his second volume of Epheme-
rides, which commenced in 1755, he proposed a Nautical
Almanac, in which should be found, for every hour of the

* La Caille also purposed to observe the length of the seconds pendulum,
the variation of} the magnetic needle, and finally the length of a degree of
the meridian at the Cape This has since been measured under the
equator, under the Polar Circle, and in various places in Europe; but we
do not yet know the value of any degree in the southern hemisphere.

In the accounts which he rendered on his return, La Caille has put
down only five sous for his daily expenses, and as much for those of a me-
chanician who accompanied him.

} The Association gave 200/. and the Government 1,o00/. It is entitled

““A Catalogue of 9,766 Stars inthe Southern Hemisphere for the beginnin,
of the year 1750, peat the Observation of the Abbé de la Caille,” i a

BAAS Sh SS bi 7 Aa OD ee . ee eat ings rs Mela “9
2 2 4 oa

x 4

352
day, the distance of the moon from the sun and the stars.
La Caille regretted that his other occupations would not
permit him to compile this nautical Ephemerides himself,
At a later time, in his treatise on navigation, he reverted
to the same subject, and gave anew the sketch of his.
almanac, limiting himself to giving the distances every
four hours for the meridian. His design was not followed,
Lalande contented himself with analysing and discussing
La Caille’s method in the Connadssance des Temps for
1760, As to the French Marine, it was content to use
“WVétat du Ciel, calculé par Pingré et rapporté a usage
des marins, 1754, 1755, 1756, et 1758.” It was very
different, however, in England.

(To be continued.)

SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

CBS Cape Argus for July 10 contains the report of the

curator, Mr. Roland Trimen, of the South African Mu-
seum, for the previous half year. Many valuable additions
have been made to the museum during that time, but its
efficiency is very seriously crippled through want of funds,
mainly due, we are sorry to say, to the parsimony of Govern-
ment. We regret to see that the number of subscribers
has seriously diminished from what it originally was, but
the success of so valuable an institution should in no way
be dependent on the capricious revenue to be derived
from such a source. Let us hope that recent changes in
the personnel of the Government will lead to greater
liberality for this and for other scientific purposes. We
cannot do better than give a few extracts from an excel-
lent leader in the Avgus on the Curator’s report.

“ Now that strong efforts are being made to for-
ward the interests of education in the Colony, those in-
stitutions that aid in the work should not be neglected.
We do not at present refer to colleges and schools, for
these, whenever education is discussed, come prominently
before the popular mind, but our remarks are directed
rather to such places as museums, whose work in higher
education of the kind required in modern days is of con-
siderable importance . . . It has often struck us as rather
a reflection on Cape Town that there is no Society here
for the discussion of natural science subjects, and though
we are aware of some obstacles to the successful working
of such a body, we see no reason why they should not be
overcome. In the capital of every Colony of which we
have any knowledge, a Society of the kind exists, and
indeed in the Cape itself there are towns that, in this
respect at least, are ahead of the metropolis.

“But though we have no Natural Science Society
in Cape Town, we have what, all things considered,
may be said to be an excellent Museum. . . . The
Museum was founded under the enlightened influ-
ence of the then Governor, Sir George Grey, in 1855, and
in 1857 was incorporated by Act of Parliament. Its first
trustees were Mr. Rawson, the Colonial Secretary at the
time, Sir Thomas Maclear, the then Astronomer Royal,
and Dr. Pappe, the then Colonial Botanist. On Dr,
Pappe’s death Mr. C. A. Fairbridge was appointed a
trustee, and upon the resignation of Mr. Rawson, on his
departure from the Colony, his place was filled by Mr.
Southey, now Lieut,-Governor of Griqualand West. It
will be thus seen that the Museum has from the first been
under the management of trustees alike of scientific ac-
quirements and business ability. In its first curator, Mr,
Layard, it was extremely fortunate, and it had the advan-
tage of his enthusiastic labours for the lengthy period of
fifteen years.

“But though it has had the advantage of excel-
lent management, the development of the institution
has been seriously hindered ‘rom want of funds,
and it has not received, either from the Legis-
lature or the public, that pecuniary support neces-

aa i eee

NATURE

e at ‘ por.

> ae
~) <5 hs
| Aug. 28, 1873
sary to secure the services of efficient officers and to”
meet the thousand and one expenses of cases, glass,
chemicals, and the appliances and apparatus required in —
carrying out the work of a museum. It is a wise policy —
on the part of the Legislature to vote grants of money to —
such institutions in proportion to the pecuniary support —
received from the public, and if Parliament is to be in-
duced to make a larger grant to the Museum, the private
subscription list must be extended. The small sum of
one guinea represents the subscription for a year, and we
are quite sure, when it is known how much the institution
stands in want of funds, the list of subscribers will be-
come larger. |

“Strangers who visit the Museum and who know how
such things are managed elsewhere must smile when told
that its curator is a clerk in the Civil Service, whose time
is chiefly occupied in doing the work of a subordinate
officer in the Colonial Office. We say this without any
intention of disparaging the gentleman referred to, for his
attainments in one branch of Science at least are univer-
sally admitted ; but we do say that, if the South African
Museum is to be anything like worthy of the name, and if”
it is to continue efficiently to perform the work so well
commenced by Mr. Layard, its curator should devote the
whole of his time and attention to the duties of that office.
Under existing circumstances, that, however, is not to be
expected, as the salary is not sufficient to induce any
qualified gentleman to give up other positions for the
sake of applying himself entirely to the work of the
Museum,

“There are other matters connected with this institution
to which we might draw attention, but until more publi
support is given to the Museum it would be a waste of
time to refer to them,”

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF AUSTRALIA AND
TASMANIA *

cues surveys have been proceeding, to a
greater or lesser extent, in all the Australian colo-
nies for several years, and in Victoria the work has been
prosecuted so systematically, and with such success, that
the main features of the surface geology of the country
are comparatively well ascertained and mapped out,
The example in this respect set by Victoria has been
followed to a very considerable extent by Queens
land, and in a lesser degree by several of the other
colonies. A geological map of Australia has, however,
never been issued. Such a work would be inval

able, and the materials obtained are quite sufficient to
justify an attempt being made to carry it out. Such an
attempt is now being made by the Mining Department o!
Victoria. Some months since the Hon. A. Mackay,
Minister of Mines, put himself in communication with
the Governments of the other colonies with the view ol
obtaining from them all the information in their posses:
sion respecting the geological characteristics of the te

tories over which they presided. The application was
readily acceded to, and a large mass of materials he
been since placed at the disposal of the Mining Depa
ment of Victoria. Under the direction of Mr. R. Brough
Smyth, F.G.S., Secretary for Mines, this has beer
thoroughly digested and arranged, and is now being em
bodied in a map, which, when completed, as it will be
shortly, will show at a glance the result of all geological
surveys made in Australia and Tasmania up to the pre-
sent time. As the value of such a work necessaril
depends upon the accuracy of the observations upon
which it is based, it may be well, before attempting
a brief description of its main features, to indicate
the source from whence the materials used in its com-
pilation have heen derived, The gevlozical sketel

* From an article in the Melbourne Argus, July 7 8

Aug. 28, 1873]

map of Victoria, exhibited by the Mining Depart-
ment at the late Intercolonial Exhibition, and which
contains the results of the latest surveys made in the
colony, will be embodied in the general map. It was
compiled by Mr. Brough Smyth from surveys made some
years ago under the direction of Mr. A. R. C, Selwyn, at
‘present director-general for the Geological Survey of
‘Canada, but who formerly held a similar position in
this colony, and from surveys made since by the officers
of the mining department. It has been described “as the
“nearest approximation that can at present be made to
a true representation of the rock masses which are ex-
posed in this colony.” The New South Wales Govern-
ment have in preparation a geological map, which, it is
expected, will be available for use before the general map
is published.

The Queensland Government has been keenly alive to
the importance of mapping out the immense mineral dis-
tricts of that colony, and for some years has kept a staff
of geological surveyors actively employed in the work.
The information thus collected has been embodied in a
series of elaborately-coloured and_beautifully-executed
_ maps, which have proved of great service in the compila-

_ tion of the general map of Australia. An excellent sketch
map, covering a considerable portion of the colony, has
been obtained from the Government of South Australia.
It was compiled under the direction of Mr, A. B. Cooper.
It is especially valuable, as it embraces a great part of the
populated districts. The country north of Encounter
Bay, the most extensive mineral district in the southern
_ portion, was examined and reported on by Mr. Selwyn
_ many years ago, and a sketch map prepared by him is

being used in compiling the new map. Thesame district

¢

the request of the Government, and his observations are
_ proving of great assistance.

Thanks to the energy of Mr. C. Gould, a son of the
eminent naturalist, the geological characteristics of Tas-
mania were very accurately delineated during the time he
was geologist for the colony. An excellent map was
published under his direction, and he voluntarily made a

- number of additions to it a short time ago, when he
learnt that a copy was to be transmitted to Victoria to be
used in the preparation of the general geological map of
Australia.

A large portion of the vast territory of Western Australia
has been surveyed by Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, Government
surveyor, but who was once attached to the geoloyical
staff of Victoria. This gentleman has produced a very
beautiful sketch map of the S.W. portion of the colony,
_ which has been extensively used by the compiler of the
new map. It thus appears that every care has been
taken to obtain the most accurate information at present

: available.

An examination of the map discloses facts of interest
not only to geological students but to the public at large.
The value of the map to men engaged in mining is too
palpable to call for comment, as it shows at a glance the
formations in which the precious metals occur. In rocks
belonging to the primary or palzozoic group, gold, tin,
antimony, silver, lead, and copper may be confidently

searched for. The secondary or mesozoic rocks contain
coal, while tin is frequently found associated with granitic
rocks. Persons engaged in pastoral and agricultural
pursuits will also derive advantage by consulting this
map. A very little geological knowledge will tell them
that in districts where the principal rock masses belong
to the tertiary period they may look for well-grassed
plains suitable for pasture. In areas where the volcanic
rocks abound, rich soil, well adapted for agricultural pur-
suits, may be expected. The slatey ridges formed by the

_ older silurian rocks, and the sparsely grassed mountains
of granitic rock which abound in Western Australia, also
convey a valuable lesson to the intelligent observer. One

3

si.

has beer very recently reported upon by Prof. Ulrich, at.

NATURE 353

of the most prominent geological facts which the map
discloses is, that a great metalliferous belt lies on
each side of the main Cordillera from Cape Yorke
to the southern point of Tasmania. It is composed
chiefly of metamorphosed schists and granite rocks
overlain.in a considerable area by the newer palzo-
zoic rocks and mesozoic coal-bearing strata. Another
great belt appears to extend from Encounter Bay in South
Australia towards the Gulf of Carpentaria. North of the
30th parallel of latitude the schists are overlain by ter-
tiaries, and what Mr. Daintree considers to be rocks of
the cretaceous age up to lat. 20° to 23°, where a large
patch of metamorphic schist occurs. The whole tract
west of the eastern metalliferous belt is occupied by ter-
tiaries. Wide treeless plains, and what are called desert
sandstones, abound. The vast tract of country known as
Central Australia will have to be marked “ unknown,” as
geological surveys have not yet been made of it. What
is at present known of the geological character of the
northern portion of South Australia will be mapped out.
The Government of South Australia have furnished a very
good map showing the paleozoic tract of Port Darwin,
and from notes made by explorers the department has
been able to lay down a large granitic tract also, as well
as a large area covered with rocks of volcanic origin.
The coal rocks are seen extending all along the coast
from Port Curtis, in Queensland, in an almost unbroken
line to Eden or Twofold Bay. They are especially pro-
minent at Newcastle and Wollongong, in New South
Wales. They again appear north of Corner Inlet, at
Cape Otway, and can be traced in broken patches along
the coast up to Glenelg, where they apparently terminate.
Another interesting fact established by the new map is,
that within the tertiary era connection has existed be-
tween Tasmania and the main land. There is a strict
resemblance between the geology of Tasmania and the
continent, and the chain of granite islands extending from
Wilson’s Promontory, the southernmost point of Austra-
lia, to Cape Portland, the northernmost point of Tasma-
nia, have all their ridges capped with tertiaries, thus
showing that within the tertiary period the island and the
continent must have been connected. The main geologi-
cal characteristic of Western Australia is the immense
area occupied by granitic rocks, varied occasionally by
patches of sandstone, especially on the southern coast
line. A comparatively small part is occupied by a belt of
metamorphic rocks to the east of Champion Bay. Vol-
canic rocks are also visible. A large granitic tract occurs in
the basin of the Shaw River, east of Dampier Archi-
pelago. It appears that there has been a greater amount
of denudation on the western side of the continent than
on the eastern. Where the altitude is that of the Di-
viding Range, which varies from about 1,500 ft. to 7,000 fer,
either granite, metamorphosed schists, or silurian rocks
are found. Underneath the basalt or volcanic rocks in
Queensland, as well as at Ballarat, the deep leads occur.
It is curious to note that the deep leads of Queensland
contain tin as well as gold. Wherever the dark red
patch appears indicating granite, tin may be expected to
be found. The extraordinary richness of the tin deposits
of Queensland and New South Wales will probably
cause the immense granitic tracts of Western Australia
to be thoroughly explored. The middle belt of meta-
morphic schists which occurs in South Australia is as
well known for its extensive copper mines as the eastern
belt is for its gold.

The Mining department of Victoria has established a
high reputation for the general excellence of the geolo-
gical maps it has produced. The last effort will reflect
equal credit upon the officers employed upon it. The
rocks are shown in a descending order, and are easily
recognised by the distinguishing colours with which
they are tinted. A system of lettering the face
of the map has also been adopted, which will fa-

354 NA TURE

cilitate the rapid identification of the rocks. In
general appearance the map will more closely resemble
those prepared in Germany or France than those com-
piled in England. As already mentioned, the respon-
sible and onerous task of reducing the mass of materials
obtained from so many different sources, and embodying
the results of so many months of patient investigation, in
the new map, has been performed by Mr. R. Brough
Smyth. Mr, A. Everett, a draughtsman employed in the
Mining department, has been entrusted with the duty of
colouring the map, and Mr. R. Shepherd has performed
the diffiult work of colouring it on stone.

NOTES

Srp SAMUEL and Lady Baker arrived at Cairo, last Sunday.
All was well.

THE twenty-second session of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science commenced its meetings at
Portland, Maine, on Wednesday, 20th inst. Prof. Lovering,
of Cambridge, is president for the year.

THE discovery is announced, from America, of another small
planet, No. 133, by Prof. Watson, of the Ann Arbor Obser-
vatory.

THE session of the Iron and Steel Institute at Liege was
brought to a close on Thursday, on which evening the King of the
Belgians gave the members a grand receptionat Brussels. There
was an interesting discussion on Wednesday morning between Mr.
Bulgenbach and Mr, Bell at the Institute, on the subject of the
construction of high furnaces. Papers were read relative to
various technical matters, and the President read a paper upon
the extension of commercial relations with China. In the after-
noon more than 450 excursionists paida visit to the factory of
Messrs. Cockerill at Seraing. Several speeches were made,
and the visitors, who were most cordially received, remained
four hours. It has been decided that the Congress should meet
in 1874 in Philadelphia, and in 1875 in England. A very in-
teresting paper was read at one of the meetings by M. Julien
Deby, C.E., ‘* On the Rise and Progress of the Iron and Steel
Industries in Belgium,” in which he’said :—‘‘ We are very igno-
rant of the state of things in this country prior to the arrival of
Julius Czesar. . Archzological discoveries of quite recent date,
still unpublished, seem to indicate that at the period of the great
Roman conqueror’s invasion Iron had already been made in Bel-
gium, while it was yet unknown to the inhabitants of the British
Islands. The oldest records we have consist in vast deposits of
cinder which cover many acres of ground, and are situated at Niew
Rhode, between Louvain and Aerschot, in Brabant, as well as at
Tessenderloo, in the Antwerp campagne, where they generally
occupy the top of the many ferruginous hillocks of that region.
Along with these accumulations of iron cinder are found flint
arrow-heads and fragments of coarse pottery, characteristic of
the earliest dawn of civilisation, and which must have belonged to
the old pre-historic workers of these deposits. At a later period,
and during the Roman dominion, iron was produced in very
many places in Belgium. Immense heaps of cinder are to this
day scattered in many parts of the country, and several of these
are being profitably worked in the neighbouring blast furnaces.”

THE meetings of the British Archeological Association at
Sheffield were brought to aclose on Saturday. The time
has been spent by the members in visiting most of the
places of archzological interest in the district during the
day, and in listening to papers read in relation to the
places visited, as well as on other subjects. On Wednes-
day night, at a conversazione in the Cutlers’ Hall, Mr. R,
N, Phiilips read a paper on the ‘* Manufacture of Hard.

[Aug. 28, 1873

ware by Celts and Romans,” illustrated by fine specimens in
bronze of various degrees of advancement, a baked clay melting. |
pot, and a bronze ingot. He adduced evidence of mining and
smelting by Romans, and stated their wood-smelted iron to be
of unequalled malleability. He suggested that the Romans
held Britain for the sake of its mineral wealth ; their extensive
beds of scoriz in the Forest of Dean were still so rich in iron-
stone that they were being re-smelted. Mr. T. Morgan read a
paper on the ‘‘ Earliest Tribes of Yorkshire,” and Mr. Alfred
Wallis one on the “‘ Pre-historic Remains on the Derbyshire
Borders.” f

AT the meeting of the Somersetshire Archwological’ and
Natural History Society held at Wells last week Dr. Beddoe
gave a brief sketch of the ethnological history of the county,
and showed its bearings upon the physical aspect of the popula-
tion at the present day. We learn from the paper that the
people of the eastern half of the county have, on the whole,
broader heads, lighter hair, and darker eyes than those of the
western half. In all these respects the eastern men approach
more to the ordinary English, the western to the Irish, standard.
The mixed blooded inhabitants of the towns appear to be lighter
as to both eyes and hair than the people of either division. The
fair and handsome Frisian type is pretty common in the north
of the county. In the hilly south-eastern region about Win-
canton dark complexions and dark or even black hair attest the
late and imperfect Saxonisation of the country; the same may
be said of the Quantocks, About Minehead and Dunster, per-
haps from the less fixity of the population induced by seafaring,
there is more evidence of mixture of blood ; and in Exmoor and
in some villages of Mendip the narrow skull, prominent jaws,
and bony frame of the Gaelic type and the Turanian oblique eye
and pyramidal skull crop up. ,

Dr. BELL PETTIGREW, F.R.S., has been appointed Lecturer
on Physiology at the School of Medicine, Surgeons’ Hall, Edin-
burgh. ; ;

THE Secretaries of Section C (Geology) of the British Asso-
ciation request the attention of authors to the rule requiring the
early transmission of papers. In order that the work of the
Organising Committee may be completed in time, all papers and
reports, accompanied by abstracts, should be forwarded to the
General Secretaries not later than September 4.

We are indebted to Mr. G. Gore, F.R.S., for a copy of a re-
print of an able article of his on the ‘‘ National Importance of
Scientific Research,” which appeared in a recent number of the
Westminster Review. We are glad to have the opportunity of
drawing attention to Mr. Gore’s paper, as it forcibly expresses
the view we have so persistently advocated in our own columns. _
Mr. Gore, after showing that the pursuit of pure Science is rarely
rewarded in this country, points out that itis the duty of the State’
to provide and pay for pure scientific research, for the following
reasons :—“ Because the results ef such labour_are indispensable
to national welfare and progress ; because the results are of im-
mense value to the nation, and especially to the Government 5
because nearly the whole pecuniary benefit of it goes to the na-
tion, and scarcely any to the discoverer ; because research cannot
be efficiently provided for by means of voluntary effort; and
because there appears to be scarcely any other way (except by
application of University revenues) in which discoverers can be
satisfactorily paid for their labour.” At present, as the writer
states, the men paid the highest are not those who discover
knowledge, but those who use and apply it. The reason for
this apathy of the public as regards scientific work is, as Mr.
Gore shows, clearly traceable to a widespread and lamentable
ignorance of the nature and value of scientific inquiry. To
diffuse natural knowledge among all classes of society is there ©
fore a great duty at thejpresent time,

Aug. 28, 1873]

4 THE Philadelphians are hard at work preparing for their Cen-
; al Exhibition to be heldin 1876. 200/. each for the ten best
designs foranappropriate building had been offered, and forty plans
have now been sent in. The Centennial Commission having
in charge the inauguration and conduct of the Great Exhibition,
_ have already made most commendable progress. Committees
from their number, having in charge special departments of the
vast scheme, are in constant session, and the general outline of
_ the work seems to have been fully developed. The site for the
buildings used for the occasion has already been selected in Phila-
delphia’s beautiful park, and the formal transfer of the ground
_ by the city authorities to the control of the Centennial Commis-
sioners took place, with the imposing ceremonies befitting the
occasion, on July 4. The decoration of the ground for the pur-
_ pose, the planting of shade trees, &c., will be taken in hand at
‘once. ;

___ Amonc the appropriations made by the State of New York
_ for the State Cabinet of Natural History are the following enu-
merations :—Hall of Natural History, cleaning, repairs, &c.,
3,000 dols. ; for the increase of the zoological collection, 1,000
dols. ; assisting in arrangirg duplicate fossils and minerals for
distribution, 1,500 dols. ; salary of botanist, 1,500dols. ; for the
use of the Cabinet of Natural History, 10,000 dols,, making an
aggregate of 17,000 dols. The Board of Regents of the Univer-
sity receive 6,500 dols.

THE offer of free lodging in the Rudolphinum during the Ex-
hibition at Vienna has been responded to by no fewer than 2,412
teachers. Of these 418 have been selected, viz. :—207 Austrians,
99 Germans, 36 Italians, 20 Englishmen, 14 Dutchmen, 13
Swedes, 12 Danes, 10 Swiss, 7 a, 3 Belgians, and 2

Spaniards.

THE Committee appointed by the Birmingham Natural
History and Microscopical Society to carry out the pro-
posed Marine Excursion have, as nearly as possible, completed
all the necessary arrangements. A yacht has been hired
for six days, commencing Sept. 1, for a very moderate
sum. Mr. A. W. Wills has made a large-sized dredge, which
he has kindly presented to the Society. The small dredges
belonging to the President and Mr. Wills will also be available
for the excursion. With the view of rendering the dredging
operations scientifically interesting and valuable, it is proposed
to use a Miller-Casella thermometer with copper case, similar to
those supplied for the Porcupine and Lightning expedition.
Dredging operations, and the management of the yacht, will be
entirely under the direction of the President and Mr. Wills, who
_ will determine the hours of sailing and returning, the places to
_ be visited, &c. &c. In addition to those made in the yacht,
excursions to places of interest in the neighbourhood will be
planned at intervals during the expedition. Very satisfactory
arrangements have been made as to accommodation. The pro-
posed excursion is an experiment which, if successful, may be
_ repeated on 2 larger scale at some future time,

|

:

4

THE United States screw steamer 7iala, of 828 tons bur-
den, left New York on the 24th of June, bound to Greenland,
on her mission of rescue to the crew of the Polaris. She is in
charge of Commander Braine, with a picked crew, and has been
fitted out with every appliance needed for the success of her ob-
ject. She reached St. Johns, Newfoundland, on June 30, and
immediately went into the dock for the purpose of being pro-
perly sheathed with iron, and otherwise strengthened and refitted.
As soon as this was completed she left for Disco, on July 9,
where, or at Upernavik, she will wait until the arrival of her
consort, the Zzgress. The Zigress, it will be remembered, is the
Newfoundland sealing steamer which rescued a part of the crew
of the Fo/aris from the ice, and was purchased by the Secretary

NATURE

ev« ee ee ae

355

of the Navy as a relief vessel for the remainder of the party, as
being better fitted for this end than any vessel that could be pro-
perly prepared in time for departure during the present summer.
She reached New York on June 28, and was immediately exa-
mined by proper officers of the navy, who decided at once what
alterations and repairs to put upon her. The Zigress is 165 ft.
in length, has 28 ft. breadth of beam, and 16 ft. depth of hold,
draws 13 ft. of water, and has a capacity of 463 tons. She has
been placed under Commander Greer, lately of the Naval Aca-
demy, and is accompanied by Captain Tyson, late of the Polaris,
as ice-master. The Zigress left Brooklyn on July 14, and arrived
at St. Johns on July 23, where, like the Yuniata, she will take
in additional supplies, and then proceed northward. She is pre-
pared to remain two years in the North if necessary, although it
is hoped that she will return during the present season, convoy-
ing the Polaris.

THE second annual report of the Board of Commissioners of
the Department of Public Parks in New York, is partly devoted
to the condition of the Menagerie in Central Park, which has
increased considerably in size during the last year. A catalogue
is appended of the animals contained_in the collection, which is
on exactly the same plan as Mr. Sclater’s carefully constructed
List of Animals in‘the, Zoological Society’s Gardens in Regent's
Park.

IN Part V. of Dr. Brown-Sequard’s new ‘‘ Archives of Scieti«
tific and Practical Medicine,” there is an excellent analysis of
some of the recent researches on the localisation of the cerebral
functions, including an account of the experiments of Nothnagel,
Gudden, and others. We hope next week to be able to give an
abstract of the paper.

THE death of the Rev. Peter John de Smet, of the Society
of Jesus, is announced as having taken place at St. Louis on
May 23—an event which is worthy to be noted in a scientific
point of view. Although not himself a special student of natu-
ral science, numerous collections made at his request and under
his direction, and transmitted to museums at hoine and abroad,
have borne witness to his tastes; and it is even stated that he
has left behind him a manuscript record of his life, in which are
embraced important notes of the habits and customs of the
Indian tribes of the West, and of the physical condition and
natural history of the regions inhabited by them.

Tue Fourth Part of the illustrated work by Mr. Hermann
Strecker, of Reading, Pennsylvania, upon the Lepidoptera has
just been published, and contains figures and descriptions of
quite a large number of species, illustrated by one plate. Among
other species is included a new butterfly (Satyrus hoffmannt),
obtained by Dr. Hoffmann at Owen’s Lake, in Nevada.

THE Journal of the Society of Arts for August 22 contains a
report on steel as represented at the International Exhibition,
by Mr, William Baker.

A LETTER appears in the Zimes of Tuesday, from Mr. Richard
Potter, one of the paity from Mr. Leigh Smith’s Arctic Expe-
dition, by the Spitzbergen route. Itis dated Trenerenberg Bay,
July 4, and says :—‘‘ The Po/hem came in here last night, and is
going away again to-day. She is going home in about three
weeks, I believe. We fell in with the Samson two days ago. We
have been up to the Seven Islands, lat. 80° 50’, but there is too
much ice to go farther North at present. Prof. Nordenskidld
and the other men who tried to get North in boats could not
get farther than 80° 35’ lat., and then, finding the ice too rough
for sledging, crossed the north-east land, and returned by Hinlo-
pen Straits, They must have had a bad time of it, as there were

356

snowstorms fifty out of sixty days. The bay where we are now
is where Parry left the Aec/a when he went North on sledges,
It is anything but a fertile place, as the low ground is all one
great swamp, and there is a lot of snow on the ground still. We
are going to stop here to take in water, and to get the provisions
and coals out of the Samson.”

THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
last week include a Naked-footed Owl (Athene noctua), Euro-
pean, an Egyptian Vulture (eophron percnopterus), and two
Buzzards (Buteo tachardus), from Africa, presented by Mr. S. G.
Reid and Lieut. Denison ; a Golden Eagle (Aguila chrysaétus),
European, presented by Mr. A. W. Tait ; a Paradoxure (Para-
doxurus typus) from India, presented by Mr. A. F. Adey; a
Mantchurian Crane (Grus montignesia) fcom N. China; a Wild
Pig (Sus scrofa) from N. Africa; three Common Guillemots
(Uria troile), British ; a White-backed Piping Crow (Gymnorhina
Zeuconota) from Australia, deposited, and four Gambel’s Part-
ridges (Callipepla gambelii) hatched in the Gardens. :

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Der Naturforscher for July 1873, contains, among other inte-
resting matter, an account of observations by Herr Nageli,
among plants in Alpine regions, as to the production of closely-
related plant forms. He is led to conclude, (in opposition to the
common view), that association is more favourable to the forma-
tion of species, than isolation. There are also botanical papers
on the assimilation of air-plants under water, and the opening and
closing of flowers. In physics and chemistry we have M.
Amagat’s recent important experiments on the expansion and
compressibility of gases, and those of Troost and Hautefeuille on
isomeric and allotropic transformations ; a notice of M. Bichat’s
investigation of the influence of aggregate state on magnetic
rotatory power, &c. M. Bichat has ascertained a decrease of
this power as temperature rises, and entire disappearance of it
in the state of vapour. Some striking facts with regard to the
meteorological differences between northern and southern hemi-
spheres are from a paper by Prof, Dove to the Berlin Academy.
In physiology there are notes on the place of decomposition of
albumen in animal bodies, and on the significance of common
silt in the animal economy. Astronomy and technology are
also represented, and there is a good selection of Aieinere Mit-
thetlungen.

THE current number of the /ézs commences with an article
on the ‘‘ Ornithology of Sardinia,” by Mr. A. B. Brook, which
is one of a series on that subject. The part belore us includes
the Woodpeckers, their allies, the Swifts, and some Passerine
birds, among which are AZelizophilus sardus. Bradypterus cetti,
and the Corvine birds. Mr. R. Swinhoe describes the habits
and plumage of the Rosy Ibis of China and Japan (/érs nz /on).
He also notes points in its visceral anatomy, comparing them
with the corresponding structures in the common Heron, in
order to show that the affinities supposed by some to exist be-
tween the two birds are but slight. An editorial note verifies
the conclusion that the [bis and Spoonbill are intimately related,
and dilfers jusly from the author’s conjecture that the former
bird is related 10 7anta/us, which is a trae Stork.—Mr, J. H.
Gurney gives a tenth additional list of birds fiom Natal, includ-
ing several species from the rich collection of Mr. R. B. Sharpe.
Mr. J. E. Harting contributes a paper on Charadrius pecuarius
of Temminck, in which it is shown that this bird is the smaller
of the two allied species inhabiting Africa, but not found in St.
Helena, and that the St. Helena species, till now unnamed, is
distinct (Aegialiles sancte helene, Harting). Vieiilo’s name,
Ch. varius, must also take precedence of Temminck’s C4,
pecuarius. An illustration is given of each of the birds
refeired to.—Messrs. Salvin and Eliot, in continuation of their
notes on the 7rochilide, discuss the genera Pygmornis, Glaucis,and
Threnetes, separating the first into three groups, from the second
removing G. dokrni to the genus Grypus, as already suspected by
Mr. Gould, ana adding G/aucis ruckeri io the third. Thesame
ornithologists help to clear the synonomy of Lophornis gould: by
naming LZ. zeine of Gould, ZL. strictolophus.—Mr. T. Ayres
continucs his notes on birds in the republic of Trans-Vaal, and
Mr. G. N, Lawrence on the Cuckoos of the genus \eomorphus

NATURE

=i odet : ‘ ; 5 [3 wha

[Aug. 28, 187

defines precisely VV. geoffroyi, NV. salvint, NV. rufipennis, and
NV. pucherani, showing that the specific validity of the last-
named has been questioned by several distinguished ornitho-
logists ; though some time ago, Mr. Sclater, on seeing the type-
specimen, was convinced of its being an excellent species.
—Mr. Salvin figures the typical specimen of Filica alba of
White, showing that it is evidently of the genus JVo/ornis, as
pointed out by Herr von Pelzeln.—The Viscount Walden,
P.Z.S., describes, as the last paper, a collection of birds from
the Andaman Islands, made by Lieut. R. W. Ramsay ; figuring
Centreoccyx andamanensis, Kittacincla albiventris, Sturnia
andamanensis and Fanthenas columboides, also entering into
detail with reference to Spzlornis elgint.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
‘ RIGA

Society of Naturalists, March 5.—Dr. Petzholdt concluded
a series of tive lectures on Turkestan, having described the
fauna and flora, ethnographical features, dwellings, manners and
customs, state of agriculture, mining and manufacture, &c. He
commends the mode of treating silkworms as superior to that
in Europe, and thinks the system of irrigation more perfect than
in any other land not having scientific appliances. The Russian
portion of Tasckkent, it is stated, has now a good chemical
laboratory.

The Correspondenzblatt (No. 6) contains a note on uncommon
forms of hair-growth, with reference to two Russian peasants
exhibited before the Society in December.

March 19.—Herr Berg gave an account of his excursion to
Kurland, and the plants and mollusca he met with. ;

March 26.—Dr. Nauck described an electrical experiment.
A funnel with leather bag at the end is placed in & lon
glass cylinder, and has mercury poured into it. The liquid
streams through the pores against the glass sides, and runs down.
The lower part of the cylinder and the mercury in it are found
positively electric, while the upper part and the funnel with its
mercury are negative. The limit between positive and negative,
after some variation, divides the cylinder into two parts, of which
the lower is double the upper.

April 2.—Dr. Schell reported on the present arrangement of
the meteorological station of Riga, and on observations of the |
water-mark at Riga and at Duna mouth in 1872.

BOOKS RECEIVED

Foreicn.—Remarks on Synonyms of European Spiders : Prof T. Thorell
(Upsa'a).—Lehrbuch der Physik, Dritte Lieferung : Dr. Paul Reis (Leipzig).

EnGLisuH.—Gateway to the Polynia, a Voyage to Spitzbergen, from the
Journal of J C. Wells, R.N (H. S. King & Co.).—Sound and Music :
Sedley Taylor, M.A. (Macmillan & Co.) —- Echoes from distant Footfalls :
Rev. |. Boyes (Hodder & Stoughton).—Man a special Creation: William
Sharpe, M D. (K Hardwicke) —Introduction to Physical Measurements :
Dr. F. Hohlrausch (J. & A. Churchill).—Mitchell’s Manual of Practical
Assaying ; Edited by Wm. Crookes (\.ongmans & Co.).—Descriptive Socio- —
logy, Classified and arranged by Herbert Spencer (Williams & Norgate).—
Introductory ext Book ot Gevlogy: David Page, LL.D. (W. Blackwood
& Sons).—Advanced Text Book of Physical Geography : David Page, | L D,
(W. blackwood & Sons) —/Half-hours in the Green Lanes: J. E. Taylor,
F.Z.S. (R. Hardwicke),—The African Sketch Book: Winwood Reade —
(Smith, Elder & Co.),—Lacerda's Journey to Cazembe in 1798, Translated
by Capt. R. F. Burton (J. Murray).—Elements of Mineralogy: james
Nicol, F.R.S.E (A. & C. Black).—Harveian Oration, 1873: G. Rolleston,
M D., F R.s. (Macmillan & Co.).—Researches in Zoology, 2nd edition: —
Joha Blackwall, F.L.S. (J. Van Voorst).

CONTENTS

THE Beene OF THE SCIENCE COMMISSION ON THE OLD UNIVERSI-
TIES, eee ORI erm ees
METEOROLOGICAL CONFERENCE AT LEIPSIG DURING AUGUST 1872. .
Tue Typxoip Epipemic in Lonpon. By Prof. W. H. CorFretp. .
Dotmen-Mounps v. FREESTANDING AND Trivop CroMLEcHS. By
Capt. S. P. Ouiver, R.A. (4ith [dlustrations). o. + ieee
Nores FROM THE Challenger, VI. By Prof. WyviLLe THomson, F.R.&.
(With Llustrations) eiptetiie! i 2 fe ee. os wy
THE FRENCH As: OCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE . .

Pace

337
34t

CurisTOPRER HANSTEEN. Gs 2+ + > 3 s+ cee ap pen
‘THe Notornis or Lorp Howe's IStanp. By Prof. ALFRED NewToON 350
ASTRONOMICAL ALMANACS) EL . 6 2 + 6 | oe 8 ue en
SoutH/AFRICAN MUSEUM Cheese o> ra vel ta te « 2 « « 352
GuroLocicat MAP OF AUSTRALIA AND TASMANIA. os + » 352
NOTES ecw ns 6. ce 3 ea. epi'oiitelt ines ae
ScimNTIFIC SERIALS . « « carr foe 6a aie Ma ten
SocieTies AND ACADEMIES! js 40/5» 5 2 woes » © aie LRMenSeO
Books RECRIVED',: ....c GaMESEEUSUeh is 0: << cpa nse «- 9) «0 350)

NATURE

357

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4, 1873

THE TESTIMONIAL TO MR, COLE

AS was to be expected, the subscriptions for the well-
deserved testimonial to Mr, Cole, to which we have
already referred, have so far been thoroughly satisfactory,
upwards of 2,000/. having already been subscribed.
Among the names of the subscribers will be noticed the
names of men eminent in nearly every department of hu-
man activity. Thus we see Dr. De La Rue, Mr. Brassey,
Mr. Baines, M.P., Messrs. Clowes and Son, Elkington and
Co., Prof. Ella, Mr, C, J. Freake, Lord Ronald L. Gower,
Sir Francis Grant, Earl Granville, Messrs. S. C. Hall,
Hawkshaw, Hawksley, Lord Houghton, Messrs. H. A.
Hunt, C.B., Jackson and Graham, John Kelk, Longmans,
J. E. Millais, Lord C. Paget, Sir A, de Rothschild, Sir
Titus Salt, Duke of Sutherland, Messrs, G. Trollope and
Sons, Sir Richard Wallace, Dr. J. F. Watson, Marquis of
Westminster, Sir Joseph Whitworth, &c. &. We may
well hope that ere the list be closed many more names
will be added, and such a sum subscribed as will render
possible a testimonial worthy of the services performed
by Mr. Cole to all the best interests of this country.

The earliest work which can be considered to have a
connection with Science undertaken by Mr. Cole, was
the reform of the Patent Laws, which he advocated in 1850,
afterwards inducing the Society of Arts to take’up the sub-
ject. He wrote three Reports, and the principles which he
laid down have been generally adopted as the basis of the
present law. He particularly insisted upon the principle
of a moderate fee at the first registration of an invention,
such payment to increase at the option of the inventor in
after years. He denounced all “taxes on inventions,” as
such, and public opinion is now beginning to go with
him. Successive Governments have received hundreds
of thousands of pounds from this source, and still with-
hold all proper aid to the encouragement of Science.
There is a spice of sarcasm in the adage which has been
worked in Sgraffito on the back wall of the new Science
Schools, “ Scientia non habet inimicum nisi ignorantem.”

In 1852 Mr. Cole reformed, or we may almost say
established, the system of Art Schools, making it
possible for every locality to have its Art School if it
pleased. In 1853 the Department of Art was made
Department of Science and Art, and Dr. Playfair was
appointed to organise the Science division ; but he shortly
afterwards resigned his post, and became Professor of
Chemistry at Edinburgh. Mr. Cole then became ‘sole
Secretary for Science and Art. The late Marquis of
Salisbury was the Lord President, and doubtless to the
great interest which this nobleman took in all matters
appertaining to Science is to be ascribed some of the
success with which Mr. Lowe was enabled to ventilate
and carry out his views. Captain Donnelly, R.E., was
invited to enter the Department, and through the instru-
mentality of Lord Salisbury, Mr. Cole, and Captain
Donnelly the present Government system of scientific
instruction throughout the country, one of the things of
which England has the greatest reason to be proud, was
evolved ; and through the admirable harmony existing
between Major Donnelly and Mr, Cole the work has been

No, 201—VOol, vii.

| brought to its present flourishing condition. In 1856

there were 16 Science schools, in 1872 there were 1,238:
This is one part of the work which Mr. Cole has done fo «
English Science, and we blush to think that it has not
been appreciated by men of Science as it ought to be
and as it will be appreciated.

The Report which has just been issued by the Science
and Art Department as to the attendance in the various
classes connected with it, and the number of visitors to
the various museums during 1872, will give some idea of
the magnitude of the work accomplished by Mr. Cole.

The number of persons who have during the year 1872
attended the Schools and classes of Science and Art in
connection with the Science and Art Department is as
follows: viz. 36,783 attending Science Schools and
Classes in 1872, as against 38,015 in 1871, and 244,134
receiving instruction in Art, showing an increase on the
previous year of 31,633, or nearly 15 per cent. At the
Royal School of Mines there were 20 regular and 148
occasional, students ; at the Royal College of Chemistry,
212 students’; at the Metallurgical Laboratory, 30; at
the Royal {School of Naval Architecture there were 35.
At the Royal College of Science for Ireland there were
20 associate or regular students, and 19 occasional
students. The lectures delivered in the lecture theatre of
the South Kensington Museum were attended by 11,958
persons, or 2,927 morethanin 1871. The evening lectures
to working men at the Royal School of Mines were
attended by 2,400 persons; and 186 Science teachers
attended the special course of lectures provided for their
instruction in the new Science Schools at South Ken-
sington. The various courses of lectures delivered in
connection with the Department in Dublin were attended
by 2,577 persons; and at the evening popular lectures,
which were given in the Edinburgh Museum of Science
and Art during the Session of 1871-2, there was an
attendance of 1,416, The total number of persons, there-
fore, who received direct instruction as students, or by
means of lectures, in connection with the Science and
Art Department in 1872, is nearly 299,000, showing an
increase as compared with the number in the previous
year of 28,000 or Io per cent. The museums and collec-
tions under the superintendence of the Department in
London, Dublin, and Edinburgh,'were last year visited by
upwards of 2,922,000 persons, showing the very consider-
able increase of 1,141,000, or about 63 per cent. on the
number in 1871. The returns received of the number of
visitors at the Local Art and Industrial Exhibitions, to
which objects were contributed from the South Ken-
sington Museum, show an attendance of upwards of
574,000. The total number of separate attendances
during the] year 1872, as shown by the returns of the
different Institutions and Exhibitions, in connection with
the Department, has been upwards of 3,795,000. This total,
compared with that of the previous year, presents an
increase of 1,117,000, or 53 per cent,, not including the
number of visitors at local exhibitions, which was excep-
tionally augmented last year by the attendance of 420,000
at the Dublin Exhibition of Art and Industry, and is
necessarily liable to much fluctuation from year to
year.

We regret extremely to see that part of the great
work done by Mr. Cole, in establishing the South Ken-

U

358

NATURE

[ Sept. 4, 1873

sington Museum, runs some risk of being undone by the
unintelligent intermeddling of Government. It would
appear from statements recently made in the House of
Commons that arrangements were being made for trans-
ferring the management of the South Kensington, Bethnal
Green, and similar institutions to the trustees of the
British Museum. It is difficult for an outsider to see
what Government means by contemplating such a step ;
we believe no better means could be taken to cripple the
efficiency of such institutions than by giving them over to
the irresponsible management of the unpaid trustees of the
British Museum, who have at present much work on
their hands, which is the subject of constant Parliamen-
tary inquiry. We cannot conceive that Mr. Cole would
approve of any such step, a step which, we repeat, would
be sure to mar the great work which, with untiring la-
bour, all-conquering zeal, and advanced intelligence, he
has accomplished. Report indeed has reached us that a
National Committee is being formed to urge upon Mr,
Gladstone’s re-constituted Government the necessity of
putting the British Museum, the National Gallery, and
Institutions supported by Parliamentary funds, and now
Trustee-muddled, under the direct control of a respon-
sible Minister.

Sir Joseph Whitworth consulted Mr. Cole upon the
establishment of Scholarships for Mechanical Science, to
“take place after his death. Mr, Cole recommended him
to establish them during his life, so that he might have
the enjoyment of watching the progress of them. Sir
Joseph followed this recommendation, and presented the
country with 3,000/, a year for these Scholarships.

Mr. Cole is now devoting special attention to the appli-
cation of Science to Productive Industryin the yearly Inter-
national Exhibitions, and we trust that he may long be
spared to reap the honour which is his due and to help
on the work of which he has laid the foundation.

Theerection in Exhibition Road of the handsome Science
Schools, one of the few buildings devoted to Science of
which the country may be justly proud, which Mr. Cole
has at length successfully achieved, is due solely to the
persistency of his efforts, rendered more and more perti-
nacious by the obstinacy and penuriousness of the
Treasury, which in the most niggardly spirit is still stary-
ing the work and preventing its proper development,
simply because, we presume, it is a scientific work ; and
it was the intention of the recent Chancellor, Mr. Lowe,
that in this particular England should be distanced by
the smallest Continental or American state. It is fair to
add that Mr. Cole was supported in this particular direc-
tion by the Duke of Buckingham, the Duke of Marl-
borough, and the Marquis of Ripon, who have succes-
sively been Lord Presidents since 1866.

GEOGRAPHY

Advanced Text-Book of Physical Geography. By David
Page, LL.D., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle. Second and En-
larged Ed. (Edinburgh and London: Blackwood, 1873.)
‘pees Geography is one of those branches of
knowledge which, without being a science in itself,
makes use of many of the Sciences to explain and illus-

trate the facts and phenomena with which it deals. So
far as it is confined to the mere knowledge of facts and
description of natural phenomena, no special acquaintance
with any science is required ; but when it comes to deal
with the causes of phenomena and the deductions from
geographical facts, it is essentialythat the teacher should
himself possess a good general knowledge of several
branches of modern Science. In particular it is neces-
sary that he should clearly grasp the main principles of
Physics, that he should have a good acquaintance with
the distribution of animals and plants, and so much
familiarity with arithmetic and mathematics as to be
able to avoid making statements which are palpably
incorrect.

After a careful examination of the present volume, we
are forced to conclude that the author is, on all the above-
mentioned points, unfitted to teach this particular subject.
It is with much regret that we say this, having expected —
something very different, not only from the popularity of
Prof. Page as an author and a teacher, but also from the
criticism of one of our first literary periodicals (used as
an advertisement), that the work is “a thoroughly good
text-book of Physical Geography.” In order to justify
this difference of opinion from so high an authority, it
will be necessary to point out what are the most promi-
nent errors and defects in the volume. Some of these
defects may, it is true, be mere oversights ; but most per-
sons will be of opinion that, in the second edition of an
educational work, the plea of “oversight” can hardly be
allowed.

In the second chapter —on the figure, motion, and

dimensions of the earth—we find a series of curious mis-

conceptions, blunders, or obscurities. At page 19 we
have the globe “revolving and rotating in obedience to —
the Jaws of gravitation and attraction,” and in the next —
page these words are again used as implying distinct
“forces.” On page 21 occurs the following :—“ But day —
and night are of unequal and varying length according to —
the seasons; and these seasonal successions are caused
by the facts—first, that the orbit or path of the earth’s
revolution round the sun is not a perfect circle, but an
ellipse ; and second, that in performing this revolution
her axis is not perpendicular, but inclined at an angle of
66° 27)’ to the plane of her orbit.” This is simply absurd.
The ellipticity of the earth’s orbit has nothing whatever
to do with the fact of there being seasons, which would
occur exactly the same were the orbit a_perfect circle,
The actual effect of the elliptic orbit in slightly modifying
the length and severity of winter in the two hemispheres,
and which is of some importance as being an element in
explanation of the cause of the glacial epoch, is never so
much as alludedto. Ina recent public examination some
of the competitors gave this very account of the seasons,
and received few or no marks in consequence. They had
probably got up the subject from Dr. Page’s volume.
Three pages further we have a table of certain dimensions
of the planets. This has no particular bearing on physi-
cal geography, but as it is given it should have been
correct. It is, however, full of gross blunders, which can
be detected by observation alone. We have in three
columns—the diameter in miles, the cubic contents in
miles, and the volume, earth being taken as 1. Now the
“solid contents” and the “volume” being the same

ri

ar
*

cpt. 4, 1873]
dimension expressed in different ways, must be propor-
tionate in any two planets ; yet we have Mercury, volume
006, solid contents 10°195 ; Venus, volume 096, solid
contents 223'521, so that while the volume of Venus is 16
times that of Mercury, its solid content is 22 times!
Again: Earth, volume 1’00, solid content 260°775 ; Mars,
yolume 0'14, solid content 48'723, the earth being over 7
times the volume of Mars, but only 53 times its solid con-
tent. Almost any other two planets come out equally
wrong. Again, from the diameters given the solid con-
tents can be easily calculated, but here again is frequent
error ; and to add to the confusion, in at least two cases
the diameters are seriously wrong (4,980 miles instead of
4,100 for Mars, for instance), so that it is very difficult to
understand where so many mistakes could have come
from. On the next page we have a contradiction as to
the earth’s internal structure. It is first stated positively
that “the interior of the earth cannot be composed of the
same materials that constitute its outer portion,” and
lower down, that “ either the interior of the earth is com-
posed of materials differing altogether from those known

ae,
-

_at the surface, or the compression must be counteracted,”

&c. At page 27 we have the atmosphere described as
“mainly composed of two gases, nitrogen and oxygen—
79 parts of the former to 21 of the latter—with a small
percentage of carbonic acid and other extraneous impuri-
ties.” Considering the importance of the carbonic acid
gas in the atmosphere, it is hardly instructive to class it
as an “extraneous impurity.”

Passing over the mere description of the earth’s surface,
parts of which arevery well done, we find other objectionable
matter as soon as we have to deal with the explanation of
phenomena. A mountain range is said at p, 75 to be
“not a simple upheaval, the result of one paroxysmal
outburst, but the work of innumerable volcanoes and
earthquakes operating through ages and subsequently
escarped and chiselled by rains, frosts,” &c. Here gra-
dual elevation without volcanoes or earthquakes, and
possibly from altogether different causes, is ignored. On
the next page, speaking of circumdenudation, we have :—
« A mountain may thus consist of stratified rocks and be

-wholly unconnected with any forces of upheaval or ejec-

tion from below.” Here ignoring that the strata must be
upheayed before they can be circumdenuded. These are
perhaps slight matters, but we think an introductory work
should not adduce the almost exploded theory of Elie de
Beaumont on the parallelism of mountain chains of the
same age, “ even when in opposite hemispheres,” as if it
were generally admitted, or Prof. Hopkins’ explanation of
central mountains with diverging spurs as the result of
an upheaying force acting on a point, without stating that
a very different explanation of the facts is adopted by
most modern geologists.

When we come to the subject of the ocean, involving
many nice problems in physics, our author is again alto-
gether at fault. It seems hardly credible that he should
not know the difference between salt and fresh water as
regards the point of maximum density, on which much of
the theory of oceanic circulation and temperature de-
pends; yet such seems to be the case. At p. 123 weare
told that “at 40° Fahr. water is at its minimum volume
and maximum density,” and again in the same page—
“Tts maximum density or minimum volume at 39}, its

NATURE

359

expansion as ice to one-ninth of its bulk at 32° for fresh
water and at 28} or less for salt water.” Again, at p. 131
we have—“As already mentioned, water acquires its
minimum volume or greatest density at a temperature of
40°, and becomes lighter as it rises above or falls below
this temperature. Owing to this property a perpetual
interchange or circulation is kept up among the waters of
the ocean,” proving that sea-water also is supposed by the
writer to have this property, instead of increasing in
density down to about 274°, as it actually does. Yet the
author quotes Maury, who published this correction of
the old notion in 1861, and the papers of Dr. Carpenter,
who repeatedly refers to this fact as a most important
one. Again, at p. 136 we have the obsolete theory of Sir
James Ross as to deep-sea temperatures given in full,
with a remark that it has recently “ been materially inter-
fered with” by the experiment of Drs. Carpenter and
Wyville Thomson ; but without, apparently, any acquaint-
ance with the whole of the facts established by those gentle-
men, as shown by again referring to the temperature of
the bottom of the ocean as being 39° Fahr., “that of its
maximum density.”

It is perhaps a small matter that, in describing the
Nile valley, Capt. Speke’s account is quoted at length (p.
181), and the Victoria Nyanza given as the source, the
Albert Nyanza not being once mentioned, or any
allusion whatever made to the fact that Sir Samuel Baker
claims it to be the true source of the Nile; but it is of
great importance that the student should be impressed
with clear and accurate ideas as to the cause of winds.
Yet we find here the old school-book notion of a vaccum
and an inrush to fillit up. “As air is expanded by heat
and contracted by cold the warmer and lighter volumes
will ascend, and the colder and denser rush in from all
sides to supply the vacancy” (p. 205). ‘The air of the
torrid zone becomes rarefied and ascends, while the colder
and denser air sets in from either side to supply the defi-
ciency” (p. 213). And the same words are repeated at p.
243. But every physicist knows that there is no “va-
cancy” and no “deficiency” in the case, but merely a
disturbance of equilibrium; and unless this is clearly
comprehended the causes and effecis of atmospheric
currents can never be understood. On the subject of
light and heat the ideas of the author appear to be still
more confused. At p. 205 he says—“ As the atmosphere
is the medium through which the sun’s heat is conveyed
to and disseminated over the earth, so also it is the me-
dium of his light-giving rays.” This sentence will cer-
tainly convey to the learner the false notion that the at-
mosphere is in some way essential to the ‘‘ conveyance’
of light and heat from the sun to the earth ; and this is
further dilated upon in the following vague and unintel-
ligible, if not erroneous sentence :—“ Heat and light are
alike indispensable to plants and animals, and, from the
peculiar constitution of the atmosphere, as regards its
varying density, moisture, &c., both are reflected and
diffused so as to become most available to vegetable and
animal life.” The learner must be very acute who can
obtain ary definite information from such oracular teach-
ing as this. Again (at p. 207) we have a total misconcep-
tion as to the cause of the decrease of temperature at in-
creasing elevations—“ The heat that falls on the land
being partly absorbed and partly radiated into the atmo-

360

NATURE

[Sepz. 4, 1873

sphere, the lowest aérial strata or those nearest the influ-
ence of this radiation will be warmer than those at higher
elevations.” But it is a thoroughly well-established fact
that the atmosphere is scarcely at all warmed by radiant
heat, except when charged with vapour, but almost wholly
by contact with the heated earth, and that the diminution
of temperature upwards is due to the cooling by expansion
of the air which rises from below, and to its greater
diathermacy, owing to the comparatively small amount of
vapour at great elevations. In the whole of this part of the
book there is no allusion to the effect of atmospheric
vapour in checking radiation, so that the learner is left
without a clue to the comprehension of some of the most
important and interesting facts in climatology.

The latter division of the volume treats of the distri-
bution of life, but it deals chiefly in vague generalities,
and shows little acquaintance with the large amount of
research which has of late years been bestowed on this
subject. The distribution of plants is illustrated by
means of the eight zones, from equatorial to polar ; and
there is no hint to the student that this is not a natural
system or that there are any other causes than climate,
soil, and altitude that determine the flora of a region.
Here, too, we are not free from absurd errors, such as
rhododendron and azalea being given as characteristic of
the “American Arctic zone,” while “box, saxifrage, and
gum” (!) are said to grow up to 4,200 ft. on the Pyrenees,
and “rice and wheat” in “those provinces subject to the
influence of tropical seasons !” (p. 257). Animal life is
treated in an equally loose and obsolete fashion. We
find such terms as “homoiozoic zones” and “latitudinal
distribution” repeated ad nauseam, but in illustration of
these the student is told that the opossum is peculiar to
the north temperate zone, and the kangaroo to the
southern, apparently'in complete ignorance that opossums
abound all through tropical South America, while
kangaroos inhabit tropical Australia and equatorial New
Guinea, as well as the more temperate regions. “The
eagle and falcon” are also given as peculiar to the tempe-
rate zone, while “ the wolf” is said to be peculiarly arctic
(p. 261). We are next informed that—-“ it has been
attempted to arrange the earth’s surface into certain
zoological kingdoms and provinces, but it must be con-
fessed with much less precision and certainty than in the
case of the vegetable world ”—which is exactly the reverse
of the fact,—and then we have the now obsolete arrange-
ment of Edward Forbes put forth, without a word about
the labours of Sclater, Giinther, Murray, Blyth, Blandford,
Huxley, and others, who have established what all agree
are natural zoological divisions of the earth (which has
not yet been done in botany), although they may still
differ as to the comparative rank of those divisions. We
are not therefore much surprised when (at p. 263) we are
told that in the Moluccas and Timor “,there is a great
abundance of carnivora and other orders of animals (!)’
or that we have (at p. 269) the entirely novel assertion
that “on the introduction of some new exotic, animals
hitherto unknown in that locality usually make their
appearance.” Having perhaps read or heard of Mr.
Darwin’s celebrated case of the heartsease, bees, mice,
and cats (“ Origin of Species,” 6th ed., p. 57), Dr. Page
holds forth as follows :—‘ Certain birds, for example, feed
on certain insects, and these insects again find their
chosen food in certain plants; remove the plants and

you destroy the insects, and by the destruction of the
insects you compel the birds to remove and find othe
habitats, or if these supplies cannot be found the birds
are extirpated.” Mr. Darwin gives a possible and very
probable case founded on careful observation, but here we
have a very improbable, if not impossible case, founded
on imagination ; because no birds feed on “ certain ”—
that is definite species of—insects only, and com-
paratively few insects again are restricted to certain
definite species of plants, so that there is no reason to
believe that any insectivorous bird could ever be extir-
pated, or even rendered scarce, by the destruction of a
single species of plant with the insects that feed upon it.

Next we come to the subject of mankind with the
inevitable five races of Blumenbach, no notice whatever
being taken of more modern classifications. Thus, the
hill-tribes of India are left with the Caucasians, and the
New Zealanders, Papuans, Australians, and Malays, are
all jumbled together as forming one race. In the con-
cluding chapter, which is a kind of summary of the whole
work, we find it stated that the new world is charac-
terised by more “uniformity of vegetable and animal
life” than Europe, the exact contrary being the case ;
that “the vegetation of Africa is much less varied than
that of Europe or Asia,” which is equally untrue as regards
Europe; the Cape of Good Hope alone equalling it in
the number of families and genera of plants, while the
difference between its northern and southern extremities
is far greater than any corresponding difference in
Europe ; and, that the Polynesians are “utterly uncivi-
lised.” Having now gone through the book, we find
that several classes of earth-knowledge have been totally
omitted. The great subjects of terrestrial magnetism and
atmospheric electricity are altogether ignored, while such
phenomena as the rainbow, the blue sky, and meteoric
stones, are never once mentioned.

The great and radical defects which have now been
pointed out are not however the only ones, although they
are by far the most important. The work is carelessly
written, and the author seems not to have thought it
worth while, even in a second edition, to correct errors,
erase repetitions, or make sentences intelligible A
passage is repeated word for word about the middle and
near the bottom of p.27. “ Contour” and “vertical relief”
are defined in almost the same words three times over at
pp. 62,66 and 72. The two first lines on p. 21 are un-
intelligible, owing to some omitted words ; and the second
line of p. 28 is palpably ungrammatical. These, how-
ever, are small matters,and would not have been noticed
had the author carried out with any approach to complete-
ness and accuracy his somewhat lofty pretensions. He
tells us that it is his object to “ present an outline of the
science inits higher bearings,” to rise above mere ex-
ternal appearances, and seek to explain the causes that
produce them, and that “he has endeavoured to embrace
all that is important in recent discovery and hypothesis.”
The numerous quotations and references now given will
enable the reader to judge how far the opinion expressed
at the commencement of this article is well founded, and,
if they agree with that opinion, they will feel some indig-
nation‘that periodicals of high standing should (through
ignorance or something worse), mislead the public so far
as to tell them that this is “a thoroughly good text-book
of Physical Geography.”(!) This is the more to be

=
» .

in Asal an

Cee ee ee

aes,

Sept. 4, 1873]

regretted, as there are two well-known works to which

the epithet is fairly applicable, and which are at least

free from such erroneous facts and false or exploded

theories as have been pointed out in Dr. Page’s volume.
ALFRED R. WALLACE

OUR BOOK SHELF

Half-hours in the Green Lanes: a Book for a Country
Stroll, By J. E. Taylor. (Hardwicke.)

THERE are two ways at least in which the first principles
of Natural Science may be taught to the youthful mind,
as well as to “intelligent people who have not had time to
enter into the technicalities of scientific questions.” One
which, if we may judge from the number of elementary
works on Physics in which it is adopted, has many argu-
ments in its favour, consists in the careful and logical
working out in detail of a few of the most important prin-
ciples of the Science, together with the different steps by
which they were arrived at ; the knowledge of minutize
being left for future observation and study, on the foun-
dation supplied: and the other is little more than a
compilation of disconnected facts, of unequal importance,
arranged with an endeavour to make them impressive
from their almost endless number, and strung together
with teleological argument. The tenants of the “tarns
and green lanes being the objects treated of, there is an
expanded field for the 300 or so short pages, in which the
fishes, molluscs, and reptiles of the former, as well as the
birds, insects, and plants of the latter, are rapidly passed
in review. Several excellent figures illustrate the work,
Mr. Wood and Mr. Keulemans contributing to the orni-
thological section ; however, we are surprised to see so
many on subjects of comparatively little importance, as
the 14 on the slight variations in the shape and marking
of cycloid scales, and the 32 on the different species of
snails. Turning to the letterpress, many of the descrip-
tions will be found to be accurate and clear, and a few
sufficiently long to enable the uninitiated to form a fair
idea of the subject. Many however are so short and in-
complete that but little can be made of them without
extraneous assistance, and in some the carelessness in
the choice of words adds to the difficulty, as where the
Vapourer Moth (Orgyia antigua) is said to derive its
name “from the habit of the winged males rising and
falling simultaneously in their flight.” A fact is some-
times stretched to make a szmz/e, as when we are inaccu-
rately told that “the generic name of the Kingfisher
(Halcyon) is derived from the ancient belief that when
it was hatching its eggs, the water was always calm and
still.” The genus Zz7dus is more than once called Tardus,
and several other mistakes show that the authors know-
ledge of the subject is not of the deepest, as when the
hind wing of the Clifden Nonpareil (Catocala fraxini) is
said to be black and red, and the wide geographical dis-
tribution of the Kingfisher is given as a reason for sup-
posing that it has a comparatively high geological antiquity.
Notwithstanding its faults, however, there are many points
in this small work which will make it of more than ordi-
nary interest to the general reader.

The Royal Readers. Nos. 1 to 6. (Nelson and Sons,
London and Edinburgh.)

THE excellence of these reading books and their adap-
tation to the broader culture of the present day demand
from us some notice. The editor of the series, who has
done his work with unusual ability, tells us in the preface
that his aim has been to cultivate the Jove of reading. So
far as we are able to judge, this aim he has successfu!ly
carried out by presenting interesting subjects in an at-
tractive way. Opening any one of these Readers, we are
struck with the air of freshness and interest it possesses.

NATURE

361

An intelligent child, instead of closing the book with
relief, is far more likely to leave it with regret. And added
to the happy way in which the lessons have been prepared,
the pages abound with capital woodcuts, some of which
are of real beauty. There are none of the stereotyped
cuts of stale children in old-fashioned dresses and hair in
pig-tails, primly grouped at play, and supposed to illus-
trate the story of the goody-goody girl, or the naughty-
naughty boy, Our children are mercifully spared from
these haunting ghosts of our childhood and have their
Royal Readers instead. But these books have a wider
scope than mere reading lessons. In the fifth and sixth
books we find a large amount of sound scientific know-
ledge conveyed in a course of lessons carefully prepared
by the editor. Then there are articles on physical geo-
graphy, the bed of the sea, the various ocean routes, and
lessons on useful inventions, besides some other novel
features which we have not room to detail. The employ-
ment of these reading books will certainly tend to create
a love for healthy reading, and at the same time they
seem likely to be of the highest service in training and
furnishing the minds of children.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Atoms and Ether

I AM not enough of a metaphysician to say whether a sub-
stance which can be compressed and expanded mecessarily con-
tains void spaces.

If so, the idea of air, furnished to a beginner by instruction in
“Boyle’s Law,” is self-contradictory ; and any molecular theory
afterwards developed in order to account for ‘‘ Boyle’s Law,”
may claim not only ingenuity but necessity in order to abate a
crying grievance to all right-minded persons.

I do not myself believe in Prof. Challis’s zther, but at the
same time I do not believe in the power of the human mind
to pronounce that a continuous medium capable of being com-
pressed is an impossibility.

But, on the other hand, Iam sure that a medium consisting
of molecules is essentially viscous; that is, any motions on a
large scale which exist in it are always being converted
into molecular agitation, otherwise called heat, so that every
molecular medium is the seat of the dissipation of energy,
and is getting hotter at the expense of the motions which it
transmits. Hence no perfect fluid can be molecular. So far as
I can see, Prof. Challis intends his ether to be a perfect fluid,
and therefore continuous (see p. 16 of his Essay), though he
does not himself pronounce upon its intimate constitution.

Hansemann* makes his xther molecular, and in fact a gas
with the molecules immensely diminished in size.

With regard to Mr. Mott’s iron bar, when he pulls one end he
diminishes, in some unknown way, the pressure between the
particles of the iron, and allows the pressure of the zther on the
other end to produce its effect.

N.B. This is only the language of a theory, and that theory
not mine ; nevertheless, I think it isjconsistent with itself.

Glenlair, Aug. 13 JCM

Reflected Rainbows

I READ with great interest, in Prof. Tyndall’s American lec-
tures, a statement about the rainbow which appeared to me so
extraordinary, that I determined to test it on the first oppor-
tunity.

The statement (I have not the took with me here, and give
merely my recollection of the substance) is that, owing to the
want of the necessary condition of parallelism the rays scattered
from rain-drops cannot be so reflected as to show a rainbow by
reflection from the surface of a lake.

Of course we all know that the same rainbow cannot be seen
from two places at the same time, and therefore no one would

* Die Atome und ihre Bewegungen, von Gustay Hansemann, E, H

Mayer: Coln, 1871.)

362

expect to sce the same rainbow directly and by reflection. It is
also reasonable to suppose that, as a rainbow is often seen from
one place and not from another, a rainbow may often be seen
directly and not reflected, or vice versé. The reference to the
necessary condition of parallelism shows that it is something
more than these obvious deductions from the laws of reflection
to which Prof. Tyndall wishes to draw attention in the passage
mentioned. Until I tried the experiment described below, I
imagined him to mean that there was something about the direc-
tion or arrangement of the rays of light producing a rainbow,
which prevented their forming a rainbow or anything like one,
after reflection from the surface of still water. It is not always
easy to arrange so as to have a rainbow and a still lake to ex-
periment upon. I managed, however, to get satisfactory sub-
stitutes in the spray bow at the falls of the Rhine near this, and
a small pool of water. I was greatly disappointed on looking
into my pool, to see reflected not only the scenery of the falls,
but also a very fine spray bow.

What then can Prof, Tyndall mean? How is this peculiarity
of rainbows to be observed? I have tried it in the only way of
which I could think, but am now inclined to believe that I must
have mistaken Prof. Tyndall’s meaning.

Schaffhausen, Aug. 23 ne Ss

The Origin of Nerve Force

Ong at least of the ‘‘ obvious difficulties” which your corre-
spondent, Mr. Henry R. Proctor, finds in my hypothesis as to
the origin of Nerve Force, would scarcely have existed if he had
directed his attention to a sentence in my article (NATURE,
July 31), which runs thus: ‘‘In what are termed hot-blooded
animals, that is, in mammals and birds, the difference of tempe-
rature between the surface and the interior is considerable under
all natural circumstances, and in them there is a regulating action
of the skin by which they maintain a uniform internal tempera-
ture, always hotter than the surface, whatever that of the external
medium may be.” The correctness of this proposition as regards
the human being“is now a physiological fact, as many observers
from different starting points have arrived at the same conclusion ;
among others, my proof of it has appeared in the “ Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology” (vol. vi. November 1871). When the
temperature of the atmosphere is above 70° F. the amount of
perspiration is always proportionate to the temperature, and is
sufficient to maintain the depths of the body at 98° or so. Below
70° the same condition results from the influence of cold on the
cutaneous vessels, they contracting in proportion to the degree
of cold, and so modifying the radiating and conducting power of
the body surfaoa. There is never therefore any reversal of the
current, or a temperature at whichit is sz/.

Your correspondent’s third paragraph contains an assumption,
as great and not so reasonable as my own. Why should we
have to assume that the body has to be kept at a constant tem-
perature of 98° or so? There is no @ Prior? reason in its favour.
It may be said that the chemical changes which occur, being de-
pendent on the properties of albumen, fibrin, &c., could not
be continued under other circumstances. That, however, is
only a shifting of the ground of argument, for it is much more
reasonable to suppose that the properties of the animal tissues
are the result and not the cause of the conditions under which
they have been brought into existence.

I may mention that the physiological phenomena attending
the immersion of the body in air and water of different tempe-
ratures are of quitea different character ; they are scarcely com-
parable, and can be shown not to depend to any extent on the
different conducting powers of the media, or their different spe-
cific heats. Immersion of the nude body in air of 30° is not
rapidly fatal, even if the temperature is not kept up by violent
exercise ; and I cannot understand “immersion in water at
30°. ”

If the comparative coldness of the brain were the effect of
absorption of heat in the building up of its elaborate texture,
we should expect to find a similar condition in the muscles,
which are also of very complicate construction. Such, however,
is not the case, and therefore another explanation has to be
found, which my hypothesis supplies.

Aug. 26 A. H. Garrop

The Flight of Birds

I HAVE just read with great interest, in NATURE of Aug. 21,
Capt. J. Herschel’s account (elicited by Mr. Guthrie’s letter,

NATURE

[ Sepz. 4, I 873

vol. viii. p. 86) of his ocular and telescopic observations or
Indian kites at rest in mid-air, and I am tempted to offer an
explanation which occurs to me of the way in which that
aérial balance may be maintained.

If there was no quiver of the wings perceptible ‘‘ at an appa-
rent distance of ten or twelve feet,”—if the very tips of the
wings ‘‘ looked as steady as those of a stuffed specimen,”—then
certainly the theory of self-support by muscular action must be
abandoned, and the problem is reduced to one in which we have
only to consider the weight and shape of the bird with outspread
wings and the velocity and direction of the wind.

If the direction of the wind is slanting upwards with mode-
rate velocity, it is conceivable that a bird, facing the wind, with
outspread wings in a plane inclined between the horizontal
and the direction of the wind, might remain at rest, from the
following considerations :—

If the air were at rest, the bird, with the plane of its wings
inclined a little downwards and forwards, would not fall yer-
tically, but would slide obliquely forwards down the air, like a
returning boomerang, or an inclined sheet of paper let iy
and would reach the earth at some point far from the verti
But suppose, instead of the air being at rest, there were a slant
upward current of air meeting and balancing the slant fall of the
bird : then the bird would remain motionless in mid-air. ;

Capt. Herschel rejects (perhaps too hastily) the notion of
‘*slants of wind,” and asks ‘‘ what becomes of the horizontal
force” of the wind. Surely its effect would be to balance
the horizontally resolved portion of the bird’s slant fall, just as
the vertically resolved portion of the slant current of wind would
balance the vertically resolved portion of the slant fall.

Different degrees of inclination and force of the wind might
be met (within limits) by different degrees of slope and spread
of the wings.

I must confess this is only theory. We want more obser-
vations, as keen and careful as Capt. Herschel’s, to ascertain
the force and direction of the wind attending this arrest of
motion in mid-air. Slant currents are common enough on a
small scale among house-walls, and ona larger scale we may
see how the wind pounces down on a land-locked water, or
presses up a mountain side. In a steady wind, the shapes of
hill and valley must cause certain regular currents variously
inclined to the horizontal, and some of these, I suppose, the
eagles find and use. On the lee side of a hill (as in the case
given by Captain Herschel) there would be a current rising
trom the eddy to join the main course of the wind. ‘The con-
ditions described by Mr. Guthrie were just such as would throw
the wind into upward slanting currents.

We should want a well-balanced weather-cock with a double
vane (one plate in a Aorisonéal, the other in a vertical plane), to
tell the vertical as well as the horizontal deviation of the wind.

Dacre Park, Lee, S.E., Aug. 24 HUBERT AIRY

Mallet-Palmieri’s ‘‘ Vesuvius ”

My absence in Spain during the months of March and April
prevented my having seen NATURE for the 20th March, and left
me until a few days since in blissful ignorance that it contained a
lengthy critique by Mr. Mallet on my review (NATuRE, Feb. 6)
of his translation of ‘* Palmieri’s ‘‘ Incendio Vesuviano.” This
accounts for my silence, as, had it not been the case, a reply
from me would certainly have appeared at the time.

For, being “‘ the reviewer reviewed,” I suppose I am indebted
to my habit of not taking advantage of a reviewer's privilege,
but of signing my name in full, since I do not find that Mr.
Mallet vouchsafed a reply to any other review of his book, not
even to that contained in the Geological Magazine for March,
which, as the organ of British Geological opinion, might be ex-
pected to have the preference over mine, even if its reviewer had
not incurred special claims on Mr. Mallet’s attention, by having
handled his production in a vastly less tender manner than I had
done.

In comparing the two translations of Palmieri’s little pamphlet,
I give preference to that in German by the eminent mineral
chemist Rammelsberg, if for no other reasons, for its cheapness,
and because the translator puts forth the work of the Italian

professor entirely on its own merits as one which did not require
to be heralded by any elaborate preface to make it take with the
public, and also because it seems somewhat unfair to see the
worthy Professur’s excellent observations made a y-hicle for in-
| troducing the public to what, although entitled ‘‘an introduc.

(i

Sept. 4, 1873]

NATURE

363

__ tory sketch of the present state of our knowledge of terrestrial

vulcanicity,” &c., is far from being such, and in greater part but
a one-sided exposition of Mr. Mallet’s own views of what he
terms vulcanicity and vulcanology, and which, to quote one of
his reviewers, “‘has really no connection with Palmieri’s report.”

It is unnecessary here to occupy space in splitting hairs over
the exact definition of words, such as theory, hypothesis, force,
&c., being quite content to assume that the readers of NATURE
fully understood the sense in which I employed them ; but when
the abstracts published in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal So-
ciety” are generally admitted to be faithful reports of the main
features of the Memoirs read before the Society, and here it is
not a question of details, I ask any rational individual whether
Mr. Mallet, merely because he considers the abstract of his
paper as ‘‘most meagre and incomplete,” is justified in using
such words (p. 382) as ‘‘Mr. Forbes commences with an im-
portant error as toa matter of fact, by referring to ‘ Mr. Mallet’s
Dynamical Theory of Volcanic Energy,’ as published in the
Proceedings of the Royal Soeiéty for 1872.”

When an author commits himself to print, he should also be
prepared for the consequences ; yet the tone of Mr. Mallet’s
critique evidently indicates extreme irritation in finding his views
commented upon before his communication to the Royal Society
is published in full, explaining in other words, that before this
is done nothing is known about them—a state of things emi-
nently suggestive, both that the scientific men who, he is pleased
to inform us, have already expressed themselves in his favour,
may, after all, have been somewhat hasty in so doing, and also
that Mr. Mallet would have been more wise if he had withheld
his self-laudatory sketch until the publication of the evidence in
favour of his views had afforded the scientific world the opportu-
nity of forming a mature judgment as to their soundness.

Volcanic rocks, or rather rock species, are commonly arranged
under the two classes, Trachytic and Pyroxenic, names proposed
by Bunsen as the equivalents of acid and basic, and it is hardly
necessary to observe that when the mineralogical and chemical
natures of rocks are to be compared, some such classification
must be taken into account, since it would be as absurd to liken
a trachytic to a pyroxenic rock as chalk to cheese; it must also
be remembered that the same volcanic cone may emit lavas of
both these classes, a fact observed by the Scientific Commission
at the eruption of Santorin, when in exactly similar manner to
many ancient outbursts, the trachytic preceded the subsequent
and more abundant pyroxenic lavas. As regards the mineralo-
gical and chemical constitution of unaltered volcanic rocks,
nothing is more certain than that from whatever part of the
world they proceed, they are essentially made up of a very
limited number of mineral species, always the same, and the
application of the microscope to petrology has now proved this
to be the case also, when they are of so compact a texture as not
to admit of their constituent minerals being distinguished by the
naked eye. The examination of any large collection of volcanic
rocks cannot fail to impress the observer with the wonderful
similarity of the various rock specimens from one volcano to
corresponding ones from others situated at the greatest dis-
tances ; and ample evidence of this may be seen in the writer’s
extensive collection, the result of many years’ labours in the
voleanic districts of Europe, America, Australasia, and Africa,
and in which, for example, specimens may be seen of trachytes
from Auvergne, the Rhine, or fhe Andes, undistinguishable
from one another when placed side by side, other lavas from
Otaheite (where, however, Pele’s hair is not found, as men-
tioned by Mr. Mallet), to all appearance identical with those
from Etna, both of which voleanic districts he has had good
opportunities for studying.

Pele’s hair, from Hawai, in the Sandwich Islands, so called
from its having been blown by the action of the winds over the
surface of the molten lava into hairlike filaments resembling
spun glass, is simply pyroxene, a mineral which, next to felspar,
is the most common constituent of the lavas of all volcanos.

When, however, Mr. Mallet asks, ‘* Are the ancient basalts
and trachytes identical with the modern ones or with each other
in different localities?” the answer to the first question is
simply no, for the results of modern petrological inquiry tend to
show, although no sharp line can be drawn, that the volcanic
rocks which made their appearance in the successive stages
through which our globe has passed, although more or less
characteristic of the epoch, were analogous to, but not abso-
lutely identical with, those which either preceded or succeeded |

them ; and to the second question the reply is, that they are |

|

identical in mineralogical and chemical constitution, and often
even approximate closely in percentage composition.

The well-known researches of Bunsen on the volcanic rocks of
Iceland, followed up by those of Abich on those of the Cau-
casus, showed the simplicity and identity in chemical consti-
tution of volcanic rocks, and the later results of trustworthy
chemical analyses, not of fragments chipped off at random, but
of such as represent the mass of the unaltered rock itself, are
every day bringing forward more complete evidence of this
being the case; this is, without doubt, well understood
by Professor Palmieri, for the very words cited by Mr.
Mallet, in which he mentions that ‘‘two specimens of the
same lava appear indeed to have their constituents in dif-
ferent proportions” are qualified by stating that the observa-
tory did not possess the means of arriving “‘at any conclusion ”
on this point, and by expressing the hope that Prof. Fuchs, who
had specially devoted himself to this subject, would, by employing
‘*well selected and sufficiently large specimens,” obtain satis-
factory results. Not only do all chemists and mineralogists know
that there may exist a co siderable difference in the percentage
composition of mineral species which are of identical chemical
constitution, but in answer to Mr. Mallet’s questions as to iron
blast-furnace slags, every scientific metallurgist will admit that
the basis of good smelting, necessitates the production of slags
having a constant and definite chemical constitution, and that
not only should the slag from every two tappings|be identical in this
respect, but that so long as the furnace works properly, and the
same materials are charged into its mouth, the same slag will
also flow from its hearth ; many yeais’ practical experience in the
management of blast-furnaces, and the numerous analyses of
slags which I have made, some of which will be found published
as far back as 1846 in the British Association reports on
the crystalline slags, have not only fully satisfied me on this
point, but shown me examples of iron blast-furnaces, which,
from their having been constantly fed with precisely the same
ore, fuel, and flux, have not only for successive tappings, but for
years, produced slags, not only identical in chemical constitution,
but in which the percentage of the constituent silica and bases
have only varied within extremely small limits,

When Mr. Mallet, however, asks such questions as whether
the crystalline minerals of volcanic rocks are identical, and
furnishes in his critique the most ample evidence of his con-
founding chemical constitution with percentage composition,
ignoring altogether the laws of isomorphism and the substitution
of bases, I believe mineralogists will absolve me from taking up
more space in discussing further these questions. The implica-
tion of being unacquainted with the works of yon Waltershausen,
Senft, Blum, and my good friend Zirkel, which have been
in my hands, I might almost say warm from the press, is
easily disposed of, as numerous references will be found to them
in my published papers; curiously enough, not long back I
referredin a paper to opinions of von Waltershausen which are
diametrically opposed to those held by Mr, Mallet; in the
Geological Magazine for 1867, p. 227, references will be found to
the other three works. If Mr. Mallct’s knowledge of recent
petrology is based upon ‘‘Blum’s Handbuch der Lithologie,”
which he recommends “above all,” I would remind him that
this work, although a very excellent one when it was written in
1859, is now quite antiquated, this branch of mineralogica
science being then, as it were, only in its cradle as compared
to the great advances which have been made during the last
eight or ten years: “von Waltershausen vulkanische Gesteine”
appeared still earlier, in 1853.

T would remark that neither in this communication, nor in my
review, was it the intention to take into consideration Mr.
Mallet’s theory of volcanic energy, and it was only alluded to
because, in his introductory sketch, he so altogether overlooked
those explanations which, notwithstanding his reply, will still be
demanded by chemists, mineralogists, and geologists, before
they can accept his views ; I still object most strongly to the
tone and style of his introductory sketch, and I am not alone
in doing so.

Thornton Cottage, Aug 8. Davip Fores

Explosion of Chlorine and Hydrogen
Some time ago, being desirous of showing a class the explo-

| sion of chlorine and hydrogen by artificial light, I devised a

simple method which was perfectly successful., Equal volumes
of the two gases, prepared separately by the usual methods, were

364

NATURE

| Sept. 4, 1873

mixed ina stout test tube and confined by a greased cork. This
was placed upright on a little wooden stand, and kept in its place
by a brass clip. About an inch of magnesium ribbon was sus-
pended in a small tin shade by means of a wire clip. The
magnesium being placed near the tube and lighted, the gases
united with a report, jerking the cork to the ceiling, but in no
case breaking the tube. W.

A NEW BUBALE, FROM ABYSSINIA

eo British Museum has just received a series of skins

of a new Bubale from Abyssinia called Tora. It is
like the Hartibeest for having a white patch on the rump,
and white inside the ears, but it is without any black on
the face or on the outer side of the limbs. It is of a
bright pale bay colour, with black tuft on the tail, and the
horns are much more slender than in the Hartibeest. I
propose to call it Alcephalus tora.

J. E. Grey

FROM AMERICA TO ENGLAND BY BALLOON

See appears every likelihood that before the end

of the year a feat will be attempted which seems to
have been first seriously proposed thirty years ago by
Prof. Wise, an American aéronaut, who is now making
preparations to cross the Atlantic to England in a
monster balloon, The American correspondent of the
Standard has given full details of the elaborate construc-
tion of this balloon, and states the reasons which inspire
Prof. Wise with unhesitating confidence that he will be
able successfully to accomplish his aérial voyage.

The balloon, when completed, will be 160 ft. high, and
the globe will be over 1ooft.in diameter. It will be able
to lift from the ground, including its own weight, 14,000
pounds, and will have a net carrying capacity for passen-
gers and ballast of 6,900 pounds. It will contain 600,000
cubic feet of illuminating gas, though only 400,000 feet
will be put into it to allow for expansion in the higher
regions of the atmosphere. The other details of con-
struction are most elaborate, and every precaution seems
to be taken to insure success and to provide for the safety
of the four persons who are bold enough to risk their lives
to gratify their curiosity and endeavour to increase the
sum of human knowledge. The four voyagers will be
Prof. Wise, Mr. Donaldson, an agent of the Dazly Graphic,
and a skilled mariner—for a copper-fastened cedar life-
boat, 22 ft. long and 43 ft. beam, forms part of the appurte-
nances,

The hypothesis on which the enterprise is pro-
jected, is that there is a prevailing east-going current
of air at an attainable elevation, in which a balloon
can pass eastward from the American continent to
Europe. The current is believed to be half-a-mile
or more above the surface of the earth, and to move at
the rate of from 50 to 150 miles an hour. It was a
knowledge of this current that made Mr, Charles Green,
the celebrated English aéronaut, say, in 1840, that he
should start from America rather than from England to
traverse the Atlantic ina balloon. The cause of the
current is less definitely known than the fact. A French
savant attributes it to “a decrease of participation in the
rapidity of the rotary motion of theearth.” Prof. Wise
believes that this upper current of air, in the temperate
zones, moves from west to east, because of the mingling
of the south-west and north-west trade-winds in their
circuits, in accordance with the laws of temperature and
the aérial motion of the earth. The two currents, he
believes, slide over each other, and the balloonist who
knows his business can strike such a point as will carry
him eastward, as it were, between them. That is to say,
the zone lying between the 35th and 36th parallels is “a
nodal zone,” in which the south-west and north-west
winds induce an intermediate current which moves nearly

due east. In this highway the motion is about a hundred
miles an hour.

The theory of the east-going current seems to be pretty
well admitted. The direct experience which bears most
strongly upon it is limited. There are three memorable
balloon trips which are noteworthy. The current seems
to set persistently eastward, deflécted slightly towards the
north by the rush of equatorial air towards the north.
Prof. Wise, in 1859, in his trip from St. Louis to Jeffer-
son county, in the State of New York, found the current
almost due east ; he travelled in balloon 1,156 miles in
19 hours. The speed here was only 61 miles an hour ;
but this can be accounted for. The great balloon voyage
made by Nadar from Paris to Hanover was almost due
eastward. This journey of 600 miles was made in about
six hours—about a hundred miles an hour, although it
was over the uneven surface of the Continent, diversified
by hill, vale, stream, and so on. In the trip of Mr.
Green, from London to Wellburg, in Nassau, the journey
was about 600 miles, and was performed at the rate of
about a hundred miles an hour, and there were the British
Channel and other irregularities in the way of smooth
sailing.

On the other hand, however, Mr. Glaisher in his experi-
ments, in consequence of what Mr. Green had stated with
regard to the constant prevalence of a current from the
west, paid special attention to this point, and in his
reports to the British Association in 1863 and 1864,*
collected together the different directions in which the
balloon had moved at different heights in his several
ascents. From these it appears that the direction of the
wind was quite as capricious at heights exceeding 5,000 ft.
as it is on the surface of the earth, In Mr, Glaishers
winter ascents he did generally meet with a current from
the south-west, certainly ; but the number of such ascents
was not great, and they were not to sufficient elevations.
to afford very trustworthy results. It is certain, however,
that if there existed over England anything like a current
of air constant in direction, it must have manifested itself
distinctly in the course of Mr. Glaisher’s thirty ascents,
in all of which the direction of the wind at different eleva-
tions was a subject of careful observation.

Again, Prof. Newton of Yale College has written a
letter to a recent number of the Dazly Graphic, in which,
from the observed behaviour of the luminous trains some-
times left by the brighter meteors at from forty to seventy
miles high, he draws certain inferences which do not seem
altogether favourable to Prof. Wise’s theories. What
these inferences are will be seen from the conclusion of
his letter :—

“We have, then, at the do¢/om of the atmosphere, in-
constant winds. We have. just above us strata of air
moving in diverse directions, for the lower clouds may
move one way, the upper clouds another, while at the
surface the winds may perhaps blowin a third. At two
islands at short distances from each other we often have
different winds. ,

“Again, we have for air near the top of the atmo-
sphere, at least so high up that the density is exceedingly
small, this fact, that lines (usually inclined to the horizon)
only five or ten miles long almost always have their ends
in air that is moving in different directions,

“ Between the highest cloud and the lowest meteor trains —
lies an unknown region, It may be that here are uniform
westerly winds. In the absence of direct observation
neither this nor the contrary may be asserted. But it
seems to me more rational to suppose that the complex
system of currents at the bottom of the atmosphere is in ©
direct connection with that at the top, and that there is a
like complex system of currents and winds throughout
the intermediate space. Of course, the general drifting of
the air in the temperate zone to the east is unquestioned.

Prof. Joseph Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution,

* British Association Reports, 863, p. 507, and 1864, p. 313.

NATURE

365

who has had thirty years of observation in this direction,
says :—

: CAL the observations that have been made in the
motions of the atmosphere, as well as the deductions from
theoretical considerations, lead to the conclusion that the
resultant motion of the air around the whole earth, within
the temperate zones, especially about the middle of them,
is from west to east. Prof. Watson, the distinguished
astronomer of the Michigan University, writes, ‘1 beg to
say that there ought to be a strong current of air moving
eastward in the upper regions, and that the experience of
aéronauts goes to show that what the theory predicts
actually exists. It seems to me quite possible to make
an aérial voyage to Europe, and with great rapidity.’
William H. Wahl, secretary of the Franklin Institute at
Philadelphia, writes, ‘I believe that, generally, Prof.
Wise’s proposition, concerning the existence of the ele-

' vated easterly current, is correct, and the same view is

entertained upon theoretical grounds by meteorologists.’
To the same effect writes Prof. Brocklesby, of Trinity
College, author of ‘Elements of Meteorology,’ a work
recognised as the best elementary text-book on the
subject.”

Still Prof. Henry is by no means enthusiastically in
favour of seeing the dangerous voyage undertaken ; he
speaks of it as at the best extremely hazardous, and
would prefer that some one else in whom he is less in-
terested than he is in Prof. Wise would undertake the
risk. His letter to Mr. Wise, in which he thus speaks,
is worth quoting for its meteorological value. He says—

“T have no doubt of the fact that, if your balloon can
be sustained in the air sufficiently long, a voyage might
be made across the Atlantic ; but this is the point which,
it would appear to me, from my partial knowledge of
what has been accomplished in the art of ballooning, is
yet to be satisfactorily established. No one, however,
has had more experience in the art than yourself, and you
ought not to venture on the hazardous voyage without the
fullest assurance that the balloon can be sustained at the
requisite elevation for, say, ten days.

““T think it probable that over the ocean at a consider-
able elevation, the tendency to meet adverse currents will
be less than over the land ; on the other hand, however,
there will be a chance of meeting a cyclone, which might
carry you around a circle of several thousand miles, and
throw you back over the coast of the United States, since
you would be most likely to meet the northern portion of

-the great whirl, which would be moving in the western

direction, the only possible escape from which would be
by ascending to a very high elevation. The higher tem-
perature of the Gulf Stream tends to produce an ascent
of air above it during the colder months of the year, but
in summer this effect would scarcely be perceptible.

“Your remark in regard to the greater velocity of the
easterly motion of the balloon at night is in accordance
with meteorological principles, since at this period the
unequal heating of the earth by the direct rays of the sun
does not take place, and hence adverse currents are not
as frequent. The cooling of the atmosphere in that part
of the earth which is in the shadow will tend to produce
at the surface of the earth, after sunset, a westerly current,
while at a certain elevation above the earth, the current
would at the same time be in an opposite direction. In
the morning, just before and after sunrise, the current at
the surface of the earth, produced by the cooling, would
be eastward, while that in the atmosphere above would
be westward.”

There can beno doubt that this daring expedition,
whether it descends without mishap on the shores of
Europe, or comes to grief in the middle of the Atlantic,
will add something to our knowledge of the atmosphere ;
but many will no doubt think that all the knowledge that
will be acquired by this sensational and hazardous
method might be acquired by safer and more ordinary

methods. We certainly, with all our heart, wish the
enterprise complete success; but we think it very
pertinent to refer to some remarks on the project in Le
Nature by the experienced balloonist, M. G. Tissandier,
After referring to the theory of the easterly current in the
atmosphere, M. Tissandier says, “We leave to the
aéronaut all the responsibility of this hypothesis, which
appears to us to be based upon vague conjectures ; we
should have a little more confidence in the resources
which he expects to find above the Gulf Stream. This
warm river, which traverses the extent of the Atlantic,
should draw along with it a current of air, which the
aérial navigator might take advantage of.

“We do not doubt the good faith of the aéronaut, who
has already proved himself to be possessed of boldness
and courage, but we believe he has not maturely con-
sidered the problem he proposes to solve. Togo from
New York to England, the aéronaut must travel a space
of about 5,500 kilometres. Suppose that exceptional good
fortune favours him, that a favourable wind, of mean
intensity, having a speed of ten metres per second, blew
regularly from west to east, without deviation, he must
necessarily sojourn in the atmosphere six or seven days at
the least, since the distance traversed in twenty-four hours
will be, according to our hypothesis, 864 kilometres. But
can an aérostat, no matter how voluminous it may be,
constructed under existing conditions, and notwithstand-
ing its complete impermeability, remain in the atmosphere
for seven days? To this we reply, with the utmost confi-
dence, in the negative. In fact, when a balloon quits the
earth, as it rises a part of the enclosed gas is at once ex-
pelled by the dilatation due to the diminished pressure
of the atmosphere ; but the aérostat soon plunges into
regions where the temperature is much lower than that of
the strata of terrestrial air which it has left. The cold
contracts the gas, the balloon loses its ascending power
and descends. To maintain it at the level it has reached,
it is necessary to diminish the weight, and the aéronaut
throws out ballast. If he passa first night at great alti-
tude, it is certain that he will be thus obliged almost con-
tinually to lighten his craft. Next morning, as the sun
rises, the bright burning rays heat the gas contained in
the aérostat. The balloon, which had partly collapsed
during the night, begins to fill out, the loose material
stretches like the head of a drum, and it mounts into the
higher regions of the atmosphere. It is now that the
aéronaut will feel the want of a portion of the ballast he
was obliged to cast away during the night. If the sun is
hot, the balloon will rise so high that it will be necessary
to moderate its ascent by letting off some of the gas.
During the second night the reverse process takes place.
This time the aéronaut has no longer the same
resources as before ; the ballast, which is his life, is being
continually exhausted. I willingly admit he may have
sufficient for the second and even for the third night; but
will he have enough for the sixth and seventh night, if
the differences of temperature of day and night are con-
siderable, as is probable? The moment will soon come
when the sacks of sand will be empty ; the balloon will
descend without any means being able to hold it back,
But instead of encountering a hospitable soil, it strikes
against the crest of the waves. The anchor instead of
biting, will plunge in vain in the waters ; if the wind is
violent, in spite of their life-boat, the voyagers may be
prepared for a most horrible fate. The aérostat will be
piteously raised by the wind, and the terrified train will
shoot from wave to wave over the surface of the ocean.
Unusually clever will be the men carried along by such a
force, if they could manage to find the means of detach-
ing the life-boat.”

It is certainly true that it would be very difficult to
sustain a balloon at a considerable elevation for six days
(if the height of the balloon is a matter of indifference,
the guide rope as used by Green would be quite sufficient

366

NATURE

to answer this purpose, even with an ordinary balloon),
but we think the management of the balloon may be very
well left to Prof. Wise, whose opinion on all practical
points of aérostation is probably of more value than that
of any other man living. Of all the persons who have
devoted themselves professionally to ballooning as a
source of income, Prof. Wise is certainly the ablest, and
his work on Aéronautics shows him to be possessed of
considerable scientific claims. The project could not,
therefore, be in better hands ; and considering the origi-
nality and boldness displayed by Prof. Wise in several of
his very numerous ascents, there is every reason to believe
that nothing will be left undone to bring it to a successful
issue. In all the technical matters relating to the balloon,
therefore, Prof. Wise may be well trusted to take the best
course ; and with regard to the meteorological questions
involved by consulting not only American meteorologists
but also Mr. Glaisher and other gentlemen who have
studied the question of the winds in relation to aérostation,
it is clear that-he intends to leave no stone unturned to
obtain the best information attainable, and, at all events,
merit success.

MAYNE’S SIDEREAL DIAL

HIS instrument consists of two moveable circles,
which may be made of brass or pasteboard, placed
in a common watch-case, The lower and outer one shows
the hours doubled up to XXIV., and divided into
quarters. The upper one, which is also inner, shows the
sixty minutes, 5, 10, &c. This circle is a narrow one,
and works on the plain inmost rim of the lower one, so as
to admit of the hours being seen outside the minutes.

Each circle being set to show at the top of the case,
where the XII. of the watch comes, the “Sidereal Time —
at Mean Noon” (given in the Nautical Almanack for each
day in the year), the watch is placed in the case, and will
continue to show the sidereal time corresponding to mean
time approximately for six hours, after which interval the
minute circle should be Auwt ox one minute to ensure
greater exactness.

This will be found a near enough approximation for the
amateur observer, using an equatorial instrument, and
this simple method will be found to save an infinite
amount of trouble zz finding objects whose R.A. ts re-

corded in a catalogue, to those who, like the inventor, are
unprovided with a sidereal clock.

Mr. Norman Lockyer has suggested as an improve-
ment, the use of a watch with the seconds’ hand in the
centre ; this would necessitate a third, and still inner
circle for the sixty seconds, by which, indeed, subject
to an hourly correction of, say ten seconds being
Z~ut on, the dial would be rendered accurate enough
for rough transit observations; and this circle and
seconds hand have been added to the original design
in the woodcut, where the dial is set to V. (}) 47°10, the
Sidereal Time at Mean Noon for the 18th June, 1873, the
hands of the watch representing IV. (4) 32°12, which gives
the corresponding Sidereal Time X. 19°22 (or applying the
last-named correction, say 45 seconds for 43 hours), X,
20°7.

It is as well perhaps, though scarcely needful, to add
(for no one would be likely to make a mistake of 12 hours)
that as the dial in the Example also reads XVII. (?) 47"10,
and as the mean time by the watch may be A.M. or P.M.,

the observer should bear in mind which half of the 24
hours, both astronomical and mean, he is working in, )
The third or seconds circle is not indispensable, as the
seconds hand, even in the ordinary position, can be made
to fulfil its object, by setting it at noon to the Sidereal
Second on the meridian ; thus, in the Example, it would
be set to 10, instead of to Zero, when the dial is set at
noon, the correction for the equivalent of the lapsed in-
terval being applied subsequently as required. But this
involves altering the watch, which is objectionable ; the
use of the third, or szconds’ circle, is therefore recom-
mended, for although the seconds’ hand, as placed in
most watches, would not actually Aoznt to the Sidereal
second, it is easy to refer the Joszdion of the mean second
to the corresponding part of the watch’s face, where the -
third circle can be read off at once.

ASHTON MAYNE, Captain,
Bombay Staff Corps,
Care of Messrs. Henry S, King & Co.,
65, Cornhill, London, E.C.

ee oe a ore:

ease Se ee a, eee

al

ee AA

Sept. 4, 1873]

NATURE

367

ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND
MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF
WEIGHT AND MEASURE *

IV.
THE IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD

Sao immediate superintendence of the construction
of the new standard yard was entrusted, in the
first instance, to Mr. Baily, who conducted all the pre-
liminary investigations and experiments. After his death
in August 1844, it was undertaken by Mr. Sheepshanks,
by whom and under whose direction by far the largest
proportion of the actual operations was carried out, and
all the comparing operations of the several standards of
length made, up to the period of his death in August
1855. By this time the work was so far completed that
not a single additional comparison of line measures was
required. The detailed account of the construction of
the new standard yard, and its verified copies, was then
undertaken by the Astronomer Royal, with the aid of the
documents left by Mr. Baily and Mr. Sheepshanks ; and
the winding-up of the*work of the Commission, and the

Each of these standard yards consisted of a solid brass
bar 1°05 inch square in section, and 39°73 inches long.
Near each end of the upper surface gold pins or studs
ol inch in diameter were inserted, and points or dots
were marked upon the gold to determine the length of
the yard. The comparing apparatus in use at that
period consisted of a beam compass with two fine
measuring points, which could be adjusted to the dots on
the standard measures under comparison. But the re-
sult of numerous comparisons of this kind made from
time to time previously to the destruction of the standard
in 1834, had been to leave the edges of the holes in-
dented and irregularly worn away, so that the original
centre was very difficult to ascertain. Mr. Baily, who
had made some comparisons with this standard yard
in the early part of the year 1834, describes the holes as
appearing, under a microscope, like the miniature crater
of a volcano.

The length of the standard yard of 1758, had been
based upon that of the then existing Exchequer standard
yard, which had been constructed in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth in 1588, and upon the length of the Koyal
Society’s standard yard, constructed as a scientific
standard measure in 1742. It had been determined, upon

* Continued from p. 329.

distribution of the scientifically verified copies of the
standards also devolved upon the Astronomer Royal, as
the chairman. The magnitude of the operations may be
estimated from the fact of the number of micrometer
readings for all the comparisons exceeding two hundred
thousand; and amongst the operations it was found
necessary to construct an entirely new system of ther-
mometers. It should not be forgotten that the scientific
gentlemen who bestowed so much of their valuable time,
attention, and labour, during several years upon the
experiments and observations for the important object of
the restoration of the national standard of length, de-
clined to accept any pecuniary remuneration.

_ The length of the new standard yard was determined
in a similar manner to the determination of the weight of
the new standard pound, by taking the mean length of
the most authoritative standards which constituted the
best primary evidence of the lost standard yard.

This standard measure of length had been constructed
by Bird, in 1760, under the directions of the Committee
of the House of Commons on Weights and Measures,
first appointed in 1758. Its length was taken from a
similar yard which had been constructed by Bird in 1758.

Fic. 8.—Standard Winchester Pushel of Henry VII } size.

comparison, to agree as nearly as possible with these two
authoritative measures of a yard.

The two standard bars of 1758 and 1760 were found
amongst the ruins of the Houses of Parliament, but they
were too much injured to indicate the measure of a yard
which had been marked upon them,

Bird’s standard yard of 1760 had been left in the
custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, and no
legal authority was given to it as a standard of length
until the passing of the Act 5 Geo. IV. C. 74, in 1824,
already referred to. Meanwhile, other scientific standards
of length had been constructed which may now be noticed.

In 1785, the first geodesical operations were begun,
upon which the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom
has since been founded, by General Roy’s measurement
of the base on Hounslow Heath. The standard used in
the first instance for that purpose was that known as
General Roy’s scale, 42 inches in length, and constructed
by Mr. Bird. This scale was based, not on the legal
Exchequer Standard, but upon the Royal Society’s scale,
with which the whole length of the first 36 inches of
General Roy’s scale was compared, this constituting the
Ordnance yard. Two standard yards of superior con-
struction, belonging to the Ordnance Department,
were placed at the disposal of the Standards Commission.

368

NATURE

These were bars of iron, and line standards, the lines
being marked on gold pins at mid-depth of the bar,
notches being cut in it for that purpose. They had been
compared with the imperial standard in 1834, and a
statement of their comparison was published in 1847
in the account of the measurement of the base at Lough
Foyle.

Towards the close of the century, some important
scientific operations for the improvement of the standards
were undertaken by Sir George Shuckburgh. In 1796, a
new standard measure subdivided in fine lines, and
since known as “ Shuckburgh’s scale,” was constructed
under his direction, by Mr. Troughton, together with a
new comparing apparatus carrying micrometer micro-
scropes. This is stated to have been the first occasion
on which this mode of optical comparison was employed,
being substituted for the beam compasses previously
used. The Shuckburgh scale, which is now in the posses-
sion of the Royal Society, consists of a brass bar 67}
inches long, 1°4 in. wide, and 0'42 in. thick, It is a scale
of 5 feet, divided by lines into feet, inches, and tenths of
inches, each inch being numbered. It was adopted by
the Standards Commission of 1819 as the scientific
standard of length, as distinguished from the legal
standard of the Exchequer. The length of the yard was
laid down on the Shuckburgh scale from Bird’s standard,
and it had also been accurately compared with each of
the other standard yards previously mentioned, and their
lengths had been transferred by beam compasses to the
Shuckburgh bar.

In pursuance of the recommendation of the Royal
Commission of Weights and Meastires appointed in 1819,
and of the Act of 1824, passed to carry their recommen-
dations into effect, a new Exchequer standard yard for
regulating commercial measures of length was constructed
under Capt. Kater’s superintendence. It was not, how-
ever, laid down from the legal standard yard, which,
together with the legal standard pound, remained in the
’ custody of the Clerk of the House of Commons, but from
the length 1—36 in. of the Shuckburgh scale, which was
considered by Capt. Kater to be identical with the impe-
rial standard.

The official standard yard constructed for the Ex-
chequer, under Capt. Kater’s superintendence, in 1824,
and intended for the verification of the local standard
yards used by inspectors for comparing trade measures,
consists of a slender brass rod with two wooden handles,
as an auxiliary end measure, and a bed measure, being a
bar of brass one inch square with rectangular steel ter-
minations of the same width projecting above the surface
ofthe bar. The distance between the interior faces of
the steel terminations is intended to be equal to the length
of the imperial yard. This yard bed and rod were
used together from 1825 to 1870, for verifying all the local
standard yards of similar though ruder construction. A
standard yard, with the legal subdivisions marked upon it,
and of improved construction, having a convenient com-
paring apparatus attached to it, has since been substi-
tuted, and is now used in the Standards Department.

Four other standard yards of more scientific charac-
ter were also made under Capt. Kater’s directions,
and are now in the Standards Office. These bars of
brass are of the same width and thickness as the Shuck-
burgh Scale, and have the length of the yard defined by fine
points upon gold studs in the middle axis of the bar, the
thickness of the bar being reduced at its extremities one-
half with this object. All these standard yards were con-
structed by Dollond. By an ingenious contrivance the
point at one end of the bar, not being placed exactly in
the centre of the circular gold stud, was made susceptible
of adjustment, by turning the stud round ; and after final
adjustment of each yard and repeated comparisons with
the Shuckburgh Scale, no perceptible error could be de-
tected in any of them. A similar standard measure made

for the Royal Society in 1831 was considered by the Com-
mission to be the most favourable type of Kater’s yard.
Having thus described the principal standard yard
measures then existing, we may return to the operations
of the Standards Commission. For determining the true
length of the new standard yard, a provisional standard
yard was employed by Mr. SHéepshanks, This was a
new brass bar, called by him ‘Brass 2,” and was accu-
rately compared by him with the standards deemed
to be the most authoritative, and which had been dz

rectly compared with the lost standard, viz. Shuckburgh’s —

scale, Kater's yard made for the Royal Society, and the
two Ordnance yards.
petial standard were as follows :—

In.
Brass bar 2 = 36'000084 by comparison with Shuckburgh scale o-36 in.
4) = 36000280 oe 33 zo-46 in.
3) = 36°000229 i Kater’s Yard of 1831.
iz Ordnance Yard, No. 1.
3) = 36'000275 ” ” No. 2.

31 = 36°000234 by mean of all.

_Mr. Sheepshanks preferred 36'00025, as being suffi-

Fic. 9.—Standard Wine Gallon of Queen Anne, } size.

ciently near the truth, and in constructing the new stan-
dard, he assumed as the basis of his proceedings—
Brass 2 = 36'00025 in. of lost imperial standard, at 62°
Fahr., and this conclusion met with the assent of the
Commission.
In the construction of the new standard of length, the
following decisions were made by the Commission :—

1. The length of one yard to be the standard unit of ©

length.

2. After considering whether the measure of length
should be defined by the whole length of the bar, that is
to say, an evd-standard, or by the distance between either

two points or two lines marked upon the bar, a /ime-stan- —

dard was adopted in preference.
3. For the material of the bar, gun metal or bronze
composed of

Copper . : 3 16 parts
Tin ° . F » > hig
Zinc - . ‘ : * pik

”

was adopted after a series of experiments by Mr. Baily,
and was recommended by him as containing the pro-
perties most essential for the construction of a standard
intended to last through many ages, viz., almost perfect
immunity from rust, with proved elasticity and rigidity.

| Sep. 4, 1873,

The results in terms of the lost im-

,

Ft

Sept. 4, 1873]

The test bar of this alloy, when loaded at the centre with
54 cwt., broke without bending.

4. The form of the standard to bea solid bar 38 in.
long, and 1 in. square in section. The measure of a yard
to be defined by the distance between two fine lines
perpendicular to the axis of the bar, narked upon gold
studs at the bottom of cylindrical holes drilled from the
upper surface to the mid-depth of the bar.

The gun-metal, or bronze, thus adopted for the new
standard, has since been known as “ Baily’s metal,” and
this designation is engraved upon the Imperial standard

ard.

‘4 In order to select the most perfect specimen for the
new standard of length, 4o line-standard yards were con-
structed of Baily’s metal, and one of these was finally
selected as the Imperial standard, not only from its repre-
senting, with the greatest precision, the assumed length
of the lost standard yard, but also from the clearness of
its defining lines, and from its general good workmanship.
Four of the remaining yards nearest in length to the
new standard were selected as Parliamentary copies, and
deposited in the same places as the Parliamentary copies
of the standard pound already mentioned; and the rest
were in like manner distributed amongst different
countries and public institutions in this country.

Several other similar line-standard yards were also
constructed for experimental purposes, being accurately
verified by Mr. Sheepshanks, and were disposed of in like
manner, viz.

The defining terminations of these end-bars consist of
a plug of agate, slightly conical and shrunk into a
similar conical hole at each end of the middle axis of the
bar. The ends of the bars are ground and polished
in a spherical form, the centre of the spherical surface
being the middle of the bar.

All the numerous comparisons of the standard yards
were made by Mr. Sheepshanks in one of the lower
cellars at Somerset House, under the apartments of the
Royal Astronomical Society, where the new micro-
metrical comparing apparatus constructed for the
purpose by Messrs. Troughton and Simms, was fixed.

A full description of the comparing apparatus will be
given under head V. of Weighing and Measuring
Instruments, and their Use.

The Commission for restoration of the standards having
terminated their labours, recommended in their final re-
port that the new imperial standards of the yard and
pound be deposited at the Exchequer Office, there to be
preserved under such reguiations as to Parliament might
appear fitting. In expressing their adherence to the re-
commendation of the Committee of 1841 that no reference
should be made to natural elements for the values repre-
sented by the standards of weight and measure, they also
recommended that so much of the Act 5 Geo. IV.c. 74, as
provided for the restoration of the standards in the man-
ner therein provided be repealed, and that the standards
should in no way be defined by reference to any natural
basis, such as the length of a degree of the meridian on
the earth’s surface in an assigned latitude, or the length
of a pendulum vibrating seconds in a specified place.
‘They considered the ascertaining of the earth’s dimen-
sions and the length of the seconds pendulum in terms of
the standard of length, and the determination of the
weight of a certain volume of water in terms of the stan-
dard of weight, as scientific problems of the highest im-
portance, to the solution of which they trusted that Her
Majesty’s Government would always give their most
liberal assistance, but they did not urge them on the
sae as connected with the conservation of stan-

ards.

These recommendations were carried into effect by the
Act of 1855, 18 and 19 Vict. c. 72, for legalising and
preserving the restored standards of length and weight,
sec. I of which repealed the provisions of the Act of 1824

NATURE

369

concerning the restoration of the standards by reference
to the pendulum and to the weight of a cubic inch of
water.

Under the provisions of the Act of 1855, the imperial
standards were deposited in 1855, in the office of the
Exchequer. On the consolidation of the ancient Office
of the Exchequer with the Audit Office in 1866, and the
creation of the Standards Department of the Board of
Trade, under the Standards Act, 1866, 29 and 30 Vict.
c. 82, the custody of the imperial standards was trans-
ferred to the Warden of the Standards, the head of the
new Standards Department, and the imperial standards
are now deposited in a fireproof iron chest in the strong
room in the basement of the Standards Office, which has
been specially adapted for their safe preservation. Pro-
vision is contained in the Act for the comparison once in
every ten years of the three Parliamentary copies of the
imperial standards deposited at the Royal Mint, in charge
of the Royal Society, and in the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, respectively, withthe imperial standards of length and
weight, and with each other. Under this Act new scien-
tific duties were also imposed upon the Standards Depart-
ment, the Warden of the Standards being charged with
conducting all such comparisons, verifications, and other
operations with reference to standards of length, weight,
or capacity, in aid of scientific researches or otherwise,
as may be required.

In connection with the question of the derivation of a
standard unit of length from a natural constant to be
found in the ascertained dimensions of the earth, it may
be added that Sir John Herschel has pointed out the fact
of the length of the polar axis having been determined,
from the combined results of all the scientific measure-
ments of arcs of the meridian, to be equal to 500,482,296
inches of our imperial standard yard, and that if one
five-hundred-millionth part of the polar axis were adopted
as a new standard unit, to be called the “ geometrical
inch,” it would differ from the imperial inch less than one-
thousandth part of aninch ; a difference so small as not to
be measured by any ordinary method, and only by the
aid of the nicest scientific instruments. For all “ ordi-
nary practical purposes,” the geometrical inch would be
identical with the imperial inch ; whilst for high scientific
measurements for astronomical purposes, it would connect
by an unbroken numerical chain the small units with
which mortals are conversant in their constructions and
operations with the great features of nature, and more
especially with those greater units in the measurements
of the universe with which astronomy brings us in rela-
tion. It would also produce a more exact ratio between
our units of length and weight, the avoirdupois ounce
being nearly a “ geometrical ounce,” or one-thousandth
part of the weight of a geometrical cubic foot of distilled
water. That is to say, whilst the existing legal weight of a
cubic foot of distilled water is 997°136 ounces, the weight
ofa geometrical cubic foot of water would be 998" ounces.
And as the imperial half-pint is the measure of ten ounces
of distilled water, the ratios of these units of length,
weight, and capacity would thus be brought within such
practical limits of precision as would meet every possible
requirement of commercial exigency.

Ill.—Derived Units and Multiples and Parts of Imperial
Standard Units.

THE IMPERIAL STANDARD GALLON AND BUSHEL.

With respect to measures of capacity, the sole unit of
all imperial measures of capacity, established by the
Act of 1824 is the standard gallon, containing 10 lbs.
avoirdupois of distilled water, weighed against brass
weights in air at the temperature of 62° Fahr., the baro-
meter being at 30 inches. From the imperial standard
gallon is derived the imperial bushel of 8 gallons, the
standard of capacity for dry goods commonly sold by
heaped measure, or incapable of being striken. Various

37°

units of measures of capacity had been previously estab-
lished in this country at different periods. In Magna
Charta, three such units are recited, “there shall be
throughout our realm, one measure of wine, one measure
of ale, and one measure of corn.” Of these, the most
ancient known was the Winchester corn bushel, of the
capacity of about 2150°42 cubic inches, together with the
Winchester corn gallon of 272} cubic inches. We have
no record of any other standard measures of capacity
being actually constructed, until the standard ale gallon of
282 cubic inches was added by Queen Elizabeth, and the
standard wine gallon of 231 cubic inches by Queen Anne.
All these old standard measures were discontinued as
legal measures in 1824, and the new imperial standard
gallon of 272°274 cubic inches, and the bushel of 2218°191
cubic inches, constructed and verified under Capt. Kater’s
superintendence, have since continued to be the standard
ans of imperial measure for liquids and for dry commo-
ities,

The Exchequer standards of the imperial gallon and
bushel formed part of the complete series of secondary
standards constructed and accurately verified under
Kater’s superintendence in 1824, These standards, to-
gether with other secondary standards, subsequently
legalised, have served for regulating all the commercial
weights and measures of Great Britain and her colonies
and dependencies from 1824 up to the present time. The
Exchequer standards were transferred to the Standards
Department of the Board of Trade in pursuance of the
Standards Act, 1866.

H. W. CHISHOLM
(To be continued.)

THE FRENCH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

ee session of this young Association which has just

been concluded at Lyons appears to have been alto-
gether successful, and according to the Reports read
the Association is in an exceedingly prosperous condition,

both as to number of members, income, and the carrying

out of the scientific aims which it has in view. The
number of members who attended the Lyons Congress
was very satisfactory. The capital fund at the end of 1872
was 136,464 francs, and the income for 1873 is expected
to be 24,000 francs. One of the aims of the Association
is to give an impulse to Science in the provinces, and, as
we recorded some time ago, the members of the Associa-
tion resident about Bordeaux have formed a local asso-
ciation, and it is hoped a similar result will follow in the
case of each town where the yearly meetings are held.
The Association has received invitations for its next
session from various French cities, and it has been
decided to hold the meeting of 1874 at Lille. M. Wurtz
was elected President for the ensuing year.

The accounts which have come to hand are mainly
concerned with the work done in the Medical Section.
Last week we gave a few extracts from the Presidential
Address of M. De Quatrefages, and shortly we hope
to be able to give a résumé of the work done in
the various sections, as well as of the more important
public lectures. Meantime we shall give a brief sketch
of the general work which has been done.

In the general meetings, Dr. Blanc, an Indian military
surgeon, read an important paper “on the means of
arresting the propagation of cholera,” founded on
experiments made by himself, M. A. Gaudry, Professor
at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, gave a lecture on
a botanical subject. Dr. Bertillon also gave a
lecture on “ Demography,” ze. the Natural History of
Society. M. de Lesseps talked in a familiar and pleasant
way of the proposed railway across Central America.
M. F, Papillon read a paper on the connection between

NATURE

| in the Polar regions.

[Sepz. 4, 1873 |

the Sciences and Metaphysics, and the Abbé Ducrost
gave a lecture on the Prehistoric Station of Solutré,

The part of the Congress which is undoubtedly the
most attractive consists in the excursions and the public
lectures ; the former interest strangers, and the latter,
members. Besides the special excursions organised by
certain sections and parties of amembers, there have been
three general excursions—one to the prehistoric station of
Solutré ; a second to the sides of the plateau of Les
Dombes ; a third to the mines and furnaces of Voulte-sur-
Rhéne, in Ardéche, and a fourth, which set out last
Friday and was to last for two days, to Geneva and the
shores of its lake.

There have been three public lectures: the first was
given by M. Karl Vogt, of Geneva, on Volcanoes; the
second by M. Janssen, on the Physical Constitution of the
Sun; and the third by M. Aimé Girard, on the Recent
Progress of Industry. 4

NOTES

THE final arrangements for the Bradford meeting of the British —
Association are as follows :—The first General Meeting will be
held on Wednesday, Sept. 17, at 8 P.M. precisely, when Dr.
Carpenter, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., will resign the Chair, and the
President-Elect, Prof. W. A. Williamson, F.R.S., will assume ~
the presidency, and deliver an Address. On Thursday evening, ©
Sept. 11, at 8 p.M., a Soiree ; on Friday evening, Sept. 19. at
8.30 P.M., a discourse by Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., of ©
Manchester, on Coal and Coal Plants; on Saturday evening,
Sept. 20, a Lecture on Fuel to working men only, by Mr.
Siemens, F.R.S. ; on Monday evening, Sept. 22, at 8.30 P.M.,
a Discourse on Molecules, by Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S. ; on
Tuesday evening, Sept. 23, at 8 P.M., a Soiree ; on Wednesday, ~
Sept. 24, the concluding General Meeting will be held at 2.30
P.M., and in the evening a Grand Concert will be given in St.
George’s Hall, at 8 P.M. The excursions on Thursday,
Sept. 25, will be to Harrogate, Ripon, Studley, Bolton Abbey, —
Gordale Scarr, Malham, Clapham Caves, Settle Caves, and
Ingleboro’. Lists and prices of lodgings, and other general in-
formation will be given, on application at the Local Secretaries’
Office, \ Bradford. ;

Ir is said that a portion of the immense wealth of the late
eccentric Duke of Brunswick is to be devoted to the founding
of a Faculty of Medicine in Geneva. s .

Tue King of Prussia has conferred on Prof. Helmholtz the
Order of Merit for Science and Art.

THE October number of Letermann’s Mitteilungen will
contain an account of Professor Nordenskiéld’s Arctic Expe-
dition during 1872-3, in the direction of Spitzbergen, which has
not, geographically, been very successful. The steamer So/hem
reached Tromsé on August 6, and the following telegram of
that date has been received from Prof. Nordenskidld :—
“Just arrived here, all well. My resolution to undertake an-
other ice-journey towards the north after the sledge-journey
round North-east-land, has been rendered impracticable through
want of provisions, which has compelled us to return. Instead
of this we have undertaken extensive deep-sea dredgings as well
as botanical, magnetic, and geological researches. I bring
with me, besides other from various formations, very important
collections of Miocene flora, as well as of two formations which
belong to an older geological period hitherto altogether unknown
These collections throw new light upon
the prevailing flora and the climate of former periods, as well as
upon the changes which these have undergone,”

ACCORDING to the report of the Meteorological Department
an earthquake occurred at Nottingham at ten minutes to seven
o’clock on Friday morning last. :

NATURE

371

ay be expected,

Tue Berlin medical journals record the death, from cholera,
August 20, of Dr. Otto Obermeier. His death is supposed
have been the immediate consequence of his intense devotion
Science. Having too great confidence in his power of re-
sisting infection, in consequence of having not taken fever during

jis investigations on that disease, he kept in his bedroom patho-
logical specimens taken from persons who had died of cholera,
and also portions of their excreta ; and it is believed that in this
way he became infected. According to one account, he injected
some blood from cholera patients into his own vessels. He was
‘0 devoted to his inquiry that, after he had become aware of the
sondition in which he was, he made some microscopic examina-
tions on his own blood. His death occurred after an illness of
seven hours, in the thirty-first year of his age.

_ THE late Mr. John Stuart Mill has left property to the amount
of 14,0007, Of this he has left to any one university in Great
Britain or Ireland that shall be the first to open its degrees to
“women, 3,000/.; and to the same University a further sum of
,000/. to endow scholarships for female students exclusively.
His copyrights he bequeaths in trust to Mr. John Morley, to be

pplied in aid of some periodical publication which shall be open
to the expression of all opinions, and which shall have all its
articles signed with the names of the writers.

_ Tue planet No. 131, discovered by Prof. Peters, has been
named Vala.

No. 1,952 of the Astronomische Nachrichten contains the
following ephemeris of the one discovered by M. W. Tempel

-at Milan on July 3 last :—
"a R.A. South Declination.
1873. hsm, 5. ai he
Sept. 4 TENG) 14 38
Y m8 2.449. “0 15 26
A wy “2 a) gs 16 12
ge) een, 2 LOY 1s 16 54
+, 20 2) 6. 52 17 31
ESA ce, 2° 849 ...aeeOo eG
This ephemeris is by Signor J. V. Schiaparelli ; it is for oh.
Milan time. The same number of the Astronomische Nach-

richten contains a short article upon this comet by Mr. L. Schul-
hof, assistant at the Observatory of Vienna, jwherein he says,
“Tt does not admit of doubt that we have hereto do with
a "periodic comet of short revolution, the exact calculation of the
orbit of which I shali enter upon without delay.”

__ Two new comets have been recently discovered ; the one by
'M. Henry, at Paris, the other by M. Borelly, at Marseilles.

M. STEPHAN, the Director of the Marseilles Observatory,
hhas succeeded in re-finding Brorsen’s comet. The correction
of Mr. Plummer’s ephemeris is as follows :—

R.A. + 2h 7™
Dec.— 15’ 8"

WE understand that the Board of Examiners for the mining
district of South Durham, Whitby, and Cleveland allow candi-
dates for examination, under the New Mines Regulation Act, to
count one or two years passed at the College of Physica]
Science in Newcastle the same as the like period served under
indentures to a mining engineer, or as one or two years’ experi-
ence in a mining office. This offers a very great advantage to
young men who intend to devote themselves to the profession
of mining engineering.

admission to the courses of instruction under the Science and Art
Department :—Royal School of Mines, Jermyn Street, London :
William Hewitt, aged 21, teacher; C. S. Fleming, 20, assistant
teacher ; Samuel Barratt, 22, assistant teacher. Royal College
of Science, Dublin: Henry Louis, 17, student; Robert H.
Reilly, 18, student ; Thomas Arnall, 22, rule-maker.

A suM of 500/. having been placed at the disposal of the Council
of the Society of Arts, through Sir William Bodkin, byagentleman
who does not wish his name to appear, for promoting, by means
of prizes or otherwise, economy in the use of coal for domestic
purposes, the Council have decided to offer the following prizes :
Five prizes for carrying out the purpose of the donor, each prize
to consist of the Society’s medal and so0/. Testing-rooms will
be provided, in which the various competing articles may be
tested in sucession, each competitor having allotted to him in
turn a room and chimney, for a limited period, where he may fix
his apparatus for the purpose of its being tested by the judges
appointed by the Society of Arts, the same to be removed when
directed by the judges; such fixing and removal to be at the
cost of the competitor. The competing articles must be delivered
at the London International Exhibition, South Kensington, on
December 1, 1873, with a view to their being tested, and sub-
sequently shown in the Exhibition of 1874.

THE last number of the Sociely of Arts’ Fournal contains a
Report on Cooking Apparatus at the International Exhibition,
by Mr. G. W. Yapp.

Ir is stated that a new Literary Review will be published at
the beginning of next year, covering the same ground as the
Atheneum, the Academy,{and Notes and Queries. It will supply
a regular weekly account of English and foreign literature,
science, and learning, the fine arts and archzology, music, and
the drama. It is added that the proprietors have purchased all
rights in the Fortnightly Academy Fournal, and intend to make
that the scientific and learned part of the new paper, though
whether under the name of the Academy or some other name is
not yet determined.

A LIFE of Claparéde, with an admirable portrait, precedes his
posthumous work, entitled ‘‘ Recherches sur la structure des
Annélides Sédentaires,” which is published es the new volume
of the ‘‘ Memoires de la Société de Physique cc Genéve.”*

WE have received a little pamphlet containing a very interest-
ing account, by Mr. J. Logan Lobley, of the excursion of the
Geologists’ Association to the Malvern district during the 21st
and five following days of last month.

WE have received Reports of the meetings of the Eastbourne
Natural History Society for April 18 and May 23. At the
former meeting, a paper by Miss A. Woodhouse was read on
Odoxa moschatellina, and the Rey. A. K. Cherril read one ‘‘ On
Mosses.” At the latter meeting the following papers were read :—
“ The Orchidacez, with special reference to the species found
near Eastbourne,’ by Miss Hall and Miss A, Woodhouse ;
Ceratostoma Helvelle, by C.J. Muller ; and ‘‘ The Alluvial Beds
of the Wish,” by the Rev. E, S. Dewick, F.G.S.

A CORRESPONDENT writes us that he ‘has just obtained a
specimen of quartz with gold found at Wanlockhead, Dum-
friesshire. It is a fragment of a detached mass of quartz which
weighed about ten pounds, throughout which gold was diffused.
Gold has long been collected from the sand of some of the rivu-
lets at Wanlockhead and Leadhills, but no instance was before
known of gold having been found in its matrix. The specimen
which our correspondent has contains about as much gold as
might be equal to the third or fourth of a sovereign, along with

THE following candidates have been successful in obtaining brown iron ochre diffused over one of the surfaces of the
Royal Exhibitions of 50/. per annum for three years and free |

a Lest a

quartz,

372

A DESPATCH from Havana, dated August 19, states that Jate ad-
vices from Lima and Peru report a serious accident had occurred
sixty miles from that city. A body ofearth, estimated at 10,000,000
cubic yards, fell from a mountain side into a valley, severely
injuring a number of persons, and damming up a river, the
water of which had risen 109 feet above its usual height. En-
gineers were of opinion that the water would soon burst its
barriers, when it would rush towards Lima, sweeping every-
thing before it, and submerging the lower portion of the city.
Several towns in Chili had been greatly damaged by earth-
quakes.

As the result of a recent careful study of the drug Pareira
brava, Mr. Daniel Hanbury has discovered that, instead of its
being obtained from Cissampelos pareira, of the natural order
Menispermacee, the genuine Pareira brava is the stem and
root of a plant which he has identified with Chondrodendron
tomentosum of Ruiz and Payon. The drug of English com-
merce, however, is mostly of larger size than the root of Chon-
drodendyon and is of doubtful origin, the structure of the wood
being also that of the order Menispermacee.

UnpeEr the title of ‘‘ On Coal at Home and Abroad,” Messrs.
Longman have recently published in one volume the following
three articles, contributed to the Zdinburgh Review by the Rev.
J. R. Leifchild :—1. Consumption and Cost of Coal; 2, On the
Coalfields of North America and Great Britain ; 3. Fatal Accidents
in Coal Mines. The republication of these papers at the present
time is very opportune ; they will be found to contain a great
deal of information on the all-important ‘‘Coal question,” as
well as many interesting details concerning the working of coal
mines and the character and condition of the miners.

Zoo.ocists will find in Dr. Theodore Gill’s ‘‘ Synoptical
Tables of Characters of the Mammalia,” prepared for the Smith-
sonian Institution of Washington, an excellent, concise, and
accurate description of the characters of the families of the
Mammalia, in a form more scientific and manageable than any
yet published, at the same time that the merits of the most
modern suggestions are fully weighed. The biography of the
subject is also exhaustively treated.

Tue Brighton Aquarium is an institution which all biologists
undoubtedly look to as one from which much valuable in-
formation may be obtained on points connected with the habits
and peculiarities of the animals which it has such advantages in
retaining. The communications made public by its “ Consulting
Naturalist,” however, are of a character very different from what
we should expect from one so favourably placed. A fresh
arrival is thus announced :—‘‘ One_of the funniest little ‘cusses’
ever turned out of Nature’s workshop, in the shape of a seal,
made a bow to the public in the Brighton Aquarium a few days
ago.” This is followed, later on, bya guasi advertisement of the
concert given in the building, in which the’seal is playfully made
to do duty as the butt for pun and slang quotation.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include two Persian Sheep (Ovis aries), presented by
Mr. W. H. Shirley ; a Diamond Snake (Morelia spilotes) from
New South Wales, presented by Mr. H. Frieland ; two Robben
Island Snakes (Coronella phocarum), presented by the Rev. G.
H. Fisk ; two Chubb (Zeuciscus cephalus) and a Barbel (Barbus
vulgaris) presented by Mr, E. S. Wilson; two Ring-tailed
Lemurs (Zemur catta) from Madagascar; a King Parakeet
(Aprosmicius scapulatus) from New South Wales; a Black
Cuckoo (Zudynamys orientalis) from India, purchased; a
Weeper Capuchin (Cebus capucinus and a White-throated Sa:
pajou (C. Aygoleucus) from America, deposited.

NATURE

A POSSIBLE NEW METHOD OF ELECTRICAL
ILLUMINATION

qt will be in the recollection of the readers of the Yournal,
that, in April last, an analogy was pointed out between
sunlight and the electric light, and that certain conditions were
therein indicated as being most fayourable to that particular de_
velopment of light which would best bring out the separation o
the power producing the light from the place of its manifesta-
tion. Those conditions were the employment of magneto-elec
tricity, and the use of a closed incandescent conductor in an a .
mosphere which would not oxidise or otherwise affect the d
bility of the light-producing material. From the quotation from
the Russian paper Go/os which follows, it will be seen that the
results anticipated are even now in the course of realisation, and
all that practical men can do is, to wish the plan the success it
seems to deserve, and to wait the result of the further exhibitions
of its power in London and other places more accessible to the
Western nations than St. Petersburg :—

‘©On Tuesday the 8-20 of May, a most interesting trial was
made for the first time in public at the Admiralty House, St.
Petersburg, under the auspices of Messrs. S. A. Kosloff ” and
Co., the proprietors of the patent, of a new system of light-
ing by electricity, the invention of Mr. A. Ladiguin, of thal
own, ,

‘* Owing to the restricted space in the hall made use of on
this occasion, the number of spectators was necessarily limited,
but still they consisted of more than a hundred specialists from
different countries, representatives of science, honourable visitors,
and many reporters, who were all deeply interested, and unani-
mously decided that the trial was really successful.

“Up to the present time, as is well known, the electric light
has been used only for lighthouses, as an electric sun illumina-
tion for signals, or on the stage, where a strong light may be
required without regard to cost; but thus far it has been quite
impossible to employ it for lighting streets or houses. j

‘By the old method the electric spark was passed between
two points of charcoal, each attached toa copper wire connected
with anelectro-magnetic machine.

‘“*The disadvantages attending this mode consisted in the
facts that, for each light a separate machine was required, and
that the flight so obtained, although very powerful, was ime
possible to be regulated, besides being non-continuous, owing
to the rapid consumption of the charcoal points from expo
to air,

“ All these difficulties Mr. A. Ladiguin has tried and appa
rently overcome most successfully.

‘* By his newly-invented method, only one piece of charcoal
or other bad conductor is required, which being attached to a
wire connected with an electro-magnetic machine is placed in a
glass tube, from which the air is exhausted, and replaced by
gas which will not at a high temperature combine chemica
with the charcoal. This tube is then hermetically sealed, and
the machine being set in motion by means of a small steam
engine, the charcoal becomes gradually and equally heated, and
emits a soft, steady, and continuous light, which, by a ‘mo: t
simple contrivance, can be strengthened or weakened at th
option of those employing it; its duration being dependent
solely on the electric current, which of course will last as long as
the machine is kept in motion. ’

‘Taking into consideration the fact that one machine, worked
by a small three-horse power engine, is capable of lighting many
hundreds of lanterns, it is evident what an enormous advantage

“and profit could be gained by the illumination of streets, private
houses, public buildings, and mines with the new electric light,
In the latter it must prove invaluable, as no explosion need evel
be feared from it, and these lanterns will burn equally as well
under water as in a room.

‘‘Without mentioning the many advantages this mode of
illumination has over gas, which by its unpleasant odour and
evaporation is slowly poisoning thousands of human beings, and
from which explosions are frequent, we can state that by calcu
lations made, this electric light can be produced at a fifth of the
cost of coal gas.

“ We hope shortly to place before the public more complete
particulars, as well as reports of further experiments which are
proposed to take place in Vienna, Paris, and London.’

* From the Yournal of the Society of Arts.

GROWTH OR EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURE IN
SEEDLING PLANTS*

THE continuous absorption of oxygen, and formation of car-
bonic acid, is an essential condition of evolution of structure,
both in plants and in animals.
__ The above proposition in so far as it relates to animals will
probably be admitted by all ; the opposite opinion is, however,
commonly held as regards plants ; yet we propose to show that
in these organisms, as in animals, growth as applied to evolu.
tion of structure, or organisation of material provided, is inse-
parably connected with oxidation.

The discussion of the proposition in question necessarily in-
volves a preliminary view of the character of the gases exhaled
from yarious plants. Commencing with the lower organisms as
fungi, the uniform testimony is that these plants at all times

expire carbonic acid, while it is chiefly in the higher plants, and

especially in those which contain chlorophyll or green colouring

matter, that carbonic acid is absorbed and oxygen exhaled.
The inquiry then in reality narrows itself down to the examination
of the growth of chlorophyll-forming plants.
_ Regarding these plants the statement is made and received,
that they change their action according as they are examined

the light or in the dark, exhaling oxygen under the first condi-

jon, and carbonic acid under the second. Various explanations
of this change of action have been given, that generally accepted
accounting for it on the hypothesis of the absorption of carbonic
acid by the roots, and its exhalation by the leaves when light is
no longer present.
__ The change, on the contrary, appears to arise out of the fact
that two essentially different operations have been confounded,
viz: the actual growth or evolution of structures in the plant,
and the decomposition of carbonic acid by the leaves under the
uence of the light, to provide the gum or other materials
that are to be organised. These two factors are separated by
Prof. J. W. Draper in his discussion of the conditions of growth
in plants. We propose to show that by adopting this proposi-
tion of two distinct operations in the higher plants, all the
apparent discrepancies regarding the growth of these plants are

explained.
he growth of seedlings in the dark offering’ conditions in
which the act of growth or evolution of structure is accom-
ished without the collateral decomposition of carbonic acid,
arranged two series of experiments in which growth under
this condition might, be studied and compared with a similar
growth in the light. That the experiments might continue over
a sufficient period of time to furnish reliable comparative results,
Iselected peas as the subject of trial, since these seeds contain
sufficient material to support the growth of seedlings for a
couple of weeks.

To secure as far as possible uniformity of conditions between
the dark and light series, and also to facilitate the separation,
cleansing and weighing of the roots, each pea was planted in a
glass cylinder, one inch in diameter and six inches long. These
cylinders were loosely closed below by a cork, and filled to
within half an inch of the top with fine earth or vegetable
‘mould. They were then placed erect in a covered tin box or
tube stand in such a manner that the lower end dipped into
water contained in the box, while the whole of the cylinder
except the top was kept in the dark. Thus the first condition
for germination, viz., darkness, was secured ; the second, warmth,
was supplied by the external temperature, which varied from
70° to 80° F., while regularity and uniformity in the supply of
moisture in both series was secured by having a box of cylinders
or tubes for each and keeping the level of the water the same in
both. The supply of oxygen was also equal and uniform,
Since the upper part of each tube presented a similar opening
to the air. :

Thus prepared, one box containing five cylinders was kept in
a dark closet, while a second, similar in all respects, was placed
in a window of an adjoining room, where it was exposed to
direct sunlight five or six hours every day. Toeach tubealight
wooden rod thirty inches in length was attached, and on this the
growth of the seedling was marked every twelve hours. The
hours selected were 7 A.M. and 7 P.M. I thus obtained the
night and day, or dark and light growth of every seedling, as
long as those in the dark grew. The seeds were planted on
June Ist, and appeared above the ground on June 6th, when the
measurements were commenced, In each series one seed failed

* From Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Art,

NATURE

373

to germinate ; the record, consequently, is for four plants in
each, and the history of the evolution of structures is as follows :

Evolution of Structure in the Dark.—In Table I. the seeds
are designated as A, B, C, D, and each column shows the date
on which leaves and lateral growths appeared. These consti-
tute periods in the development of the plants, which are indi-
cated by the number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The weight of each seed
is given in milligrammes,

Table I.—.Svedlings erown in the Dark

A. B. c D.

Weight of seed. 431. 466. 456. 500,
Period 1, 7th day. 7th day. 7th day. 7th day.
” 2, 8th ” oth ” gth ” 8th ”
i Bi a ATOR. <5 Ioth ,, 1ith ,, Ioth ,,
5 4540 T2th 55 12th ,, E3th .,, T2thaa
” 5, 14th ” 15th ” 15th ” 14th ”
a 6; gear 7th, 18th ,, 18th ,, 17th ,,

A glance at the above shows the uniformity as regards time
with which the structures were evolyed in each plant. It also
indicates for each plant an equality in the number of periods of
evolution, viz., 6, notwithstanding the difference in the weights
of the seeds, and suggests that the power of evolution of struc-
ture in seedlings resides in the germ alone.

The character of the evolution in the six periods shows a
steady improvement or progression.

In the first, the growth consists in the formation close to the
stem of two partially developed pale yellow leaves.

The second period is similar to the first, except that the leaves
are a little larger.

The third presents a pair of small yellow leaves close to the
main stem, from between which a lateral stem or twig about one
inch long projects, and bears at its extremity a second pair of
imperfectly developed yellow leaves, from between which a
small tendril about a sixteenth of an inch long is given off,

The fourth resembles the third, the lateral twig being longer,
and the tendril three times as long as in the third.

The fifth is like the fourth, except that the tendril bifurcates,

The sixth is similar to the fifth, except that the tendril trifur-
cates.

Stem, leaves, twigs, tendrils of various degrees of complexity,
all are evolved by the force pre-existing in the germ without the
assistance of light.

Evolution of Structure in the Light,
Table Il,—Seedlings grown in the Light

E. F. G. H.
Weight of seed. 288. 426. 462. 544+
Period 4 — 6thday, — 6th day
” 2, 7thday. 7th ,, 7thday. 7th ,,
” 35 8th ” 8th ” 8th ” oth ”
As 4, 12th ,, gth ,, Ioth ,, Ioth ,,
” 5» 15th ” 11th ” 14th ” 12th ”
” 6, aa ” 13h ,, a ” 14th ,,
Table II. was obtained in the same manner as Table I, the

columns representing the days on which lateral growths and
leaves appeared. Though there is not the same uniformity as in
Table 1, the periods are identical in both as regards the visible
character of the evolution Nothing appears in the second that
did not pre-exist in the first, and in the case of the seeds E and
G the evolution is even deficient as regards the first and the sixth
periods,

While the general character of the evolution in both series is
similar, certain minor differences exist. In IT. the leaves and
tendrils are many times larger than in I., and they, with the
whole plant, are of a bright green colour, instead of the sickly
pale yellow of I. ; but the light has not developed any new struc-
ture ; it has only perfected those which pre-existed, and converted
ae substances into chlorophyll which is not an organised

jody.
Not only did the plants in the two series present similarities
in evolution of structure, but the average weight of dry plant in
each was very nearly the same, for :
455 of seeds in the dark produced 184 of dry plant, while
455 ” light sy = 215 99

A comparison of the parts below the ground with those
above (both being dried at 212° F.) shows that the proportion
bs Toot to total weight of plant was also nearly identical,

ing,

374

25 of root for 100 of plant in the dark, and
23 100 light.

The close similarity in the evolution of visible structure in
the light and in the dark, the small difference in the total
weights of the plants grown in the same time in both series, and
the close approximation in the proportional weight of root to
plant, all justify the conclusion, that the growth in darkness and
in light closely resemble each other, and that it is proper to
reason as regards the nature of the action from the first to the
second,

Another interesting fact which lends support to the opinion
that the process of growth in seedlings developed in the dark is
very similar to that occurring in those grown in the light, is the
character of the excrement thrown out by the roots. It is well
known that many plants so poison the soil that the same plants
cannot be made to grow therein until the poisonous excretions
from the roots of the first crop have been destroyed by oxida-
tion. In the case of peas this poisoning of the soil takes place
in a very marked manner, and I have found that in the pots in
which peas have been grown in the dark, the soil is so poisoned
by the excrements from the roots that a second crop fails to
sprout. Does it not follow, that since in the two series with
which I experimented, the excrements from the roots possessed
the same poisoning action, the processes in the plants from which
these excrements aaose must have been similar ?

There remains an important argument concerning which
nothing has thus far been said. It is to be derived from the
consideration of the rate of growth in the light series during
various periods of the day of twenty-four hours. If the eyolu-
tion of structure in a plant in daylight is the result of the
action of light, that evolution should occur entirely, or almost
entirely during the day. If, on the contrary, it is independent
of the light, it should go on at a uniform rate as in plants in the
dark.

For the elucidation of this portion of the subject, I present
the following tables ; the first of which shows the growth by
night, 7 P.M. to 7 A.M., of the seedlings in the dark series, com-
pared with their growth by day, 7 A.M. to 7 P.M. The measure-
ments were taken from the sixth to the twentieth of the month,
the day on which growth ceased in the dark series :—

Table III.—Seedlings grown in the dark

” ”

Night growth. Day growth.
No. 1 12% inches, 14 inches.
” 2 13¢ ” 13 ”
Peak: Ii» IIx 55
» 4 125 5 11g 5,
Average, 158 ,, Average, 123 ,,

The total day growth and night growth under these circum-
stances are nearly equal, though there is a slight excess in favour
of the night, amounting, as the table shows, to { of an inch in
12 inches.

In Table IV. the growth of the light series is given in the
same manner, by day and by night, for the same time, viz., to
June 20. The thermometric and hygrometric conditions in
both series were very similar, as indicated by the dry and wet
bulb thermometers suspended in the vicinity of each set of
tubes :—

Table IV.—Seedlings grown in the light

Night growth. Day growth.

No. 5 34 inches 4 inches.
oe 8 ” 7 ”
a ¥ 5t ” 43
” 8 On ” 8} ”
Average, 6} ,, Average, 6 “

In the average, and throughout the table, with a single excep-

* tion, not only is the uniformity in the rate of growth during the

day and night shown, but the slight excess of night growth found

in the series kept in the dark is likewise copied. We must

therefore accept the conclusion that the act of growth or evolu-

tion of structure is independent of light, and that the manner of
growth during the day is similar to that at night.

It will be noticed that the total average height attained in the
light is only about half that in the dark series. The explanation
of this we have already seen in the fact that in the former the
leaves and tendrils were much larger than in the latter, while the
dry weights were nearly the same. The material of the seed in

NATURE

the light series was consumed in extending these surfaces, wh
in the dark series it was spent in lengthening the stem. a

Having established the continuous character of growth in-seed-
lings, and the similarity of rate and nature of the process by
night and by day, and admitting that at night plants throw off
carbonic acid, it is not improbable that this carbonic acid arises,
not from mechanical absorption by the roots, and vaporisation
by the leaves, but as a direct result or concomitant of the act or
process of evolution of structure.

To put the matter in the clearest form, let us first understan
what growthis. It appears in all cases to consist in the evolu-
tion or production of cells from those already existing. Accord-
ing as the circumstances under which the cells are produced
vary, so does the tissue ultimately produced vary. Cells fo:
in woody fibre, become wood. Cells formed in muscle in their
turn form muscles, but the starting point of the process in every
instance is the formation of new cells. .

If now we examine the evolution of cells under the simplest
conditions, as, for example, in the fermentation that attends the
manufacture of alcohol, we find that with the evolution of t)
torulz cells carbonic acid is produced. The two results are
intimately connected, and it is proper to suppose that since t
carbonic acid has arisen along with the new cells, the latter
operation must in some way involve a process of oxidation.
Accepting the hypothesis that oxidation is attendant on these
processes of cell growth under the simplest conditions, we p
to the examination of what occurs in the lowest forms of vege:
table organisms found in the air. ee

The fungi, and indeed all plants that are not green, with a few
exceptions, exhale carbonic acid and never exhale oxygen.
this case, in which cell production often occurs with such mar-
yellous rapidity, the carbonic acid must have arisen as a con:
quent of the cell growth. It is improbable that it has b
absorbed by roots and exhaled from the structures, either in th
plants or in those produced during fermentation, In the lal
there never are any roots, and in the former, even where rot
are present, they bear a small proportion to the whole pla
The quantity of moisture exhaled by such growths is also in
nificant, and out of proportion to the carbonic acid evolved. We
mus’, therefore, in this case decline to accept the root-absorption
hypothesis, and admit that the carbonic acid has arisen as a result
of the cell growth in the plant. j

Passing to the chlorophyll-bearing plants, we find that in th
Phanerogamia it is only the green parts that at any time exha
oxygen, and then only under the influence of sunshine,
other parts of the plant above the ground, that are not green,
viz., the stem, twigs, flowers, &c., are at all times, day ant
night, exhaling carbonic acid. The whole history of the plant,
from the time the seed is planted, to its death, is a continuo
story of oxidation, except when sunlight is falling on the leave
The seed is put into the ground, and during germination oxygel
is absorbed and carbonic acid exhaled. If the seedling be kept
in the dark, oxygen is never exhaled, carbonic acid is, and
plant not only grows, but all visible structures except flo
are formed in a rudimentary condition. In the light the groy
during the night time is attended by the evolution of carbo
acid, while during the day time the bark of the stem d
branches is throwing off carbonic acid. When flowers and seed
form, the evolution of carbonic acid attending this highest act |
which the plant is capable, is often greater than that produced
at any time in many animals.

Everything in the history of plants, therefore, tends to shoy
that the evolution of their structures is inseparably attended bj
the formation of carbonic acid ; and it seems impossible, whet
we consider the evolution alone, to arrive at any other opini
than that already expressed—that, all living things, whet
plant or animal, absorb oxygen and evolve carbonic acid, 0}
some other oxidised substance, as an essential condition of th
evolution of their structures, J. C. DRAPER

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE first number of the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie for 1873,
opens with an interesting paper by Dr. George Schweinfurth
on the Monbutta Tribes of Central Africa, whose name and
existence have hitherto been unknown to us. Dr. Ori and My
Jules Poncet had shown that there were important strea'
south of the Miam-Miam Territory, which took a westerly cour:
and that the banks of the mest considerable of these rivers w

occupied by a brown-skinned race differing widely from the con-
_ tiguous negro tribes, both in colour and in civilisation. These
are the Monbuttas, known also to the ivory-traders as the
- Guruguri, in allusion to their practice of boring their ears.
Their country, which Dr. Schweinfurth visited in 1868, and
_ where he remained for five weeks under the special protection
of the king, Munsa, is a densely populated district lying between
— gand 4 N. lat., and 28 and 29 E. long., and bounded on the
_ north by the Kibali, a copious stream which unites with the
_ Gadda, and under the name of Uelle receives in its passage
through the Miam-Miam country a number of other streams, that
“serve as feeders to Lake Tsad. The country of the Monbuttas,
lying at an elevation of from 2,500 to 3,000 ft. above the level
of the sea, consists of an ever-varying alternation of gently
_ swelling hills and well-watered valleys, alike rich in palms and
bananas, and every other form of luxuriant tropical vegetation.
In this earthly paradise where Nature spares man the burden of
labour, the people, although living under an organised system of
government, and showing extraordinary skill in working metals
aend in other arts, are habitual cannibals. This is not from want of
animal food, as elephants, buffaloes, antelopes and wild swine
abound, but whatever the cause may be, the fact is undisputed that
ce? cannibalism of the otherwise gentle Monhuttas exceeds that of

any other known African nation, and is systematically gratified at
the expense of the more degraded blacks living beyond their fron-
tiers, whom they seize and carry away, driving their captives before
; them like a herd of sheep, and slaughtering themas they need them.
‘The young children and the fattest individualsarekept for the royal
"kitchen, where the flesh is dried and prepared with capsicums
and many savoury fruits for the king, Munsa, whose numerous
wives have to take it in turn to cook for him. The power of
the king is supreme, and it would appear that the land of the
_Monbuttas may rank as one of the most important monarchical
States of Central Africa. In race the people seem to approxi-
_ mate to the Fulbe, and in language to the north equatorial Afri-
can group. They recognise one supreme being, appear to have
no outward symbols of worship, and practise circumcision.—Dr.
_ P. Langerhans has a paper in this number on the anatomical fea-
tures of interest belonging to a series of facial and cranial mea-
surements, with the corresponding photographs, taken at Jeru-
salem from among the mixed population of Khurds, Armenians,
and Negroes (from Dar). As a contribution to human compara-
tive anatomy the paper will be found useful.—Those interested
in the study of the prehistoric remains of Holland and the Low
Countries generally will find much serviceable matter in a paper
by Dr. Friedel, who points out the distinctions between the
Frisic-Germanic and the Celtic-Batavian remains, and passes in
review the collections preserved in the various Dutch museums,
of which that of Leyden is the most valuable in an ethnological
point of view.

Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 5, 1873.
—This number contains several papers on electricity. Dr. Her-
mann Herwig investigates the influence of free electriciiy at
the surface of electrodes, on electro-dynamic phenomena.
His experiments were made with a delicate electro-dyna-
mometer, in which the deflections of the bifilar and mul-
tiplier coils were compared, the electro-motive force and
resistance being varied.—A paper by M. Edlund treats of the
chemical action of the galvanic current and the distribu-
tion of free electricity on the surface of an electrode. The
author applies his theory (of electricity being a phenomenon of
the luminiferous ether), to the decomposition of water by a
current, and institutes a comparison between what occurs in a
ring-tube in which a gas is forced into circulation from a certain
point, with the phenomena in a galvanic circuit. In another
note the same author opposes von Bezold’s explanation of ‘‘dis-
junction currents,” which he thinks are due to an electro-motive

orce in the voltaic arc itself, not to a difference in tension be-
tween the electrodes.—M. Wiillner describes experiments con-
firming his former assertion (questioned by Schuster) that
nitrogen, in Geissler tubes, gives both a band and a line spec-
trum, A yaluable series of experiments on heat consumption in
the solution of salts, and the specific heats of salt solutions is de-
tailed by Dr. Winkelmann, whe here extends the previous work
of Graham and Person on the subject.—There are also papers
on the change of volume of solid substances through the forma-
tion of chemical combinations of the same aggregate state (W.
Miiller), on the pole-points of a magnet (Riecke), on the dyna-
mical principle of Hamilton in thermo-dynamics (Szily), on a

ic

NATURE

375

new mode of exhibiting metallic spectra (Edelmann), and one or
two others.

THE July and August numbers of the American Naturalist
contain, among others, the following papers :—Dr. Elliott Coues
discusses the relationship between the Prairie Wolf, or Coyoté
(Canis latrans), and the common dog, taking a pointer as his
type, which is much of the same size, The physiognomy of the
former is said to be between that of a wolf and a fox, ‘but more
doggy than either.” Its affinities with the dog are shown to be
extremely close.—Mr. T. M. Trippe gives reasons for instances
of irregular migrations of birds, showing that some depend on
human interference, and changes in climate, and others are as
yet unexplained.—Prof. Verril describes a new species of Octopus
(O. bairdii ) from the bay of Fundy. It is somewhat related to
O. groenlandicus, but differs in the hectocolylised arm being
longer and otherwise different.—Alexander Agassiz, in a fully
illustrated article, gives reasons in favour of the supposition that
the pedicellarize and spines of Echinodermata are only modifica-
tions of a single type form, to suit different purposes in the ani-
mal’s economy.—Prof. W. J. Beal, on the phyllotaxy of cones,
shows that the well-known laws of phyllotaxis are very general,
nevertheless there are exceptions to them, well marked among
some cones, as is proved by the author’s examination of a very
large number from the Norway spruce, in which 43 and 44 were
the common fractions.—Mr. A. S, Packard, jun., treats of the
distribution of Californian moths, bringing information on their
peculiarities to bear on Prof. Gray’s work on the distribution of
Californian plants.—Dr. Theodore Gill has a paper on the
status of Aristotle in systematic zoology, in which Ke gives very
cogent reasons against that great philosopher having the know-
ledge of the principles of zoology which is ascribed to him by
some. He concludes that ‘there is not the slightest evidence
of any recognition of what is now understood by classification in
any of the extant treatises of Aristotle on animals, and the
systems framed to embody his generalisations have been con-
structed from isolated sentences wrested from their context, and
simply reflect the framer’s notions or his ideas as to what Aris-
totle might have supposed.”—Prof. Bessey notes the sensitive-
ness of the stamens of Portulaca and Claylonia.

Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gessellschaft in Berne,
1872.—Prof, Dor has an article, in this number, on colour blind-
ness. Various experiments are described ; the method most
preferred having been that of viewing spectral colours with a
polarisation prism. The author rejects the Young-Helmholtz
theory, which, as is known, supposes three colour-perceiving
elements in the retina, those for perception of red, those for
green, and those for violet (or blue). Among his objections are
these : absence of anatomical proof ; distinct vision of many of
the colour blind; the spectrum as observed by two persons,
brothers, who had no perception of red or violet, was of normal
length ; all the pathologically colour blind suffered from atrophy
of the optic nerve through cerebral or spinal injuries ; in these
cases, the fibrous and cellular layer of the retina, and the optic
nerve, to the brain, were atrophied, but not the rods and cones ;
in retinal disease, on the other hand, the perception of colours
is not perverted, though diminished. He concludes that colour
blindness is a cerebral affection.—A note by Dr. Adolph Vogt
treats of the drainage of towns, in view of a faulty state of things
at Berne.—The action of Buss’s new governor is discussed in a
paper of some length by the inventor.—Dr. A. Forster commu-
nicates a note on the falling stars of November last, also meteo-
rological observations at the Berne Observatory during 1872.
From the curve of daily temperature variations at Berne it appears
that these are sometimes considerable, ey. 18°6° C. in 24 hours,
a fact of significance for health.— We may further note, in this
number, some contributions to local botany, by Dr. Wydler.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
= BELGIUM

Royal Academy of Sciences, June 7.—M, Quetelet pre-
sented a note on the solar eclipse of May 26, 1873.—M. Mon-
tigny gave the results of a second series of experiments made on
the spire of Antwerp Cathedral, in which he determined baro-
metrically the heights at several points, in winds of different
direction and velocity. His tables show a difference between
the calculated height and the real height, the latter being greater
for winds of the eastern semicircle, while the former is greater

376

for westerly winds. In north and south winds, and those closely
neighbouring, the heights measured both ways closely agreed.
The differences between true and barometric altitude for the
same gallery increase regularly, but in contrary directions, from
the meridian to the azimuths east and west, when they each at-
tain their maximum value. The height, barometrically mea-
sured; increased, as a rule, with the velocity of the wind. No
connection was demonstrable between barometric height and
inclmation of wind. Observations at Namur and Brussels are
compared with those at Antwerp, and show acycle like that just
described, only the regions to which the maximum and minimum
(barometric) altitude correspond are, at these places, in the con-
trary direction to those at Antwerp.—M. Melsens communicated
a paper on the effect of reducing alcoholic drinks to very low
temperatures. A liquor like brandy may be cooled to—60° C.
without being painfully cold to a person taking it.
phenomenon of congelation in ordinary and sparkling wines, M.
Melsens seeks to show how wines and beer also may be im-
proved by application of cold.—M. Louis Henry described re-
searches on the etherised derivatives of alcohols and of poly-
atomic acids; also on propargylic compounds.—M. de Selys
Longchamps made a third addition to his ‘‘Synopsis of the
Gomphines,” of which he can now enumerate 188 species (seven-
teen of these being new), arranged in forty-three genera and sub-
genera.—M. Van Beneden gave a summary account of results
from a voyage to Brazil and La Plata. His main object had
been to study the fauna of the American coast, and specially of
Rio. He describes the frequent formation of lagoons by the
deposit of a transverse bar separating the water of a bay from
that of the sea. Ffesh water continually entering such lagoons,
their saltness disappears, and an interesting question was, how
had the original ocean fauna, here enclosed, been affected by the
change of physical conditicns. M. Wan Beneden made various
dredgings in the bay of Rio (in which the tidal changeof sea-
level is very small), and in these lagoons, and promises future
communications on the subject. He mentions having found in
some lower forms of Crustacea (Lernanthropides and Clavelline)
a double circulatory system like that in Annelides. Besides the
lacunar system, in which circulates a colourless liquid having
white globules, there is a complicated system of vessels with
proper walls, containing red blood without globules. There is
no connection ; the two liquids do not mix. The colouring
matter is hemoglobin. The branchiz and trunk, alternately
contracting and dilating, put the liquids in circulation. The
author also mentions having dissected a lamantin (disinterred for
his benefit), and a dolphin, and describes exceptional features in
both. ‘The paper gives several interesting zoological facts.

July 5.—-M. Quetelet read a paper on the calculation of pro-
babilities, applied to the science of man ; reviewing recent pro-
gress of statistical science in this direction, and giving numeri-
cal results in the case of stature and mortality—M. Van
Beneden presented two coloured drawings of Cetacea captured
at the Cape of Good Hope. He thinks zoologists have too little
regarded the system of coloration in such animals, and his re-
marks bear chiefly on this—M. L. Henry communicated a
paper on diallylic compounds, being part of a series of researches
on glyceric derivatives. —M. Swarts followed with a note on
some properties of pyrocitric acids.—-M. Spring communicated
some facts with reference to the oxygenated compounds of
sulphur,

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Aug. 18.—M. Bertrand, president,
in the chair—The following papers were read :—Fourth note
on guano, by M. Chevreul. The author has found that the crys-
tallisable matter C, described in his late notes, is an ammonia
salt, and that the other body insoluble in cold water is a very
complex mixture containing acid. He gave no further details, —
Direct demonstration of the fundamental principles of thermo-
dynamics, by M. A. Ledieu.—On the movements of the Py/-
Zoxera from place to place, by MM. J. E. Planchon and J.
Lichtenstein.—M. de Lesseps demanded the appointment of a
Commission by the Academy to examine his project of a Central-
Asian railway.—M. Daubrée communicated a letter from Mr,
Nordenskiold, giving an account of the discovery, in recently
fallen snow, of a carbonaceous snow containing metallic iron,
This was first found at Stockholm ; but the author, fearing that
the powder might be due to the soot of the city, wrote to his
brother, then in the centre of Finland, to collect snow there.
The results were the same, and Mr, Nordenskiéld has obtained
sufficient for a quantitative analysis which he proposed to make

NATURE

From the |

[Sept 4, 1873

during the coming winter.—Researches on secondary a
currents, and their application (continuation), by M. G. Plante,
—A description of the cryptograph, by M. Pélegrin—On alge-
braic left-handed curves, by M. Picquet.—Experimental re-
searches on explosives, by MM. Roux and Sarrau.u—A new
method of estimating ammonia, organic nitrogen, and nitric acid —
in waters, soils, and manures, by M. Piuggari, The author
proposed to convert all nitrogenou$ bodies into ammonia and
nitric and nitrous acids by acting on them with a mixture of
argentic chloride and potassic hydrate, and then converting the
oxidised nitrogen into ammonia by nascent hydrogen. He pro-
posed to estimate the resulting ammonia by Nessler’s process,
except when below o’oooo! grm., when he proposes a special re-
agent, composed of two drops of phenol and 5 or 6 c.c. of hypo-
chlorite of soda, which gives a fine blue-violet colouration to
ammoniacal liquors.—On the hydrochlorate of terpene, and on
the isomerism of the bodies having the formula C,, H,, HCl,
by M. Riban.—On the variations of haemoglobin in the zoologi-
cal series, by M. Quinquaud.—-On the variations of the wine
under the influence of caffeine, coffee and tea, by M, Rabuteau, —
—On the zoological position, &c:, of the parasitic Acariaus
known as Hyfopus, by M. Mégnin.—On a deposit of silicified
vegetables in the coal basin of the Loire, by M. Grand’Eury.—
On the existence in the quaternary period of a large glacier in
the mountains of Aubrac (Lozére) by M. G. Fabre.—Note on
the meteors of November 27, 1872, by M. Ch. Dufour.—On the
meteors of August 9 and 10, by M. F. Tisserand.—A note on
the same subject, by M. Chapelas, concluded the business of
the session. i

August 25.—M. Bertrand in the chair.—The following papers —
were read :—On Zollner’s theory of solar scoriz as being the
cause of spots, by M, Faye. The author observed that this
theory as recently developed in a communication to the Royal
Saxon Academy agrees better with the known facts of the
motions of the spots than does Secchi’s eruption theory. —On
the polar planimeter, by M. H. Resal.—On the thoracic and
abdominal phosphorescent organs of the cocuyo of Cuba, by
MM. Ch. Robinand A. Lubvulbéne. The systematic name of
this insect is Pyrophorous noctilucus (later noctilucus L.)
Direct demonstration of the fundamental principles of thermo-
dynamics, part vii., by M. A. Ledieu.—On the rapidity and re-
production in the Pfylloxera, by M. Lichtenstein.—On a
principle of union in universal chemistry, as applicable to organic
chemistry, by M. E. Martin.—-A letter was received from M.
Wolf announcing the discovery of two new comets by MM,
Boreilly and Paul Henry.—On the spectrum of comet III, 1873,
by MM. Wolf and Rayet.—On the spectrum of the solar at-
mosphere, by M. G, Rayet. The author announces the dis-
covery of the fact that the least refrangible of the two D lines is
longer than the other, as he saw the former reversed when the
latter was invisible—Twelfth note on the effects of barometri
changes on life, by M. P. Bert.—On hay-fever, by M. E.
Decaisne. The author asserted that this disorder has no actual
existence as a separate disease. —Experiments on the scolex of
Tenia mediocanellata, by M, Saint-Cyr.—On the movements 0
the stamens in Awfa, by M. G. Carlet.

CONTENTS
THE TesTIMONIAL TO MRiICOLE . © 3 « « o = 6 SS
Pace’s Apvyancep Text-Book oF Puaysica. GroGrapny. By
Atrrep R. WaLiacs, FVZ.S.9 . . 2 2. es nt eo
Our Book!SHELF*. (. \./Malic('a)¢ s)\e 0 le) sce) is) nee
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :—
Atoms and Ether jy sys Pis | 0 os fe) 0.) ws Sul le
Reflected Rainbows . ° e\ ie) ates ee eee

The Origin of Nerve Force.—A, H. Garrop. . . . «. + « «
The Flight of Birds —Hupert Airy. . . . . . + « «
Mallet-Palmieri’s ‘‘ Vesuvius”.—Davip Fores, F.R.S.. . . . 362
Explosion of Chlorine and Hydrogen. . . . . « . «sw
A New Busa.e From ApyssIniA. By Dr. J. E. Grey, F.R.S. . .
From AMERICA TO ENGLAND BY BALLOON. . « « - + - + « «
Mayne's Sipereat Dia, By Capt. Aston Mayne (W7th Illus -
tration . © 6. eects! © ae Shed oe vain
On THE SctENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS
or WEIGHT AND Mzasure,1V. By H. W. CuisHoim, Wardenof the
Standards (With Jiiusteateams) <.. .- » . ..\\. « as 1» ae
‘THE FRENCH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE . .
Notes . Ae et), ow eee
A possipLE NEW METuHop oF ELECTRICAL ILLUMINATION eg
Growtu or EvoLuTion of STRUCTURE IN SEEDLING PLANTs. - By
Dr. J. C. Draper .
Scientiric SERIALS . 1 sss ote ate
SociETIEs AND ACADEMIES .. .

Aor ee

NATURE

377

' THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11, 1873

THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH
: VI.

7 MONG the difficulties whiclt are likely to impede the
ready realisation of the object to which atten-
tion has been drawn, there remains one which will
always be most keenly felt by those who have
devoted the most thought to the question. Beneath
the word “Science” there lurks a distressing am-
biguity, which, though it may not force itself upon the
attention of the devoted students of any particular branch,
is always arising when the general claims of scientific
study come on for discussion. For our present purpose
it is particularly important to attach that meaning to the
word which, while best justified by usage, is also most
calculated to conciliate good will from all quarters.
It will hardly be denied that the name primarily

belongs to those sciences called by way of distinction

“natural,” in the name of which this journal is con-
ducted, and which therefore it is needless to enumerate
here ; and that the name is thence transferred, by reason
of analogies of varying degrees of strength, to those other
branches of knowledge which either in their logical
methods or positive results approximate to the standard of
the physical sciences. Although it would be presumptuous
to attempt to lay down with exactness the line which
must somewhere exist between scientific and unscientific
knowledge, it must yet be always necessary to treat with
much suspicion the claims of mere erudition and of social
theorising to be admitted to the honoured name. The
old-fashioned reputation of the grammarian or the divine,

_ and the modern popularity of practical reformers, are

neither of them grounds on which to found a title to

national endowment. The unprofitable studies for which
the Universities were once famous have for centuries been
abundantly rewarded, and the applause of a crowded
congress is ever ready to acknowledge the merits of a
novel speculation in Sociology. It is not unnatural that
those who know by hard experience what Science really is
should jealously uphold the dignity of their pursuits, and
point with pride to the,innumerable advantages which
mankind within the last century has reaped from their
labours; but, on the other hand, the warning is not un-
needed at the present day that the field of the physical
sciences is not equal in extent to that which all scientific
knowledge can comprehend, and that the appeal to utility
may be turned into a fallacious argument. Yet further, it
may be urged that those among the sciences which most
attract the public attention at the hands of an accom-
plished experimentalist, and of which the direct practical
applications are manifest to all, are least in immediate
want of support from national endowments, It is for the
languishing departments of Science, which have not been
popularised, and of which the results have not yet been
turned to commercial value, that the advantages of en-
dowment are most required. As soon as ever the main
principle of these articles is publicly recognised, the more
advanced and most useful are certain to obtain sufficient
care, but it is for the more backward and the least profit-
able that the need of help is most urgent.
No, 202—Vot, vi,

ae

It may be reasonably expected that the Universities, as
their traditions become modified under the influence
of the public demands, will be disposed to accept the
duty of endowing scientific research under the limitations
above indicated. They can have no antecedent prejudice
in favour of those branches of science which either
attract the most spectators, or the greatest number of
self-interested students. They have always refrained
with anxiety both from bidding for popularity, and trom
preparing their pupils for the technical business of life.
Their historic position also, and the peculiar responsibili-
ties which they cannot but feel, will cause them to inter-
pret Science ina liberal fashion. For these reasons it is
confidently hoped that, while they cannot afford to dis-
regard the paramount importance of the physical sciences,
they will maintain the position to which other sciences
more closely connected with their present curriculum have
of late years grown. The former, on account of their
rigorous methods, the positive character of their results,
and the abundance of their possible applications must
always hold the first place, and present a standard for the
rest ; but these others also, in so far as they are really
matters of scientific treatment, are in their proper sub-
ordination equally fields for original research and proper
objects for endowments. The example of the German
Universities has familiarised our own seats of learning with
the notion that the study of languages, of antiquities, and
of history, are all capable of being pursued in the genuine
scientific spirit, and may lead directly to the most import-
ant positive results. Abundant evidence has been given
within the last few years to show that the primitive con-
dition of mankind and the origin of civilisation are
matters which may be revealed by Science. The meta-
physical explanations of the last century have given way
before the well-ordered facts and regular uniformities
which modern inquirers have been able to discover and
arrange. The products of the human mind, and the
course of human action, when displayed in their simplest
and most universal forms, have been proved to be proper
subject-matter for Science, no less than the law of man’s
physical organism or the processes of external nature.
The most advanced thinkers have no hesitation in saying
that the origin of natural religion is capable of being dis-
closed by the same methods and with equal certainty as
the origin of species, and that philology yields an instru-
ment which can unfold the secrets of an unknown past as
surely as the spectroscope reveals the composition of un-
known worlds. Just as modern psychology has found it
necessary to borrow a large portion of its materials from
the kindred science of comparative physiology, so have
the nascent sciences alluded to above been under a con-
tinual obligation to the methods of physical science, and
especially those to which they are linked by means of the
recognised science of ethnology.

By thus widely extending the meaning of the word
Science, the intention has been to widen the area over
which the endowments of original research may be ex-
tended, and to give an indication of the number of direc-
tions in which scientific investigation should beencouraged.
As an indirect consequence it may be suggested that this
aspect of the matter shows an easy method by which the
don of the last generation, an acute critic merely in longs
and shorts, and erudite only in Greek particles, may be

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378 NATURE [ Sept. 11, 1873

changed, without any violent transformation, into the
modern scientific student. It is not so much that the
subject-matter of his studies will be different, for in this
respect the reform must be gradual, and is already being
carried out, but that the whole spirit of his pursuit must
be altered along with the tenure of his office. The prin-
ciple throughout advocated is not that money should be
abstracted from the Universities for general scientific
objects, but that the large funds which they cannot need
for the purposes of teaching, should, for the future, be
devoted, not as prizes to their successful examinees, but
for the support of those engaged in original scientific
work : and it is contended that this is the sole means by
which they can justify their retention at all of this sur-
plus, and by which also the main objects of the first
givers can be carried out. It must also be noticed that
this development of our scheme brings out into greater
clearness the old position that the obligation of teaching
would be merely an incumbrance on our new scientific
fellow. Discoveries in Science, especially those of the
most important kind, are made in such a tentative
fashion, and are proved by such elaborate inferences, as
to be quite incapable of being communicated orally to a
class ; nor indeed would it be desirable that researches,
as soon as made, should be forthwith promulgated from
the professor’s chair. The growth of Science, whether
physical or not, must in many cases be militant, and may
be left much more profitably to the student, who is ever
investigating with a single eye to the truth, than to the
teacher, who must be always careful of the form in which
his doctrine is to be conveyed.

We trust, therefore, that by this attempt to show that
the meaning of scientific research is not so restricted as
it has been some times represented; not only has the
general thesis of these articles been strengthened, but
also that new adherents may be conciliated in favour of a
cause which promises to connect together the followers of
physical science and those at the Universities who alone
worthily maintain the dignity of their ancient studies ;
and it must always be understood that we have looked
upon the Universities as representing local State action,
and that the nation must do universally what we think
should be done by the University authorities locally at
Oxford and Cambridge. Gc

EUROPEAN SPIDERS

Remarks on Synonyms of European Spiders. By T.
Thorell, Ph.D., Junior Professor of Zoology in the
University of Upsala. (Upsala, 1870-73, pp. 1-644.)

EW branches, perhaps, of entomological science
show the effects of independent and isolated labours
more strikingly than Arachnology—limiting this term
here to the order Araneidea (or Aranez). The great
works of N. Westring on Swedish Spiders, published in

1861, that of Mr. Blackwall on those of Great Britain

and Ireland. published 1861-64, and the “Catalogue

Synonymique des Araneides d’Europe,” by M. Eugéne

Simon (included in his general work “ Histoire Naturelle

des Araignées,” published 1864), are an instance repre-

senting very strongly the fruits of this isolated labour in
the same branch of natural history science, These
authors appear to have been, and indeed, it is believed,

actually were—the two former at all events—totally igno-
rant of each other's existence. M. Simon, indeed, quotes
Mr. Blackwall occasionally in his “Catalogue Syno-
nymique,” but his knowledge of that author’s works was
apparently confined to the scanty and often erroneous
quotations in Baron Walckenders’»“Insectes Aptéres.”
Mr. Blackwall then and M. Westring, each in his own
way and with the works of other authors more or less at
their common command, plodded on for years in parallel
paths. Both worked diligently and laboriously, at, for a
very great part, as a glance at the map would suggest,
identical objects ; their labours at length resulting in the
respective volumes above mentioned. So much as this
however can hardly be said in regard to the third one of
the works noted. The “ Catalogue Synonymique” bears
few marks of labour at the objects themselves which it
enumerates, and is in fact a mere desk work, remarkable
chiefly for the limited and often infelicitous use of the
materials undoubtedly available at that epoch to any
author professing to gather together and to harmonise
the independent and scattered morsels of an extensive
branch of natural science. The good work, however,
done since, and being now daily done in Arachnology by
M. Simon, will soon obliterate the remembrance of the
comparative failure of the more ambitious efforts of his
early years.

Towards these isolated works of Mr. Blackwall and
Mr. Westring the minds of Arachnologists in more than
one quarter appear soon to have been directed, with a
view to bring their parallel lines together. Dr. T. Thorell
—of the University of Upsala—a countryman and per-
sonal friend {of Mr. Westring, and an accomplished
scholar, was the first to move publicly in it : and bringing
great ability and,clearness of head to bear upon the sub-
ject, designed,an almost exhaustive work on “ European
Spiders.” Of this work, and under that title, was published
in 1869-70,{Part I. with the special title of “ Review of
the European Genera of Spiders, preceded by some
Observations on Zoological Nomenclature.” This por-
tion of the proposed work appeared in the “ Nova Acta
Regize Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis,” ser. iii. vol, vii.
Fasc. i. et ii. ; but owing to some unforeseen difficulty,
and unfortunately for the external continuity of the two
portions of the work, the second part, intended to treat
upon the more special division of the subject, was
published in 1870-73 as a separate work in a different
form and with an independent title, being that given at
the head of this notice, viz. “ Remarks on Synonyms of
European Spiders ;” this is, however, as may be at once
seen from the respective introductions to the two, al-

though the title of the second does not allude to it, really _

Part II. of the originally designed work, “On European.
Spiders.” It is thus evident that though the present

notice is upon the second work, it could not be adequately

considered without first remarking briefly upon the one

which preceded.

Dr. Thorell’s stated object (“ European Spiders,” p. 1)
being to fix the nomenclature of the spiders described in
the works of Blackwall and Westring, it was obviously
necessary first to decide upon the genera recognised by
them, and by those authors also to whom they refer ; and
for both this and the subsequent determination of the
specific name to which each spider was entitled, it was,

above all, important to lay down the rules by which the
author proposed to be guided in his decision between per-

plexed and conflicting synonyms. It is no part of the
object of this notice to criticise the rules thus laid down
in Part I. pp. 3—18 of Dr. Thorell’s work ; suffice it to
say that they are substantially those laid down by a com-
mittee of the British Association, Ann. N. H. 1, vol. xi.
p. 239 e¢ seg. Their general reasonableness is obvious,
though in many cases their rigorous enforcement would
savour of pedantry and lead to undesirable results.
Another feature in Part I. of “ European Spiders,” that is
the list of works upon Arachnology, with the name of the
author and date of publication, is a useful and important
one, and cannot fail materially to assist the general
student as well as anyone desiring to test the justice of
the author’s decisions, This list is considerably enlarged
in the portion of the work now under consideration,
pp. 584—589.

Coming then thus to Dr. Thorell’s “Remarks on
Synonyms of European Spiders,” we soon observe that
whatever the difficulties may have been which beset the
determination of the generic synonyms in Part I., these
difficulties must have been immensely increased when the
specific nomenclature came to be decided, The task was
not merely to ascertain and fix the names of those species
common to Blackwall and Westring, but those of all the
authors quoted by them as synonymous, with their
species, together with the names of many other species
into the bargain, such as those which have been subse-
quently described by E. Ohlert (“Die Araneiden oder
Echten Spinnen der Provinz Preussen,” 1867), A. Menge
“(Preussiche Spinnen,” 1866—1872, not yet complete),
and other authors. This laborious task Dr. Thorel
has executed with exceeding care and minuteness of
investigation ; his plan has been first to {take, by way
of text, the species described by Mr. Westring, as being,
with only four exceptions out of 308, known to him-
self from examination of the type specimens; then to
determine by strict and careful comparison of figures and
descriptions what species described by other authors ap-
peared to be more or less certainly identical with those
of Westring ; and then which of these had priority in
regard to time of publication, the date of publication
being in each case placed in immediate conjunction with
the names of the spider and author, and the usual refer-
ence to the name of the publication or where published.
Some idea of the labour of comparison and discrimina-
tion of descriptions and figures may be obtained by the
fact of the number of synonyms given of a single species,
being in some instances as many as twenty-two, Each
of these would form the subject of a separate investiga-
tion, independently of those, often numerous, synonyms
quoted by each author cited, and which would frequently
have to be investigated in a similar manner; and after
all, when the frequent meagreness of ¢Crscriptions and
badness of figures are considered, it will be evident that
the determination of synonyms must, without types of
the species described for examination, be often little more
than approximate guess-work ; in fact it is not too much
to say that the greatest care and pains bestowed upon
figures and descriptions alone would give but very unsa-
tisfactory results.

In the present instance Dr, Thorell has had the advan-

Se

NATURE

pu decke-p tet
Sif SS

379

tage (fully acknowledged in his work) of being able to
examine and compare, not only the types (as before ob-
served) of all but four of Westring’s species, but also, with
them, a very large proportion (nearly 250 out of 304) of
those described by Mr. Blackwall, and many more de-
scribed by other authors quoted in the “ Synonyms.”

With these undeniable advantages the various considera- -

tions entering into each question of synonymic identity or
distinction are detailed in a manner at once full and yet
terse ; and wherever a doubt has finally rested it is never
slurred over or disguised.

It would be in vain to select special examples in proof
of this; the details which follow the list of synonyms
appended to each species, are, in almost every instance,
of this thorough and honest character,

The first section’of the work being occupied with the
spiders described by Westring, forms by far the largest
portion of the whole—pp. 1—407 ; for the complete deter-
mination of all the synonyms involved in this section of
necessity cleared off a very large number of the species
described by Mr. Blackwall. The consideration of the
remainder of these forms section ii, and occupies pp.
414—470. This part ends with an exceedingly useful
“List of the Spiders described and figured in Mr. Black-
wall’s ‘History of the Spiders of Great Britain and
Ireland, together with a statement of the names believed
to belong to each of them, the year in which the assumed
specific name was published, and the work in which this
publication took place ; or instead of these last-mentioned
particulars, a reference to the place in the present work
where the species may have been more fully treated of,”
In this list, those species, about 67 in number, of which
Dr. Thorell has not himself seen types, are marked
with an asterisk. Section iii, contains “Synonymic
remarks on some of the Spiders included in Simon’s
Catalogue Synonymique des Aranéides d’Europe.” For
reasons given in the introduction to this section, Dr,
Thorell’s remarks are confined to a small number of the
species contained in Mr. Simon’s Catalogue ; in fact this
catalogue, being a mere list of names, is used only as
indicating some European species of general interest
not contained in either Mr. Blackwall’s or Westring’s
works.

Ina work of the nature of that now under consideration,
and occupying nearly three years in its appearance, it was
inevitable that some errors should get in, as well as that
modifications and additions should be necessitated in con-
sequence of extended research and more accurate infor-
mation obtained during that’time ; these, under the head
of “Additions and Corrections,” occupy pp. 544—582 ;
and the remainder of the volume, pp. 582—607, is taken
up with additions and corrections to that portion of the
original design (mentioned at first), entitled, “ On Euro-
pean Spiders, Part I.” This is a very important, as well
as interesting, /iza/e to the whole, containing, as it does
some further observations on nomenclature, with a disqui-
sition on the present state of the question as to the exact
functional use of the palpal organs of the male spider. Some
remarks are also made upon the fourth pair of spinners,
or inframammillary organ, discovered by Mr. Blackwall
many years ago, and ascertained to be correlated (in the
female spider only) with a peculiar comb-like row of
bristles—calamistrum—on the metatarsi of the fourth pair

380

NATURE

of legs. Dr. Thorell appears somewhat to doubt Mr.
Blackwall’s position, that this organ is in all cases a true
spinning apparatus ; the better opinion would appear to
be that it is so.

The work ends with some very valuable remarks on
the general classification of the Araneidea, or (as Dr.
Thorell, with good reason, prefers to call the order of
spiders) Araneze, pp. 597—607. Within this compass
some recent works and suggestions on the systematic
classification of spiders by Dr. Ludwig Koch, Rev. O. P.
Cambridge, Anton Ausserer, and others are reviewed and
criticised ; the conclusion come to being that the new and
highly remarkable forms brought to our knowledge by the
researches of later years shows more than ever “thata
fully satisfactory classification of the order of spiders is a
thing not soon to be expected, and that a by no means in-
considerable number of forms cannot without great uncer-
tainty, even if at all, be included under the hitherto
received families and higher groups.” Undoubtedly,
towards this satisfactory classification, by whomsoever it
may be finally effected, Dr. Thorell has done good work
in the volume on “ European Spiders,” and that on their
“Synonyms.” The systematiser hardly exists yet who
could say with truth that he had risen from a perusal of
these volumes without considerable alteration, or, at least,
modification, of his own previous views on the subject.

With so much to commend, in the work under review,
it may perhaps appear invidious to notice what seem,
to be a defect, at least in point of form. In ths
course of the minute and extensive investigation of
specimens, descriptions, and figures necessary to arrive at
a satisfactory determination of obscure synonyma, species
here and there appeared to be new to Science, and others
to require separation (under other names, and with a fresh
description) from those with which they had before been
confounded ; these new and separate species Dr. Thorell
has described in extended notes, zz /oco, in a smaller
type, thus marring the continuity, and breaking in upon
the expressed design of the work. Would not these de-
scriptions have come in better, and have been more useful
for study and reference, had they formed an appendix to
the work ?

Another defect (though its rectification might {perhaps
be said to have been a departure from the strict de
sign of the work) appears to be that Dr. Thorell does
not include in his volume a// the spiders at present known
to be indigenous to Europe ; it details those described by
Westring and Blackwall, with some others given in M.
Simon’s catalogue, as well as, incidentally, many more
described by other authors ; but still it leaves unnoticed
other described species. It would have given the work a
great additional value had there been a general list of all
the (at that present time recorded) spiders of Europe in
systematic order, or, at least, a supplementary one of all
those species mentioned or detailed throughout the work,
in addition to those of Blackwall and Westring. This is,
however, as before hinted, rather a criticism upon the
design than the execution of the work, though it seems to
be invited by the author's having so far departed from his
own original design as to include descriptions of new
species, as well as notices of others besides those included
in “ Aranez Suecicz,” “ Spiders of Great Britain and Ire-
land,” and the “ Catalogue Synonymique.”

It would be scarcely proper to conclude this notice of a
scientific work written by a native of Sweden, without a
remark upon its being written in English, and a well-
deserved compliment upon the exceeding clearness and
terseness of the style, and its generally happy accuracy
of expression. .

Dr. Thorell’s own opinion—expressed in a note to page
583—and in which most English-writing naturalists will pro-
bably acquiesce—is that English will one day become the
common scientific language of the world, not only because
it “is far more widely diffused over every part of the earth
than any other culture-language, and that already two of
the greatest nations publish in it the results of their scien-
tific labours, but because English, on account of its simple
grammar, and as combining!in nearly the same degree
Teutonic and Romanic elements, is by most Europeans
more easily acquired than any other language.” The
opinion, however (given in the same note /.c.), in regard
to works written in little-understood languages, such as
Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Finnish, or Magyar, will hardly
be endorsed. Dr. Thorell would exclude works written
in these or such like languages,’ from equal scientific
weight with others written in French, English, German
&c., ze, he would not apply to the former the rules, as to
priority, applied to these latter. Now, however grateful it

would be to Western naturalists to have all works on

Natural Science published in languages with which they
are ordinarily more or less familiar, yet it would be rather
too hard upon other nations, to whom the love of natural
history has come sooner than a general philological cul-
ture, to be excluded from equal scientific rights with their
more advanced brethren in the West. It would seem
quite as just, if not more so, that if a penalty is to be
paid for ignorance of foreign tongues, it should fall rather
upon those who, with whatever trouble and inconvenience,
certainly might become acquainted with works on Science
in any language, than upon those who, preferring to write
in that tongue in which they can undoubtedly think most
clearly and best express their thoughts, give the results of
their scientific labours in the vernacular. By all means
let us have, if possible, a common scientific language, but
meantime, if it be so, we must put up with the occasional
annoyance of finding that a genus or species which we
had fondly imagined we were the first to describe, had
already, perhaps long, been well described, and possibly
figured, in some unheard-of work written in an outlandish
tongue not understood of the Western Scientific World.

OUR BOOK SHELF

A History of the Birds of Europe. Parts 18, 19, 20.
By H. E. Dresser, F.Z.S., &c. (Published by the
Author at 11, Hanover Square.)

THIS fine work continues to appear with commendable
regularity every month, and keeps up its high character
both for fulness of information and beauty of illustration.
In the numbers now noticed are several highly artistic
plates, such as those which represent the White-shoul-
dered and Imperial Eagles, the Great Black-headed Gull,
the Common Crane, the White Stork, and the Great
Bustard, which each form a perfect picture. We find full
but not too lengthy articles on all these, as well as on
the Black Grouse, the Curlew, and many smaller birds.
An excellent plan is adopted, in the more characteristic
and difficult European genera, of giving a list of all the

[Sepz. Il, 1873

—

) Be ahd
ert
Pte

Sept, 11, 1873]

known species, with notes of their distinguishing charac-
ters and geographical distribution. One of the most rare
and interesting species figured (in Part 20) is the Teydean
Chaffinch, a bird of a blue colour, and which is confined
to the upper limits of the pine forests of the Peak of
Teneriffe, and to the desolate plains above them, feeding
on the seeds of the Retanca (a broom-like plant) and the
Adenocarpus frankenoides, which characterise those re-
gions, as well as on the seeds of Pinus igo 7

Lehrbuch der Physik, von Dr. Paul Reis (Dritte Lie-

ferung). Leipzig: 1873.
Tuis forms the concluding part of Dr. Reis’s useful hand-
book of Physics. The subject of physiological optics is
continued, followed by a description of optical instru-
ments and the laws of the interference and polarisation of
light. Heat is treated in the next part, but hardly so fully
nor so well as light ; radiant heat, for example, occupying
less prominence than it deserves. Considerable space is
devoted to the explanation of machines for the conversion
of heat into motive power: thus we have some of the
various forms of steam-engine described, together with a
full account of Ericson’s heat-engine and Lenoir’s gas-
engine. Magnetism follows heat, and then we come to
static and dynamic electricity and the practical applica-
tion of electricity. The book closes with a few chapters
devoted to the physics of the heavens, or in other words
a brief sketch of popular astronomy and meteorology. The
principal defect of this handbook is the want of sufficient
woodcuts to illustrate the apparatus referred-to. The
whole work exhibits the characteristic solidity and
thoroughness of the German race, and is a marked con-
trast to some of the recent French popular text-books on
Science, the profuse and beautiful illustrations in which
almost supplant the letterpress. Let us flatter ourselves
that in our nation these complementary races inter-
mingle.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Tyndall and Forbes

Ir will probably be considered necessary that Dr. Tyndall’s
pamphlet, * which first appeared as an article in the Contemporary
Review, be answered at full length. That, however, cannot be
decided for some time, as several of those concerned are abroad ;
but it may be well to let Dr. Tyndall know at once that there
is no difficulty whatever in answering him, and that the answer
will not lose force or point by a littledelay. In the meantime I
hope you will give me space to briefly notice a few of the more
obvious inconsistencies of Dr. Tyndall’s article.

1. Dr. Tyndall is astonished that the “blameless advent” of
his “innocent” ‘*modest” “ unpretending ” volume should be
looked upon as reiterating charges made against Forbes. An
extract or two will settle this point.

a. ‘‘ Had he (Rendu) added to his other endowments the
practical skill of a land-surveyor, he would now be regarded as
the prince of glacialists.”

“* Professor Forbes, when he began his investigations, was
acquainted with the labours of Rendu. In his earliest works
upon the Alps he refers to those labours in terms of flattering
recognition. But though as a matter of fact Rendu’s ideas were
there to prompt him, it would be too much to say that he needed
their inspiration.”

Put these two passages into straightforward English, instead
of Dr. Tyndall’s favourite style of insinuation, and they amount
to this: that Forbes, having the accomplishments of a land-
surveyor, and being acquainted with Rendu’s work, put this and
that together and appropriated the discovery.

6. Forbes had, in 1860, minutely informed Dr. Tyndall of
the nature and amount of his knowledge of Rendu in 1842, It

* Principal Forbes and his Biographers.

¢

NATURE 381

is not too much to say that Dr. Tyndall’s sentence quoted above
is utterly inconsistent with the plain statement of Forbes, and
so implies a serious personal charge against the latter.

c. A similar serious charge is made, when Dr. Tyndall, know-
ing that Forbes asserted that it was at his suggestion that Agassiz
employed a theodolite or a fixed telescope, and that this had
never been denied, carefully states that ‘‘the same instrument
was employed the same year by the late Principal Forbes upon
the Mer de Glace,” and that ‘‘ we are now on the point of seeing
such instruments introduced almost simultaneously by M. Agassiz
on the glacier of the Unteraar, and by Prof. Forbes on the Mer
de Glace.”

2. Dr. Tyndall tells us that his work was originally com-
menced as a boy’s book, but that “the incidents of the past
year”? (i.e. his controversy with Forbes) caused him to deviate
from this intention, Have boys so altered since 1859 that such
controversy has now become suitable for them when supplied in
the ‘‘ International Series”?

3. What I said with reference to the unpublished correspond-
ence of Forbes was said without any special reference to Dr.
Tyndall. It was simply my excuse to the reader for the very
meagre use,I had made of so extensive and valuable a collec.
tion.

But, even in this matter Dr. Tyndall’s inconsistency is patent.
He says that, longing for peace, he abstained from answering
Forbes, not from inability to do so, but to avoid making Science
the arena of personal controversy. Yet, in the same breath, he
not only complains of my not publishing certain letters which he
supposes to contain charges against himself, but (see §5 below)
insinuates that I am acting from feelings of animosity ! !

4. Dr. Tyndall’s answer to one of Forbes’ charges is certainly
to some extent plausible. I can say no more till I have an op-
portunity of consulting Rendu, for it is quite obvious that it is
possible by proper selection of portions of so vaguely-written a
book to make him appear to say anything one chooses.

Dr. Tyndall’s answer to the other charge is so obviously in-
sufficient that I need not deal with it here.

But more than this :—no ever-so-complete defence of himself
on one or two points is any reply to the overwhelming pamphlet
of Forbes, every line of which in its calm truthfulness calls for
an answer.

5. Dr. Tyndall refers to former controversy between us, and
to its happy termination at a personal interview. Why Dr.
Tyndall should bring before the public such matters as a private
reconciliation, unless with the object of holding me up to scorn
as the breaker of a solemn truce, 1 altogether fail to see. I need
scarcely say that no one in his senses would enter into an agree-
ment never in future to differ from another, nor to point out in
his writings passages calculated to mislead. But the following,
and other passages which I need not cite, are all so many half-
mysterious insinuations (of the Tyndall kind) against me, and all
tend towards the same implied accusations.

‘* |. the fire was not extinct: the anger of former com-
bats, which I thought spent, was still potential, and my little
book was but the finger which pulled the trigger of an already
loaded gun.”

I shall be obliged by Dr. Tyndall’s pointing out to me a single ~

expression, in that part of Forbes’ Life which was wsitten by
me, which is calculated to give him the slightest offence :—with
the one exception of a letter from Forbes, which was specially
written for publication; and which, for Forbes’ own sake, I
would rather not have published. .

No doubt he may be annoyed by my saying that little has
since been added to the observations made by Forbes on glaciers.
This is a matter of opinion. I do not think that Dr. Lyndall
has made any addition of consequence to our knowledge of
glaciers, and I am supported in this belief by many of the very
highest authorities. But this is no charge against Dr. Tyndall.

6. When I saw the ‘‘ Forms of Water, &c.,” I added a brief
and excessively temperate statement to what I had already
written, and I republished Forbes’ own defence of himself against
Tyndall and Agassiz. Was I not bound to do something, and
could I possibly have done less ?

7. The rupture of the truce, or “‘ peace,” whatever that may
be, was the work of Dr. Tyndall himself—partly by his ‘* Forms
of Water, &c.” mainly by his article inthe Contemporary Review,
So far as I am personally concerned, the public has no right to
know my feelings :—but, whatever they are, they are mingled
with the satisfaction I experience in being once more free, as of
old, to point out to the public the misleading passages and actual

382

errors in Dr. Tyndall’s popular works ; and to join the too thin
ranks of those who, like Mr. Sedley Taylor, are not to be im-
posed upon by a popular reputation—but venture to think for
themselves and to give the public the benefit of the result.

8. Opportunities for such public warning have never been
wanting, but now they are so numerous that a long essay would
be requisite to do justice to them all.

In the meantime, as an example or two, I may call attention
to the way in which Sir Charles Wheatstone, and (by implica-
tion) Sir William Thomson, and others, some of whose splendid
scientific labours have had the misfortune to become profitable
in a pecuniary sense, are treated in Dr. Tyndall’s ‘* Lectures
on Light,” just published. The contrast between the utter con-
tempt for money shown by their censor, and the (implied)
opposite which is condemned as unworthy of scientific men, is
brought out with all the flow of word-painting and righteous in-
dignation which Dr. Tyndall so abundantly possesses. Besides,
the monstrous doctrine is inculcated that men who devote them-
selves to practical applications are men incapable of original re-
search,

g. But, to conclude for the present, I would simply call atten-
tion to the following passage, which comes from an author who
in the same work treats of the relative merits of such giants as
Young and Fresnel. What confidence can one have in the ac-
curacy of any statement on a scientific matter made by the author
of it? :—

«¢ And here we may devote a moment to a question which has
often been the subject of public discussion—whether, namely,
a rainbow which spans a tranquil sheet of water is ever seen
reflected in the water? Supposing you cut an arch out of paste-
board, of the apparent width of the rainbow, and paint upon it
the colours of the bow; such a painted arch, spanning still
water, would, if not too distant, undoubtedly be seen reflected
in the water. The coloured rays from such an arch would be
emitted in all directions, those striking the water at the proper
angle, and reflected to the eye, giving the image of the arch.
But the rays effective in the rainbow are emitted only in the
direction fixed by the angle of 41°. Those rays, therefore,
which are scattered from the drops upon the water, do not carry
along with them the necessary condition of parallelism ; and,
hence, though the cloud on which the bow is painted may be
reflected from the water, we can have no reflection of the bow
itself.” —“ Lectures on Light,” p. 25.

If Dr. Tyndall, with the assistance of his scientific advisers,
fails to see the justice of my remark on this passage, perhaps
you will permit me to make it the text of a little essay in a
future number.

T have all along said, and still say, that I cordially recognise
the services of Dr. Tyndall in popularising certain parts of
Science. But his readers must be cautioned against accepting
as correct great parts of what he has written. It is granted to
very few men to do this useful work without thereby losing
their claim to scientific authority. Dr. Tyndall has, in fact,
martyred his scientific authority by deservedly winning distinc-
tion in the popular field. One learns too late that he cannot
“make the best of both worlds.”

I would request Dr. Tyndall for his own sake, not for mine,
should he favour me witha reply, not to pick out one or two iso-
lated passages of a letter, which absence from books may possibly
have rendered slightly inaccurate—but to answer me, as he has
not answered Forbes, in the full spirit and not in the partial
letter. P. G. Tair

St. Andrews, Aug. 20

W. S.J. on Hegel

I RESPECTFULLY request admission, into an early number of
Narure, for an explanatory word or two, in reference to
W. S. J.’s review of my poor book on Law, &c., in the valuable
publication named, for July 24, 1873.

W. S. J.’s very first sentence speaks of the said little book as
containing ‘‘a discussion of Hegel's opinions concerning gravi-
tation and the differential calculus.” In the first place, Hegel
has nothing to say against either gravitation as a fact, or the dif-
ferential calculus as an established method of indubitable scien-

_ tific calculation ; he would only attempt to philosophise both by

placing metaphysical principles under them. Now this is part
of Newton’s own action, and he certainly would not object to
any attempt, Hegel’s or other, in the same direction. In the
second place, I discuss no opinion of Hegel in this reference : I
only attempt to expose erroneous opinions of Hegel’s relative

NATURE

opinions, To this I strictly confine myself, and this goes much
deeper than the reader may, at first, think.

On Law, whatever is said by W. S. J., concerns only the old
difficulty of Hegel’s dialectic ; and perhaps the italicising of this
word, together with my own intellectual deficiences, may be
respectfully offered in explanation of as much, W. S. J. here,
then, is evidently misintelligent himself, and, accordingly, only
speaks so as to induce misintelligence in others. Nevertheless,
it is worth saying that the reader may or may not gain from the
particularity of satire in W. S. J.’s hands—so keen is it that it
cows, and, again, so kindly that it disconcerts.

Mathematically, according to W.S. J., ‘‘the critical state-
ment of the necessary outcome of Hegel’s philosophy,” reduces
itself to this, that the principle in question is placed ‘‘in that in
which the quantum has disappeared, and there remains the rela-
tion only as qualitative relation of quantity.” W. S. J. has for
this only the mildly-authoritative contempt of a duly-elevated
position ; and when it is said ‘* What is called infinitely Zi7#/e is
only qualitative, and is neither little nor great, nor quantitative
at all,” he at once squelches all by an ‘‘on the contrary!”
Now all this contemned matter comes directly, not from Hegel,
but from Newton; for the former, ‘quoting from the latter,
says :—

‘These (N.’s increments and decrements) are not to be taken
as particles of a definite magnitude (farticule finite). Such
were not themselves moments, but magnitudes, generated out of
moments ; what is to be understood, rather, is the principles or
beginnings (elements) of finite magnitude :” that is, plainly, what
is concerned lies “in that in which the quantum has disappeared
as quantum, and there remains the relation only as qualitative
relation of quantity.”

What concerns comets is naively amusing. We have not had
to wait in their regard (as W. S. J. seems to think) for the in-
formation of ‘‘ Chambers’ Handbook.” The astronomers of
the last century, as it appears, were able to speak better than
even the ‘‘ Handbook.” Comets that return, they say, though
after a great many years, travel in ellipses of enormous axes ;
whereas those that do not retum may describe parabolas or
hyperbolas. Such is the opinion of Science yet, though it may
talk of many other explanations of non-return, as dissipation, in-
terception, &c. This, I say, ishow Science looks yet; but W.S.J.,
for his part, is under the belief that Science has actually within
its ken comets that (so to speak) vevo/ve in hyperbolas, as well as
others that revolve in ellipses. (Positively such seems his idea.
Now, Hegel is never once at fault here—in his own way, I
mean ; for whether in ellipse, in parabola, or hyperbola, Hegel’s
assignation of the moment of singularity to the comet is, on his
own principles, justifiable. May not a non-returning comet,
too, be attributed to that contingency which is, and must be,
inherent in externality as externality? On the whole, it may be
well for us all to let comets alone yet. Our greatest living au-
thority can only philosophise them into stone-rattles which the
sun (for his amusement ?) whirls about his head.

One has only to consider these things and others the like—the
exquisite little gibes, not forgotten, about a secret in two volumes
and a secret in fifteen pages, &c.—to perceive that what we have
here is only once again the blind rush of prejudice from its usual
dark corner of relative ignorance—an ignorance which it will
persist in, and not (through study) convert into the light of day.
There is that approbative allusion to Mr. Smith, too; W. S. J.
will yet be ashamed of that.

On the whole, however, I hope I have not spoken disrespect-
fully, for I cannot fancy who W. S.J. maybe. He talks of
law and logic, and is possibly a lawyer ; he certainly has a pro-
found contempt for “ Hegel and his satellite Stirling ;’ but were
he (what his initials may indicate) ‘‘the eminent Jaggers”
himself, I cannot, whateyer his power of fracfice, admire his
capacity for principles.

Edinburgh, July 28 J. HutTcHIson STIRLING

Lakes with two Outfalls

In Nature, Aug. 14, a paper under this heading concludes
thus :—‘‘ Colonel George Greenwood, who is, I presume, the
same as the former active correspondent about this subject,
visited this lake (Lesjeskaugen) last summer, as appears from
the entry of his name in the day books. I am not aware that he
has since published any opinion, but the lake seems, so far as I
can judge, to support his view of the matter.—W. Stanley
Jevons.” I sent an account of my visit to Lesjeskaugen Lake

[ Sept. 11, 1873

a

\

_ tothe Geological Magazine in July 1872, but it was not so fortu-

nate as to meet with acceptance from the editor. The following
extracts coincide singularly with the opinions of Prof. Stanley
evons :—
The river Rauma, at the western end, which gives its name
to Romsdal, is the za¢ural outlet. The outlet to the river Logen,
at the eastern end, is entirely avdificia’, The water-parting there,
between Romsdal and the Dovre Feld, is an ancient ridge of
drift.” A cut has been made by man this ridge. The
stream through this cut now works a saw mill, but was for-
merly connected with the old iron works, The one outlet
from the lake enters the mill pool, from which there are
two outlets, one to serve the mill the other for the waste
water. All these three outlets are kept each at its required level
artificially, that is, with piles, logs, boulders, and rubble, so that
the quantity of water which is let out of the lake is regulated by
‘the miller and his men.’ The case is precisely equivalent to
the Black Loch, in Dumfriesshire, whose zafura/ (!) outlet is an
iron sluice in a stone dam opening to a mill lead cut through the
water-parting to Lord Bute’s mill. (See Atheneum, Aug. 6,
1864, and 25 in. Ordnance maps.) If such lakes as these are lakes
with two outlets, then the new conduit for the water supply of
Glasgow makes Loch Katrine a Jake with two outlets. An old
dry channel is in direct continuation of the present milllead. It
so close to the old iron work as actually to touch its
int If, as I imagine (as does also Prof. Stanley Jevons), the
two are connected with each other in origin, the artificial outlet
to the lake may be of very great antiquity.

A notice in NaTuRE, of a new work by Capt. Burton (1872),
quotes these words of his: ‘‘The northern and north-western
portions of the so-called ‘Victoria Nyanza’ must be divided into
three independent broads or lakes . . . in order to account for
the three effluents, within a little more than sixty miles.” Here,
then, the great traveller adopts my dictum, that “a lake can
only have one outlet.” I first published this dictum in the
Atheneum, July 4, 1863, when the late lamented Capt. Speke,
in his “Sketch Map,” gave four outlets to Lake Victoria Ny-
anza, three on ‘‘native information ;” and in the Atheneum,
July 25, Isaid, ‘‘I think that the native information will prove
to be erroneous.” GEORGE GREENWOOD

Brookwood Park, Alresford, Aug. 15

As Prof. Jevons has revived the question of the existence of
lakes possessing more than one outlet, I would invite the at-
tention of your readers to what appears to me an unequivocal
instance of the kind, though on a small scale, in the neighbour-
hood of the place whence I write.

On the high and very broken ground between the old moun-
tain road from Dolgelly to Towyn (which runs at the foot of
Cader Idris) and the south shore of the estuary of the Mawd-
dach is a watershed, which separates streams flowing directly into
the estuary by Capel Arthog from others which, after joining the
stream that descends from Llyn y Gader in the hollow imme-
diately under the summit of Cader Idris, find their way into the
estuary some three miles higher up. On this watershed lies a
lake about half-a-mile long, named Llyn Creigenen, which occu-

ies a rock basin with two lips at exactly the same level, one at
its western, the other at its eastern extremity. By the western
lip a small stream issues which descends rapidly and at one part
of its course forms one of the branches of the Falls of Arthog,
well known to visitors at Barmouth. By the eastern lip also, a
stream, diminutive, it is true (at any rate in the summer
months), but still quite distinct, issues and descends intoa boggy
tract, along which it wanders for some two miles, until it joins
the stream before mentioned from Llyn y Gader. These facts
are distinctly recorded on the Ordnance map, and I have fre-
quently verified them myself and pointed them out to others,- I
think there can be no doubt but that in this instance both of the
outlets are zatura/, and that a stream must issue from one if a
stream issues from the other, at any rate at the ordinary level of
the water inthe lake. It is perhaps, impossible to say that both
outlets are Zermanent in that secu/ar sense which Prof. Jevons
seems-to attribute to the word, as circumstances are easily con-
ceivable under which the flow through the smaller easterly outlet
might cease; but at any rate for many years, supposing the
average supply of water to the lake to remain the same, and no
artificial barrier to be erected, the two streams will continue to
issue from the lake at all seasons.

Prof. Jevons remarks that ‘‘ on @ Zyioré grounds it seems very
unlikely that there should exist any lake with two distinct out-
flows,” I would reply that, while it is undoubtedly improbable

that any particular Jake named at random should possess this
characteristic, it can hardly be regarded as @ priori very unlikely
that among all the lakes on the earth’s surface there should be
found here and there one with more than a single outlet. At
any rate, I would recommend anyone who is sceptical in the
matter to visit Llyn Creigenen, which is but an easy hour’s walk
from the Arthog Station on the railway between Barmouth Junc-
tion and Dolgelly. Rogert B, HAYWARD
Capel Arthog, Aug. 16

Cranes in the Gardens of the Zoological Society
of London 2

In NATURE of June 26 (antfea, p. 164), Mr. W. A. Forbes
points out an error in the report of the meeting of the Zoological
Society for June 15, in astatement that no example of Grus vipio
(sive leucauchen) had been brought to Europe previously to
those lately received by that Society. Instead of “ Europe” the

word ‘‘England” should have stood in the paragraph in

question, which would then have been correct.

It is quite true (as stated by Mr. Forbes) that the collection of
living cranes in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of
Amsterdam is the finest in the world. At the same time the
series of these birds in the Regent’s Park is also at the present
moment very nearly perfect, embracing, as it does, examples of
all the usually recognised species, with the exception of Grus
leucogeranus, and G. monacha.

Of the former of these the Society once possessed a living
specimen, but the rare G. monacha of Japan has, I believe, never
yet reached Europe alive. 5

The following is a list of the Zoological Society’s present
series of the Gruidze:—2 Common Cranes (Grus cinerea), 1 Brown
Crane (G. caxadensis), 2 White-necked Cranes (G. deucauchen),
I Sarus Crane (G. torguata), 1 Australian Crane (G.australa-
siana), 1 White American Crane (G. americana), 1 Mantchurian
Crane (G.montignesia), 2 Wattled Cranes (G. carunculata),
1 Balearic Crowned Crane (Balearica pavonina), 4 Cape crowned
Cranes (ZB. regulorum), 3 Demoiselle Cranes (Anthropoides virgo),

August 27 P.

Colour of Lightning

I sHOULD be much obliged to any of your readers who would
give me any information as to the cause of the colour of
lightning.

In one of two storms which passed over here yesterday
evening the lightning was decidedly pink in tint; later in the
night it had regained its normal yellow or bluish colour.

Odrey, Aug. 25 H. GEorGE ForDHAM

Harmonic Causation and Harmonic Echoes

In reference to the question of ‘‘ Harmonic Echoes,” allow
me to suggest to those who may have the opportunity of ob-
servation, how desirable it is that these echo-tones should be
investigated in a manner to determine whether they are truly
harmonic or not. There would be no difficulty in testing the
sounds given in response to the notes of a closed organ-pipe and
an open one, or the notes of representative musical instruments,
clarionet and flute. It might be found that the echo at Bedge-
bury Park would give the octave always, irrespective of the
particular instrument provoking it; or, on the other hand, that
it refused to answer to a closed pipe, or gave only the twelfth,
its proper reply. We should then know whether the echo-tone
was that of the harmonic or a new fragmental tone consequent
on the breaking up of the wave of the fundamental or ground-
tone, by ‘‘ breakers ahead.”

Now that we are called upon to recognise several varieties or
classes of musical tone, it is time that the leaders in Science
came to a general agreemeut upon the use of the term ‘‘ har-
monic.” Is it to be applied indifferently to ‘* over-tones,” other-
wise ‘‘partial-tones,” to ‘‘ combination-tones,” to “ concussion-
tones,” arising from the violence of the shock of sound-waves in
collision, to ‘‘fragmental-tones” produced out of the wave of
the ground-tone broken up by obstacles encountered in its
course or in reflection, and _to “‘echo-tones” which may be
affiliated to either variety? It seems to me that we risk much
confusion unless “‘harmonic” is restricted to its earlier usage,
and applied solely to the ‘‘ harmonic series,”—the tones which
are the direct offshoots of the fundamental. These tones have
but one order of succession, and will bear no interpolation: the

384
octave, twice the velocity of the fundamental ; the twelfth, which
is three times; the fifteenth, or double octave, four times ; the
seventeenth, five times, and so on, always an acceleration by
uniform addition. In the examples taken from the compilation
of Dr. Brewer, the echo-tones go beyond all law of harmonic
progression, and must be accounted for as belonging to other
classes of tones, if the data can be relied upon, seeing that some
instances are questionable as to authority, and others are beyond
proof. The Bedgebury Park instance may be taken as proved ;
it is simple, and attested by living authority. Who will vouch
for the other instances as evidence? The question is not put to
cavil, but because of the dubiousness of the possession by the
several recorders of the necessary qualification for an accurate
estimate of the phenomena recorded.

Musical people of any pretension to critical power in these
matters are generally ‘‘ self-centered,” each individual considers
himself competent to pronounce judgment on “ pitch,” yet the
delusiveness of this belief would be testified to by none more
readily than by men who are daily engaged in tuning and in
estimating minute relations of the invisible geometry denomi-
nated ‘‘ pitch.” Notwithstanding long experience and daily prac-
tice, no sooner does any question arise out of ordinary routine
than they hesitate to depend on judgment alone, but resort to
comparison with some fixed pitch already ascertained, and by
this means prove themselves to be frequently at fault when least
expecting it. Harmonic sounds are difficult to judge of, they lie
at wide intervals, are frequently sharp, and if pure and faint, the
ear is as liable to be deceived by an apparent lowness as it is with
pure ground-tones. Fineness of ear for perception of niceties of
pitch is by no means a common endowment, and where it exists,
does not certify a fine musical organisation. Pitch bears re-
lation to musical tune and to quality of tone similar to that
which geometry bears to figure drawing and to painting. In
rare instances only are the faculties for each associated in fair
proportion, and frequently the possession of one power seems to
exclude or override the others. Some men are gifted in this
respect, and will tell you the pitchnote of a button, or a pencil,
or a pin, as accurately as they will the notes of a song; or will
discriminate, without hesitation, every note in a series of com-
plicated chords with a skill almost as sure as instinct.

Professor Tyndall introduced the term ‘‘ over-tones” in con-
nection with “harmonic ;” more recently, in Helmholtz’ Lec-
tures, Mr. Ellis has substituted ‘‘ partial tones ;” and Mr. Sedley
Taylor adopts the same. This is a pity, for there is something
incongruous in the idea of ‘‘partial tones” which yet are com-
plete whilst component, and Tyndall’s term “‘ over-tones”’ is far
more expressive.

The question of harmonic force, in which probably lies the
explanation of the Bedgebury echo, came before me a few days
since in experiments made to obviate, if possible, the wavy
unsteadiness common to stopped pipes with high-cut mouths.
Many variations were made without useful results. On with-
drawing to some few yards’ distance from the pipe into a recessed
doorway, it was observable that the fundamental tone com-
pletely vanished, and the first harmonic, the twelfth, came
into prominence instead of it, although you had only to step a
yard forward to become again aware of the continued co-exist-
ence of the fundamental. On comparing this segregated twelfth
with a corresponding note in the scale of the standard pitch of
the organ, it was found to be decidedly too sharp, and thus the
real cause of the waviness of tone was discovered, thereby saving
many experiments ina false direction.

Several works now give elaborate analyses of harmonic
tones; Mr. Sedley Taylor's “Sound and Music” is the
last most useful addition, and supplies much previously want-
ing. In no work, however, do we meet with any defi-
nite statement as to the causation of harmonic tones; yet
it seems necessary for the full understanding of their nature
and of the relation they bear to the instruments producing
them that the mode of their origination should not be left
unheeded. The conclusion derived from my own investigations
is that the harmonics of musical instruments have their origin
solely in the surplus energy of the generating force over and
above that necessary to produce the fundamental tone ; this
superabundant vigour finds its outlet in accessory vibrations,
and the harmonics are the escape valves for securing to the fun-
damental tone freedom from fluctuations to which otherwise it
would succumb, When the vibrating force is inadequate to
waken the ground-tone of an organ pipe it settles down into the
harmonic nearest related to its power ; the tone may be consi-

NATURE

[Sepd, 11, 1873,

dered as surplus energy, since it is disproportionate'to its work,
and only becomes harmonic because it falls short of the funda-
mental after which it is striving. Except in this relation we
should regard it as ground-tone. When a pipe is overblown,
the harmonics maintain themselves through the excess of energy
to the complete exclusion of the fundamental, and they are sharp
to the regulated pitch of the pipe. Harmonic tones when thus
produced independently have considerably more intensity than
the normal tones of pipes of corresponding pitch. In all the-
orchestral wind'instruments it is the higher notes that require
greatest wind-force for their production ; the clarionet alone dif-
fers as respects a certain range of its high notes, where the reverse
is the case, the force being considerably-less than for the lower
range, but the structural conditions of the instrument sufficiently
account for the peculiarity.

The experiment with the stopped pipe previously described
clearly shows the penetrating power of accessory tones, and that
whilst the fundamental occupies the ear by its volume, the
harmonic has the strongest vitality even in its associated con-
dition. In view of these facts we may reasonably infer that the
“octave echo” in Bedgebury Park is the reflected harmonic
heard alone ; still it would be well to prove it in the manner
suggested. That the voice was returned from a plantation
“* across a valley,” gives intimation of a distance favourable to
the loss of the fundamental tone in the depths of the valley ; and
that ‘‘ the original sound required to be loud and rather high”
is an additional assurance of the presence of harmonic vigour in
the vocal tone.

A remarkable instance of echo freaks within my own experi-
ence is well timed to be spoken of here. At the bottom of my
garden there is a meadow, then a double row of houses with a
high railway embankment at the end, and a wall rising beyond
that. About two months ago, whilst looking over the meadow
at the clouds of sunset, the sound of a band in the distance came
upon me, and, immediately following, the sound of another and
more demonstrative band from an opposite direction, giving pre-
diction of horrible discord. Strange to say, although the two
bands were playing most noticeably different melodic phrases,
there was no conflict ; one band seemed to be the symphonic
accompaniment of the other, and there was a peculiar charm in
the effect, causing regret that the music should come to a natural
end. Knowing that the first band was echo-music, there was at
once a singularity to attract attention, how to account for the
precedence of that which shouid be secondary? but the greater
puzzle was to understand how it came to pass that the music was
different, so that whilst listening the illusion of a distinct band
was difficult to dispel, doubts arose about Echo having any voice
in it at all, only that from time to time the pauses between the
phrases showed the /o//owing of the form upon the shadow. Re-
flection upon the matter afterwards furnished the probable ex-
planation. The distance of the place of echo was approximately
between six and seven hundred feet from the source of the sounds,
my standing place being at about one-fourth of the distance ;
between me and the band three houses intervened, over which
the music came to me, whilst the terrace on which the band was
stationed opened freely on to the meadow ; thus Echo received the
music earliest by reason of the unobstructed passage, and her ren-
dering was that of natural selection, the most vigorous tones,
and the penetrating harmonics, whatever had most living power,
infused by the players and sustained by the characteristics of the
instruments, all these reached her and rose again in perfect
accord with the original harmony, whilst all the other notes,
those of low vibrating power and of inferior stamina, were lost
by the way. It should also be noted that observation afterwards
of the angle of incidence and positions of the band and of the
listener showed that the course of the sound waves on their
way to Echo was in front of a detached line of cottage buildings,
then passing into the enclosed space between the double row of
houses up to the embankment, the recourse being by the Jack of
the cottage buildings, across gardens and the meadow to the
listener. Doubtless the singular vividness of the phenomena
was due in great measure to the state of the atmosphere, which
at the time was peculiar, the western sky heavy with gorgeous
clouds, and the air silent and sultry. The relation which the
organ-pipe experiment first detailed has to the theoretical solu-
tion here offered will be readily perceived; and but for the
support afforded by it one could hardly have ventured on the
statement and the explanation, which else would have appeared
to be, the one unreal, and the other fanciful.

August 25 HERMANN SMITH

-on ‘*Oreodon Remains in the Woodwardian Museum,

1873] bE

The Oreodon Remains in the Woodwardian Museum

My attention has just been accidentally called to some okie
‘am-

bridge” in your number of August 14.

I hasten to correct an error into which your correspondent has
fallen as to the locality in which the remains to which he refers
were obtained. I did not visit the Mauvaises Terres of Ne-
braska, but collected all my specimens in the valley of the John
Day River, in Upper Oregon, about long, 120° 10’ W., lat.

° Y. ’ a

Most of the specimens are from near the head of a small
stream called Bridge Creek, a locality well known to Prof.
Marsh, whose new species of Oreodon described in the American
Journal of Science and Art was possibly obtained there. A few,
however, are from the Great Cafion higher up on John Day’s
River, nearly opposite Old Camp Watson, where I passed the
winter of 1871-72.
f1I was informed by a gentleman who accompanied Prof.
Marsh’s Yale College Expedition, in October 1871, that they had
on that occasion found a skull of a new and unusually large
species of Oreodon in one of the places above mentioned. But
your correspondent is probably acquainted with all the descrip-
tions that have been published in America, and will know
whether the Oreodon superbus of my informant has or has not
yet been christened in print.

I have regretted much since my return that I only devoted
parts of three days to a search for these interesting remains.

WALSINGHAM
Merton Hall, Thetford, Sept. 5
Bright Shooting Stars

I BEG to send you the following particulars of the observed
paths of nine bright shooting stars recently seen here,

Began Ended senoth APPTOX:

. Apparent Dec. Dec, “EPS? Radiant

Refi Date. Time. Mag. RAN RAL oy! ofpath “Point.
xr July 28 aon =1 210” 49° 200° 38° 14° Pegasus
2 5, 28 11.48 istmag. * 202 44 1934 36 zo Pegasus
3's, 30 O45 istmag.* 42 435 45 36 84 x Persei
4 Aug. 2 11.40 = Y 43° «54 62 56 12 egasus
5 3 67 9.33 2X9 190 59. 195 30 30 Polaris”

Ci sd kin xo. = 4.675 196 73 30 «x Persei
i » 9 10.29 1stmag. °K 37 45 50 42 zo Andromeda
2 9 11.25 1stmag. * 337 59 304 50 20 x Persei
9 ‘» 9 %229 Istmag.% 28 41 12 46 x2 Andromeda

No. 5 in the above list was the brightest, and left a very per-
ceptible train just N. of Cor. Caroli for 7%. No.9 also lefta
train, visible for 35, N. of 7 Andromedz.

The evening of August 9 was clear, and two observers
counted thirty-five meteors in the interval between roh. 15m. and
1th, 45m., after which time clouds obscured the sky. During
the night of August 10 it remained overcast. Of the thirty-five
shooting stars seen on August 9, the great majority were
Perseids, but the radiant region is diffusely extended from the
star group at x Persei to 1b Camelopardali, There were also
indications of radiation from Pegasus and Andromeda. The
August meteors of this year appear to have been Jarger than
those seen in former years ; at any rate bright meteors have been
exceptionally abundant during the dates included in the above
list. WILL1aM F. DENNING
Bristol, August 11

November Meteor Shower of 1872

Mr. E. D. Jones, of San Paulo, Brazil, has sent me the en-
closed extract from his diary, referring to the meteor shower
of November last, which he observed whilst crossing the
Atlantic. ;

- HENRY C. BEASLEY

Gateacre, Liverpool, Sept. 3

‘Noy. 27, 1872, s.s. Halley, N. lat. 11°30’, W. long. 26° 50’.
—There was a splendid shower of meteors this evening. I saw
them shooting in profusion as soon as it was dark (about half-
past six). Isat in a chair on deck facing the west, where Jupi-
ter was flaring in the tropic sky, and watched the flying
messengers from other worlds. I counted no less than 400 in
half an hour, that is at the rate of about 14 per minute. They
came in shoals, asit were. There would bea long pause, and then
five or six would fly across together, reminding me forcibly of the

ot eee ea . ‘
“I Ce ae

NATURE

a te

385

flying-fish we had seen in the daytime, Every now and thena much
brighter one than usual would flash into existence, and leave a trail
of beautiful reddish light behind. Generally speaking, they were
as bright as a star of the second magnitude. But the brighter
ones I speak of were quite equal to stars of the first magnitude.
One splendid one at about eight o’clock (local time) was so bright
that it lit up the sails of the ship ; it was of a red colour, and
burst in two before disappearing. One later on left a trail
which I could distinguish for half a minute. I was able to trace
the point in the heavens from which the meteors emanated, viz.,
a point near the northern extremity of Perseus, between that
constellation and Andromeda. About this point I often saw
them come into view, and die away with scarcely any apparent
motion, on account of their coming in a straight line towards
the observer ; below this point they fell towards the horizon,
above it they fell across the zenith, and so on. Those with the
longest path were in the western sky (opposite Perseus), as the
view was the least fore-shortened there. The position of the
Halley was that given at the heading of this extract. The follow-
ing table shows that we probably did not see the thick of the
shower, having passed it by daylight :—

| n

| z 2 é |
oun | See cee
8.30 P.M 8 minutes | 12°5
8. 38 » 7 » | 14°3
8.45 Vee | 14°3
10.5 17» | 59
10.22 ” 17 ” ’ 5 9
10.49 ,, 22 ee ; 4°6
12.15 A.M. 30s | 2°8

“The reasons that the first observation gives fewer than the
second, may be that the twilight did not allow of the less bril-
liant meteors being seen ; that the eye of the observer was not
so well practised in detecting them; and the light clouds flying
through the air may have obscured some of them, The other
observations show a regular decrease in the numbers from 8'45
P.M.

“T counted 750 meteors in my observations, and saw quanti-
ties more besides. Of course I could only see about one-third
of the sky at a time, but I was looking in the direction of the
thickest fall most of the time, so that I daresay I saw half the
number that actually fell ; taking this for granted, there must
have been 3,500 between 8.30 P.M. and 12.15 A.M., Greenwich
mean time.”

EXPLORATIONS IN THE GREAT WEST

WE are now in possession of facts which will sup-
plement our last reference to this subject. The
following names may be added to the list of scientific
men accompanying the Wheeler Expedition engaged on
surveys west of the 1ooth meridian :—Mr, Severance,
ethnologist; Drs. H. C. Garrow and J. L. Rothock,
naturalists; Mr. H. Stewart Brown, meteorologist ;
Messrs. Klett and Louis Mell, topographers. The entire
force numbers 175 men. 4
The surveying party of Mr. Clarence King, geologist,
designated as the Geological Survey of the 4oth parallel,
has just finished its work and is recently disbanded,
Among the scientific men accompanying it were Messrs.
J. G. Gardner (astronomer and geographer), Wilson
(topographer), J. D. Hague (mining geologist), Emmons
(assistant geologist), Arnold Hague (chemist and mineral-
ogist), Robert, Ridgway (zoologist), and S. Watson
(botanist). The force is largely absorbed by other expedi-
tions now in the field. The results of this expedition are
expected to fill five quarto volumes and accompanying
atlases ; of which one on mining in Nevada and adjacent
territories with folio atlas will be by Mr. Hague, and one
on botany is already published. The remaining volumes
are well under way and will, it is expected, be completed
during the present year.
There is an expedition known as the International

ee Aa et

386

NATURE

| Sep¢. 11, 1873

Northern Boundary Commission, engaged in the survey
of the 49th parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the
crest of the Rocky Mountains. Archibald Campbell, of
Washington, is the commissioner in charge; Major
Twining is the chief of engineers on the part of the
United States, and Dr. Elliott Coues of the U.S. army is
the naturalist of the expedition, The British Govern-
ment details its proportion of the party, which is tho-
roughly equipped for this service. The operations of the
present year extend westward from Pembina.

The expedition under Major J. Powell, to the canons
of Colorado, is still in the field. Major Powell has spent
several years in explorations in this region, and has con-
structed a map of great interest and accuracy. His
ethnological researches among the Piute and other Indian
tribes have resulted in a large and exceedingly valuable
collection,

Mr. Wm. H. Dall, well known by his elaborate work
on the Territory of Alaska, founded on his former three
years’ residence in that region, is now. actively employed
in continuing his survey and hydrography in the Aleutian
Islands, under the direction of the U.S. Coast Survey, a
work on which he has been engaged during the past two
years. His labours have been principally in Alaska and
the adjacent islands, from which he returned last Septem-
ber, having gone there in the summer of 1871. He spent
last winter in San Francisco, in preparing for the expe-
dition of the present year, which included fitting out a
vessel expressly for this service. Among other objects
contemplated is the selection of an island on the western
extremity of the Aleutian chain, to serve for the landing
of the Japan cable, for laying which the U.S. steamer
Narragansett has been detailed to make deep-sea sound-
ings. Mr. Dall is assisted by Prof. Baker, of Ann Arbor,
Mich., astronomer.

Mr. Henry W. Elliott is at the head of a private expe-
dition to St. Paul and St. George, the fur-bearing seal
islands of Bering’s Sea. He has the assistance of Captain
Bryant, who is in charge of the U.S, Revenue and other
Government interests on these islands. Mr. Elliott is
making exhaustive collections in natural history, which
he sends to the National Museum at Washington, his
investigations respecting seals and walruses being espe-
cially valuable and complete. His labours during 1872
were demonstrated by twenty large boxes of collections.
He is a very skilful draughtsman, and his drawings of
natural subjects are remarkable alike for accuracy and
vigour.

ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND
MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF
WEIGHT AND MEASURE *

Ve
1V.—The Metric Systent

AP a system of weights and measures, constructed on

strictly scientific principles, the metric system may
justly claim pre-eminence over all others. It was estab-
lished upon the fundamental basis of the me¢re, its primary
unit of length bearing a determinate decimal ratio to one
of the largest natural constants, that is to say, the ten-
millionth part of the earth’s meridian-quadrant. It in-
cludes a fixed relation between the units of weight and
capacity, the 4é/ogrammie and the /itre, and the unit of
length, the ze¢re, from which both are derived; and it
comprehends a uniform decimal scale of multiples and
parts of these units. It must, however, be admitted that
the more recent progress of modern science has demon-
strated that the actual standards of metric length, weight,
and capacity do not exactly correspond with their scien-
tific definition ; and apart from the insuperable difficulties
which have been found to exist in the precise determina-

* Continued from p. 379.

tion of material standards from any natural constant, the
unanimous opinion of several of the highest scientific
authorities in this country has been deliberately expressed
that there is no practical advantage in adopting a unit
founded in nature over one of an arbitrary character. In
truth, the great advantage of the metric system consists
in the simplicity and uniformity of its decimal scale, and
the great convenience of this scale for all purposes of
account as agreeing with the decimal system of notation,
and more especially when combined with a decimal
coinage which formed part of the original scheme. These
undoubted advantages have proved the chief recommen-
dations to the adoption of the metric system, first by
France, and afterwards by so many other countries, and
generally in the scientific world. There is now every
prospect of the metric system being generally adopted in
all countries of the civilised world, thus greatly enhancing
its value as a common international system of weights
and measures, and constituting, as it were, a universal

language for expressing all quantities weighed or mea- |

sured,

The original steps which led to the establishment of
the metric system in France were taken with a view of
reforming the old French system of weights and measures,
which had become intolerable from their defective state
and want of uniformity. In 1790, on the motion of M,
Talleyrand, in the National Assembly, the question o
the formation of an improved system to be based upon a
natural constant, was referred to the French Academy of
Sciences. A request was also made at the same time to
the British Government that the Royal Society should
act jointly with the French Academy, but no response
was given to the invitation, in consequence of the distrust
then entertained in this country at the progress of the
revolutionary party in France. The preliminary work
was consequently entrusted to five of the most eminent
members of the French Academy, Lagrange, Laplace,
Borda, Monge, and Condorcet. The important Report of
this Committee, which bears also the signature of a sixth
member, Lalande, gave rise to the metric system. It
was presented to the Academy on March 19, 1791, and is
printed at length in their Memoirs. The choice of the
fundamental unit of the new system lay in its derivation
either from the length of the seconds-pendulum, of the
earth’s equator, or of the earth’s meridian. The Com-
mittee rejected the length of the pendulum beating
seconds as the basis of the new standard unit of length,
because it involved a heterogeneous element, that of time,
as well as an arbitrary element, the division of the day
into 86,400 seconds. They proposed a unit of length
taken from the dimensions of the earth itself, and not
dependent upon any other quantity ; and they did not
hesitate to select as its basis the quadrant of the meridian
in preference to a quadrant of the equator, from its being
a universal measure applicable to all countries, as every
country was placed under one of the meridians of the
earth, whilst only few countries are under the equator,
They considered also that no greater dependence could
be placed upon the regularity of the equator, than upon
the equality or regularity of the several meridians, They
recommended the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of
the meridian as the definition of the new fundamental
unit of length. Renouncing the ordinary subdivision of
the meridian-quadrant into degrees, minutes, and seconds,
they proposed a uniform decimal scale as practically the
best, from its agreeing with the scale of arithmetical nota-
tion. In order that no other arbitrary principle should
be introduced into the new system of weights and mea-
sures, they recommended for the basis of the unit of
weight a measured quantity of distilled water, being a
homogeneous substance, always to be easily found in the
same degree of purity and density ; and that such quantity
should be weighed in a vacuum at its temperature when
passing from a solid to a liquid state.

Sept. 11, 1873]

NATURE ~ Bt 387

For the practical purpose of ascertaining the length of
the meridian quadrant, they proposed to measure an arc
of the meridian from Dunkirk to Barcelona, a distance’ of
nearly 9}°, and comprehending about 6° to the north and
33° to the south of the mean parallel of latitude. These
extreme points had also the advantage of being both at
the sea level. The actual operations required were stated

‘to be as follows :—

I. To determine the difference of latitude between
Dunkirk and Barcelona.

2. To re-measure the ancient bases which had served
for the measurement of a degree at the latitude of Paris,
and for making the map of France.

3. To verify by new observations the series of triangles
employed for measuring the meridian, and to prolong
them as far as Barcelona. ; :

4. To make observations in lat. 45° for determining the
number of vibrations in a day, and in a vacuum at the
sea level, of asimple pendulum equal in length when at the
temperature of melting ice, to the ten-millionth part of
the meridian quadrant, with a view to the possibility of
restoring the length of the new standard unit, at any future
time, by pendulum observations.

5. To verify carefully and by new experiments the
weight in a vacuum of a given volume of distilled water,
at the temperature of melting ice.

6. To draw up tables of existing measures of length,
surface, and capacity, and of the different weights in use,
in order to ascertain their equivalents in the measures
and weights of the new system, as soon as they should be
determined.

In pursuance of the recommendations of this Report,
the law of March 26, 1791, was passed by the National
Assembly for constructing the new system upon the pro-
posed basis ; and the Academy of Sciences was charged
with the direction of the necessary operations. They
entrusted the measurement of the arc of the meridian
from Dunkirk to Barcelona to two of their members,
Méchain and Delambre, who carried on the work during
seven years, from 1791 to 1798, notwithstanding many
great difficulties and dangers.

The unit of measure adopted for the actual measure-
ment was the existing French standard of length, the
Toise of the Academy, better known as the Zozse de Perou,
a measure of 6 French feet (Pzeds du Roz). This standard

- is now deposited at the Observatoire at Paris. Itis a bar
of polished iron, about 14 inch in breadth, and 4 inch in
thickness, and a little longer than a toise. The length of
a toise is marked by a rectangular step near each end of
the bar, leaving the remaining portion at the ends half
the thickness of the measuring part of the bar.

The true length of the toise was taken about a line
(or 74; inch) above the re-entering angles of the bar,
at the temperature of 13° Réaumur, or 16°25 C. It has
been declared to be equal to 76'7563 English inches, the
old French foot (which was divided into 12 inches and
the inch into 12 lines), being equal to 12°792 English
inches. The toise was afterwards found to be equal to
1°94904 metre,

This standard had been originally constructed as the
unit for measuring an arc of the meridian in Peru, and
for verifying the meridian of Paris, in 1740; and it was
substituted in 1766 for the more ancient French standard
of length, the Zozse du Grand Chatelet, from which it had
been originally derived. This older toise was deemed
wanting in the scientific precision requisite fora standard
ef length. It had been constructed in 1668, and is said
to have been 5 lines shorter than the toise measure then
ordinarily used, for which no authoritative standard could
be found; and to have been actually derived from the
width of the inner gate of the entrance to the Louvre,
which, according to the original plan, was made 12 feet
wide, and one half of this width was taken for the length
of the standard toise.

The measures actually used for the survey operations
are known as the Rég/es de Borda, They were four in num-
ber, each consisting of a bar of platinum two toises, or
12 French feet, in length, about 4 inch broad, and 7 inch
thick. Each platinum bar was fixed at one end only toa
bar of brass about 113 feet long, the other end of the
platinum bar being free and extending about 6 inches
beyond the corresponding end of the brass bar. The
object of this second bar was that it should form, to-
gether with the first bar, a metallic thermometer, indi-
cating the temperature of the two bars by their difference
of dilatation, which could be measured by a fine vernier.
The four measuring bars were accurately verified, and
found, when placed together, end to end, not sensibly to
differ from eight times the length of the Toise of Peru at
the temperature of 12°5 C,

The base for the measurement of the northern portion
of the work was measured at Melun, and found to be
6075"90 toises. The base for the southern portion was
measured at Perpignan, and found to be 600625 toises.

Meanwhile the Academy of Sciences was abolished in
1793, by a decree of the National Convention, and a
Commission of eleven scientific men, consisting prin-
cipally of those who had been previously engaged in the
proceedings, was appointed, in 1795, to carry out all‘the
arrangements for the definitive establishment of the Me-
tric System. In 1798, towards the close of the opera-
tions, an equal number of scientific men, representatives
of foreign countries, .were added to the Commission,
which was then composed as follows :—

French Members: MM. Borda, Brisson, Coulomb,
Darcet, Delambre, Lagrange, Laplace, Lefevre-
Gineau, Legendre, Méchain, de Prony.

From the Batavian Republic: Aeneae, Van Swinden.

Sardinia: Balbo, afterwards replaced by Vassali, from
the Provisional Government of Piedmont.

Denmark: Bugge.

Spain: Pédrayés, Ciscar.

Tuscany : Fabbroni.

Roman Republic: Franchini.

Cisalpine Republic : Mascheroni.

Ligurian Republic; Multedo.

Helvetian Republic: Trallés.

The final results of all the operations for determining
the new metric unit of length, were stated by the Com-
mission in their Report, dated April 30, 1799. They
found :—

1. That the length of the arc of the meridian compre-
hended between Dunkirk and Barcelona, was 9°6738°
(or 9° 40’ 45”), and measured 551,584'72 toises. 4

2. Assuming, from the previous measurements in
France and Peru, that the mean ellipticity of the earth
was 5} , they computed the length of the meridian-
quadrant to be 5,130,740 toises, :

3. That the length of the new unit of length, the ten-
millionth part of the meridian-quadrant, was equal to
0°5130740740 toise, or 3 feet and 11'296 lines; being
443'296 lines of the Toise of Peru (which contained 864
lines), at its standard temperature of 16°25 C. In terms
of the new standard unit, the Toise of Peru was equal to
1°949036591 metre.

4. That the length of the pendulum at the temperature
of melting ice, beating seconds in a vacuum at the sea
level at Paris, was equal to 0'99385 metre.

The actual construction of the new standard measure -

of length had been entrusted to the mechanician Lenoir.
As a preliminary proceeding, he made four end-standard
metres of brass, differing in length very slightly from
each other, and each about equal to 443'242 lines of the
Toise of Peru. This was the computed length of one
ten-millionth part of the meridian-quadrant, as deduced
from the previous measurements of an arc of the meridian
in France made in 1740. The length of these four brass
metres, when placed end to end, was nearly 1,773 lines,

388

thus exceding double the length of the Toise of Peru, by
about 45 lines. Lenoir constructed a supplementary
measure of this excess of length, and its exact relation
to the toise was ascertained by numerous comparisons,
for which other intermediate measures were employed,
and their exact length determined. The actual com-
parisons of the four brass metres were made not with the
Toise of Peru itself, but with two standard toises con-

structed by Lenoir, the length of each of which in relation |

to the Toise of Peru had been carefully determined. In
these comparisons the additional length of the measure
of 45 lines was also employed. The comparing instru-
ment was a comparateur made by Lenoir, which enabled
very minute differences in measuring bars under com-
parison to be read off on a subdivided scale by means of
a contact lever. One division of this scale was equal to
o'00001 toise, and one-tenth part of one of these divisions
(= o'001949 mm.) could be read off with the aid of a
vernier, It appears from the Report of MM. Borda and
Brisson, dated July 17, 1795, that the result of a number
of comparisons, including those of the four metres with
each other, showed metre No. 2 to be nearest to the
required length, being 443°4519 lines of the Toise of Peru
at the mean temperature during the observations of 12°96
Réaumur, thus very closely approaching its standard
temperature of 13° Réaumur, and exceeding the required
length at this temperature by only ovor1g line. It was
accordingly selected as the provisional Standard Metre.
But they considered that its standard temperature would
more conveniently be fixed at 10° C., and as, according to
Borda’s determination, the coefficient of dilatation of
brass between o° and 32° C, was o'00001783 for 1° C,
they determined its length at 10° C. to be 443'401 lines of
the Toise of Peru. :

For obtaining the definitive standard, which was to be
the length of 443'296 lines of the Toise of Peru at 16°25 C.,
which was thus so nearly indicated by the provisional metre,
two standard metres of platinum, and twelve metres of
iron, were constructed by Lenoir, his comparing apparatus
having been improved so as to show differences of o'ooI
line. The Commission were not satisfied with making
numerous comparisons of these metres and the provisional
metre of brass among themselves, but they also compared
them repeatedly with the four Rég/es de Borda and a new
supplementary measure of above 45 lines, so as to deter-
mine not only their relative and absolute length, but also
the rates of expansion of the three metals of which they
were composed. ‘he rates of expansion definitively
adopted by the Commission, from observations made by
Borda between o° and 32° C., were as follows :—

In a metre.

Coefficient of linear expansion of platinum for x° C.= 000000856, or 00031 mm.
Af brass 3» = 000001783, OF 0°0092 4,
> iron yy == O'00001I56, OF 0.0063 4,

The comparisons and corrections of the several metres
were continued until no difference amounting to o’ooo00I
toise, or o’oo1 millimetre, could be found at the tempera-
ture of melting ice, either in their desired absolute length
of 443°296 lines of the Toise of Peru or in relation to
each other. They were consequently all determined to
be perfectly exact. One of the platinum metres, subse-
quently known as the JZetre des Archives, from its place
of deposit, was reserved as the new prototype measure of
length ; the other was kept at the Observatoire at Paris,
as its accessible representative. The twelve iron stan-
dard metres were distributed amongst the several countries
represented at the Commission.

The primary Metre des Archives is a-rectangular plati-
num bar, bearing no mark or description. Its breadth is
25mm. (0'984 in.), its height 3°5 mm. (0.138in.). Its ends
are planes perpendicular to its axis of length, and
the straight line between them in this axis denotes the
true length of the metre at o° C., or the temperature of
melting ice. It thus constitutes what is termed a JZé¢re-
a-bouts, or end-standard metre. ;

°

NATURE

*! “sr ae Pre

| S@pz. 11, 1873

The unit of metric weight was defined to be the weight
in a vacuum of a cubic decimetre of distilled water at its
maximum density, or the temperature of 4° C. Distilled
water was selected as the best material in nature for thus
determining the unit of weight, from its being obtainable
everywhere and at all hours in the greatest purity, its
being perfectly homogeneous, and its density being invari-
able at any given temperature. It was required first ac-
curately to ascertain the weight of this volume of water,
and then to construct a metallic standard of equivalent
weight. The necessary operations for effecting both these
objects were entrusted to M. Lefevre-Gineau in 1795. He
had to decide between two modes of proceeding for accu-
rately determining the volume of water to be weighed ; one,
by measuring the internal capacity of a vessel to contain
this volume of water ; the other, by measuring externally a
solid or hollow body, in order to ascertain the weight of
the volume of water displaced by it. He chose this last
method, considering that the accurate external measure-
ment of a metallic body was much less difficult than that
of the internal capacity of a metallic vessel; and it was
determined that the best form of this body was a cylinder
of a height fequal to the diameter of the base, this form

1G. 10.—Cylinder for determining cubic centimetre.

being capable of being made and measured with the
greatest precision.

It was not thought requisite that the cylinder should be ;

of the specified volume of a cubic decimetre, but only of
the most convenient size for arriving at the desired result
by computation. The cylinder actually used was made of
brass, and hollow, being only so much heavier than the
same bulk of water as to enable it to sink by its own
weight when plunged in water. It was intended to be
2'435 decimetres (about 94 inches) in diameter and
height.

To facilitate the accurate measurement of the cylinder,
12 radial lines or 6 diameters were drawn on its base
plane, dividing it into twelve equal parts; and corre-
sponding lines were drawn on its upper plane. The ends
of these two series of lines at the circumference were
joined by vertical lines on the cylinder, thus dividing it
vertically into twelve equal parts. Circular lines were
also traced on the two plane surfaces at about 11 mm.

from the circumference, and at half and two-thirds of the —

radius from the centre ; and eight horizontal lines were

|
.
;
.
|

the base :—13, 35, 67, 95, 148°5, 176'5, 208°5, 230°5

millimetres. The height of the cylinder was determined
_ from the ascertained mean distance of the corresponding

37 points of intersection of the lines on the upper and
_ lower surfaces, including the centres. The diameter of
. the cylinder was determined from the ascertained mean
_ length of the 48 diameters, included between the
_ Corresponding points of intersection on its cylindrical
portion.

_ The measurement was effected by means of an ap-
_ paratus specially constructed for the purpose by Fortin,
and it indicated minute differences of length of zz, line,
_ Orz755 mm,. The standard measures used for determin-
_ ing the absolute length measured were 16 brass measures
specially constructed for the purpose, each very nearly
_ equivalent to the height of the cylinder, and 16 other
_ measures, each nearly equivalent to its diameter. The
length of each of these two series of measures in relation
to each other was ascertained by numerous observa-
tions with the new apparatus ; and the total length of each
set of 16 measures in relation to the new standard unit
was obtained by comparing the sum of their length
with Borda’s végle of 2 toises, No.1, to which they
very nearly corresponded in length, by means of the
comparateur used for the comparison of these large
“measuring rules.
_ The final result of the measuring operations was that
_ the mean height of the cylinder was determined to be
2°437672 decimetres, and its mean diameter 2'428368
decimeters, at the temperature of 17°6 C, According
to Borda’s determination of the coefficient of the linear
expansion of brass, the volume of the cylinder was deter-
mined by computation to be nearly 11°28 cubic decimetres,
when at the temperature of melting ice.

For ascertaining the weight of water displaced by this
cylinder, a series of brass weights was specially con-
structed, consisting of a unit or provisional kilogram,
made as nearly as possible of the estimated weight of a
cubic decimetre of water, together with 11 exact copies
and smaller weights in decimal subdivision down to the
millionth part, all carefully verified and deemed to be ac-
curate within less than half of one-millionth part.

The mean weight of the cylinder in ordinary air was
taken, no reduction to a vacuum being deemed requisite,

the interior of which communicated with the external air.
For this purpose a metallic tube, 1'285 mm. in diameter,
was screwed to the top of the cylinder, its end being out
of the water when the cylinder was immersed. The top
of the cylinder was 43 mm. from the surface of the water
during the weighings, and the volume of the tube im-
mersed was therefore 55°77 cubic mm. Taking the volume
of the cylinder to be 11°28 cubic decimetres, the volume
of the metallic part of the cylinder was computed to be
- 4°506 cub, decim., and of the hollow part filled with air
9'774. cub. decim. During the weighings the cylinder was
surrounded with ice, but the temperature of the water was
never below o°2 C, and the mean temperature was 0°'3.
aa final results of the weighings were declared to be as
llows :—

Prov, kilo.
Weight of the cylinder in air, in terms of
the unitemployed. . . . . = 11'4660055
Its mean weight in distilled water, after de-
ducting the weight of air in the cylinder,
and of the air displaced by the weights
SIE EY SS + = 01967668

Hence weight of the volume of distilled
water equal to the volume of the cylinder = 11°2692387

H, W. CHISHOLM
(To be continued.)

NATURE

1
_ drawn around the cylinder at the following distances from

as the weights used were of similar metal to the cylinder, |

389

NOTES

Ir is announced that the Transatlantic Balloon will leave New
York to-day. It will carry four passengers—Prof. Wise and
Mr. Donaldson, the aéronauts ; an officer of the United States
Signal Service, and an agent of the Daily Graphic. They hope
to reach some point on the English or Continental coast in about
sixty hours from their departure from New York. They have
with them six very powerful and experienced carrier-pigeons, pur-
chased in Belgium, which, if liberated from the balloon within
‘*pigeon flight ” of the coast, are expected to fly directly to their
old homes. Each of these has painted on his breast, in indelible
ink, the outline of a balloon, and on his wings the words, ‘‘ Send
news attached to the nearest newspaper.” Despatches received
by these pigeons should be sent to the nearest newspaper for
publication. We wish these daring men a safe landing ; but
while we do this we regard the enterprise as one needlessly
hazardous, so far as the settlement of the scientific problem is
concerned.

Mr. CAMPBELL, the Chief Secretary of the Inspectorate-
General of Customs in China, is now in Europe with a view of
obtaining instruments for a complete chain of meteorological
stations in that country. It is also proposed to transmit weather
information all along the east coast of Asia. This is great news,
and we shall return to this important matter, giwing full details of
the proposals,

Miss ELIZABETH THOMPSON, of New York, has made a
donation to the American Association for the Advancement of
Science of 1,000 dols., for the purpose of advancing scientific
original research ; and she intends repeating the donation annu-
ally during her life.

M. STEPHAN has succeeded in finding Faye’s Comet.
correction of the Jahrbuch Ephemeris is almost z:/,

The

Mr. FRoupE, who is now with the Devastation, informs
us that it is Mr. W. Barlow, not himself, who is president of
Section G at the ensuing meeting of the British Association,
Mr. Froude{will, indeed, probably not even be able to attend
the Bradford meeting at all.

WE learn from the Afonthly Microscopical Fournal that Prof.
Gegenbauer, of Jena, the well-known comparative anatomist,
has been nominated Professor of Anatomy and Director of the
Anatomical Institute in the University of Heidelberg.

THE arrangement made by Prof. Henry, of the Smithsonian
Institution, a few months ago, for the interchange between
America and Europe, by Atlantic cable, of important astrono-
mical discoveries and announcements, appears to have borne ex-
cellent fruit. One great object of this movement was to enable
astronomers in all parts of the world to concentrate attention
upon any celestial phenomenon before too great a change of
place had occurred, or before the intervention of a long period
of moonlight after the first discovery. On the 26th of May last Prof.
Henry announced a new planet, discovered by Prof. Peters, to
the Observatory of Paris, among other institutions, and on the
following night it was looked for by the director of the Observa-
tory of Marseilles, who at once detected it, and subjected it to a
careful criticism, The announcement of three planets has thus
far been made from the Smithsonian Institution to Europe ; the
only return communication being that of a telescopic comet, dis-
covered at Vienna on July 5. On being notified of the fact, Prof.
Hough, of the Dudley Observatory at Albany, made search for
it, and succeeded in finding the object without any difficulty.

BIoLoey is flourishing at the Antipodes. The last mail has
brought us ‘‘ Australian Vertebrata, fossil and recent,” by G,
Krefft, curator and secretary of the Australian Museum, Sidney ; a
list of Australian Longicorns, chiefly described and arranged by
Francis P. Pascoe, with additional remarks by George Masters,
assistant curator of the Australian Museum; Guide to the

39°

NATURE

Australian Fossil Remains exhibited by the trustees of the Aus-
tralian Museum, by G. Krefft, curator and secretary; a Cata-
logue of the Marine Mollusca of New Zealand, by Capt. F. W.
Hutton, assistant geologist ; and a paper on the Geographical
Relations of the New Zealand Fauna, by the same.

WE have received from the Science and Art Department the
following list of Queen’s Medallists in the Science Examination,
May 1873; we regret that want of space compels us to give only
the gold and silver medallists.—Practical Plane and Solid Geo-
metry: Atkinson, Roger, Crewe Mech. Inst., gold; Milling-
ton, F. H., Patricoft Mech. In., silver—Machine Construction
and Drawing: Daltry, Thomas L., Newcastle, Elswick Mech.
In,, gold; Atkinson, Roger, Crewe Mech. In., silver.—Mathe-
matics: McAlister, Donald, Liverpool In., gold; Edwards,
Harry H., Liverpool In., silver. — Theoretical Mechanics :
McAlister, Donald, Liverpool In., gold; Sisson, William, New-
castle Mech. In,, silver.—Applied Mechanics : Millington, Fred,
H., Paticroft Mech. In., gold (obtained gold medal in 1872) ;
Dixon, Samuel, Manchester Mech. In., gold; Daltry, Thomas
L., Newcastle, Elswick Mech. In., silver.—Acoustics, Light, and
Heat: Martin, T. W., Newton Abbott, gold; McAlister, D., Liver-
pool Inst., silver. —Magnetism and Electricity: McAlister, Donald,
‘ Liverpool Inst., gold; Louis, Henry, Islington Sci. and Art
Sch,, silver.—Organic Chemistry: Whiteley, John, Halifax
W. M. Coll., gold ; Taylor, William D., Belfast, W, M. Inst.,
silver.—Geology : Dowlen, Ethelbert, Woking, St. John’s, gold ;
Southeran, Arthur, Marske Inst., silver—Vegetable Anatomy
and Physiology: Dowlen, E., Guildford Science, silver.—Navi-
gation: Windass, John T., Hull Nay. Sch., gold; Daws,
Thomas, Plymouth, Courtenay Street Sch., silver.—Nautical
Astronomy : Lawson, Henry, Hull Nav. Sch., silver (obtained
silver medal in 1872) ; Ashford, Joseph, Hull Nav. Sch., silver.
—Steam : Fairweather, James, Glasgow, Anderson Univ., gold ;
Daltry, Thomas L., Newcastle, Elswick Mech. Inst., silver.—
Physical Geography: Forbes, James L., Torphins Sci. Sch.,
gold; Armstrong, J. W., Blackburn School of Science and Art,
silver.

Mr. J. Woop-Mason, of Queen’s College, Oxford, is to offi-
ciate as Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Curator of the
Comparative Anatomy Section of the Medical College Museum,
Calcutta, during the absence, on furlough, of Dr. J. Anderson.

Messrs. LONGMANS announce the following among their
forthcoming scientific publications:—A new volume of Trans:
atlantic Travel, entitled ‘‘ The Atlantic to the Pacific ; What to
See, and How to See it,” by John Erastus Lester, M.A., author
of ‘* The Yo-Semite, its History, Scenery, and Development.”
A study of Asiatic savage life, entitled ‘‘A Phrenologist
amongst the Todas, or the Study of a Primitive Tribe in South
India—History, Character, Customs, Religion, Infanticide,
Polyandry, Language,” by William E. Marshall, Lieut.-Col. of
H.M. Bengal Staff Corps. A second Supplement to Watts’s
“ Dictionary of Chemistry.” The first Supplement, bringing the
record of chemical discovery down to the end of the year 1869,
was published in 1871. The second Supplement, now in course
of preparation, is intended to bring the record of discovery down
to the end of 1872, including also the more important additions
to the science published in the early part of 1873. This Sup-
plement will form a volume of about 800 pages, and is expected
to be ready in the year 1874. The author has been fortunate in
securing the co-operation of several of his former contributors.
A new work on ‘‘Sidereal Astronomy,” by R. A. Proctor.
“Introduction to Experimental Physics, Theoretical and Prac-
tical, including Directions for Constructing Physical Apparatus
and for Making Experiments,” by Adolf F. Weinhold, Professor
in the Royal Technical School at Chemnitz, translated and
edited (with the author’s sanction) by Benjamin Loéwy,
F.R.A.S., with a Preface by G. C. Foster, F.R,S., Professor

of Physics in University College, London. ‘A Treatise on iM
Practical, Solid, or Descriptive Geometry, embracing Ortho:
graphic Projection and Perspective or Radial Projection,” |
W. T. Pierce, Architect, late Lecturer on Geometrical Drawing —
at King’s College, London, and at Harrow School, ‘‘On the ‘
Sensations of |Tone, as a Physiological Basis for the Theory —
of Music,” by H. Helmholtz, Professor of Physiology, formerly —
in the University of Heidelberg, and now in the University of —
Berlin, translated from the third German Edition by Alexander
J. Ellis, F.R.S., formerly Scholar of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. Orga Chemistry,” by H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
Professor of Chemistry in the London Institution; ‘‘A Manual ©
of Qualitative Analysis and Laboratory Practice,” by T. E.
Thorpe, F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry in the Andersonian —
University, Glasgow, and M. M. Pattison Muir; ‘* Tele-
graphy,” by W. H. Preece, C.E., Divisional Engineer Post
Office Telegraphs, [and J. Sivewright, MA., Superintendent
(Engineering Department) Post Office rT alberest tive ee Elements _
of Machine Design, with Rules and Tables for designing and —
drawing the Details of Machinery,” adapted to the use of Me- |
chanical Draughtsmen and Teachers of Machine Drawing, by
W. Cawthorne Unwin, B.Sc. Assoc. Inst., C.E., Professor of
Hydraulic and Mechanical Engineering at Cooper’s Hill Col-
lege; ‘* Principles of Mechanics,” by T. M. Goodeve, M.A.,
Lecturer on Applied Mechanics at ‘the Royal School of Mines,
and formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy in King’s College,
London, These five works form part of the series of text-books
now being published by the Messrs. Longmans,

AmonG Messrs. [Macmillan’s announcements of ‘forthcoming
works are—‘‘On the Theory of Sound,” by Lord Rayleigh,
F.R.S. ; ‘* Contributions to Solar Physics,” by J. Norman Lockyer,
F, RS. , with numerous illustrations ; ‘‘ Cave Hunting,” by W.
Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., being researches on the evidence a
caves respecting the endy inhabitants of Europe ; “The Ori
and Metamorphoses of Insects,” by Sir John Lubbock, F.R Re d
(vol. ii. NATURE Series) ; [and a new edition of Canon pg
“ Glaucus,”

DuRinG the ensuing season Messrs. H. S, King and Co. will
publish the following new volumes of their ‘* International Scien-
tific Series” :—‘‘ Mind and Body,” by Alex. Bain, LL.D. ;
“* Animal Mechanics,” by J. Bell Pettigrew, M.D., F.R.S. ;
“ Principles of Mental Physiology,” by W. B. Carpenter, LL.D.,
F.R.S.; ‘On the Conservation of Energy,” by Prof. Balfour
Stewart; ‘‘The Animal Machine, or, Aérial and Terrestrial
Locomotion,” {by Prof, C. J. Marey ; ‘* The Study of Sociology,”
by Herbert Spencer. With the exception of the last-nam
work, the whole of the above will be illustrated.—Messrs. H. S.
King and Co, also announce the following books of interest to
scientific men :—‘‘ Studies of Blast-furnace Phenomena,” by M.
L. Gruner, translated by L. D. B. Gordon; “The Norman
People and their Existing Descendants in the British Dominions
and the United States of America,” and ‘‘The History of the
Natural Creation,” a series of popular Scientific Lectures on the
Theories of Progression of Species, by Prof. Emst Heeckel.

Mr. VAN VoorsT has recently published new editions of
‘* Blackwall’s Researches in Zoology, illustrative of the Structure,
Habits, and Economy of Animals,” and Salvin and Brodrick’s
‘* Falconry in the British Isles.”

Pror. E. D. Cop has been bold enough, in the August num-
ber of the Penn Monthly (Philadelphia), to portray his conception
of the general external appearance of the new gigantic mammal
from Wyoming, named Zinoceras anceps by Marsh, and Zoxo-
lophodon cornutus by himself, The result isan elephantine form,
with elephantine knees, feet, ears, and tail; bovine preputial |
sheath ; and a head with two pairs of somewhat cervine horns, |
and an anterior pair of simple but diverging processes. A pro-
boscis about half as long as the head is made to project for-

wards in a Tapir-like manner, below the base of which the upper
canines descend in a way which shows that it would be impos-
_ sible to use them for defence or obtaining food, without doing
_ great injury to the sensitive trunk which overshadows them.
Nothing seems more illogical than the assumption, that because
j an animal has elephantine proportions and feet, it should possess
aproboscis, especially when all arguments from the skull tend in
a different direction,
‘THE Quarterly Weather Report, from July to September, con-
tains, in addition to the usual tabular results, a discussion of four
years anemometrical results for Bermuda.

WE have received the Report on the Freshwater Fish ond
Fisheries of India and Burmah, by Surgeon-Major Francis Day,
Tnspector-General of Fisheries in India.

WE have received from Prof. Edward Morse an excellent
paper, read by him before the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory, on the Systematic Position of the Brachiopoda, in which,

_ from a careful study of the anatomy and development of those
animals, he has been led to endorse and substantiate Steenstrup’s
opinion as to their affinities being with the Annelids instead of
with the Mollusca, as generally believed. The following is his
concise summary :—‘* Ancient Chaetopod worms culminated in
two parallel lines—on the one hand in the Brachiopodze, and on
the other in the fixed and highly cephalized Chaetopods. The
_ divergence of the Brachiopodz, having been attained in more
ancient times, a few degraded features are yet retained, whose
relationships we find in the lower Vermes ; while from their later
divergence the fixed and cephalized Annelids are more closely
allied to present, free Chaetopods.” The author lays stress on
the certainly soft and uncalcified condition of the earliest forms
of life causing great imperfection in the earliest geological
record.

In the death of Mr. William S. Sullivant, which is recorded
in the scientific columns of Harper's Weekly, and which took place
at Columbus, Ohio, on April 30 last, the United States has lost
one of its most accomplished botanists, especially in the depart-
ment of the mosses, in which he was the recognised head for
many years. From a biographical notice published by Professor
Gray in the American Fournal of Science, we learn that Mr.
Sullivant was born in 1803, near Columbus, in the vicinity of
which place he resided the greater part of his life. His first
publication appeared under the title of Musct Alleghanienses, a
work on the mosses and liverworts of the Alleghany Mountains,
illustrated by prepared specimens of the plants themselves. This
was shortly after 1843, and a few years later a work on the same
subject was published in successive numbers as a memoir of the
American Academy. The section of Mosses and Hepaticz in
Prof. Gray’s Botany of the Northern United States was prepared
by Mr. Sullivant, and credited to his pen. A separate edition
was subsequently published by the author. A work on the
mosses of Cuba was prepared by him, illustrated by specimens
collected by Mr. Charles Wright. He also published, in 1859,
the account of the mosses collected by the Wilkes expedition.
The most important of Mr. Sullivant’s publications, however,
consists of his Zcones Muscorum, being ‘‘ figures and descriptions
of most of those mosses peculiar to Eastern North America which
have not been heretofore figured ”—this forming an imperial
octavo volume with 129 copper-plates. It is stated by Prof.
Gray that a second or supplementary volume of cones was in
preparation by Mr. Sullivant, and nearly completed at the time
of his death.

THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the

past week include two Mouflons (Ours musimon) from Sardinia,

_ presented by Mr. H. E, Holloway ; two Barbel (Barbus vul-
garis) and a Bream (Adramis évama) from British seas, pre-

ad

NATURE

391

sented by Mr. E. S. Wilson ; two Sacred ‘Ibises (Geronticus
ethiopicus) from Gough’s Island ; a Black-handed Spider Monkey
(Aéeles melanochir) from Central America, purchased ; five
Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma cornutum) from California, depo-
sited.

SPORERS OBSERVATIONS ON THE SUN*
ee author gives chiefly the results of his spectrum

observations, and simultaneous spot observations,
recorded in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences for November 1871, and May 1872. To the two
earlier instances of striking changes observed in the pro-
tuberances, there is added an interesting observation of
August 8, 1872. It was estimated that the prolongation
of the upper part of the protuberance had a velocity of
forty-two kilometres per second, parallel to the sun’s
surface. In the case of many protuberances, it will be
readily allowed that they are not only subject to cyclones,
but also owe their origin to them. Protuberances of
similar form, observed on several successive days, in the
same heliographic latitude, Sp6rer has accounted for, by
the supposition of volcanic eruptions, owing to the smaller
rate of linear rotation of the deeper strata ; if, however,
we regard these protuberances as the results of cyclones,
the explanation of the changes of position would rest
upon the impelling power of the storms, and their ten-
dency to create new forms ; and the velocity of the ad-
vancing cyclone ‘would, in several instances, average 1°4
kilometre.

Sporer, in this work, adheres to his division of protu-
berances into two classes. Secchi, in his work on the
Sun, has distinguished four classes of protuberances,.
but afterwards accepted Sporer’s twofold division. Both
observers are at one in this, that the protuberances,
which Sporer has named “flame” and Secchi “ray”
protuberances, give different spectral lines, and stand in
intimate connection with the spots. But with regard to
the proper hydrogen protuberances, Secchi says they
are not in the condition to give rise to a spot, against
which Spérer adduces examples of their influence in neigh-
bouring spot formation, especially prominent in the inter-
vals between considerable protuberances of hydrogen,

The observation of the protuberance, which Secchi
also noticed, on July 7, 1872, and which gave a well-
marked image with the line 6543, is particularly described,
and drawings are appended.

With regard to observations of spots, interesting com-
parisons are given, showing the difference between the
two hemispheres in respect to the frequency of spots, and
the mean heliographic latitudes. In this connection,
Carrington’s observations, from November 1853 to the
beginning of 1861, are gone into, so that the comparisons
embrace a period extending from November 1853 to the
end of 1871. With regard to frequency of spots, it
appears that the southern hemisphere exceeds the northern
both in maximum and minimum. The curves also show
distinctly the rapid passage from minimum to maximum,
and the slow decrease after the maximum.

The mean heliographic latitudes are obtained through
assigning to each group of spots, a factor of value (Werth-
Jactor). The union of five-rotation periods gave a point
of the curve for the northern as well as for the southern
hemispheres. Carrington had obtained from his observa-
tions the striking result, that the spots at the time of the
minimum approach the equator, thereafter veered off to
higher latitudes, and that then the more numerously
spotted zones gradually approached the equator. Spérer,
by his observations since 1861, has confirmed this result.

* Translated from a review in Der Naturforscher, No. 29, of Beobach-
thungen der Sonne, von. Prof. Dr. Spérer, Abhandlung zum Programm des
Gymnasiums. Separat-Abdruck. Anklam. Verlag und Druck yon
Richard Poettcke : 1873.

392

ee

THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

HE meeting of the American Association for the A dvance-
ment of Science was held this year at Portland, in the State

of Maine, during the fourth week of August ; there was a large
attendance of well-known scientific celebrities and members. The
following account, for which we are indebted to the Vew York
Tribune, will give an idea of some of the most important papers

and discussions.

A discussion on the Darwinian hypothesis, which was started
by Prof. Swallow, who is a vigorous opponent, was continued
by Dr. Dawson, who began by stating with some fullness of de-
tail the demands upon our credence made by the advocates of
the evolution theory. Among other requirements of the theory,
he said, it must provide an explanation of the origin of life. To
accomplish this the experiments of Bastian were brought for-
ward. Referring to these, he stated that no less an authority
than Prof. Huxley, though an evolutionist, had denied their
conclusive character and disputed the alleged results. We are
expected to admit, in every department to which scientific in-
quiry relates, that in all things there has been a successive pro-
gress from the lower to the higher. Why should we make this
admission? What proof is there of it? The recent discoveries
of embryology, showing the likeness of early forms of the
embryo to other animals of the same families, furnished to the
advocates of evolution no real argument in its favour. They
proved nothing. Admit if you will the close resemblance of
cimilar bones and general physical structure in the ape and man,
it is not the slightest evidence of identity. While it may be true
that there is bone for bone in monkey and in man, still it re-
mains that the bones of one are different from those of the other.
The making of monkey and of man is explicable quite as readily,
to say the least, on the theory of plan as on that of evolution.
The history of the growth of an animal has been cited as the
evidence of a development from a lower to a higher form, But
what are the facts in the case? The egg grows into the animal,
and that organism produces an egg again. This is revolution,
not evolution.

We are told to accept as a postulate that mind too is a result
of development ; that the moral as well as the material being is
simply a consequence of the evolying process. I do not grudge
the naturalists who have adopted such theories the intellectual
exercise which is involved, but I regret that much of their labour
is wasted,-and the results will be burnt when the fires of truth
are applied to the chaff they are accumulating. This is not a
question of physics that they are arguing, it is one of metaphysics,
and it would be well for our children as well as growing scientists
if they were taught more of mental and moral philosophy as a
basis for such inquiry.

But I thank the students who are thus engaged for some good
results of their exertions. They have thereby succeeded in re-
ducing the superfluous numbers of species, and have obtained far
better views in respect to classification. Gool results will also
flow from the profound embryological researches of the day.
But I am sorry for the investigators, for their reputations are at
stake, and they have chosen a mistaken path.

We are, however, approaching in our studies a correct theory.
After its appearance in geological history, every species has a
plastic tendency to spread to its utmost limits of form. Then
ensues a period of decadence until it may become extinct. This
has been set forth in some of my printed memoirs on the plants
of the carboniferous series. 1 believe that a similar process is
true of the human race. He referred to the skull of Mentone
and its finally developed character—a grandly developed man
cerebrally and bodily. The burial of his dead testified to his
religious belief. The people of the Cromagno skull age were of
a similarly elevated character. The only point of difference from
men to-day was in the flattening of one of the leg-bones. This
was perhaps a result of the habits of the tribe, running through
forests in pursuit of game. It begins to be admitted that the
man of $Vestern Europe came in with the modern mammalia at

the close of the glacial period. This was a period of decadence,
and when the pliocene fauna were dying out and new forms were
taking their places. The most ancient form of man is beyond
the average standard of modern humanity. If the man of
Cromagno or Mentone had been sent to Harvard, he would have
Fae graduated with the full honours of an average American
student.

“NATURE Bi ad

‘flattened tibia.

“ =} Sow

-_ *. .

[Sepé. 11, 1873
Prof. Morse stated that Dr. Dawson and Prof. Swallow had
both misquoted Prof. Huxley, who had said, in respect to the
ancient skull referred to, that it might have held the brains of a
thoughtless savage, or it might have contained those of a philo-
sopher. Dr. Dawson had referred to only the differences in
those remains from those of the man of to-day in respect to the
There were, however, several other characters
of a similar nature which Dr. Dawson had not referred to, some
of which had been discovered by Prof. Wyman, and had not yet
been published. In the existing races of man the joramen
magnum (the large opening at the base of the skull through
which the brain communicates with the spinal cord) exhibited
very little change of position in its relation to the rest of the
skull, while with the higher primates (apes) this opening is very
near the posterior portion of the skull. In eleven ancient skulls
from the shell heaps of Tennessee, the foramen magnum in every
case was nearly an inch further back than in those of present
existing races. The powerful muscles on the sides of the head
that move the jaws leave a distinct line at their upper points of
attachment. These lines are called temporal ridges. In all
present existing races a space occurs on the top of the skull,
between these lines, of from three-and-a-half to four inches. In
the apes these muscles meet in the median line which rises into
a bony crest so characteristic of the gorilla, There was a re-
markable skull discovered by Prof. Wyman in the lowest beds
of the ancient shell heaps of Florida, This has the temporal
ridges approaching each other within a half inch at the top of
the skull. If the high development of the skull referred to by
Mr. Dawson was such as he states, it only carries man further
back. Similarly, in the light thrown upon the history of man by
the wonderful discoveries in archzeology, where we meet with
traces of an ancient civilisation, with complicated language and
manners, we can surely believe in savage hordes pre-existing
from which this ancient civilisation has been evolved. :

As to the early traces of man, we must fully appreciate the rare”
possibility of their occurrence. Wherever you dredge in the
waters of the present day the traces of man are among the rarest”
discoveries. "The Lake of Haarlem, upon whose waters naval
battles have been fought, and on whose shores a dense popula-
tion has existed, was drained, and on its bottom not the slightest
traces of man’s existence were found. Prof. Morse dredged re-
peatedly for years off the shores of Maine, and no trace of man
was ever brought up, except a single spike. When we consider
how abundant the material for such remains must be now com:
pared with those furnished by the simple methods of life and the
sparse population of earlier days, the indications of man’s exist-
ence in geological eras must be of the rarest occurrence. In
fact, in such rocks as the drift, only the rude stone implemen 5
could be preserved. ‘

The evolution theory as compared with that of special creation
presented similar features to the undulatory theory of light as
compared with the emission theory. Newton’s theory required
a new modification with every discovery in optics, until, as a
writer said at that time, the emission theory is a mob of hypo
theses. The undulatory theory of Young not only explained all
that was difficult to Newton, but gave physicists the power of
prevision. So with evolution. It not only accounts for existing
phenomena, from the modification of a flower or the spot on
a butterfly’s wing to the genesis of the solar system, but it has
endowed naturalists with the gift of prophecy and enabled them
to predict the intermediate forms afterwards discovered in the
records of the rocks.

On Calvert's Supposed Relics of Man in the Miocene of the
Dardanelles, By G. Washburn.—The author reports, in view of
the facts to which the paper refers, as to the flints, the split bones,
and the marks upon the fossil bone, that he believes that Mr.
Calvert and Sir John Lubbock (who had never seen the speci
mens) are mistaken in the conclusions to which they have come,
and that they have not been able to find any evidence whatever

at the Dardanelles in reference to the antiquity of man.

The Rotation of the Planets asa Result of the Nebular Theory. By
Prof. Benjamin Peirce.—Prof. Peirce’s paper set forth an explana-
tion of the actual rotation of the planets on the supposition of thei
being formed according tothe nebular hypothesis, from rings thrown
off from the rotating main body in the process of condensation.
He instanced more particularly the planets Jupiter and Saturn.

| The inner portions of such a ring having a less velocity than the”
outer ones, axial rotation in the same direction as that of the
primary would be determined in the breaking up and running
together of the ring into a planetary:body. He showed, bya
mathematical analysis of the movements of the particles com.

posing the ring, that the velocity of the resulting rotation must
Be cock as is actually observed in the case of the planets
referred to, whose mass represents nine-tenths of the whole
planetary system.

In Jupiter and Saturn, the velocity of a particle in the
_ planet is very nearly the velocity of the planet itself. Then
Jupiter and Saturn must have derived their material from the
whole mass of the planetary system. The best theories of the
earth make it of uniformly decreasing density from the surface
to the centre. Suppose that after Jupiter were formed it were
_ condensed, that might otherwise explain its velocity. He showed
that, in the case of the planets, the velocity, had it been
one-half what it actually was, would have resulted in their
having no rotation. This theory was applied to the absence
_ of rotation in the case of our satellite. He showed the pro-
bability that the original nebular ring from’ which the planets
_ were formed may have been of twice the size of their present
orbits. The nebular theory, to meet the requirements of the
| mere mathematician, would have placed all the planets at regu-
_ lar distances, and given them exactly similar motion, But not
such was the method of nature.

In the discussion which followed he stated that we have never
seen anything of Jupiter or Saturn but the clouds which cover
them. He thought that those planets were yet at a white heat,
_ and we simply saw the clouds that are raining down upon them.

The present state of the satellites may be a result of their tides,
and not the index of their original velocity. Jupiter and Saturn
_ took so large a proportion of all the planet-forming material
_ that the laws impressed upon them may serve best to tell the
_ whole history of the solar system. There may be, however, a
rotation of the inner mass of those planets of which we know
nothing.
Geology of Southern New Brunswick. By Prof. T. Sterry
Hunt.—The recent labours under the Geological Survey of
Canada, by Messrs, Bailey Matthew and the author, were
sketched. They show south and west of the coal basin various
uncrystalline formations, all resting upon ancient crystalline
rocks. ‘These latter are by the author regarded as for the most
part the equivalents of the Green Mountain and the White
Mountain series, or what he calls Hurordan and Montalban.
These are penetrated by granites, and associated in one part with
Norian rocks, but the presence of Lamentranis somewhat doubt-
ful. While the author recognises thus, at least, four distinct
“series of pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks in Eastern North Ame-
rica, he does not question the possible existence of yet other
Series in this region. The analogies offered by the more recent
rocks of this region are very suggestive.

On the Possibility that the Sun, while mainly Gaseous, may have
a Liquid Crust.
very little doubt that Secchi and others, who hold that the sun
is mainly gaseous, are correct in this: the smallness of density
cannot possibly be explained on any other supposition. At the
same time the eruptional phenomena which are all the time oc-
curring on the surface, almost compel the supposition that there

isa crust of some kind which restrains the imprisoned gases,
and through which they force their way in jets with great
violence. . j
Prof. Young suggesis that this crust may consist of a more or
- less continuous sheet of descending rain, not of water, of course,
but of the materials whose vapours exist in the solar atmosphere,
and whose condensation and combinations are supposed to fur-
nish the solar heat. As this tremendous rain descends, the
velocity of the falling drops would be retarded by the resistance
of the denser gases underneath ; the drops would coalesce until

a continuous sheet would be formed ; and these sheets would

unite and form a sort of bottomless ocean resting upon the com

pressed vapours beneath, and pierced by innumerable ascendir
jets and bubbles. It would have an approximately cons‘a ut
depth in thickness, because it would re-evaporate at the bom
nearly as rapidly as it would grow by the descending rains above,
though probably the thickness of this sheet would continually in-
crease at some slow rate, and its whole diameter diminish.

Prof. Young added an explanation of the narrow disc fringes
seen at the moment of totality in a total eclipse, showing them
to be optical interference effects caused by the sudden changes of
the temperature of the air at the edge of the shadow. The
twinkling of stars is analogous in many respects.

The Existence of Live Mammoths. By Prof. Feuchtwanger.—
The discovery of the mammoths in Siberia in the deep gorges of
the mountains near the Lena Viner, which was lately published

as having been made by a scientific Russian convict, who

By Prof. Charles A. Young.—There can be |

NATURE

five living animals, twelve feet in height and eighteen feet in
length, with projecting tusks four feet long, excites some dis-
cussion in Europe. I think it worthy of inquiry whether the
mammoth of the past terliary period, discovered during this cen-
tury in Siberia, near the same river, can have any relation to the
convict’s discovery. Thousands of these animals have been
found buried in the ice, with their well-preserved skins, and
thousands of tusks are brought to England to this day for the use
of the turner. These are of nearly the same dimensions as those
seen by the Russian, The convict has received an unconditional
pardon, on the recommendation of scientific men who have in-
vestigated his statements and believe them to be true.

_ Prof. E. S. Morse, of Salem, Mass., read a paper on the sub-
ject of Variations in Wave Lengths. Prof. Morse first called
attention to the interesting discoveries of Lockyer, Huggins, and
others in accounting for the displacement of lines in the spectrum _
in observations of celestial objects. It is well known that when
a star is approaching the observer the luminiferous waves emitted
by it are crowded together, and on the contrary are separated
when the star is receding.

Mr. Morse brought forward an instrument by which this
phenomenon in the case of light may be easily and plainly illus-
trated before a large audience. The instrument consists of a
tank filled with water and set on wheels. Onthetop of thisis a
compartment containing compressed air. From one end of the
tank a pipe protrudes, which is moved up and down at a fixed
rate by simple clockwork. When the cock is opened, allowing
the water to escape from the pipe, the stream assumes a sinuous
line, which may be shown, if brilliantly lighted, across a large
audience hall. This undulatory stream, when the tank is at rest,
illustrates a luminiferous wave from a stationary source. To
exhibit the shortening or lengthening of the waves of light by the
approach or recession of the luminiferous body, Mr. Morse simply
moves the apparatus rapidly back and forth on the table. As
the apparatus moves with the direction of the stream its undu-
lations are crowded together, and the waves are consequently
shortened. On the other hand, when the motion of the appa-
ratus is in an opposite direction, the waves are proportionably
lengthened. The advantage of this illustration is that it exhibits
precisely what takes place in the luminiferous waves approaching
or receding from the observer of celestial bodies, producing the
displacement of spectrum lines.

Concerning Hyalonema. By Dr. Samuel Lockwood.—The
recent deep-sea dredgings have done much toward clearing up the
singularly anomalous history of the Japanese glass-rope sponge.
Prof. Lockwood, however, thinks that, either from inapprecia-
tion or otherwise, the knowledge thus obtained has not been
applied to the elucidation of certain mooted points connected
with Hyalonema. With regard to the mistakes in representing
Hyalonema “ wrong end up,” my opinion is that the error was
led off by the Japanese themselves. The drawings by the native
artists represented these curious objects as attached to the sea
bottom by the sponge mass, thus making the fascicle to be erect
and uppermost. Obtained by the net, or some such means, from
the bottom at great depths, it is supposable that the fishermen
at Enoserma were entirely ignorant of the matter. Their theory,
however, as represented by the native artists, has wrongly repre-
sented the Hyalonema, These ropes attached to the sponge and
sand are some distance from the main or upper portion encrusted
with parasites. After removing portions of the encrusting case
from the fascicle, he could not detect any structural evidence that
Polython owed anything for food to the object which had
gi- en it local support. It, however, ‘‘chums” with the sponge
* _a purpose of its own. Prof. Lockwood thinks that it draws
sastenance from the fishing process of its radiating tentacles.

Both Polyps and sponge provide-for themselves. In his view
the zodphyte is what we must call a compensal, and could not exist
without that sort of support from Hyalonema which the oak
affords the vine : and Hyalonema, too, is acompensal ; for how
long would it endure without the support of Polython? The
stem, without this support, would not be able to hold itself
erect. Other varieties are supported by stems consisting of
sheaves of short spicules, bound together by bony cement. These
have and need no supporting Polythoa. He combated the view
that Hyalonema was sunk in the mud up to the neck, arguing
that the polyps surrounding the stem could not so live; that it
could not use its tentacles to obtain food, and that the position of
the egg-cases of the deep-sea shark, the oldest egg being attached,
and the most recent at the bottom, sustained this view. Some
account was then given of the material structure of the encoating
Polython, The essayist spoke of the deep-sea sharks off Setubol,

*) i ao yl
bn i heidi Ba cAR jist
ie ‘ Fe ae “
_"

Dee, tas")

394

making that place their feeding-ground, because of the facility
afforded them to secure these egg-cases by the abundance of the
Hyalonemas there.

The Co-efficient of Safety in Navigation : an attempt to ascertain
within what Limits a Ship can be located at Sea by Astronomical
Observations. By Prof. Wm. A. Rogers.—This was an attempt
to ascertain mathematically the average number of miles that a
ship may be out of her reckoning, It was a paper of length,
indicating long and careful research. It stated that in the case
of British vessels there is a continual increase in the proportion
of wrecks, as shown in the following :—

British vessels. Wrecks.
Inc. 1858 over 1848,.+.4 38 per cent. Inc, 1862 over 1852..... 59 per cent.
Inc. 1868 over 1858...... 44 per cent. Inc. 1867 over 1857... 57 per cent.

For 1869 we have a decrease in the number of vessels of 4 per
cent., and an increase in the number of wrecks of 21 per cent.
The confidence in reckoning by insfruments had increased the
danger. He considered separately (1) wrecks by causes beyond
control; (2) wrecks to obtain insurance ; (3) wrecks by devi-
ation of compass; (4) wrecks by errors of observation. He
concluded that 70 per cent. of wrecks were from preventible
causes. There are 3°3 times as many insured vessels wrecked as
uninsured. The ratio of errors in chronometers wasillustrated
in an elaborate series of tables showing that the navigator must
expect from this source an error of 3°6 miles, must be on the
look-out for one of 11°5, and must not be surprised at one of 21
miles, all on the supposition that he has an average chronometer.
One serious source of error is varying temperature during a
voyage. The conclusion was that the navigator who assumes
that he can get the place of his ship certainly within five miles,
or probably within fifteen, exhibits an over-confidence which
may lead to his ruin.

There were other papers of interest, by Prof. Elliott, on Inter-
national Coinage ; by Prof. Wheildon, on the Arctic Regions ;
by Gen. Barnard, on the Relation of Internal Fluidity to the
Precession of the Equinoxes ; by Prof. Hilgard, on Transatlantic
Longitudes, and on Meridional Ares; by Col. Whittlesy, on
Rivers in the Mississippi Valley ; by Prof. Hunt, on Breaks in
the American Palzozoic Series; by A. E, Dolbear, on a new
method of measuring the velocity of light.

Mk. HARTNUP ON DETERMINING THE
RATES OF CHRONOMETERS*

‘THE difficulty in predicting the rate of a chronometer for a

voyage arises from the imperfect state of the instrument ;
and by a well-arranged and carefully conducted test, these im-
perfections may be so exhibited as to enable the mariner to avoid
the danger which must frequently follow from the neglect of such
precautions. The Greenwich mean time is now so easily obtained
in most seaports, that there can be no difficulty in ascertaining
the daily gain or loss of a chronometer, if the rate so found could
be depended on. The communication of time to the port of
Liverpool, by the firing of the gun which is placed on the Mor-
peth Dock Pier Head, has been so successful that the difference
between the flash of the gun and 1 P.M. Greenwich mean time
has not, on any occasion during the past year, been such as could
lead to an error in a ship’s longitude to the extent of the width
of the Mersey opposite the point on which the gun is placed ; and
by observing the flash of the gun on two occasions at an interval
of a few days, the rate of a chronometer may be obtained with
sufficient accuracy for most practical purposes. The rate so ob-
tained might, however, differ very much from the rate at sea, if
the temperature in which the rate was obtained in port differed
much from that to which the instrument was exposed on the
voyage.

Imperfect thermal adjustment is a defect so well known, that
during the past thirty years the attempts made to improve the
quality of marine timekeepers have been mainly confined to the
compensation balance. The ordinary balance does not perfectly
compensate for the change in the elasticity of the balance-spring,
caused by change of temperature, and various forms have been
given to balances with the view of attaining greater perfection.
Balances have, without doubt, been made to compensate for
change of elasticity in the spring throughout long ranges of tem-
perature, but there is evidently some objection to their general
adoption for the merchant navy. It is possible that the thinness
of the laminz, and peculiarity in the construction of balances

* Extracted from the Report of the Astronomer to the Marine Committee,
Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, for the year 1872.

Bly ei.

. ‘ATURE

which are made with the view of removing the defect above
named, may render them less permanent in their action, and
more liable to injury in the hands of a less skilful mechanic than
the original maker; but however this may be, the ordi :
balance seems to be almost universally used in the merchant
navy. This having been found to be the case, about four years
ago arrangements were made at the New Observatory for the
trial of chronometers in three definite temperatures with the view
of showing the amount of change iff their rates due to error of
thermal adjustment, and more than one thousand marine time-
keepers have now been tested in 55°, 70°, and 85° of Fahrenheit. —
From a careful examination of the records of these tests there
appears to be a definite temperature peculiar to each chrono-
meter in which the instrument goes faster than in any other tem-
perature, and as the number of degrees above or below this
temperature of maximum gaining rate increases the chronometer
loses in a rapidly increasing ratio. If we assume this law of
variation to be that the change of rate is directly as the square
of the number of degrees from the maximum gaining rate, the
rates calculated on that assumption are found sensibly to agree
with those obtained from observation ; therefore, if we have the -
rate from observation for each of three definite temperatures, as —
given in my last two Reports, we can find, by computation, the
correction for error of thermal adjustment due to any other tem-
perature. In order to do this it is necessary to find—
. . the temperature in which the chronometer has its —

maximum gaining rate,
the rate at the temperature T, and
the factor, or constant number, which multiplied by
the square of any given number of degrees from T
shows the amount of loss for that numbe- of degrees.

The following example shows the method of calculating C, ~
T, and R from the observed rates in 55°, 70°, and 85° :—

Res
Cm

Chronometer, No. 727.
s

Rate im 55° = — 12292. 07
rar = =O eae
3 FO) => STIRS et ‘
x oS op ae emer
4 85 [= Sega
d—d' = = 2°29
£ ad +d'= + o'21
2(2_ = 1d) eee
Cc os. Bes 0'00509
d+d' + 0°21 ,
Sain C x 60 — 0°3054 ic
T = 70 — 0°69 = 69°31

d+ d _
60

From the preceding Examples

_ Mean Daily Rate
in 55° in 70° in 85°

R =r ~(T —[70) — 1°88 + 0°69 x 010035 = — 1878

G: yb R.
s s s ]

No. 727... —2°92—1'88 —3'13...—0'00509,..69°31...— 1°88

Let N = any number. of degrees from T, then the Rate at
T+ N=R+ Cx N23

Required the Rate of No. 727 at 40°
Here N = 29°31 and N? = 859'08 ‘
Hheretore the Rateat 40° = — 1°88 + (—0’00509 x 859°08)
25.

The values of C and T remain the same for long periods ; asa
rule, they do not sensibly change so long as the adjustments are
not altered, and the instrument remains in good condition ; but
Ris more changeable, and should be redetermined on all fayour-
able occasions, To find the change in R the rate must be first
carefully found in some definite temperature. Suppose, for ex-
ample, that at some subsequent time the rate of No. 727 was
found, to be — 2°13, instead of —3'13, in 85°, then the rate at —
T would be — o'$8 instead of — 1'88 ; but it might not be con-
venient to obtain the rate in either of the temperatures in which
the rates are given in the test, and then it may be found as fol-
lows :—Suppose the rate has been found to be — 1°55 in 81°5, then
the rate must be computed for $1°5, on the assumption that R
has not changed, and the difference between the rate observed
and the rate computed will be the correction to be applied to R.

The computation is as follows :—81°5 —69°3 or N = 12:2
and 12'2? = 148'84,

395

-2°6g ; A
Observed rate in 81*5 = —1‘°55. Computed rate in 81°5
= —2°64. The losing rate at T must therefore be diminished
by 109, making the newly found R = —o’79 instead of — 1°88.

‘e

_ lating the correction due to imperfect thermal adjustment.

THE WHITWORTH SCHOLARSHIPS

THE following Memorandum on the Whitworth Scholarships,

prepared by Sir Joseph Whitworth, has been approved by
the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, South
Kensington :—

1. The experience of the past competitions for my scholar-
ships has proved to me the necessity of establishing rules
which shall insure that the holders of scholarships shall devote
themselves to the studies and practice necessary for mechanical

ineering during the tenure of the scholarships.

2. To effect this I propose to the Lords of the Committee of
Council on Education that as soon as possible, ze. in the
competition of 1875, every candidate for a scholarship should
as ae a certificate that he has worked in a mechanical engi-
neer’s shop, or in the drawing office of a mechanical engineer’s
shop, for two years consecutively. In 1874 six months’ consecu-
tive work only in the engineer’s shop will be required. The
candidate must be under 22 years of age.

3. The candidate for the scholarship will be examined in the
appointed sciences ; in smith’s work, turning, filing, and fitting,
pattern making and moulding, as already established, and the
same marks will be awarded as at present.

4. In 1875 and the following years each holder of a scholar-
ship appointed under these new rules will be required to produce
satisfactory evidence at the termination of every year that he has
made proper advances in the sciences and practice of mechanical

ineering by coming up for an examination similar to that
which is prescribed for the competition both in theory and
practice.

5. The scholarships may be held for three years, but may be
withdrawn at the end of each year if the scholar has not made
satisfactory progress.

6. The number of scholarships in the competition of 1874
will be reduced from ten to six. Each scholarship will be of a
fixed annual value of 100/., together with an additional annual
sum determined by the results of the progress made in the pre-

ear.

¥, At the end of each year’s tenure of the scholarship, the
scholars appointed under these new rules will, as before stated,
be examined in theory and in practice in the same manner as in
the competition for the scholarships. On the results of this
examination the following payments, in addition to the 100/. be-
fore mentioned, will be made among each year’s set or batch of
scholars :—To the scholar who does best in the examination,
too/, ; to the second, 60/. ; to the third, 50/. ; to the fourth,
4o/. ; to the fifth, 30/. ; and to the sixth, 20/ ; provided that
each scholar has made such a progress as is satisfactory to the
Department of Science and Art, which will determine if the sum
named, or any other sum, shall be awarded.

8. At the expiration of the three years’ tenure of the scholar-
ships under these new regulations a further sum of 3o00/. will be
awarded in sums of 200/. and 100/. to the two scholars of each
year’s set or batch who have done best during their tenure of
scholarship.

In this way it will be possible for the best of the scholars at
the end of his period of tenure of the scholarship to have ob-
tained Soo/., and the others in proportion.

9. The prizes under paragraph 7 will be awarded according to
the total number of marks obtained by the students in practice
and theory in the examination at the end of the year. The
prizes under paragraph 8 will be awarded by adding together the
marks obtained by the students at the end of each of the three
years.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE current number of the Zoo/ogist commences with a notice
by the editor, of Mr, Lloyd’s ‘Official Handbook to the
Crystal Palace Aquarium.” In an interesting historical sketch

-Sessors.

of the growth of aquaria, he divides its development during
the last forty years into three eras, the earliest being the in-
structive, the second the poetic and fashionable, and the pre-
sent the commercial, The early development of the aquarium
is then entered into, the work done by Bowerbank, Dau-
beny, and Warington being’ fully described. This is followed
by a review of Mr. T. J. Moggridge’s work on Harvest-
idea that these insects do accumulate seeds in store-houses for
winter consumption is correct, contrary to the assertions of
Kirby, Latreille, and other high authorities. What is very pecu-
liar is that these seeds scarcely ever show any tendency to ger- °
ing Ants and Trapdoor Spiders, in which the author, from a
careful and painstaking series of excellent observations on the
habits of ants, which are described in detail, shows that the old
minate, though under apparently very favourable circumstances,
—Mr. Cornish notes the occurrence of the following fish at
Penzance :—The Black Fish (Centrolophus pompilus), the Sole-
nette (Monochirus linguatulus), the Braize (Pagrus vulgaris),
Bloch’s Gurnard ( 7yig/a d/ochii), and the Torpedo (Raia torpedo).~
—Mr. F. H. Balkwill, in reply to a critical note which appeared
in this journal (NATURE, July 24, p: 252) on a paper by him
in the Zoo/ogist for July last, objects to his remarks being thrown
into the general form ; the fact that the forms and arrangements
of teeth in vertebrates is practically infinite, being assumed by
him. But that such is very far from being the case will be
agreed to by all zoologists ; the types and arrangements of teeth
being extremely few in comparison to what they might be. The
argument does not require, as Mr. Balkwill thinks, the proof of
the statement that the teeth of the wombat, dog, &c., should
be of low type and simple development, which they are not;
and he may be assured that all ‘“‘genuine Darwinists” are of
opinion that when two not distant types of animal life are in a
position to occupy new and separate regions, the fact that their
food can only be obtained from two sources, namely, animal and
vegetable tissues, invariably leads to their divergence in two
directions only, that is, towards a carnivorous and a herbivorous
conformation. Therefore the non-placental type, on occupying
Australasia, as well as the placentalia in the rest of the world,
have differentiated into flesh-eaters and vegetable-eaters, each
having developed, by natural selection, organs suitable for pro-
curing their accustomed diet. It is not therefore to be wondered
at that these organs should present many points of similarity in
the two main divisions of the M i

BARON VON MALTZAN gives in the second number of the Ze7¢-
schrift fiir Ethnologie for 1873, an account of his travels in
Arabia, and points out the various causes which have opposed
the advance of our knowledge of its interior. Amongst these
religion has acted as the most powerful obstacle, the exclusive.
ness of the Islam faith having, in fact, so effectually closed the
country to modern research, that there are still many spots of
which nothing is known beyond what Ptolemy was able
to tell us. Baron von Maltzan selected the most southern
extremity of the peninsula, which is as yet a ‘abula rasa
on our maps, for the scene of his explorations, He
draws attention to the artistic skill exhibited by these
people in statuary and carving, before they fell under the rule of
their Mahomedan conquerors from Central Arabia, when all their
earlier, civilisation was rudely checked and their language supers
seded, while they were then also first driven to adopt a monadic
mode of life. In spite, however, of amalgamation with central
Arabian elements, the population of South Arabia still admits of
division into two distinct peoples, the Sabaer and the Himyarites,
the former of whom have light yellow skins, while the latter,
whose name he derives from //amr, red, are so dark-skinned as
to be genrally classed amongst the black races. Baron Maltzan
observed a curious physical character in the family of the Him-
yarite rulers of the Fodli, or Ozmani-State, many of whom, both
males and females, had six fingers and six toes on both hands and
feet. This peculiarity is looked upon by the peopleat large asa
special mark of blue blood, and prized accordingly by the pos-
Tt would seem that the practice of forming consan-
guineous marriages, which prevails in the Fodli, as in other
ruling houses, may of itself explain, as a mere case of hereditary
recurrence, the appearance of this physiological character in nu-
merous and remote members of the family. The author concludes
his paper with an appeal to men of Science to turn their attention
to a region which is at once so little known and so rich in materials
of interest for physiologists, ethnologists, and geographers.—
Herr von Martens, in a critique on Prof. Strobel’s paper on the
appearance of U/nzo shells in the pile-dwellings of Upper Italy

396

and in the Paraderos Patagonians, draws attention to the di-
versity of opinion to which the occurrence of this bivalve has
given rise, Dr. Boni deducing from it the theory that the
E-milian Terremare are the sites of human habitations on artifi-
cially constructed water basins, whilst Dr. Coppi regards them
as the remains of sacrificial or other slaughter places. Dr. von
Martens has ascertained by personal observation that the Para-
deros of Patagonia resemble in very many respects the Danish
Kjokkenméddings, It is worthy of note in reference to this sub-
ject that shells of the Adriatic form (Aforrhais pes pelicani and
Venus verrucosa) occur in the Moravian pile-dwellings near
Olmiitz, while .Mediterranean shells (Cyprea pyram and hirida)
have been found on the Dordogne. These facts, which afford
incontrovertible evidence of the extension of commerce in pre-
historic ages, are corroborated by the appearance of Red Sea if
not Indian Ocean forms of shells, as Zéurna spirata in a Mariera
at Reggio, and of Cypraa pantherina, in the Allemannic tumuli
of Wiirtemberg. It has been suggested by Dr. E. Friedel that
the Unio pictorum L,, and the A/asmodonta compressa, which
are so abundant in Italian Lacustrine deposits, may be
connected with the presence of domestic swine, as these
bivalves constitute in the present day a very important element
in the food of these animals in the poorer districts of the Oder
and the Brandenburg Mark.—In conclusion we would draw at-
tention to a curious paper read by Herr von Meyer before the
Anthropological Society of Berlin on the origin of “ Right and
Left,” and the causes which have led mankind to give the prefer-
ence to one over the other, in using the hands and feet. The
superior estimation of right over left is shown alike in the most
ancient forms of Egyptian sculpture, in Jewish ordinances, in
Hellenic poetry, and in language generally, whether of Turanian,
Scythic, or Aryan origin. In these tongues the right hand is
synonymous with what is good, straight, and right, while the
left is identical with what is awkward, evil and abnormal. The
author attempted to explain the universally diffused preference
for the right hand on the ground of instinctive religious venera-
tion in primeeval man, who raised the right hand in adoration as
he traced the course of the sun from its rising to its setting,
while Prof. Virchow was inclined to refer it to a primary physi-
cal principle of the human organisation. The subject gave rise
to an animated discussion in the Society, and led to the consi-
deration of several questions of interest to the student of
ethnology.

Sitsungsberichte der naturwissenschafllichen Gesellschapt Isis
in Dresden. Oct.—Dec. 1872,—The principal paper in this
number is one by M. Ackermann, giving a {comprehensive
account of recent deep-sea researches.—Dr. Hoffmann furnishes
acritique of Zéllner’s work on comets; and among the shorter
notices will be found information on Phylloxera, the physical
features, climate, and products of Venezuela, silkworm-cultiva-
tion, the Zoological Garden at Dresden, and other topics. —The
succeeding number (Jan.—Mar. 1873) consists, in great part,
of zoological lists. —M. Rostock enumerating the Neuroptera of
Saxony, and Dr. Kohler the Gasteropoda and Conchifera of
Schneeberg.—In the botanical section, M. Wilhelmi gives a list
of plants found on the Murray river in Australia.—M. von
Kiesenwetter communicates a paper on the history of zoology
to the time of Linnus, being chiefly an abstract of Carus’s
work on the subject in a voluminous ‘‘ History of the Science
in Germany,” now in course of publication.

THE American Fournal of Science and Arts, Sept. 1873.—In
a fifth paper on some results of the earth’s contraction from
cooling, Prof, Dana treats of the formation of continental pla-
teaux and oceanic depressions, thus concluding the reconsideration
of the views he brought out in 1847. Besides the admission of
a solid nucleus and the present partial union of the crust to the
nucleus, these views have been modified in some points con-
nected with mountain-making and metamorphism, in accordance
with ideas developed by Le Conte and Mallet, and the results of
personal study. The author gives a valuable summary of his
progress.—Prof, O. Rood has a paper on the residual or secon-
dary spectra which Brewster studied, and which are obtained
when white light is passed through two prisms of different sub-
stances, so arranged as to compensate each other for colour.
The Professor has obtained a large dispersion in such spectra by
using as one of the constituents the spectrum furnished by oil
of cassia, bisulphide of carbon, or flint glass, the other being the
normal spectrum from a diffraction grating. Some curious ex-
periments with these are described.—A paper on the explorations
Jast year, by the Snake River Division of the U.S. Geological

NATURE

[ Sept. 1 % 1873 j

Survey of the Territories, is furnished by Prof. Bradley; and —
another geological paper, by Mr: Washburn, treats of the Bos- —
phorus region. , There are also notes on the Corundum of North —
Carolina, Georgia, and, Montana; on minerals found at the
Tidley Foster Iron Mines, New York; on an apparatus for
rapid filtrations ; and jon the discovery of a new double star B

Delphini. “

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Sept. 1.—M. Bertrand in the chair,
—The following papers were read :—On the Aurora Borealis,
by M. Faye. The author’s paper related to Donati’s late
memoir on the same subject, in which he suggests that the pas-
sage of electro-magnetic currents from the sun to the planets is —
the cause of this phenomenon. M. Faye, on the other hand,
deprecated the introduction of such a theory, and suggested that
the effect of gravity as an agent in producing these effects may at
least be probable. He suggested that motions such as are ob-
served in the tails of comets might occur in the upper regions
‘of our atmosphere, z.e. that excessively attenuated air might be
constantly rushing from the side of the earth turned towards the
sun to that turned from it, and that this motion might cause in-
candescence of the air, visible at the poles as auroree.—On the
Carpellary Theory as regards the Amygdalacee, by M. A. Trécul.
—Gnomonic projection, &c., of a portion of the Sahara, by M.
A. Pomel.—Study of the metallic veins of Cornwall ;
structure of the rich veins, and their relation to the
stratigraphical arrangement of the country, by M. Moissenet.
—On the Siemens coil, by M. A. Pellerin—Observations of
Planet 133 and of Borrelly’s comet, by M. Stephan.—On the
changes of form of Comet IV., 1873, and on its spectrum, by
MM. G. Rayet and André, The comet has developed a tail
and become brighter ; it has no nucleus. Its spectrum at first
consisted of three bands, one between D and E, another
very close to 4, and a third beyond F. After the tail
had developed the same bands appeared, but they were larger
and brighter and accompanied by a faint continuous spectrum.—
On the form of the Martial seas as compared with the terrestrial
oceans, by M. Stan. Meunier. The author considers that the
long narrow straits on Mars are an additional proof of its greater
age as compared with the earth. Taking the soundings of the
Atlantic, he observed that if its level were reduced 4,000 metres
(by absorption), it would then present a similar aspect to the
Martial seas. :

BOOKS RECEIVED

Encutsu.—The Sea and its Wonders: Hartwig (Longmans & Co.),—
Centrifugal Force and Gravitation: John Harris (Lriibner & Co.).—Quan-
titative Chemical Analysis: Thorpe (Longmans & Co.)—What a
should be: William Bardwell (Dean).—The Convolutions of the Human
Brain: Ecker (Smith, Elder & Co.).—Scripture Manual (Murby).—Me-
chanics: Skertchley (Murby).—Report of Freshwater Fish and Fisheries of
India and Burmah: Surg.~Maj. Francis Day, Government of Calcutta.

Tue ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH, VI.. « » » «. + © © « « © «© 397
EUROPEAN SPIDERS «>. s+ © + + © © © @ & . + 378
Our Book SHELF. . ‘ 3 SR emcee

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR:—
Tyndall and Forbes.—Prof. P.G. Tair. . . . «+ «+. «+ + «
W. S. J. on Hegel.—J. Hutcuison STIRLING . . » « « . =
Lakes with Two Outfalls.—Colonel Gzorcz GreENwoop; R.B.
HLAYWARD - . 2 eyes. ts) 6 0 os) ol
Cranes in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London. . .
Colour of Lightning.—H. G. ForDHAM . o ow ‘el Je: Ret eine
Harmonic Causation and Harmonic Echoes.—HERMANN SMITH .
The Oreodon Remains in the Woodwardian Museum.—Lorp
WALSINGHAM =” 7 NEARS p o's tue We ce) ent anon Phe aae
Bright Shooting Stars.—WiLtiAM F. DeNNING, . . « . «
November Meteor Shower of 1872.—Henry C. BEASLEY . . .
EXPLORATIONS IN THE GREAT WEST. *. . - + «© «© «© » © «© © 305
On THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS
oF WEIGHT AND Measure, V. By H. W. CutsHoim, Wardenof the
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‘THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 18, 1873

SCIENTIFIC WORTHIES

I.—FARADAY
Michael Faraday, born September 22,1791, died
August 25, 1867.
ITH this number of NaTURE we present to our
subscribers the first of what we hope will be a long
series of Portraits of Eminent Men of Science.

This first portrait is one of Faraday, engraved on steel,
by Jeens, from a photograph by Watkins, Those who
had the happiness of knowing Faraday best will best ap-
preciate the artist’s skill—he has indeed,surpassed himself,
for the engraving is more life-like than the photograph. We
could ill spare such a memorial of such a man, one in
which all the beautiful simplicity of his life beams upon
us. There is no posturing here !

There is no need that we should accompany the por-
trait with a memoir of Faraday. Bence Jones, Tyndall,
and Gladstone have already lovingly told the story of the
grand and simple life which has shed and will long con-
tinue to shed such lustre on English Science, and their
books have carried the story home to millions; nor is
there any need that we should state why we have chosen
to commence our series with Faraday ; everybody will
acknowledge the justice of our choice.

But there is great need just now that some of the
lessons to be learnt from Faraday’s life should be insisted
upon, and we regard it as a fortunate circumstance that
we have thus the opportunity of insisting upon them
while our Scientific Congress is in session, and before the
echoes of the Address of the President of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science have died
away. ;

In the first place, then, we regard Faraday at once as
the most useful and the most noble type of a scientific
man. The nation is bigger and stronger in that Faraday
has lived, and the nation would be bigger and stronger
still were there more Faradays among us now. Prof.
Williamson, in his admirable address, acknowledges that
the present time is “momentous.” In truth the question
of the present condition of Science and the ways of im-
proving it, is occupying men’s minds more than it has
ever done before ; and it is now conceded on all sides
that this is a national question, and not only so, but one
of fundamental importance. Now what is the present
condition of English Science? It is simply this, that
while the numbers of our professors and their emoluments
are increasing, while the number of students is increasing,
while practical instruction is being introduced and text-
books multiplied, while the number and calibre of popu-
lar lecturers and popular writers in Science is increasing,
original research, the fountain-head of a nation’s wealth,
is decreasing.

Now a scientific man is useful as such to a nation ac-
cording to the amount of new knowledge with which he
endows that nation. This is the test which the nation, as
a whole, applies, and Faraday’s national reputation rests
on it. Let the nation know then that the real difficulty
at present is this ; we want more Faradays ; in other words
more men working at new knowledge,

No, 203—VOL, vil.

397

It is refreshing to see this want so clearly stated in the
Presidential Address :

“The first thing wanted for the work of advancing
science is a supply of well-qualified workers. The second
thing is to place and keep them under the conditions
most favourable to their efficient activity. The most
suitable men must be found while still young, and trained
to the work. Now I know only one really effectual way
of finding the youths who are best endowed by nature for
the purpose; and that is to systematise and develop the
natural conditions which accidentally concur in particular
cases, and enable youths to rise from the crowd,

“ Investigators, once found, ought to be placed in the
circumstances most favourable to their efficient activity,

“The first and most fundamental condition for this is,
that their desire for the acquisition of knowledge be kepi
alive and fostered. They must not merely retain the hold
which they have acquired on the general body of their
science ; they ought to strengthen and extend that hold,
by acquiring a more complete and accurate knowledge
of its doctrines and methods ; in a word, they ought to
be more thorough students than during their state of pre-
liminary training.

“ They must be able to live by their work, without di-
verting any of their energies to other pursuits ; and they
must feel security against want, in the event of illness or
in their old age.

“They must be supplied with intelligent and trained
assistants to aid in the conduct of their researches, and
whatever buildings, apparatus, and materials may be re-
quired for conducting those researches effectively.

“The desired system must therefore provide arrange-
ments favourable to the maintenance and development of
the true student-spirit in investigators, while providing
them with permanent means of subsistence, sufficient to
enable them to feel secure and tranquil in working at
science alone, yet not sufficient to neutralise their motives
for exertion ; and at the same time it must give them all
external aids, in proportion to their wants and powers of
making good use of them.”

Whether the scheme proposed by Dr. Williamson to
bring such a state of things about will have the full success
he anticipates is a matter of second-rate importance; what
is of importance is, that the need of some scheme is now
fully recognised.

So far the remarks we have made have been suggested
by Faraday’s usefulness, It is to be hoped that the
nobleness of his simple, undramatic life, will live as long
in men’s memories as the discoveries which have immor-
talised his name. Here was no hunger after popular
applause, no jealousy of other men’s work, no swerving
from thelwell-loved, self-imposed task ef “ working, finish-
ing, publishing.”

“The simplicity of his heart, his candour, his ardent
love of the truth, his fellow-interest in all the successes,
and ingenuous admiration of all the discoveries of others,
his natural modesty in regard to what he himself dis-
covered, his noble soul—independent and bold—all these
combined, gave an incomparable charm to the features of
the illustrious physicist.”

Such was his portrait as sketched by Dumas, a man
cast inthe same mould. All will recognise its truth. Can
men of science find a nobler exemplar on which to fashion
their own life? Nay, if it were more widely followed thar
it is, should we not hear less of men falling away from the
“hrilliant promise” of their youth, tempted by “ fees,” or
the “applications of Science,” or the advantages attendant
upon a popular exposition of other men’s work? Should

x

398

we not hear a little less [frequently than we do that re-
search is a sham, and that all attempts to aid it savour of
jobbery?

Lastly we may consider Faraday’s place in the general
history of Science ; this is far from easy. Our minds are
still too much occupied with the memory of the outward
form and expression of his scientific work to be able to
compare him aright with the other great men among
whom we shall have to place him.

Every great man of the first rank is unique. Each has
his own office and his own place in the historic procession
of the sages. That office did not exist even in the imagi-
nation, till he came to fill it, and none can succeed to his
place when he has passed away. Others may gain dis-
tinction by adapting the exposition of science to the vary-
ing language of each generation of students, but their true
function is not so much didactic as pedagogic—not to
teach the use of phrases which enable us to persuade our-
selves that we understand a science, but to bring the
student into living contact with the two main sources of
mental growth, the fathers of the sciences, for whose per-
sonal influence over the opening mind there is no substi-
tute, and the material things to which their labours first
gave a meaning.

Faraday is, and must always remain, the father of that
enlarged science of electro-magnetism which takes in at
one view, all the phenomena which former inquirers had
studied separately, besides those which Faraday himself
discovered by following the guidance of those convic-
tions, which he had already obtained, of the unity of the
whole science.

Before him came the discovery of most of the funda-
mental phenomena, the electric and magnetic attractions
and repulsions, the electric current and its effects. Then
came Cavendish, Coulomb, and Poisson, who by
following the path pointed out ‘by Newton, and
making the forces which act between bodies the prin-
cipal object of their study, founded the mathema-
tical theories of electric and magnetic forces. Then
Orsted discovered the cardinal fact of electro-mag-
netic force, and Ampére investigated the mathematical
laws of the mechanical action between electric currents.

Thus the field of electro-magnetic Science was already
very large when Faraday first entered upon his public
career. It was so large that to take in at one view all its
departments required a stretch of thought for which a
special preparation was necessary. Accordingly, we find
Faraday endeavouring in the first place to obtain, from each
of the known sources of electric action, all the pheno-
mena which any one of them was able to exhibit. Having
thus established the unity of nature of all electric mani-
festations, his next aim was to form a conception of elec-
trification, or electric action, which would embrace them
all. For this purpose it was necessary that he should
begin by getting rid of those parasitical ideas, which are
so apt to cling to every scientific term, and to invest it
with a luxuriant crop of connotative meanings flourishing
at the expense of the meaning which the word was in-
tended to denote. He therefore endeavoured to strip all
such terms as “electric: fluid,’ “current,” and “attrac-
tion” of every meaning except that which is warranted by
the phenomena themselves, and to invent new terms, such
as “ electrolysis,” “electrode,” “ dielectric,” which suggest

NATURE

no other meaning than that assigned to them by their
definitions. ;

He thus undertook no less a task than the investigation
of the facts, the ideas, and the scientific terms of electro-
magnetism, and the result was the remodelling of the whole
according to an entirely new method.

That old and popular phrase, “ electric fluid,” which is
now, we trust, banished for ever into the region of news-
paper paragraphs, had done what it could to keep men’s
minds fixed upon those particular parts of bodies where
the “fluid” was supposed to exist,

Faraday, on the other hand, by inventing the word
“dielectric,” has encouraged us to examine all that is
going on in the air or other medium between the electri-
fied bodies,

It is needless to multiply instances of this kind. The
terms, field of force, lines of force, induction, &c., are suf-
ficient to recall them. They all-illustrate the general
principles of the growth of science, in the particular form
of which Faraday is the exponent.

We have, first, the careful observation of selected phe-
nomena, then the examination of the received ideas, and
the formation, when necessary, of new ideas ; and, lastly,
the invention of scientific terms adapted for the discus-
sion of the phenomena in the light of the new ideas.

The high place which we assign to Faraday in electro-
magnetic science may appear to some inconsistent with
the fact that electromagnetic science is an exact science,
and that in some of its branches it had already assumed
a mathematical form before the time of Faraday, whereas
Faraday was not a professed mathematician, and in his
writings we find none of those integrations of differential
equations which are supposed to be of the very essence ofan
exact science. Open Poisson and Ampére, who went before
him, or Weber and Neumann, who came after him, and
you will find their pages full of symbols, not one of which
Faraday would have understood. It is admitted that
Faraday made some great discoveries, but if we put these
aside, how can we rank his scientific method so high
without disparaging the mathematics of these eminent
men?

It is true that no one can essentially cultivate any
exact science without understanding the mathematics of
that science. But we are not to suppose that the calcu-
lations and equations which mathematicians find so use-
ful constitute the whole of mathematics. The calculus is
but a part of mathematics.

The geometry of position is an example of a mathe-
matical science established without the aid of a single
calculation. Now Faraday’s lines of force occupy the
same position in electromagnetic science that pencils of
lines do in the geometry of position. They furnish a
method of building up an exact mental image of the thing
we are reasoning about. The way in which Faraday
made use of his idea of lines of force in co-ordinating the
phenomena of magneto-electric induction* shows him to
have been in reality a mathematician of a very high order

* To estimate the ixfensity of Faraday’s scientific power, we cannot do
better than read the first and second series of his ‘* Researches,” and compare
them, first,with the statements in Bence Jones's ‘‘ Life of Faraday,” which tells
us the tales of the first discovery of the facts, and of the final publication of
the results, and second, with the whole course of electromagnetic science
since, which has added no new idea to those set forth, but has only v:
the truth and scientific value of every one of them,

ae

Pye oe

Sept. 18, 1873]

NATURE

399

a

—one from whom the mathematicians of the future may

* derive valuable and fertile methods.

For the advance of the exact sciences depends upon
the discovery and development of appropriate and exact
ideas, by means of which we may form a mental re-
presentation of the facts, sufficiently general, on the one
hand, to stand for any particular case, and sufficiently
exact, on the other, to warrant the deductions we may
draw from them by the application of mathematical
reasoning.

From the straight line of Euclid to the lines of force of
Faraday this has been the character of the ideas by
which science has been advanced, and by the free use
of dynamical as well as geometrical ideas we may hope for
a further advance. The use of mathematical calcula-
tions is to compare the results of the application of
these ideas with our measurements of the quantities con-
cerned in our experiments. Electrical science is now in the
stage in which such measurements and calculations are
of the greatest importance.

We are probably ignorant even of the name of the
science which will be developed out of the materials we
are now collecting, when the great philosopher next after
Faraday makes his appearance.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. | é

Tyndall and Tait

I HAVE hitherto refrained from intruding upon your space with
reference to this deplorable Forbes’ controversy, but now that the
occasion has come when a brief deliverance on my part seems
called for, I trust to your courtesy, if not to your justice, to allow
me room for it,

In the first place I would ask permission to inform such of
your readers as may feel an interest in the subject, that if they
wish to form a correct opinion of the tone and logic of my re-
joinder to Principal Forbes and his biographers, they will consult
the rejoinder itself, as published by Longmans, and not the ex-
tracts and inferences of Professor Tait.

They will thus learn, among other things, that what Professor
Tait calls “‘ plausible ,” is simply unanswerable.

With regard to the taking up of the various points in Principal
Forbes’s reply, item by item, that may be done some day should
I deem it a worthy occupation. In my rejoinder I conyerged at-
tention on the two points which Principal Forbes himself consi-
dered the really serious ones, and having broken the neck of the
argument in both these cases I cared little about prolonging the
‘controversy. Nevertheless if circumstances show it to be neces-
sary it may be prolonged.

Professor Tait invariably writes on the hypothesis that what
is not contradicted cannot be contradicted, and must therefore
be accepted as true—a natural, if not inevitable, assumption on
his part. For example, Forbes’s argument regarding the cre-
vasses of Rendu was left unanswered by me, hence the conclu-
sion that it was unanswerable, That argument, however, is now
in shreds, as it might have been, had I so willed, any time during
the last dozen years. Again, Principal Forbes makes an assere
‘tion regarding his tutelage of Agassiz ; the assertion is left uncon-
tradicted ; it must therefore be accepted as true, and I am unjust
‘because I do not so accept it. Thirteen years ago, however, I was
in possession of a diametrically opposite assertion from M.
Agassiz. Quite as distinctly, though not so specifically, he
writes thus within the present year. ‘* When Forbes came to
visit me upon the glacier of the Aar, he knew not only every-
thing that I had done, but also my plans for the future. When
he left he positively declined to express any opinion concerning
glacier phenomena, under the plea that he only came to gratify
‘his curiosity, and had no intention of following up the subject,
-as he had no desire to be involved in the controversy then raging

regarding the former extension of glaciers.* When he showed his
hand I did not enter into a protracted discussion, but simply
made a statement of facts and let the matter rest. sh eneara
When I look,” adds M. Agassiz, “on the whole transaction it
seems incredible. There is in it no vestige either of the gentle-
man or the honest investigator,”

With statements of this character confronting the assertions
of Principal Forbes, the proper course for me was to ignore as-
sertions on both sides, and to confine myself to demonstrable
facts. This I accordingly did.

With regard to Mr. Tait’s criticism of my ‘‘ popular ” writings
it has, of course, nothing to do with his defence of F orbes, but is
the product of mere ignoble spite. Heasks me to reply to him not
according to the letter, but according to the spirit of his attack,
If I might use the expression I would say, ‘‘ God forbid!” for
how could I dojso without lowering myself to some extent
to his level. The antecedents of Mr. Tait with reference
to me are pretty well known. When I sought to raise
from the dust a meritorious man whose name is now a house-
hold word in science, who has been elected by acclamation
a member of the French Academy, and who has received the
crowning honour of the Royal Society—when I sought to place
Dr. Mayer in the position which he now holds, and from which
no detraction can remove him, it was Mr. Tait who, in Good
Words, charged me with misleading the public; who followed
up his attack in the ‘‘ Philosophical Magazine,” and who when
publicly hoisted by his own petard, retired to void his venom
against me in the anonymous pages of the ‘‘ North British Re-
view.” It is this man whose blunders and whose injustice have
been so often reduced to nakedness, without ever once showing
that he possessed the manhood to acknowledge a committed
wrong, who now puts himself forward as the corrector of my
errors and the definer of my scientific position. That position
is happily not dependent upon him, and his opinion regarding it,
is to me, as it will be to most others, a trifle light as air. But
gtaver considerations than mere personal ones here arise.
Might I venture, Mr. Editor, to express a doubt as to the
wisdom of permitting discussions of this kind to appear in your
invaluable journal. Having opened your columns to attack you
are, of course, in duty bound to open them to reply, but if I
might venture a suggestion, you would wisely use your un-
doubted editorial rights, andconsult the interests of science, by
putting a stop to proceedings which dishonour it. Anillustrious
person writes to me thus :—‘‘I have just read Professor Tait’s
letters in NATURE, and feel a recurrence of that pain which
similar communications once inflicted on myself—pain felt, not
on my own account, for I knew that the attacks would no more
sully me in the opinion of those whom I loved and respected,
than they did in my own opinion; but pain for the wounded
honour of science and the outraged dignity of scientific contro-
versy.” Joun TyNpDALL

Atheneum Club, Sept. 16

[We deeply sympathise with Professor Tyndall’s remarks on
the injury done to scientific controversy by the introduction
into it of personalities, and we should have made his own letter
square with his canon if his reference to our duty in this matter,
and his insinuation of injustice did not take the matter out of
our hands. Prof. Tyndall forgets (1) that Prof. Tait’s letter is
an answer to a pamphlet by Dr. Tyndall, and that space was
asked for it as such; and not an atlack in the sense
in which Prof. Tyndall uses the word ; (2), that if the Editor
were to assume the power and responsibility that — Prof.
Tyndall suggests, NaTURE might easily fall from the position of
absolute justice and impartiality in all scientific matters which it
now occupies and become the mere mouthpiece of a clique.

What the Editor can do and has endeavoured to do in this
case, is to guard the reputations of men of Science against the
attacks of men of straw, and to see that no personalities are
used ; and it is under strong protest that he allows to pass in
Prof. Tyndall’s letter, for the reasons already stated, p -rsonalities,
the equivalents of which, the Editor, in the exercis- of his “* un-
doubted editorial rights,” struck out of Prof. Tait’s communica-
tion. —Ep, NATURE. ]

* This tallies with Forbes’s own account (Travels, page 38). “ Far from
being ready to admit, as my sanguine companions wished me to do in 184r,
that the theory of glaciers was complete, and the cause of their motion cer-
tain, after patiently hearing all they had to say, and reserving my opinion,
&c,” This reservation of opinion is probably the reticence referred to by
Agassiz.

400

NATURE

[ Sept. 18, 1873

NOTES FROM THE “CHALLENGER”
Vil. ‘
ON Monday the 30th of June we sounded in 1,000 fa-
thoms, about 114 miles westward from Fayal. The
dredge was put over early in the forenoon, and came up
half filled with a grey sandy ooze with a large proportion

of the dead shells of Pteropods, many Foraminifera, and
many pebbles of pumice. Many animal forms of great
interest were found entangled in the swabs, or sifted out
of the mud, Another Schizopod crustacean of large size
and great beauty of form and brilliancy of colouring
came up in this,haul. Dr. von Willemoes-Suhm regards
it as congenericjwith the species taken at Station 69, at a

Fic. 1.—Ophioglypha bullata, Wy.

depth of 2,200 fathoms, and as these crustaceans are
among our most interesting acquisitions during the voyage
between Bermudas and the Acores, I will abstract a brief
description of them from his notes.

_The two crustaceans for whose reception Dr. von

Fic. 2

Fic. 2.—Flabellum alabastrum, H, N. M.

Lophogaster, a genus described in great detail by the late
Prof. Sars. It is proposed to refer Guathophansia to the
family Lophogastridz, which must be somewhat modified
and expanded for its reception.

In Guathophansia the dorsal shield covers the thoracic
segments of the body, but it is unconnected with the last

. Thomson—six times the natural size.

Willemoes-Suhm proposes to establish the gene Gnatho-
Phansia present characters which have hitherto been
found partly in Schizopods and partly in Phyllopods, but
not combined in the same animal. They are, however,
essentially Schizopods, and have much in common with

Fic. 3.—Ceratotrochus nobilis, H. N. M.

five of these, The shield is prolonged anteriorly into &
spiny rostrum. The stalked eyes are fairly developed in
the ordinary position. There is an auxiliary eye on each
of the maxillze of the second pair, :

The two species of the genus are thus distinguished ;
G, gigas, n. sp. (Figs. 4.and 5). Scale of the outer an-

ae 8

Sept. 18, 1873]

NATURE

401

tenna with five teeth ; dorsal shield with the outer angles |

of its posterior border produced into spines ; no posterior
spine in the middle line ; length 142 mm. Of this species
one specimen was taken from a depth of 2,200 fathoms,
with a bottom of Globigerina ooze, at Station 69, 400 miles
to the west of the Acores.

G. zoéa, n. sp. (Fig. 6): Scale of the outer antenna

Ie
‘a

\
}

— a oa
=f)

Fic 4
Fics. 4 & 5.—Gnathopha. sia gigas, vy. W.-S.

there are characters presented by the new genus, particu-
larly in connection with the dorsal shield, which not only
entirely separate it from Lophogaster, but enlarge our
views on the whole Schizopod group. In both species
the shield is sculptured by ridges traversing it in different
directions, and in both there is a long spiny rostrum ;
but this shield is merely a soft duplicature of the skin,
connected with the body only anteriorly, and leaving five
thoracic segments entirely free. In the structure of the

ee ee ee ed

with one tooth. A long central spine on the posterior
border of the dorsal shield, but no lateral spines ; length,
60mm. A single specimen at the present station like-
wise from a bottom of Globigerina ooze.

On comparing the figures of these two species and of
their anatomical details with that of Lophogaster given by
Sars, one is struck by their great general similarity ; but -

Fic 6 Fic, 5
Fic, 6.—Gnathophansia zoea, v. W.-S.

shield and its mode of attachment Grathophansia has the
greatest resemblance to 4fws among all crustaceans, but
it differs from it widely in all other respects. NVedalia is
the only Schizopod in which the carapace is not con-
nected with the posterior thoracic segments, but in that
genus the form of the carapace is totally different, and the
genera are otherwise im no way nearly related.

Neither the antennz, nor the scales, nor the parts of
the mouth present any marked differences from those of

402

NATURE

[Sepz. 18, 1873

Lophogaster, with the exception of the second maxille.
- These, with nearly the same form as in the Norwegian
genus, bear a pair of accessory eyes, Such eyes are well
known at the base of the thoracic and even of the ab-
dominal limbs in the Euphansidz, a family with which
the Lophogastridze have otherwise nothing in common,
but hitherto they have not been met with in any other
animal or in any of the manducatory organs.

Of the eight pairs of legs seven are ambulatory, only
the first pair is, as in Lophogaster, transformed into
maxillipeds. The gills are arborescent and attached to
the bases of the legs, The abdomen and its appendages
scarcely differ from those of Lophogaster. We find here
also that the last segment is apparently divided into two.
This would indicate an approach to such forms as WVebalia,
which has nine abdominal segments, or at all events a
tendency to a multiplication of segments which if really
existing would scarcely allow the association of the genus
with the true Schizopods.

The weather was remarkably fine. During the day the
island of Flores was visible like a cloud on the horizon,
about 50 miles to the northward. In the afternoon we ob-
tained a series of temperature soundings at intervals of
100 fathoms down to 1,000, and in the evening proceeded
under steam towards Fayal.

On the following day, the 1st of July, we sounded in
1,350 fathoms, about 20 miles west of Fayal, apparently
in a depression which separates the western group of the
Acores, Flores and Corvo from the central group Fayal,
Pico, San Jorge, Terceira, and Gracioza, and during the
afternoon we gradually approached the fine island of
Fayal, and enjoyed the development of its bold outlines
and rich and varied colouring, In the evening we passed
into the narrow channel between Fayal and Pico, and
anchored in the roadsteads of Hortes. We found to our
great disappointment that small-pox was prevalent in
Fayal, and as Captain Nares considered it imprudent to
give general leave, one or two of us only landed to pick
up what general impression we might of the appearance
of the place, and on the following morning we proceeded
towards San Miguel, first taking a few hauls of the
dredge in shallow water between Fayal and Pico, where we
found a rather scanty fauna, resembling in character that
of southern Europe, on a bottom of dark volcanic sand.

On Friday, July 4, we sounded in 750 fathoms on a
rocky bottom. The ship water-bottle was sent down and
brought up a sample of the bottom water. In the after-
noon we shortened and furled sails, and proceeded under
steam towards San Miguel, and in the evening stopped
abreast of Ponta Delgada, the capital of the island,
where we lay-to for the night, secured to a buoy. Next
morning, as we found, greatly to our satisfaction, that the
town was considered free from any epidemic of small-
pox, we steamed in to the anchorage, and cast anchor in
13 fathoms.

We remained at San Miguel until Wednesday the oth.
We were well aware that the time at our disposal was
quite insufficient to enable us to do anything of
importance to add to the knowledge of the natural
history of the island already so well worked out,
and as we had had a long sea-cruise, we were in
no way disinclined for a few days of complete relaxation.
We accordingly combined into a large party, totally un-
scientific in its object, and by the aid of mules and donkeys
made a most enjoyable raid among the caldeiras and
volcanic ranges of the east end of the island. The
random impressions collected during these hore subsecive
may perhaps be chronicied elsewhere.

Our first haul after leaving Ponta Delgada, was in 1,000
fathoms, mid-way between the islands of San Miguel and
Santa Maria, and about fifteen miles north-west of the
Formigas. The bottom was Globigerina ooze. The
principal feature in this dredging was the unusual abun-
dance of stony corais of the deep-sea group.

ae

Two living specimens of a large species of Flabellum
were sifted out, the same as the one which we had
dredged previously at station 73, to the west of Fayal.
The corallum is wedge-shaped, the calicle rising from
an attenuated pedicle. The extreme height, from the
end of the pedicle to the margin of the cup, is 50 mm. ;
the greatest diameter of this calicle is 65 mm., and the
smallest 30mm. The three species are very nearly of the
same dimensions.

The lateral costae make an angle with one another of
120° to 140°, and are sharp and moderately prominent,
with an irregular edge. The external surface of the
calicle is covered with a glistering epitheca, and near
the margin is of a light pink colour. The costz of the
faces corresponding tothe primary and secondary septa
are almost as well marked as the lateral coste, and
appear as irregularly dental ridges, separated by slight
depressions. Theends of the calicle are broadly rounded,
and it is compressed laterally in the centre. The upper
margin is curved, describing about one-third of a circle.

There are six systems of septa disposed in five cycles,
The septa are extremely thin and fragile. They are
tinged with pink, and covered with rounded granules,
disposed in rows, The primary septa are approximately
equal to the secondary, giving somewhat the appearance
of twelve systems. These septa are broad and promi-
nent, with a rounded superior margin, and curved
lines of growth, The septa of the third, fourth,
and fifth cycles successively, diminish in breadth, and
are thus very markedly distinguished from one another,
and from the primary and secondary septa. The septa
of the fourth cycle join those of the third a short
distance before reaching the columella. The septa of
the fifth cycles are incomplete. The margin of the
calicle is very deeply indented, the costal corresponding
to the primary and secondary septa being prolonged in
conjunction with the outer margins of these septa, into
prominent pointed processes ; similar but shorter prolon-
gations accompany the tertiary, and some of the quater-
nary septa. Between each of the sharp projections thus
formed, the edge of the wall of the calicle presents a
curved indentation.

Two of the specimens procured, expanded their soft
parts when placed in sea-water. The inner margin of the
disc round the elongated oral aperture, presents a regular
series of dentations, corresponding with the septa, and is
of a dark madder colour ; the remainder of the disc is
pale pink. The tentacles take origin directly from the
septa. They are elongated and conical. Those of the
primary and secondary septa are equal in dimensions,
and along with the tertiary tentacles, which are some-
what shorter, but in the same line, are placed nearest the
mouth, and at an equal distance from it. The tentacles
of the fourth and fifth cycles are successively smaller and
at successively greater distances from the mouth,
Placed on either side of each tentacle of the fifth
cycle, and again somewhat nearer the edge of the calicle,

there are a pair of very small tentacles which have no ~

septa developed in correspondence with them. There
are thus four successive rows of tentacles, and the
normal number is ninety-six. The tentacles are of a
light red colour, and between their bases are stripes of
yellowish red and light grey.

This group belongs to the group Pladella sub-pedicellata
of Milne-Edwards, and probably to that division in which
the costze are prominent and ridge like on the faces of
the corallum, as well as on its lateral margins, but it
differs from those described under this head by Milne-
Edwards, in that it has five cycles, the fifth being incom-
plete, and in other particulars which appear from the
description given.

Asingle living specimen of a coralreferred,by Mr. Moseley
to the genus Ceratotrochus was obtained from this haul.
The corallum is white, The base sub-pedicellate with a

Sept. 18, 1873]

NATURE

403

small scar of original adherence. The principal costals
are prominent, and round the region of the base beset with
small spines directed somewhat upwards. The upper
portion of the costa is without spines. The primary and
secondary septa are broad and exsert. Pali are absent,
the columella is fascicular. The absence of pali, the form
of the columella, and the nature of the base, associate this
form with the Ceratrotrochi, as defined by Milne-Edwards.

The animal is of a dark madder colour on the region
of the margin of the calicle between the exsert primary
and secondary septa, and on the membrane investing the
wall of the corallum from the margin down to the com-
mencement of the spines. This dark colour is succeeded
on the disc by a band of pale bluish, within which there
is again a zone of very dark madder colour round the
mouth. The dark colouring-matter is interesting, as it
gives an absorption spectrum of three distinct bands.

On Friday, July 11, we sounded in 2,025 fathoms,
376 miles to the west of Madeira, the bottom very well
marked “ globigerina ooze,” and the bottom temperature
5 C,

dhe weather for the last few days had been remarkably
fine, with a pleasant light breeze. When we turned up on
deck on the morning of the 16th, we were already at
anchor in the beautiful bay of Funchal, and looking at the
lovely garden-like island, full of anticipations of a week’s
ramble among the peaks and “ currals” and the summer
“quintas” of our friends—anticipations which were
coomed to be disappointed.

WYVILLE THOMSON

THE INTERNATIONAL METRIC COMMISSION
AT PARIS

jo continuation of the notices of the proceedings of
this Scientific Commission (see NATURE, vol. vii.
p. 237), it may now be stated that the French Section
have been engaged during the present year in the work of
the Commission entrusted to them, and have continued
their sittings up to the present time. It appears from the
printed “ Procés Verbaux” that their attention has been
principally directed to the further investigations and ex-
periments required for the melting and casting of the
large mass of alloy of platinum and iridium, determined
upon as the material of all the new standards, with the
view of obtaining a homogeneous ingot of these two
metals in the proper proportions. This preliminary work
is now so far completed that the twelve members of the
Commission elected as the Permanent Committee, have
been summoned to meet at Paris on October 1, to consult
upon the subject with the French Section, and more par-
ticularly to discuss and decide the following points :—

1. The date of the definitive of the melting platinum-
iridium intended for the construction of the new Interna-
tional metric standards.

2. The question whether the J/étres-d-bouts requested
by some countries shall be constructed from the metal of
the same melting as the J/¢/res-a-traits.

3. Whether the kilograms shall be made from the
metal of the same melting as the J/dtres-d-tratts.

As to the number of metric standards required to be
constructed by the Commission, the greater number of the
Governments represented at the Commission have already
intimated their wishes to have in all 31 metres and 24
kilograms. Germany and Italy have not yet notified
their decision. Austria and Switzerland have declined to
reply until the question of the creation of an International
Bureau is satisfactorily settled, and it is understood that
the same course is’ being followed by Germany. Russia
is favourable to the creation of the Bureau, but has not
yet decided on the number of standards she will require.

In addition to the number of fifty delegates already
appointed by twenty-nine Governments to take part in

the International Metric Commission, and whose names
have been already announced, the Haytian Government
has nominated M. Ch. Laforestie, Chargé d’Affaires of
the Haytian Republic, and the Government of Brazil has
nominated Prof. Such de Capanema as their respective
delegates of the Commission. The French Government
has also invited the Governments of Central America,
Persia, China, and Japan to send delegates to take part
in the proceedings of the Commission,

As it will be expedient to construct a number of spare
copies of the new metric standards, it will probably be
necessary to prepare for the’construction of not less than
fifty metres and nearly as many kilograms.

But difficulties must inevitably and at once arise at
Paris from the course taken by the Governments of Ger-
many, Austria, and Switzerland, as it tends materially to
impede the attainment of the declared primary objects of
the Commission to construct and furnish every Government
interested with uniform metric standards, which are to be
accurately verified, and of equal authority. After the ex-
piration of four years from the date of the appointment
of the Commission by the French Government, oa
September 2, 1869, and the passing of almost unanimous
resolutions at a full meeting of the Commission in 1872,
upon the ‘mode of constructing the new standards, the
time has now arrived when everything has been got ready
for commencing the actual construction of the new stan-
dards. It can hardly be expected that this, the real work
of the Commission, is to be stopped until the ulterior
question of the creation of an International Metric Bureau
is settled to the satisfaction of the three above-mentioned
Governments. Nor does a further significant step which
has been recently taken by the Austrian Government lead
to much hope of a satisfactory solution of this question.

The Austrian Government has officially declared th t
it accepts in principle the establishment of an Interna-
tional Metric Bureau upon the basis of the resolutions
passed by the Commission, so far as relates to the objects
and functions of this Bureau; and that it is quite dis-
posed to take part in a Convention upon the subject, pro-
vided that all the other Governments represented at the
Commission give their adherence. But it expressly re-
serves the right of making new propositions when the
questions of the organisation, the seat, and the direction
of the Bureau are discussed, as well as the right of
definitively approving the Convention.

It proposes, at the same time, that in order to maintain
the international character of the negociation, the seat of
the Conference shall be at Berne, where the Inter-
national Telegraphic Conference is now held, or at Brus-
sels, these two cities being equally upon neutral territory.

And that for facilitating the proceedings of the Con-
ference, the Permanent Committee appointed by the
Metric Commission, shall previously elaborate a project
of Convention to be communicated to the several govern-
ments interested ; and that the Conference be not con-
voked for completing the definitive Convention until the
preliminary negociations shall be sufficiently advanced to
allow of a favourable result.

The invitation given by the French Government to the
Austrian and other governments, was to take part in the
creation of the International Metric Bureau based upon
the five points proposed by the Commission, and it now
appears that Austria objects to three out of these five
points. And even as regards the other two points, Aus-
tria’s adhesion is conditional upon the concurrence of all
the other governments represented at the Commission.
Up to the present time, however, the governments of five
countries only have officially notified their concurrence,
whilst those of twelve countries have formally declined to
take any part in the establishment of the proposed Inter-
national Metric Bureau. Under these circumstances, its
creation at all seems very problematical, however desir-
able it may be in the interests of metrological science.

404

NATURE

[Sepz. 18, 1873

It is evident that the decision upon these new propo-
sitions must be left entirely to the governments interested.
At any rate, the discussion of the Austrian propositions
appear to be quite beyond the powers of either the French
Section or the Permanent Committee, who are in no way
authorised to re-open questions which, so far as the action
of the Commission is concerned, have already been una-
nimously decided at the full meeting of the Commission.
Meanwhile, the specific work of the Commission must be
proceeded with, and the approaching meeting at Paris
will enable the final decisions to be made, which alone are
now required for beginning the construction of the new
Standards, H. W. CHISHOLM

NOTES

Aw election will be held on Thursday, October 30, to two
fellowships in connection with Merton College, Oxford. The
examination for one of these fellowships will be in mathematics,
for the other in physical science. The election to the physical
science fellowship will be decided with respect to proficiency in
physics, but candidates will have an opportunity of showing a
knowledge of chemistry as supplementary to physics. The ex-
amination in both these subjects will be partly practical, partly
by papers, and will be held in common with Magdalen College.
A lectureship in physics, tenable for three years, in Trinity
College, of 200/. per annum, will be offered to the Fellow to be
elected. The examination for the two fellowships will commence
on Tuesday, October 7, at 9 A.M., in the Merton College Hall.
Candidates are required to call on the Warden on Tuesday,
October 7, between 4 and 5 P.M,

Tue Openiug Address of this session of the St. Thomas
Charterhouse Teachers’ Science Classes will be delivered by Mr.
F. C, Buckmaster on Saturday morning, the 2oth inst., at 10.30.
The chair will be taken by Sir J. Bennett, and a deputation from
the Science Department of South Kensington will attend.
Last year this undertaking met with signal success: above 200
teachers of primary schools availed themselves of the privi-
leges offered by the institution. Many of the late students are
now qualified to give instruction in elementary science. The
movement is likely to do an immense amount of good in the way
of making the teaching of elementary science common amongst
the masses. During the recess about 250/. has been expended
in fitting up a chemical laboratory and purchasing scientific
apparatus ; this, together with the engagement of an additional

number of lecturers, it is thought will again secure a large number
students,

WE understand that the bryological books and exceedingly
rich and important collections and preparations of mosses left
hy the late Prof. Sullivant, whose death we recorded last week,
are consigned to the Grey Herbarium of Harvard University,
with a view to their preservation and long continued usefulness,
The remainder of his botanical library, his choice microscopes,
and other collections are bequeathed to the State Scientific and
Agricultural College just established at Columbus.

THE American Naturalist for August records the death of
four contributors to that journal, all more or less known as work-
ing naturalists :—Prof, John Lewis Russell, of Salem, one of
the founders, and for many years president of the Essex County
(Massachusetts) Natural History Society, which afterwards be-
came part of the Essex Institute, an active worker in botany ;
Mr. George Gibbs, of New Haven, the distinguished American
ethnologist and philologist, whose special work had been in the
language and history of the North American Indians ; Col. John
W. Foster, president of the Chicago Academy of Science, a
constant contributor of papers and memoirs on geological and

archeological subjects, and joint author with Prof. Whitney of
the Government Report on the Mineral Lands of Lake Superior,

published in 1850; and Prof. Henry James Clark, of Amherst,

one of the most thorough histologists and best microscopists in
the country, and a large contributor to Prof. Agassiz’s volumes
on the Natural History of the United States. Of these losses

to science, Prof. Clark was under 50, and only Prof. Lewis
over 60.

THE first meeting of the Agassiz Natural History Club, recently
organised by the'students of the Anderson School of Natural History
on Penikese Island, was held on July 24, and showed signs of. great
energy and activity. Although the school had only been opena
fortnight, lectures on surface geology, the embryology of verte-
brates and articulates, on physiology, physical geography, on the
microscope and its construction, with practical lessons on its use =
free hand drawing on the blackboard, zoological and landscape
drawing, and daily dredging excursions in the yacht Sprite,
together with instructions in collecting and preserving animals,
have been given. The amount of laboratory work done is stated
to be most satisfactory. Large aquaria are being set up in the
temporary laboratory.

Tue Council of the Pharmaceutical Society are desirous of
forming a complete herbarium of medical plants from every
quarter of the globe, whether officinal or not. Mr. Holmes, the
Curator of the Society’s Museum, 17, Bloomsbury Square, will
be glad to enter into communication with any foreign botanists
and pharmaceutists willing to co-operate in the work.

IN a telegram from St. Petersburg, September 11, it is stated
that General Kaufmann reports that the Amoo Daria river is not
navigable by steamboats. The scientific expedition sent out by
General Kaufmann to explore the old bed of the Amoo Daria
river as far as the lake of Lara Kamish, returned on July
23 to the camp at Kunurgentsch. The expedition explored the
river to a distance of 450 versts, and succeeded in collecting
much valuable information and scientific materials,

IN a telegram from St. John’s, Newfoundland, of September
IT, it is stated that the Ywmia/a had arrived there and reported
that the camp of the crew of the Polaris was discovered by the
Tigress on August 14 at Littleton Island, where the ship was
deserted, Manuscript records of the expedition up to a period
of six weeks before the discovery were secured. The Tigress is

still in search of the Buddington party, who are believed to be
safe.

A PAPER in Petermann’s ALiitheilungen upon the driftwood
found in Nova Zembla has at present a special interest in con-
nection with the discovery of fragments of a similar character by
the crew of the o/aris in Polaris and Newman Bays. The
Nova Zembla specimens consisted mainly of willow of various
thicknesses. There were also, however, pieces of beech nearly
a foot in diameter, several species of pine, among these P. sylves-
tris, an Abies, &c, It is thought that a large portion of this
material must have been derived from the Petschora, Ob, and
Yenesei rivers, and that none of it could have been derived fron.
the current of the Gulf Stream,

THE past winter was very mild in the southern portion of
Iceland, but quite severe in the northern. In the middle of
January an eruption of the volcanoes in the great Yokul Moun-
tains, in the south-east corner of the island, took place, which
continued with unusual violence for about a week, and then
suddenly ceased. Since then no fire has been noticed. Large
quantities of ashes have fallen on different localities, but it is
believed that the deep bed of snow protected the pasture lands

from destruction. Volcanic eruptions took place at the same
time in Chili,

| Sept. 18, 1873]

nA ASA a

NATURE

405

THE recent number of Petermann’s Mittheilungen contains
articles and maps on the American North Polar Expedition and
Transcaspian Russia. The New Lybian Expedition and the
Russian March on Khiva are the subjects of two of the articles.

By the death of the last surviving porpoise the Brighton
Aquarium has to lament the loss of one of its most attractive
features.

WE have received the Prospectus of anew club to be called
“The Scientific Societies Club.” ‘The approaching concentra-
tion of scientific societies, the Prospectus says, suggests that the
present is a fitting time for the formation of a ‘‘ Scientific
Societies Club,” {which would afford in the neighbourhood of
Burlington House? conversation and reading rooms, as well as
the usual facilities of a club for members of all scientific societies,
In order to render(the club’generally available and as useful as
possible to the scientific world, it is proposed that the entrance
fee and the annual subscription shall each be small.

AccokvInG to Dr. Fritsch, the discovery has Jately been made
of lacustrine dwellings in the vicinity of Leipsic, as the result of

certain engineering operations undertaken to regulate the course

of the River Elster. After passing through a series of layers at
a certain depth, the workmen found a series of oak piles pointed
below and decomposed above, and supporting a certain num-
ber of oak trunks placed horizontally ; and on the same level
with these were found certain lower jaws’and teeth of oxen,
fragments of antlers, broken bones of various mammifers, shells
of an Anodon, fragments of pottery, two polished stone hatchets,
&e.

Pror. C. A. WHITE, of Iowa State University, and State
geologist of Iowa, has been appointed to the new chair of
Geology and Natural History at Bowdoin College.

A COMMUNICATION has been made to the Academia dei Lincei
of Rome, by M. Tarry, giving the results of his personal expe-
rience and investigations into the connection between the cyclonic
storms and the showers of sand that frequently visit Southern
Europe. M. Tarry, after travelling as secretary to the French
Meteorological Society into Northern Africa and the Desert of
Sahara, and having consulted the files of the Daily Weather
Bulletin of the Paris Observatory, believes himself to have
established the fact that whenever a cyclone passes southward
from Europe over the Mediterranean Sea into Africa (as some
few of them do every season), it then returns northward or
northwestward, and transports the sand which in the desert
formed a sand-storm to the southern coasts of Europe as a sand-
shower of greater or less duration. The satisfactory investi-
gation of this subject is much impeded by the absence of
barometric observations on the southern shores of the Medi-
terranean ; and to remedy this defect, M. Tarry has recently
established new meteorological statistics at Mogadore, Morocco,
Terceira, Madeira, and even in the interior of the Sahara.

“* GENERAL Remarks on the Climate of Bombay, with a brief
description of the Peculiarities of the Weather of the year 1871,”
is the title of a pamphlet which we have just received, written by
Mr. Charles Chambers, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Kolaba
Observatory.

THE Zimes of India states that education is making rapid
progress in Ceylon, and vernacular schools will soon be within
the reach of every section of the native community. The same
paper states that Ceylon will contribute a selectionYof colonial
products to the next Exhibition at South Kensington.

Tue Rey. Thos. Garnier, Dean of Winchester, who died
recently at the age of 98, was the ‘‘father” of the Linnean
Society, having been elected during the last century, in 1798,
only ten years after the foundation of the Society. (Some of

his contributions to botanical literature bore the} date of last
century.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during tha
past week include a Garnet’s |Galago (Ga/ago garnetli) from y
East Africa, presented by Capt. Geo. Butchart ; a Manx Shear-
water (Procellaria puffinus), British, presented by Dr. Bree; a
Reeve’s Muntjac (Cerva/us reevesi), from China, presented by
Mr. R. Swinhoe ; a Spotted Cayy (Ce/ogenys paca), from South
America, presented by Mr, J. de Castro ; three Common Cha-
meleons (Chameleon vulgaris), from Africa, presented by Mr.
W. C. Hotham ; an Alligator (A//igator sp.), presented by Mr.
W. Gillespie.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Sept. 8.—M. Bertrand in the chair,
—The following papers were read :—Fifth note on Guano, by -
M. Chevreul.—Note on the observations of M. Lecoq de Bois-
baudran, relative to the appearance of Phylloxera in the vine-
yards of the Charente, by M. Milne-Edwards,—Note on the
number of points of intersection which represent a multiple
point common to two plane curves, &c., by M. de la Gournerie.
—Researches on Crystalline Dissociation, continuation! by MM.
P. A. Fayre and C. A. Valson. This portion of the paper
dealt with the valuation and division of the work done in saline
solutions.—Note on a New System of representing the con+
tinuous Meteorological Observations, made at the National Ob-
servatory, Algiers, by M. Bulard.—-Note on Magnetism, third
part, by M. J. M. Gaugain,—On the Spontaneous Motion of As-
cension of Liquids in Capillary Tubes, by C. Decharme. This por-
tion of the paper treated of the subject from a theoretical point
of view.—On Pyrogallol in the presence of iron salts, by M. E.
Jacquemin.—Researches on the Spectra of Chlorophyll, by M.
J. Chautard. The author has found that this substance so easily
changed as viewed from the physiological point of view, is very
stable when subjected to chemical reagents.—On the state of the
Volcano of Nisiros, in March, 1873, by M. H. Gorceix,—M. de
Layal sent a note stating that he was the original proposer of the
use of the carbonic disulphide against the Phylloxera.—The
ephemerides of Brorsen’s Comet were received from Mr. Plummer,
and a note on the same comet, and on that of Faye, from M.
Stephan.—New observations on the presence of Magnesium on
the Solar Limb, and an answer to certain points in M. Faye’s
theory, by Father Tacchini. The author stated in his letter that
the fact of the line 1474 K always appearing with 4, and even
without it, induces him to think that the former is not due te
iron which is much heavier than magnesium.—On the use of
Chronometers at sea. by M. Magnac.—Reflections on Sponta-
neous generation, in relation to a note by M. Gayon, cn the
spontaneous changes of eggs, and a note of Mr. Grace Calvert
on the power of preventing the development of Protoplasmic
life, by M. A. Béchamp.

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

"ERE forty-third meeting of the Association was opened

yesterday evening in Bradford, when Dr. Carpenter
resigned the Presidency, and was succeeded by Prof. A.
W. Williamson, who delivered the opening address in St.
George’s Hall.

Notwithstanding that Bradford is considerably larger
than Brighton, its resources in the way of sleeping accom-
modation have been considerably tried by the unusually
large influx of visitors caused by the meeting of the Asso-
ciation, All the hotels, we believe, are full, as well as
most of the private houses on the lists of the secretaries.
Arrangements have, however, been made with the railway
companies for conveying members to and from neighbour-
ing towns where hotel accommodation may be obtained.
The local secretaries, Dr. Campbell, Mr. Goddard, and
Mr. Piele Thompson, have spared no pains to make the

406

NATURE

arrangements for the reception of the members of the
Association perfect ; and if the meeting is not in all re-
spects a complete success, it will be no fault of theirs,
nor of the local authorities, who seem anxious to do all
in their power for the comfort and enjoyment of the
visitors.

A very fine town-hall was opened in Bradford a few
days ago, but so far as we can learn, none of the meetings
of the Association will be held in it. Ample accommo-
dation has been provided in other buildings for the various
meetings. The Sections met to-day at 11 A.M., and con-
tinue to do so till Tuesday next. Section A meets in
the School Room, Horton Lane Chapel; Section B in
the School Room, Unitarian Chapel; Section C in the
Lecture Hall, Horton Lane Chapel; Section D in the
Church Institute ;, Section E in the Mechanics’ Institute ;
Section F in the West Riding Court House ; and Section
G in the Church Institute. To-night a sozée will be held
in St. George's Hall: in the same place, to-morrow night,
at 8.30, Professor W.C. Williamson, F.R.S., of Man-
chester, delivers a discourse on “ Coal and Coal Plants ;”
on Saturday evening, at 7.30, Dr. Siemens gives a lecture
to the operative classes on “ Fuel ;” and on Monday
evening, at 8.30, Professor Clerk-Maxwell, a discourse on
“ Molecules.” On Tuesday next, a soirée takes place at
8.30 P.M. in the Mechanics’ Institute, where, on Wed-
nesday, the concluding General Meeting will take place
at 2.30 PM.; on the same evening, a Grand Compli-
mentary Concert will be given in St. George’s Hall, at
8 o’clock,

A number of Reports, both those involving and those
not involving grants of money, will be given in, and will
no doubt be listened to with great interest by the scientific
men present. We hope that this year the Association
will rise to the occasion in the matter of liberality, and
give a practical example of what ought to be done in the
endowment of scientific research. By the courtesy of the
officers we are enabled to give the Inaugural and some of
the Sectional Addresses. To the same source we are
indebted for the following list of some of the papers to
be read in the various sections :—

SECTION A.—Lord Rayleigh: A short paper on a
Natural Limit to the Sharpness of the Spectral Lines.—
W. Davis : Some Abnormal Effects of Binocular Vision.
—H. Muirhead; On Regelation—G. M. Whipple: A
new Electrical Anemograph; a new form of Ruther-
ford’s Minimum Thermometer ; on the Passage of Squalls
across the British Isles—W. R. Birt: On the Import-
ance and Necessity of continued Systematic Observation
of the Moon’s Surface.—G. O. Hanlon: Some Suggestions
towards the formation of extended Tables of Logarithms.
—M. Hermite: On the Irrationality of the Base of Hy-
perbolic Logarithms.—R. S, Ball : Dynamometers for the
Measurement of Force in absolute units ; A quiescent
rigid body possessing three degrees ot freedom receives
an impulse: determine the instantaneous screw about
which the body commences to twist.

SECTION B.—Messrs. A. Vernon Harcourt and F. W.
Fish : On a continuous process for purifying Coal Gas
from Sulphuretted Hyd. and Ammonia, and for extracting
Sulphur and Ammoniacal Salts.—W. H. Pike : On several
Homologues of Oxalic Acid.—Dr. Gladstone: Black
Deposits of Metals—C, Horner: On the Spectra of
certain Boric and Phosphoric Acid blow-pipe beads.—
J. Spiller: On Artificial Magnetite—W. Symons: Re-
marks on a paper by the Marquis of Salisbury on Spectral
Lines of Cold Temperature.—A. Tribe : Spec. gr. bottle
for liquids spontaneously inflammable in contact with
air.

SECTION C.—Rev. J. F. Blake: Additional Remains
of Pleistocene Mammals in Yorkshire—W. Blandford :
Some Evidences of Glacial Action in Tropical India—A.
Leith Adams : Concluding Report of the Malta Fossil Ele-
phants.—R. Russell: Geological Sketch of Bradford and
the neighbourhood.—J, Hopkinson: On Graptolites

found (1) in Ramsay Island, St. David’s; (2) in the
Ludlow Rocks of Shropshire.—H, Hicks: On the Arenig
and Llandeilo Rocks of St. David’s.—J. L. Lobley: On
the British Palaeozoic Arcade.

SECTION D.—Hyde Clarke : Comparative Chronology
of Man in America in relation to’Comparative Philology.
—Prehistoric Names of Weapons:—W. T. Blandford :
The Fauna of Persia.—J. Willis: The Flora of the
Environs of Bradford.—J. Milnes Fothergill : Heart and
Brain.—K. Kaines : A true Cerebral Theory necessary to
Anthropology.

SECTION E.—C. F, Beke: On the True Position of
Mount Sinai.—W. Blandford : Physical Geography of the
Deserts of Persia and Central Asia—G. Darwin: On
Some Maps of the World and on a Portable Globe.—Rey.
W. B. Kerr: Overland Route from India.—E. L. Oxen-
ham: A Journey from Pekin to Hankow.—Capt. Davis :
The Voyage of the Challenger— Sir F. Goldsmid : On
Persia. :

SECTION F.—Hyde Clarke: The Influence of Large
Centres of Population on Intellectual Manifestation.—Dr,
Appleton : On some of the Economical Aspects of Endow-

ments of Education and Original research.—T. G. P. Hal--

lett: The Income Tax Question—W. P. Henderson :
Commercial Panics.—W. Hastings: Postal Reform.—R.
H. Palgrave : The Relation of the Banking Reserve of
the Bank of England to the Current Rate of Interest.—
G. C. T. Barnsley : The Poor-Law Board and its Effect
on Thrift.

Among British men of science expected to be present at

this year’s meeting are the following :—Prof. W. G. Adams,
F.R.S. ; Major-General Sir J. Alexander, Sir Rutherford
Alcock, K.C.B.; Prof. Attfield, Prof. R. S. Ball, Admiral
Sir E. Belcher, K.C.B.; W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ; Prof.
Balfour, W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.; Sir P. G. Egerton,
F.R.S. ; Sir W. Fairbairn, F.R.S. ; Dr. W. Farr, Prof.
Michael Foster, M.D.: Mr. J. G. Fitch, Mr. P. Le Neve
Foster, Mr. C. L. N. Foster, Col. Lane Fox, Sir G. D.
Gibb, Bart. ; Rev. Prof. Griffiths, Capt. D. Galton, C.B. ;
G. Griffiths, F.C.S.; Prof. Greenwood, Mr. J. W. L.
Glaisher, Sir F. Goldsmid, J. P. Gassiot, F.R.S.; Dr. J.
H. Gladstone, F.R.S.; Dr. P. H. Holland, W. Huggins,
D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Prof. Hughes, Lord Houghton, F.R.S. ;
Prof. G. Harley, F.R.S. ; Prof. Herschel, Rev. R. Harley,
F.R.S.; Mr. A. V. Harcourt, F.R.S.; Mr. G. J. Holy-
oake, Mr. A. K. Johnston, Prof. Leone Levi, Prof. J. Clerk
Maxwell, F.R.S. ; Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S. ; Vice-Admiral
Ommaney, C.B., F.R.S.: Prof. Phillips, W. Pengelly,
F.R.S.; the Earl of Rosse, Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D.,
F.R.S.; Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S.; Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr,
W. Jj. Russell, F.R.S.; Prof. Savage, Prof. Balfour
Stewart, F.R.S.; Major-General Scott, Prof. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall, F.R.S.; Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.; T,
Wright, F.S.A.; Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.; the Arch-
bishop of York, &c. The following foreigners are also
expected to be present :—M. Guido Cora, Dr. Janssen,
Prof. Klein, Baron von Richthofen, Arminius Vambery,
&e,

INAUGURAL ADDRESS OF PROF, ALEXANDER W. WILLIAMSON,
: F.R.S., PRESIDENT.

InsTEAD of rising to address you on this occasion I had hoped
to sit quietly amongst you, and to enjoy the intellectual treat of
listening to the words of a man of whom England may well be
proud—a man whose life has been spent in reading the great
book of nature, for the purpose of enriching his fellow men with
a knowledge of its truths—a man whose name is known and
honoured in every corner of this planet to which a knowledge of
science has penetrated—and, let me add, a man whose name
will live in the grateful memory of mankind as long as the records
of such noble work are preserved.

At the last meeting of the Association I had the pleasure of
proposing that Dr. Joule be elected President for the Bradford

. Meeting, and our Council succeeded in overcoming his reluctance
and in persuading him to accept that office.

[ Sep¢. 18, 1873.

7”
a

se

Sept. 18, 187 3]

Nobly would Joule have discharged the duties of President
had his bodily health been equal to the task; but it became
apparent after a while that he could not rely upon sufficient
strength to justify him in performing the duties of the Chair,
and, in obedience to the orders of his physician, he placed his
resignation in the hands of the Council about two months ago.
When, under these circumstances, the Council did me the great
honour of asking me to accept their nomination to the President-
ship, T felt that their request ought to have with me the weight
of a command, i

For a good many years past Chemistry has been growing ata
more and more rapid rate, growing in the number and variety
of facts which are added to its domain, and not Jess remarkably
in the clearness and consistency of the ideas by which these facts
are explained and systematised. The current literature of che-
mical research extends each year to the dimensions of a small
library ; and mere brief extracts of the original papers published
annually by the Chemical Society, partly aided by a grant from
this Association, take up the chief part of a very stout volume.
I could not, if I would, give you to-night even an outline of the
chief newly discovered compounds and of the various changes
which they undergo, describing each of them by its own name
(often a very long one) and recording the specific properties
which give to each substance its highest scientific interest. But

_ Tam sure that you would not wish me to do so if I could ; for

we do not meet here to study chemistry; I conceive that we
meet here for the purpose of considering what this wondrous ac-
tivity in our science means, what is the use of it, and, true to
our object as embodied in the name of this Association, to con-
sider what we can do to promote the Advancement of Science.
I propose to lay before you some facts bearing on each of these
questions, and to submit to you some considerations respecting
them.

In order to ascertain the meaning of the work which has been
going on in chemistry, it will, I think, be desirable for us to
consider the leading ideas which have been in the minds of
chemists, and which guide their operations.

Now, since the father of modern chemistry, the great Dalton,
gave to chemists a firm hold of the idea of Atoms, their labours
have been continually guided by that fundamental idea, and have
confirmed it by a knowledge of more and more facts, while at
the same time steadily adding to our knowledge of the properties
of atoms. Every chemist who is investigating a new compound

takes for granted that it must consist of a great number of atom- |

NATURE

clusters (called by him molecules), all of them alike, and each |

molecule consisting of a certain number of atoms of at least two
kinds. One of his first endeavours is to ascertain how many
atoms of each kind there are in each molecule of the compound.
I must not attempt to descrive to you the various kinds of expe-
riment which he performs for the purpose of getting this informa-
tion, how each experiment is carried out with the aid of delicate
instruments and ingenious contrivances found by long experience
to enable him to obtain the most trustworthy and accurate re-
sults ; but I want to draw your attention to the reasoning by
which he judges of the value of such experiments when they
agree among themselves, and to the meaning which he attaches
to their result.

If the result of his experiments does not nearly agree with any
atomic formula (that is, if no conceivable cluster of atoms of the
kinds known to be in the compound would on analysis give such
results as those obtained), the chemist feels sure that his experi-
ments must have been faulty: either the sample of substance
which he worked upon contained foreign matter, or his analyses
were not made with due care. He sets to work again, and goes
on till he arrives at a result which is consistent with his know-
ledge of the combining-properties of atoms. It is hardly neces-
sary to say that even the best experiment is liable to error, and
that even a result obtained with the utmost care cannot be ex-
pected to afford more than an approximation to the truth.
Every good analysis of a pure compound leads to results which
approximate to those required by the Atomic Theory ; and che-
mists trust so thoroughly to the truth of that guide, that they
correct the results of such analysis by the aid of it.

The chemical idea of atoms serves for two purposes :—

1, It gives a clear and consistent explanation of an immense
number of facts discovered by experiment, and enables us to
compare them with one another and to classify them.

2, It leads to the anticipation of new facts, by. suggesting new
compounds which may be made ; at the same time it teaches us
that no compounds can exist with their constituents in any other

; 407

than atomic proportions, and that experiments which may imply
the existence of any such compound are faulty.
We have the testimony of the great Berzelius to the flood of

light which the idea of atoms at once threw on the facts respect:

ing combining proportions which had been accumulated before
it was made known ; and from that time forward its value has
rapidly increased as each succeeding year augmented the num-
ber of facts which it explained.

Allow me at this point of my narrative to pause for a moment
in order to pay a tribute of respect and gratitude to the memory
of one who has recently passed from among us, and who in the
time of his full activity was a leader of the discoveries of new
facts in the most difficult part of our science. Liebig has been
generally known in this conntry through his writings on agricul-
tural chemistry, through his justly popular letters on chemistry,
and other writings, by means of which his brilliant intellect and
ardent imagination stimulated men to think and to work. Among
chemists he was famed for his numerous discoveries of new or-
ganic compounds, and their investigation by the aid of improved

-methods ; but I believe that the greatest service which his genius

rendered to science was the establishment of the chemical school
of Giessen, the prototype of the numerous chemical schools for
which Germany is now so justly celebrated. I think it is not
too much to say that the Giessen laboratory, as it existed some
thirty years ago, was the most efficient organisation for the pro-
motion of chemistry which had ever existed.

Picture to yourselves a little community of which each member
was fired with enthusiasm for learning by the genius of the great
master, and of which the best energies were concentrated on the
one object of experimental investigation.

The students were for the most part men who had gone through
a full curriculum of ordinary studies at some other University,
and who were attracted from various parts of the world by the
fame of this school of research.

Most of the leading workers of the next generation were pupils
of Liebig ; and many of them have established similar schools of
research.

We must not, however, overlook the fact that Liebig’s genius
and enthusiasm would have been powerless in doing this admir-
able work, had not the rulers of his Grand-Duchy been enligh-
tened enough to know that it was their duty to supply him with
the material aids requisite for its successful accomplishment.

Numberless new compounds have been discovered under
the guidance of the idea of atoms; and in proportion as our
knowledge of substances and of their properties became more
extensive, and our view of their characteristics more accurate and
general, were we able to perceive the outlines of their natural
arrangement, and to recognise the distinctive characteristics of
various classes of substances. I wish I could have the pleasure
of describing to you the origin and nature of some of these ad-
mirabie discoveries, such as homologous series, types, radicals,
&c. ; but it is more to our purpose to consider the effect which
they had upon the idea of atoms, an idea which, still in its in-
lancy, was plunged into the intellectual turmoil arising from a
variely of novel and original theories suggested respectively by
independent workers as best suited for the explenation of the
particu'ar phenomena to which their attention was mainly
directed.

Each of these workers was inclined to attach quite sufficient
importance to his own new idea, and to sacrifice for its sake any
other one capable of interfering with its due development.

The father of the atomic theory was no more ; and the little
infant had no chance of life, unless from its own sterling merits
it were found useful in the work still going on.

What then was the result? Did it perish like an ephemeral
creation of human fancy ? or did it survive and gain strength by
the inquiries of those who questioned Nature and knew how to
read her answers?

Although snticipating my answer to these questions, you will
probably be surprised to hear the actual result which I have to
record, a result so wonderful that the more I think of it the more
I marvel at it. Not only did these various theories contain
nothing at variance with the atomic theory ; they were found to
be natural and necessary developments of it, and to serve for
its application to a variety of phenomena which were unknown
to its founder.

Among the improvements of our knowledge of atoms which
have taken place, I ought to mention the better evaluations ot
the relative weight of atoms of different kinds, which have been
made since Dalton’s time. More accurate experiments than

408

NATURE

[ Sept. 18, 1873

~ those which were then on record have shown us that certain

atoms area little heavier or lighter than was then believed, and
the work of perfecting our observations is constantly going on
with the aid of better instruments and methods of operation.
But, apart from these special corrections, a more sweeping
change has taken place, not in consequence of more accurate
experiments interpreted in the usual way, butin cons<quence of
a more comprehensive view of the best experimental results
which had been obtained, and a more consistent interpretation
of them. Thus the atomic weight of carbon had been fixed at 6
by Dumas’s admirable experiments ; and it was quite conceivable
that a still more perfect determination might slightly increase or
diminish this number. But those who introduced the more
sweeping change asserted in substance that two of these sup-
posed atoms, whatever may be the precise weight of each, always
are together and neyer separate from one another ; and they
accordingly applied the term atom to that indivisible mass of
carbon weighing twice as much as a carbon atom had been sup-
posed to weigh. So also with regard to other elements, it has
been shown that many atoms are really twice as heavy as had
been supposed, according to the original interpretation of the
best experiments. This change was brought about by what I
may be permitted to call the operation of stock-taking. Dalton
first took stock of our quantitative facts in a bus’ness-like manner ;
but the amount and yariety of our chemical stock increased so
enormously after his time, that the second stock-taking absorbed
the labours of several mei fora good many years. They were
men of different countries and very various turns of mind ; but,
as I mentioned just now, they found no other fundamental idea
to work with than Dalton’s ; and the result of their Jabours has
been to confirm the truth of that idea and to extend greatly its
application.

One of the results of our endeavours to clas ify substances ac-
cording to their natural resemblances has been the discovery of
distinct family relationships among atoms, each family being
distinguished by definite characteristics. Now among the pro-
perties which thus characterise particular families of atoms,
there is one of which the knowledge gradually worked out by the
labours of an immense number of investigators must be admitted
to constitute one of the most important additions ever made to
our knowledge of these'little masses,

I will endeavour to explain it to you by a simple example.
An atom of chlorine is able to combine with one atom of hydro-
gen or one atom of potassium ; but it cannot combine with two
atoms. Anatom of oxygen, on the other hand, can combine
with two atoms of hydrogen or with two atoms of potassium, or
with one atom of hydrogen and one of potassium ; but we can-
not get it in combination with one atom of hydrogen or of potas-
sium solely.

Again, an a‘'om of nitrogen is known in combination with
three atoms of hydrogen; while an atom af carbon combines
with four of hydrogen. Other atoms are classified, from their
resemblance to these respectively, as Monads, Dyads, Triads,
Tetrads, &c.

The combining value which we thus recognise in the atoms of
these several classes has led us naturally to a consideration of
the order in which atoms are arranged in a molecule. ‘Thus, in
the compound of oxygen with hydrogen and potassium, each of
these latter atoms is directly combined with the oxygen, and the
atom of oxygen serves as a connecting link between them, Ily-
drogen and potassium have never been found capable of uniting
directly with one another; but when both combined with one
atom of oxygen they are in what may be called indirect com-
bination with one another through the medium of that oxygen.

One of the great difficulties of chemistry some few years ago
was to explain the constitution of isomeric compounds, those
compounds whose molecules contain atoms of like kinds and in
equal numbers, but which differ from one another in their pro-
perties. Thus a molecule of common ether contains four atoms
of carbon, ten atoms of hydroger, and one of oxygen, Butylic
alcohol, avery different substance, has prec’sely the same com-
Fosition. We now know that in the former the atom of oxygen
is in the middle ofa chain of carbon atoms, whereas in the latter
it is at one end of that chain. You might fancy it impossible
to decide upon anything like consistent evidence such questions
as this; but I can assure you that the atomic theory, as now
used by chemists, leads frequently to conclusions of this kind,
which are confirmed by independent observers, and command
general assent. ‘That these conclusions are, as far as they go,
true descriptions of natural phenomena is shown by the fact that

each of them serves in its turn as a stepping-stone to further
discoveries,

One other extension of our knowledge of atoms I must briefly
mention, one which has as yet received but little attention, yet
which will, I venture to think, be found serviceable in the study
of the forces which bring about chemical change.

The original view of the constitution of molecules was statical;
and chemists only took cognizance of those changes of place
among their atoms which result in the disappearance of the
molecules employed, and the appearance of new moleclules
formed by their reaction on one another. Thus, when a solu-
tion of common salt (sodic chloride) is mixed with a solution of
silver nitrate, it is well-known that the metallic atoms in these
respective compounds change places with one another, forming
silver chloride and sodic nitrate ; for the silver chloride soon
settles to the bottom of the solution in the form of an insoluble
powder, while the other product remains dissolved in the liquid.
But as long as the solution of salt remained undecomposed, each
little molecule in it was supposed to be chemically at rest. A
particular atom of sodium which was combined with an atom of
chlorine was supposed to remain steadily fixed to it. When
this inactive solution was mixed with the similarly inactive solu-
tion of silver nitrate, the interchange of atoms known to take
place between their respective molecules was nominally ex-
plained by the force of predisposing affinity. It was, in fact,
supposed that the properties of the new compounds existed and
produced effects before the compounds themselves had been
formed.

I had occasion to point out a good many years ago that mole-
cules which appear to be chemically at rest are acting on one
another, when in suitable conditions, in the same kind of way as
those which are manifestly in a state of chemical change—that
for instance, the molecules of liquid sodic chloride exchange
sodium atoms with one another, forming new molecules of the
same compound undistinguishable from the first, so that, in an
aggregate of like molecules, the apparent atomic rest is the result
of the interchange of like atoms between contiguous molecules.
Such exchanges of atoms take place not only between mole-
cules of identical composition, but also between contiguous
molecules containing different elements. For instance, in a
mixture of sodic chloride and potassic iodide an interchange of
metallic atoms takes place, forming potassic chloride and sodic
iodide. The result of the exchange in such a case is to form a
couple of new molecules different from the original couple. But
these products are subject to the same general law of atomic
changes, and their action on one another reproduces a couple of
molecules of the materials.

Thus a liquid mixture formed from two compounds contains
molecules of four kinds, which we may describe as the two
materials and the two products. The materials are reacting on
one another, forming the products ; ond these products are, in
their turn, reacting on one another, reproducing the materials.

If one of the products of atomic exchange between two mole-
cules is a solid while the other remains liquid (as when sodic
chloride is. mixed with silver nitrate), or if one is gaseous while
the other remains liquid, so that the molecules of the one kind
cannot react on those of the other kind and reproduce the mate-
rials, then the continued reaction of the materials on one another
leads to their complete mutual decomposition. Such complete
mutual decomposition of two salts takes place whenever they
react on one another under such conditions that the products’
cannot react on one another and reproduce the materials ; whereas
partial decomposition takes place whenever the materials form a
homogeneous mixture with the products.

Now, if in any such homogeneous mixture more exchanges of
atoms take place between the materials than between the pro-
ducts, the number of molecules of the products is increased,
because more of them are being made than unmade ; and reci«
procally, if more exchanges of atoms take place between the
products than between the materials, the number of molecules —
of the materials is increased. ‘The mixture remains of constant
composition when there are in the unit of time as many decom-
posing changes as reproducing changes.

Suppose that we were to determine by experiment the propor-
tion between the number of molecules of the materials, and the
number of molzcules of the products, in a mixture the compo-
si ion of which remains constant, and that we found, for instance,
twice as many of materials as of products; what would this
mean? Why, if every two couples of materials only effect in’
the unit of time as many exchanges as every one couple of pro--

Sept. 18, 1873]

NATURE

409

ducts, every couple of materials is only exchanging half as fast
as every couple of products.

In fact you perceive that a determination of the proportion in
which the substances are present in such a mixture will give us
a measure of the relative velocities of those particular atomic
motions ; and we may thus express our result :—The force of
chemical combination is inversely proportional to the number of
atomic interchanges,

I cannot quit this part of our subject without alluding to the
fact that some few chemists, of such eminence as to be entitled to
the most. respectful attention, have of late years expressed an
opinion that the idea of atoms is not necessary for the explana-
tion of the changes in the chemical constitution of matter, and
have sought as far as possible to exclude from their language any
allusion to. atoms.

Tt would be out of place on this occasion to enter into any
discussion of the questions thus raised; but I think it right to
point out :—

I, That these objectors have not shown us any inconsistency
in the atomic theory, nor in the conclusions to which it leads,

Il. That neither these nor any other philosophers have been
able to explain the facts of chemistry on the assumption that
there are no atoms, but that matter is infinitely divisible.

If. That when they interpret their analyses, these chemists
allow themselves neither more nor less latitude than the atomic
theory allows ; in fact, they are unconsciously guided by it.

These facts need no comment from me,

Our science grows by the acquisition of new facts which have
an intelligible place among our ideas of the order of nature 3 but
in proportion as more and more facts are arranged before us ia
their natural order, in proportion as our view of the order of

“nature becomes clearer and broader, we are able to observe and
describe that order more fully and more -accurately—in fact, to
improve our ideas of the order of nature. These more extensive
and more accurate ideas suggest new observations, and lead to
the discovery of truths which would have found no place in the
narrower and less accurate system. Take away from Chemistry
the ideas which connect and explain the multifarious facts ob-
served, and it is no longer a science ; it is nothing more than a
confused and useless heap of materials.

_ The answer to our question respecting the meaning of the
earnest work which is going on in our science must, I think,
now be plain to you. Chemists are examining the combining
properties of atoms, and getting clear ideas of the constitution
of matter,

Admitting, then, for the present, that such is the meaning of
chem‘cal work, we have to consider the more important question
of its use ; and I think you will agree with me that, in order to
judge soundly whether and in what manner such a pursuit is
useful, we have to consider its effect upon Man. What habits
of mind does it engender? What powers does it develop ?
Does it develop good and noble qualities and aspirations, and
tend to make men more able and more anxious to do good to
their fellow-men? Or is it a mere idle amusement, bearing no
permanent fruits of improvement ?

You will, I think, answer these questions yourselves if I can
succeed in describing to you some of the chief qualities which
experience has shown to be requisite for the successful pursuit of
Chemistry, and which are necessarily cultivated by those who
qualify themselves for such a career.

One of the first requirements on the part of an investigator is
accuracy in observing the phenomena with which he deals. He
must not only see the precise particulars of a process as they
present themselves to his observation ; he must also observe the
order in which these particular appearances present themselves
under the conditions of each experiment. No less essential is
accuracy of memory. An experimental inquirer must remember
accurately a number of facts ; and he needs to remember their
mutual relations, so that one of them when present to his mind
may recall those others which ought to be considered with it. In
fact, he cultivates the habit of remembering facts mainly by their
place in nature. Accuracy in manual operations is required in
all experimental inquiries ; and many of them afford scope for
very considerable skill and dexterity.

These elementary qualities are well aknown to be requisite for
success in experimental science, and to. be developed by careful
practice of its methods ; but some higher qualities are quite as
necessary as these in ail but the most rudimentary manipulations,
and are,developed in a remarkable degree by the higher work of
science, i : “

Thus it is of importance to notice that a singularly good

training in the accurate use of words is afforded by experimental
chemistry.
whether he be a first-year’s student who wants to find the con-
stituents of a common salt, or whether he be the most skilled and
experienced of chemists, seeks beforehand to get such information
from the records of previous observations as may be most useful
for his purpose.
medium of words ; and any failure on his part to understand the
precise meaning of the words conveying the information requisite
for his guidance is liable to lead him astray. Those elementary
exercises in analytical chemistry, in which brief directions to the
students alternate with their experiments and their reports of
experiments made and conclusions drawn, afford a singularly
effective training in the habit of attending accurately to the

Everyone who is about to enter on an inquiry,

This information he obtains through the

meaning of words used by others, and of selecting words capable

of conveying without ambiguity the precise meaning intended.

Any inaccuracy in the student’s apprehension of the directions
given, or in the selection of words to describe his observations
and conclusions, is at once detected when the result to which
he ought to have arrived is known beforehand to the teacher.

Accuracy of reasoning is no less effectively promoted by the
work of experimental chemistry. It is no small facility to us
that the meaning of the words which we use to denote proper-
ties of matter and operations can be learnt by actual observation.
Moreover each proposition comprised in chemical reasonings
conveys some distinct statement susceptible of verification by
similar means ; and the validity of each conclusion can be tested,
not only by examining whether or not it follows of necessity from
true premisses, but also by subjecting it to the independent test
of special experiment. .

Chemists have frequent occasion to employ arguments which
indicate a probability of some truth ; and the anticipations based
upon them serve as guides to experimental inquiry by selecting
crucial tests. But they distinguish most carefully such hypotheses
from demonstrated facts.

Thus a pale green solution, stated to contain a pure metallic
salt, is found to possess some properties which belong to salts of
Tron. Nothing else possesses these properties except salts of
Nickel ; and they manifest a slight difference from Iron salts in
one of the properties observed.

The analyst could not see any appearance of that peculiarity
which distinguishes Nickel salts; so he concludes that he has
probably got iron in his solution, but almost certainly either Iron
or Nickel. THe then makes an experiment which will, he knows,
give an entirely different result with Iron salts and Nickel salts ;
and he gets very distinctly the result which indicates Iron,

Having found in the green liquid properties which the presence
of Iron could alone impart, he considers it highly probable that
Tron is present. But he does not stop there ; for, although the
facts before him seem to admit. of no other interpretation, he
knows that, from insufficient knowledge or attention, mistakes
are sometimes made in very simple matters. The analyst there.
fore tries as many other experiments as are known to distinguish
Iron salts from all others ; and if any one of these leads distinctly
toa result at variance with his provisional conclusion, he goes
over the whole inquiry again, in order to find where his mistake
was. Such inquiries are practised largely by students of che-
mistry, in order to fix in their minds, by frequent use, a knowledge
of the fundamental properties of the common elements, in order
to learn by practice the art of making experiments, and, above
all, in order to acquire the habit of judging accurately of evidence
in natural phenomena, Such a student is often surprised at
being told that it is not enough for him to conduct his experi-
ments to such a point that every conclusion except one is con-
trary to the evidence before him—that he must then try every
confirmatory test which he can of the substance believed to le
present, and ascertain that the sample in his hands agrees, as fur
as he can see, in all properties of the known substance of which
he believes it to be a specimen.

Those who tread the path of original inquiry, and add to
human knowledge by their experiments, are bound to practise
this habit with the most scrupulous fidelity and care, or may
and graye will be the mistakes they will make.

Thus a chemist thinks it probable tha> he might prepare some
well-known organic body of the aromatic family by a new process,
He sets to work and obtains a substance agreeing in appearance,
in empirical composition, in molecular weight, and in mary
other properties with the compound which he has in view. [I>
is, however, not satisfied that his product is a sample of that

410

compound until he has examined carefully whether it possesses
all the properties which are known to belong to the substance in
question. And many a time is his caution rewarded by the
discovery of some distinct difference of melting-point, or of
crystalline form, &c., which proves that he has made a new
compound isomeric with the one which he expected to make.
It seemed probable, from the agreement of the two substances
in many particulars, that they might be found to agree in all,
and might be considered to be the same compound ; but com-
plete proof of that conclusion consists in showing that the new
substance agrees with all that we know of the old one.

In the most various ways chemists seek to extend their know-
ledge of the uniformity of nature ; and their reasonings by ana-
logy from particulars to particulars suggest the working hypo-
theses which lead to new observations. Before, however,
proceeding to test the truth of his hypothesis by experiment, the
chemist passes in review, as well as he can, all the general know-
lec ge which has any bearing on it, in order to find agreement or
disagreement between his hypothesis and the ideas established
by past experience. Sometimes he sees that his hypothesis is at
variance with some general law in which he has full confidence,
and he throws it aside as disproved by that law. On other
occasions he finds that it follows of necessity from some known
law, and he then proceeds to verify it by experiment, with a con-
fident anticipation of the result. In many cases the hypothesis
does not present sufficiently distinct agreement or disagreement
with the idcas established by previous investigations to justify
either the rejection of it or a confident belief in its truth ; for it
of:en happens that the results of experience of similar pheno-
mena are not embodied in a sufficiently definite or trustworthy
statement to have any other effect than that of giving proba-
bility or the contrary to the hypothesis.

Another habit of mind which is indispensable for success in
experimental chemistry, and which is taught by the practice of its
various operations, is that of truthfulness.

The very object of all our endeavours is to get true ideas of
the natural processes of chemical action; for in proportion as
our ideas are true do they give us the pewer of directing these
yrocesses. In fact, our ideas are useful only so far as they are
tiue ; and he must indeed be blind to interest and to duty who
could wish to swerve from the path of truth. But if anyone
_were weak enough to make the attempt, he would find his way
b.rred by innomerable obstacles.

I-very addition to our science is a matter of immediate interest
and importance to those who are working in the same direction.
‘They verify in various ways the statements of the first discoverer,
and seldom fail to notice further particulars, and to correct any
little crrors of detail into which he may have fallen. They soon
make it a stepping-stone to further discoveries. Anything like
wilful misrepresentation is inevitably detected and made known.

It must not, however, be supposed that the investigator drifts
unconsciously into the habit of truthfulness for want of tempta-
tion to be untruthful, or even that error presents itself to his
mind in a grotesque and repulsive garb, so as to enlist from the
first his feelings against it; for I can assure you that the precise
contrary of these things happens. Error comes before him
usually in the very garb of truth, and his utmost skill and atten-
tion are needed to decide whether or not it is entitled,to retain
that garb.

You will easily see how this happens if you reflect that each
woiking hypothesis employed by an investigator is an unproven
proposition, which bears such resemblance to truth as to give
rise to hopes that it may really be true. The investigator trusts
it provisionally to the extent of trying one or more experiments,
of which it claims to predict the specific result, Even though
it guide him correctly for a while, he considers it still on trial
vuril it has been tested by every process which ingenuity can
su. cest for the purpose of detecting a fault.

Most errors which an experimentalist has to do with are really
iuperfect truths, which have done good service in their time by
guid ng the course of discovery. The great object of scientific
wotk is to replace these imperfect truths by more exact and
cc mprehensive statements of the order of nature.

\.hoever has once got knowledge from Nature herself by
truful reasoning and experiment, must be dull indeed if he
Coes not feel that he has acquired a new and noble power, and
it he does not long to exercise it further, and make new con-
quests from the realm of darkness by the aid of known truths.

The habit of systematically searching for truth by the aid of
known truths, and of testing the validity of each step by con-

NATURE

| Sepz. 18, 1873

stant reference to Nature, has now been practised for a saffi-
ciently long time to enable us to judge of some of its results.

Every true idea of the order of Nature is an instrument of
thought. It can only be obtained by truthful investigation ; and
itcan only be used effectively in ubedience to the same laws.
But the first idea which is formed of anything occurring in nature
affords only a partial representation of the actual reality, by re-
cording what is seen of it from a particular point of view. By
examiuing a thing from different points of view we get different
ideas of -it; and when we compare these ideas accurately with
one another, recollecting how each one was obtained, we find
that they really supplement each other.

We try to form in our minds a distinct image of a thing capa-
ble of producing these various appearances ; and when we have
succeeded in doing so, we look at it from the different points of
view from which the natural object has been examined, and find
that the ideas so obtained meet at the central image. It usually
happens that an accurate examination of the mutual bearings of —
these ideas on a central image suggests additions to them and
correction of some particulars in them.

Thus it is that true ideas of a natural phenomenon confirm
and strengthen one another ; and he who aids directly the deve-
lopment of one of them is sure to promote indirectly the con-
solidation of others.

Each onward step in the search for truth has made us stronger
for the work ; and when we look back upon what has been done
by the efforts of so many workers simply but steadily directed by
truth towards further truth, we see that they have achieved, for
the benefit of the human race, the conquest of a systematic body
of truths which encourages men to similar efforts while affording
them the most effectual aid and guidance. e

This lesson of the inherent vitality of truth, which is taught
us so clearly by the history Of our science, is well worthy of the
consideration of those who, seeing that iniquity and falsehood so
frequently triumph for a while in the struggle for existence, are
inclined to take a desponding view of human affairs, and almost
to despair of the ultimate predominance of truth and goodness.
I believe it would be impossible at the present time to form an
adequate idea of the vast consequences which will follow from
the national adoption of systematic measures for allowing our. —
knowledge of truth to develop itself freely, through the labours —
of those who are willing and able to devote themselves to its ser-
vice, so as to strengthen more and more the belief and trust of
mankind in its guidance, in small matters as wellas in the highest
and most important considerations.

I am desirous of describing briefly the more important of
those measures ; but first let me mention another habit of mind
which naturally follows from: the effective pursuit of truth—a
habit which might be described in general terms as the applica-
tion to other matters of the truthfulness imparted by science.

The words which the great German poet put into the mouth
of Mephistopheles when describing himself to Faust afford per-
haps the most concise and forcible statement of what we may call
the anti-scientific spirit :—

Ich bin der Geist der stets verneint,

Dem alles, was entsteht, zuwider ist.
The true spirit of science is certainly affirmative, not negative ;
for, as I mentioned just now, its history teaches us that the de-
velopment of our knowledge usually takes place through two or
more simultaneous ideas of the same phenomenon, quite
different from one another, both of which ultimately prove to
be parts of some more general truth; so that a confident belief
in one of those ideas dues not involve or justify a denial of the’
others.

I could give you many remarkable illustrations of this law
from among ideas familiar to chemists. But I want you to con-
sider with me its bearing on the habit of mind called toleration,
of which the development in modern times is perhaps one of the
most hopeful indications of moral improvement in man.

In working at our science we simply try to find out what is
true ; for although no usefulness is to be found at first in most of
our results, we know well that every extension of our knowiedge
of truth is sure to prove useful in manifold ways. So regular an
attendant is usefulness upon truth in our work, that we get ac-
customed to expect them always to go together, and to believe
that there must be some amount of truth wherever there is mani-
fest usefulness.

The history of human ideas, so far as it is written in the re-
cords of the progress of science, abounds with instances of men
contributing powerfully to the development of important general

ROMs «

Sept, 18, 1873]

‘

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411

ideas, by their accurate and conscientious experiments, while at
the same time professing an actual disbelief in those ideas.
Those records must indeed have been a dead letter to any who
could stand carping at the intellectual crotchets of a good and
honest worker, instead of giving him all brotherly help in the
furtherance of his work.

To one who knows the particulars of our science thoroughly,
and who knows also what a variety of ideas have been resorted
to in working out the whole body of truths of which the science
is composed, there are few more impressive and elevating sub-
jects of contemplation than the unity in the clear and bold out-
line of that noble structure.

IT hope that you will not suppose, from my references to
chemistry as promoting the development of these habits and
powers of mind, that I wish to claim for that particular branch
of science any exclusive merit of the kind ; for I can assure you
that nothing can be further from my intention,

~ I conceived that you would wish me to speak of that depart-
ment of science which I have had occasion to study more par-
ticularly ; but much that I have said of it might be said with
equal truth of other studies, while some of its merits may be
claimed in a higher degree by other branches of science. On
the other hand, those highest lessons which I have illustrated by
chemistry are best learnt by those whose intellectual horizon in-
cludes other provinces of knowledge.

Chemistry presents peculiar advantages for educational purposes
in the combination of breadth and accuracy in the training which
it affords ; and I am inclined to think that in this respect it is at
present unequalled. There is reason to believe that it will play
an important part in general education, and render valuable
services to it in conjunction with other scientific and with literary
studies.

I trust that the facts which I have submitted to your consi-
deration may suffice to show you how fallacious is that mate-
rialistic idea of physical science which represents it as leading
away from the study of man’s noblest faculties, and from a
sympathy with his most elevated aspirations, towards mere inani-
mate matter. The material work of science is directed by ideas
towards the attainment of further ideas. Each step in science
is an addition to our ideas, or an improvement of them. A
science is but a body of ideas respecting the order of nature.

Fach idea which forms part of physical science has been
derived from observation of nature, and has been tested again
and again in the most various ways by reference to nature ; but
this very soundness of our materials enables us to raise upon the
rock of trath a loftier structure of ideas than could be erected on
any other foundation by the aid of uncertain materials.

The study of science is the study of man’s most accurate and
perfect intellectual labours ; and he who would know the powers
of the human mind must go to science for his materials.

Like other powers of the mind, the imagination is powerfully
exercised, and at the same time disciplined, by scientific work.
Every investigator has frequent occasion to call forth in his mind
a distinct image of something in nature which could produce the
appearances which he witnesses, or to frame a proposition em-
bodying some observed relation ; and in each case the image or
the proposition is required to be true to the materials from which
it is formed. There is perhaps no more perfect elementary il-
lustration of the accurate and useful employment of the ima-
gination than the process of forming in the language of symbols,
from concrete data, one of those admirable general propositions
called equations ; on the other hand, the contemplation of the
order and harmony of nature as disclosed to us by science
supplies the imagination with materials of surpassing grandeur
and brilliancy, while at the same time affording the widest scope
for its effects,

The foregoing considerations respecting the meaning and use
of scientific work will, I trust, afford us aid in considering what
measures ought to be taken in order to promote its advancement,
and what we can do to further the adoption of such measures.

Like any other natural phenomenon, ‘the growth of knowledge
in the human mind is favoured and promoted by certain circum-
stances, impeded or arrested by others ; and it is for us to ascer-
tain from experience what those circumstances respectively are,
and how the favourable ones can be best combined to the
exclusion of the others.

The best and noblest things in this world are the result of
gradual growth by the free action of natural forces; and the

~ proper function of legislation is to systematise the conditions

most favourable to the free action which is desired.
I shall consider the words ‘* Advancement of Science” as

referring, to the development and extension of our systematic
knowledge of natural phenomena by investigation and research.

The first thing wanted for the work of advancing science is a
supply of well qualified workers. The second thing is to place
and keep them under the conditions most favourable to their
efficient activity. The most suitable men must be found while
still young, and trained to the work. Now I know only one
really effectual way of finding the youths who are best en-
dowed by nature for the purpose ; and that is to systematise and
develop the natural conditions which accidentally concur in par-
ticular cases, and enable youths to rise from the crowd.

The first of these is that a young man gets a desire for know-
ledge by seeing the value and beauty of some which he has
acquired, When he has got this desire, he exerts himself to in-
crease his store ; and every difficulty surmounted increases his
love of the pursuit, and strengthens his determination to go on,
His exertions are seen by some more experienced man, who helps
him to place himself under circumstances favourable to further
progress. fle then has opportunities of seeing original inquiries
conducted, perhaps even of aiding in them ; and he longs to
prove that he also can work out new truths, and make some
permanent addition to human knowledge. If his circumstances
enable him to prosecute such work, and he succeeds in making
some new observations worthy of publication, he is at once
known by them to the community of scientific men, and em-
ployed among them.

We want, then, a system which shall give to the young favour-
able opportunities of acquiring a clear and, as far as it goes, a
thorough knowledge of some few truths of nature such as they
can understand and enjoy—which shall afford opportunity of
further and further instruction to those who have best profited
by that which has been given to them, and are anxious to obtain
more—which shall enable the best students to see what original
investigation is, and, if possible, to assist in carrying out some
research—and, finally, which shall supply to each student who |
has the power and the will to conduct researches, all material
conditions which are requisite for the purpose,

* But investigators, once found, ought to be placed in the cir-
cumstances most favourable to their efficient activity.

The first and most fundamental condition for this is, that their
desire for the acquisition of knowledge be kept alive and fos-
tered. They must not merely retain the hold which they have
acquired on the general body of their science ; they ought to
strengthen and extend that hold, by acquiring a more complete
and accurate knowledge of its doctrines and methods; in a
word, they ought to be more thorough students than during their .
state of preliminary training.

They must be able to live by their work, without diveriing
any of their energies to other pursuits; and they must feel
security against want in the event of illness or old age.

They must be supplied with intelligent and trained assistants
to aid in the conduct of their researches, and whatever buildings,
apparatus, and materials may be required for conducting those
researches effectively. :

The desired system must therefore provide arrangements
favourable to the maintenance and development of the true
student-spirit in investigators while providing them with perma-
nent means of subsistence, sufficient to enable them to feel
secure and tranquil in working at science alone, yet not sufficient
to neutralise their motives for exertion ; and at the same time it
must give them all external aids, in proportion to their wants
and powers of making good use of them.

Now I propose to describe the outlines of such a system,
framed for the sole purpose of promoting research, and then to
consider what other results would follow from its working.

If it should appear possible to establish a system for the effi-
cient advancement of science, which would be productive of
direct good to the community in other important ways, I think
you will agree with me that we ought to do all we can to pro-
mote its adoption.

Let the most intelligent and studious children from every pri-
mary school be sent, free of expense, to the most accessible
secondary school for one year ; let the best of these be selected
and allowed to continue for a second year, and so on, until the
élite of them have learnt all that is to be there learnt to advan-
tage. Let the best pupils from the secondary schools be sent to
a college of their own selection, and there subjected to a similar
process of annual weeding ; and, finally, let those who get satis-
factorily to the end of a college curriculum be supplied with an
allowance sufficient for their maintenance for a year, on condi-
tion of their devoting their undivided energies to research, under

412

NATURE

eo ice

| Sept. 18, 1873

the inspection of competent college authorities, while allowed
such aids and facilities as the college can supply, with the addi-
tion of money-grants for special purposes. Let all who do well
during this first year be allowed similar advantages fora second
and even a third year.

Each young investigator thus trained must exert himself to
obtain some appointment, which may enable him to do the most
useful and creditable work of which he is capable, while com-
biring the conditions most favourable to his own improvement.

Let there be in every college as many Professorships and
Assistantships in each branch of science as are needed for the
efficient conduct of the work there going on, and let every
Professor and Assistant have such salary and such funds for
apparatus, &c., as may enable -him to devote all his powers to
the duties of his post, under conditions favourable to the success
of those duties.; but let each professor receive also a proporiion
of the fees paid by his pupils, so that it may be his direct interest
to do his work with the utmost attainable efficiency, and attract
more pupils. a

Let every college and school be governed by an independent
body of men, striving to increase its usefulness and reputation,
by sympathy with the labours of the working staff, by material
aid to them when needed, and by getting the very best man they
can, from their own orany other college, to supply each vacancy
as it arises.

In addition to colleges, which are and always have been the
chief institutions for the advancement of learning, establishments
for the observation of special phenomena are frequently needed,
and will doubtless be found desirable in aid of a general system
for the advancement of science.

Now, if a system fulfilling the conditions which I have thus
briefly sketched out were once properly established on a sufh-
cient scale, it ought to develop and improve itself by the very
process of its working ; and it behoves us, in judging of the sys-
tem, to consider how such development and improvement would
come about.

The thing most needed at the present time for the advance-
ment of science is a supply of teachers devoted to that object—
men so earnestly striving for more knowledge and better know-
ledge as to be model students, stimulating and encouraging those
around them by their example as much as by their teaching.
Young men do not prepare themselves in any numbers for such
a career :—

I. Because the chief influences which surround them at school
and at college are not calculated to awaken in them a desire to
obtain excellence of such kind.

II. Because they could not expect by means of such qualities
to reach a position which would afford a competent subsistence.

Let these conditions be reversed, to the extent that existing
teachers have powerful inducements to make their students love
the study of science for its own sake, with just confidence that
they will be able to earn a livelihood if they succeed in qualify-
ing themselves to advance science, and the whole thing is
changed. The first batch of young investigators will be dispersed
among schools and colleges according to their powers and ac-
quirements, and will improve their influence upon the pupils,
and enable them to send up a second batch better trained than
the first. This improvement will go on increasing, if the natural
forces which promote it are allowed free play : and the youth of
each successive generation will have better and more fre-
quent opportunities of awakening to a love of learning, better
help and guidance in their efforts to acquire and use the glorious
inheritance of knowledge which had been left them, better and
more numerous living examples of men devoting their whole lives
to the extension of the domain of truth, and seeking their highest
reward in the consciousness that their exertions have benefited
their fellow-men, and are appreciated by them.

A young man who is duly qualified for the work of teaching
the investigation of some particular branch of science, and who
wishes to devote himself to it, will become a member of an asso-
ciation of men selected for their known devotion to learning, and
for their ability to teach the methods fof investigation in their
respective subjects. Around this central group is ranged a fre-
quently changing body of youths who trust to them for encourage-
ment and guidance in their respective studies.

Our young investigator finds it necessary to study again more
carefully many parts of his subject, and to examine accurately
the: evidence of various conclusions which he had formerly
adopted, in order that he may be able to lead the minds of his

pupils by easy and natural yet secure steps to the discovery of
'

the geneval truths which are within their reach. He goes over his
branch of science again and again from the foundation upwards
striving each time to present its essential particulars more clearly
and more forcibly, arranging them in the order best calculated to
stimulate an inquiring mind to reflect upon their meaning, and to
direct its efforts effectively to the discovery of the general ideas
which are to be derived from them, He is encouraged in these
efforts by the sympathy of his colleagues, and often aided by
suggestions derived from their experience in teaching other
branches of science, or by information respecting doctrines or
methods which throw a light upon those of his own subject.

No known conditions are so well calculated to give a young
investigator the closest and strongest grasp of his object of which
he is capable as those in which he is placed while thus earnestly
teaching it in a college ; and inasmuch as a thorough mastery of
known truths is needed by everyone who would work to advan-
tage at the discovery of new truths of that kind, it will, in most
cases, be an object of ambition to the ablest young investigators
to get an opportunity of going through the work of teaching in
a college, in order to improve themselves to the utmost forthe
work of original research. There is, however, another adyan-
tage to them in having such work to do; for the best way to
ascertain at any one time what additions may be made to a
science, is to examine the facts which have been discovered last,
and to consider how far they confirm and extend the established
ideas of the science, how far they militate against those ideas.
An investigating teacher is constantly weaving new facts into
the body of his science, and forming anticipations of new
truths by considering the relation of these new facts to the old
ones.

When our investigator has thus got a thorough mastery of his
science and new ideas for its extension, he ought to have the
opportunity of turning his improved powers to account by devot-
ing more of his time to original research ; in fact he ought to
teach research by example more than hitherto, and less by ele-
meniary exercises upon known facts. If he has discharged the
duties of his first post with manifest efficiency, he will be pro-
moted, either in his own or some other cclleze, to a chair afford-
ing more leisure and facility for original research by his own
hands and by those of his assistants and pupils. Some investi-
gators may find it desirable to give up after a while all teaching
of previously published tiuths, and confine themselves to guiding

the original researches of advanced pupils, while stimuiating them —

by the example of their own discoveries. But mosc of them will
probably prefer to do elementary teaching work from time to time,
for the sake of the opportunity of going over the groundwork of
their science, with a knowledge of the new facts and enlarged
ideas recently established.

Now it must be observed that such a system as the above, once
developed to its proper proportions, so as to send aanually to
secondary schools many thousands of poor children who would
otherwise never enjoy such advantages, and so as to train to
original investigation a corresponding proportion of them, would
not only provide more young investigators than would be needed
for systematic teaching functions, but would also give a partial
training of the same kind to many whose abilities proved to be
insufficient, or whose tastes were not congenial to such pursuit.
Some would be tempted by an advantageous opening in an in-
dustrial pursuit or in the public service to break off their studies
before completion, and others would find, after completing their
training, a position of that kind more desirable or more attain-
able than a purely scientific appointment. Not only would
much good of other kinds be accomplished by this circumstance,
but we may say with confidence that the system could not
work with full advantage for its own special purpose of promc~
ting the advancement of science if it did not diffuse a know-
ledge of the truths and methods of science beyond the circle of
teachers.

There is an urgent need of accurate scientific knowledge for
the direction of manufacturing processes, and there could not be
a greater mistake than to suppose that such knowledge need not
go beyond the elementary truths of science. In every branch of
manufacture improvements are made from time to time, by the
introduction of new or modified processes which had been dis-
covered by means of investigations as arduous as those conducted
for purely scientific purposes, and involving as great powers
and accomplishments on the part of those who conducted
them.

Any manufacturer of the present day who does not make effi-
cient arrangements for gradually perfecting and improving his

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Sept. 18, 1873]

NATURE

413

processes ought to make at once enough money to retire ; for so
many are moving onwards ia this and other countries, that he
would soon be left behind.

It would be well worth while to establish such a system of
scientific education for the sake of training men to the habits of
mind which are required for the improvement of the manufactur-
ing arts; and I have no doubt that the expense of workiog the
system would be repaid a hundred times over by the increase of
wealth of the community ; but I oaly mention this as a secondary
advantage of national education.

A system of the kind could not expand to due dimensions, nor
could it, once fully established, maiotain itself in full activity,
without intelligent sympathy from the community ; and accord-
ingly its more active-minded members must be taught some good
examples of the processes and results of scientific inquiry, before
they can be expected to take much interest in the results achieved
by inquirers, and to do their share of the work requisite for the
success of the system. I need hardly remind you that there are
plenty of other strong reasons why some such knowledge of the
truths of nature, and of the means by which they are found
out, should be diffused as widely as possible throughout the com-
munity.

von, perceive that in such educational system each teacher
must trust to his own exertions for success and advancement ;
and he will do so if he is sure that his results will be known and
compared impartially with those attained by others. Each
governing body must duly maintain the efficiency of their school
or college, if its support depend in some degree on the evidences
of that efficiency ; and they will try to improve their school if
they know that every improvement will be seen and duly ap-
preciated.

The keystone of the whole structure is the actlon of the State
in distributiag funds carefully among schools and colleges pro-
portionally to the evidence of their doing good work, which
could not be continued without such aid.

I am inclined to think that the State ought, as far as possible,
to confine its educational grants to the purpose of maintaining
and continuing good work which is actually being done, and
rarely if ever to initiate educational experiments : first, because
it is desirable to encourage_private exertions and donations for
the establishment of schouls and colleges upon new systems, or
in new localities, by giving the public full assurance that if any
new institution establishes its right to existence, by doing good
work for a while, it will not be allowed to die off for want of
support ; and, secondly, because the judicial impartiality re-
quired in the administration of public funds, on the basis of
results of work, is hardly compatible with an advocacy of any
particular means of attaining such results.

On the other hand, experience has shown that special endow-
ments, which tie up funds in perpetuity for a definite purpose,
commonly fail to attain their object under the altered circum-
stances which spring up in later generations, and not unfrequently
detract from the efficiency of the institutions to which they are
attached, by being used for objects other than those which it is
their proper function to promote,

When there is felt to be a real want of any new institution for
the promotion of learning, men are usually willing enough to
devote time and money to the purpose of establishing it and
giving it a fair trial. It is desirable that they should leave the
State to judge of their experiment by its results, and to maintain
it or not, according to the evidences of its usefulness. No
institution ought, for its own sake, to have such permanent
endowments as might deprive its members of motives for
exertion.

The State could not, however, discharge these judicial
functions without accurate and trustworthy evidence of the
educational work done at the various schools and of its suceess.
For this purpose a record must be kept by or under the direction
of every teacher of the weekly progress of each pupil, showing
what he has done and how he has done it, Official inspectors
would have to see to these records being kept upon a uniform
scale, so that their results might be comparable. The habit of
keeping such records conduces powerfully to the efficiency of
teachers ; and, for the sake of the due development of the
teaching system, it ought to prevail generally, Having such
full and accurate means of knowing what opportunities of im-
provement pupils have enjoyed, and what use they have made
of those opportunities, Government ought to stimulate their
exertions and test their progress by periodical examinations. It
is of the utmost importance to allow any new and improved

bi Miaas Syesy

system of instruction to develop itself freely, by the exertions of
those who are willing to undertake the labour and risk of trying
it on a practical scale; and the pupils who acquire upon such
new system a command of any branch of science, ought to have
a fair opportunity of showing what they have achieved and how
they haveachievedit. An ableand impartial examiner, knowing
the new systems in use, will encourage each candidate to work
out his resultsin the manner in which he has been taught to
work out results of the kind. ‘

Examinations thus impartially conducted with a view of
testing the success of teachers in the work which they are endea-
vouring to do, have a far higher value, and consequent authority,
than those which are conducted in ignorance or disregard of the
process of training to which the candidates have been subjected ;
and we may safely say that the examination system will not
attain its full usefulness until it is thus worked in intimate
connection with a system of teaching.

In order to give every one employed in the educational
system the utmost interest in maintaining and increasing his
efficiency, it is essentiat that a due measure of publicity be given
to the chief results of their respective labours. Schools and
colleges ought, to a considerable extent, to be supported by the
fees paid by pupils for the instruction received ; and every
Professor being in part dependent upon the fees of his pupils will
have a direct interest in attracting more pupils to his classes or
laboratories. The fame of importaut original investigations of
his own or his pupils, published in the scientific journals, is one
of the natural means by which a distinguished Professor attracts
disciples, and the success of his pupils in after life is another
His prospects of promotion will depend mainly on the opinion
formed of his powers from such materials as these by the
governing bodies of colleges and by the public; for if each
college is dependent for success upon the efficiency of its
teaching staff, its governing body must do their best to fill up
every vacancy as it arises by the appointment of the ablest and
most successful Professor whom they can get; and any college
which does. not succeed in obtaining the services of able men
will soon lose reputation, and fall off in numbers.

There are, however, further advantages to the working of the
system to be derived from full publicity of all its more important
proceedings. It will supply materials for the formation of a
sound public opinion respecting the proceedings of the author-
ities in their various spheres of action, A claim for money
might be made upon Government by the rulers of some college
upon inadequate grounds ; or a just and proper claim of the kind
might be disregarded by Government. Neither of these things
will be likely to happen very often if the applications, together
with the evidence bearing on them, are open to public scrutiny
and criticism; and when they do occasionally happen, there
will be a natural remedy for them.

If I have succeeded in making clear to you the leading
principles of the plan to be adopted for the advancement of
science, including, as it necessarily must do, national education
generally, you will, I think, agree with me that, from the very
magnitude and variety of the interests involved in its action, such
system must of necessity be under the supreme control of Govern-
ment. Science will never take its proper place among the chief
elefnents of national greatness and advancement until it is ac-
knowledged as such by that embodiment of the national will
which we call the Government. Nor can the various institutions
for its advancement develop duly their usefulness until the chaos
in which they are now plunged gives place to such order
as it is the proper function of Government to establish and
maintain.

But government has already taken, and is continuing to take
action in various matters affecting elementary popular education
and higher scientific education, and it would be difficult to arrest
such action, even if it were thought desirable to do so. The
only practical question to be considered is how the action of
Government can be systematised so as to give free play to the
natural forces which have to do the work.

By establishing official examinations for appointments and for
degrees Government exerts a powerful influence on the teaching
in schools and colleges, without taking cognizance, except in
some few cases, of the systems of teaching which prevail in
them, Again, they give grants of public money from time to
time in aid of colleges or universities, or for the establishment of
a high school under their own auspices. Sometimes they endow
a Professorship. In taking each measure of the kind they are
doubtless influenced by evidence that it is in itself a good thing,

414

calculated to promote the advancement of learning. But a
thing which is good in itself may produce evil effects in relation
to others, or good effects incommensurate with its cost. Thus
examinations afford most valuable aid to educational work when
carried on in conjunction with earnest teachers ; yet when esta-
blished in the absence of a good system of education, they are
liable to give rise to a one-sided training contrived with a special
view of getting young men through the examinations. If no
properly educated young men were found for a particular depart-
ment of the public service, and an examination of all candidates
for such appointments were to be established for the purpose of
improving the system of training, candidates would consider
their power of answering such questions as appeared likely to be
set as the condition of thcir obtaining the appointments, and
they would look out for men able and willing to train them to
that particular work in as direct and effective a manner as pos-
sible. ‘The demand for such instruction would soon be supplied.
Some teachers would undertake to give instruction for the mere
purpose of enabling candidates to get’through the examination ;
and by the continued habit of such work would gradually come
to look upon the examiners as malignant beings who keep youths
ont of office, and whose vigilance ought to be evaded by such
means as experience might show to be most effective tor the pur-
pose. Once this kind of direct examination-teaching has taken
root, and is known to produce the desired effect of getting young
men through the examinations, its existence encourages the ten-
dency on the part of the aandidates to look merely to the exami-
nation as the end and aim of their study ; and a class of teachers
is developed whose exertions are essentially antagonistic to those
of the examiners.

There are, no doubt, teachers with a sufficiently clear appre-
hension of their duty, and sufficient authority, to convince some
of the candidates that the proper object of their study should be
to increase their power of usefulness in the career for which they
are preparing themselves, by thoroughly mastering up to a pre-
scribed point certain branches of knowledge ; and that until they
had honestly taken the means to do this and believed they had
done it effectua!ly, they ought not to go up for examination nor
to wish to commence their career.

But it is desirable that all teachers be placed in such circum-
stances that it may become their interest as well as their duty to
co-operate to the utmost of their powers in the cbject for which
the examiners are working. For this purpose their records of
the work done under their guidance by each pupil ought to be
carefully inspected by the examiners ‘before framing their ques-
tians, and ought to be accepted as affording the chief evidence of
the respective merits of the pupils.

This is not the place for considering how the general funds for
an effective system of national education can best be raised, nor
how existing educational endowments can best be used in aid of
those funds. It is well known that some colleges of Oxford and
Cambridge are possessed of rich endowments, and that many dis-
tinguished members of those universities are desirous that the
annual proceeds of those endowments should be distributed upon
some system better calculated to promote the advancement of
learning than that which generally prevails. Indeed we may
confidently hope that, true to their glorious traditions, those col-
leges will be led, by the high-minded and enlightened counsels
of their members, to rely upon improving usefulness in the ad-
vancement of learhing as the only secure and worthy basis of
their action in the use of their funds, so that they may take a
leading part in such system of national education as may be
moulded out of the present chaos.

But the foundations of a national system of education ought
to be laid independently of the present arrangements at Oxford
and Cambridge, for we may be sure that the more progress the
system makes the more easy will become the necessary reforms
in the older universities and- colleges.

It is clearly undesirab’e that Government should longer delay
obtaining such full and accurate knowledge of the existing na-
tional resources for educational purposes, and of the manner in
which they are respectively utilised, as may enable them to
judge of the comparative prospects of usefulness presented by
the various modes of distributing educational grants. They
ought to know what has been done and what is doing in the
various public educational establishments before they can judge
which of them would be likely to make the best use of a grant
of public money.

We have official authority for expecting such impartial admi-
nistration of educational grants ; and it cannot be doubted that,

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~ 5
¥ .

Oe, tn ai RMON Bie id.

[Sepz. 18, 1873

before long, due means will be taken to supply the prelimin:
conditions. :

You are no doubt aware that a Royal Commission was ap-
pointed some time ago in consequence of representations made
to Government by the British Association on this subject, and it
is understood that their instructions are so framed as to direct
their particular attention to the marher in which Government
may distribute educational grants. The Commission is moreover
composed of most distinguished men, and we have every reason
to anticipate from their labours a result worthy of the nation and
of the momentous occasion.

In speaking of public educational establishments, I refer to
those which by their constitution are devoted to the advancement
of learning without pecuniary profit to their respective governing
bodies. The annual expenditure requisite for keeping up a na-
tional system of popular education will necessarily be considerable
from the first, and will become greater from year to year ; but
once Englishmen are fully alive to the parhmount importance
of the subject, and see that its attainment is within their reach,
we may be sure that its expense will be no impediment. Eng-
land woul not deserve to reap the glorious fruits of the harvest of
knowledge if she grudged the necessary outlay tor seed and til-
lage, were it even ten times greater than it will be. It is no use
attempting to establish a national system on any other than a
truly national basis. Private and corporate funds inevitably get
diverted from popular use, after a few generations, to the use of
the influential and rich. A national system must steadily keep
in view the improvement of the poor, and distribute public funds
each year in the manner best calculated to give to the youths of
the poorest classes full opportunities of improvement? propor-
tional to their capacities, so that they may qualify themselves for —
the utmost usefulness to their country of which they are capable.
The best possible security for the proper administration of the
system will be found in the full and speedy publicity of all the
particulars of its working.

It has been frequently remarked that a great proportion of
English investigators are men of independent means, who not
only seek no advancement as a reward of their labours, but
often sacrifice those opportunities of improving their worldly

position which their abilities and influence open up to them, for —

the sake of quietly advancing human knowledge. Rich ant
powerful men have very great temptations to turn away from —
science, so that those who devote their time and money to its
service prove to us how true and pure a love of science exists in —
this country, and how Englishmen will cultivate it when it is in
their power to do so.

Now and then a youth from the poorer classes is enabled by
fortunate accidents and by the aid of a friendly hand to climb to
a position of scientific activity, and to give us, as Faraday did, a
sample of the intellectual powers which lie fallow in the great
mass of the people.

Now, the practical conclusion to which I want to lead you is
that it rests with you, who represent the national desire for the
advancement of science, to take the onlo measures which can
now be taken towards the establishment of a system of edu-
cation worthy of this country, and adapted to the requirements
of science. In the present stage of the business the first thing to
be done is to arouse public attention by all practicable means to
the importance of the want, and to get people gradually to ria
to some definite and practicable plan of action. You will, I
think, find that the best way to promote such agreement is to
make people consider the natural forces which have to be sys-
tematised by legislation, with a view of enabling them to work
freely for the desired purpose. When the conditions essential to
any national system come to be duly appreciated by those in-
terested in the cause of education, means will soon be found to
carry out the necessary legislative enactments. :

The highest offices in the State are on our present system filled
by men who, whatever their political opinions and party ties,
almost infallibly agree in their disinterested desire to signalise
their respective terms of office by doing any good in their power.
Convince them that a measure desired by the leaders of public
opinion is in itself good and useful, and you are sure to carry it.

And, on the other hand, England is not wanting in men both
able and willing to come forward as the champions of any great
cause, and to devote their best powers to its service.

I may well say this at Bradford after the results achieved by
your Member in the Elementary Education Act.

Objections will of course be raised to any system on the score
of difficulty and expense, more especially to a complete and —

Sepe. 18, 187 3]
~ good system. Difficult of realisation it certainly must be, for it
will need the devoted and indefatigable exertions of many an
able and high-minded man for many a long year. Orily show
how such exertions can be made to produce great and abiding
~ results, and they will not be wanting. And as for expense, you
_ will surely agree with me that the more money is distributed in
such frugal and effective manner, the better for the real greatness
of our country.
What nobler privilege is attached to the possession of money
_ than that of doing good to our fellow men ? and who would
grudge giving freely from his surplus, or even depriving himself
of some comforts, for the sake of preparing the rising generation
for a life of the utmost usefulness and consequent happiness ?

I confidently trust that the time will come when the chief item
in the annual budget of the Chancellor of the Exchequer will be
the vete for National Education ; and when in some later age
our nation shall have passcd away, when a more true civilisation
has grown up and has formed new centres for its throbbing life,
when there are but broken arches to tell of our bridges and
crumbling ruins to mark the sites of our great cathecrals— then
will the greatest and noblest of England’s works stand more
perfect and more beavtiful than ever ; then will some man sur-
vey the results of Old England’s labours in the discovery of

_ imperishable truths and laws of nature, and see that her energy

and wealth were accompanied by some nobler attributes—that

_ while Englishmen were strong and ambitious enough to grasp
_ power, they were true enough to use it for its only worthy pur-

pose—that of doing good to others.

I must not, however, trespass longer upon your time and your
kind attention. My subject would carry me on, yet I must stop
without having done half justice to it.

If I have succeeded in convincing you that a National system
of Education is now necessary and possible, and in persuading
you to do what you respectively can to prepare the way for it, I
Shall feel that the first step is made towards that great result.

SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS
SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, W. J. Russet, F.R.S.

OF late years it has been the custom of my predeces-
sors in this chair to open the business of the section with
an address, and the subject of this address has almost inyari-
ably been a review of the progress of chemistry during the
past year. JI purpose, with your leave, to-day to deviate
somewhat from this precedent, and to limit my remarks, as
far as the progress of chemistry is concerned, to the history of
one chemical substance. The interest and the use of an annual
survey, at these meetings, of the progress of chemistry, has to
a certain extent passed away, for the admirable extracts of all
important chemical papers, now published by the Chemical
Society, has in a great measure taken its place, and offers to the
chemical student a much more thorough means of learning what
progress his science is making than could possibly be done by
the study of a presidential address. Doubtless these abstracts
of chemical papers are known to others than professional
chemists, but I cannot pass them over without recording the
great use they have proved to be, how much they have done
already in extending in this country an exact knowledge of the
progress of science on the continent, and in helping and in
stimulating those who are engaged in scientific pursuits in this
country. I believe few grants made by this Association have
done more real good than those which have enabled the Chemical
Society to publish these abstracts.

I dwell for a moment on the doings of the Chemical Society,
for I believe in the progress of this Society we have a most im-
portant indication of the progress of chemical science in this
country. The number of original papers communicated to the
Society during the past year has far exceeded that of previous
years: during last year fifty-eight papers were read to the
Society, whereas the average number for the last three years
is only twenty-nine. Further, I may say, there is every appear-
ance of this increased activity not only continuing, but even
increasing. Another matter connected with the Society deserves
a passing word, I mean its removal from its old rooms at Bur-
lington House, which afforded it very insufficient accommoda-
tion, to its new ones in the same building.
which is now taking place, will give to the Society a great

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as
!

This transference |

415

increase of accommodation, and thus admit of larger audiences
attending the lecture-, of the proper development of the library,
and of the full illustration by experiment of the communications
made to it. These improvements must act most beneficially on
the Society, and stimulate its future development ; even now it
numbers some 700 members, and certainly is not one of the least
active or least useful of the many scientific societies in London.
Since our last meeting, at Brighton, we have lost the most re-
nowned of modern chemists—Liebig. His influence on chemistry
through a long and most active life has yet to be written. Pub-
lishing his first paper fifty years ago, it is difficult for chemists of
the present day to realise the changes in chemical thought, in
chemical knowledge, and in chemical experiments which he
lived through, and was more than any other chemist active in
promoting. His activity was unwearied : he comm: nicated no
less than 317 papers to different scientific journals, an! almost
every branch of chemistry received some impetus from his hand.

Liebig took an active interest in this Associat‘on, and I believe
the last paper he wrote was one in answer to a communication
made at the last meeting of this Association. On two occasions
he attended the meetings of the British Association, and has
communicated many papers to this section. The meeting at
Liverpool in 1837 was the first at which he was present ; he there
communicated to this section a paper on the products of the de-
composition of uric acid, and further gave an account of his
most important discovery, made in conjunction with Wohler, of
the artificial formation of urea. At this meeting Liebig was
requested to prepare a report on the siate of our knowledge
of isomeric bodies: This request, although often repeated, was
never complied with. He was also requested to report on the
state of organic chemistry and organic analysis—thus our section
was evidently desirous of giving him full occupation. At the
meeting in 1840 at Glasgow, a paper on ‘‘ Poisons, Contagions,
and Miasms,” by Liebig was read; it was in fact an abstract
of the last chapter in his book on ‘‘ Chemistry in its applications
to Agriculture and Physiology,” and the work itself appeared
about the same time, dedicated to this Association. Liebig
says :—‘‘ At one of the meetings of the Chemical Section
of the British Association for the advancement of Science,
the honourable task of preparing a report upon the state of
Organic Chemistry was impcsed upon me. In this present
work I present the Association with a part of this report.” At
the next meeting, which was held at Plymouth, in 1841, there
was an interesting letter from Liebig to Dr. Playfair read to our
section ; in it, among other matieis, Liebig describes an “ ex-
cellent method” devised by Drs. Will and Varrentrapp for
determining the amount of nitrogen in organic bodies ; he also
says we have repeated all the expressions of Dr. Brown on the
production of silicon from paracyanogen, but we have not been
able to confirm one of his results ; what our experiences prove is
that paracyanogen is decomposed by a strong heat into nitrogen
gas, and a residue of carbon which is exceedingly difficult of
combustion.

To the next meeting—it was at Manchester, and Dalton was
the president of this section—Dr. Playfair communicated an
abstract of Professor Liebig’s report ‘‘On Organic Chemistry
applied to Physiology and Pathology.” This abstract is printed
in our proceedings, and the complete work is looked uponas the
second part of the report on Organic Chemistry. This Association
may therefore fairly consider that it exercised some influence on
Liebig in the production of the most important works that he
wiote. Playfair’s abstract must have been listened to with the
greatest interest, and I doubt not the statements made sharply
criticised, specially by the physiologists then at Manchester.
Playfair concludes his abstract with these words, thus summing
up the special objects of these reports :—‘‘ In the opinion of all,
Liebig may be considered a benefactor to his species, for the
interesting discoveries in agriculture, published by him in the
first part of his report. And having in that pointed out means
by which the food of the human race may be increased, in the
work now before us he follows up the chain in its continuation,
and shows how that food may be best adapted to the nutrition
of man. Surely there are no two subjects more fitted than these
for the contemplation of the philosopher ; and by the consummate
sagacity with which Liebig has applied to their elucidation the
powers of his mind, we are compelled to admit that there is no
living philosopher to whom the Chemical Section could have
more appropriately entrusted their investigation.” ,

At the meeting at Glasgow, in 1855, Liebig was also present,
but then only communicated to this section a short paper on ful-

416

NATURE

minuric acid, and some remarks on the use of lime water in the
manufacture of bread. Such I believe is the history of the
direct relationship which has existed between Liebig and this
Association. Indirectly we can hardly recognise how much we
owe tohim. Interested as he was in the work of this Associa-
tion I could not but to-day record the instances of direct aid and
support which this section has received from him.

I pass on now to the special subject to which I wish to ask
your attention.

It is the history of the vegetable colouring matter found in
madder. It has been in use from time immemorial, and is still
one of the commonest and most important of dyes. It is ob-
tained from a plant largely cultivated in many parts of the world
for the sake of the colour it yields, and the special interest which
now attaches to it is, that the chemist has lately shown how this
natural colouring matter can be made in the laboratory as well as
in the fields ; how by using a bye-product, which formerly was
without value, thousands of acres can be liberated for the culti-
vation of other crops, and the colouring matter which they for-
merly produced be cheaper and better prepared in the laboratory
or in the manufactory, That a certain colouring matter could be
obtained from the roots of the Rubia tinctorum, and other species
of the same plant, has been so long known, that apparently no
record of its discovery remains.

Pliny and Dioscorides evidently allude to it. The former, re-
ferring to its yalue as a dyeing material, says, ‘‘ It is a plant little
known except to the sordid and avaricious, and this because of
the large profits obtained from it, owing to its employment in
dyeing wool and leather.” He further says, ‘‘The madder of
Italy is the most esteemed, and especially that grown in the
neighbourhood of Rome, where and in other places it is pro-
duced in great abundance.’’ He further describes it as being
grown among the olive-trees, or in fields devoted especially to its
growth, The madder of Ravenna, according to Dioscorides,
was the most esteemed. Its cultivation in Italy has been con-
tinued till the present time, and in 1863 the Neapolitan provinces
alone exported it to the value of more than a quarter of a million
sterling. At the present day we are all very familiar with this
colouring matter as the commonest that is applied to calicoes. It
is capable of yielding many colours, such as red, pink, purple,
chocolate, and black. ‘The plant in which is the source of this
colouring matter is nearly allied botanically and in appearance to
the ordinary Galiums, or bed=straws. It is a native probably of
Southern Europe as well as Asia. It is a perennial with herba-
ceous stem; which dies down every year ; its square-jointed
stalk creeps along the ground to a considerable distance, and the
stem and leaves are rough with sharp prickles. The root, which
is cylindrical, fleshy, and of a pale yellow colour, extends down-
wards to a considerable depth. It is from this root, which, when
dried, is known as madder, that the colouring matter is obtained.
The plant is propagated from suckers or shoots. These require
some two or three years to come to full maturity and yield the
finest colours, although in France the crop is often gathered
after only eighteen months’ growth. From its taking so long to
develop, it is evidently a crop not adapted to any ordinary
series of rotation of crops. The plant thrives best in a warm
climate, but has been grown in this country and in the north of
Europe.

In India it has been grown from the earliest times, and, as
before stated, has been abundantly cultivated in Italy, certainly
since the time of Pliny; he also mentions its cultivation in
Galilee. In this country its culture has often been attempted,
and has been carried on for a short time, but never with per-
manent success. The madder now used in England is imported
from France, Italy, Holland, South Germany, Turkey, and
India, In 1857 the total amount imported into this country was
434,056 cwts., having an estimated value of 1,284,989/., and the
average annual amount imported during the last seventeen years
is 310,042 cwts. ; while the amount imported last year, 1872,
was 283,274 cwts., valued at 922,244/, In 1861, it was esti-
mated that in the South Lancashire district alone, 150 tons of
madder were used weekly, exclusive of that required for prepar-
ing garancine. I quote these figures as showing the magnitude
of the industry that we are dealing with. Another point of
much interest is the amount of land required for the cultivation
of this plant. In England it was found that an acre yielded only
from 10 to 2qQewt. of the dried roots, but in South Germany and
in France the same amount of land yields about twice that quan-
tity. The madder cultivator digs up the roots in autumn, dries
them, in some cases peels them, by beating them with a flail, and

exports them in the form of powder, whole root, or, after treat-
ment with sulphuric acid, when it is known as garancine.

The quality of the root varies much, that from the Levant,
known as Turkey root, is most valued. According, how-
ever, to the colour to be produced, is the madder from one
source or another preferred.

To obtain the colouring matter, which is but very slightly
soluble in water, from these rootsythey are mixed, after being
ground, with water in the dye-vessel, and sometimes a little
chalk is added. The fabric to be dyed is introduced, and the
whole slowly heated ; the colouring matter gradually passes from
the root to the water, and from the water to the mordanted
fabric, giving to it a colour dependent of course on the nature of
the mordant. ;

To trace the chemical history of this colouring matter, we
have to go back to the year 17y0, when a chemist of the name
of Watt precipitated the golouring matter of madder by alum
from neutral, alkaline, and acid solutions : he obtained two differ-
ent colouring matters, but could not isolate them, and many dif-
ferent shades of colours. Charles Batholdi asserted that madder

contained much magnesic sulphate, and Hautmann observed the ~

good effect produced on madder by the addition of calcic car-
bonate. In 1823, F. Kuhlmann made evidently a careful analysis
of the madder-root, and describes a red and a fawn colouring
matter; but the first really important advance made in our
knowledge of the chemical constitution of this colouring matter
was by Colin and Robiquet in 1827. They obtained what they
believed to be, and what has since really proved to be, the true
colouring principle of madder, and obtained it in a state of
tolerable purity. Their process for preparing it was very simple.
They took Alsace madder in powder, digested it with water,
obtaining thus a gelatinous mass, which they treated with boilin
alcohol, then evaporated off four-fifths of the alcohol, oa
treated the residue with a little sulphuric acid, to diminish its
solubility. Then, after washing it with several litres of water, they
got a yellowish substance remaining. Lastly, they found that on
moderately heating this product in a glass tube, they obtained a
yellowish vapour formed of brilliant particles, which condensed,
giving a distinct zone of brilliant needles, reflecting a colour
similar to that from the native lead chromate. They named this
substance alizarine, from the Levant name for madder, Alizari,
the name by which it is still known there. *

A few years later we find other chemists attacking this same
subject ; in 1831 Gaultier de Claubry and J. Persoz published the
account of a long research on the subject; they described two
colouring matters, a red and a rose one—the red one was ali-
zarine and the rose one was another body nearly allied to it, and
now well known as purpurine. Runge also made an elaborate
examination of the madder root; he found no less than five
different colouring matters in it—madder-red, madder-purple,
madder-orange, madder-yellow, and madder-brown. The first
thse he considers to be suited for dyeing purposes, but not the
ast two.

Runge’s madder-red is essentially impure alizarin, and his
madder-purple impure purpurine. He does not give any
analysis of these substances. During the next ten years this
subject seems to have attracted but little attention from chemists,
but in 1846 Shiel prepared the madder-red and madder-purple of
Runge, by processes very similar to those employed by Runge,
and analysed these substances. For madder-red he gives the
formula Cy,H,,0,, which differs only by H,O from the formula
now adopted. For the madder-purple he gives the formula
CogH)0,5, and for the same substance, after being sublimed,
C,H,O,4. The chemist who has worked most on this subject,
and to whom we are principally indebted for what we know with
regard to the different constituents contained in the madder root,
is Dr. Schunk of Manchester. In Liebig’s Annalen for 1848 he
gives a long and interesting account of his examination of madder;
he isolated and identified several new substances which are most
important constituents of the root, and has since this time added
much to our knowledge of the chemical constitution of madder.
In the paper above alluded to he confirms the presence of the
alizarine, and gives to it the formula C,,H, Q4. The principal
properties of this body may best be sketched here. Its vola-
tility and brilliant crystalline appearance have already been men-
tioned ; it is but slightly soluble in cold water, but much more
so in alcohol, in ether, and in boiling-water. The colour of its
solution is yellow, and whenit separates out from a liquid it has
a yellow flocculent appearance, differing thus greatly from the
red brilliant crystalline substance before described. In order tow

[ Sept. 18, 1873.

however, we go one step further back and examine the fresh root
of Rubia tinctorum, that is, as soon as it is drawn from the

On slicing the root it is seen to be of a light carroty colour, and
an almost colourless liquid can be squeezed out of it, but this is
entirely free from the colouring matters of madder.
_ roots, however, be kept if only for a short time, and then they

_ up into alizarine and into sugar.

im z eee
: as a i
Sept. 18, 1873]
obtain this latter body heat had always been used, so until the |
elaborate experiments of Schunk it was a question whether the |
heat did not produce a radical change in the substance, whether, |
in a word, these two bodies were really identical. Schunk’s |

experiments proved that they were, and consequently that this —
beautiful colouring matter alizarine existed as such inmadder. If, |

und, for some time we shall find no trace of alizarine there.

Let the

will give abundant evMence of the presence of alizarine ; if
simply heated alizarin may be volatilised from them. It appears
then that the whole of the tinctorial power of this root is developed
after the death of the plant. Schunk explains this curious phe-
nomenon as follows :—That in tne cells of the living plant there
is a substance which he has isolated, and has named rubian;
it is easily soluble in water and in alcohol; the solution is of a
yellow colour, and has an intensely bitter taste ; when dry it is a
hard, brown, gum-like body. It has none of the properties of a

_ dye stuff, but if we take a solution of it, add some sulphuric or

hydrochloric acid to it, and boil, a yellow flocculent substance
will slowly separate out, and on filtering it off and washing it,
it will be found to have the tinctorial properties of madder and
to contain alizarine. In the liquid filtered from it there is, with

_ the acid added, an uncrystallisable sugar, so that in this way the

original product in the root, the rubian, has apparently been split
To apply this reaction to what
ae on in the root after its removal from the ground, we have to

nd if any other substances can take the place of the boiling
dilute acid, and Schunk has shown there exists in the root itself
a substance which is eminently fitted to produce this splitting
up of the rubian. He obtained this decomposing agent from
madder simply by digesting it in cold water, and then adding alco-
hol to the liquid ; this threw down a reddish flocculent substance,
and if only a small portion of this be added to an aqueous solu-
tion of rubian and allowed to stand for a few hours in a warm
place, it was found that the rubian was gone, and in place of it
there was a thick tenaceous jelly ; this, treated with cold water,
gave to it no colour, no bitter taste, but much sugar. From
the jelly, remaining insoluble, alizarine could be extracted. In
fact, of all known substances this very one found in the madder
itself is best suited for effecting this decomposition of the rubian,

It appears, then, that these two bodies must exist in the root.
The history then seems complete. The two substances are kept
apart during the life of the plant in some way of which we know
nothing, but as soon as it dies they begin slowly to act on one
another, developing thus the colouring matters in madder. It
has long been known to dyers that the amount of colouring
matter in madder will increase on keeping it ; even for years it
will go on improving in quality, and an experiment of Schunk’s
shows that the ordinary madder as used by the dyer has not all
the rubian converted into colouring matter, for on taking a
sample of it and extracting it with cold water he got an acid
solution devoid of dyeing properties, but on allowing this solu-
tion to stand some time it gelatinised and then possessed dye-
ing properties.

Coincident with the appearance of Schunk’s first paper was
one by Debus on the same subject. He looked upon alizarine as
a true acid, and gave it the name of Lizaric acid, but as far
as the composition of it was concerned the percentage which
he obtained agreed closely with those given by Schunk. One
other investigation concludes all that is important in the his-
tory of alzarine as obtained from madder. This last research
is of great interest; it was by Julius Wolff and Adolph
Strecker, and published in 1850. They confirm the results of
others so far that there are in the madder root two distinct
colouring substances—this important one alizarin, and the other
one purpurine. They prepare these colouring matters much in
the same way that Schunk aid, and very carefully purify and
analyse them ; the formulz which they give for them differ, how-
ever, from Schunk’s ; for alizarine they give the formula C3,H 20,
and for purpurine C,,Hy,O,. Further, they suggest that by the
process of fermentation the former is converted into the latter,
and they show that by oxidation they both yielded phthalic
acid. Since the publication of this research, until the last
year or two, this formula for alizarine has been generally adopted

¥ by chemists, and in most modern books we find it given as

‘

7

=

=

NATURE

Ary

expressing the true composition of that body. It was not only
the careful and elaborate work which they devoted to the
subject, but also the ingenious ‘and apparently well-founded
theory on the subject which carried conviction with it. Laurent
had shown, not many years before, that when naphthalin, that
beautiful white crystalline substance obtained from coal tar,
was acted on by chlorine, and then treated with nitric acid,
a body known as chlornaphthalic acid and haying the composi-
tion CoyH4 ClO, was obtained, and on comparing this formula
with the one they had obtained for alizarine, Wolff and Strecker
at once concluded that it really was alizarine, only containing
two atoms of chlorine in place of two of hydrogen; make this
replacement, an operation generally easily performed, and
from naphthalin, they had prepared alizarine. Further, this
relationship between chlornaphthalic acid, and alizarine is borne
out in many ways ; it, like alizarine, has the power of combining
with different basic substances, has a yellow colour, is insoluble
in water, melts at about the same temperature, is volatile, and
when acted on by alkalis gives strongly coloured solutions. Taking
then all these facts into consideration, can we wonder that these
chemists feel convinced that they have established the composi-
tion of alizarine, and have shown the source from which it is to
be obtained artificially? Apparently but one very simple step
remains to crown their work with success, that of replacing the
chlorine by hydrogen. Melsens had only shortly before shownhow
this substitution could easily be made in the case of choracetic
acid by acting on it with potassium amalgam, and Kolbe had
used the battery for the same purpose. Both these processes, and
doubtless all others that the authors can think of, are tried upon
the chloronaphthalic acid, but chloronaphthalic acid it remains,,
and they are obliged to confess they are unable to make this
substitution. Still they are strong in the belief that it is to be
done and will be done, and conclude the account of their
researches by pointing out the great technical advantage it will
be to get alizarine from a worthless substance suchas naphthalin,
One cannot help even now sympathising with these chemists in
their not being able to confirm what they had really the strongest
evidence for believing must prove to be a great discovery. We
now know, however, that had they succeeded in effecting this
substitution, or had they in any other way obtained this chloro-
naphthalic acid without the chlorine, if I may so speak of it,
which since their time has been done by Martius and Griess,
alizarine would not have been obtained, but a body having a
remarkable parallelism in properties to it would have been. This
body, like alizarine, is of a yellowish colour, but slightly soluble in
water, easily in alcohol and in ether, is volatile, and on oxida-
tion yields the same products, it is, in fact, an analogous body, but
belonging to another group. We also know that the formula
proposed by Wolff and Strecker, and so long in use, is not the
correct one. But little more remains to be added with regard
to the history of alizarine as gathered from the study of
the natural substance. Schutzenberger and Paraf suggested
doubling Wolff and Strecker’s formula for alizarine, and Bolley
suggested the formula C.,H);0,;, which owing to the uneven
number of hydrogen atoms was soon rejected. If we compare
our present knowledge of alizarine with what it was when these
researches on the natural product were completed, it is as light-
ness compared to darkness, and we may well ask whence has
come this influx of knowledge? the answer I hope to show you
is undoubtedly that it has come from the careful and accurate
study of abstract chemistry. I know of no history in the whole
of chemistry which more strikingly illustrates how the prosecu-
tion of abstract science lays the foundation for great practical
improvements, My object now, is then to show you, as
shortly as I can, how by indirect means the composition of
alizarine was discovered, how it has been built up artificially, and
how it is superseding for manufacturing purposes the long-used
natural product.

To trace this history from its source we must go back to
1785, when an apothecary of the name of Hofmann obtained
the calcium salt of an acid called quinic acid from cinchona
bark. This acid is now known to be of common occurrence
in plants, it exists in the bilberry and in coffee, in holly,
ivy, oak, elm, and ash leaves, and probably many others.
Liebig also prepared the calcium salt, and was the first to
give a complete analysis of it; the formula he gave. for it was
C,;H2,0,s. Bauss on repeating Liebig’s experiments arriyed at
a somewhat different conclusion, and gavejthe formula C);H 904).
In 1835 at Liebig’s suggestion, to determine which formula was
correct, Alexander Woskrensky, from St. Petersburg, then a

.

418

tape EN Oe RL

NATURE

aS A
Oy

[Sepz. 18, 1873

student at Giessen, undertook the further investigation of this
subject, and established the formula C,,H,,0j. the one in fact
now in use. In the course of this investigation, which he carried
further than merely settling the percentage composition of this
acid, he describes what to us now is of most interest, a new
substance having peculiar and very marked properties. He
says that when a salt of quinic acid is burnt at a gentle heat he
gets aqueous vapour, the vapour of formic acid, and a deposit of
golden needles which are easily sublimed. Afterwards he
describes how this same golden substance may be obtained from
any salt of quinic acid by heating it with manganic dioxide and
dilute sulphuric acid; it then distils over, condensing in
golden yellow needles on the sides of the receiver, and may be
rendered pure by resublimation, The composition of this body
he finds to be C,H,O, and names ic quinoyl, a name strongly
objected to by Benzelius, as conveying a wrong impression of
the nature of the body ; he proposes in place of it the name
quinone, by which it is still known. Far as this body would
seem to be removed from alzarine, yet is the study of its
properties which led to the artificial production of alizarine.

Some years afterwards Wohler also explained them by the
decomposition of quinic acid; he prepares again this quinone
and follows exactly the process described by Woskrensky. He
states that with regard to the properties of this remarkable body
he has nothing particular to add. However, he proposes a
different formula for it, and discovers and describes other bodies
allied to it. Among’ these is Hydroquinone C,H ,O..
afterwards shows that the formula proposed by Wohler is incon-
sistent with his and Gerhard’s views, and by experiment confirms
the former formula for this body. Although many other chemists
devoted much attention to this substance, still its real constitution
and relation to other compounds remained unknown.

Thus Wohler, Laurent, Hofmann, Stadler, and Hesse, all

had worked at it, and much experimental knowledge with regard '

to it had been acquired. One important point in its history was
first the discovery of chloranil by Erdmann in 1841, and then
Hofmann, showing that by heating quinone with potassic chlorate
and hydrochloric acid chloranil could be obtained from it ; that,
in fact, chloranil was quinone in which all the hydrogen had
been replaced by chlorine. Perhaps the most general impression
among chemists was that in constitution it was a kind of alde-
hyde, certainly its definite place among chemical compounds
was unknown.

Kekulé suggests a rational formula for it, but it is to Carl

. Graebe that we owe our knowledge of its true constitution, In

1868 he published a remarkable and very able paper on the
quinone group of compounds, and then first brought forward the
view that quinone was a substitution derivative of the hydro-
carbon benzol (C,H,). On comparing the compounds of these
two bodies it is seen that the quinone contains two atoms of
oxygen more and two atoms of hydrogen less than benzol, and
Graebe, from the study of the decomposition of the quinone, and
from the compounds it forms, suggested that the two atoms of
oxygen form in themselves a group which is divalent, and thus
replace the two atoms of hydrogen. This supposition he very
forcibly advocates and shows its simple and satisfactiory appli-
cation to all the then known reactions of this body. ‘This
suggestion really proved to be the key, not only to the expla-
nation of the natural constitution of quinone and its deriva-
tives, but to much important discovery besides. At this time
q tinone seemed to stand alone, no other similarly constituted body
was known to exist ; but what strikingly confirms the correctness
of Graebe’s views, and indicates their great value, is that
immediately he is able to apply his lately gained knowledge,
and to show how other really analogous bodies, other quinones
in fact, already exist. He studied with great care this quinone
series of compounds and the relation they bore to one another,
the relation the hydrocarbon, benzole, bore to its oxidised
derivative, quinone, and its relation to the chlorine substitution
products derivable from it. At once this seems to have led
Graebe to the conclusion, that another such series already
existed ready formed, and that its members were well known
to chemists, that in fact naphthalin (C;j>Hg) was the parent
hydrocarbon and that the chloroxynaphthalin chloride (C,)H,
Cl,0,) and the perchloroxynaphthalin chloride (Cy Cl,0.) were
really chlorine substitution compounds of the quinone of this
series, corresponding to the bichloroquinone and to chloranil.
That the chloroxynaphthalic acid C,)H,Cl(HO)O, and the per-
chloroxynaphthalic acid C,)Cl;(H O)O,, all compounds pre-
viously discovered by Laurent, were really bodies belonging to that

Laurent |

have the means of forming alizarine artificially.

series, and further the supposed isomeric of alizarin discovered by
Martius and Griess was really related to this last compound,
having the composition C;,H; (H O) O,. Further he was
able to confirm this by obtaining the quinone ilself of this
series, the body having the formula C,,H, (O,) containing also
two atoms less of hydrogen, and two atoms more of oxygen
than the hydrocarbon naphthalin, and to the body he gave the
characteristic name of naphthodtinone. The chlorine com-
pounds just named are thus chloro-naphthoquinone, or chloroxy-
naphthoquinone, and correspond to the former chloroquinones,
Martius and Griess compound will be an oxynaphthoquinone ;
many other compositions of this series are also known. Another
step confirmatory of this existence of a series of quinones was
made by Graebe and Borgmann, as the chloranil could be formed
by treating phenol by potassic chlorate and hydrochloric acid and
quinone derived from it, they showed that in the next higher series
to the phenol series, viz. with cressol, the same reaction held good, —
and by treating it in the same way they obtain a di- and a tri-

CH, CH, a
chlorotolu-quinone C, (0%) cd (O,)" which in physical por-
a Cl

H 3

perties very closely resemble the corresponding compounds in
the lower series. Other compounds haye also been prepared.
In the next step we have the application, which connects these
series of discoveries with alizarine. Following the clue of a
certain analogy which they believed to exist between the

chloranilic acid Chia) and the chloroxynaphthalic acid
2
CyyH,Cl tz) which they had proved to be quinone compounds”
2

and alizarine, believing that a certain similarity of properties
indicated a certain similarity of constitution, Graebe and
Liebermann were lead to suppose that alizarine must also
be a derivative from a quinone, and have the formula

C,H, ae This theory they were able afterward to prove ; the |

first thing was to find the hydrocarbon ‘from which the quinone
might be derived ; this was done by taking alizarine itself, and
heating it with a very large excess of zinc powder in a lon
tube, sealed at one end. A product distilled over, and condens\

in the cool part of the tube, and collecting it and purifying it
by recrystallisation, they found they had not a new substance,
but a hydrocarbon discovered as long ago as 1832 by Dumas
and Laurent, and obtained by them from tar. They had given it
the formula C,; Hy, and as apparently it thus contained one
and a half times as many atoms of carbon and hydrogen as
naphthalin did, they named it Paranaphthalin ; afterwards Laurent
changed its name to“Anthracene, by which it is still known.
Fritzsche, in 1857, probably obtamed the same body, but gave
it the formula C,, Hy). Anderson also met with it in his
researches, established its composition and found some derivatives
from it. Limprich in 1866 showed it could be formed syn-
thetically by heating benzolchloride (C;H,Cl) with water and
Berthelot has since proved that it is formed by the action of
heat on many hydrocarbons. This first step was thus complete
and most satisfactory; from alizarin they had obtained its
hydrocarbon, and this hydrocarbon was a body already known,
and with such marked properties that it was easy to identify it,
But would the next requirement be fulfilled, would it like
benzol and naphthalin yield a quinone? The experiment had ~
not to be tried, for when they found that anthracene was the
hydrocarbon found, they recognised in a body already known
to exist, the quinone derivable from it. It had been prepared
by Laurent by the action of nitric acid on anthracene, and
called by him anthraceneuse, and the same substance was also
discovered by Anderson and called by him oxanthracene. The
composition of this body was proved by Anderson and Laurent to’
be C,,H,Os, and it thus bears the same relation to its hydrocarbon
anthracene, that quinone and naphthaquinone do to their hydro-
carbons. Graebe gave to it the systematic name of anthraquinone.
We have then, now, three hydrocarbons CgH,, Cy,Hg, and
C,4Hjo, differing by C,H, and all forming starting points for these
different quinone series. Anthroquinone acted upon by chlorine
gave substitution products such as might have been foretold. It
is an exceedingly stable compound, not attacked even by fusion
with potassic hydrate. Bromine does not act upon it in the cold,
but at 100° it forms a bibromanthraquinone. Other bromine
compounds have also been found. Now, if the analogies which
have guided them so far still hold good, they would seem to
Their,theory is ~

8, 1873]
Hy (Oa

that itis dioxyanthraquinone C,, H, (HO),
from what is known to take place with other quinone derivatives
it should be formed from this dibromoanthraquinone on boiling it
_ with potash or soda and then acidulating the solution. They
try the experiment, and describe how, contrary at first to their
_ expectations, on boiling the dibromanthraquinone with potash no
change occurred, but afterwards, on using stronger potash and a
higher temperature, they had the satisfaction of seeing the liquid
little by little become of a violet colour ; this shows the formation
of alizarine. Afterwards, on acidifying this solution, the alizarine
separated out in yellowish flocks. On volatalising it they got
it in crystals, like those obtained from madder. On oxidising it
with nitric acid, they get phthalic acid ; and on precipitating it
with the ordinary mordants or other metallic solutions, they get
compounds exactly comparable to those from the natural product.
_ Every trial confirms their success, so by following firmly theo-
_ retical considerations, they have been led to the discovery of the
means of artificially forming this important organic colouring
matter. A special interest must always attach itself to this
_ discovery, for it is the first instance in which a natural organic
_ colouring matter has been built up by artificial means ; now the
F chemist can compete with Nature in its production. Although
4

I

om]
Sept.

.
lyr
:

H

and if so, judging

‘the first, it is a safe prediction that it will not long be the only
one ; which colouring matter will follow next it is impossible to
_ say, but sooner or later that most interesting one, scientifically
_ and practically, indigo will have to yield to the scientific chemist
_ the history of its production. Returning for a moment to the
_ percentage composition of alizarine, now that we know its con-
stitution, its formula is established, and on comparing it
(C,, Hg Oy) with all the different formule which have been
proposed, we see that the one advocated by Schunk was most
nearly correct, in fact that it differs from it only by two atoms of
hydrogen. It is not without interest to note that the next most
important colouring matter in madder. Purpurine, which so
_ pertinaciously follows alizarine, is in constitution very nearly allied
_ to it, and is also an anthraecne derivative.
Scientifically then the artificial production of this natural
‘ uct was complete, but the practical question, can it be
made in the laboratory cheaper than itcan be obtained from the
root, had yet to be dealt with. The raw material, the anthracene,
a bye-product in the manufacture of coal gas, had as yet only been
obtained as a chemical curiosity ; it had no market value, its cost
would depend on the labour of separating it from the tar, and the
amount obtainable. But with regard to the bromine necessary to
form the bibromantharquinone it was different ; the use of such
an expensive re-agent would preclude the process becoming a
manufacturing one. But could no cheaper re-agent be used in
place of the bromine, and thus crown this discovery by utilising
it as a manufactunrig process? It was our countryman, Mr.
Perkin, who first showed how this could be done, and has since
proved the very practical and important nature of his discovery by
ing it out on the manufacturing scale. The nature of
Perkin’s discovery was the forming in place of a bibromanthra-
quinone, adisulphoanthraquinone, in a word he used sulphuricacid
ip place of bromine, obtaining thusa sulpho acid in place of a
romine substitution compound. The properties of these sulpho
acids, containing the monovalent groups H SO, which is
the equivalent to the atom of bromine, is that on being
boiled with an alkali they are decomposed, and a corre-
sponding alkaline salt formed; thus the change from the
anthraquinone to the alizarine was effected by boiling it
with sulphuric acid. At a high temperature, it dissolves,

|

becoming a sulpho acid Cy, Hg HSO, and the further changes
HS

follow, as they did with the bromine compound: the sulphuric
acid boiled with potash is decomposed, and a potash salt of
alizarin and potassic sulphite are formed ; acid then precipitates
the alizarin as a bright yellow substance. While Perkin was
carrying on these researches in this country, Caro, Graebe,
Liebermann, were carrying on somewhat similar ones in Germany;
and in both countries have the scientific experiments developed
into manufacturing industries. My knowledge extends only to
the English manufactory, and if any excuse be necessary for
having asked your attention to-day to this long history of a
single substance, I think I must plead the existence of
that manufactory as my excuse, for it is not often that purely
scientific research so rapidly culminates in great practical under-
takings. Already has the artificial become a most formidable

NATURE

419

opponent to the natural product ; and in this struggle already
begun there can be no doubt which will come off victorious.
In the manufactory is rigidly carried out, the exact process I
have already described to you. In tar there is about 1 per
cent. of the anthracene; this, in a crude, impure state, is
obtained from it by the tar-distiller, and sent by him to the
colour works ; here it is purified by pressure by dissolving from
it many of its impurities, and lastly by volatalising it. Then
comes the conversion of it into the anthraquirrone by oxidising
agents, nitric or chromic acid being used. Then the formation
of the sulphur compound by heating it with sulphuric acid to a
temperature of about 260° C. The excess of acid present is
then neutralised by the addition of lime, and the insoluble calcic
sulphate is filtered off; to the filtered liquid sodic carbonate is
added, and thus the calcic salt of the sulpho acid is changed into

2
the sodic salt Cj; H,4.NaSO, This is afterwards heated to
Na SO,
about 180°C. with caustic soda, thus decomposing the sulphuric
acid and forming the soda salt of alizarin; and sodic sulphite ;
the alizarine salt so formed, remains in solution, giving to the liquid
a beautiful violet colour ; from this solution sulphuric acid preci-
pitates the alizarine as an orange yellow substance. It is allowed
to settle in large tanks, and then is run in the form of a yellowish
sand, which contains either ro or 15 per cent. of dry alizarine ;
nto barrels, and is in this form sent to the print works, and used
much in the same way as the original ground madder was used.

This alizarine mud, as I have called it, containing but 10 per
cent. of dry alizarine is equal in dyeing power to about eight
times its weight of the best madder, and is the pure substance
required for the dyeing in place of a complicated mixture con-
taining certain constituents which have a positively injurious
effect on the colours produced.

The scientific knowledge and energy which Mr. Perkin has
brought to bear on the manufacture of this colouring matter,
seems already to have worked wonders, the supply and demand
jor artificial alizarine are increasing at a most rapid rate, and yet
the manufacture of it seems hardly to have commenced. The
value of madder has much decreased, and in fact, judging by
what occurred in the year of revolution and commercial depres-
sion, 1848, when the price of madder fell for a time to a point
at which it was considered it would no longer remunerate the
growers to produce it, that point has now been again reached,
but certainly from very different reasons. Last year artificial
alizarine, equal in value to about one-quarter of the madder im-
ported into England, was manufactured in this country. This
year the amount will be much larger. Thus is growing up a
great industry, which far and wide must exercise most important
effects ; old and cumbersome processes must give way to better,
cheaper, newer ones, and lastly thousands of acres of land in
many different parts of the world will be relieved from the neces-
sity of growing madder and be ready to receive some new crop.
In this sense may the theoretical chemist be said even to have
increased the boundaries of the globe.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGICAL SECTION

ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, JOHN PuHILuirs, F.R.S.

More than half the life of an octogenarian separates us from
the birthday of the British Association in Yorkshire ; and few ot
those who then helped to inaugurate a new scientific power can
be here to-day to estimate the work which it accomplished, and
judge of the plans which it proposes to follow in future. Would
that we might still have with us the wise leading of Harcourt,
and the intrepid advocacy of Sedgwick, names dear to Geology
and always to be honoured in Yorkshire !

The natural sciences in general, and Geology in particular,
have derived from the British Association some at least of the
advantages so boldly claimed at its origin : some impediments
have been removed from their path ; society looks with approba-
tion on their efforts ; their progress is hailed among national
triumphs, though achieved for the most part by voluntary
labour; and the results of their discoveries are written in the
prosperous annals of our native industry. . . . wa

Turning from topics which involve industrial interests,
to other lines of geological research, we remark how firmly
since 4831 the great facts of rock-stratification, succession
of life, earth-movement, and changes of oceanic areas have been

420

established and reduced to laws—laws, indeed, of phenomena at
present, but gradually acquiring the character of laws of causa-
tion.

Among the important discoveries by which our knowledge of
the earth’s structure and history has been greatly enlarged
within forty years, place must be given to the results of the
labours of Sedgwick and Murchison, who established the
Cambro-Silurian systems, and thus penetrated into ancient time-
relics very far toward the shadowy limit of palzeontological
research. Stimulated by this success, the early strata of the
globe have been explored with unremitting industry in every
corner of the earth ; and thus the classification and the nomencla-
ture which were suggested in Wales and Cumberland are found
to be applicable in Russia and India, America and Australia, so
as to serve as a basis for the general scale of geological time,
founded on organic remains of the successive ages.

This great principle, the gift of William Smith, is also em-
ployed with success ina fuller study of the deposits which stand
among the latest in our history and inyolve a vast variety of
phenomena, touching a long succession of life on the land,
changes of depth in the sea, and alterations of climate. Among
these evidences of physical revolution, which, if modern as
geological events, are very ancient if estimated in centuries, the
earliest monuments of men find place—not buildings, not in-
habited caves or dwellings in dry earth-pits, not pottery or
fabricated metal, but mere stones shaped in rude fashion to
constitute apparently the one tool and one weapon with which,
according to Prestwich, and Evans, and Lubbock, the poor
inhabitant of northern climes had to’sustain and defend his life.

Nothing in my day has had such a decided influence on the
public mind in favour of geological research, nothing has so
clearly brought out the purpose and scope of our science, as
these two great lines of inquiry, one directed to the beginning,
the other to the end of the accessible scale of earthly time ; for
thus has it been made clear that our purpose can be nothing less
than to discover the history of the land, sea, and air, and the
long sequence of life, and to marshal the results in a settled
chronology—not, indeed, a scale of years to be measured by the
rotations or revolutions of planets, but a series of ages slowly
succeeding one another through an immensity of time.

There is no question of the truth of this history. The facts
observed are found in variable combinations from time to time,
and the interpretations of these facts are modified in different
directions ; but the facts are all natural phenomena and the inter-
pretations are all derived from real laws of these phenomena—some
certified by mathematical and mechanical research, others based
on chemical discovery, others due to the scalpel of the anatomist,
or the microscopic scrutiny of the botanist. The grandest of
early geological phenomena have their representatives, however
feeble, in the changes which are now happening around us ; the
forms of ancient life most surprising by their magnitude or singular
adaptations can be explained by analogous though often rare and
abnormal productions of to-day. Biology is the contemporary
index of Paleontology, just as the events of the nineteenth
century furnish explanations of the course of human history in
the older times... . :

During the long course of geological time the climates of the
earth have changed. In many regions evidence of such change
is furnished by the forms of contemporary life. Warm climates
have had their influence on the land, and favoured the growth
of abundant vegetations as far north as within the arctic circle ;
the sea has nourished reef-making corals in northern Europe
during Palzeozoic and Mesozoic ages ; crocodiles and turtles were
swimming round the coasts of Britain, among islands clothed
with Zamize and haunted by marsupial quadrupeds. Tow have
we lost this primzeval warmth? Does the earth contribute less
heat from its interior stores? does the atmosphere obstruct more
of the solar rays or permit more free radiation from the land and

sea? has the sun lost through immensity of time a sensible portion -

of its beneficent influence? or, finally, is it only a question of the
elevation of mountains, the oceanic currents, and the distribu-
tion of land and sea?

The problems thus suggested are not of easy solution, though
in each branch of the subject some real progress is made. The
globe is slowly changing its dimensions by cooling ; thus in-
equalities and movements of magnitude have arisen and are still
in progress on its surface: the effect of internal pressure, when
not resulting in mass-movement, is expressed in the molecular

action of heat which Mallet applies to the theory of volcanoes. |

The sun has no recuperative auxiliary known to Thomson for

NATURE

replacing his decaying radiation ; the earth, under his influence,
as was shown by Herschel and Adhemar, is subject to periods ©
of greater and less warmth, alternately in the two hemispheres —
and generally over the whole surface; and finally, as Hopkins
has shown, by change of local physical conditions the climate of
northern zones might be greatly cooled in some regions and —
greatly warmed in others. 5

One is almost frozen to silence fn presence of the vast sheets
of ice which some of my friends (followers of Agassiz) believe
themselves to have traced over the mountains and vales of a great
part of the United Kingdom, as well as over the kindred regions
of Scandinavia. One shudders at the thought of the innumerable
icebergs with their loads of rock, which floated in the once
deeper North Sea, and above the hills of the three Ridings of
Yorkshire, and lifted countless blocks of Silurian stone from
lower levels, to rest on the precipitous limestones round the
sources of the Ribble. bog

Those who, with Professor Ramsay, adopt the glacial hypo-
thesis in its full extent, and are familiar with the descent of ice
in Alpine valleys where it grinds and polishes the hardest rocks,
and winds like a slow river round projecting cliffs, are easily
conducted to the further thought that such valleys have been
excavated by such ice-rubbers, and that even great lakes on the
course of the rivers have been dug out by ancient glaciers which
once extended far beyond their actual limits. That they did so
extend is in several instances well ascertained and proved ; that
they did in the manner suggested plough out the valleys and
lakes is a proposition which cannot be accepted until we possess
more knowledge than has yet been attained regarding the resistance
offered by ice to a crushing force, its tensile strength, the measure
of its resistance to shearing, and other data required for a just
estimate of the problem, At present it would appear that under
a column of its own substance 1000 ft. high, ice would not-retain —
its solidity ; if so, it could not propagate a greater pressure in —
any direction, This question of the excavating effect of glaciers
is distinctly a mechanical problem, requiring a knowledge of
certain data ; and till these are supplied, calculations and con-
jectures are equally vain.

A distinguishing feature of modern geology is the greater
development of the doctrine that the earth contains in its burial-
vaults, in chronological order, forms of life characteristic of the
several successive periods when stratified rocks were deposited in
the sea. This idea has been so thoroughly worked upon in all
countries, that we are warranted to believe in something like one
universal order of appearance in time, not only of large groups
but even of many genera and species. ‘The Trilobitic ages, the
Ammionitic, Megalosaurian, and Paleotherian periods are
familiar to every geologist. What closed the career of the
several races of plants and animals on the land and in the sea, is _
a question easily answered for particular parts of the earth’s
surface by reference to “physical change ;” for this is a main
cause of the presence or absence, and in general of the unequal
distribution of life. But what brought the succession of different
races in something like a constant order, not in one tract only,
but one may say generally in oceanic areas, over a large portion
of the globe? °

Life unfolds itself in every living thing, from an obscure, often”
undistinguishable cell germ, in which resides a potential of both
physical and organic change—a change which, whether continual
or interrupted, gradual or critical, culminates in the production —
of similar germs, capable under favourable conditions of assum=
ing the energy of life. a

How true to their prototypes are all the forms with which we
are familiar, how correctly they follow the family pattern for
centuries, and even thousands of years, is known to all students”
of ancient art and explorers of ancient catacombs. But much —
more than this is known. Very small differences separate the
elephant of India from the mammoth of Yorkshire, the Wald-
Aeimia of the Australian shore from the Zerebratula of the
Cotswold oolite, the dragon-fly of our rivers from the Zibellula
of the Lias, and even the RAynchonelle and Lingule of the -
modern sea from the old species which swarm in the Palzeozoic ©
rocks. ;

But concurrently with this apparent perpetuity of similar forms —
and ways of life, another general idea comes into notice. No
two plants are more than alike ; no two men have more than the
family resemblance ; the offspring is not in all respects an exact
copy of the parent. A general reference to some earlier type,
accompanied by special diversity in every case (‘‘descent with —
modification”), is recognised in the case of every living being.

a
Sept. 18, 1873]

NATURE

421

Similitude, not indentity, is the effect of natural agencies in the
continuation of life-forms, the small differences from identity
being due to limited physical conditions, in harmony with the
general law that organic structures are adapted to the exigencies
of being. Moreover, the structures are adaptable to new con-
ditions ; if the conditions change, the structure changes also, but
_ not suddenly ; the plant or animal may survive in presence of
slowly altered circumstances, but must perish under critical
inversions. These adaptations, so necessary to the preservation
_ of a race, are they restricted within narrow limits? or is it possi-
_ ble that in course of long-enduring time, step by step and grain
by grain, one form of life can be changed and has been changed
to another, and adapted to fulfil quite different functions? It is
thus that the innumerable forms of plants and animals have been
AC aa ai ” in the course of ages upon ages from a few original
pes

This question of development might be safely left to the
prudent researches of Physiology and Anatomy, were it not the
case that Palzeontology furnishes a vast range of evidence on the
real succession in time of organic structures, which on the whole
indicate more and more variety and adaptation, and in certain

ts a growing advance in the energies of life. Thus at first

only invertebrate animals appear in the catalogues of the inhabi-

tants of the sea, then fishes are added, and reptiles and the

higher vertebrata succeed ; man comes at last, to contemplate
_ and in some degree to govern the whole.

The various hypothetical threads by which many good natura-

lists hope to unite the countless facts of biological change into

an harmonious system have culminated in Darwinism, which

_ takes for its basis the facts already stated, and proposes to explain
the analogies of organic structure by reference to a common
origin, and their differences to small, mostly congenital, modifica-
tions which are integrated in particular directions by external

ag conditions, involving a “struggle for existence.” Geo-
ogy is interested ‘in the question of development, and in the
particular exposition of it by the great naturalist whose name it
bears, because it alone possesses the history of the development
in time, and it is to inconceivably long periods of time, and to
the accumulated effect of small but almost infinitely numerous
changes in certain directions, that the full effect of the transfor-
mations is attributed.

For us, therefore, at present it is to collect with fidelity the
evidence which our researches must certainly yield, to trace the
relation of forms to time generally and physical conditions locally,
to determine the life-periods of species, genera, and families in
different regions, to consider the cases of temporary interruption
and occasional recurrence of races, and how far by uniting the
results obtained in different regions the alleged * imperfection of
the geological record” can be remedied.

The share which the British Association has taken in this
great work of actually reconstructing the broken forms of ancient
life, of repeopling the old land and older sea, of mentally re-
viving, one may almost say, the long-forgotten past, is considerable,
and might with advantage be increased. We ask, and wisely,
from time to time, for the combined labour of naturalists and
geologists in the preparation of reports on particular classes or
families of fossil plants and animals, their true structure and
affinities, and their distribution in geological time and geogra-
phical space. Some examples of this useful work will, I hope,
be presented to this meeting. Thus have we obtained the aid
of Agassiz and Owen, and have welcomed the labours of Forbes
and Morris, and Lycett, and Huxley, of Dawkins and Egerton,
of Davidson, Duncan, and Wright, of Williamson and Carruthers
and Woodward, and many other eminent persons, whose valuable
results have for the most part appeared in other volumes than
our own,

Among these volumes let me in a special manner recall to
your attention the priceless gift to Geology which is annually
offered by the Paleontographical Society, a gift which might
become even richer than it is, if the literary and scientific part of
our community were fortunate enough to know what a perpetual
treasure they might possess in return for a small annual tribute.
The excellent example set and the good work recorded in the
Memoirs of the Society referred to have not been without influence
on foreign men of science. We shall soon have such Memoirs
from France and Italy, Switzerland and Germany, America and
Australia ; and I trust the effect of such generous rivalry will be
to maintain and increase the spirit of learned research and of
original observation which it is our privilege and our duty to
foster, to stimulate, and to combine.

On all the matters, indeed, which have now been brought, to
your thoughts the one duty of geologists is to collect more and
more accurate information ; the one fault to be avoided is the
supposition that our work in any department is complete. We
should speak modestly of what has been done; for we have
completed nothing, except the extinction of a crowd of errors,
and the discovery of right methods of proceeding toward the
acquisition of truth. We may speak hopefully of what is to be
accomplished ; for the right road is before us. We have taken
some steps along it; others will go beyond us and stand on
higher levels. But it will be long before anyone can reach the

_ height from which he may be able to survey the whole field of

research and collect the results of ages of labour.

SECTION D.—BroLocy
OPENING ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, PROF, ALLMAN

The present Aspects of Biology and the Method of Biological
Study

For some years it has been the practice at the meetings of
this Association for the special presidents to open the work
of their respective sections with an address which is supposed to
differ, in the greater generality of its subject, from the ordinary
communications to the sections. Finding that during the present
meeting this duty would devolve on myself, I thought over the
available topics, and concluded that a few words on the present
aspect of Biology and the method of Biological Study would
best satisfy the conditions imposed.

I shall endeavour to be as little technical as my subject will
allow, and though I know that there are here present many to
whom I cannot expect to convey any truths with which they are
not already familiar, yet in an address of this kind the speaker
has no right to take for granted any large amount of scientific
knowledge in his audience. Indeed, one of the chief advan-
tages which result from these meetings of the British Association
consists in the stimulus they give to inquiry—in the opportunity
they afford to many of becoming acquainted for the first time
with the established truths of Science, and the initiation among
them of new lines of thought.

And this is undoubtedly no smali gain; for how many are
there who, though they may have reaped all the advantages
which our established educational systems can bestow, are yet
sadly deficient in a knowledge of the world of life which sur-
rounds them. It is a fair and wonderful world, this on which
we have our dwelling-place, and yet how many wander over it
unheedingly ? by how many have its lessons of wisdom never
been read ? how many have never spared a thought on the beauty
of its forms, the harmony of its relations, the deep meaning of
its laws ?

And with all this there is assuredly implanted in man an un-
dying love of such knowledge. From his unshaken faith in
causation he yearns to deduce the unknown from the known, to
look beyond what is at hand and obvious to what is remote and
unseen.

conception of Biology and Function of the Scientific Method

Under the head of Biology are included all those departments
of scientific research which have as their object the investigation
of the living beings—the plants and the animals—which tenant
the surface of our earth, or have tenanted it in past time.

It admits of being divided under two grand heads : Morpho-
logy, which treats of Form, and Physiology, which treats of
Function ; and besides these there are certain departments of
Biological study to which both Morphology and Physiology con-
tribute, such as Classification, Distribution, and that department
of research which is concerned with the origin and causes of
living and extinct forms. ; :

By the aid of observation and experiment we obtain the ele-
ments which are to be combined and developed into a science of
living beings, and it is the function of the scientific method to
indicate the mode in which the combinations are to be effected,
and the path which the development must pursue. Without it
the results gained would be but a confused assemblage of iso-
lated fects and disconnected phenomena ; but aided by a philo-
sophic method, the observed facts become scientific propositions,
what was apparently insignificant becomes full of meaniy, and we
get glimpses of the consummate laws which govern the whole.

422

Importance of Anatomy

The first step in our morphological study of human beings is
to obtain an accurate and adequate knowledge of the forms of
the individual objects which present themselves to us in our con-
templation of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. For such
knowledge, however, much more is needed than an acquaintance
with their external figure. We must subject them to a searching
scrutiny ; we must make ourselves familiar with their anatomy,
which involves not only a knowledge of the forms and disposition
of their organs, internal as well as external, but of their histo-
logy, or the microscopic structure of the tissues of which these
organs, are composed, Histology is nothing more than Anatomy
carried to its extreme term, to that point where it meets with the
Morphological Unit, the ultimate element of form, and the
simplest combinations of this out of which all the organs in the
living body are built pp.

Among the higher animals Anatomy, in the ordinary sense of
the word, is sufficiently distinct from Histology to admit of sepa-
rate study ; but in the lower animals and in plants the two
become confounded at so many points as to render their sepa-
rate study often impracticable.

Now the great prominence given to Anatomy is one of the
points which most eminently distinguish the modern schools of
Biology.

Development

Another order of morphological facts of scarcely less impor-
tance than those obtained from anatomical study is that derived
from the changes of form which the individual experiences during
the course of its life. We know that every organised being com-
mences existence as a simple sphere of protoplasm, and that from
this condition of extreme generalisation all but the very lowest
pass through phases of higher and higher specialisation acquiring
new parts and differentiating new tissues. The sum of these
changes constitutes the development of the organisms, and no
series of facts is more full of significance in its bearing on Biolo-
gical Science than that which is derived from the philosophical
study of Development.

Classification an Expression of Affinities

Hitherto we have been considering the individual organism
without any direct reference to others, But the requirements of
the biological method can be satisfied only by a comparison cf
the various organisms one with the other. Now the grounds of
such comparison may be various, but what we are at present
concerned with will be found in anatomical structure and in de-
yelopmental changes ; and in each of these directions facts of
the highest order and of great significance become apparent.

By a carefully regulated comparison of one organism with
another, we discover the resemblances as well as the differences
betwee them. If these resemblances be strong, and occur
in important points of structure or development, we assert that
there is an affinity between the compared organisms, and we
assume that the closeness of the affinity varies directly with the
closeness of the resemblance.

It is on the determination of these affinities that all philoso-
phic classification of animals and plants must be based. A
philosophical classification of organised beings aims at being a
succinct statement of the affinities between the objects so classi-
fied, these affini ies being at the same time so set forth as to have
their various degrees of closeness and remoteness indicated in
the classification,

Affinities have long been recognised as the grounds of a natural
biological classification, but it is only quite lately that a new sig-
nificance has been given to them by the assumption that they
may indicate something more than simple agreement with a
common plan—that they may be derived by inheritance from a
common ancestral form, and that they therefore afford evidence
a a true blood relationship between the organisms presenting
them.

The recognition of this relationship is the basis of what is
known as the Descent Theory. No one doubts that the resem-
blances we notice among the members of such small groups as
those we name species are derived by inheritance from a common
ancestor, and the Descent Theory is simply the extension to the
larger groups of this same idea of relationship.

If this be a true principle, then biological classification becomes
an exposition of family relationship—a genealogical tree in which
the stem and branches indicate various degrees of relationship
and direct and collateral lines of descent. It is this conception

NATURE

_out somie other evidence of their affinities no one would think of

have two totally distinct types of structure ; that while in one

[ Sept. 18, 1873

which takes classification out of the domain fof the purely Mor-
phological.

Affinity determined by the Study of Anatomy and Development

From what has just been said it follows that it is mainly by a
comparison of organisms in their anatomical and developmental
characters that their affinities are discoverable. The structure
of an organism will in by far the greater number of cases be suf-
ficient to indicate its true affinity, buf it sometimes happens that
certain members of a group depart in their structure so widely
from the characters of the type to which they belong, that with-

assigning them to it.
ment.

An example or two will serve to make the subject clear, and
we shall first take one from a case where, without a knowledge
of anatomical structure, we should easily go astray in our attempts
to assign to the forms under examination their true place in the
classification. ;

If we search our coasts at low water we shall be sure to meet

This evidence is afforded by develop-

with certain plant-like animals spreading over the rocks or rooted —

to the fronds of sea-weeds, all of which present so close a resem-
blance to one another as to have led to their being brought
together into a sinzle group to which, under the name of
‘* Polypes,” a definite place was assigned in the classification of
the animal kingdom. :

They are all composite animals consisting of an association of
buds or zooids, which remain organically united to one another,
and. give to the whole assemblage the appearance in many cases
of a little branching tree. Every bud carries a delicate transpa-
rent cup of chitine within which is contained the principal part
of the animal, and from which this has the power of spontane-
ously protruding itself ; and when thus protruded it will be seen
to present a beautiful crown of tentacles surrounding a mouth
through which food is taken into a stomach. As long as no
danger threatens, the little animal will continue displayed with
its beautiful corona of tentacles expanded ; but touch it ever so
lightly, and it will instantly close up its tentacles, retract its
whole body, and take refuge in the recesses of the protecting cup.

So far then there is a complete agreement between the animals
which have been thus associated under the designation of Polypes,
and in all that concerns their external form no one point can be
adduced in opposition to the justice of this association. When,
however, we pass below the surface and bring the microscope
and dissecting needle to bear on their internal organisation, we
find that among the animals thus formed so apparently alike, we

the mouth leads into a simple excavation of the body on which
devolves the whole of the functions which represent digestion,
in the other there is a complete alimentary tract entirely shut oft
from the proper cavity of the body and consisting of distinetly
differentiated cesophagus, stomach, and intestine ; while in the
one the muscular system consists of an indistinct layer of fibres
intimately united in its whole extent with the body walls, in the
other there are distinctly differentiated free bundles of muscles
for the purpose of effecting special motions in the economy of
the animal ; while in the one no differentiated nervous system

can be detected, in the other there is a distinct nervous ganglion

with nervous filaments. In fact the two forms are shown by a
study of their anatomical structure to belong to two entirely dif-
ferent primary divisions of the animal kingdom ; for while the
one has a close affinity with the little fresh-water Hydra, and is
therefore referred to the Hydroida among the sub-kingdom Ceel-
lenterata, the other is referable to the group of the Polyzoa ; it
has its immediate affinities with the Ascidians, and belongs to the
sub-kingdom of the Mollusca.

We shall next take an example in which the study of develop-
ment rather than of anatomy affords the clue to the true affinities
of the organism.

Attached to the abdomen of various crabs may often be seen
certain soft fleshy sacs to which the name of Saccu/ina has been
given. They hold their place by means of a branching root-like

extension which penetrates the abdomen of the crab and winds ~

itself round its intestine or dives into its liver, within which its
fibres ramify like the roots of a tree.

Now the question at once presents itself: what position in the
animal kingdom are we to assign to this immoveably rooted sac
destitute of mouth and of almost every other organ with which
we are in the habit of associating the structure of an animal ?

Anatomy will here be powerless in helping us to arrive ata

a

~

Sept. 18, 1873],

. development.

conclusion, for the dissecting knife shows us little more than a
closed sac filled with eggs and fixed by its tenacious roots in the
viscera of its victim. Let us see, however, what we learn from
If some of the eggs with which the Sacculina is
filled be placed in conditions suited to their development, they
give origin to a form as different as can well be imagined from
the sacculina. It is an active, somewhat oval-shaped little
creature, covered with a broad dorsal shield or carapace, and
furnished with two pairs of strong swimming feet which carry
long bristles, and also with a pair of anterior limbs or antenne.
It is, in fact, identical with a form known tozoologists by the
name ‘‘ Nauplius,”’ and which has been proved to be one of the
young states of the Barnacle and of other lower crustacea ;
while even some of the higher crustacea have been observed to
pass through a similar stage.

After a short time the Nauplius of our Sacculina changes its
form ; the carapace folds down on each side and assumes the
shape of alittle bivalve shell ; while six new pairs of swimming
feet are developed. -The little animal continues its active nata-
tory life, and in this stage it is again identical in all essential
points with one of the young stages of the Barnacle.

In the meantime a remarkable change takes place in the two
antennze ; they become curiously branched and converted into
prehensile organs, The youug Sacculina now seeks the crab on
which it is to spend parasitically the rest of its life; it loses its
bivalve shell, the prehensile antenne takes hold of its victim,
penetrates the soft skin of its abdomen in order to seek within it
the nutriment with which it can be there so plentifully supplied,
locomotion is gone for ever, and the active and symmetrical
Nauplius becomes conyerted into the inert and shapeless
Sacculina. .

The nearest affinities of Sacculina are thus undoubtedly with
the Barnacles, which have been proved both on anatomical and
developmental grounds to belong io the great division of the
Crustacea.

A Philosophical Classification cannot form a single Rectilineal
Series

A comparison of animals with one another having thus resulted
in establishing their affinities, we may arrange them into groups,
some more nearly, others more remotely related to one another.
The various degrees and directions of affinity will be expressed
in every philosophical arrangement, and as these affinities extend
in various directions, it becomes at once apparent that no arrange-
ment of the animal or vegetable kingdom in a straight line
ascending like the steps of a ladder from lower to higher forms,
can give a true idea of the relations of living beings to one
another. These relations, on the contrary, can be expressed
only by a ramified and complex figure which we have already
compared to that of a genealogical tree,

Homology

In the comparison of organised beings with one another, cer-
tain relations of great interest and significance become apparent
between various organs. These are known by the name of
Homologies, and organs are said to be homologous with one
another when they can be proved to be constructed on the same
fundamental plan, no matter how different they may be in form
and in the functions which they may be destined to execute.
Organs not constructed on the same fundamental plan may yet
execute similar functions, and then, whether they do or do not
resemble one another in form, they are said to be merely analo-
gous ; and some of the most important steps in modern Biology
have resulted from attention to the distinction between Homology
and Analogy, a distinction which was entirely disregarded by
the earlier schools. . d

The nature of Homology and its distinction from Analogy will
be best understood by a few examples. ‘ oe

Compare the wing of a bird with that of an insect ; there is a
resemblance between them in external form; there is also an
identity of function, both organs being constructed for the pur-
pose of flight, and yet they are in no respect homologous, for
they are formed on two distinct plans which have nothing what-
ever incommon, The relation between them is that simply of
analogy. ;

On the other hand, no finer illustrations of Homology can be
adduced than those which are afforded by a comparison with one
another of the anterior limbs among the various members of the
yertebrata. Let us compare, for example, the bird’s wing with
the anterior limb of man. Here we have two organs between

NATURE

423

blance—organs, too, whose functions are entirely different, one
being formed for prehension and the other for flight. When,
however, they are compared in the light which a philosophic
anatomy is capable of throwing on them, we find, between the
two, a parallelism which points to one fundamental type on which
they are both constructed.

_ There is first the shoulder-girdle, or system of bones by which,
in each case, the limb is connected with the rest of the skeleton,
Now this part of the skeleton in man is very different in form
from the same part in the bird, and yet a critical comparison of
the two shows us that the difference mainly consists in the fact
that the coracoid which in man is amere process of the scapula,
is in the bird developed as an independent bone ; and in the
further fact that the two clavicles in man are, in the bird, united
into a single V-shaped bone or ‘‘furcula.” Then, if we can
compare the arm, fore-arm, wrist, and hand in the human skele-
ton with the various parts which follow one another in the same
order in the skeleton of the bird’s wing, we shall find between
the two series a correspondence which the adaptations to special
functions may in some regions mask, but never to such an extent
as to render the fundamental unity of plan difficult of detection
by the method of the higher anatomy. As far as regards the
arm and fore-arm, these in the bird are nearly repetitions of
their condition in the human skeleton; but the parts which
follow appear at first sight so different as to have but little rela-
tion with one another, and yet a common line can be traced with
great distinctness through the two. Thus the wrist is present in
the bird's wing as well as in the anterior limb of man, but while
in man it is composed of eight small irregularly-shaped bones
arranged in two rows, ‘in the wing it has become greatly modi-
fied, the eight bones being reduced to two. Lastly, the hand
is also represented in the wing, where it constitutes a very im-
portant part of the organ of flight, but where it has undergone
such great modification as to be recognisable only after a critical
comparison ; for the five metacarpal bones of the human hand
are reduced to two consolidated with one another at their proxi-
mal and distal ends ; and then the five fingers of the hand are
reduced in the wing to three, which represent the middle finger,
fore-finger, and thumb. The fore-finger in the bird consists of
only one phalanx, the middle of two, and the thumb forms a
small stiletto-like bone springing from the proximal end of the
united metacarpals,

In the case now adduced we have an example of the way in
which the same organ in two different animals may become very
differently modified in form, so as to fit it for the performance of
two'entirely different functions, and yet retain sufficient con-
formity toa common plan to indicate a fundamental unity of
structure.

Let us take another example, and this I shall adduce from the
vegetable kingdom, which is full of beautiful instances of the
relations with which we are now occupied.

There are the parts known as tendrils, thread-like organs,
usually rolling themselves into spirals, and destined, by twining
round some fixed suppoit, to sustain climbing plants in their
efforts to raise themselves from the ground. We shall take two
examples of these beautiful appendages, and endeavour to deter-
mine their homological significance.

There is the genus SvZilax; one species of which adorns the
hedges of the south of Europe, where it takes the place of the
Bryony and Zazzws of our English country lanes. From the
point where the stalks of its heart-shaped leaves spring from the
stem, there is given off a pair of tendrils by means of which the
Smilax clings to the surrounding vegetation in an inextricable
entanglement of branches and foliage.

With the tendrils of the Smilax let us compare those of {the
Lathyrus aphaca, alittle vetch occasionally met with in waste
places and the margins of corn-fields. The leaves are repre-
sented by arrow-shaped leaf-like appendages, which are placed
opposite to one another in pairs upon the stem, but instead of
each of these carrying iwo tendrils at its origin like the leaves
of the Smilax, a single tendril springs from the middle point:
between each pair.

The tendrils in the two cases, though similar in appearance
and in function, differ thus in number and arrangement, and the
questions occur: are they homologous with one another, or
are they only analogous? and if they be only analogous, can we
trace between them and any other organ homologous relations ?

To enable us to decide on this point, we must bear in mind
that a leaf when typically developed consists of three portions,

which the ordinary observer would fail to recognise any resem- J the lamina or blade, the petiole orleaf-stalk, and a pair of

424

foliaceous appendages or stipules, which are placed at the base
of the leaf-stalk. Now this typical leaf affords the key to the
homologies of the tendrils in the two cases under examination.

Take the Smilax: in this case there are no stipules of the
ordinary form, but the two tendrils hold exactly the position of
the stipules in our type-leaf, and must be regarded as repre-
senting them. _ We have only to imagine these stipules so modi-
fied in their form as to become reduced to two long spiral
threads, and we shall at once have the tendrils of the Smilax ;
on the other hand let the stipules in our type remain as leaf-like
organs, and let the rest of the leaf—the lamina and petiole—lose
its normal character, and become changed into a spiral thread,
and we shall then have the stipules of our type-leaf retained in
the two opposite leaf-like organs of the Lathyrus, while the
remainder of the type-leaf will present itself in the condition of
the Lathyrus tendril which springs from the central point between
them.

The tendrils of the Smilax and of the Lathyrus aphaca are
thus not homologous with one another, but only analogous,
while those of the Smilax are homologous with a pair of stipules
and those of the Lathyrus homologous with the lamina and
petrile of a leaf.

Besides the homology discoverable between the organs of
different animals and plants, a similar relation can be traced
between organs in the same animal or plant ; as, for example,
that between the different segments of the vertebral column,
which can be shown'to repeat one another homologically ; and
that between the parts composing the various verticils of the
flower and the leaves in the plant.

The existence of homological relations such as have been just
illustrated admits of an easy explanation by the application of
the doctrine of descent, according to which the two organs com-
pared would originate from a common ancestral form. In accor-
dance with this hypothesis, homology would mean an identity
of genesis in two organs, as analogy would mean an identity
of function.

Distribution and Evolution”

Another very important department of biological science is
that of the Distribution of organised beings. This may be either
Distribution in Space, Geographical Distribution: or Distri-
bution in Time, Paleontological Distribution. Both of these
have of late years acquired increased significance, for we have
begun to get more distinct glimpses of the laws by which they
are controlled, of the origin of Faunas and Floras, and of the
causes which regulate the sequence of life upon theearth. Time,
however, will not allow me to enter upon this subject as fully
as its interest and importance would deserve, and a few words
on Palzontological Distribution is all that I can now venture on.

The distribution of organised beings in time has lately come
before us in a new light by the application to it of the hypothesis
of evolution. According to this hypothesis, the higher groups
of organised beings now existing on the earth’s surface have
come down to us with gradually increasing complexity of struc-
ture by continuous descent from forms of extreme simplicity
which constituted the earliest life of our planet.

In almost every group of the animal kingdom the members
which compose it admit of being arranged in a continuous series
passing down from more specialised, or higher, to more gene-
ralised or lower forms; and if we have any record of extinct
members of the group, the series may be. carried on through
these. Now while the descent hypothesis obliges us to regard
the various terms of the series as descended from one another,
the most generalised forms will be found among the extinct ones,
and the further back in time we go the simpler do the forms
become.

By a comparison of the forms so arranged we obtain as it were
the law of the series, and can thus form a conception of the
missing terms and continue the series backwards through time,
even where no record of the lost forms can be found, until from
simpler to still simpler terms we at last arrive at the conception
of a term so generalised that we may regard it as the primordial
stock, the ancestral form from which all the others have been
derived by descent.

This root form is thus not actually observed, but is rather ob-
tained by a process of deduction, and is therefore hypothetical.
We shall strengthen, however, its claims to acceptance by the
application of another principle. The study of embryology
shows that the higher animals, in the course of their deyelop-
ment, pass through transitory phases which have much in com-
mon with the permanent condition of lower members of the

NATURE

[ Sept. 18, 1873

type to which they belong, and therefore with its extinct repre-
sentatives. We are thus enabled to lay down the further principle
that the individual, in the course of its own development from
the egg to the fully formed state, recapitulates within that short

period of time the various forms which its ancestry presented in’

consecutive epochs of the world’s history ; so that if we knew all
the stages of its individual development, we should have a long
line of its descent. Through the» hypothesis of evolution,
palzontology and embryology are thus brought into mutual
bearing on one another.

Let us take an example in which these two principles seem to
be illustrated. In rocks of the Silurian age there exist in t
profusion the remarkable fossils known as graptolites. These
consist of a series of little cups or cells arranged along the sides
of a common tube, and the whole fossil presents so close a re-
semblance to one of the Sertularian hydroids which inhabit the
waters of our present seas as to justify the suspicion that the
graptolites constitute an ancient and long since extinct group of
the Hydroida, It is not, however, with the proper cells or hy-
drothecze of the Sertularians that the cells of the graptolite most
closely agree, but rather with the little receptacles which in cer-
tain Sertularinee belonging to the family of the Plumularida we
find associated with the hydrothece, and which are known as
“‘ Nematophores,” a comparison of structure then shows that the
graptolites may with considerable probability be regarded as re-
presenting a Plumularia in which the hydrothecz had never been
developed and in which their place had been taken by the nema-
tophores,

Now it can be shown that the nematophores of the living Plu-
mularida are filled with masses of protoplasm which have the
power of throwing out pseudopodia, or long processes of their
substance, and that they thus resemble the Rhizopoda, whose
soft parts consist entirely of a similar protoplasm and which
stand among the Protozoa or lowest group of the animal kingdom.
If we suppose the hydrotheca suppressed in a plumularian, we
should thus nearly convert it into a colony of Rhizopoda, from
which it would differ only in the somewhat higher mophological
differentiation of its caenosare or common living bond by which
the individuals of the colony are organically connected. And
just such a colony would, under this view, a graptolite be, wait-
ing only for the development of hydrotheca to raise it into the
condition of a plumularian.

Bringing now the evolution hypothesis to bear uper the ques-
tion, it would follow that the graptolite may be viewed as an
ancestral form of the Sertularian hydroids, a form having the
most intimate relations with the Rhizopoda ; that hydranths and
hydrothecze became developed in its descendants ; and that the
rhizopodal graptolite became thus converted in the lapse of ages
into the hydroidal Sertularian.

This hypothesis would be strengthened if we found it agreeing
with the phenomena of individual development. Now such
Plumularida as have been followed in their development from
the egg to the adult state do actually present well-developed
nematophores before they show a trace of hydrothecz, thus
passing in the course of their embryological development through
the condition of a graptolite, and recapitulating within a few
days stages which it took incalculable ages to bring about in the
paleontological development of the tribe.

I have thus dwelt at some length on the doctrine of evolution
because it has given a new direction to biological study and must
powerfully influence all future researches. Evolution is the
highest expression of the fundamental principles established by
Mr. Darwin, and depends on the two admitted faculties of living
beings—Aeredity, or the transmission of characters from
parent to the offspring ; and adaptivity, or the capacity of hav-
ing these characters more or less modified in the offspring by
external agencies, or it may be by spontaneous tendency to
variation,

The hypothesis of evolution may not, it is true, be yet esta-
blished on so sure a basis as to command instantaneous acceptance,
and for a generalisation of such vast significance no one can be
blamed for demanding for it a broad and indisputable foundation
of facts. Whether, however, we do or do not accept it as firmly
established, it is at all events certain that it embraces a greater
number of phenomena and suggests a more satisfactory explana-
tion 3 them than any other hypothesis which has yet been pro-
posed.

With all our admiration, however, for the doctrine of Evolu-
tion as one of the most fertile and comprehensive of philosophic
hypotheses, we cannot shut our eyes to the difficulties which lie

Ps
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see

Sept. 18, 1873]

.
»

n the way of accepting it to the full extent which has been some-
times claimed for it. It must be borne in mind that though
among some of the higher vertebrata we can trace back for some
distance in geological time a continuous series of forms which may
safely be regarded as derived from one another by gradual modi-
fication—as has been done, for example, so successfully by Prof.
Huxley in the case of the horse—yet the instances are very few
in which such a sequence has been actually established ; while
the first. appearance in the earth’s crust of the various classes
presents itself in forms which by no means belong to the lowest
or most generalised of their living representatives. On this last
fact, however, I do not lay much stress, for it will admit of ex-
planation by referring it to the deficiency of the geological record,
and then demanding a lapse of time—of enormous length, it is
true—during which the necessary modifications would be in pro-
gress before the earliest phase of which we have any knowledge
could have been reached.

Again, we must not lose sight of the hypothetical nature of
those primordial forms in which we regard the branches of our
genealogical tree as taking their origin ; and while the doctrine
of the recapitulation of ancestral forms has much probability,
and harmonises with the other aspects of the Evolution doctrine
into a beautifully symmetrical system, it is one for which a suffi-
cient number of actually observed facts has not yet been adduced
to remove it altogether from the region of hypothesis.

Even the case of the graptolites already adduced is an illus-
tration rather than a proof, for the difficulty of determining the
true nature of such obscure fossils is so great that we may be
altogether mistaken in our views of their structure and affinities.

To me, however, one of the chief difficulties in the way of
the doctrine of Evolution, when carried out to the extreme
length for which some of its advocates contend, appears to
be the unbroken ccntinuity of inherited life which it neces-

” sarily requires through a period of time whose vastness is such

that the mind of man is utterly incapable of comprehending it.
Vast periods, it is true, are necessary in order to render the phe-
nomena of Evolution possible ; but the vastness which the an-
tiquity of life, as shown by its remains in the oldest fossiliferous
strata, requires us to give to these periods may be even greater
than is compatible with continuity. ;

We have no reason to suppose that the reproductive faculty in
organised beings is endowed with unlimited power of extension,
and yet to go no farther back than the Silurian period—though
the seas which bore the Eozoon were probably as far anterior to
those of the Silurian as these are anterior to our own—the hypo-
thesis of Evolution requires that in that same Silurian period the
ancestors of the present living forms must have existed, and that
their life had continued by inheritance through all the ramifica-
tions of a single genealogical tree down to our own time ; the
branches of the tree, it is true, here and there falling away, with
the extinction of whole genera and families and tribes, but still
some always remaining to carry on the life of the base through a
period of time to all intents and purposes infinite. It is true
that in a few cases a continuous series of forms regularly passing
from lower to higher degrees of specialisation, and very probably
connected to another by direct descent, may be followed through
long geological periods, as for example, the graduated series
already alluded to, which may be traced between certain mam-
mals of the Eocene and others living in our own time, as well
as the very low forms which have come down to us apparently
unmodified from the epoch of the Chalk. But incalculably great
as are these periods, they are but as the swing of the pendulum
in the Millennium, when compared to the time which has elapsed
since the first animalisation of our globe.

Is the faculty of reproduction so wonderfully tenacious as all
this, that through periods of inconceivable duration, and exposed
to influences the most intense and the most varied, it has still
come down to us in an unbroken stream? Have the strongest
which had survived in the struggle for existence necessarily
handed down to the strongest which should follow them the
power of continuing as a perpetual heirloom the life which they
had themselves inherited? Or have there been many total ex-
tinctions and many renewals of life—a succession of genealogical
trees, the earlier ones becoming old and decayed, and dying out,
and their place taken by new ones which haye no kinship with
the others? Or, finally, is the doctrine of Evolution only a
working hypothesis which, like an algebraic fiction, may yet be
of inestimable value as an instrument of research? For as the
higher calculus becomes to the physical inquirer a power by
which he unfolds the laws of the inorganic world, so may the

parade 0h hs, Gao,

NATURE

~~ > a ed 4 A OA Sy Se

425

hypothesis of Evolution, though only a hypothesis, furnish the
biologist with a key to the order and hidden forces of the
world of life. And what Leibnitz and Newton and Hamilton
have been to the physicist, is it not that which Darwin has been
to the biologist ?

But even accepting as a great truth the doctrine of Evolution,
let us not attribute to it more than itcan justly claim. No valid
evidence has yet been adduced to lead us to believe that in-
organic matter has become transformed into living, otherwise
than through the agency of a pre-existing organism, and there
remains a residual phenomenon still entirely unaccounted for.
No physical hypothesis founded on any indisputable fact has yet
explained the origin of the primordial protoplasm, and, above
= of its marvellous properties which render Evolution pos-
sible.

Accepting, then, the doctrine of Evolution in all freedom and
in all its legitimate consequences, there remains, I say, a great
residuum unexplained by physical theories. Natural Selection,
the Struggle for Existence, the Survival of the Fittest, will
explain much, but they will not explain all. They may offer
a beautiful and convincing theory of the present order and fitness
of the organic universe, as the laws of attraction do of the in-
organic, but the properties with which the primordial proto-
plasm is endowed—its heredity and its adaptivity—remain un-
explained by them, for these properties are their cause and not
their effect.

For the cause of this cause we have sought in vain among the
physical forces which surround us, until we are at last compelled
to rest upon an independent volition, a far-seeing intelligent
design. Science may yet discover even among the laws of
Physics the cause it looks for; it may be that even now we
have glimpses of it; that those forces among which recent
physical research has demonstrated so grand a unity—Light,
Heat, Electricity, Magnetism—when manifesting themselves
through the organising protoplasm, become converted into the
phenomena of life, and that the poet has unconsciously enun-
ciated a great scientific truth when he tells us of

“ Gay lizards glittering on the walls
Of ruined shrines, busy and bright
As though they were alive with light.”

But all this is only carrying us one step back in the grand
generalisation. All science is but the intercalation of causes,
each more comprehensive than that which it endeavours to
explain, between the great primal cause and the ultimate
effect.

I have thus endeavoured to sketch for you in a few broad
outlines the leading aspects of biological science, and to indicate
the directions which biological studies must take, Our science
is one of grand and solemn import, for it embraces man himself
and is the exponent of the laws which he must obey. Its subject
is vast, for it is Life, and Life stretches back into the illimitable
past, and forward into the illimitable future. Life, too, is every-
where. Over ail this wide earth of ours, from the equator to the
poles, there is scarcely a spot which has not its animal or its
vegetable denizens—dwellers on the mountain and on the plain,
in the lake and on the prairie, in the arid desert and the swampy
fen ; from the tropical forest with its strange forms and gorgeous
colours, and myriad voices, to the ice-fields of polar latitudes
and those silent seas which lie beneath them, where living things
unknown to warmer climes congregate in unimaginable multi-
tudes. There is life all over the solid earth; there is life
throughout the vast ocean, from its surface down to its great
depths, deeper still than the lead of sounding-line has
reached.

And it is with these living hosts, unbounded in their variety,
infinite in their numbers, that the student of biology must make
himself acquainted. It is no light task which lies before him
—-no mere pastime on which he may enter with trivial purpose,
as though it were but the amusement of an hour ; it isa great and
solemn mission to which he must devote himself with earnest
mind and with loving heart, remembering the noble words of
Bacon :—

“ Knowledge is not a couch whereon to rest a searching and
restless spirit ; nor a terrace for a wandering and variable mind
to walk up and down with a fair prospect ; nor a tower of state
for a proud mind to raise itself upon ; nor a fort or commanding-
ground for strife and contention ; nor a shop for profit and sale ;
but a rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator, and the relief
of man’s estate.”

426

NATURE

[ Sept. 18, 1873

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE

OpeNING ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, W. H. BARLow,
C.E., F.R.S.

In the observations which I have to address to you I shall not
attempt a general survey of a subject so vast and so varied as
the manufactures of this country, nor shall I attempt to describe
the many new and beautiful inventions and mechanical] appliances
which form a distinguishing feature of the age in which we live ;
but I shall endeavour to draw your attention to one of the new
materials, namely modern steel—a material which, though of
comparatively recent origin, has already become an important
industry, and whose influence in the future seems destined to vie
in importance with that resulting from the introduction of iron.

I have used the term ‘‘ modern steel,” because, although the
great movement in simplifying and cheapening the process of
producing steel is necessarily associated with the name of Mr.
Bessemer, yet we have further important steps taken in a forward
direction as to the production and treatment of steel by Dr. Sie-
mens and Sir Joseph Whitworth and others, both in this country
and abroad.

It is now seventeen years since Mr. Bessemer read a paper at
the meeting of the British Association at Cheltenham, which was
entitled, ‘‘On the Manufacture of Iron and Steel without Fuel.”

It is satisfactory to know that Mr. Bessemer has often ex-
pressed his firm conviction that had it not been for the publicity
given to his invention through the paper which he read before
the Mechanical Section of the British Association in 1856, and
the great moral support afforded him by men of science whose
attention was thereby directed to it, he believes that he would
not have succeeded in overcoming the strong opposition with
which his invention was met in other quarters.

About this time, or perhaps a little later, a material was pro-
duced called ‘‘ puddled steel,” and about the same time the metal
known as “homogeneous iron.”

The movement which had begun’in the production of cheap
steel was further assisted and developed by the regenerative fur-
nace of Dr. Siemens, by the introduction of the Siemens-Martin
process of making steel, and further and most important progress
is suggested by the recent process introduced by Dr. Siemens in
making steel direct from the ore.

According to the returns published by the Jury of the Inter-
national Exhibition of 1852, the total annual produce of steel in
Great Britain at that time was 50,000 tons. At the present time
there are more than 500,000 tons made by the Bessemer process
alone, added to which Messrs. Siemens’s works at Landore pro-
duce 200,000 tons, besides further quantities which are made by
his process at Messrs. Vickers, Messrs, Cammells, the Dowlais,
and other works.

I shall not, however, detain you by attempting to trace up the
history and progress of steel, nor attempt to notice the various
steps by which this branch of industry has been brought to its
present important position. My object is to draw attention to
this material as to its use and application for structural and en-
gineering purposes,

The steel produced by the Bessemer process was at a very
early stage employed in rails and wheel-tires. In both these ap-
plications the object sought was endurance to resist the effects of
wear, and toughness to prevent fracture by blows. There does
not exist at present sufficient information to determine accurately
the relative values of steel and iron when used for these purposes.
As used for wheel-tires, steel had to compete with iron of the
highest quality, but it is nevertheless introduced on most of our
railways. The iron used in rails was not of such a high quality,
and the difference in duration shows a very marked advantage in
the employment of steel, the duration of steel rails being variously
estimated at from three to six times that of iron.

Steel is also extensively used for ships’ plates, and by the War
Department for lining the interior of the heaviest guns ; while
Sir Joseph Whitworth and Messrs. Krupp make guns entirely
of steel, though for these purposes the metal is of different
quality and differently treated, in order to withstand the enor-
mous concussions to which it is subjected.

And, further, we have steel used in railway-axles, crank-axles
for engines, in boilers, in piston-rods, in carriage-springs, and
for many other purposes.

But notwithstanding these various employments of steel, there
has been, and there continues to be, a difficulty in applying it to
engineering structures in this country.

The want of knowledge of the physical properties of steel
having been the subject of remark at a discussion at the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers in 1868, a committee, composed of Mr.
Fowler, Mr. Scott Russell, Captain Galton, Mr. Berkley, and
myself, undertook to conduct a series of experiments upon this
subject. :

The first were made for the Committee by Mr. Kirkaldy with
his testing-machine in London, and were chiefly directed to as-
certain the relation which subsists between the resistance of ten-
sion, compression, torsion, and transverse strain,

In this series of experiments twenty-nine bars, 15 ft. long,
were used, each bar being cut into lengths, and turned or planed
into suitable forms for the respective tests, so that a portion of
each bar was subjected to each of the above-mentioned tests.

The tensile resistance varied in the different qualities of steel
from 28 to 48 tons per inch, and the experiments established
conclusively that the relation subsisting between the several re-
sistances of tension, compression, and transverse strain is through-
out practically the same as in wrought-iron ; that is to say, that
a bar of steel whose tensile strength is 50 per cent. above that
of wrought-iron will exhibit about the same relative increase of
resistance under the other tests.

They further showed that the limit of elasticity in steel is, like
that of wrought-iron, rather more than half its ultimate resist-
ance. The total elongation under tensile strain, and the evi-
dences of malleability and toughness, will be referred to here-
after.

The second series recorded in the book published by the
Committee gave the results of tempering steel in oil and water.
They were made by the officers of the gun-factory at the Royal
Arsenal at Woolwich, and show a remarkable increase of strength
obtained by this process, This property of steel is now fully
recognised and made use of in the steel which forms the lining of
the largest guns.

The third series of experiments was made by the Committee
upon bars 14 ft. long, I}in. in diameter, with the skin upon the
metal as it came from the rolls.

The object of these experiments was specially directed to as-
certain the modulus of elasticity. They were made with the test-
ing-machine at H.M. Dockyard at Woolwich, which machine
was placed at our disposal by the Admiralty, The bars were
obtained, with some exceptions, in sets of six from each maker,
three bars of each set being used in tension and three in com-
pression.

Bars of iron of like dimensions were also tested in the same
way, in order to obtain the relative effects in steel andiron, In
these experiments sixty-seven steel bars were tested whose tensile
strength varied from 32 to 53 tons per inch, and twenty-four iron
bars varying from 22 to 29 tons per inch.

The amount of the extensions and compressions were ascer-
tained by direct measurement, verniers being for this purpose at-
tached to the bar itself, 10 ft. apart, so that the readings gave
the absolute extensions and compressions of this length of the
bar.

These experiments, which were very accurately made, showed
that the extension and compression of steel per ton per inch was
a little less than wrought-iron, that the extension and compres-
sion were very nearly equal to each other, and that the modulus
of elasticity of steel may be taken at 30,000,000, which result
agrees withthe conclusions arrived at by American engineers on
this subject. :

This property of the metal is important in two respects. First,
because inasmuch as the extension per ton per inch is practi-
cally equal to the compression, it follows that the neutral axis of
a structure of steel, strained transversely, will be in the centre
of gravity of its section, and that the proper proportion to give
to the upper and lower flanges of a girder, when made of the
same quality of steel throughout, will be the same as in wrought-
iron. Secondly, because the modulus of elasticity of steel is
practically equal to that of wrought-iron, and the limit of elas-
ticity is greater, it follows that in a girder of the same proportions
as wrought-iron, and strained with an equal proportion of its
ultimate tensile strength, the deflection will be greater in the
steel than in the iron girder, in the rate of the strength of the
metals ; so that if it is necessary to make a steel girder for a
given span deflect under its load the same amount as an iron
aoe of the same span, thesteel girder must be made of greater

epth,

The fourth series of experiments were made by the Committee
on riveted steel, and show clearly that the same rules which

.
|

NATURE

427

‘s apply to the riveting of iron apply equally to steel; that is to

t

>
,

say, that the total shearing area of the rivets must be the same,
or rather must not be less, than the sectional area of the bar
riveted...

We know from established mechanical laws that the limiting
spans of structures vary directly as the strength of the material
employed in their construction when the proportion of depth to
a and all other circumstances remain the same. We know

so that, taking an ordinary form of open wrought-iron detached

_ girder (as, for example, when the depth is one-fourteenth of the

_ span), the limiting span in iron, with a strain of 5 tons to the

inch upon the metal, is about 600 ft. ; and it follows that a steel
girder of like proportions, capable of bearing S tons to the inch,
would have theoretically a limiting span of 960 ft.

This theoretical limiting span of 960 ft. would, however, be
reduced by some practical considerations connected with the
minimum thickness of metal employed in certain parts, and it

would, in effect, become about goo ft. forja girder of the before-

__ mentioned construction and proportions.

The knowledge of the limiting span of a structure, as has
been explained elsewhere, enables us to estimate very quickly,
and with close approximation to the truth, the weight of girders
required to carry given loads over given spans ; and although
the limiting spans vary with every form of structure, we can
obtain an idea of the effect of introducing steel by the relative
weights of steel and iron required in girders of the kind above
mentioned,

Assuming a load in addition to the weight of the girder of one
ton to the foot, the relative weights under these conditions

would be as follows :—

Weight of steel Weight of iron

Span. girder. girder.
tons. tons.
200 57 100
300 150 300
20 800

400 aod

It is not alone in the relative
the advantage of the stronger material is important, but with
steel we shall be enabled to cross openings which are absolutely
impracticable in iron.

t will naturally be asked why it is that steel is not used in
these structures, if such manifest advantages would result from
its employment.

The reason is twofold :—

Ist. There is a want Of confidence as to the reliability of steel
in regard to its toughness and its power to resist fracture from
sudden strain.

2nd. Steel is produced of various qualities, and we do not
possess the means, without elaborate testing, of knowing whether
the article presented to us is of the required quality for structural
purposes. A third reason, arising probably out of those before
mentioned, is found in the fact that in the regulations of the
Board of Trade relative to railway structures, although rules are
given for the employment of cast-iron and wrought-iron, steel
has not, up to the present time, been recognised or provided for.

Now, as regards the question of toughness and malleability,
and referring again to Mr. Kirkaldy’s experiments, it appears
that in the tests of “‘ Bessemer steel” 18 samples were tried under
tensile strain, the length of the samples being in round numbers
50 in. and the diameter 1°382 in, ; and that when these were
subjected to ultimate strain, the elongation at the moment of
fracture was in the most brittle example 2$ in., but generally
varied from 44 to 9} inches. a

In the experiments on transverse strain, in which the bars
were nearly 2 in. square and only 20 in. between the points of

_support, all the ‘‘ Bessemer steel” samples, except two, bent
6 in, without any crack. Again, in the experiments made by
the Committee on bars 14 ft. long and 1} in. in diameter, out of
20 bars of the milder quality of steel, 16 extended more than
8 in., and of these ro extended more than 12in. .. .
* The treatment by comparison is especially important where
metal is required in large masses and/of great ductility because
the larger the mas. and the greater the ductility, the larger and
more numerous are the air-cells, and the effect of the pressure
is to completely close these cells and render the metal perfectly
solid.

By this process mild steel can be made with a strength of 40
tons to the inch, having a degree of ductility equal to that of
the best iron,

The more highly carbonised qualities show a decrease of
ductility somewhat in the same ratio as the strength increases.

weight or in the relative cost that

Without going into the numerous achievements of Sir Joseph
Whitworth, resulting from the employment of steel, in connection
with the extreme accuracy of workmanship produced at his
works, or doing more than mention the flat-ended steel shot and
shell which pass through iron plates when fired obliquely or
penetrate ships’ sides below the level of the water, I would call
attention to those applications of steel which bear upon its
strength and toughness.

In the first place, there are small arms made entirely of steel,
of wonderful range and accuracy, capable of penetrating 34 half
inch planks, which is about three times the penetrating power
of the Enfield rifle.

Secondly, there are the large guns, also entirely of steel,
throwing projectiles from 250 Ibs. to 310 Ibs. in weight, and
burning from 40 to 50 lbs. of powder at a charge, with which a
range of nearly 64 miles is obtained.

In both these cases the degree of strength and toughness re-
quired in the metal is much greater than is necessary for engi-
neering structures.

It is unnecessary to occupy more time in multiplying examples
of the toughness of steel. It is well known to manufacturers,
and must also be well known to many others here present, that
steel of the strength of 33 or 36 tons per inch can be made,
and is made in large quantities at moderate price, possessing
all the toughness and malleability required in engineering struc-
tures.

I will proceed, therefore, to the second part of the subject
—namely, the want of means of knowing that a given sample
of steel is of the quality suited for structural purposes.

With most other metals chemical analysis is in itself a com-
piete and sufficient test of quality, but in steel it is not so, The
toughness of steel may be altered by sudden cooling; and
although the effect of this operation, and generally the effects of
tempering, are greater when the quantity of carbon is consider-
able, yet it acts more or less in the mild qualities of steel; so
that we cannot rely entirely on the aid of the chemist, but must
fall back on mechanical tests. And in point of fact, seeing that
the qualities required are mechanical, it is no more than reason-
able that the test should be mechanical ; for this includes not
only the test of material but of workmanship.

Now there are two descriptions of mechanical testing, which
may be distinguished as destructive and non-destructive—the
one being beyond and the other within the elastic limit of the
material. The destructive test is that usually applied to a part
of an article manufactured, as, for example, a piece cut offa
boiler plate and tested by absolute rupture, or by bending or
otherwise, whereby the strength and quality of the material in
the plate is known,

The non-destructive test is that usually applied to the finished
work, as in the test of a boiler by hydraulic pressure, or the test-
ing of a gun by the proof-charge. The strain in this case is
made greater than that which will arise in the daily use of the
article, but is not so greatly in excess as to be beyond the elastic
limit of the material.

As regards engineering structures, this second test is easy of
aplication ; but it affords no sufficient criterion that the metal
possesses that degree of toughness necessary to resist the action
of sudden strains.

It may be said that engineers may ascertain for themselves, by
inspection and testing at the works, that they are being supplied
with the material that they require ; but assuming that the tests
and mode of testing were in all respects satisfactory to them, and
that the metal supplied was of the right quality, we have still to
comply with the conditions of the Act for the Regulation of
Railways, and we must satisfy the Government Inspector.

It isnot to be supposed that he can attend all the required
tests at the works ; and the question remains, how is the In-
specting Officer of the Board of Trade to be enabled to distin-
guish the quality of metal in a finished bridge, when he is called
upon to give a certificate that it is safe for public traffic?

If we could adduce clear and distinct evidence that the metal
used for a bridge was of a quality which would bear 8 tons to
the inch with as much safety as common iron can bear 5 tons,
there can be no reasonable doubt that the Board of Trade would
make suitable provision in its regulations for the employment of
such material.

The difficulty lies in the want of something whereby the quality
of the metal may be known and relied upon with confidence by
others besides those who made the article.

In gold and silver this is accomplished by the stamp put upon

428

” them, in guns and small arms we have the proof-mark, but in
iron and steel we have nothing whereby the one quality of metal
can be distinguished from another; and until some sufficient
means be devised for this purpose, it is difficult to see how we
are to escape from the position in which we are now placed—
pamely, that while we possess a material by which we can in-
crease considerably the spans and diminish the weight and cost
of engineering works, we are restricted to make designs and con-
struct our works by a rule made for wrought iron, and adapted
to the lowest quality of that material.

As the rule made by the Board of Trade in respect of wrought-
iron railway structures may not be generally known, I here give
it :—

“‘In a wrought-iron bridge the greatest load which can be
brought upon it, added to the weight of the superstructure,
should not produce a greater strain on any part of the material
than 5 tons per inch.” ;

It will be observed that this 5 tons per inch is the governing
element, irrespective entirely of the quality of metal used ; and
it is obvious that a rule so framed must act as a discouragement
to any endeavour to improve the quality of metal, while it tends
to induce the employment of the cheapest and most inferior
descriptions which can be made under the name of wrought-
iron. ;

In endeavouring to seek an amendment of the rules, which
will permit of the employment of steel or other metal of higher
strength than 5 tons to the inch, I feel bound to say that I do
not consider that the Board of Trade is alone responsible for the
position in which the question now stands; and as regards the
Government Inspecting Officers, I can only say that in the
numerous transactions I have had with them, and although
differences of opinion have occasionally arisen, yet, considering
the responsibility which rests upon them, I have found them
anxious to afford all reasonable facilities so far as their instruc-
tions permitted. : :

The first step to be taken is to put our testing on a systematic
and satisfactory basis. 3

The second is to establish some means whereby metal which
has been tested can have its quality indicated upon it in such
manner that it can be practically relied upon. 334

The experiments before referred to establish, sufficiently for
all practical purposes, that the relation or proportion between
the resistances to tension, compression, torsion, and transverse
strain, is about the same in steel as in wrought-iron.

The testing required is therefore reduced to that necessary for
ascertaining two properties, namely the strength and the toughness
or ductility. ; ae

The strength may be readily ascertained, and no difficulty
arises on that head. =

The whole question turns upon the test for ductility, or the
resistance to fracture by blows or sudden strain; and it must be

admitted that the tests employed for this purpose are not framed |

on any regular or satisfactory basis. a

Without, however, attempting to say what description of test
may be found the best for ascertaining the property of ductility,
it may be observed that what is required for this test is a definite
basis to act upon, and that the samples should be so made as to
render the test cheap, expeditious, and easy of application.

The next requirement is that when a piece of metal has been
tested, and its qualities of strength and toughness ascertained,
there should be some means of denoting its quality in an
authentic manner.

To a certain extent this is already done in iron by the mark of
the maker ; but something more than this is necessary to fulfil
the required conditions in steel. l

What is termed steel, is iron with a small proportion of carbon
init. These two ingredients are necessary to constitute steel ;
and there may or may not be present in very small quantities
graphite, silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus. :

In connection#with the experiments made by the Committee,
fourteen of the samples were tested by Mr. E. Richards, of the
Barrow Steel Works, five of which were kindly repeated by
Dr. Odling. : ‘

Although there are some discrepancies in the results which we
cannot account for, yet some of the characteristics are brought out
clearly.

‘Tt Hee that manganese may be present to the extent of four-
tenths per cent. without injury either to the strength or ductility,
but sulphur and phosphorus, except in extremely small quanti-
ties, are fatal to ductility,

NATURE

| Sez. 18, 1873

In the samples tried bythe Committee and Mr, Kirkaldy, the
quantity of carbon varied from 4 per cent. to nearly r per cent. ;
yet with this small variation in the carbon the strength ranged
from thirty-three tons to nearly fifty-three tons per in. : and the
ductility, represented by the ratio which the fractured area bore
to the original section of the bar, varied from five-tenths in the
tough qualities, until in the harder samples there was no diminu-
tion perceptible. -

’ All these materials are called steel, and have the same external

appearance ; but possessing, as they do, such a range of strength
and such a variation in ductility, it becomes absolutely essential
that there should be some classification or means of knowing the
respective qualities among them.

The want of such classification casts an air of uncertainty over
the whole question of steel, and impedes its application. To
this want of knowledge is to be ascribed the circumstance that
many professional men regard the material as altogether unre-
liable ; while large consumers of steel, in consequence of the un-
certainty of the quality they buy in the market, seek to establish
works on their own premises and make their own steel.

I ought, I know, to apologise for detaining you so long on this
one question of steel, but I consider that the difficulties under
which it is placed are affecting interests of considerable impor-
tance.

Not only is a large and useful field for the employment of
steel practically closed, but the progress of improvement in
engineering structures is impeded both in this country and in
other parts of the world where English engineers are engaged.

For in consequence of the impediments to its employment in
England, very few English engineers turn their attention to the
use of steel. They are accustomed to make their designs for
iron, and when engaged in works abroad where the Board of
Trade rules do not apply, they continue for the most part to
send out the, old-fashioned ponderous girders of common iron,
in cases where the freight and difficulties of carriage make it
extremely desirable that structures of less weight and more easy
transport should be employed.

In conclusion, and while thanking you for the patience with
which you have heard me on this subject, I would observe that
we possess in steel a material which has been proved, by the
numerous uses to which it is applied, to be of great capability
and value: we know that it is used for structural purposes in
other countries, as, for example, in the Illinois and St. Louis
Bridge in America, a bridge of three arches, each 500 ft. span ;
yet in this country, where ‘‘ modern steel” has originated and
has been brought to its present state of perfection, we are ob-
structed by some deficiency in our arrangements, and by the
absence of suitable regulations by the Board of Trade, from
making use of it in engineering works,

And I have considered it right to draw your attention to the
position in which this question stands, well knowing that I could
not addressany body of gentlemen more capable of improving
and systematising our methods of testing, or better able to devise
effectual means for removing the impediments to the use of steel,
than are to be found in the scientific and practical mea who form
the Mechanical Section of the British Association.

CONTENTS

Pace

Screntiric Wortutes, I. FarApay (With Steel Engravilg). « . 307

LETTERS TO THE EpITOR:—

Tyndall and Tait.—Prof. Joun Tynpaut, I-R.S. « oe « « 399
NorEs FROM THE Challenger,VII. By Prof. Wyvitte THomson,F.R.S.
(With Mlustrations) <6 ies +)\0 e's «in ke) ee

Tue INTERNATIONAL .MeTric Commission AT Paris. By H, W,
CHISHOLM o's 5's syne 2 0s ss » 6) © les

NoOrks 20% so 6) 3 wiles lee 86 ee 0) fou
SocreTigs AND ACADEMIES 6 9. « « » « © « » "6 6 same
Tue Britisu AssociaTION MEETING AT BRADFORD. . . «© + « =
Opening Address by the President, Prof. Wirttamson, F.R.S. .
Section B.—Address by the President, Prof. Russert, F.R.S. .

Section C. Py) 5 or J. Puituirs, F.R.S
Section D, Ft 3 = Pror. ALLMAN « A
Section G, A ” ” W. H. Bartow, F.R.S. .

429

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 25, 1873

AFRICAN TRAVEL

The Lands of Cazembe. Lacerda’s Journey to Cazembé
in 1798. Translated and annotated by Captain R. F.
Burton, F.R.G.S.; also, Journey of the Pombeiros,
P. J. Baptista and Amaro José across Africa from
Angola to Tette on the Zambize. Translated by B. A.
Beadle ; and a Résumé of the Journey of MM. Monteiro
and Gamitto. By Dr, C. T. Beke. (Published by the
Royal Geographical Society ; John Murray, 1873.)

The African Sketch Book. By Winwood Reade, with
maps and illustrations, in'two volumes. (Smith, Elder
and Co., 1873.)

heecahe are extremely different kinds of books, though

both are valuable. The first is almost unreadable

- except by geographical students; the second is tho-

roughly popular and amusing. The pending explorations

of Livingstone have given a special interest to the various
journeys of Portuguese explorers, and the Royal Geogra-
phical Society have done well in making the records of
these journeys accessible to English readers. The earliest
and most important is that of Dr. De Lacerda, who went
on a Government mission to the capital of Cazembé, situ-
ated at the southern extremity of Lake Moero, about 500
miles north-west of Lake Nyassa. He died on the way,
but the journey was concluded under the second in com-
mand, The Journal is given at length, and is very dull
reading, except for the‘insight it gives into the character
of the numerous Portuguese and half-castes who accom-
panied the expedition, and who were in a continual state
of squabble from the first day to the last. Dr. De Lacerda
was evidently an amiable and intelligent man, and his
notes are comparatively pleasant reading, and give some
little notion of the country and the people. The Journal
of his successor, an ecclesiastic (Fr. Pinto), is, however,
so exclusively occupied with a record of the disputes
among the members of the expedition, that it was hardly
worth printing. Capt. Burton’s translation is very free,
and no doubt very accurate, but he is so idiomatic as
almost to require translating himself ; and such terms as
“loot,” “ dash,” “notions,” and “magotty heads,” which
are repeatedly used, are hardly characteristic of the serious
and matter-of-fact diary of the Portuguese explorers. His
notes are very copious, often considerably exceeding the
text, and some of them are instructive ; but we find in
them too many onslaughts on Mr. Cooley, and endless
minute criticisms on African orthography. The free state-
ment of Capt. Burton’s peculiar views on civilisation, re-
ligion, polygamy, and other matters, is also rather out of
place. Weare told for instance that, to Capt. Burton,

“ Alexander is the first person of the triad which humanity

has as yet produced ; the other two being Julius Czesar

and Napoleon Bonaparte,” and that “ Blakeley guns and
railways” are the indices of true progress.

If, however, this part of the book is dull, the second
part—the Route Journal of the Pombeiros—is dreary in
the extreme. We have page after page of such entries as
these :—“ Friday, 12th—At seven in the morning we got
up and left the top of the hill. We passed seven narrow
streams which run into the Luapula. We came to another

No, 204—VOL, VIII,

desert near a narrow river where we found a circle made.
We met nobody and walked with the sun in our front.”
In the third part we are spared the detailed journals and
are given a résumé by Dr. Beke, in which we have all
that is of interest compressed into a few pages. These
journals show that African travel was beset with the same
difficulties and troubles seventy years ago as it is now,
and that the custom of jexacting presents and causing
delays at every village is an ancient African institution.
The work is illustrated by an excellent map, in which all
the geographical information to be extracted from these
journeys is laid down, and the routes of all the travellers,
as well as those of Livingstone, distinctly marked. It
will therefore be of great value in tracing the future pro-
gress of that illustrious traveller.

Mr. Winwood Reade’s well-named “African Sketch
Book” is a work of an altogether novel kind. Ina series
of picturesque and sparkling chapters he gives us sketches
of the various pictures of African life and scenery, epi-
sodes of travel, the slave trade, the history of African
exploration, and other subjects; and interspersed with
these are little tales illustrative of the various phases of
native life or of European life in Africa. Mr. Reade has
twice visited Africa. The first time, in 1862-63, he
went over Du Chaillu’s ground, and enabled us to sepa-
rate the true from the imaginative in that traveller’s book ;
and he also visited Angola and Senegambia. The second
time, in 1868—7o0, he spent two'years in Africa, on the
Gold Coast and Liberia, and made an adventurous jour-
ney from Sierra Leone to the Niger, at a point never
before reached by a European traveller. The narrative
of this journey occupies about half the second volume,
and is very interesting ; although it is perhaps a little
marred by the sketchy style in which it is written (in the
form of letters to a young lady), and by the prominence
given to the author’s fears, hopes, and ambitions, all of
which will, however, prove attractive to many readers,
When within about fifty miles of the Niger, at Falaba,
the traveller was stopped by'at native king, Sewa, who
kept him in his court, as Speke was kept, for several months,
and then allowed him to return to Sierra Leone, sending
with him an embassy and his own nephew, as an escort.
Mr. Reade then endeavoured to get the Governor of
Sierra Leone to send him on an expedition to the Niger,
in which case Sewa would not have dared to stop him ;
but finding that there would be great delays before this
could be arranged, he took the bold resolution, although
seriously ill, to return at once with the king’s nephew
He did so, and telling the king, who was greatly surprised
to see him, that he was‘now a traveller going to the Niger,
but would stay with him three days, he was allowed to
go on, and not only succeeded in reaching the Niger at a
point about forty miles from its source, but went down its
course to the north-east to the Bouré gold works, never
before visited by any European, This | journey undoubt-
edly stamps Mr. Reade as a thorough African explorer.

The six years’ interval between his two journeys was
devoted to a study of the literature of African travel, some
of the results of which are embodied in a large and very
useful map, showing at a glance the portion of the country
visited by each traveller, as well as the various authorities
which may be consulted on each district ; and the com-
parative importance of these is indicated by the type in

430

which the name is printed. The chapter entitled “The
African Pioneers,” is a very interesting one, giving a
spirited sketch of the life and labours of each of the im-
portant African travellers from Ledyard to Livingstone ;
and we think Mr. Reade could do no better or more popular
work than to give us in a compact and readable form,
and as much as possible in each author’s own words, the
concentrated essence of those vast piles of volumes on
Africa, which he appears to have waded through.

There is a very great improvement in this work over
Mr. Reade’s earlier writings, and he himself recognises
that his opinions are now changed for fairer and truer
ones. He now speaks of the Negro race with respect,
and often uses the term “native gentleman.” He be-
lieves that “if boys were removed at an early age from
uncivilised society and brought up with the sons of gentle-
men at home, they would acquire something better than
book-learning—namely the sentiment of honour. My
long and varied experience of the African Race has
brought me to believe that they can be made white men
in all that is more than skin-deep.” He speaks well of
the native Missionaries, and says of one of them at Sierra
Leone, of whom he saw a good deal, that he “ does not
differ, so far as I can see, from an English gentleman and
clergyman in manners, speech, or disposition.” Such
men have far more influence with the natives than
English clergymen can have. “An ordained Negro is a
walking sermon, a theological advertisement. The
savages regard an Oxford Master of Arts as a being
fearfully and wonderfully made, belonging to a different
species from himself. His argument invariably is, ‘ White
man’s God, he good for white man; black man’s God,
he good for black man.’ But when he beholds a man as
black as himself with a shiny hat, a white cravat, glossy
garments, and shoes a yard long, wearing a gold watch
in his fob, blowing his nose in a cloth, and ‘ making
leaves speak ;” and ‘when he is informed that these are
the results of being baptised, he also aspires to become
a white man, and allows himself to be converted.”

Good service is done by pointing out that what is
usually called the typical Negro with jet-black skin,
thick lips, and flat nose, is by no means typical, but is
an extreme and exceptional type; that coffee colour of
various shapes is the characteristic colour of Negroes, that
their features are often finely formed, and of quite a
European cast. Blackness of skin is said to be most pre-
valent where heat and moisture are combined, but it is re-
cognised that this is not necessarily, or-even probably,
the cause of the blackness.

Mr. Reade’s book is full of brilliant or witty sayings.
Of the gorilla he says that “there is little doubt that some
day or other this renowned ape will make its appearance
at the Zoological Gardens, to brighten the holiday of
the artisan, and to alleviate the sabbath of the fashion-
able world.” Relating how a man once refused to guide
him to a plantation about three miles off, for fear he
should kill some game onthe way and compel him to
carry it, he remarks, “‘ And yet it is often asserted that the
Negroes are incapable of foresight.” The natives of the
interior firmly believe that Europeans buy slaves to eat,
and an old cannibal Fan was anxious to know why they
took the trouble to send so far for people to eat. Were
the black men nicer than the whitemen? Mr, Reade’s

i-t-, “rae. pee Tee a nF gag We a
- ¢ is PAL | oS

NATURE

obliged to import their supplies! Of Livingstone it is
remarked that “only twice in his life since he was a°
youth has he visited England, returning after a while to
his true home in the wilderness; with his health shattered
by the toils of literary composition.”

We find also many passages of good or of doubtful
philosophy. Mr. Reade seems impressed with the
strange idea that if we could by any means double the
number of our tall chimneys in the cotton districts, we
should necessarily advance our civilisation and benefit
the human race. For example, among arguments for
opening up the Niger we are told :—“ The country which

lies beyond the confluence of the Quorra and the Binué

is one of the largest cotton-growing areas of the world,
At present the people dress themselves. But when the
Niger trade is once established, our cheap cotton goods
will soon destroy the native industry, ‘and the people will
export their raw cotton instead of weaving it themselves.”
And as one of the main results of the blood and treasure
expended on African soil, we are;told that ‘new markets
have been opened for British manufactures.” But does
it not occur to Mr. Reade, that to destroy native industries
instead of improving them may not advance a people;
and that to increase the already large proportion of our

population who pass their lives in a monotonous routine —

amid the smoke of furnaces and the din of machinery,
and helpless as infants if their own source of living fails
them (as it has failed them and may again), may not
really advance us on the road to civilisation?

As an example of the manner in which our author
often compresses into a few lines the results of much
labour, take the following passage summarising the results
of Nile exploration and the relative share of the two
great branches in forming} the River Nile and the Land
of Egypt :—“ Thus the Nile is created by the rainfall of
the Equator, and Egypt by the rainfall of the Tropics. If
the White Nile did not exist, the Black Nile would be
nothing—it would perish in the sand. But if the Black
Nile did not exist, the White Nile would be merely a
barren river in a sandy plain, with some Arab encamp-
ments on its banks.”

The arrangement of this book seems to be its weakest
point. Weare taken up and down the coast, and back
again over old ground, till we hardly know where we are ;
and the confusion is increased by the insertion of the il-
lustrative tales in the body of the work. It would have
been far better if these tales had been kept together, and
the rest of the work arranged in systematic geographical
order, The work is provided with numerous good wood-
cuts; and the maps, which illustrate in a novel and
ingenious manner the slave trade, the religions of Africa,
African discovery, and African literature, are very valu-
able. The tales themselves are clever, and some admir-
ably illustrative of African life; but most of them are
melancholy in their catastrophes, and indicate that the
author takes a somewhat gloomy view of human life and
human nature. Of these, “Ananga” is the best. It is
the story of a daughter of the King of Cazembé, who
marries a Portuguese officer and runs away with him;

and, arriving in the Cape Colony, is so overwhelmed by .

| Sept. 25, 1873

answer was dictated by motives of policy, as he was ina
cannibal country. He assured his questioner that white
men’s flesh was a deadly poison, and so they were

4

Bee > Mae

the rush of new ideas excited by one after another of the
wonders of civilisation, that she dies, like the Lady of Bur-
leigh, overcome

«* By the burthen of an honour unto which she was not born.”

It is altogether a charming story, and is written in a
style which we hope Mr. Reade will cultivate.

In justice to the author, it must be stated that the
present work is intended for family reading, and to popu-
larise a knowledge of modern Africa. He promises a more
serious book, treating of many subjects in connection
with the native races, of great interest to students of
man; and this will be looked forward to with interest,
since few men are now better qualified than Mr. Reade,
both by travel and study, to tell us the real truth about
‘the Negro. ALFRED R. WALLACE

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ] :

Tait and Tyndall

[WE have received further communications from Professors
Tyndall and Tait on the subject of the correspondence that has
appeared in our columns. We feel that we are only consulting
the true interests of Science in declining to print further com-
munications on a subject which has assumed somewhat of a per™
sonal tone, and in this idea we are supported by many of the
best friends of both parties, who, however, will approve of our
giving the following brief extract from Dr. Tyndall’s communica-
tion :—‘* My letter was rapidly written, and the proof of it
reached me, not on the Tuesday evening, as I expected, but on
the Wednesday moming when I was in the midst of my prepara-
tions for Bradford. I had therefore little time to give it the calm
thought which it ought to have received. On re-reading it I
find two passages in it which I think it desirable to cancel. The
first is that in which I speak of lowering inyself to the level of
Prof. Tait ; the second that in which I reflect upon his manhood.
These passages I wish to retract.” —Ed. NATURE. ]

On the Males and Complemental Males of certain
Cirripedes, and on Rudimentary Structures.

I BEG permission to make a few remarks bearing on Prof.
Wyville Thomson’s interesting account of the rudimentary males
of Scalpellum regium, in your number of August 28th. Since I
described in 1851, the males and complemental males of certain
" cirripedes, I have been most anxious that some competent
naturalist should re-examine them; more especially as a Ger-
man, without apparently haying taken the trouble to look at
any specimens, has spoken of my description as a fantastic
Cream. That the males of an animal should be attached to the
female, should be very much smaller than, and differ greatly in
structure from her, is nothing new or strange. Nevertheless, the
difference between the males and the kermaphrodites of Sca/-
fellum vulgare is so great, that when I first roughly dissected the
former, even the suspicion that they belonged to the class of
cirripedes did not cross my mind. ~ These males are half as large
as the head of a small pin; whereas the hermaphrodites are
from an inch to an inch and a quarter in length. They consist
of little more than a mere sack, containing the male reproductive
organs, with rudiments of only four of the valves; there is no
mouth or alimentary canal, but there exists arudimentary thorax
with rudimentary cirri, and these apparently serve to protect the

¢.

NATURE

Aa

CN ft re a
De ae Pe 'e

431

orifice of the sack from the intrusion of enemies. The males of
Alcippe and Cryptophialus are even more rudimentary ; of the

seventeen segments which ought to be fully developed, together

with their appendages, only three remain, and these are imper-

fectly developed ; the other fourteen segments are represented

by a mere slight projection bearing the probosci-formed penis.

This latter organ, on the other hand, is so enormously developed

in Cryptophialus, that when fully extended it must have been.
between eight and nine times the length of the animal! There is

another curious point about these little males, viz., the great differ-

ence between those belonging to the several species of the same

genus Scalpellum: some are manifestly pedunculated citripedes,

differing by characters which in an independent creature would

be considered as of only generic value; whereas others do not

offer a single character by which they can be recognised as

cirripedes, with the exception of the cast-off prehensile, larval an-

tennee, preserved by being buried in the natural cement at the point
of attachment. But the fact which has interested me most is the
existence of what I have called Complemental Males, from their
being attached not to females, but to hermaphrodites ; the latter
having male organs perfect, although not so largely developed
as in ordinary cirripedes. We must] turn to the vegetable king-
dom for anything analogous to this; for, as is well known, cer-
tain plants present hermaphrodite and male individuals, the
latter aiding in the cross-fertilisation of the former. The males
and complemental males in some of the species of three out of
the four very distinct genera in which I have described their
occurrence, are, as already stated; extremely minute, and, as they

cannot feed, are short-lived. They are developed like other
cirripedes, from laryee, furnished with well-developed natatory
legs, eyes of great size and complex prehensile antennz ; by
these organs they are enabled to find, cling to, and ultimately
to become cemented to the hermaphrodite or female. The male
larvee, after casting their skins and being as fully developed
as they ever will be, perform their masculine function, and then
perish. At the next breeding season they are succeeded bya
fresh crop of these annual males, In Sealpellum vulgare I
have found as many as ten males attached to the crifice of the
sack of a single hermaphrodite; and in Alcippe, fourteen
males attached to a single female,

He who admits the principle of evolution will naturally in-
quire why and how these minute rudimentary males, and
especially the complemental males, have been developed. It
is of course impossible to give any definite answer, but a
few remarks may be hazarded on this subject. In my ‘‘ Vas
riation under Domestication,” I have given reasons for the
belief that it is an extremely general, though apparently not
quite universal law, that organisms occasionally intercross, and
that great benefit is derived therefrom. I have been laboriously
experimenting on this subject for the last six or seven years, and
I may add, that with plants there cannot be the least doubt that
great vigour is thus gained; and the results indicate that the
good depends on the crossed individuals having been exposed
to slightly different conditions of ‘life. Now as cirripedes ,are
always attached to some object, and as they are commonly her-
maphredites, their intercrossing appears, at first sight, impos-
sible, except by the chance carriage of the spermatic fluid by the
currents of the sea, like pollen by the wind; but it is not
probable that this can often happen, as the act of impregnationt
takes place within the well-enclosed sack. As, however, these
animals possess a probosci-formed penis capable of great elonga-
tion, two closely attached hermaphrodites could reciprocally
fertilise each other This, as I have elsewhere proved, does some-
times, perhaps often, actually occur. Hence perhaps it arises, that
most cirripedes are attached in clusters. The curious Anelasma,
which lives buried in the skin of sharks in the northern seas, is
said always to live in pairs, } Whilst reflecting how far cirripedes

eg

432
usually adhered to their support in clusters, the case of the genus
Acasta occurred to me, in which all the species are embedded in
sponges, generally at some little distance from each other ; I then
turned to my description of the animal, and found it stated, that
in several of the species the probosci-formed penis is ‘‘ remarkably
long ;” and this I think can hardly be an accidental coincidence.
With respect to the habits of the genera which are provided
with true males or complemental males :—all the species of
Scalpellum, excepting one, are specially modified for attachment
to the delicate branches of corallines: the one species of Ibla,
about which I know anything, lives attached, generally two or
three together, to the peduncle of another cirripede, viz. a
Pollicipes: Alcippe and Cryptophialus are embedded in small
cavities which they excavate in shells. No douwt in all these
cases two or more full-grown individuals might become attached
close together to the same support ; and this sometimes occurs
with Scalpellum vulgare, but the individuals in such groups are
apt to be distorted and to have their peduncles twisted. There
would be much difficulty ia two or more individuals of Alcippe
and Cryptophialus living embedded in the same cavity. More-
over, it might well happen that sufficient food would not be
brought by the currents of the sea to several individuals of these
species living close together. Nevertheless in all these cases it
would be a manifest advantage to the species, if two individuals
could live and flourish close together, so as occasionally to inter-
cross. Now if certain individuals were reduced in size and
transmitted this character, they could readily be attached to the
other and larger individuals ; and as the process of reduction
was continued, the smaller individuals would be enabled to adhere
closer and closer to the orifice of the sack, or, as actually occurs
with some species of Scalpellum and with Ibla, within the sack of
the larger individual ; and thus the act of fertilisation would be
safely effected. It is generally admitted that a division of phy-
siological labour is an advantage to all organisms ; accordingly,
a separation of the sexes would be so to cirripedes, that is if this
could be effected with full security for the propagation of the
species. How in any case a tendency to a separation of the
sexes first arises, we do not know; but we can plainly see that
if it occurred in the present case, the smaller individuals would
almost necessarily become males, as there would be much less
expenditure of organic matter in the production of the spermatic
fluid than of ova. Indeed with Scalpellum vulgare the whole
body of the male is smaller than a single one of the many ova
produced by the hermaphrodite. The other and larger indi-
viduals would on the same principle either remain hermaphro-
dites, but with their masculine organs more or less reduced, or
would be converted into females. At any rate, whether these views
are correct or not, we see at the present time within the genus
Scalpellum a graduated series : first on the masculine side, from an
animal which is obviously a pedunculated cirripede with well-
proportioned valves, to a mere sack enclosing the male organs,
either with the merest rudiments of valves, or entirely destitute
of them ; and secondly on the feminine side, we have either
true females, or hermaphrodites with the male organs perfect,
yet greatly reduced.

With respect to the means by which so many of the most im-
portant organs in numerous animals and plants have been greatly
reduced in size and rendered rudimentary, or have been quite
obliterated, we may attribute much to the inherited effects of the
disuse of parts. But this would not apply to certain parts, for
instance to the calcareous valves of male cirripedes which cannot
be said to be actively used. Before I read Mr. Mivart’s acute
criticisms on this subject, I thought that the principle of the
economy of growth would account for the continued reduction
and final obliteration of parts; and I still think, that during the
earlier periods of reduction the process would be thus greatly
aided. But if we consider, for instance, the rudimentary pistils

SR naa ef Oa

NATURE

[Sepz. 25, 1873

a aa cee

or stamens of many plants, it seems incredible that the reduc-
tion and final obliteration of a minute papilla, formed of mere
cellular tissue, could be of any service to the species. The fol-
lowing conjectural remarks are made solely in the hope of calling
the attention of naturalists to this subject. It is known from
the researches of Quetelet on the height of man, that the num-
ber of individuals who exceed the” average height by a given
quantity is the same as the number of those who are shorter than
the average by the same quantity ; so that men may be grouped
symmetrically about the average with reference to their height.
I may add, to make this clearer, that there exists the same
number of men between three and four inches above the average
height, as there are below it. So it is with the circumference
of their chests ; and we may presume that this is the usual law
of variation in all the parts of every species under ordinary
conditions of Jife. That almost every part of the body is
capable of independent variation we have good reason to believe,
for it is this which gives rise to the individual differences charac-
teristic of all species. Now it does not seem improbable that
with a species under unfavourable conditions, when, during many
generations, orjin certain areas, it is pressed for food and exists in
scanty numbers, that all or most of its parts should tend to vary in
a greater number of individuals towards diminution than towards
increment of size; so that the grouping would be no longer
symmetrical with reference to the average size of any organ under
consideration. In this case the individuals which were born
with parts diminished in size and efficiency, on which the welfare
of the species depended, would be eliminated ; those individuals
alone surviving in the long run which possessed such parts of
the proper size. But the survival of none would be affected by
the greater or less diminution of parts already reduced in size
and functionally useless. We have assumed that under the
above stated unfavourable conditions alarger number of indivi-
duals are born with any particular part or organ diminished in
size, than are born with it increased to the same relative degree ;
and as these individuals, having their already reduced and useless
parts still more diminished by variation under poor conditions,
would not be eliminated, they would intercross with the
many individuals having the part of nearly average size, and
with the few having it of increased size. The result of such
intercrossing would be, in the course of time, the steady diminu-
tion and ultimate disappearance of all such useless parts. No
doubt the process would take place with excessive slowness ;
but this result agrees perfectly with what we see in nature ;
for the number of forms possessing the merest traces of various
organsis immense. I repeat that I have ventured to make these
hypothetical remarks solely for the sake of calling attention to
this subject. CHARLES DARWIN
Down, Beckenham, Kent, Sept. 20

Reflection of the Rainbow

Draw a circle to represent a rain-drop, or rather a section of
it, by a plane passing through its centre, the sun, and the eye.
Draw a straight line through the centre to represent a solar ray
of mean refrangibility. At the front and back of the drop re-
flection occurs, and the incidence being normal, the incident and
reflected beams will coincide after the emergence of the latter
from the drop. Now suppose the ray through the centre to move
parallel to itself, the incidence grows more and, more oblique,
refraction occurs at entrance and at emergence, the ray finally
becoming a tangent to the drop. Let the incident and the twice
refracted and once reflected rays be produced backwards till
they intersect behind the drop : the angle enclosed between them
augments with the obliquity, reaches a maximum, and then
diminishes. The ray corresponding in obliquity with this maxi-
mum angular value, and those in its immediate vicinity, quit the
drop sensibly parallel, and these are the rays which are effectual |
in the rainbow. .This angle being for red light 42°, and for
violet light 40°, for light of mean refrangibility it is 41°.

a If those parallel rays before reaching the observer's eye impinge

‘

‘the attention of the graduates of the University of London.

Sept. 25, 1873]

NATURE

433

upon a surface of calm water, they are, in part, reflected accor-
ding to the usual law, and a rainbow is then seen by reflection.
But the absolute position of the bow changes with every change
in the position of the observer’s eye ; ees the bow seen
mirrored in the pool is ofthe reflection of that seen at the
same time directly in the heavens. Suppose the shower to be
fixed in space, then the drops which produce the bow seen
directly, would not be those which produce the bow as seen by
reflection.

In the paragraph to which your correspondent “‘Z.X.Y.” has
called attention, I meant to combat the notion, entertained
by many, that the rainbow is reflected after the fashion of an
ordinary floating cloud which emits light in all directions, and
which, by the light thus emitted, paints its image in the water.
A few additional words might have made my meaning clearer ;
but as I was dealing at the time more with historic statement
than with scientific exposition, I desired to be brief. I can
hardly think, however, that your correspondent will be angry
with me for giving him what must have been agreeable as well
as successful occupation at the Falls of the Rhine.

Royal Institution, Sept. 15 Joun TYNDALL

Original Research at the Universities

My attention has been arrested by the following sentence in
the extract given by you from Prof. Frankland’s evidence
before the Science Commission :—‘‘I believe that one cause
(of the slow progress of original research in England) lies in the
entire non-recognition of original research by any of our Uni-
versities. Even the University of London, which has been fore-
most in advancing instruction in experimental science, gives its
highest degree in Science without requiring any proof that the
candidate possesses the faculty of original research, or is com-
petent to extend the boundaries of the science in which he gra-
duates.”

It may interest Dr. Frankland and those who take the
same view as he does, to know that this subject has engaged
At
a meeting of the Annual Committee of Convocation in December
last, it was moved by Prof. Guthrie—

“ That every candidate for the degree of Doctor of Science shall
be required to submit to his respective Examiners a written dis-
sertation embodying some original research in one or more of
the subjects of his intended examination ; and that such disser-
tation be approved before the candidate be allowed to proceed
to examination.”

This motion I had the honour of seconding ; but the degree of
acceptance which the principle involved in it met with from
the Committee is seen by the sequel, as stated in the
printed minutes, that it was “ rejected by a large majority.”
The exact numbers, if my memory serves me rightly,
were Ayes, 3; Noes, 16; among the Noes were two Doctors
and one Bachelor of Science, and at least five Doctors of Medi-
cine. The ‘* Annual Committee,” it may be stated, is a repre-
sentative body elected annually by the graduates in Convocation,
but has no legislative or administrative power, this resting en-
tirely with the Senate.

ALFRED W. BENNETT

Endowment of Research
WITH regard to the Endowment of Scientific Research, could

“not this be well placed in the hands (as it now is, toa very

limited extent) of a Committee of the British Association? the
committee being authorised to supply funds for experimental
purposes, and the members, say three or four in number, to-have
a permanent salary for the time spent in the examination of
claims from applicants.

It might possibly be desirable that one or more of the com-
mittee should retire every two or three years and not be eligible
for re-election until after the lapse of three years ; and also, to
prevent waste of time, that all applications for help should be
presented only through one or more gentlemen of known scien-
tific attainments, and not of necessity at the instigation of the
person to whom the assistance was to be rendered. I believe
that this would be a good practical arrangement as regards the
poorer class, who are compelled to throw up valuable original
researches to supply themselves and those depending on them
with homes and food.

The abuse of a trust of this kind would hardly be possible, as |

the help would of necessity be given in those cases where a cer-
tain amount of work had already been done under difficulties,
and where the natural instinct for original research was of neces-
sity strongly developed. The presentation of an annual sum for,
say five years, renewable at the end of the time if necessary,
would be a godsend to many a man who has allowed himself to
starve for the benefit of posterity.
THos, FLETCHER

FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS BY INSECTS *
III.

On the co-existence of two forms of flowers in the same species or
genus,—a more conspicuous one adapted to cross-fertilisation by
znsects, and a less conspicuous one adapted to self-fertilisation.

INCE Darwin, in his admirable work on Orchids, t had

proved that the flowers of this family are endowed with
an immense variety of comtrivances for cross-fertilisation
by insects, it was almost generally admitted by botanists
that cross-fertilisation is the rule throughout the whole
vegetable kingdom. Darwin’s well-known aphorism, that

“ Nature abhors perpetual self-fertilisation” was exagge-

rated by his successors in this field of research, Hilde-

brand in Germany and Delpino in Italy, who, in their
various elaborate memoirs on the fertilisation of flowers,
repeatedly expressed their strong belief that nature abhors
self-fertilisation at all. In direct opposition to this
opinion, Axell { propounded the doctrine that the develop- -
ment of the fertilising arrangements in phanerogams has
been always an advance, and still continues to advance,
in one and the same direction, towards a perfection which
affords more and more facilities for self-fertilisation.

My own observations on the contrivances of our
flowers and on the insects really visiting and fertilising
them, have convinced me, that neither Hildebrand’s and
Delpino’s, nor Axell’s opinion is a thoroughly adequate
one, but that under certain conditions the facility for self-
fertilisation is most advantageous to a plant, while, under
other conditions, the inevitableness of cross-fertilisation
by the visits of insects is the more advantageous,

To all plants the flowers of which possess such a
degree of attractiveness for insects that cross-fertilisation
by these transporters of pollen is never wanting, the
possibility of self-fertilisation is quite useless, and from this
cause, not being subjected to the effects of natural selec-
tion, may be lost, like any useless peculiarity, and in
many instances, indeed, has been lost. On the contrary,
to those plants the flowers of which possess so slight a
degree of attractiveness for insects, that the transportation
of the pollen to the stigma by insects is effected in but
very few cases, the possibility of self-fertilisation is most
advantageous, and indeed we find in most cases such plants
well adapted for self-fertilisation.

Among many facts which I could appeal to as proofs
of my statements, there are, I believe, none more in-
structive than those alluded to in the superscription of this
article.

In some species of our wild plants I have found on
different plants two different forms of flowers, evidently
showing the connectionabove stated between attractiveness
for insects and adaptation for inter-crossing or for self-
fertilisation. As nobody before, for aught I know, has
observed this phenomenon, I will give some details of
the most important instances hitherto observed.

Lysimachia vulgaris

Of this species specimens with more conspicuous
flowers are found in sunny localities. The petals of this
form are dark yellow with red at the base, on an average
about 12 mm. long, and 6 mm, wide, opening widely and

* Continued from p. 206. — ae 3

+ “On the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids

are Fertilised by Insects.” (London, 1863.)

4 In his work: ‘‘Om anordningarna for fanerogama vaxternas befrukt-
ning.” (Stockholm, 1869.)

434

bending outwards and backwards ; the filaments are red-
coloured towards their end ; the style overtops the longest
stamens by some millimetres. A species of bee, MZac-
vopis labiata Pz, frequently visits these flowers for
pollen. It comes first into contact with the stigma, and
supplies it with pollen from previously visited flowers,
thus regularly effecting cross-fertilisation. But if we pre-
vent the visits of insects by covering over the stems bya

Fic. 9.—Luphrasia officinalis. Lateral view of a flower of the largest o-;
just opened.
Fic. 10 —Position of the stigma (s?), and of the anthers (a*, a*) of the same
flower in a more advanced state.
Fic. 11.—Two anthers, seen from the inner side, showing the slits fringed
with hairs,

net, self-fertilisation scarcely takes place, in consequence
of the style overtopping all the stamens,

Specimens of the same species with less conspicuous
flowers are found in shady ditches. The petals of these
plants are lighter yellow, uniform in colour, without any
red at the base, on an average 10 mm. long, and 5 mm.
wide ; they only open slightly, remaining nearly upright,

Fic. r2.—Lateral view of a flower of the smallest form, just opening.
Fic. 13.—Position of the stigma (s¢) and the anthers (a*, a?) in this flower.
Fic. 14.—Front view of a flower of the same form, in a more advanced state.

(All the figures are magnified in the proportion ct 7:1. The hairs of the
calyx and the coloured spots and lines of the corolla are omitted.)
but diverging obliquely ; the filaments are greenish yel-
low, without any red towards their end ; the style hardly
equals the two lowest and longest stamens. The
stigma comes without any external agency into con-
tact with the pollen of the same flower thus regularly
experienciyg self-fertilisation. This manner of producing
seeds is an indispensable condition for preservation of

NATURE

| Sepz. 25, 1873

this variety of Lysimachia vulgaris. For in consequence
of its shady habitat, and of its lower degree of attractive-
ness for insects, its flowers are but very rarely visited, and
it would be exposed to extinction without the possibility
of propagation by self-fertilisation. I but once observed
a little fly of the family of Syrphide, Syrit/a pipiens i
eating the pollen of this shady form of flowers. Although
this fly might possibly transport pollen from one flower to
the stigma of. another, cross-fertilisation was nevertheless
by no means more probable than self-fertilisation.

The two forms here described of the flowers of Lysi-
machia vulgaris graduate into each other by connecting
forms, which are met with in intermediate localities, for
instance on the sunny edges of ditches.

Another example of the same sort of dimorphism,
even more striking than that just mentioned, is pre-
sented by Luphrasia officinalis. Of this species flowers
are found in different localities of a very different size.
But the more the attractiveness for insects is increased
by the size of the corolla, the more is cross-fertilisation

secured in case insects visit the flowers, self-fertilisation

at the same time being prevented ; while on the contrary,
the smallest flowers regularly fertilise themselves, even
without the visits of insects.’ I will attempt to explain
these peculiarities by drawings of the largest and of the
smallest form of flowers I have hitherto been able to
find.

In the flower just opened of the largest form (as shown,
in Fig. 9), the stigma, already in a mature condition,
greatly overtops the anthers. Therefore an insect,* in-
serting its proboscis into the tubular corolla in order to
gain the nectar contained at the bottom of its tube, first
grazes the stigma charging it with pollen-grains from —
flowers previously visited, and then pushes against the
two hairs (sf) which project from the two lower anthers :
(2°) into the middle of the entrance to the corolla. This
shaking of the hairs is transmitted to all the four anthers,
which lie close together and are soldered together by
their upper margins, and a small quantity of the smooth
powdery pollen-grains falls out of all the pollen sacs.
The slits in the pollen sacs being fringed with hairs
directed downwards (as shown in Fig 11) a lateral dis-
persion of the pollen-grains is prevented ; all the pollen-
grains shaken out fall directly downwards upon the pro-
boscis, enabling it to fertilise the next flower visited by
the insect.

In the state just described the corolla has not yet at-
tained its full size. Growing farther, it at length equals
the stigma by which it was at first so much overtopped, and
now the mutual position of the stigma and the anthers is
that shown in Fig. to, When occupying this position,
the stigma is always already shrivelled and brownish
coloured, and is no longer capable of being fertilised,
Self-fertilisation is therefore quite impossible, ;

The probability of cross-fertilisation and of self-fertilisa-
tion is directly opposite in the flowers of the smallest
form, presented by Fig. 12—14. Whilst in the flowers of
the largest form, as just described, the anthers remain
soldered together, and do not scatter their pollen unless
the hairs are shaken, in the flowers of the smallest form the
anthers separate from each other, and scatter nearly all
their pollen long before the corolla has fully opened. The
end of the style, moreover, bends inwards so much as to
bring the stigma (as Fig. 13 shows) close beneath the
upper anthers. Therefore, on examining a flower hardly
half-opened (Fig. 12), we always find the stigma already
largely charged with pollen-grains of the same flower.
When fully opened, the flowers of the smallest form show
the stigma in a shrivelled and brownish coloured condi-
tion, lying between the separated and emptied pollen-
sacs (as shown in Fig. 14). Hence cross-fertilisation —
could scarcely be effected, even if insects (which I never

* I observed four species of bees and three species of Diptera visiting the
flowers of Euphrasia officinalis for honey.

Sept. 25, 1873 |

NATURE

435

observed) should visit these very inconspicuous flowers.
The fringing hairs in the flowers of the largest form,
so nicely securing the perpendicular falling of the pollen-
ins upon the proboscis, are quite useless in a
ower regularly restricted to self-fertilisation ; indeed, in
the anthers of the smallest form we find no fringing hairs
at all, or only a few isolated ones.
» The two extreme forms here described graduate into
each other by various intermediate forms. When pub-
lishing my book on “ Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects,”
I had never observed either the largest or the smallest
form here described. From this cause the figures in page
291 of my work, drawn from other varieties, differ in
some points from the description here given.

In Lysimachia vulgaris the two forms here described
are so closely allied, that no botanist, for aught I know, has
considered them worthy of being distinguished as varieties
by separate names ; in Euphrasia officinalis the difference
between the two forms is somewhat greater, and some
botanists, although overlooking the different manner of
fertilisation, have distinguished them as varieties, (for in-
stance,Ascherson in his “ Flora der Provinz Brandenburg”),

In a third example of the same dimorphism of
flowers, presented by Rhinanthus crista galli, the diver-
gence of the two forms has proceeded so far that most
botanists distinguish them by separate names, some
as varieties (Xi. crista galli a and f of Linnzus), others
as distinct species (72/. major Ehrh. and Rh. minor Ehrh).
These two forms differ with respect to their fertilisation,
nearly in the same manner as the largest and the smallest
form of Euphrasia officinalis. Rh. minor having a
smaller corolla, and therefore being but rarely visited by
insects, regularly fertilises itself when insects do not visit
it, by bending the stigma beneath the pollen-sac, which
at last opens spontaneously, and covers the stigma
with its pollen-grains. In A/. major the stigma so far
overtops the polJen-sac that self-fertilisation is excluded.
It is, however, aremarkable difference between RA. minor
and the smallest form of Zuphrasia officinalis, that the
former is regularly cross-fertilised, when visited by in-
sects, if this happens not too late, and that it only has
recourse to self-fertilisation if altogether unvisited by
insects.*

Lippstadt, Sept. 9 HERMANN MULLER

THE ‘ POLARIS’ ARCTIC EXPEDITION

‘TRE missing link in the story of the Polaris Expedi-

tion has been picked up, and the narrative, as a
whole, is one of the strangest in the whole history of
Arctic adventure. Our readers may remember the story
we gave of the 19 persons who were left on the ice-floe
when the Polaris broke from her moorings in about N.
lat. 79°, on the night of October 19, 1872, and who were
all miraculously rescued six months later off the coast of
Labrador. Eleven more of the crew arrived at Dundee
last Friday afternoon in the whaling vessel, Arctic, Capt.
Adams. Among these eleven are, Capt. S. O. Budding-
ton, sailing and ice master, Dr. Emil Bessels, H. C.
Chester, first mate, W. Martin, second mate, Emil Schu-
mann, chief engineer, A. Odell, second engineer, besides
a fireman, the carpenter, and three seamen.

After the ship drifted away from the floe she ultimately
reached Lifeboat Cove, where it was resolved to beach
her, which was done after much trouble. From the
timbers of the ship a house was constructed on shore, and
by the help of a few friendly Esquimaux, and the provi-
sions and coals saved from the Po/aris, the fourteen men
spent the winter much more comfortably than might have
been expected under the circumstances. Towards the
end of the winter, however, it was resolved to make an

* A further explanation of these two forms is given in my book “‘ Die
Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten,” pp. 294-296.

attempt to push southwards, and for this purpose
under the superintendence of the energetic first mate,
Mr. Chester, of whom all the crew speak in high
terms, two boats were, amid many hardships, constructed
out of some of the cabin-timbers of the Polaris. About
the middle of last June, the boats having been completed
and packed with what provision could be had, as well as
ammunition, the party bade adieu to Lifeboat Cove and
proceeded to make their way southwards. After many
anxieties Cape York was reached on June 21. Here the
boats were quite beset among the ice, l ut the greatest
possible excitement and fear were experienced when, on
the 23rd, a vessel was espied. She turned out to be the
Ravenscraig whaler, of Dundee, Capt. Allan. All hands
determined to reach the ship with the least possible delay,
but in doing so they were greatly assisted by Capt. Allan,
who had sent his crew to help them in carrying what
things they had in their possession. They brought one
boat with them and left the other. On reaching the ship
they were very kindly treated, but subsequently, so that
the fishing operations might be interrupted as little as
possible, Capt. Allan shipped a few on the Avctic. The
latter vessel having completed her fishing earlier than
expected, and knowing that the crew of the Polaris would
be anxious to return home as speedily as possible, Captain
Adams, her commander, went in search of the Ravens-
craig, Finding her, he took on board those of the sur-
vivors it contained, but Capt. Allan had previously put on
board the /uzrepid—R. W. D. Bryan, astronomer and chap-
lain ; J. B. March, seaman ; and John W. Booth, fireman.
The /ntrefid is expected in the course of a few weeks. The
men state that the privations which they suffered were by
no means of a serious character. The life was rough,
laborious, and monotonous, and although danger occa-
sionally presented itself in a way well calculated to
inspire the greatest fear, yet no accident of any import-
ance occurred to the adventurers.

Capt. Markham, R.N., accompanied Capt. Adams, of
the Arctic, on his whaling voyage with the view of making
investigations in the northern regions. The captain left
Dundee on Friday, and was present in the Geographical
Section at Bradford on Saturday, where he was received
with great enthusiasm, and where he announced himself
as heart and soul a convert to the Smith Sound route to
the Pole. ;

The men connected with the Polaris Arctic expedition
left Dundee on Monday, and Liverpool on Tuesday, for
New York. All were in excellent health and spirits, and
some of them say that they would have no objection to
go on another such enterprise. Capt. Buddington states
that Capt. Hall was buried in lat. 81°38 N., and long.
6144 W. The vice-consul examined the crew of the
Polaris on Monday, and transmitted their depositions to
America, so that their statements may be extant should
any accident befall themselves.

Dr. Bessel, who was the chief of the scientific party
connected with the expedition, states that zoological,
meteorological, botanical, and geological specimens were
collected, but many of them were lost when the crew
separated in October last. Careful and minute observa-
tions were also made, and after the explorers were picked
up by the Ravenscraig they were continued. These
surveys, of course, were not so exact as was to be
desired, there being little convenience and very few in-
struments. The specimens taken on board the whalers
are all preserved, and it is believed that, from a
scientific point of view, they will be of very great value.
The opinion of Dr. Bessel is that, had no accident
occurred to the Po/aris, the expedition would have been
prosecuted. Regarding statements which had been made
respecting the causes which led to the death of Captain
Hall, he asserts that the captain was earried off by an
attack of apoplexy. The doctor declines to enter into
the question as to the management of the expedition after

436

the death of Capt. Hall, but there is every likelihood the

matters involved will be made the subject of judicial in-
quiry in America.

Taking all the circumstances into account, it is as-

tonishing that both divisions of the crew have escaped
without the loss of an individual and with so compara-
tively little hardship. The complete narrative of the Polaris
Expedition, with the important scientific results obtained,
will be looked for with impatient interest.

NOTES

WE regret exceedingly to announce that Prof. Donati, Director
of the Astronomical Observatory in Florence, died of cholera on
the 2oth inst. at Vienna, where he had arrived only two days
previously.

Dr. NELATON, the eminent Surgeon, died at Paris on the
21st inst, at the age of 66 years.

THE death is also announced at Paris of M. Coste, the well.
known naturalist and member of the French Institute, at the age
of sixty-six. He first devoted himself chiefly to the study
of comparative embryogeny, and his earlier works attracted so
much attention that a special professorship was created for him
at the College of France, Of late years he had chiefly applied
himself to the science of the artificial production of fish, and it
was on his recommendation that the Government in 1851 founded
the breeding ponds at Huningen for stocking the Rhéne with
salmon and trout, and which in two years produced 600,000
young fry in that river. As inspector-general of fluvial
and coast fisheries, he also made numerous experiments for
‘the propagation of oysters, but the expectations which had
been raised by his theories have not so far been realised by the
results obtained. M. Coste was the author of numerous physio-
logical works and reports to the Academy of Sciences,

Our list is not yet complete. Prof, Czermak, the eminent
physiologist, died at Leipzic on Tuesday, the 16th inst.

By the death of Prof. Barker, M.D., the professorship of

Experimental Physics in the Royal College of Science for

Ireland, Dublin, has become vacant. The chair is in the gift of

the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, South
Kensington. It is of the value of 200/, per annum, besides a
share in the fees paid by the students.

Pror. HuGcurs BENNETT, of Edinburgh,“ has been elected
Corresponding Member of the National Academy of Medicine
of France.

THERE will be an election at Magdalen College, Oxford, in

October next, to a Fellowship in Natural Science, the holder of

which will not be required to take holy orders. In the exami-
nation, which will be held in common with Merton College,
preference will be given to proficiency in Biology, the College
reserving to themselves the power of taking candidates in any
other branch of Natural Science, if it shall seem expedient to do
so. Candidates must have passed all the examinations required
by the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge for
the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and must not be in possession
of any ecclesiastical benefice, or of any property, Government
pension, or office tenable for life or during good behaviour (not
being an academical office within the University of Oxford), the
clear annual value of which shali exceed 2 307. They must also
produce testimonials of their fitness to become Fellows of the
College as a place of religion, learning, and education, and these
must be sent to the president on or before Monday, September
29. Candidates for the Fellowship are required to call on the
president on Monday, October 6, between the hours of 3 and s,

: NATURE

[ Sept. 25, 1873

or $andgp.M, The examination will commence on the follow:
ing day.

Ir seems that the projected balloon yoyage from New York
to Europe is not now likely to take place. An attempt was
made to inflate the balloon on the Ioth, but it failed, owing toa
high wind. The attempt was renewed on the 12th, but a rent
appeared and the operation was abandoned. Mr. Wise, the
aéronaut, had foreseen this result, owing to the imperfect manner
in which the balloon was constructed 3 and indeed from what has
‘been siated, it would seem Science may be congratulated that
an enterprise’in which newspaper advertising had so much to do,
has been thus liberated from the responsibility of having to
answer for a much more serious disaster, which, we repeat, need
not be risked at all so far as Science is concerned.

Mr. GEORGE SMITH has just discovered the fragments of an
ancient Assyrian Canon, from the Babylonian copy of which
the much-contested Canon of Berosus was unquestionably dee
rived. The importance of this relic to chronologists can
scarcely be over-estimated, and it will form the substance of a
paper shortly to be read before the Society of Biblical Archeology
by its fortunate discoverer.

A FRENCH translation of Grisebach’s ‘Vegetation der Erde
nach ihrer klimatischen Anordnung” is promised, with annota-
tions, by M. P, de Tchihatvhef.

WE understand that Messrs. Macmillan will publish, early in
the approaching season, a splendid series of pictures by Mr.
Joseph Wolf, illustrative of the “Life and Habits of Wild
Animals.” The illustrations have been in course of engraving by
Messrs. Whymper during the last seven years, and, as they

are the last series which will be drawn by Mr. Wolf, either

upon wood or upon stone, they will have an especial claim to the
attention of all those who are interested in Natural History,
The pictures are accompanied by descriptive letterpress by Mr.
D. G. Elliot, whose monograph of the pheasants was noticed
by us some time ago.

THE Fournal of Botany states that Dr. Beccari, the Italian
traveller and collector, when last heard of, was at the island of
Wokam, off the south-west coast of New Guinea 3 he was to go
on to Amboina, and had made large collections of plants and
animals, which no doubt will include a number of novelties.

THE Revue Horticole states that M. Planchon, the Professor
of Botany at Montpellier, has been charged by the French
Government with the duty of visiting America to study the
ravages of the new vine disease, the Pemphigus vitifolia. -No
change of government seems to lessen the sense of importance
of scientific investigation displayed by our neighbours across the
Channel.

A TRACT of hematite iron ore has been discovered in Shrop-
shire, and eleven hundred acres have been secured on behalf of
certain Staffordshire ironmasters, who will work it as.a company.
Some specimens contain 57 per cent. of iron. The discovery is
of great importance to the iron industry.

THE additions to the Zoolozical Society’s Gardens during the
past week include two Indian Antelopes (Antilope cervicapra)
from India, presented by Mr. G. E. Rogers ; an Alligator (A//i-
sator mississippiensis) from America, presented by Dr. Palin; a
Cardinal Grosbeak (Cardinalis virginianus), a Red-shouldered
Starling (Agelacus pheniceus), a Baltimore Hangnest (Zeterus
baltimore), from North America, presented by Mr. Samuel
Stubbs ; a Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), British, presented by Dr.
Williams ; a Rattlesnake (Cvofalus durissus) from North Ame-
rica, purchased ; twelye White-facel Tice Ducks (Dendrocygna
autumnaiis) from Brazil; a Manx Shearwater (Fuffinus anglo-
vum), British, deposited.

| Sept. 25

, 1873]
MOLECULES* ~

AN atom is a body which cannot be cut in two. <A molecule

~ is the smallest possible portion of a particular substance.
No one has ever seen or handled a single molecule. Mole-
cular science, therzfore, is one of those branches of study which
deal with things invisible and imperceptible by our senses, and
which cannot be subjected to direct experiment.

The mind of man has perplexed itself with many hard ques-
tions. Is space infinite, and if so in what sense? Is the mate-
rial world infinite in extent, and are all places within that extent
equally full of matter? Do atoms exist, or is matter infinitely
divisible ?

The discussion of questions of this kind has been going on
ever since men began to reason, and to each of us, assoon as we
obtain the use of our faculties, the same old questions arise as
fresh as ever. They form as essential a part of the science of the
nineteenth century of our era, as of that of the fifth century
before it.

We do not know much about the science organisation of
Thrace twenty-two centuries ago, or of the machinery then em-
ployed for diffusing an interest in physical research. There were
men, however, in those days, who devoted their lives to the
pursuit of knowledge with an ardour worthy of the most distin-
guished members of the British Association ; and the lectures in
which Democritus explained the atomic theory to his fellow-
citizens of Abdera realised, not in golden opinions only, but in
golden talents, a sum hardly equalled even in America.

To another very eminent philosopher, Anaxagoras, best known
to the world as the teacher of Socrates, we are indebted for the
most important service to the atomi¢ theory, which, after its
statement by Democritus, remained to be done. Anaxagoras,
in fact, stated a theory which so exactly contradicts the atomic
theory of Democritus that the truth or falsehood of the one theory
implies the falsehood or truth of the other. The question of the
existence or non-existence of atoms cannot be presented to us
this evening with greater clearness than in the alternative theories
of thes: two philosophers.

Take any portion of matter, say a drop of water, and observe its
properties. Like every other portion of matter we have ever seen,
it is divisible. Divide it in two, each portion appears to retain
all the properties of the original drop, and among others that of
being divisible. The parts are similar to the whole in every
respect except in absolute size.

Now go on repeating the process of division till the separate
ortions of water are so small that we can no longer perceive or
andle them. Still we have no doubt that the sub-division

might be carried further, if our senses were more acute and our
instruments more delicate. Thus far all are agreed, but now
the question arises, Can this sub-division be repeated for ever ?

According to Democritus and the atomic school, we must
answer in the negative. After a certain number of sub-divisions,
the drop’ would be divided into a number of parts each of which
is incapable of further sub-division, We should thus, in imagi-
nation, arrive at the atom, which, as its name literally signifies,
cannot be cutin two. This is the atomic doctrine of Demo-
critus, Epicurus, and Lucretius, and, I may add, of your lec-
turer.

According to Anaxagoras, on the other hand, the parts into
which the drop is divided, are in all respects similar to the whole
drop, the mere size of a body counting for nothing as regards
the nature of its substance. Hence if the whole drop is divisible,
so are its parts down to the minutest sub-divisions, and that with-
out end.

The essence of the doctrine of Anaxagoras is that the parts of
a body are in all respects similar to the whole. It was therefore
called the doctrine of Homoiomereia. Anaxagoras did not of
course assert this of the parts of organised bodies such as men
and animals, but he maintained that those inorganic substances
which appear to us homogeneous are really so, and that the uni-
versal experience of mankind testifies that every material body,
without exception, is divisible.

The doctrine of atoms and that of homogeneity are thus in
direct contradiction.

But we must now go on to molecules. Molecule is a modern
word, It does not occur in Fohnson’s Dictionary. The ideas
it embodies are those belonging to modern chemistry.

_A drop of water, to return to our former example, may be
divided into a certain number, and no more, of portions similar

ae spivered: before the British Association at Bradford, by Prot.

NATURE

437

to each other. Each of these the modern chemist calls a mole-
cule >f water. But itis by no means an atom, for it contains
two different substances, oxygen and hydrogen, and by a certain
process the molecule may be actually divided into two parts, one
consisting of oxygen and the other of hydrogen. According to
the received doctrine, in each molecule of water there are two
molecules of hydrogen and one of oxygen. Whether these are
or are not ultimate atoms I shall not attempt to decide.

We now see what a molecule is, as distinguished from an
atom. .

A molecuie of a substance is a small body such that if, on the
one hand, a number of similar molecules were assembled to-
gether they would form a mass of that substance, while on the
other hand, if any portion of this molecule were removed, it
would no longer be able, along with an assemblage of other
molecules similarly treated, to make up a mass of the original
substance.

Every substance, simple or compound, has its own molecule.
If this molecule be divided, its parts are molecules of a differeat
substance or substances from that of which the whole is a mole-
cule. An atom, if there is such a thing, must be a molecule of
an elementary substance. Since, therefore, every molecule is
not an atom, but every atom is a molecule, I shall use the word
molecule as the more general term,

I have no intention of taking up your time by expounding the
doctrines of modern chemistry with respect to the molecules -of
different substances. It is not the special but the universal inte-
rest of molecular science which encourages me to address you.
It is not because we happen to be chemists or physicists or spe-
cialists of any kind that we are attracted towards this centre of
all material existence, but because we all belong to a race en-
dowed with faculties which urge us on to search deep and ever
deeper into the nature of things.

We find that now, as in the days of the earliest physical specu-
lations, all physical researches appear to converge towards the
same point, and every inquirer, as he looks forward into
the dim region towards which the path of discovery is leading
him, sees, each according to his sight, the vision of the same
quest.

One may see the atom as a material point, invested and sur- :

rounded by potential forces. Another szes no garment of force,
but only the bare and utter hardness of mere impenetrability.

But though many a speculator, as he has seen the vision recede
before him into the innermost sanctuary of the inconceivably
little, has had to confess that the quest was not for him, and
though philosophers in every age have been exhorting each other
to direct their minds to some more useful and attainable aim,
each generation, from the earliest dawn of science to the present
time, has contributed a due proportion of its ablest intellects to
the quest of the ultimate atom.

Our business this evening is to describe some researches in
molecular science, and in particular to place before you any de-
finite information which has been obtained respecting the mole-
cules themselves. The old atomic theory, as described by Lucretius
and revived in modern times, asserts that the molecules of all
bodies are in motion, even when the body itself appears to be at
rest. These motions of molecules are in the case of solid bodies
confined within so narrow a range that even with our best
microscopes we cannot detect that they alter their places at all.
In liquids and gases, however, the molecules are not confined
within any definite limits, but work their way through the
whole mass, even when that mass is not disturbed by any visible
motion.

‘This process of diffusion, as it is called, which goes on in gases ~

and liquids and even in some solids, can be subjected to experi-
ment, and forms one of the most convincing proofs of the motion
of molecules.

Now the recent progress of molecular science began with the
study of the mechanical effect of the impact of these moving
molecules when they strike against any solid body. Of course
these flying molecules must beat against whatever is placed
among them, and the constant succession of these strokes is, ac-
cording to our theory, the sole cause of what is called the pressure
of air and other gases.

This appears to have been first suspected by Daniel Bernoulli,
but he had not the means which we now have of verifying the
theory. The same theory was afterwards brought forward
independently by Lesage, of Geneva, who, however, devoted
most of his labour to the explanation of gravitation by the im-
pact of atoms, Then Herapath, in his ‘‘ Mathematical Physics,”

4

438 7 NATURE

»

[Sept 25, 1873

published in 1847, made a much more extensive ‘application of
the theory to gases, and Dr. Joule, whose absence from our
meeting we must all regret, calculated the actual velocity of the
molecules of hydrogen.

The further development of the theory is generally sup-
posed to have been begun with a paper by Kroénig, which does
not, however, so far as I can see, contain any improvement on what
had gone before. It seems, however, to have drawn the attention
of Prof. Clausius to the subject, and to him we owe a very large
part of what has been since accomplished. ‘

We all know that air or any other gas placed in a vessel
presses against the sides of the vessel, and against the surface of
any body placed within it. On the kinetic theory this pressure
is entirely due to the molecules striking against these surfaces,
and thereby communicating to them a series of impulses which
follow each other in such rapid succession that they produce
an effect which cannot be distinguished from that of a continuous
pressure,

If the velocity of the molecules is given, and the number
varied, then since each molecule, on an average, strikes the side
of the vessel the same number of times, and with an impulse of
the same magnitude, each will contribute an equal share to the
whole pressure. The pressure in a vessel of given size is
therefore proportional to the number of molecules in it, that is to
the quantity of gas in it.

This is the complete dynamical explanation of the fact dis-
covered by Robert Boyle, that the pressure of air is proportional
to its density. It shows also that of different portions of gas
forced into a vessel, each produces its own part of the pressure
independently of the rest, and this whether these portions be of
the same gas or not.

Let us next suppose that the velocity of the molecules is in-
creased. Each molecule will now strike the sides of the vessel a
greater number of times in a second, but besides this, the impulse
of each blow will be increased in the same proportion, so that
the part of the pressure due to each molecule will vary as the

Square of the velocity. Now the increase of the square of velocity

corresponds, in our theory, to a rise of temperature, and in this
Way we can explain the effect of warming the gas, and also the
law discovered by Charles that the Proportional expansion of
‘all gases between given temperatures is the same.

The dynamical theory also tells us what will happen if
molecules of different masses are allowed to knock about
together. The greater masses will go slower than the smaller
ones, so that, on an average, every molecule, great or small,
will have the same energy of motion.

The proof of this dynamical theorem,.in which I claim the
priority, has recently been greatly developed and improved by
Dr. Ludwig Boltzmann. “The most important consequence
which flows from it is that a cubic centimetre of every gas at
standard temperature and pressure contains the same number of
molecules. This is the dynamical explanation of Gay Lussac’s
law of the equivalent volumes of gases. But we must now
descend to particulars, and calculate the actual velocity of a
molecule of hydrogen.

A cubic centimetre of hydrogen, at the temperature of
melting ice and at a pressure of one atmosphere, weighs
000008954 grammes. We have to find at what rate this small
mass must move (whether altogether or in separate molecules
makes no difference) so as to produce the observed pressure
on the sides of the cubic centimetre, This is the calculation
which was first made by Dr. Joule, and the result is 1,859
metres per second. This is what we are accustomed to call a
great velocity. It is greater than any velocity obtained, in
artiliery practice. The velocity of other gases is less, as you
will see by the table, but in all cases it is very great as compared
with that of bullets,

We have now to conceive the molecules of the air in this
hall flying about in all directions, ata rate of about seventeen
miles in a minute,

If all these molecules were flying in the same direction, they
would constitute a wind blowing at the rate of seventeen miles
a minute, and the only wind which approaches this velocity is
that which proceeds from the mouth of acannon. How, then,
are you and I able to stand here? Only because the molecules
happen to be flying in different directions, so that those which
strike against our backs enable us to support the storm which is
beating against our faces. Indeed, if this molecular bombard-
ment were to cease, even for an instant, our veins would swell,
our breath would leave us, and we should, literally, expire. But

it isnot only against us or against the swalls of the room that |
the molecules are striking. Consider the immense number of

them, and the fact that they are flying in every possible direction,
and you will see that they cannot avoid striking each other,
Every time that two molecules come into collision, the paths of
both are changed, and they go off in new directions. Thus
each molecule is continually getting its course altered, so
that in spite of its great velocity it may be a long time be-

fore it reaches any great distance from the point at which it set
out.

I have here a bottle containing amnionia. Ammonia is a
gas which you can recognise by its smell. Its molecules have a
velocity of six hundred metres per second, so that if their course
had not been interrupted by striking against the molecules of air
in the hall, everyone in the most distant gallery would have
smelt ammonia before I was able to pronounce the name of
the gas. But instead of this, each molecule of ammonia is so
jostled about by the molecules of air, that it is sometimes
going one way and sometimes another. It is like a hare which
is always doubling, and though it goes a great pace, it makes
very little progress. Nevertheless, the smell of ammonia is now
beginning to be perceptible at some distance from the bottle.
The gas does diffuse itself through the air, though the process _
isa slow one, and if we could close up every opening of this |
hall so as to make it air-tight, and leave everything to itself ©
for some weeks, the ammonia would become uniformly mixed
through every part of the air in the hall.

This property of gases, that they diffuse through each other,
was first remarked by Priestley. Dalton showed that it takes
place quite independently of any chemical action between the
inter-diffusing gases, Graham, whose iFesearches were és-
pecially directed towards those phenomena which seem to throw
light on molecular motions, made a careful study of diftusion,
and obtained the first results from which the rate of diffusion
can be calculated.

Still more recently the rates of diffusion of gases into each
other have been measured with great precision by Prof.
Loschmidt of Vienna.

He placed the two gases in two similar vertical tubes, the
lighter gas being placed above the heavier, so as to avoid the
formation of currents, He then opened. a sliding valve, so as to
make the two tubes into one, and after leaving the gases to them-
selves for an hour or so, he shut the valve, and determined how
much of each gas had diffused into the other. :

As most gases are invisible, I shall exhibit gaseous diffusion to
you by means of two gases, ammonia and hydrochloric acid,
which, when they meet, form a solid product. The ammonia,
being the lighter gas, is placed above the hydrochloric acid, with
a stratum of air between, but you will soon see that the gases
can diffuse through this stratum of air, and produce a cloud of
white smoke when they meet. During the whole of this process
no currents or any other visible motion can be detected, Every
part of the vessel appears as calm as a jar of undisturbed air.

But, according to our theory, the same kind of motion is going |
on in calm air as in the inter-diffusing gases, the only difference _
being that we can trace the molecules from one place to another
more easily when they are of a different nature from those
through which they are diffusing,

If we wish to form a mental representation of what is going on
among the molecules in calm air, we cannot do better than ob-
serve a swarm of bees, when every individual bee is flying
furiously, first in one direction, and then in another, while the
swarm, asa whole, either remains at rest, or sails slowly through
the air,

In certain seasons, swarms of bees are apt to fly off to a great
distance, and the owners, in order to identify their a st
when they find them on other people’s ground, sometimes throw
handfulls of flour at the swarm. Now let us suppose that the
flour thrown at the flying swarm has whitened those bees only
which happened to be in the lower half of the swarm, leaving
those in the upper half free from flour.

If the bees still go on flying hither and thither in an irregular
manner, the floury bees will be found in continually increasing
proportions in the upper part of the swarm, till they have be-
come equally diffused through every part of it. But the reason
of this diffusion is not because the bees were marked with flour,
but because they are flying about. The only effect of the marking
is to enable us to identify certain bees,

We have no means of marking a select number of molecules of
air, so as to trace them after they have become diffused among

ir

* ; gies

Sept. 25, 1873]

NATURE

439

others, but we may communicate to them some property by
which we may obtain evidence of their diffusion.

For instance, if a horizontal stratum of air is moving hori-
zontally, molecules diffusing out of this stratum into those above
and below will carry their horizontal motion with them, and so
tend to communicate motion to the neighbouring strata, while
molecules diffusing out of the neighbouring strata into the moving
one will tend to bring it to rest. The action between the strata is
somewhat like that of two rough surfaces, one of which slides over
the other, rubbing on it. Friction is the name given to this action

~ between solid bodies ; in the case of fluids it is called internal

friction or viscosity.

It is in fact only another kind ot diffusion—a lateral diffusion

of momentum, and its amount can be calculated from data derived
from observations of the first kind of diffusion, that of matter.
The comparative values of the viscosity of different gases were
determined by Graham in his researches on the transpiration of
gases through long narrow tubes, and their absolute values have
been deduced from experiments on the oscillation of discs by
Oscar Meyer and myself.
- Another way of tracing the diffusion of molecules through
calm air is to heat the upper stratum of the air in‘a yessel, and
so observe the rate at which this heat is communicated to the
lower strata. This, in fact, is a third kind of diffusion—that of
energy, and the rate at which it must take place was calculated
from data derived from experiments on viscosity before any direct
experiments on the conduction of heat had been made. Prof.
Stefan, of Vienna, has recently, by a very delicate method,
succeeded in determining the conductivity of air, and he finds
it, as he tells us, in striking agreement with the vaiue predicted
by the theory.

All these three kinds of diffusion—the diffusion of matter, of
momentum, and of energy—are carried on by the motion of the
molecules. The greater the velocity of the molecules and the
farther they travel before their paths are altered by collision with
other molecules, the more rapid will be the diffusion. Now we
know already the velocity of the molecules, and therefore by ex-
periments on diffusion we can determine how far, on an average,
a molecule travels without ‘striking another. Prof. Clausius, of
Bonn, who first gave us precise ideas about the motion of agita-
tion of molecules, calls this distance the mean path of a mole-
cule. Ihave calculated, from Prof. Loschmidt’s diffusion ex-
periments, the mean path of the molecules of four well-known
gases. The average distance travelled bya molecule between
one collision and another is given in the table. It is a very
small distance, quite imperceptible to us even with our best
microscopes. Roughly speaking, it is about the tenth part of
the length of a wave of light, which you know is a very small
quantity. Of course the time spent on so short a path by such
swift molecules must be very small. I have calculated the
number of collisions which each must undergo in a second.
They are given in the table and are reckoned by thousands of
millions. No wonder that the travelling power of the swiftest
molecule is but small, when its course is completely changed
thousands of millions of times in a second.

The three kinds of diffusion also take place in liquids, but the
relation between the rates at which they take place is not so simple
as inthe case of gases. The dynamical theory of liquids is not so
well understood as that of gases, but the principal difference be-
tween a gas and a liquid seems to be that in a gas each molecule
spends the greater part of its time in describing its free path, and
is for a very small portion of its time engaged in encounters with
other molecules, whereas in a liquid the molecule has hardly any
free path, and is always in a state of close encounter with other
molecules.

Hence in a liquid the diffusion ot motion from one molecule to
another takes place much more rapidly than the diffusion of the
molecules themselves, for the same reason that itis more expedi-
tious ina dense crowd to pass on a letter from hand to hand
than to give it to a special messenger to work his way through
the crowd. I have here a jar, the lower part of which contains
a solution of copper sulphate, while the upper part contains pure
water. It has been standing here since Friday, and you see
how little progress the blue liquid has made in diffusing itself
through the water above. The rate of diffusion of a solution of
sugar has been carefully observed by Voit. Comparing his re-
sults with those of Loschmidt on gases, we find that about as
much diffusion takes place in a second in gases as requires a day
in liquids.

The rate of diffusion of momentum is also slower in liquids

than in gases, but by no means in the same proportion. The
same amount of motion takes about ten times as long to subside
in water as in air, as you will see by what takes place when I stir
these two jars, one containing water and the other air. There is
still less difference between the rates at which a rise of tempera-
ture is propagated through a liquid and through a gas.

In solids the molecules are stillin motion, but their motions
are confined within very narrow limits. Hence .the diffusion of
matter does not take place in solid bodies, though that of motion
and heat takes place very freely. Nevertheless, certain liquids
can diffuse through colloid solids, such as jelly and gum, and by-
drogen can make its way through iron and palladium.

We have no time to do more than mention that most wonder-
ful molecular motion which is called clectrolysis. Here is an
electric current passing through acidulated water, and causing
oxygen to appear at one electrode and hydrogen at the other.
In the space between, the water is perfectly calm, and yet two
opposite currents of oxygen and of hydrogen must be passing
through it. The physical theory of this process has been studied
by Clausius, who has given reasons for asserting that in ordinary

water the molecules are not only moving, but every now and _

then striking each other with such violence that the oxygen and
hydrogen of the molecules part company, and dance about
through the crowd, seeking partners which have become
dissociated in the same way. In ordinary water these ex-
changes produce, on the whole, no observable effect, but
no sooner does the electromotive force begin to act than it
exerts its guiding influence on the unattached molecules, and
bends the course of each toward its proper electrode, till the
moment when, meeting with an unappropriated molecule of the
opposite kind, it enters again into a more or less permanent
union with it till it is again dissociated by another shock. Elec-
par therefure, is a kind of diffusion assisted by electromotive
‘orce,

Another branch of molecular science is that which relates to
the exchange of molecules between a liquid and a gas. It in-
cludes the theory of evaporation and condensation, in which the
gas in question is the vapour of the liquid, and a‘so the theory of
the absorption of a gas by a liquid of a different substance. The
researches of Dr. Andrews on the relations between the liquid
and the gaseous state have shown us that though the statements
in our own elementary text-books may be so neatly expressed
that they appear almost self-evident, their true interpretation
may involve some principle so profound that, till the right man
has laid hold of it, no one ever suspects that anything is left to
be discovered.

These, then, are, some of the fields from which the data of
molecular science are gathered. We may divide the ultimate
results into three ranks, according to the completeness of our
knowledge of them.

Tothe first rank belong the relative masses of the mole-
cules of different gases, and their velocities in metres per
second. ‘These data are obtained from experiments on the pres-
sure and density of gases, and are known to a high degree of
precision.

In the second rank we must place the relative size of the
molecules of different gases, the length of their mean paths, and
the number of collisions in a second. ‘These quantities are de-
duced from experiments on the three kinds of diffusion, Their
received values must be regarded as rough approximations till
the methods of experimenting are greatly improved.

There is another set of quantities which we must place i the
third rank, because our knowledge of them is neither precise, as
in the first rank, nor approximate, as in the second, but is only
as yet of the nature of a probable conjecture. These are the
absolute mass of a molecule, its absolute diameter, and the
number of moleoules in a cubic centimetre. We know the rela-
tive masses of different molecules with great accuracy, and we
know their relative diameters approximately. From these we
can deduce the relative densities of the molecules themselves,
So far we are on firm ground.

The great resistance of liquids to compression makes it pros
bable that their molecules must be at about the same distance
from each other as that at which two molecules of the same
substance in the gaseous form act on each other during an
encounter. This conjecture has been put to the test by Lorenz
Meyer, who has compared the densities of different liquids with
the calculated relative densities of the molecules of their vapours,
and has found a remarkable correspondence between them.

Now Loschmidt has deduced from the dynamical theory the

NATURE

following remarkable proportion :—As the volume of a gas is to
the combined volume of all the molecules contained in it, so is
the mean path of a molecule to one-eighth of the diameter of
a molecule.

Assuming that the volume of the substance, when reduced to
the liquid form, is not much greater than the combined volume
of the molecules, we obtain from this proportion the diameter of
amolecule. In this way Loschmidt, in 1865, made the first
estimate of the diameter of a molecule. Independently of him
and of each other, Mr. Stoney in 1868, and Sir W. Thomson in
1870, published results of a similar kind, those of Thomson
being deduced not only in this way, but from considerations
derived from the thickness of soap bubbles, and from the electric
properties of metals.

According to the table, which I have calculated from Lo-
schmidt’s data, the size of the molecules of hydrogen is such that
about two million of them in a row would occupy a millimetre,
and a million million million million of them would weigh be-
tween four and five grammes,

In a cubic centimetre of any gas at standard pressure and tem-
perature there are about nineteen million million million mole-
cules. All these numbers of the third rank are, I need not tell
you, to be regarded as at present conjectural. In order to
warrant us in putting any confidence in numbers obtained in this
way, we should have to compare together a greater number of
independent data than we have as yet obtained, and to show that
they lead to consistent results,

Thus far we have been considering molecular science as an
inquiry into natural phenomena. But though the professed aim
of all scientific work is to unravel the secrets of nature, it has
another effect, not less valuable, on the mind of the worker. It
leaves him in possession of methods which nothing but scientific
work could have led him te invent, and it places him in a
position from which many regions of nature, besides that which
he has been stulying, appear under a new aspect.

The study of molecules has developed a method of its own,
and it has also opened up new views of nature.

When Lucretius wishes us to form a mental representation of
the motion of atoms, he tells us to look at a sunbeam shining
through a darkened room (the same instrument of research by
which Dr, Tyndall makes visible to us the dust we breathe, ) and to
observe the motes which chase each other in all directions through
it. This motion of the visible motes, he tells us, is but a result of
thefarmorecomplicated motion of the invisible atoms which knock
the motesabout. In his dream of nature, as Tennyson tells us, he

“ saw the flaring atom-streams

And torrents of her myriad universe,

Ruining along the illimitable inane,

Fly on to clash together again, and make

Another and another frame of things

For ever.”
And it is‘no wonder that he should have attempted to burst
the bonds of Fate by making his atoms deviate from their
courses at quite uncertain times and places, thus attributing to
them a kird of irrational free will, which on his materialistic
theory is the only explanation of that power of voluntary action
of which we ourselves are conscious.

As long as we have to deal with only two molecules, and
have all the data given us, we can calculate the result of their
encounter, but when we have to deal with millions of molecules,
each of which has millions of encounters in a second, the com-
plexity of he problem seems to shut out all hope of a legitimate
solution,

The modern atomists have therefore adopted a method which
is I believe new in the department of mathematical physics,
though it has long been in use in the Section of Statistics.
When the working members of Section F get hold of a Report of
the Census, or any other document containing the numerical data
of Economic and Social Science, they begin by distributing the
whole population into groups, according to age, income-tax,
education, religious belief, or criminal convictions. The number
of individuals is far too great to allow of their tracing the his-
tory of each separately, so that, in order to reduce their labour
within human limits, they concentrate their attention on a
smail number of artificial groups. The varying number of indi-
viduals in each group, and not the varying state of each indi-
vidual, is the primary datum from which they work.

This, of course, is not the only method of studying human nature.
We may observe the conduct of individual men and compare it
with that conduct which their previous character and their
present circumstances, according to the best existing theory,

[ Sept. 25, 1873

would lead us to expect. Those who practise this method en-
deavour to improve their knowledge of the elements of human
nature, in much the same way as an astronomer corrects the
elements of a planet by comparing its actual position with that
deduced from the received elements. The study of human nature
by parents and schoolmasters, by historians and statesmen, is
therefore to be distinguished from that carried on by registrars
and tabalators, and by those statesmen who put their faith in
figures. The one may be called the historical, and the other
the statistical method.

The equations of dynamics completely express the laws of the -
historical method as applied to matter, but the application of
these equations implies a perfect knowledge of all the data. But
the smallest portion of matter which we can subject to experiment
consis‘s of millions of molecules, not one of which ever becomes
individually sensible to us. We cannot, therefore, ascertain the
actual motion of any one of these molecules, so that we are
obliged to abandon the strict historical method, and to adopt
the statistical method of dealing with large groups of molecules.

The data of the statistical method as applied to molecular science
are the sums of large numbers of molecular quantities. In
studying the relations between quantities of this kind, we meet
with a new kind of regularity, the regularity of averages, which
we can depend upon quite sufficiently for all practical purposes,
but which can make no claim to that character of absolute
precision which belongs to the laws of abstract dynamics. :

Thus molecular science teaches us that our experiments can
never give us anything more than statistical information, and
that no law deduced from them can pretend to absolute pre-
cision. But when we pass from the contemplation of our
experiments to that of the molecules themselves, we leave the
world of chance and change, and enter a region where every-
thing is certain and immutable, :

The molecules are conformed to a constant type with a pre-
cision which is not to be found in the sensible properties of the
bodies which they constitute. In the first place the mass ofeach
individual molecule, and all its other properties, are absolutely
unalterable. Inthe second place the properties of all molecules
of the same kind are absolutely identical,

Let us consider the properties of two kinds of molecules, those
of oxygen and those of hydrogen.

We can procure specimens of oxygen from very different
sources—from the air, from water, from rocks of every geo-
logical epoch. The history of these specimens has been very
different, and if, during thousands of years, difference of circum-
stances could produce difference of properties, these specimens of
oxygen would show it.

In like manner we may procure hydrogen from water, from
coal, or, as Graham did, from meteoric iron. Take two litres of ~
any specimen of hydrogen, it will combine with exactly one litre
of any specimen of oxygen, and will form exactly two litres of
the vapour of water. y 3

Now if, during the whole previous history of either specimen,
whether imprisoned in the rocks, flowing in the sea, or careering
through unknown regions with the meteorites, any modification
of the molecules had taken place, these relations would no
longer be preserved.

But we have another and an entirely different method of com-
paring the properties of molecules. The molecule, though in-
destructible, is not a hard rigid body, but is capable of
internal movements, and when these are excited it emits rays,
the wave-length of which is a measure of the time of vibration
of the molecule. x ee

Ly means of the spectroscope the wave-lengths of different
kinds of light may be compared to within one ten-thousandth
part. In this way it has been ascertained, not only that mole-
cules taken from every specimen of hydrogen in our laboratories
have the same set of periods .of vibration, but that light, having
the same set of periods of vibration, is emitted from the sun and
from the fixed stars.

We are thus assured that molecules of the same nature as
those of our hydrogen exist in those distant regions, or at least
did exist when the light by which we see them was emitted,

From a comparison of the dimensions of the buildings of th
Egyptians with those of the Greeks, it appears that they have a
common measure. Hence, even if no ancient author had recorded
the fact that the two nations employed the same cubit as a
standard of length, we might prove it from the buildings them-
selves. We should also be justified in asserting that at some
time or other a material standard of length must have been

‘
,
!
‘
>

a ea

carried from one country to the other, or that both countries
had obtained their standards from a common source.

But in the heavens we discover by their light, and by their
light alone, stars so distant from each other that no material
thing can ever have passed from one to another, and yet this
ight, which is to us the sole evidence of the existence of these
distant worlds, tells us also that each of them is built up of mole-
cules of the same kinds as those which we find onearth. A
molecule of hydrogen, for example, whether in Sirius or in Arc-
turus, executes its vibrations in precisely the same time.

Each molecule, therefore, throughout the universe, bears im-
pressed on it the stamp of a metric system as distinctly as does
the metre of the Archives at Paris, or the double royal cubit of
the Temple of Karnac. ’

No theory of evolution can be formed to account for the simi-
larity of molecules, for evolution necessarily implies continuous
change, and the molecule is incapable of growth or decay, of
generation or destruction.

None of the processes of Nature, since the time when Nature
began, have produced the slightest difference in the properties of
any molecule. We are therefore unable to ascribe either the
existence of the molecules or the identity of their properties to
the operation of any of the causes which we call natural.

On the other hand, the exact quality of each molecule to all
others of the same kind gives it, as Sir John Herschel has well
said, the essential character of a manufactured article, and pre-
cludes the idea of its being eternal and self.existent.

Thus we have been led, along a strictly scientific path, very
near to the point at which Science must stop. Not that Science
is debarred from studying the internal mechanism of a mole-
cule which she cannot take to pieces, any more than from in-
vestigating an organism which she cannot put together.
But in tracing back the history of matter Science is arrested
when she assures herself, on the one hand, that the molecule has
been made, and on the other that it has not been made by any
of the processes we call natural.

Science is incompetent to reason upon the creation of matter
itself out of nothing. We have reached the utmost limit of our
thinking faculties when we have admitted that because matter
cannot be eternal and self-existent it must have been created.

It is only when we contemplate, not matter in itself, but the
form in which it actually exists, that our mind finds something
on which it can lay hold. :

That matter, as such, should have certain fundamental pro-
perties—that it should exist in space and be capable of motion,
that its motion should be persistent, and so on, are truths which
may, for anything we know, be of the kind which metaphysicians
call necessary. We may use our knowledge of such truths for
purposes of deduction but we have no data for speculating as to
their origin,

But that there should be exactly so much matter and no more
in every molecule of hydrogen is a fact of a very different order.
We haye here a particular distribution of matter—a collocation
—to use the expression of Dr. Chalmers, of things which we
have no difficulty in imagining to have been arranged other-
wise,

The form and dimensions of the orbits of the planets, for in-
stance, are not determined by any law of nature, but depend upon
a particular collocation of matter, The same is the case with
respect to the size of the earth, from which the standard of what
is called the metrical system has been derived. But these
astronomical and terrestrial magnitudes are far inferior in scien-
tific importance to that most fundamental of all standards which
forms the base of the molecular system. Natural causes, as
we know, are at work, which tend to modify, if they do not at
length destroy, all the arrangements and dimensions of the earth
and the whole solar system. -But though in the course of ages
catastrophes have occurred and may yet occur in the heavens,
though ancient systems may be dissolved and new systems evolved’
out of their ruins, the molecules out of which these systems are
built—the foundation stones of the material universe—remain
unbroken and unworn.

They continue this day as they were created, perfect in num-
ber and measure and weight, and from the ineffaceable characters
impressed on them we may learn that those aspirations after
accuracy in measurement, truth in statement, and justice in
action, which we reckon among our noblest attributes as men,
are ours because they are essential constituents of the image of
Him Who in the beginning created, not only the heaven

and the earth, but the materials of which heaven and earth |
| Siemens.

consist.

NATURE

Table of Mol.c.l.r D.ta.

"IE Oye. "oe ala
Mass ot molecule & )
(hydrogen = 1) J Y 16 14 2
Rank
I. Velocity (of mean*
square),metres per 1859 465 497 396
second at o° C,
Mean path, tenth- 6 6 82
Rank metres, 995 ee Ae 379
- IL, eee
Collisions in a ) .
second, (millions) § 17750 7646 9489 9720
Diameter, tenth- 1 ; f 5
Rank metre 3 ror 76 8°3 9°3
IIL.
Mass, twenty-fifth-
pried j 46 736 644 OL
Table of Diffusion : (rete): measure.
second
Calculated Observed.
H&O 0°7086 072145
H&CO 06519 0°6422 |
H & CO, 0°5575 0'5558 | Diffusion of matter observed
O&CO 0'1807 o1802 (by Loschmidt.
O&CO, 01427 | Oo'1409
CO & CO, 01386 | o'r4o6 }
H 12990 | 1°49 }
oO o'1884 0213 ( Diffcsion of momentum
(ee) 01748 O'212 \ Graham and Meyer.
CO, 0°1087 O°L17 j
Gaidce Boe \igiaton of temperature ab-
Yeon o'183 | served by Stefan,

Cane sugar in water 0°00000365 } y, .
Sa BE ‘ ’ Voit.

Diffusion in a day 0°3144 j

Salt in water . . o’00000116 Fick,

FUEL®

JX accepting the invitation of the Council of the British
Association to deliver an address to the operative classes of
this great industrial district, I felt that I was undertaking no
easy task. Having to speak on behalf of the Association, and
in the presence of many of its most distinguished members,
I am bound to treat my subject scientifically, but I have to bear
in mind at the same time that [ am addressing myself to men
unquestionably of good intelligence, but without that scientific
training which has almost created a language of its own,

It is no consolation for me to think, that those who have
taken a similar task upon themselves in former years, have
admirably succeeded in divesting highly scientific subjects of
the formalism in which they are habitually clothed. The very
names of these men—Tyndall, Huxley, Miller, Lubbock, and
Spottiswoode—are such as to preclude in me all idea of rivalry,
but I hope to profit by their example, and to remember that
truth must always be simple, and that it is only where know-
ledge is imperfect that scientific formule must take the place
of plain statements. ] : ;

The subject matter of my discourse is ‘‘ Fuel ;” a matter with
which every one of us has becomé familiarised from his infancy,
but which nevertheless is but little understood even by those
who are most largely interested in its applications ; it involves
considerations of the highest 2 grioré interest, both from a
scientific and a practical point of view. ih

I purpose to arrange my subject under five principal heads :—

t. What is fuel ?

2.+Vihence is fuel derived ?

3. How should fuel be used ?

4. The coal question of the day.

5. Wherein consists the fuel of the sun?

What is fuel?—Some of you may have alrcady said within
yourselves that it is but wasted time to enlarge upon su-h a

* Lecture delivered before the British Assocation at Piadford, by Dr.

+e CO

442

NATURE

theme, since all know that fuel is coal drawn from the earth
from deposits, with which this country especially has been
bountifully supplied ; why disturb our plain understanding by
scientific definitions which will neither reduce the cost of coal,
nor make it last longer on our domestic hearth ?

Yet I must claim your patience for a little, lest, if we do not
first agree upon the essential nature of fuel, we may afterwards
be at variance in discussing its origin and its uses, the latter at
any rate being of practical interest, and a subject worthy of
your most attentive consideration.

Fuel, then, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, is carbo-
naceous matter, which may be in the solid, the liquid, or in the
gaseous condition, and which, in combining with oxygen, gives
rise to the phenomenon of heat. Commonly speaking, this
development of heat is accompanied by flame, because the sub-
stance produced in combustion is gaseous. In burning coal, for
instance, on a fire-grate, the oxygen of the atmosphere enters
into combination with the solid carbon of the coal and produces
carbonic acid—a gas which enters the atmosphere, of which it
forms a necessary constituent, since without it the growth of trees
and other plants would be impossible. But combustion is not
necessarily accompanied by flame, or even by a display of in-
tense heat. The metal magnesium burns with a great display of
light and heat, but without flame, because the product of com-
bustion is not a gas but a solid, viz. oxide of magnesia. Again,
metallic iron, if in a finely divided state, ignites when exposed to
the atmosphere, giving rise to the phenomena of heat and light
without flame, because the result of combustion is iron oxide or
rust; but the same iron, if presented to the atmosphere—more
especially to a damp atmosphere—in a solid condition, does not
ignite, but is nevertheless gradually converted into metallic oxide
or rust as before. :

Here, then, we have combination without the phenomena
either of flame or light; but by careful experiment we should
find that heat is nevertheless produced, and that the amount of
heat so produced precisely equals that obtained more rapidly in
exposing spongy iron to the action of oxygen. Only, in the latter
case the heat is developed by slow degrees, and is dispersed as
soon as produced ; whereas in the former the rate of production
exceeds the rate of dispersion, and heat, therefore, accumulates
to the extent of raising the mass to redness. It is evident from
these experiments that we have to widen our conception, and
call fuel ‘t any substance which is capable of entering into com-
bination with another substance, and in so doing gives rise to the
phenomenon of heat.”

In thus defining fuel, it might appear at first sight that we
should find upon our earth a great variety, and an inexhaustible
supply of substances that might be ranged under this head ; but
a closer investigation will soon reveal the fact that its supply is,
comparatively speaking, extremely limited.

In looking at the solid crust of the earth, we find it to be
composed for the most part of siliceous, calcareous, and magne-
sian rock; the former, silica, consisting of the metal silicon
combined with oxygen, and is therefore not fuel, but rather a
burnt substance which has parted with its heat of combustion
ages ago; the second limestone, being carbonate of lime, or the
combination of two substances, viz., oxide of calcium and
carbonic acid, both of which are essentially products of com-
bustion, the one of the metal calcium and the other of carbon ;
and the third, magnesia, being the substance magnesium, which
I have just burnt before you, and which, further combined
with lime, constitutes dolomite rock, of which the Alps are
mainly composed. All the commoner metals, such as iron,
zine, tin, alumina, sodivm, &c., we find in nature in an oxidised
or burnt condition ; and the only metallic substances that have
resisted the intense oxidising action that must have prevailed at
one period of the earth's creation are the so-called precious metals,
gold, platinum, iridium, and to some extent also silver and cop-
per. But what about the oceans of water, which have occasionally
been cited as representing a vast store of heat-producing power
ready for our use when coal shall be exhausted? Not many
months ago, indeed, on the occasion of a water-gas company
being formed, statements to this effect could be seen in some of
our leading papers. Nothing, however, could be more fallacious.
When hydrogen burns, doubtless a great development of heat
ensues, but water is already the result of this combustion (which
took place upon the globe before the ocean was formed), and the
separation of these two substances would take precisely the same
amount of heat as was originally produced in the combustion.
It will thus be scea that both the solid and fluid constituents of

our earth, with the exception of cal, of naphtha (which is a |

mere modification of coal), and the precious metals, are products —

of combustion, and therefore the very reverse of fuel. Our earth
may indeed be looked upon as ‘‘a ball of cinder, rolling eternally
through space,” but happily in company with another celestial
body—the sun—whose glorious beams are the physical cause of
everything that moves and lives, or that has the power within
itself of imparting life, heat, or motion. The invigorating influ-
ence is made perceptible to our senses in the form of heat, but it
is fair to ask, what is heat, that it should be capable of coming to
us from the sun, and of being treasured up in our fuel deposits
both below and on the surface of the earth ?

If this inquiry had been put to me thirty years ago, I should
have been much perplexed. By reference to books on Physical
Science, I should have learnt that heat was a subtle fluid which,
somehow or other, had taken up its residence in the fuel, and
which, upon ignition of the latter, was sallying forth either to
vanish or to abide elsewhere ; but I should not have been able
to associate the two ideas of combustion and development of heat
by any intelligible principle in nature, or to suggest any process
by which it could have been derived from the sun and petrified,
or, as the empty phrase ran, rendered latent in the fuel.

It is by the labours of Meyer, Joule, Clausius, Ranken, and
other modern physicists, that, we are enabled to give to heat its
true significance. s

Heat, according to the “dynamical theory,” is neither more
nor less than motion amongst the particles of the substance
heated, which motion, when once produced, may be changed in
its direction and its nature, and thus be converted into mechanical
effect, expressible in foot pounds, or horse power. By intensify-
ing this motion among the particles, it is made eyident to our
visual organ by the emanation of light, which again is neither
more nor less than yibratory motion imparted by the ignited
substance to the medium separating us from the same. According
to this theory, which constitutes one of the most important ad-
vances in science of the present century, heat, light, electricity,
and chemical action are only different manifestations of *‘ energy
of matter,” mutually convertible, but as indestructible as matter
itself.

Energy exists in two forms, dynamic or “‘kinetic energy,” or
force manifesting itself to our senses as weight in motion, as
sensible heat, or as an active electrical current; and “ potential
energy,” or force in a dormant condition. In illustration of these
two forms of energy, I will take the case of lifting a weight, say
one pound one foot high. In lifting this weight ‘‘ kinetic mus-
cular energy” has to be exercised in overcoming the force of
gravitation of the earth. The pound weight when supported at
the higher level to which it has been raised, represents potential
energy to the amount of one unit or foot pound. This potential
energy may be utilised in imparting motion to mechanism durin
its descent, whereby a unit amount of ‘‘ Work” is accomplished.
A pound of carbon then, when raised through the space of one
foot from the earth, represents, mechanically speaking, a unit
quantity of energy, but the same pound of carbon being separa-
ted or lifted away from oxygen, to which it has a very powerful
attraction, is capable of developing no less than 11,000,000 foot
pounds or unit quantities of energy whenever the bar to their
combination, namely excessive depression of temperature, is
removed ; in other words, the mechanical energy set free in the
combustion of one pound of pure carbon is the same as would be
required to raise 11,000,000 pounds weight one foot high, or as
would sustain the work which we call a horse power during
5 hours 33 minutes. We thus arrive at once at the utmost limit
of work which we can ever hope to accomplish by the combus-
tion of one pound of carbonaceous matter, and we Shall presently
see how far we are still removed in our steam engine practice from
this limit of perfection.*

The following illustrations will show the convertibility of the
different forms of energy. If I let the weight of a hammer de-
scend in rapid succession upon a piece of iron it becomes hot,
and on beating a nail thus vigorously and skilfully for a minute it
will be redhot. In this case the mechanical foree developed in
the arm by the combustion of carbonaceous muscular fibre is eon-
verted into heat. Again, in compressing the air in a fire syringe
rapidly ignition of a piece of tinder is obtained. Again, in
passing an electrical current through the platinum wire it is

* In burning 1b. of carbon in the presence of free oxygen, carbonic acid
is produced and 14,500 units of heat (1 1b, of water raised through 1° Fah.)
are liberated. Fach unit of heat is convertible (as proyed by the deductions
of Meyer and the actual measurements of Joule) into 774 units of force or
mechanical energy ; hence 1 1b. of carbon represents really 14,500 % 774 =
11,223,000 units of potential energy. ,

om

directly converted into heat, which is manifested by ignition of
_ the wire, whereas the thermopile gives an illustration of the con-
_ yersion of heat into electricity. ‘Che heat of combustion is the
' reselt of the chemical combination of two substances ; but does
it not follow from this that oxygen is a combustible as wel! as

the carbonaceous substance which goes by the name of fuel?
_ This is, unquestionably, the case, and if our atmosphere was

composed of a carbonaceous gas we should haye to conduct our
__ oxygen through tubes and send it out through burners to supply
‘us with light and heat, as will be seen by the experiment in
' which I burn a jet of atmospheric air in a transparent globe
- filled with common lighting gas ; but we could not exist under

such inverted conditions, and may safely strike out oxygen and
~ analogous substances such as chlorine from the list of fuels.

We now approach the second part of our inquiry—Whence is
fuel derived ?

The rays of the sun represent energy in the form of heat and
light, which is communicated to our earth through the trans-
" parent medium which must necessarily fill the space between us
and our great Juminary. If these rays fall upon the growing
plant, their effect disappears from direct recognition by our
senses, inasmuch as the leaf does not become heated as it would
if it was made of iron or dead wood, but we find a chemical
~ result accomplished, viz., carbonic acid gas which has been
_ absorbed by the leaf of the tree from the atmosphere, is there

*€ dissociated,” or separated into its elements carbon and oxygen,
_ the oxygen being returned to the atmosphere, and the carbon

retained to form the solid substance of the tree.

It is thus clearly shown that the sun has to’ impart 11,000,000
units of energy to the tree for the formation of one pound of
' carbon in the shape of woody fibre, and that these 11,000,000

units of energy will be simply resuscitated when the wood is

burnt, or again combined with oxygen to form carbonic acid,

Fuel, then, is derived through solar energy acting on the
surface of our earth.

But what about the stores of mineral fuel, of coal, which we
find within its folds? How did they escape the general com-
bustion which, as we have seen, has consumed all other elemen-
tary substances? The answer isa simple one. These deposits
of mineral fuel are the results of primeval forests, formed in the

-manner of to-day through the agency of solar rays, and covered
over with earthy matter in the many inundations and convulsions
of the globe’s surface, which must have followed the early
solidification of its surface. Thus our deposits of coal may be
looked upon as the accumulation of potential energy derived

- directly from the sun in former ages, or as George Stephenson,
with a sagacity of mind in advance of the science of his day,
answered, when asked what was the ultimate cause of motion of
his locomotive engine, ‘‘that it went by the bottled-up rays of
the sun.”

It follows from these considerations that the amount of poten-
tial energy available for our use is confined to our deposits of
coal, which, as appears from the exhaustive inquiries lately
made by the Royal Coal Commission are still large indeed,
but by no means inexhaustible, if we bear in mind that our re-
quirement will be ever on the increase and that the getting
of the coal will become from year to year more difficult as we
descend to greater depth. To these stores must be reckoned
lignite and peat, which, although not coal, are nevertheless the
result of aie energy, attributable to a period of the earth’s
creation subsequent to the formation of the coal beds, but an-
terior to our own days.

In discussing the necessity of using our stores of fuel more

economically, I have been met by the observation that we need

not be anxious about leaving fuel for our descendants—that the
human mind. would surely invent some other sourcé of power
when coal should be exhausted, and that such a source would
probably be discovered in electricity. 1 heard such a suggestion
publicly made only a few weeks back at a meeting of the Inter-
national Jury at Vienna, and could not refrain from calling at-
tention to the fact that electricity is only another form of energy,
that could no more be created by man than heat could, and
involved the same recourse to our accumulated stores.

If our stores of coal were to ebb, we should have recourse, no
doubt, to the force radiating from the sun from day to day ; and
it may be as well for us to consider, what is the extent of that
force, and what our means of gathering and applying it. We
have, then, in the first place, the accumulation of solar energy
upon our earth’s surface by the decomposition of carbonic acid
in plants, a source which we know by experience suffices for the

NATURE

443

human requirements in thinly-populated countries, where in-
dustry has taken only a slight development. Wherever popula-
tion accumulates, however, the wood of the forest no longer
suffices even for domestic requirements, and mineral fuel has
to be transported from great distances.

The sun’s rays produce, however, other effects besides vege-
tation, and amongst these, evaporation is the most important
as a source of available power. By the solar rays, an amount of
heat is imparted to our earth that would evaporate yearly a lake
of water fourteen feet deep. A considerable proportion of this
heat is actually expended in evaporating sea water, producing
steam or vapour, which falls back upon the entire surface of both
land and sea in the form of rain. The portion which falls upon
the elevated land flows back towards the sea in the form of
rivers, and in its descent its weight may be utilised to give
motion to machinery. Water power, therefore, is also the re-
sult of solar energy, and an elevated lake may indeed be looked
upon as fuel, in the sense of its being a weight lifted above the
sea level through its prior expansion into steam.

This source of power has also been largely resorted to, and
might be utilised to a still greater extent in mountainous coun-
tries; but it naturally so happens that the great centres of
industry are in the plains, where the means of transport are
easy, and the total amount of available water-power in such
districts is extremely limited.

Another result of solar energy are the winds, which have been
utilised for the production of power. This source of power is,
indeed, very great in the aggregate, but its application is at-
tended with very great inconvenience. It is proverbial that
there is nothing more uncertain than the wind, and when we
were dependeat upon windmills for the production of flour,
it often happened that whole districts were without that neces-
sary element to our daily existence. Ships also, relying upon
the wind for their propulsion through the sea, are often becalmed
for weeks, and so gradually give preference to steam-power on
account of its greater certainty. It has been suggested of late
years to utilise the heat of the sun by the accumulation of its
rays into a focus by means of gigantic lenses, and to establish
steam-boilers in such foci. This would be a most direct utilisa-
tion of solar energy, but it is a plan which would hardly recom-
mend itself in this country, where the sun is but rarely seen, and
which even in a country like Spain would hardly be productive
of useful, practical results.

There is one more natural source of energy available for our
uses, which is rather cosmical than solar, viz., the tidal wave.
This might also be utilised to very considerable extent in an
island country facing the Atlantic seas, like this, but its utilisation
on a large scale is connected with great practical difficulty and
expenditure, on account of the enormous area of tidal basin that
would have to be constructed.

In passing in review these various sources of energy which are
still available to us, after we have run through our accumulated
capital of potential energy in the shape of coal, it will have
struck you that none of them would at all supply the place of
our willing and ever-ready slave, the steam-engine ; nor would
they be applicable to our purposes of locomotion, although means
might possibly be invented of storing and carrying potential
energy in other forms. But it is not force alone that we require,
but heat for smelting our iron and other metals, and the accom-
plishment of other chemical purposes. We also need a large
supply for our domestic purposes. It is true that with an abun-
dant supply of mechanical force we could manufacture heat, and
thus actually accomplish all our purposes of smelting, cooking,
and heating, without the use of any combustible matter; but
such conversion would be attended with so much difficulty and
expenditure, that one cannot conceive human prosperity under
such laborious and artificial conditions. :

We come now to the question—How should fuel be used, and T
propose to illustrate this by three examples which are typical of
the three great branches of consumption.

a. The production of steam power,

4. The domestic hearth.

c. The metallurgical furnace.

I haye represented on a diagram two steam cylinders of the
same internal dimensions, the one being what is called a high-
pressure steam cylinder, provided with the ordinary slide-valve
for the admission and discharge of steam into the atmosphere,
and the other so arranged as to work expansively (being provided
with the Carless variable expansion gear) and working in con-
nection with a condenser, Ihave also shown two -diagrams of

444

the steam pressures at each part of the stroke, assuming in both
cases the same initial steam pressure of 60 Ibs, per square inch
above the atmospheric pressure, and the same load upon the
engine. They show that in the latter case the same amount of
work is accomplished by filling the cylinder roughly speaking up
to one-third part of the length as in the other by filling it entirely.
Here we have then an easy and feasible plan of saving two-thirds
of the fuel used in working an ordinary high-pressure engine,
and yet probably the greater number of the engines now actually
at work are of the wasteful type. Nor are the indications of
theory in this case (or in any other when properly interpreted) dis-
proved by practice ; on the contrary, an ordinary non-expansive
non-condensing engine requires commonly a consumption of
from 10 to 12 Ibs. per horse-power per hour, whereas a good ex-
pansive and condensing engine accomplishes the same amount of
work with 2 Ibs. of coal per hour, the reason for the still greater
economy being, that the cylinder of the good engine is properly
protected by means of a steam-jacket and lagging against loss by
condensation within the working ‘cylinder, and that more care is
generally bestowed upon the boiler and the parts of the engine,
to ensure their proper working condition,

A striking illustration of what can be accomplished by way of
accuracy in a short space of time was brought to light by the
Institute of Mechanical Engineers, over which at present I have
the honour to preside. In holding their annual general meeting
in Liverpool in 1863, they instituted a careful inquiry into the
consumption by the best engines in the Atlantic Steam Service,
and the result showed that it fell in no case below 4% lbs. per
indicated horse power per hour. Last year they again assembled
with the same object in view in Liverpool, and Mr. Bramwell
produced a table showing that the average consumption by 17
good examples of compound expansive engines did not exceed
2} lbs. per indicated horse power per hour, Mr. E. A. Cowper
has proved a consumption not exceeding 14 lbs. per indicated
horse power per hour in a compound marine engine constructed
with an intermediate superheating vessel, in accordance with his
plans, nor are we likely to stop long at this point of comparative
perfection, for in the early portion of my address I have endea-
voured to prove that the theoretical perfection would only be

‘attained if an indicated horse power was produced with — ths, of

pure carbon, or say 4 lb. of ordinary steam coal.

Here then we have two distinct margins to work upon, the one
up to the limit of say 2 lbs. per horse power per hour, which has
been practically reached in some and may be reached in all cases,
and the other up to the theoretical limit of 1b. per horse power
per hour which can never be absolutely reached, but which in-
yentive power may and will enable us to approach !

Domestic Consumption—The wastefulness of the domestic
hearth and kitchen fire is self-evident. Here only the
heat radiated from the fire itself is utilised, and the com-
bustion is generally extremely imperfect, because the iron
back and excessive supply of cold airs, check combustion
before it is half completed, We know that we can heat
a room much more economically by means of a German
stove, but to this it may be very properly objected that it is
cheerless, because we do not see the fire or feel its drying effect
on our damp clothing ; it does not provide, moreover, in a suffi-
cient degree for ventilation, and makes the room feel stuffy.
These are, in my opinion, very potent objections, and economy
would not be worth having if it could only be obtained at the
expense of health and comfort. But there isat least one grate
that combines an increased amount of comfort with reasonable
economy, and which, although accessible to all, is as yet very
little used. I refer to Captain Galton’s ‘‘ Ventilating Fireplace,”
of which you observe a diagram upon the wall. This fireplace
does not differ in external appearance from an ordinary grate,
exceptthat it has a higher brick back, which is perforated at
about mid-height to admit warmed air into the fire to burn a
large proportion of the smoke which is usually sent up the
chimney unburnt, for no better purpose than to poison the atmo-
sphere we have to breathe. "

The chief novelty and merit of Captain Galton’s fireplace
consists, however, in providing a chamber at the back of the
grate, into which air passes directly from without, becomes
moderately heated (to 4° Fah.), and, rising in a separate flue,
is injected into the room under the ceiling with a force due to
the heated ascending flue. A plenum of pressure is thus estal-
lished within the room whereby indraughts through doors gad

NATURE

[ Sept. 25, 1873 '
ae" 9

windows are avoided, and the air is continually renewed by —
passing away through the fireplace chimney as usual. Thus the —
cheerfulness of an open fire, the comfort of a room filled with —
fresh but moderately warmed air, and great economy of fuel, are —
happily combined with unquestionable efficiency and simplicity ; —
and yet the grate is little used, although it has been fully de-
scribed in papers communicated by Captain Galton, and in an
elaborate report made by General Morin, le Directeur du Con-
servatoire des Arts et Metiers of Paris, which has also appeared
in the English language.

The slowness with which this unquestionable improvement
finds practical application is due, in my opinion, to two cireum-
stances,—the one is, that Captain Galton did not patent his
improvement, which makes it nobody’s business to force it into
use, and the other may be found in the circumstance that houses
are, to a great extent, built only to be sold and not to be lived
in. A builder thinks it a good speculation to construct a score
of houses after a cheap design, in order to sell them, if possible, —
before completion, and the purchaser immediately puts up the
standard bill of ‘* Desirable Residences to Let.” You naturally —
would think that in taking such a house you had only to furnish
it to your own mind, and be in the enjoyment of all reasonable
creature comfort from the moment you enter the same. This
fond hope is destined, however, to cruel disappointment; the
first evening you turn on the gas, you find that although the -
pipes are there, the gas prefers to pass out by the joints into the
room instead of by the burners ; the water in like manner takes
its road through the ceiling, bringing down with it a patch of
plaster on to yourcarpet. But worst of all, the fire-grates (of a
size irrespective, probably, of the size of the room), absolutely ©
refuse to avail themselves of the chimney flues preferring to
send the volumes of smoke into the room. Plumbers and
chimney doctors are now put into requisition, pulling up floors,
dirtying carpets, and putting up gaunt-looking chimney-pots ;
the grates themselves have to be altered again and again, until
by slow degrees the house becomes habitable in a degree, although
you row only become fully aware of innumerable drawbacks of
the arrangements adopted. Nevertheless, the house has been an
excellent one to sell, and the builder adopts the same pattern for
another block or two in an increasing neighbourhood. Why
should this builder adopt Captain Galton’s fireplace? It will
not cost him much, it is true, and it will save the tenant a great
deal in his annual coal bill, not to speak of the comfort it would
give him and his family; but nobody demands it of him, it
would give him some trouble to arrange his details and subcon-
tracts, which are all settled beforehand, and so he goes on build-
ing and selling houses in the usual routine way. Nor will this
state of things be altered until the dwellers in houses will take the
matter in hand, and absolutely refuse to put up with builders’
ways, or, what is still better, get builders who will put up house
in their way. This is done to some extent by building societies,
but there is as yet too much of the old leaven left in the trade,
and the question itself too little understood. ‘

Consumption in Smelting Operations —We now come to
the third branch of consumption, the smelting or metal-
lurgical furnace, which consumes about 40,000,000 of the 120
millions of the fuel produced. Here also is great room for
improvement, the actual fuel consumed in heating a ton of
iron up to the welding point or of melting a ton of steel is more
in excess of the theoretical quantity required for these purposes
than is the case with regard to the production of steam powe
and to domestic consumption. Taking the specific heat of iron
at ‘114 and the welding heat at 2,700° F, it would require
2,700 x ‘144—307 heat units to heat 1b. of iron. A pound of
pure carbon developes 14,500 heat units, a pound of common
coal 12,000, and therefore one ton of coal should bring 39 tons of
iron up to the welding point. In an ordinary re-heating furnace
aton of coal heats only 13 ton of iron, and therefore produces
only ¢srd part of the maximum theoretical effect. In melting
one ton of steel in pots 2% tons of coke are consumed, and taking
the melting point of steel at 3,600° F. the specific heat at *119 it
takes ‘119 x 3,600=428 heat units to melt a pound of steel, and
taking the heat producing power of common coke also at 12,000
units, one ton of coke ought to be able to melt 28 tons of steel.
The Sheffield pot steel melting furnace therefore only utilises
ysth part of the theoretical heat developed in the combustion.
Here therefore is a very wide margin for improvement, to which
I have specially devoted my attention for many years, and not
without the attainment of useful results, Ihave since the yea

a

y shortly atter the first announc

=
or ve
cal theory, devoted my attention to a realisat
De oncmildiyerales which en theory rendered Jaina i
“upon the regenerator as the appliance which, without being
i papable Se cerducine heat when once really consumed, is ex-
tremely useful for temporarily storing such heat as cannot be im-
4 ately utilised in order to impart it to the fluid or other
tance which is employed in-continuation of the operation of
heating or of generating force.
Without troubling you with an account of the gradual progress
of these improvements, I will describe to you shortly the furnace
which I now employ for melting steel. This consists of a furnace
bed made of very refractory material, such as pure silica sand
and silica or Dina’s brick, under which four regenerators or
chambers filled with checkerwork of brick are arranged in such
"a manner that a current of combustible gas passes upward
- thrdugh one of these regenerators, while a current of air passes
_ upwards through the adjoining regenerator, in order to meet in
combustion at the entrance into the furnace chamber. The pro-
ducts of combustion, instead of passing directly to the chimney
as in an ordinary furnace, are directed downwards through the
two other regenerators on their way towards the chimney, where
_ they part with their heat to the checkerwork in such manner that
_ the highest degree of heat is imparted to the upper layers, and
_ that the gaseous products reach the chimney comparatively cool
- (about 300° F.) After going on in this way for half-an-hour,
‘the currents are reversed by means of suitable reversing valves,
‘and the cold air and combustible gas now enter the furnace
chamber, after having taken up heat from the regenerator in the
reverse order in which it was deposited, reaching the furnace
- therefore nearly at the temperature at which the gases of com-
pustion left the same. A great reversion of temperature within
_ the chamber is the result, and the two first-mentioned regenera-
"tors are heated to a higher degree than the latter. It is easy to
conceive that in that way, heat may be accumulated within the
BS chamber to an apparently unlimited extent, and with a minimum
~ of chimney draught.
Practically the limit is reached at the point where the materials
composing the chamber begin to melt. Whereas a theoretical
- limit also exists in the fact that combustion ceases at a point
"which has been laid by St. Clair Deville at 5000° Fah., and
__ which has been called by him the point of diSsociation. At this
point hydrogen might be mixed with oxygen and yet the two
"would not combine, showing that combustion really only takes
place between the units of temperature of about 500° and
4,500° Fah.
ly To return to the regenerative gas-furnace. It is evident that
' - there must be economy where, within ordinary limits, any de-
gree of heat can be obtained, while the products of combustion
| _ pass in the chimney only 300° hot. Practically a ton of steel is
melted in this furnace with 12 cwt. of small coal consumed in
the gas-producer, which latter may be placed at any reasonable
ee distance from the furnace, and consists of a brick chamber con-
taining several tons of fuel in a state of slow disintegration. In
large works, a considerable number of these gas-producers are
connected by tubes or flues with a number of furnaces. Col-
lateral advantages in this system of heating, which is now

a. extensively used in this and other countries, are that no smoke
| _ is produced, and that the works are not enctimbered with solid
a fuel and ashes.

It is a favourite project of mine, which I have not had an
opportunity yet of carrying practically into effect, to place these
producers at the bottom of coal-pits. A gas shaft would
have to be provided to conduct the gas to the surface, the
lifting of coal would be saved, and the gas in its ascent would
accumulate such an amount of forward pressure that it might be
conducted to a distance of several miles to the works or places
or consumption. ‘This plan, so far from being dangerous, would
insure a perfect ventilation of the mine, and would enable us to
utilise those waste deposits of small coal (amounting on the
average to 20 per cent,) which are now left unutilised within
the mine.

y Another plan of the future which has occupied my attention
is the supply of towns with heating gas for domestic and manu-
facturing purposes. In the year 1863 a company was formed,
with the concurrence of the corporation of Birmingham, to
provide such a supply in that town at the rate of 6d. per 1,000
cubic feet: but the Bill necessary for that purpose was thrown

out in the Committee of the House of Lords because their Lord-

ships thought that if this was as good a plan as it was repre-
- ‘

sented to be, the existing gas companies would be sure to carry
it into effect. I need hardly say that the existing companies
have not carried it into effect, having been constituted for
another object, and that the realisation of the plan itself has
been indefinitely postponed. -
Coal Question.—Having now passed in review the principal
applications of fuel, with a view chiefly to draw the distinc-
tion between our actual consumption and the consumption
that would result if our most approved practice was made gene-
ral ; and havihg, moreover, endeavoured to prove to you which 4
are the ultimate limits of consumption which are absolutely fixed ‘
by theory, but which we shall never be able to realise completely,
I will now apply my reasoning to the coal question of the day.
In looking into the ‘Report of the Select Committee ap-
pointed to Inquire into the Causes of the present Dearness of
Coal,” we find that in 1872 no less than 123,000,000 tons of coal
were got up from the mines of England and Wales, notwith-
standing famine prices and the colliers’ strikes. In 1862 the =~
total getting of coal amounted to only $3,500,000, showing a er’
yearly average increase of consumption of 4,000,000 tons. If
this progressive increase continues, our consumption will have
reached, thirty years hence, the startling figure of 250,000,000 a
tons per annum, which would probably result in an increase of
price very much in excess of limits yet reached. In estimating
last year’s increase of price, which has every appearance of being
permanent, at 8s. per ton all round, and after deducting the
13,000,000 tons which were exported abroad, we find that the
British consumer had to pay 44,000,000/, more than the market
value of former” years for his supply of coal—a sufficient sum,
one would think, to make him look earnestly into the question
of ‘waste of fuel,” which, as I shall presently be able to show,
is very great indeed. The Select Committee just quoted sums
up its report by the following expression :—‘*The general con-
clusion to be drawn from the whole evidence is, that though the
production of coal increased in 1872 ina smaller ratio than it
- had increased in the years immediately preceding, yet if an ade-
quate supply of labour can be obtained, the increase of produc- —
tion will shortly keep pace with that of the last few years.” A
This is surely a very insufficient conclusion to be arrived at by
a Select Parliamentary Committee after a long and expensive in-
quiry, and the worst of it is, that it stands in direct contradiction
with the corrected table given in the same report, which shows
that the progressive increase of production has been fully main-
tained during the last two years, having amounted to 5,826,000
for 1871, and 5,717,000 for 1872 ; whereas the average increase
during the Jast ten years has only been 4,000,000 tons. Itis to be
hoped that Parliament will not rest satisfied with such a negative
result, but will insist to know what can be done to re-establish :
a proper balance between demand and supply of coal in prevent- Z
ing its conversion into smoke or other equally hurtful or useless ‘
forms of energy. j
In taking the 105 million tons of coal consumed in this country
last year for our basis, I estimate that, if we could make up our
minds to consume our coal in a careful and judicious manner,
according to our present lights, we should be able to reduce that -
consumption by 50 million tons. The realisation of such an
economy would certainly involve very considerable expenditure
of capital, and must be a work of time, but what I contend
is that our progress in effecting economy ought to be accelerated
in order to establish a balance between the present production
and the ever-increasing demand fer the effects of heat.
In looking through the statistical returns of the progressive
increase of population, of steam power employed, and of produc-
tion of iron and steel, &c., I find that our necessities increase at
a rate of not less than 10 per cent. per annum, whereas our coal
consumption increases only at the rate of 4 per cent, showing
that the balance of 6 per cent. is met by what may be called our
“intellectual progress.” Now considering the enormous margin
for improvement before us, I contend that we should not rest
satisfied with this rate of intellectual progress, which involves
an annual deficit of 4,000,000 tons to be met by increased coal
consumption, but that we should bring our intellectual progress ;
up to the rate of our industrial progress, by which means we ~
should make the coal production nearly a constant quantity for
several generations to come ; by which time our successors may
be expected to have effected another great step in advance towards
the theoretical limit of effect, which, as we have seen, lays so far
above any actual result which we have as yetattained to, that an
annual consumption of 10 million tons would give more than the
equivalent of the heat energy which we actually consume,

/

446

Solar Heat.—T have endeavoured to show, inthe early part of
this lecture, that all available energy upon the earth, excepting the
tidal wave, is derived from the sun, and that the amount of heat
radiated year by year, could be measured by the evaporation
of a layer of water 14 ft. thick, spread over the entire surface,
which again would be represented by the combustion of a layer
of coal, covering our entire globe, 1 ft.in thickness, The amount
of heat radiated away from the sun would be represented by the
annual combustion of a thickness of coal 17 miles thick, covering
its entire surface, and it has been a source of wonderment with
natural philosophers how so prodigious an amount of heat could
be given off year after year without any appreciable diminution
of the sun’s heat having become observable.

Recent researches with the spectroscope, chiefly by Norman
Lockyer, have thrown much light upon this question. Tt is
now clearly made out that the sun consists near the surface,
if not throughout its mass, of gaseous elementary bodies, and
in a great measure of hydrogen gas, which cannot combine with
the oxygen present, owing to great elevation of temperature (due
to the original great compression) which has been estimated at
from 20,000° to 22,000 Fah. This chemically inert and com-
paratively dark mass of the sun is surrounded by the phota-
sphere where the gaseous constituents of the sun rush into com-
bustion, owing to reduction of temperature in consequence of
their expansion and of radiation of heat into space ; this photo-
sphere is surrounded in its turn by the chromosphere, consisting
of the products of combustion, which, after being cooled down
through further loss of heat by radiation, sink back, owing to
their acquired density, towards the centre of the sun, where they
become again intensely heated through compression and are dis-
sociated or split up again into their elements at the expense of
internal solar heat. Great convulsions are thus continually pro-
duced upon the solar surface, resulting frequently in explosive

» actions of extraordinary magnitude, when masses of living fire

are projected a thousand miles or more upward, giving rise to
the phenomena of sun-spots and of the corona which is visible
during the total eclipses of the sun. The sun may therefore
be looked upon in the light of a gigantic gas-furnace, in which
the same materials of combustion are used over and over again.

It would be impossible for me at.this late hour to enter deeper
upon speculations regarding the ‘* regeneration of the sun’s heat
upon its surface,” which question is replete with scientific and
also practical interest, because Nature is our safest teacher, and
in comprehending the great works of our Creator we shall learn
how to utilise to the best advantage those stores of potential
energy in the shape of coal which have providentially been
placed at our disposal.

COALS AND COAL PLANTS *

PROF. WILLIAMSON said that his distinguished friend,

their president, had spoken the truth to a certain
extent; but at the same time there was in what he
had said a slight measure of what a particular school would
call the sxevestio Jalsi. He believed that if a balance of
account could be struck between them it would be found that
he (the lecturer) was enormously the gainer from the fact that
he enjoyed the same name as the president. As far as he
could arrange the balance it was this—that their president was
debtor one dinner which he (the lecturer) always contended his
friend had got because he had received a card of invitation which
did not belong to him—while, on the other hand, there was an
item of credit to the extent of all the learning the president dis-
played at every meeting of the British Association, but for
which, at least in the North of England, he (Prof. W. C.
Williamson) was usually credited. Under these circumstances
he thought it would be seen that instead of his being the loser
he was in reality an enormous gainer.

He remembered a distinguished friend of his, a member of the
House of Commons, telling him that whenever an individual
rose in that house to speak on a subject on which he was known
to have written a book, the house speedily became emptied,
because the members were alarmed at the idea of a speech from
a man who had an inveterate hobby. He presumed, however,
that he stood there that night simply because he had a hobby ;
but he would promise not to ride it too far or inflict it too long
upon his audience. Furthermore when he remembered how short

* Abstract of Lecture delivered

before the British Association, at Bradford
by Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S, 2 '

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| Sept, 25, 1873

was the time since Prof. Huxley had addressed a Bradford
audience on the subject of coal, he was somewhat appalled at
his own boldness in having ventured to deal with a similar
matter at the present moment. But luckily for him science did
not stand still, and although so short a time had elapsed since
Prof. Huxley had delivered the lecture referred to, there was.
much now to be said on the subject which could not have been
said then. Still, with the magnifiéent address of Prof. Hi
within reach, it would not be necessary to detain the auditory
long on the general theories which were now so widely accepted
with reference to the origin of cecal. ;

Prof. Phillips, in his address to the Geological Section on the
previous morning, had reminded them how short a time it was—
the period being within his own life-time—since the vegetable
origin of coal was broadly and openly disputed. It would, how-
ever, be difficult now to find any one at all enlightened on the
subject who would venture to dispute that the origin of coal was
vegetable. In the same way another hypothesis—known by the
litle of the drift theory—had once been very generally accepted,
Men who admitted the conclusion that coal had once been a
mass of vegetable life differed as to the method by which that
vegetable mass had found its way into its present position, The’
majority of the older geologists believed that coal had been
conveyed into those positions by water—that large qnantities
of vegetable material had been brought down great rivers like
the Mississippi or the Ganges, that these vegetable rafts; as they
might be termed, had accumulated in the estuaries and the
ocean, and that when they had become thoroughly water-logged,
they had sunk to the bottom and formed accumulations of vege-
table elements sufficient to constitute the existing coal-beds,
Thanks to the labours of a series of indefatigable workers like
the late Mr. Bowman, Mr, Binney, Sir Wm. Logan, and others,
we now had a clearerand much more probable conception as to
what coal originally was,

It must be understood that although the earth was popularly
regarded as the type of everything that was stable and immovable,
this was a very erroneous idea ; for old mother earth was about
one of the most fickle and inconstant of all the jades with which
men had deal. She was never still. It happened that at the
present day there were certain regions, such as the volcanic
regions, which were always moving upwards, like the more
aspiring of the youths of Bradford, while there were others, such
as the coral regions, which were steadily going downward, like
those less fortunate youths who did not succeed in the race of
life. So it had been in the olden time. The coal beds ap-
peared to have accumulated in the latter class of areas—the
areas of depression—geographical areas in which the earth had
atendency to sink below the level of the ocean. Upon such
areas mud and silt had accumulated until the deposit thus formed
had reached the level of the water, and then came what would
appear to have been highly necessary as a prelimi to the
growth of the coal material, namely, a bed of blue mud. It
was not known why that blue mud was there or whence it
came, but it was as certain as that garden plants required
favourable soils for their development, that whatever its cause
the blue mud was the soil which seemed to have been preferred
by the great majority of the plants constituting the forests of the
carboniferous era. In it the minute spores or seeds of the vege-
tables which afterwards became coal, germinated and struck
root, until eventually the muddy soil became converted into a
magnificent and almost tropical forest. As the forest grew the
spores fell from the trees, the half-dead leaves and decayed
branches also dropped, and by-and-by the stems themselves
gave way, and thus was accumulated an immense amount of
vegetable matter. This, in the progress of time, sank below
the water level, and more mud being deposited on the top of the
coal, the new formation in turn underwent the same processes as
its predecessors, until at length a new forest was formed to share
the same fate as that which had gone before it. The process
was repeated again and again, until at length we had an accumu-
lation of materials, mixtures of the various substances he had
spoken of, alternating with beds of coal, until we had a vertical -
thickness of rock varying from three, four, or five, toas much
as eight or ten thousand feet.

But while these general truths were accepted with little or no
reservation, there were one or two points contained in Prof,
Huxley's lecture upon which he would venture for a moment to
dwell, In that lecture he properly laid stress upon certain
minute bodies that were found in the interior of coal.

[The lecturer here pointed to a diagram representing a vertical

‘ie

“Sept. |

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25, 1873]

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447

section of coal, and he also exhibited various pieces of coal, one
of which he held in the position it occupied in the coal bed.
Another diagram, he said, represented a quantity of black coaly
matter arranged in layers, and embedded in this matter were
some small bodies which had been flattened by the pressure of
the coal, and by the superimposed beds between the coal. ]

Prof. Huxley spoke of these bodies under the name of sporangia,
or spore cases. Now, he (Prof. Williamson) had come to the
conclusion that they were all spores of two classes—the larger
ones called macro-spores, and the smaller ones micro-spores.
A latge number of the plants, if not all, found in the coal-
measures belonged to the cryptogamic plants, in which was
found no trace of seeds or flowers. The reproductive bodies
that took the place of seeds were little bud-like structures, to
which the name of spores was given. Ina certain class of those
plants, the club-mosses, for instance, were two kinds of these
spores. The sporangia of club mosses and similar plants never
became detached from their parent stem. They burst and libe-
rated multitudes of contained spores, which were objects like those
so abundant in many coals. But these spores did not play so im-
portant a part in the formation of coal as Prof. Huxley supposed.
On examining these objects it was found that each of the
little rounded discs exhibited three ridges that radiated ina
triangular manner from a common centre, These discs were
originally masses of protoplasm, lodged within a mother-cell.
By-and-by each of these masses broke up into three or four
parts ; and it was found that to accommodate one another in the
interior of their circular chamber, they mutually pressed one
another. To illustrate the mutual compression, Prof. William-
son produced a turnip, which he had cut into four parts, that
corresponded exactly, he said, in tveir arrangement with the
arrangement of the four spores in the interior of the mother
cell,

Then Prof. Huxley held that coal consisted of two elements.
Prof. Williamson, exhibiting again a piece of coal said the dirty
blackening surface was a thin layer of little fragments of woody
structures, vegetable tissues of various kinds, known by the
name of mineral charcoal. These layers of mineral charcoal
were exceedingly numerous. Prof. Huxley, recognising the
abundance and significance of these little spore-like bodies,
thought that mineral charcoal forméd only a portion, and a
limited portion, while the great bulk of black coaly matter was
really a mass of carbon derived from chemically altered spores.
He thought that on this point they would be obliged somewhat
to differ from Prof. Huxley.

The bed which had been most widely quoted as containing
most beautiful spores was found in the district of Bradford. If
everything decayed, and Bradford was by an exceedingly im-
probable combination of circumstances to pass out of memory, it
would be remembered in scientific history as the locality in which
the ‘‘better bed” was found. The fragment he held in his
hand was a fragment of the better bed. On examining it for a
moment through a magnifying glass he saw that it was a solid
mass of mineral charcoal, yet the microscope revealed in it no
trace whatever of organic structure. Therefore, while Prof.
Huxley divided coal into two elements—mineral charcoal and
coal proper, including in the latter term altered spores—he
would say that coal consisted of three elements—mineral char-
coal, black coal derived from mineral charcoal, and spores.

This outline of the history of coal led them to the independent
conclusion that two elements were mingled in coal ; the vegetable
déris, or broken up fragments of the plants of the carboniferous
age were intermingled with the peculiar spores to which Prof.
Huxley had so properly called attention. In proceeding to deal
further with the plants of which coal was formed, the lecturer took
occasion to acknowledge with thanks the loan of certain valuable
specimens to illustrate his discourse from the Bradford Museum.
One of these specimens was a most rare and valuable specimen
which he would be glad to take away with him to Owens
College, if he had the chance ; but he was afraid the Bradford
people were too Conservative to stand that.

After giving a number of botanical and other details with
regard to the plants of which coal was formed, he said our
knowledge of this subject resolved itself into two diyisions, viz.,
that of the outward forms of plants and that of their inward
organisation. These two lines of inquiry did not always run
parallel, and the one great object of recent research had
been to make them do so. Specimens throwing light on
the subject had been found at Arran, Burntisland, Oldham,
Halifax, Autun in France, and elsewhere, and upon these a host
of observers had been and still were working, It had long been

known that most, if not all, the coal plants belonged to two
classes, known as the Cryptogamia, or flowerless plants, and
the gymnospermous exogens, represented by the pines and firs.
All recent inquiries added fresh strength to this conclusion. One
of the most important of these groups was that of the Equiseta
or horse tails, and which were represented in the coal by the
Calamites. The long cylindrical stems, with their transverse
joints and longitudinal grooves, were shown to be casts of mud or
sand, occupying the hollows in the piths of the living plants.
Each of these piths was surrounded by a thick zone of wood,
which again was invested by an equally thick layer of bark.
Specimens were shown in which, though the pith was only an
inch in diameter, the wood and bark combined formed a cylinder
4 inches thick, giving a circumference of at least 27 inches to
the living stem, But there exist examples of the pith casts
alone, which are between 2 and 3 feet in diameter. It was
evident, therefore, he concluded, that the Calamites became true
forest trees, very different from their living representatives —the
horse tails of our ponds and marshes.

After describing the organisation of these plants, the Professor
proceeded to describe the Lycopods of the coal measures as
represented by the Lepidodendra, Sigillarise, and a host of other
well-known plants. The living Lycopods, whether seen at home
or in tropical forests, are dwarf herbaceous plants, but in the
carboniferous age they became lofty forest trees, 100 feet high,
and ten or twelve feet in circumference. To enable such lofty
stems, with their dense mass of serial branches and foliage, to
obtain nutrition, an organisation was given to them approach-
ing more nearly to that of our living forest trees than to that
of any recent cryptogams. A succession of woody layers was
added to the exterior of those previously existing ; so that as
the plant rose into the air the stem became strengthened by these
successive additions to the vascular tissue. As this process ad-
vanced it was accompanied by other changes, producing a large
central pith, and two independent vascular rings immediately
surrounding the pith, and the relations of these various parts to
the roots, and leaves, as well as to the nutrition of the plants,
was pointed out. The fruits of these Lycopods were then
examined. The existence of two classes of spores corresponding
in functions to the stamens and pistils of flowering plants, was
dwelt upon, and one of these classes (the macrospores) was
shown to be so similar to the small objects found in coal, as to
leave no doubt that those objects were derived from the lepido-
dendroid and sigillarian trees which constituted the large portion
of the forest vegetation.

Certain plants known as _ Asterophyllites were next
examined. The ferns were also reviewed, and shown to be as
remarkable for the absence of exogenous growth from their
stems as the Calamites and Lycopods were for its conspicuous
presence. The structure of some stems supposed to represent
palms was shown to be that of a fern, there being no true evi-
dence that palms existed in that age, The plants known as
coniferous plants, allied to pines and firs, were described, and
their peculiar fruits, so common at Peel, in Lancashire, were
explained, and some plants of unknown affinities, but beautiful
organisation, were referred to. The physiological differences
between these extinct ferns, and other plants especially in their
marvellous guvasi-exogenous organisation, was pointed out, and
the lecturer concluded by showing how unvarying must have
been the green hue of the carboniferous forests, owing to the
entire absence from them of all the gay colours of the flowering
plants which form so conspicuous a feature in the modern Jand-
scape, especially in the temperate and colder regions, The an-
tiquity of the mummy, he added, was as nothing compared with
the countless ages that had rolled by since these plants lived, and
yet they must not forget that every one of those plants, living in
ages so incalculably remote, had a history, an individuality as
distinct and definite as our own. ‘They would probably be
inclined to ask the question, When did all these things take
place? Echo answered, When?

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION

HE Bradford Meeting has been on the whole a
good one; though there have been no salient dis-
cussions, the papers read have been all up to a good
useful average. Mr. Ferrier’s paper on the brain
was a surprise to many, we believe, and the only ap-
proach to a genuine sensation was the appearance of
Captain Markham, R.N., in the Geographical Section

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448

on Saturday, he having arrived only the previous day at
Dundee in the Arctic, along with the Polarzs men.

The private hospitality of the Bradfordians has been
magnificent, but the hotel charges, every one admits, have
been simply monstrous. We quite agree with the re-
marks made in the last number of the Pharmaceutical
Yournal on this subject, and do not think that hotel-
keepers by so recklessly increasing their ordinary charges
do themselves or their town any good. We hope that
in future the authorities of towns visited by the British
Association will devise some means of counteracting such
proceedings, as they no doubt tend to diminish the
number of visitors. The number of tickets of all classes
issued this year is not much above 1,800, being several
hundreds under that of last year ; no doubt the relative
attractions of Brighton and Bradford will partly account
for this.

The sozvée in St. George’s Hall last Thursday was a great
success ; indeed all the arrangements for the meeting have
been satisfactory. The public lectures, by Profs. W. C.
Williamson, Clerk-Maxwell, and Dr. Siemens were well
attended, but the proportion of the working-classes pre-
sent at the lecture on Fuel, which was specially intended
for their benefit, was very small. Indeed, many are of
opinion that this lecture should be abolished, seeing that
so few workpeople take advantage of it, and that a lec-
ture should be given every night, or three or four times
during the meeting, to working-men who are registered,
as at the School of Mines, in order to secure that the
right sort of people gain admission.

This year the Association gave another lesson to
Government. Last year, it may be remembered, the ques-
tion of the Tides was given up by the Association ; this
year they have done the same to the Rainfall question,
as being a work which it is the interest of the nation to see
done. We hope the nation will see that it is attended to
in the proper quarter.

On Monday Prof. Smith proposed Dr. Tyndall as pre-
sident of next year’s meeting ; and it was somewhat of a
surprise to most present when the Mayor of Belfast
patriotically proposed that Prof. Andrews of that city
should preside over a meeting to be held in Ireland.
Prof. Andrews had been first suggested by the Council,

and his friends were consulted, but it was found that the

state of his health rendered it umadvisable to press the
honour upon him.

Belfast is the place of meeting next year, and Bristol,
it has been settled, will be visited by the Association in
1875; there is a tacit understanding that Glasgow will
be the rendezvous for 1876, the Lord Provost and a
strong deputation being present on Monday to earnestly
urge the claims of that important place.

The Report of the Council for the year 1872-3 was pre-
sented to the General Committee at Bradford, on Wednes-
day, 17th September. The Council have had under their
consideration the three Resolutions which were referred
to them by the General Committee at Brighton. The
first Resolution was—“ That the Council be requested to
take such steps as they deem desirable to induce the
Colonial Office to afford sufficient aid to the Observatory
at Mauritius to enable an investigation of the cyclones
in the Indian Ocean to be carried on there.” ,

In accordance with this Resolution, a correspondence
took place between Dr. Carpenter, the President of the
Association, and the Right Honourable the Earl of
Kimberley, Secretary of State for the Colonies.

In consequence of this correspondence, the Council
requested the President to urge upon the Lords Com-
missioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury the desirability of
affording such pecuniary aid to the Mauritius Obser-
vatory as would enable the Director to continue his
observations on the periodicity of the cyclones ; and an
intimation has been received from Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment that an inquiry into the condition, size, and cost of

Bie SRR eats Pg Ses de

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the establishment of the Mauritius is now being con-
ducted by a Special Commission from England, pending

which inquiry no increase of expenditure upon the Obser- —

vatory can be sanctioned ; but that when the results of

this inquiry shall be made known, the Secretary of State

for the Colonies will direct the attention of the Governor
to the subject.

The second Resolution referred to the Botanical estab-
lishment at Kew, but happily the Council have not deemed
it necessary to take any action upon this Resolution,

Third Resolution :—“ That the Council be requested
to take such steps as they may deem desirable to urge
upon the Indian Government the preparation of a Pho-
toheliograph and other instruments for solar observation,
with the view of assisting in the observation of the Transit
of Venus in 1874, and for the continuation of solar obser-
vations in India.”

The Council communicated with his Grace the Duke
of Argyll, the Secretary of State for India, upon the sub-
ject, with the result explained in the following letter :—

‘*India Office, February 28, 1873.

‘¢Sir,— With reference to my letter of the 13th of December
last, relative to an observation in India of the Transit of the
planet Venus in December 1874, I am directed to state, for the
information of the Council of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, that the Secretary of State for India
in Council, having reconsidered this matter, and looking to the
number of existing burdens on the revenues of India, and to the
fact that the selection of any station in that country was not
originally contemplated for ‘eye-observations’ of the transit,
has determined to sanction only the expenditure (3567. 7s. 6d.)
necessary for the purchase and packing of a Photoheliograph,
and any further outlay that may be requisite for the adaptation of
such instruments as may be now in India available for the
purpose of the proposed observation.

‘*The Duke of Argyll in Council has been led to sanction
thus much of the scheme proposed by Lieut. Colonel Tennant,
in consequence of the recommendation submitted by the Astro-

nomer Royalin favour of the use of photography for an observation

of the transit at some place in Northern India,
“Tam, Sir, Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) ** Herman Meriyale,”
‘‘ William B, Carpenter, Esq., British Association.”

A Committee was appointed at Exeter in 1869, on the
Laws Regulating the Flow and Action of Water holding
Solid Matter in Suspension, with authority to represent
to the Government the desirability of undertaking Ex-
periments bearing on the subject. The Committee pre-
sented a Memorial to the Indian Government, who have
recently intimated their intention of advancing a sum of
2,000/. to enable Mr, Login to carry on experiments,

The Council have added the following list of names of
gentlemen present at the last meeting of the Association to
the list of Corresponding Members: M. C. Bergeron,
Lausanne ; Prof. E. Croullebois, Paris ; Prof. G. Devalque,
Litge ; M. W. De Fonvielle, Paris ; Prof. Paul Gervais,
Paris ; Prof. James Hall, Albany, New York; Mr. J. E.
Hilgard, Coast Survey, Washington; M. George Lemoine,
Paris ; Prof. Victor von Richter, St. Petersburg ; Prof.
Carl Semper, Wurtzburg ; Prof. A. Wurtz, Paris.

We now pass on at once to the Sectional work, de-
laying a reference to the Scientific grants made this
year, and the concluding business till next week.

SECTION A.

OPENING ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, PRor, HENRY
J. S. Smirs, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. ’

For several years past it has been the custom for the president
of this section, as of the other sections of the Association, to
open its proceedings with a brief address. I am not willing upon
this occasion to deviate from the precedent set by my prede-
cessors, although I feel that the task presents peculiar diffi,

[ Sept, 25, 1873

culties to one who is by profession a pure mathematician, and
who, in other branches ofscience, can only aspire to be regarded
as an amateur.

But, although I thus contess myself a specialist, and a

: a it may be said of a narrow kind, I shall not venture, in
t

few remarks which I now propose to make, to indulge my
own speciality too far.

I am well aware that we are certain, in this section, to have a
sufficient number of communications, which of necessity assume
a special and even an abstruse character, and which, whatever
pains may be taken to give them clearness, and however valuable
may be the results to which they lead, are nevertheless ex-
tremely difficult to follow, not only for a popular audience,
but even for men of science whose attention has not been
specially, and recently, directed to the subject under dis-
cussion. I should think it, therefore, almost unfair to the
section, if at the very commencement of its proceedings I
were to attempt to direct its attention in any exclusive manner
to the subject which, I confess, if I were left to myself, I should
most naturally have chosen—the history of the advances that
have been made during the last ten or twenty years in mathe-
matical science, Instead, therefore, of adventuring myself on
this difficult course, which, however, I strongly recommend to
some successor of mine less scrupulous than myself, I propose,
though at the risk of repeating what has been better said by
others before me, to offer some general considerations which may
have a more equal interest for all those who take part in the
proceedings of this section, and which appear to me at the
present time to be more than usually deserving of the notice of
those who desire to promote the growth of the scientific spirit in
this country. I intend, therefore, while confining myself as
strictly as I can to the range of subjects belonging to this section,
to point out o1e or two, among many, of the ways in which
sectional meetings, such as ours, may contribute to the advance-
ment of science. A

We all know that Section A of the British Association is the
section of mathematics and physics ; and I dare say that many
of us have often thought how astonishingly vast is the range of
subjects which we slur over, rather than sum up, in this brief
designation. We include the most abstract speculations of pure
mathematics, and we come down to the most concrete of all phe-
nomena—the most every-day of allexperiences. I think I have
heard in this section a discussion on spaces of five dimensions,
and we know that one of our committees, a committee which is of
long-standing, and which has done much useful work, reports
to us annually on the Rainfall of the British Isles, Thus our wide
range coversthe mathematics of number and quantity in their most
abstract forms, the mathematics of space, of time, of matter, of
motion, and of force, the many sciences which we comprehend
under the name of astronomy, the theories of sound, of light,
heat, electricity ; and besides the whole physics of our earth, sea,
and atmosphere, the theory of earthquakes, the theory of tides,
the theory of all the movements of the air, from the lightest rip-
ple that affects the barometer up toacyclone. As I have already
said, it is impossible that communications on all these subjects
should be interesting, or indeed intelligible, to all our members ;
and, notwithstanding the pains taken by the committee and by the
secretaries to classify the communications offered tous, and to place
upon the same days those of which the subjects are cognate to
one another, we cannot doubt that the disparateness of the ma-
terial which comes before us in this section is a source of serious
inconvenience to many members of the Association. Occa-
sionally, too, the pressure upon our time is very great, and we are
obliged to hurry over the discussions on communications of great
importance, the number of papers submitted to us being, of
course, in a direct proportion to the number of the subjects in-
cluded in our programme. It has again and again been proposed
to remedy these admitted evils by dividing the section, or at
least by resolving it into one or more sub-sections. But I con-
fess that I am one of those who have never regretted that this
proposal has not commended itself to the Association, or indeed
to the section itself. I have always felt that by so sub-dividing
ourselves we should run the risk of losing one or two great ad-
vantages which we at present possess ; and I will briefly state
what, in my judgment, these advantages are,

I do not wish to undervalue the use to a scientific man of
listening to and taking part in discussions on subjects which lie
wholly in the direction in which his own mind has been working.
But 1 think, nevertheless, that most men who have attended a
meeting of this Association, if asked what they have chiefly
gained by it, would answer in the first place that they have had

NATURE

449

opportunities of forming or of renewing those acquaintances or
intimacies with other scientific men which, to most men engaged
in scientific pursuits, are an indispensable condition of successful
work ; and in the second place, that while they may have heard but
little relating to their own immediate line of inquiry which they
might not as easily have found in Journals or Transactions else-
where, they have learned much which might otherwise have
never come to their knowledge of what is going on in other di-
rections of scientific inquiry, and that they have carried away
many new conceptions, many fruitful germs of thought, caught
perhaps from a discussion turning upon questions apparently very
remote from their own pursuits. An object just perceptible on
a distant horizon is sometimes better descried by a careless side-
ward glance than by straining the sight directly at it; and so
capricious a gift is the inventive faculty of the human mind that
the clue to the mystery hid beneath some complicated system of
facts will sometimes elude the most patient and systematically
conducted search, and yet will {reveal itself all of a sudden upon
some casual suggestion arising in connection with an apparently
remote subject. I believe that the mixed character and wide
range of our discussions has been most favourable to such happy
accidents. But even apart from these, if the fusion in this sec-
tion of so many various branches of human knowledge tends in
some degree to keep before our minds the essential oneness of
science, it does us a good service, There can be no question
that the increasing specialisation of the sciences, which appears
to be inevitable at the present time, does nevertheless constitute
one great source of danger for the future progress of human
knowledge. This specialisation is inevitable, because the further
the boundaries of knowledge are extended in any direction, the
more laborious and time-absorbing a process does it become to
travel to the frontier ; and thus the mind has neither time nor
energy to spare for the purpose of acquainting itself with regions
that lie far away from the track over which it is forced to travel.
And yet the disadvantages of excessive specialisation are no less
evident, because in natural philosophy, as indeed in all things
on which the mind of man can be employed, a certain wideness
of view is essential to the achievement of any great result, or to

the discovery of anything really new. The twofold caution so ©

often given by Lord Bacon against over-generalisation on the
one hand, and against over-specialisation on the other, is still as
deserving as ever of the attention of mankind. But in
our time, when vague generalities and empty metaphysics
have been beaten once, and we may hope for ever,
out of the domain of exact science, there can be but
little doubt on which side the danger of the natural philoso-
pher at present lies. And perhaps in our section, as at present
constituted, there is a freer and fresher air—we are, perhaps, a
less inadequate representation of ‘‘that greater and common
world ” of which Lord Bacon speaks, than if we were subdivided
into as many parts as we include—I will not say sciences—but
groups of sciences. Perhaps there is something in the very
diversity and multiplicity of the subjects which come before us
which may serve to remind us of the complexity of the problems
of science, of the diversity and multiplicity of nature.

On the other hand it is not, as it seems to me, difficult to
assign the nature of the unity which underlies the diversity of
our subjects, and which justifies, to a very great extent, the juxta-
position of them in our section. That unity consists not so
much in the nature of the subjects themselves, as in the nature
of the methods by which they are treated. A mathematician, at
least—and it is asa mathematician I have the privilege of address-
ing you—may be excused for contending that the bond of union
among the physical sciences is the mathematical spirit and the
mathematical method which pervades them. As has been said
with profound truth by one of my predecessors in this chair, our
knowledge of nature, as it advances, continuously resolves differ-
ences of quality into differences of quantity. All exact reasoning
—indeed all reasoning—about quantity is mathematical reason-
ing; and thus as our knowledge increases, that portion of it
which becomes mathematical increases at a still more rapid rate,
Of all the great subjects which belong to the province of this
section, take that which at first sight is the least within the
domain of mathematics—I mean meteorology. Yet the part
which mathematics bears in meteorology increases every year,
and seems destined to increase. Not only is the theory of the
simplest instruments of meteorology essentially mathematical,
but the discussion of the observations—upon which, be it remem.
bered, depend the hopes which are already entertained with
increasing confidence, of reducing the most variable and com-
plex of all known phenomena to exact laws—is a problem which

450

not only belongs wholly to mathematics, but which taxes to the
utmost the resources of the mathematics which we now possess.
So intimate is the union between mathematics and physics that
probably by far the larger part of the accessions to our mathe-
matical knowledge have been obtained by the efforts of mathe-
maticians to solve the problems set to them by experiment, and to
create “ for each successive class of phenomena, a new calculus or a
new geometry, as the case might be, which might prove not wholly
inadequate to the subtlety of nature.” Sometimes, indeed, the
mathematician has been before the physicist, and it has happened
that when some great and new question has occurred to the
experimentalist or the observer, he has found in the armoury of
the mathematician the weapons which he has needed ready made
to his hand. But, much oftener, the questions proposed by the
physicist have transcended the utmost powers of the mathematics
of the time, and afresh mathematical creation has been needed to
supply the logicalinstrument requisite to interpret thenew enigma.

* Perhaps I may be allowed to mention an example of each of
these two ways in which mathematical and physical discovery
have acted and re-acted on each other. I purposely choose
examples which are well known and belong, the one to the
oldest, the other to the latest times of scientific history.

The early Greek geometers, considerably before the time of
Euclid, applied themselves to the study of the various curve
lines, in which a conical figure may be cut by a plane—curve
lines to which they gave the name, never since forgotten,
of conic sections. It is difficult to imagine that any pro-
blem ever had more completely the character of a ‘* problem
of mere curiosity,” than this problem of the conic sections must
have had in those earlier times. Not a single natural pheno-
menon which in the state of science at that time could have been
intelligently observed was likely to require for its explanation a
knowledge of the nature of these curves. Still less can any
application to the arts have seemed possible ; a nation which did
not even use the arch were not likely to use the ellipse in any
work of construction, The difficulties of the inquiry, the
pleasure of grappling with the unknown, the love of abstract
truth, can alone have furnished the charm which attracted some
of the most powerful minds in antiquity to this research. If
Euclid and Apollonius had been told by any of their contem-
poraries that they were giving a wholly wrong direction to their
energies, and that instead of dealing with the problems pre-
sented to them by nature were applying their minds to in-
quiries which not only were of no use, but which never could
come to be of any use, I do not know what answer they could
have given which might not now be given with equal, or even
with greater justice, to the similar reproaches which it is
not uncommon to address to those mathematicians of our
own day who study quantics of #-indeterminates, curves of
the th order, and (it may be) spaces of #-dimensions. And
not only so, but for pretty nearly two thousand years, the expe-
rience of mankind would have justified the objection : for there
is no record that during that long period which intervened
between the first invention of the conic sections and the time of
Galileo and Kepler, the knowledge of these curves possessed by
geometers was of the slightest use to natural science. And yet,
when the fulness of time was come, these seeds of knowledge,
that had waited so long, bore splendid fruit in the discoveries
of Kepler. If we may use the great names of Kepler and
Newton to signify stages in the progress of human discovery, it
is not too much to say that without the treatises of the Greek
geometers on the conic sections there could have been no Kepler,
without Kepler no Newton, and without Newton no science in
our modern sense of the term, or at least no such conception of
nature as now lies at the basis of all our science, of nature as
subject in its smallest as well as in its greatest phenomena,
to exact quantitative relations, and to definite numerical laws.

This is an old story; but it has always seemed to me to
convey a lesson, occasionally needed even in our own time,
against a species of scientific utilitarianism which urges the
scientific man to devote himself to the less abstract parts of
science, as being more likely to bear immediate fruit in the
augmentation of our knowledge of the world without. I admit,
however, that the ultimate good fortune of the Greek geo-
meters can hardly be expected by all the abstract speculations
which, in the form of mathematical memoirs, crowd the Tran-
sactions of the learned societies ; and I would venture to add
that, on the part of the mathematician there is room for the exer-
cise of good sense, and, I would almost say, of a kind of tact,
in the selection of those branches of mathematical inquiry which

(‘NATURE —

[Sepe. 25, 1873

are likely to be conducive to the advancement of his own or any
other science: ; ‘

I pass to my second example, of which I may treat very briefly.
In the course of the present year a treatise on electricity has
been published by Prof. Maxwell, giving a complete account of
the mathematical theory of that science, as we owe it to the
labours of a long series of distinguished men, beginning with
Coulomb and ‘ending with contemporaries of our own, in-
cluding Prof. Maxwell himself. No mathematician can turn
over the pages of these volumes without very speedily con-
vincing himself that they contain the; first outlines (and
something more than the first outlines) of a theory which
has already added largely to the methods and resources of pure
mathematics, and which may one day render to that abstract
science services no less than those which it owes to astronomy.
For electricity now, like astronomy of old, has placed before
the mathematician an entirely new set of questions, requiring the
creation of entirely new methods for their solution, while the great
practical importance of telegraphy has enabled the methods of
electrical measurement to be rapidly perfected to an extent which
renders their accuracy comparable to that of astronomical observa-
tions, and thus makes it possible to bring the most abstract deduc-
tions of theory at every moment to the test of fact. It must be con-
sidered fortunate for the mathematicians that such a vast field of
research in the application of mathematics to physical inquiries
should be thrown open to them, at the very time when the scien-
tific interest in the old mathematical astronomy has for the
moment flagged, and when the very name of pes astronomy,
so long appropriated to the mathematical development of the
theory of gravitation, appears likely to be handed over to that
wonderful series of discoveries which have already taught us so
much concerning the physical constitution of the heavenly bodies
themselves.

Having now stated, from the point of view of a mathematician,
the reasons which appear to me sto justify the existence of so
composite an institution as Section A, and the advantages which
that very compositeness sometimes brings to those who attend
its meetings, I wish to refer very briefly to certain definite ser-
vices which this section has rendered and may yet render to
Science. The improvement and extension of scientific educa-
tion is to many of us one of the most urgent questions of the
day ; and the British Association has already exerted itself more
than once to press the question on the public attention. Perhaps
the time has arrived when some further efforts of the same kind
may be desirable, Without a rightly organised scientific edu-
cation we cannot hope to maintain our supply of scientific men ;
since the increasing complexity and difficulty of science renders
it more and more difficult for untaught men, by mere power of
genius, to force their way to the front. Every improvement,
therefore, which tends to render scientific knowledge more acces-
sible to the learner, is a real step towards the advancement of
science, because it tends to increase the number of well quali-
fied workers in science.

For some years past this section has appointed a committee to
aid in the improvement of geometrical teaching in this country.
The report of this committee will be laid before the section in
due course; and without anticipating any discussion that may
arise on that report, I think I may say that it will show that we
have advanced at least one step in the direction of an important
and long-needed reform, The action of this section led to the
formation of an Association for the improvement of geometrical
teaching, and the members of that Association have now com-
pleted the first part of their work. They seem to me, and to
other judges much more competent than myself, to have been
guided by a sound judgment in the execution of their difficult
task, and to have held, not unsuccessfully, a middle course be-
tween the views of the conservatives who would uphold the
absolute monarchy of Euclid, or, more properly, of Euclid as
edited by Simeon, and the radicals who would dethrone him alto-
gether. One thing at least they have not forgotten, that geome-
try is nothing if it be not rigorous, and that the whole educa-
tional value of the study is lost, if strictness of demonstration be
trifled with, The methods of Euclid are, by almost universal
consent, unexceptionable in point of rigour. Of this perfect
rigorousness his doctrine of parallels, and his doctrine of propor-
tion, are perhaps the most striking examples. That Euclid’s
treatment of the doctrine of parallels is an example of perfect
rigorousness, is an assertion which sounds almost paradoxical,
but which I, nevertheless, believe to be true, Euclid has based
his theory on an axiom (in the Greek text it is one of the postu-

451

tes, but the difference for our purpose is immaterial) which, it

| may be safely said, no unprejudiced mind has ever accepted as
| self-evident. And this unaxiomatic axiom Euclid has chosen to
| state, without wrapping it up or disguising it,—not, for example,
i ‘in the plausible form in which it has been stated by Playfair,
but in its crudest shape, as if to warn his reader that a great
assumption was being made. This perfect honesty of logic, this
refusal to varnish over a weak point, has had its reward ; for it
"is one of the triumphs of modern geometry to have shown that
the eleventh axiom is so far from being an axiom, in the sense
which we usually attach to the word, that we cannot’ at this
“moment be sure whether it is absolutely and rigorously true, or
whether it is only a very close approximation tothe truth. Two
_ of those whose labours have thrown much light on this difficult
theory are at present at this meeting—Prof. Cayley, and a distin-
guished German mathematician, Dr. Felix Klein; and Lam sure of
their adherence when I say that the sagacity and insight of the
_ old geometer are only put in a clearer light, by the success which
_has attended the attempt to construct a system of geometry, con-
sistent with itself, and not contradicted by experience, upon the
assumption of the falsehood of Euclid’s eleventh axiom.
; Again, the doctrine of proportion, as laid down in the fifth
_ book of Euclid, is; probably, still unsurpassed as a masterpiece
| of exact reasoning ; although the cumbrousness of the forms of
_ expression which were adopted in the old geometry has led to
the total exclusion of this part of the elements from the ordi-
nary course of geometrical education. A zealous defender of
_ Euclid might add with truth that the gap thus created in the
_ elementary teaching of mathematics has never been adequately
supplied. op
id But after all has been said that can be said in praise of Euclid,
_ the fact remains that the form in which the work is composed
renders it unsuitable for the earlier stages of education, Euclid
wrote for men ; whereas his work has been used for children,
and it is surely no disparagement to the great geometer to sup-
| pose that after more than 2,000 years the experience of generations
of teachers can suggest changes which may make his Elements,
_ I will not say more perfect as a piece of geometry, but more
_ easy for very young minds to follow. The difficulty of a book
or subject is indeed not in itself a fatal objection to its use in
education, for to learn how to overcome difficulties is one great
part of education : Geometry is hard, just as Greek is hard, and
-one reason why Geometry and Greek are such excellent educa-
tional subjects is precisely that they are hard. But in a world
in which there is so much to learn, we must learn everything in
the easiest way in which it can be learnt ; and after we have
smoothed the way to the utmost of our power, there is sure to be
enough of difficulty left. I regard the question of some reform
in the teaching of elementary geometry as so completely settled
| bya great concurrence of opinion on the part of the most compe-
tent judges, that I should hardly have thought it necessary to
direct the attention of the section to it, if it were not for the
following reasons :—

First, that the old system of geometrical instruction still re-
mains (with but few exceptions) paramount in our schools,
colleges, and universities, and must remain so until a very great
-consensus of opinion is obtained in favour of some one definite
text-book. It appears to me, therefore, that the duty will
eventually devolve upon this section of the British Association,
of reporting on the attempts that have been made to frame an
improved system of geometrical education ; and if it should be
found that these attempts have been at last successful, I think
that the British Association should lend the whole weight of its
authority to the proposed change. I am far from suggesting that
any such decision should be made immediately. The work
undertaken by the Association for the improvement of geometrical
teaching is still far from complete ; and even when it is complete
it must be left to hold its own against the criticism of all comers
before it can acquire such an amount of public confidence as
would justify us in recommending its adoption by the great
teaching and examining bodies of the country.

Secondly, I have thought it right to remind the section of the
part it has taken with reference to the reform of geometrical
teaching, because it appears to me that a task, at once of less
difficulty and of more immediate importance, might now be
undertaken by it with great advantage. There is at the present
moment a very general agreement that a certain amount of
natural science ought to be introduced into school education ;
and many schools of the country have already made most laud-

_ able efforts in this,direction. As far as I can judge, there is

further a general agreement that a good school course of natural
science ought to include some part or parts of physics, of chemis-
try, and of biology ; but I think it will be found that while the
courses of chemistry given at our best schools are in the main iden-
tical, there is great diversity of opinion as to the parts of physics
and of biology which should be selected as suitable for a school
education, and a still greater diversity of opinion as to the methods

which should be pursued in teaching them. Under these circum- _

stances it is not surprising to find that the masters of those schools
into which natural science has hardly yet found its way (and some
of the largest and most important schools in the country are in
this class), are doubtful as to the course which they should take ;
and from not knowing precisely what they should do, have not
as yet made up their minds to do anything of importance. There
can be no doubt that the masters of such schools would be glad
on these points to be guided by the opinion of scientific men ;
and I canriot help thinking that this opinion would be more
unanimous than is commonly supposed, and further, that no
public body would be so likely to elicit an expression of it, as a
Committee appointed by the British Association. I believe
that if such an expression of the opinion of scientific men were
once obtained, it would not only tend to give a right direction
to the study of natural science in schools, but might also have
the effect of inducing the public generally to take a higher and
more truthful view of the objecis which it is sought to attain by
introducing natural science as an essential element into all courses
of education, All knowledge of natural science that is imparted
to a boy, is, or may be, useful to him in the business of his after
life ; but the claim of natural science to a place in education
cannot be rested upon its practical usefulness only. The great
object of education is to expand and to train the mental faculties,
and it is because we believe that the study of natural science
is. eminently fitted to further these two objects, that we urge its
introduction into school studies. Science expands the minds of
the young, because it puts before them great and ennobling
objects of contemplation ; many of its truths are such as a child
can understand, and yet such that, while in a measure he under-
stands them, he is made to feel something of the greatness, some-
thing of the sublime regularity, and of the impenetrable mystery,
of the world in which he is placed. But science also trains the
growing faculties, for science proposes to itself truth as its only
object, and it presents the most varied, and at the same time the
most splendid examples, of the different mental processes which
lead to the attainment of truth, and which make up what we call
reasoning. In science, error is always possible, often close at
hand ; and the constant necessity for being on our guard against
it is one important part of the education which science supplies.
But in science, sophistry is impossible ; science knows no love ot
paradox ; science has no skill to make the worse appear the better
reason ; science visits with a not long deferred exposure all our
fondness for preconceived opinions, all our partiality for views
that we have ourselves maintained, and thus teaches the two
best lessons that can well be taught—on the one hand the love
of truth, and on the other, sobriety and watchfulness in the use
of the understanding.

In accordance with these views I am disposed to insist very
strongly on the importance of assigning to physics, that is to say
to those subjects which we discuss in this section, a very
prominent place in education. From the great sciences of
observation, such as botany, or zoology, or geology, the young
student learns to observe, or more simply, to use his eyes ; he
gets that education of the senses which is after all so impor-
tant, and which a purely grammatical and literary education so
wholly fails to give. From chemistry he learns, above all other
things, the art of experimenting, and of experimenting for him-
self, But from physics, better as it seems to me than from any other
part of science, he may learn to reason with consecutiveness and

‘precision, from the data supplied by the immediate observation

of natural phenomena. I hope we shall see the time when each
successive portion of mathematical knowledge acquired by the
pupil will be made immediately available for his instruction in
physics ; and when everything that he learns in the physical labora-
tory will be made the subject of mathematical reasoning and cal-
culation. In some few schools I believe that this 1s already the
case, and I think we may hope well for the future, both of
mathematics and physics in this country, when the practice be-
comes universal. In one respect the time is favourable for such
a revolution in the mode of teaching physical science. During
the past few years a number of text-books have been made avail-
able to the learner, which far surpass anything that was at the

452

disposal of former generations of pupils, and which are probably
as completely satisfactory as the present state of science will
admit. It is pleasant to record that these text-books
are the work of distinguished men who have always
taken a prominent part in the proceedings of this sec-
tion. We have Deschanel’s Physics, edited, or rather re-
written, by Prof. Everett, a book remarkable alike for the
clearness of its explanations and for the beauty of the engravings
with which it is illustrated ; and passing to works intended for
students somewhat further advanced, we have the treatises of Prof.
Balfour Stewart on Heat, of Prof. Clerk Maxwell on the Theory
of Heat, of Prof. Fleeming Jenkin on Electricity, and we expect
a similar treatise on Light from another of our most distin-
guished members.

These works breathe the very spirit ot the method which
sould guide both research and education in physics. They
express the most profound and far-reaching generalisations of
science in the simplest language, and yet with the utmost
precision. With the most sparing use of mathematical
technicalities, they are a perfect storehouse of mathema-
tical ideas and mathematical reasonings, An old French geometer
used to say thata mathematical theory was never to be considered
complete till you had made it so clear that you could explain it
to the first man you met in the street. This is of course a bril-
liant exaggeration, but it is no exaggeration to say that the
eminent writers to whom I have referred have given something
of this clearness and completeness to such abstract mathematical
theories as those of the electrical potential, the action of capil-
lary forces, and the definition of absolute temperature. A great
object will have been attained when an education in physical

science on the basis laid down in these treatises has become |

generally accepted in our schools,

I do not wish to close this address without adverting, though
only for one moment, to a question which occupies the minds
of many of the friends of science at the present time, the question
what should be the functions of the State in supporting, or in orga-
uising, scientific inquiry. I do not mean to touch on any of the
cificulties which attend this question, or to express any opinion as
to the controversies to which it has given rise. But I do not
think it can be out of place for the President of this section to
call your attention to the inequality with which, as between
different branches of science, the aid of Government is afforded.
National observatories for astronomical purposes are maintained
by this, as by every civilised country. Large sums of money are
yearly expended, and most rightly expended, by the Govern-
ment for the maintenance of museums, and collections of
mineralogy, botany, and zoology; at avery recent period an
extensive chemical laboratory with abundant appliances for re-
search as well as for instruction has been opened at South Ken-
singion. But for the physical sciences—such sciences as those
of heat, light, and electricity—nothing has been done; and I
confess I do not think that any new principle would be intro-

duced, or any great burden incurred, capable of causing alarm |

to the most sensitive Chancellor of the Exchequer, if it should
be determined to establish, at the national cost, institutions for
the prosecution of these branches of knowledge, so vitally im-
portant to the progress of science as a whole. Perhaps also,
upon this general ground of fairness, even the pure mathemati-
cians might prefer a modest claim to be assisted in the calculation
and printing of a certain number of Tables, of which even the
physical applications of their science are beginning to feel the
pressing need.

One word further on this subject of State assistance to Science,
and Ihave done. It is no doubt true that for a great, perhaps
an increasing, number of purposes, Science requires the assistance
of the State, but is it not nearer to truth to say that the State
requires the assistance of Science? Itis my conviction that if the
true relations between Science and the State are not recognised, it
is the State, rather than Science, that will be the great loser,
Without Science the State may builda ship that cannot swim, and
may waste a million or two on experiments, the futile result of
which Science could have foreseen. But without the State, Science
has done very well in the past, and may dovery well in timetocome.
I am not sure that we should know more of pure mathematics,
or of heat, of light, or electricity than we do at this moment if
we had had the best help of the State all the time. There are,
however, certain things which the State might do and ought to
do for Science. It, or corporations created by it, ought to
undertake the responsibility of carrying on those great systems
of observation which, haying a secular character, cannot be coms

NATURE

a4, 4

[ Sept. 25, 1873
pleted within the life-time of a single generation, and cannot
therefore be safely left to individual energy. One other thing the
State ought to do for Science. It ought to pay scientific men
properly for the services which they render directly to the State,
instead of relying, as at present, on their Jove for their work as a
means of obtaining, their services on lower terms. If anyone
doubts the justice of this remark, I would ask him to compare
the salaries of the officers in thé British Museum with those
which are paid in other departments of the Civil Service,

But what the State cannot do for Science is to create the scien-
tific spirit, or to control it. The spirit of scientific discovery is _
essentially voluntary ; voluntary, and even mutinous, it will re-
main; it will refuse to be bound with red tape, or ridden by ~
officials, whether well-meaning or perverse. You cannot have
an Established Chtrch in Science, and, if you had, I am afraid
there are many scientific men who would turn scientific noncon- —

formists. L

I venture upon these remarks because I cannot help feeling
that the great desire which is now manifesting itself on the part —
of some scientific men to obtain for Science the powerful aid of
the State may perhaps lead some of us to forget that it is self-
reliance and self-help which haye made Science what it is, and
that these are qualities the place of which no Government help

can ever supply. ; 4

Report of the Committee appointed to consider the possibilisy of
improving the methods of instruction in Elementary Geometry.
Until recently the instruction in elementary geometry given
in this country was exclusively based upon Simson’s modification —
of the text of Euclid. Of late years, however, attempts have
been made to introduce other text-books agreeing with the
ancient Elements in general plan, but differing from it in some
important details of treatment. And in particular, the Associa-
tion for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching, having con-
sidered the whole question with great labour and deliberation,
is engaged in the construction of a Syllabus, part of which is
already completed. The Committee had thus to consider, frst,
the question of the plurality of text-books ; secowdly, certain
general principles on which deviation from the ancient standard
has been recommended; and, /hirdly, the Syllabus of the
Geometrical Association. ; KF
1. On the Plurality of Text-Books.
It has already been found that the practical difficulty of ex-—
amination stands in the way of allowing to the geometrical
teacher complete freedom in the methods. of demonstration, and.
in the order of the propositions. The difficulty of demonstrating”
a proposition depends upon the number of assumptions which it
is allowable to start from ; and this depends upon the order in
which the subject has been presented. When different text-books
have been used, it thus becomes virtually impossible to set the
same paper to all the candidates, And in this country at present
teaching is guided so largely by the requirements of examinations,
that this circumstance opposes a serious barrier to individual
attempts at improvement. On the other hand, the Committee think ~
that no single text-book which has yet been produced is fit to
succeed Euclid in the position of authority ; and it does not seem
probable that a good book could be written by the joint action
of selected individuals. It therefore seems advisable that the
requisite uniformity, and no more, should be obtained by the
publication of an authorised Syllabus, indicating the order of
the propositions, and in some cases the general character of the
demonstrations, but leaving the choice of the text-book perfectly ©
free to the teacher. And the Committee believe that the
authorisation of such a Syllabus might properly come from the
British Association. :
2. On some Principles of Improvement,

The Committee recommend that the teaching of Practical
Geometry should precede that of Theoretical Geometry, in order,
that the mind of the learner may first be familiarised with the
facts of the science, and afterwards led to see their connection. —
With this end the instruction in practical geometry should be ~
| directed as much to the verification of theorems as to the

solution of problems. "

It has been proposed to introduce what are called redundant
axioms ; that is to say, assumptions whose truth is apparently
obvious, but which are not independent of one another. Such,
for example, as the two assumptions that two straight lines —
| cannot enclose a space, and that a straight line is the shortest

“=

| Sept. 25, 1873]

distance between any two of its points. It appears to the Com-
mittee that it is not advisable to introduce redundant axioms ;
but that all the assumptions made should be necessary for de-
monstration of the propositions, and independent of one
another.

It appears that the Principle of Superposition might advan-
_ tageously be employed with greater frequency in the demonstra-
tions, and that an explicit recognition of it as an axiom of fun-
damental assumption should be made at the commencement,

The Committee think also that it would be advisable to intro-
duce explicitly certain definitions and principles of general logic,
in order that the processes of simple conversion may not be con-
founded with geometrical methods.

3. The Syllabus of the Geometrical Association.

The Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching
has issued (privately) a Syllabus covering the ground of the first
four hooks of Euclid. The Committee are of opinion that the
Syllabus is decidedly good, so far as it goes, but they do not
wish to make a detailed report upon it in its present incomplete
state. When it is finished, however, they will be prepared to
report fully upon the merit of its several parts, to make such
suggestions for revision as may appear necessary, and to discuss
the advisability of giving to it the authority of the British
Association, For this purpose the Committee request that they

may be reappointed. :

SECTION B,—CHEMISTRY

A report on Zssential Oils, prepared by Dr. Wright and Dr.
Gladstone, was read by the former.

On Black Deposits of Metals, by Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S.

If one metal be thrown down from solution by means of
another metal, it does not always present itself of the same
colour as it exhibits when in mass; in fact, most metals that
are capable of being precipitated by substitution may be obtained
ina black condition. The allied metals, platinum, palladium, and
iridium, are generally if not always black when thus precipitated,
and bismuth and antimony form black fringes and little else.
Similar fringes are also formed by gold, but it also yields green,
yellow, or lilac metal according to circumstances. Copper,
when first precipitated on zinc, whether from a weak or asirong
solution, is black ; but in the latter case it becomes chocolate-
coloured as it advances, or red if the action be more rapid.
Lead, in like manner, is always deposited black in the first in-
_ Stance, though the growing crystals soon become of the well-

known dull grey. Silver and thallium appear as little bushes
of black metal on the decomposing plate, if the solution be very
weak; otherwise they grow of their proper colour. Zinc and
cadmium give a black coating, quickly passing into grey when
their weak solutions are decomposed by magnesium. ‘The gene-
ral result may be stated thus: If a piece of metal be immersed in
the solution of another metal which it can displace, the latter
metal immediately makes its appearance at myriads of points in
a condition that does not reflect light ; but as the most favour-
ably circumstanced crystals grow, they acquire the optical pro-
perties of the massive metal, the period at which the change
takes place depending partly on the nature of the metal and
partly on the rapidity of its growth. In the production of the
black deposit of the copper-zine couple lately employed by the
' author and Mr, Tribe to break up various compound bodies,
there are several stages that may be noticed. At first an out-
growth of copper forms on the zinc ; then, while this action is
still proceeding, the couple itself acts upon the water or the sul-
phate of zinc in solution, the metallic zinc being oxidised, and
hydrogen gas or black zinc being formed against the copper
branches. This deposit of zinc was originally observed by Dr.

Russell. The arrangement of the particles between the two

metals in connection is supposed to be somewhat thus :—
Cu | Zn SO, | Zn SO, | H,O | H,O | Zn

which, by the conjoint power and chemical force, becomes—
Cu| Zn| Zn SO, | H, SO,| H,O| Zn

If there is still copper sulphate in the solution, this deposited
zinc may in its turn become coated with copper, but if it remains
exposed to water it is sure to become oxidised. The black de-

osit often assumes a brownish colour when this is the case.

he copper on which zinc has been deposited gives a brassy
streak when rubbed in a mortar ; but the presence of oxide tends
to prevent the sticking together of the detached pieces of metal,

NATURE

453

and thus the formation of a streak on pressure. If, however, the
oxide be removed by acetic acid, the clean ramifications of metal,
whether black or otherwise, conglomerate of their own accord
in a remarkable way, and little pressure is required to obtain a
yellowish metallic streak ; while if hydrochloric acid be used,
the zinc itself also dissolves with effervescence, and the con-
eoenaene pieces of metal, when rubbed, give a coppery
streak,

The Secretary read a paper communicated by Mr. Tribe, Ox
an Improved Specific Gravity Bottle. The apparatus was origi-
nally designed for taking the specific gravity of inflammable
liquids, but, as the President explained, it might be used for any
other class of liquids.

Mr. W. H. Pike read a?paper on Several Homologues of Oxa-
luric Acid,

The anhydrides of dibasic acids combine with urea and sulpho-
urea to form bodies which have the general formula.

CO—NH—CO—NH,
RS .

\coou
have been obtained are—

The acids in this series which

CH,—CO—NH—CONH,
Succino-carbaminic acid, |
CH,—COOH.
: CH,—CO—NH—CSNHz
Succino-sulpho-carbaminic acid, |
CH,—COOH.
/oO-NE. CS.NHz,
Citracon sulpho-carbaminic acid, C3Hy
\coou.

Dr. Wright read a paper on Vew Derivatives of Codeine and
Morphine.

It was a résumé of the results obtained in the previous year in
continuation of those brought before the Association on former
occasions. Morphine gave rise by treatment with sulphuric acid
to polymerides precisely analogous to those obtained from codeine
under similar conditions. Trimorphine and tetramorphine had
been isolated, but di-moiphine had not yet been formed. Deri-
vatives from these bodies by the action of hydrochloric acid had
been obtained and extended. By the action of hydrochloric acid
on morphine a chlorinated product had been formed. By
further treatment this formed apomorphine, a new body. Under
the same circumstances codeine gave rise to a chlorinated base
homologous with that from morphine. But further action gave
rise not to the apomorphine, but to a somewhat similar body
containing more of the elements of water. The action of zinc
chlorides on morphine had also been examined ; the final pro-
ducts were apomorphine and an isomeric base of the tetra series,
intermediate substances being formed. The physiological pro-
perties of most of these new derivatives had been stated, and
some connection made out in certain cases between the composi-
tion and the physiological action.

friday, September 19

The report of the Committee for superintending the Monthly
Reports of the Progress of Chemistry was read. The report bore
testimony to the great good which the publication of the abstracts
of chemical papers by the Chemical Society had already effected,
and in the discussion which ensued it was stated that amongst
the purposes to which the Association applied its funds, there
was none which had proved more useful than this grant.

The report of the Committee on Siemens’s Pyrometer was read
by Prof. G. C. Foster, F.R.S.

The experiment of which the results were communicated to
the Chemical Section of the Association in the Report pre-
sented last year, having shown that the exposure of the Pyro-
meter to a red heat caused an alteration of the Zero-point of the
instrument, which was attributed by Prof. Williamson, in conse-
quence of experiments on the behaviour of platinum heated in
contact with silica in an atmosphere of carbonic oxide, to the
chemical alteration of the platinum of the pyrometer-coil due to
the joint action of the silica of the porcelain core on which the
wire was wound, and of the reducing atmosphere existing inside
the prosecting iron tube. Mr. Siemens supplied the Committee
with two pyrometers, in which, in order to guard against the
cause of change above-mentioned, the platinum coil was incased
in a platinum tube placed inside the outer iron tube. The ex-

454

periments of the Committee during the past year haye been
directed to testing the efficacy of this modification of the instru-
ment. Owing to circumstances, these experiments have not been
as numerous or complete as they were intended to be, but, as
far as they go, they indicate that the addition of the platinum
tube does not result in any perceptible improvement, since the
two pyrometers supplied to the Committee were found to be
as much changed, after being heated to a good red heat, as the
instrument experimented upon last year.

Independent testimony, however, of considerable weight as to
the value of Siemens’s pyrometer, as an instrument for industrial
use, has been borne by Prof. Adolf Weinhold, of Chemnitz
(Programm des kinigtl. hoherem Gowerbschule 2u Chemnitz, 1873),
who after a careful, critical, and experimental review of various
processes of pyrometry, arrives at the conclusion that this is the
only ready-made pyrometer which can be recommended for use
(**Von den fortig zu beziehenden Pyrometern ist nur das
Siemens’sche brauchbar und empfehlenswerth,” /oc. cz. p. 42).

The Committee, therefore, consider that the further examina-
tion of Siemens’s Pyrometer is a matter of sufficient import-
ance to justify them in the recommendation that the Committee
be re-appointed, and that the original grant of 30/.—no part of
which has yet been expended—be renewed,

SECTION D.—BroLocy
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

Report of the Committee for the Foundation of Stations in
different parts of the Globe.

THE Committee reports that since the last meeting the
Zoological Station at Naples has been completed, a photograph
of which accompanies this report.

Both the mechanical and scientific arrangements inside require
perhaps two more months to be finished, and though the cost
of the whole has exceeded in no small degree the estimates,
Dr. Dohrn hopes nevertheless to balance them by finding new
means of income for the establishment. He has succeeded in
obtaining a subvention of 1,500/. from the German Empire, and
his scheme of letting working-tables in the laboratories of the
station has met with general approval. Two tables have been
let to Prussia and to Italy, one to Bavaria, Baden, and the Uni-
versities of Strasburg and Cambridge. A letter from the
Dutch Minister of the Interior informs Dr. Dohrn that Hol-
land accepts the offer of one table for the stipulated annual
payment of 75/. Applications have also been made to
the Imperial Government of Russia, both on the part of
Dr. Dohrn and by different Russian scientific authorities. A
correspondence has taken place between Dr. Dohrn and Pro-
fessors Lovin and Steenstrup about a possible participation of
the Scandinavian kingdoms, but has as yet led to no definite re-
sult. The case with respect to Switzerland and Saxony has been
similar, but hopes are entertained that these countries may join
the others in their endeavour to support the Zoological Station,
and afford every facility to their naturalists of profiting by this
new and powerful instrument of investigation.

Dr. Dohrn thinks it desirable to explain once more the leading
ideas that have induced him to request the assistance of all these
Governments and Universities,

The Zoological Station has sprung up altogether in conse-
quence of the desire to facilitate investigation in marine zoology,
and to enable naturalists to pursue their studies in the most eflec-
tive manner and with the greatest possible economy of money
and energy. All those zoologists that have visited Naples during
the last year—amongst whom have been Professors Gegenbaur,
Claus, Oscar Schmidt, Pagenstacher—consider that this end will
be fully attained by the organisation and arrangements made or
intended in the station. They all agreed that it is in the
highest degree desirable that nobody who cares at all for the
progress ot zoology should fail to join Dr. Dohrn’s exertions in
bringing about a universal participation in the expense of keep-
ing up the new establishment ; and thus it is due to Prof. Oscar
Schmidt’s influence that the Imperial Government at Berlin hired
a table for the University of Strasburg, and to the initiation of
Prof. Pagenstacher that the Grand Duchy of Baden has also taken
one table, whilst Prof, Claus has promised his services to induce
the Austrian Government to take a similar step.

As is, we believe, universally known, no money-speculation
whatever is contemplated by the founder of the Naples Station,

NATURE

_bryologists to carry on an investigation on comparative selection-

[ Sept. 25, 1873

in so far as money-speculation means a high interest and the
return of the capital invested into the pocket of the founder.
Nevertheless every honest means will be used to procure as large
an income as possible, for more than one reason, There is not
only the necessity incumbent upon the establishment to repay
some of the capital to those who have lent money to Dr. Dohrn
in order that he might complete the building in its actual en-
larged state, a task for which his own means would not have
sufficed, in spite of the German Government’s subyention. There
is further reserve funds to be provided for the eventuality that the
income of the aquarium might at any time not cover the outlay for
the year’s management, And last, not least, it is just the plan to
have every year a certain sum to spend fot scientific pursuits.
If, for instance, Prof. Dubois-Reymond, as he has expressed to
Dr. Dohrn his wish to do so, should proceed to Naples to carry
on experiments on the electric torpedo, it needs would require
not inconsiderable means to buy the necessary apparatus and phy-
siological instruments, and to provide the famous physiologist
every day with fresh materials to conduct his investigations on a
scale large enough to yield a distinct result, Or to enable em-

embryology, it requires means to buy large quantities of female
sharks and skates, which are by no means so cheap asa foreigner
might think. And for conducting well and accurately faunistic
researches, everybody in this section knows what an amount of
money must be spent in dredging-expeditions; how much
trouble, how much time and work is necessary to get at the ani-
mals and to determine theiridentity or non-identity with the known
and described species. And this is one of the foremost duties
which the Zoological Station will propose to itself, as it is too
well known how great a confusion exists with regard to syste-
matic and faunistic questions of the Mediterranean fauna. To
bring this confusion to an end it will require more than one lus-
trum and more than 1,000/7, There may perhaps have risen a
prejudice among systematists against the new establishment as
one which, in consequence of the partiality of its leader for Dar-
winian views, might dispense altogether with Systematics.
Nothing could be more erroneous than such an opinion. The
leader of the zoological station is as little opposed to systematics
as the Darwinian theory itself, He is of opinion—and the reporter
can state this on the most absolute authority—that zoological bat-
tles may be best won according to Count Moltke’s principle, “to
march separately and to fight conjunctively,” thus leaving to
systematists their own route as well as to anatomists, physiolo-
gists, and embryologists, on condition only that they will, when
meeting the enemy — error and ignorance—fight together. And
he desires the zoological station to become such a battle-field,
where all the different zoological armies may meet and fight their
common adversaries.

That such wars need much of the one element, which, accord
ing to Monternouli, best secures victory—money, money, money,
will be illustrated by two letters which Dr. Dohrn has received
from Prof. Louis Agassiz, and which he has been authorised to
publish. y

The celebrated American naturalist writes, under the date
‘‘Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., June
Io, 1873,” the following :—

‘It is a great pleasure and satisfaction to me, that I can tell
you how, in consequence of the munificence of a wealthy New
York merchant, it has become my duty to erect an establish-
ment whose main object will be similar to that of your Naples
station, only that teaching is to be united with it. The thing
came thus to pass. During last winter I applied to our state
authorities to secure more means for the museum in Cambridge
(Mass.) Among the reasons, I alluded to the necessity of having
greater means for trading purposes. I addressed my speech to
our deputies, and it was afterwards reported in the newspapers.
By chance the report fell into the hands of a rich and magnani-
mous tobacco-manufacturer, Mr. John Anderson, of New York.
He sent,on the same day, a telegram asking me whether I
would be at home on the following day for two friends, which
I answered by ‘yes.’ The two gentlemen came, by order of Mr.
Anderson, offering mea pretty little island in Buzzard Bay, for
the purpose of erecting a zoological school. I accepted this
offer, of course, but added, that without further pecuniary
means it would be difficult to teach there. After two days, a
sum of 50,000 dollars was handed over to me, and now Lam
erecting there a school for natural history, which at the same
time will be a zoological station in the immediate neighbourhood
of the gulf-stream, of the greatest assistance to our zoologists, —

NATURE

455

especially as splendid dredging ground. This certainly must
greatly promote zoological study in the United States. Already
forty teachers of our Normal and high schools have applied for
this summer's lessons ; besides, I will be accompanied thereto
by my private students. Some of my special colleagues are
ready to assist me, so that I may hope to obtain already some
_ results before winter’s approach.”

The next letter is dated ‘‘Penikese, Aug. 13, 1873,” and
contains some more information :—

“The school has been opened on July 8. Some of my
friends have assisted me as teachers, several other naturalists
are occupied with special studies. The bottom of the sea is
very rich, the general situation quite excellent. The solitude
which prevails is a great help for our teaching purposes. As
students, forty teachers of our public schools are present, be-
sides ten younger gentlemen, who prepare for a scientific career.

“The buildings are very well constructed and adapted to their
uses. The two chief houses have a length of 120 feet, anda
breadth of 25 feet each. In the lower story are the laboratories
each with 28 windows ; every student occupies one window, and
has for himself one aquarium. In the upper story of each house
are 28 bed-rooms, for every student one. The professors and
naturalists are lodged in another house of the shape of a Greek
cross. The dining-room is ina third house, which contains also
the kitchen and the servants’ rooms. Besides we have an ice-
house, a cellar for alcohol, stables for domestic animals ; about
one hundred sheep are feeding in the pasture grounds of the
island ; some smaller hutches contain rabbits, guinea-pigs, &c.

‘* Next year physical, chemical, and physiological, laboratories

will be constructed... .
_ “T believe I did not tell you before, that my son presented
me on my birthday with 100,000 dollars for the enlargement
of the Museum. I intend to apply this sum chiefly to the
augmentation of the collections, hoping the State will pay for
the enlargement of the buildings. .. .”

These letters prove that the name of this committee has not
- beenill-chosen, for though the American Zoological Station has
not been founded by its direct intervention, there can be little
doubt that the foundation of the Zoological Station of Naples
has been the signal for a new and powerful movement to assist
zoological research.

Of course the American Station has met with such extraordi-
_ mary advantages, that a competition between it and Naples
Station as regards means and favourable circumstances would be
all but hopeless for the latter. Nevertheless it may prove the
most powerful instrumentin carrying out strictly theself-supporting
principle, by earning money through the Aquarium, and by
letting tables in the laboratory. And though ary act of muni-
ficence to the Naples Station is exceedingly desirable, and
would be heartily welcomed (as the moment has not yet arrived,
where any scientific establishment in this world had at its disposal
more money than it knew how to spend) the greatest stress will
always be laid upon these two elements.

The reporter is further glad to state that the library of the
Zoological Station has recently been augmented. A magnificent
gift has been made bythe Zoological Society of London,
which presented a complete set of its illustrated proceedings,
The Royal Academies of Copenhagen, Naples, and Berlin, have
also granted their biological publications, and promised to
continue to do so in future. The Jenckenberg Institute in
Frankfort-on-the-Main, as well as the Zoological Gardens of that
city, have sent all their transactions ; as has the Smithsonian
Institution in Washington, with respect to its biological publi-
cations. Well-founded hopesare entertained that in a short time
many other academies and scientific societies will follow the
example of the above-mentioned.

German publishers have continued to send their biological
publications gratis to the library of the station, and great quanti-
ties of books, pamphlets, and separata from publications in
periodicals, have been forwarded from all parts of the scientific
world through the kindness of the authors.

From the side of the Zoological Station, though still in an
embryonic state, considerable activity has been displayed with
regard to furnishing continental zoologists with collections of
well-preserved marine animals. Thus Prof. Wilhelm Miiller in
Jena, has been supplied with Amphioxus and Tunicata, Prof.
Greeff of Marburg with large quantities of Echinodermata ;
mixed collections of every kind of animals have been sent to
Prof. Oscar Schmidt, Strasburg, Prof. Claus, Vienna, to the
_ Jenckenberg Museum at Frankfort, the Natural History Society
at Offenbach, and many others.

on oa = = =

Several German zoologists have already announced their inten-
tion to come during next winter and work in the station; a
similar announcement is made through an Italian zoologist and
through Prof. Foster. Iam informed that two young English
biologists will arrive at the station in January.

The committee hopes this report will convince the section, that
the year between the present and the last meeting of the British
Association has been one of steady and considerable progress
for the Zoological Station at Naples. The committee refrains
from making any further proposition to the section, but ex-
presses its wish, that every influence may be used to secure to
the station at Naples such assistance, as will serve to promote
the eminent scientific ends for which it has been erected.

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OPENING ADDRESS LY THE PRESIDENT, PRoressoR RUTHER-
FORD

In addressing you upon the subjects of anatomy and physio-
logy, I would invite your attention to some of the features which
characterise these departments of biology at this present time,
and to some recent advances in physiology, the consideration of
which you will find to be possessed of deep interest and im-
portance.

State of Anatomy

Anatomy, dealing as it does merely with the structure of
living things, is a far simpler subject than physiology, whose
province it is to ascertain and explain their actions. It was
not a difficult thing to handle such instruments asa knife and
forceps, and with their aid to ascertain the coarser structure of
the body. Accordingly, the naked eye anatomy of man has
been fully investigated, and although the same cannot be said of
that of many of the lower animals, it is nevertheless, as far as
this kind of inquiry is concerned, a mere question of time as
regards its completion. But minute or microscopic anatomy is
in a different position. Requiring, as it does, the microscope
for its pursuit, it could not make satisfactory progress until this
instrument had been brought to some degree of perfection.
Doubtless much advantage is still to be derived from improve-
ments in the construction of this instrument ; but probably most
of the future advances in our knowledge of the structure of the
tissues and organs of the body may be expected to result from
the application of new methods of preparing the tissues for exa-
mina‘ion with such microscopes as we now have at our disposal.
This expectation naturally arises from what has been accom-
plished in this direction during the last fifteen years. For
example, what valuable information has been gained regarding
the structure of such soft tissues as the brain and spinal cord by
hardening them with such an agent as chromic acid, in order
that these tissues may be cut into thin slices for microscopical
study. How greatly has the employment of such pigments as
carmine and the aniline dyes facilitated the microscopical re-
cognition of certain elements of the tissues. What a deal we
have learned regarding the structure of the capillaries, and the
origin of lymphatics, by the effect which nitrate of silver has of
rendering distinctly visible the outlines of endothelial cells.
What signal service chloride of gold has rendered in tracing the
distribution of nerves by the property which it possesses of
staining nerve fibrils, and thereby greatly facilitating their recogni-
tion amidst the textures. Moreover of what value osmic acid has
been in enabling us to study the structure of the retina. In the hands
of Lockhart Clarke, Beale, Recklinghausen, Cohnheim, Stultz,
and others, these agents have furnished us with information of
infinite value, and those who would advance microscopical
anatomy may do so most rapidly by working in the directions
indicated by these investigators. In human microscopical
anatomy, indeed, there only remain for investigation things
which are profoundly difficult, such as, for example, the struc-
ture of the brain, the peripheral terminations of nerves, the
development of nerve tissue, and other subjects equally recondite
But in the field of comparative anatomy there is far greater.
scope for the histological investigator. He has only to avail
himself of those reagents and methods which have recently
proved so useful in the microscopical anatomy of the vertebrates ;
he has only to apply those more fully than has yet been done to the
invertebrates, and he will scarcely fail to make discoveries. For
the lover of microscopical research, there is, moreover, a wide field
ofinquiry in the study of comparative embryology ; that is to say

456

in the study of the development of the lower animals. Since it
has become clear that a knowledge of the precise relations of
living things one to another can only be arrived at by watching
the changes through which they pass in the course of their deve-
lopment, research has been vigorously turned in this direction,
and although an immense mass of facts has long since been
accumulated regarding this question, Parker’s brilliant researches
on the development of the skull give an indication of the great
things we may yet anticipate from this kind of research.
Speaking of microscopical study before this audience, I cannot but
remember that in this country more than in any other we have a
number of learned gentlemen who, as amateurs eagerly pursue
investigations in this department. I confess that I am always
sorry to witness the enthusiastic perseverance with which they
apply themselves to the prolonged study of markings upon
diatoms, seeing that they might direct their efforts to subjects
which would repay them for their labours far more gratefully. I
would venture to suggest to such workers that it is now more
than ever necessary to abandon all aims at haphazard discoveries,
and to approach microscopy by the only legitimate method, of
undergoing a thorough preliminary training in the various
methods of microscopical investigation by competent teachers, of
whom there are now plenty throughout the country.
State of Physiology

With regard to physiology, the present standpoint is not so
high as in the case of anatomy. Physiology, resting as it does
upon a tripod consisting of anatomy, physics or mechanics, and
chemistry, is many-sided, The most minute anatomy, the most
recondite physics, and the most complex chemistry, have all to
be taken into account in the study of the physiology of living
things ; so that it is not surprising that it should, in its develop-
ment, lag behind the comparatively elementary subject—anatomy.
Until not so very long ago anatomy and physiology were in most
of our medical schools taught by the same professor, who,
although professing to teach both subjects, was generally more
an anatomist than a physiologist. This arrangement gaye to
physiology a bias which was eminently anatomical, and this bias
continued in many quarters, notwithstanding the separation of
the physiological from the anatomical tuition. Iam aware that
there are still some distinguished anatomists who intermingle
physiological with anatomical teaching.
the usefulness of the practice when carried to a moderate extent.
I wish merely to point out what appears to me to have been a
result of the practice, and I believe that the result was to give to
physiology an anatomical tendency. It was natural for the ana-
tomist who dealt with visible structure to constantly refer to this
in explaining physiological action or function. The physiologist
with the anatomical tendency always tried to explain a difference
in the action or function of a part by a difference in its evident
structure, and when his microscope failed to show any structural
difference between the cells which form saliva and those which
produce pancreatic fluid, between the egg of a rabbit and that of
a dog, he, baffled on the side of anatomy, was too ready to adopt
the conclusion that inasmuch as the microscope reveals no differ-
ence in the structure there is really no structural difference
between them, and that the only way in which the difference in
action can be explained is by having recourse to the old hypo-
thesis that the metamorphoses of matter, and the actions of force
are in the living world regulated bya metaphysical entity termed
a vital principle, and that dissimilar actions by similarly con-
structed parts are only to be explained by referring them to the
operations of this principle. After alluding further to the hypo-
thesis of the vital principle and its supposed actions, and after
stating that he did not follow the teaching of those who still
adhere to this doctrine, the lecturer said that, viewed from the
physical side, there appears to .be no reason for supposing that
two particles of protoplasm, which possess a similar microscopic
structure, must act in the same way; for the physicist knows
that molecular structure and action are beyond the ken of the
microscopist, and that within apparently homogeneous jelly-like
particles of protoplasm there may be differences of molecular
constitution and arrangement which determine widely different
properties.

A great change is now taking place in physiological tuition in
this country—a superabundance of physiological anatomy, and
an almost entire absence of experiment, are no longer the cha-
racteristic features of our tuition. The study of physics, too
much neglected, is happily now being more and more regarded
as important in the preliminary training of the physiologist,

NATURE

I am not questioning”

[Sez 25, 1873

as the study of anatomy and of chemistry; and I trust that
the day is not far distant when in our medical schools the
thorough education of our students in mathematics and phy-
sics will be insisted upon as absolutely essential elements
in their preliminary education. Until this is done physiolo;
will not advance in this country so rapidly as we could wish.
I would not in this place have alluded to a question concern- —
ing medical education, but for the fact that the progress of physi-
ology will always greatly depend upon the education of medical
men, for only those who are conversant with physics and chemis-
try, and who, in addition, are acquainted with the phenomena
of disease—that is to say, with abnormal physiological conditions
—can handle physiology in all its branches. Physiology owes
not a little to a study of pathology—that is, of abnormal physio-
logical states. The study of a diseased condition has, on several
occasions, given a clue to the discovery of the function of an
organ. Nothing was known regarding the function of the spleen —
until the pathologist observed that an increase in the number of
white corpuscles in the blood is commonly associated with an
enlargement of this organ. Hence arose the now accepted doc- _
trine that the spleen is concerned in the growth of blood cor-
puscles, The key to our knowledge of the functions of certain
parts of the brain has also been supplied by a study of the
diseased conditions of that organ. The very singular fact that
the right side of the body is governed by the left, and not by the
right side of the brain, was ascertained by observing that palsy
of the right side of the body is associated with certain diseased
conditions of the left side of the brain. That the corpus striatum
is concerned in motion, while the optic thalamus is concerned in ©
sensation ; that intellectual operations are manifested specially
through the cerebral hemispheres, are conclusions which were
indicated by the study of diseased conditions. Moreover, by the
pursuit of the same line of inquiry the key has been given to the
discovery of many other facts regarding the brain functions.
Some years ago M. Broca made the remarkable observation that, —
when a certain portion in the front part of the left side of the
brain becomes disorganised by disease, the person loses the
power of expressing his thoughts by words, either spoken or
written. He can comprehend what is said to him, his organs of
articulate speech are not paralysed, and he retains his power of
writing, for he can copy words when told to do so, but when he
is asked to give expression to his thoughts by speaking or by
writing, or eyen to tell his name, he is helpless. With a palsy
of a portion of his brain, he has lost his power of finding words
—he has lost his memory for words ; and mark you, although he
loses his power of finding words, his intelligent perception of
what passes around him and of what is said to him is not lost.
It is true that this condition of aphasia, as it is termed, has been
found to exist when various parts of the brain have been diseased ;
for example, it has been found to coexist with a diseased state of
the posterior instead of the anterior part of the cerebrum. This
fact rendets it very difficult as yet to assign a precise locality to the
faculty of speech, It is not, however, my intention to discuss —
this question, for my object is merely to show how the study of
disease has given a clue to the physiologist. Broca’s observation
led to the thought that, after all, the dreams of the phrenologists _
would be realised, in so far as they supposed that the various -
mental operations are made manifest through certain definite
territories of the brain.

It has until lately been supposed that the convolutions of the
cerebrum are entirely concerned in purely intellectual operations,
but this idea is now at anend. It is now evident, from recent
researches, that in the cerebral convolutions—that is, in the part
of the brain which was believed to minister to intellectual mani-
festations—there are nerve-centres for the production of volun-
tary muscular movements in various parts of the body. It has
always been taught that the convolutions of the brain, unlike
nerves in general, cannot be stimulated by means of electricity.
This, although true as regards the brains of pigeons, fowls, and —
perhaps other birds, has been shown by Fritsch and Hitzig to *
be untrue as regards mammals, These observers removed the
upper portion of the skull in the dog, and stimulated small portions
of the exposed surface of the cerebrum by means of weak gal- —
vanic currents, and they found that when they stimulated certain
definite portions of the surface of the convolutions in the anterior —
part of the cerebrum, movements are produced in certain definite —
groups of muscles on the opposite side of the body. By this new
method of exploring the functions of the convolutions of the
brain, these investigators showed that in certain cerebral conyo-
lutions, there are centres for the nerves presiding over the muscles

z

4

7%

Sept. 25, 1873]

_ NATURE

457

of the neck, the extensor and adductor muscles of the forearm,
for the flexor and rotator muscles of the arm, the muscles of the
foot, and those of the face. They, moreover, removed the por-
tion of the convolution on the left side of the cerebrum, which
they had ascertained to be the centre for the movements of the
right forelimb, and they found that after the injury thus inflicted,
the animal had only an imperfect control over the movements of
the part of the limb in question. Recently, Dr. Hughlings
Jackson, from the observation of various diseased conditions in
which peculiar movements occur in distinct groups of muscles,
has adduced evidence in support of the conclusion that in the
cerebral convolutions are localised the centres for the production
of various muscular movements. Within the last few months
these observations have been greatly extended by the elaborate
experiments of my able colleague in King’s College, Prof.
Ferrier.

Adopting the method of Fritsch and Hitzig—but instead of
using galvanic he has employed Faradic electricity, with which,
strange to say, the investigators just mentioned obtained no very
definite results—he has explored the brain in the fish, frog, dog,
cat, rabbit, and guinea-pig, and lately in the monkey. ‘The re-
sults of this investigation are of great importance. He has ex-
plored the convolutions of the cerebrum far more fully than the
German experimenters, and has investigated the cerebellum,
corpora’ quadrigemina, and several other portions of the brain
not touched upon by them. There is, perhaps, no part of the
brain whose function has been more obscure than the cere-
bellum. Dr. Ferrier has discovered that this ganglion is a great
centre for the movements of the muscles of the eyeballs. He
has also very carefully mapped out in the dog, cat, &c., the
yarious centres in the convolutions of the cerebrum, which are con-
cerned in the production of movements in the muscles of the
eyelids, face, mouth, tongue, ear, neck, fore and hind feet, and
tail. He confirms the doctrine that the corpus striatum is con-
cerned in motion, while the optic thalamus is probably con-
cerned in sensation, as are also the hippocampus major and its
neighbouring convolutions. He has also found that in the case
of the higher brain of the monkey there is what is not found in
the dog or cat—to wit, a portion in the front part of the brain,
whose stimulation produces no muscular movement. What may
be the function of this part, whether or not it specially ministers
to intellectual operations, remains to be seen. These researches
of Fritsch, Hitzig, Jackson, and Ferrier, mark the commence-
ment of a new era in our knowledge of brain function. Of all
the studies in comparative physiology there will be none more
interesting, and few so important, as those in which the various

“centres will be mapped out in the brains throughout the verte-

brate series. A new, but this time a true, system of phrenology
will be founded upon them ; by this, however, I do not mean

that it will be possible to tell a man’s faculties by the configura-

tion of his skull, but that the various mental faculties will be
assigned to definite territories of the brain, as Gall and Spurz-
heim long ago maintained, although their geography of the
brain was erroneous.

I have alluded to this subject, not only because it affords an
illustration of the service which a study of diseased conditions
has rendered to physiology, but also because these investigations
constitute the most important work which has been accomplished
in physiology for a very considerable time past.

Revival of Physiologytin Englana

We may, I think, term this the renaissance period of English
physiology. It seems strange that the country of Harvey, John
Hunter, Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, and John Reid, should

not always have been in the front rank as regards physiology.

The neglect of physics must be admitted as a cause of this ; it is
also to be attributed to the, until a few years ago, almost entire
absence of experimental teaching ; but it would be unjust not to
attribute it in great measure to the limited appliances possessed
by our physiologists. It is to be remembered that physiology
could not be successfully cultivated without proper laboratories,
with a supply of expensive apparatus. Without endowments
from public or private resources, how can such institutions be
properly fitted up and maintained by men who can, for the most
part, only turn to physiological research in moments snatched
from the busy toil of a profession so laborious as that of medicine.
In defiance of these difficulties we are now striving to hold our
place in the physiological world. A new system of physiological
tuition is rapidly extending over the country. In the London
schools, in Edinburgh, Cambridge, Manchester, and elsewhere,

earnest efforts are being made to give a thoroughly practical
aspect to the tuition of our science, and notwithstanding. the
imperfect results which must necessarily ensue in the absence of
suitable endowment, we can nevertheless point to the fact that
the effect of these efforts has been to awaken a love for physio-
logical research in the mind of many a student, and the results
of this awakening are already apparent in the archives of Royal
Societies, in the “Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,” and
elsewhere. But physiological research is most expensive and
laborious, and it is, moreover, unremunerative. The labours
of the physiologist are entirely philanthropic ; all his researches
do nothing but contribute to the increase of human happiness by
the prevention of disease, and the amelioration of suffering ; and
I would venture to suggest to those who are possessed of wealth
and of a desire to apply it for the benefit of society, that in view
of the wholly unselfish and philanthropic character of physiolo-
gical labours, they could not do better than follow the admirable
example set by Miss Brackenbury in endowing a physiological
laboratory in connection with Owens College, in Manchester.
The endowment of a dozen such laboratories throughout the
country would immensely aid in the development of physiological
research amongst us,

We anticipate great benefit to the community not only from
an advance of physiology, but from a diffusion of a knowledge
of its leading facts amongst the people. This is now being car-
ried out in our schools on a scale which is annually increasing.
Thanks to the efforts of Huxley, the principles of physiology are
now presented in a singularly palatable form to the minds of the
young. The instruction communicated does not consist of tech-
nical terms and numbers, but in the elucidation of the principal
events which happen within our bodies, together with an expla-
nation of the treatment which they must receive in order to be
maintained in health. Considering how much may be accom-
plished by these bodies of ours if they be properly attended to
and rightly used, it seems to be a mest desirable thing that the
possessor of the body should know something about its mecha-
nism, not only because such knowledge affords him much mate-
rial for suggestive thought—not only because it is excellent mental
training’ to endeavour to understand the why and the wherefore
of the bodily actions, but also because he may greatly profit from
a knowledge of the conditions of health. A thorough adoption
of hygienic measures—in other words, of measures which are
necessary to preserve individuals in the highest state of health—
cannot be hoped for until a knowledge of fundamental physio-
logical principles finds its way into every family. This country
has taken the lead in the attempt to diffuse a sound knowledge
of physiological facts and principles among the people, and we
may fairly anticipate that this will contribute not a little to
enable her to maintain her high rank amongst nations ; for every
step which is calculated to improve the physiological state of
the individual must inevitably contribute to make the nation suc-
cessful in the general struggle for existence.

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY
OPENING ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, JOHN BEDDOE, F.R.S.

The position of Anthropology in the British Association, as a
permanent department of the Section of Biology, being now fully
assured, and its relations to the allied and contributory sciences
beginning to be well understood and acknowledged, I have not
thought it necessary, in opening the business of the department,
to follow the examples of my predecessors, Prof. Turner and
Colonel Lane Fox. The fcrmer of these gentlemen, at our
Edinburgh Meeting, devoted his opening address to the defini-
tion, history, and boundaries of our science; the latter, at
Brighton, in the elaborate essay which many of you must have
listened to, not only discussed its relations to other sciences, but
gave an illustrative survey of a great portion of its field and of
several of its problems.

But while, on the one hand, I feel myself incompetent to
follow these precedents with success, on the other hand I am
encouraged to take a different line by the consideration that if,
as we are fond of saying in this department, ‘‘the proper
study of mankind is man’’—if, that is, anthropology ought to
interest everybody, then assuredly the anthropology of York-
shire ought to interest a Yorkshire audience.

Large as the county is, and sharply marked oft into districts
by striking diversities of geological structure, of climate and of
surface, there is an approach to unity in its political and ethno-

logical history which could scarcely have been looked for.

458

Nevertheless we must bear in mind the threefold division of
the shire—not that into ridings, but that pointed out by nature.
We have, first, the western third, the region of carboniferous
limestone and millstone-grit, of narrow valleys and cold rainy
moorlands; secondly, the great plain of York, the region,
roughly speaking, of the Trias, monotonously fertile, and
having no natural defence except its numerous rivers, which
indeed have sometimes served ratheras a gateway to the invader
than as a bulwark against him ; to this plain Holderness and
the Vale of Pickering may be regarded as eastern adjuncts.
Thirdly, we have the elevated region of the east, in the two very
dissimilar divisions of the moorlands and the wolds ; these are
the most important parts of Yorkshire to the prehistoric
archeologist ; but to the modern ethnologist they are com-
paratively of little interest.

The relics of the palzeolithic period, so abundant in the south
of England, are, I believe, almost wholly wanting in Yorkshire,
where archzology begins with the neolithic age, and owes its
foundations to Canon Greenwell of Durham, Mr. Mortimer of
Driffield, Mr. Atkinson of Danby, and their predecessors in the
exploration of the barrows of Cleveland and the Wolds, whose
results figure largely in the ‘‘Crania Britannica” of Davis and
Thunam,—themselyes, by the way, both natives of the city of
York. .

The earliest inhabitants we can distinctly recognise were the
builders of certain long barrows, such as that of Scamridge in
Cleveland, There is still, I believe, some difference of opinion
among the anthropologists of East Yorkshire (where, by the
way, in the town of Hull, the science flourishes under the
auspices of a local Anthropological Society)—still, I say, some
difference of opinion as to whether the long-barrow folk were
racially diverse from those who succeeded them and who buried
their dead in round barrows, But Canon Greenwell at least ad-
heres to Thurnam’s doctrine, and holds that Yorkshire, or part
of it, was occupied at the period in question, perhaps 3,000
years ago, by a people of moderate or rather short stature, with
remarkably long and narrow heads, who were ignorant of metal-
lurgy, who buried their dead under long ovoid barrows, with san-
guinaryrites, and who labour under strongly-founded suspicions of
canniballism. :

Of the subsequent period, generally known as the bronze age,
the remains in Yorkshire, as elsewhere, are vastly more plentiful.
The Wolds especially, and the Cleveland hills, abound with
round barrows, in which either burnt or unburnt bodies have
been interred, accompanied sometimes with weapons or orna-
ments of bronze, and stiil more often with flint arrowheads.
Where bones are found, the skull presents what Barnard Davis
considers the typical British form ; z.e. it is generally rather short
and broad, of considerable capacity and development, with fea-

tures harsh and bony. The bodily frame is usually tall and |

stalwart, the stature often exceeding 6 ft., as in the well-known
instance of the noble savage of Gristhorpe, whose skeleton is
preserved in the Scarborough Museum.

Though certain facts, such as the known use of iron in Britain
before Czsar’s time, and its extreme rarity in these barrows, and
some little difference in proportion between the skulls just de-
scribed and the type most common among our modern British
Kelts} do certainly leave room for doubt, I have little hesitation
in referring these round barrows to the Brigantes and Parisii,*
the known occupants of Yorkshire before the Roman conquest.

Both what I will term provisionally the pure long-barrow and
the pure round-barrow types of cranium are represented among
our modern countrymen. But the former is extremely rare,
while the latter is not uncommon. It is probable enough that
the older type may, in amalgamating with the newer and more
powerful one, have bequeathed to the Kelts of our own time the
rather elongated form which prevails among them. Whether
this same older type was really Iberian is a point of great inte-
rest, not yet ripe for determination.

Another moot point is the extent to which the population of
modern England is derived from the colonists introduced under
the Roman occupation. It is my ownimpression that the extent,
or rather the intensity of such colonisation has been over-esti-
mated by my friend Mr. Thomas Wright and his disciples. I
take it that, in this respect, the Roman occupation of Britain
was somewhere between our own occupations of India and of
South Africa, or perhaps still more nearly like that of Algeria

* It has been conjectured that the Parisii were Frisians; but I think it
yery unlikely,

NATURE

[Sepz. 25, 1873

by the French, who have their roads, villas, and military estab-
lishments, and even considerable communities in some of the
towns, but who constitute but a very small percentage of the
population, and whose traces would almost disappear in a few
generations, could the communication with the mother-country
be cut off.

If, however, any traces of the blood of the lordly Romans
themselves, or of that more numerous and heterogeneous mass
of people whom they introduced as legionaries, auxillaries, or
colonists, are yet recognisableanywhere in this county, it may pro- ©
bably be in the city of York, or in the neighbourhood of Catterick,
The size and splendour of ancient Eburacum, its occupation at —
various times as a sort of military capital by the Emperor Severus
and others, its continued existence through the Anglian and
Anglo-Danish periods, and its subsequent comparative freedom
from such great calamities * or vicissitudes as are apt to cause
great and sudden changes of population, might almost induce us
to expect to find such vestiges. If Greek and Gothic blood still
assert themselves in the features and figures of the people of
Arles, if Spanish characteristics are still recognisable in Bruges,
why not Italian ones in York? It may be so; but I must con-
fess that I have not seen them, or have failed to recognise them.
Catterick, the site of ancient Cataractonium, I have not visited.

Of the Anglian conquest of Yorkshire we know very little,
except that it was accomplished gradually by successive efforts,
that the little district of Elmet, in the neighbourhood of Leeds,
continued British for a while, and that Carnoban, which is almost
certainly Craven, is spoken of by a Welsh writer as British after
all the rest of the country had ceased to be so—a statement pro-
bable enough in itself, and apparently corroborated by the sur-
vival of a larger number of Keltic words in the dialect of Craven
than in the speech of other parts of Yorkshire.

Certain regulations and expressions in the Northumbrian
laws, among others the less value of a churl’s life as compared
with that of a thane, have been thought to indicate that the
proportion of the British population that remained attached to
the soil, under Anglian lords, was larger in the north than in
some other parts of England. The premisses are, however,
insufficient to support the conclusion ; and, on the other hand, —
we are told positively by Bede that Ethelfrith Fleisawr drove out
the British inhabitants of extensive districts. The singular
discoveries of Boyd Dawkins and his coadjutors in the Seitle
Cave, where elaborate ornaments and enamels of Romano-
British type are found in conjunction with indications of a
squalid and miserable mode of life long endured, attest clearly
the calamities of the natives about that period (the early part of
the seventh century), and show that even the remote dales of
Craven, the least Anglian part of Yorkshire, afforded no sscure
refuge to the Britons of the plains, the unfortunate heirs of
Roman civilisation and Roman weakness, The evidence yielded
by local names does not differ much from that of the same kind
in other parts of England. It proves that enow of Welshmen
survived to transmit their names of the principal natural
features (as Ouse, Derwent, Wharfe, Dun, Roseberrry, Pen-y-
gent), and of certain towns and villages (as York, Catterick,
Beverley, and Ilkley), but not enow to hinder the speedy adop-
tion of the new language, the re-naming of many settlements, and
the formation of more new ones with Anglian names. The subse-
quent Danish invasion slightly complicated this matter; but Ithink
it is safe to say that the changes in Yorkshire were more nearly
universal than in counties like Devonshire, where we know that the
descendants of the Welsh constitute the majority, If the names
of the rivers Swale and Hull be really Teutonic, as Greta un-
doubtedly is, the fact is significant; for no stream of equal
magnitude with the Swale, in the south of England, has lost its
Keltic appellation,

We do not know much of the Anglian type, as” distinguished
from the Scandinavian one which ultimately overlaid it almost
everywhere to a greater or less depth. The cranial form, if one
may judge of it by the skulls found in the ancient cemetery of
Lamel-Hill near York, was not remarkably fine, certainly not
superior to the ancient British type as known to us, to which,
moreover, it was rather inferior in capacity. There is some re-
semblance between these Lamel-Hill crania and the Belair or
Burgundian type of Switzerland, while the Sion or Helvetian
type of that country bews some likeness to our own Keltic —
form.

* Unless indeed York was the “municipal town” dccupied by Cadwalla
and besieged by his Anglian adversaries.

Coe

Sept. 25, 1873),

- The group of tumuli called the Danes’ Graves, lying near
Driffield, and described by Canon Greenwell in the Archeo-
logical Fournal, have yielded contents which are a puzzle for
anthropologists. Their date is subsequent to the introduction of
the use of iron: Their tenants were evidently not Christians ;
but they belonged toa settled population. The mode of inter-
ment resembles nothing Scandinavian ; and the form of the
crania is narrower than is usual, at least in modern times, in
Norway and Denmark. It is hazardous to conjecture anything

about them ; but I should be more disposed to refer them to an

_ early Anglian or Frisian settlement than to a Danish one.

We come now to the Danish invasions and conquest, which,
as well as the Norman one that followed, was of more ethnolo-
gical importance in Yorkshire than in most other parts of Eng-
land. The political history of Deira, from the ninth century to
the eleventh, the great number of Scandinavian local names (not
greater, however, in Yorkshire than in Lincolnshire), and thie
peculiarities of the local dialect, indicate that Danes and Nor-
wegians arrived and settled, from time to time, in considerable
numbers. But in estimating these numbers we must make allow-
' ance for their energy and audacity, as well as for the very near
_ Kinship between the Danes and the Northumbrian Angles,

which, though it did not prevent sanguinary struggles between

_ them at first and great destruction of life, must have made amal-

_ gamation easy, and led the natives readily to adopt some of the

( characteristics of the invaders.

"4

Whatever the Danish element in Yorkshire was, it was
common to Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, and to the north-
eastern part of Norfolk; and it was comparatively weak in
_ Northumberland and even in Durham. Iu Yorkshire itself, it
__ was irregularly distributed, the local names in dy, “oft, and
_ ¢hwaite, and the like being scattered in a more or less patchy

manner, as may be seen on Mr. Taylor’s map. They are very

Again, the long list of the landowners of the county under Ed-
_ ward the Confessor, given in Domesday Book, contains a
mixture of Anglian with Scandinavian names, the latter not
" everywhere preponderating. Here, again, Cleveland comes out
very Danish. Iam inclined to believe that the Anglian popu-
lation was, in the first fury of the invasion, to some extent
pushed westwards into the hill-country of the West Riding,
though even here distinctly Danish names, such as Sowerby,
are quite common. Beverley and Holderness perhaps remained
mainly Anglian.

The Norman conquest fell upon Yorkshire, and parts of
Lancashire and Durham, with unexampled severity. It would
seem that the statement of William of Malmesbury that the land
lay waste for many years through the length of sixty miles, was
hardly, if at all exaggerated. The thoroughness and the fatal
effects of this frightful devastation were due, no doubt, partly to
the character of William, who, having once conceived the
design, carrried it out with as much completeness and regu-
larity as ferocity, and partly to the nature of the country, the
most populous portion of which was level and devoid of natural
fastnesses or refuge, but also, in some degree, to the fact that the
Northumbrians had arrived at a stage of material civilisation at
which such a mode of warfare would be much more formidable
than while they wereina more barbarouscondition, always prepared
for fire and sword, and living, as it were, from hand to mouth.
Long ages afterwards the Scots told Froissart’s informants
that they could afford to despise the incursions of the English,
who could do them little harm beyond burning their houses,
which they could soon build up again with sticks and turf; but
the unhappy Northumbrians were already beyond that stage.

In all Yorkshire, including parts of Lancashire, Westmore-
land, and Cumberland, Domesday numbers only about 500 free-
men, and not 10,000 men altogether. This great destruction, or
rather loss of population (for it was due in some measure to the
free or forced emigration to Scotland of the vanquished), did not
necessarily imply ethnological change. Let us examine the evi-
dence of Domesday on this point. It agrees with that of
William of Malmesbury, that the void created by devastation
remained a void, either entirely or to a great extent. Whole
parishes and districts are returned as ‘‘ waste.”’ In one instance
116 freemen (sockmanni) are recorded to have held land in King
Edward’s time, of whom not one remained ; in another, of 108
sokemen only 7 remained, But foreigners da settle in the
county to some extent, either as military retainers of the new
Norman lords, as their tenants, or as burgesses in the city of
York, where 145 francigenze (Frenchmen) are recorded as inha-
biting houses,

NATURE

prevalent in Cleveland, as has been shown by Mr. Atkinson .

459

Of the number maintained by way of garrisons by the new
nobility, one can form no estimate; but considering the im-
poverished and helpless condition of the surviving natives,
such garrisons would probably not be large. But from
the enumeration of mesne tenants, or middlemen, some
inferences may perhaps be drawn. On six great estates,
comprising the larger part of Eastern and Central Yorkshire,
sixty-eight of these tenants are mentioned by name, besides
Ir milites, or men-at-arms. Only 11 of the 68 bear names
undoubtedly English ; and none of them have large holdings,
as is the case with some of those bearing Norman names.
On the lands of Drogo de Bevrere, about Holderness, several
of the new settlers were apparently Flemings.

The western part of the county, however, or the greater part
of it, had been granted to two lords who pursued a more
generous policy. Alan, count of Bretagne, the founder of Rich-
mond, had twenty-three tenants, besides twelve milites, men-at-
arms with very small holdings. Of the twenty-three, nine were
Englishmen, in several instances holding as dependents the whole
or part of what had been their own freeholds. The Breton
ballads and traditions seem to favour the supposition that Count
Alan’s Breton followers mostly returned home ; and Count
Hersart de la Villemarquee, the well-known Breton archeologist,
informed me that his ancestors returned to Bretagne from York-
shire in the twelfth century. On the whole, I do not think it
probable that the Breton colony was numerous enough to leave
distinct and permanent vestiges ; but if any such there are, they
may be looked for in the modern inhabitants of Richmond and
Gilling.

Ilbert de Lacy, again, had a great domain, including most part
of the wapentakes of Morley, Agbrigg, Skyrack, and Staincross,
extending, that is, far to the north and south of our present place
of meeting. Bradford, by the way, was then hardly so important
and wealthy as at the present day. A thane named Gamel had
held it at the time of Edward the Confessor, when it was valued
at 4/. yearly ; but at the time] of the survey it was waste, and
worth nothing. : 2

Sixty-seven mesne tenants under Ilbert de Lacy are mentioned,
of whom no less than forty-one bore English names, and only
twenty-six foreign ones, It is probable, therefore, that in this
important part of the county the ethnological change wrought by
the Conquest was not greater, if so great as in England generally,
but that in the centre, east, and north-east it was of some
moment, and that the Scandinavian element of population suf-
fered and lost more than the Anglian,

It might be a matter of some interest to a minute ethnologist
or antiquarian to trace out fully the local history after the Con-
quest from an ethnological point of view, investigating particu-
larly the manner and source of the repeopling of the great plain
of York.

After this had been completed, no further change of ethno-
logical importance took place during several centuries. The
Flemings and Frisians, who, in considerable numbers, settled at
various times in Leeds, Halifax, and Wakefield, whether drawn
hither by the course and opportunities of trade, or driven by the
persecutions of Philip II. and the Roman Catholics, brought in
no new element, and readily amalgamated with the kindred race
they found here,

The more recent immigrations into the West Riding and
Cleveland from all parts of Britain, and even from the Continent,
have interest of other kinds. Vast as they have been, they have
not yet obscured in any great degree the local types, physical or
moral, which still predominate almost everywhere, though tend-
ing of course to assimilate themselves to those of the mixed
population of England in general.

In describing these types I prefer to use the words of Prof.
Phillips, who, in his ‘‘ Rivers 'of Yorkshire,” has drawn them in
true and vivid colours. He speaks of three natural groups :—

-‘* First. Tall, large-boned, muscular persons ; visage long,
angular ; complexion fair or florid ; eyes blue or grey ; hair light,
brown or reddish, Such persons in all parts of the county form
a considerable part of the population. In the North Riding,
from the eastern coast to the western mountains, they are
plentiful.

Second. Person robust ; visage oval, full and rounded ; nose
often slightly aquiline ; complexion somewhat embrowned, florid ;
eyes brown or grey; hair brown or reddish. In the West Riding,
especially in the elevated districts, very powerful men have these
characters.

“Third. Person of lower stature and smaller proportions ;
visage short, rounded, complexion embrowned ; eyes very dark,

460

elongated ; hair very dark. Individuals having these characters
occur in the lower grounds of Yorkshire, as in the valley of the
Aire below Leeds, in the vale of the Derwent, and the level
regions south of York.”

I have chosen to quote from Professor Phillips rather than to
give descriptions of my own, both because his acquaintance with
the facts is more extensive than mine, and because I desire to pay
my small tribute to the genius and insight of the author of a
work so unique and so admirable as his upon Yorkshire,

He ascribes the first and second of these types mainly to a
Scandinavian, the last toa Romano-British, or possible Iberian
origin ; and appears to think that the first, the tall, fair, long-
faced breed, resembles the Swedes, and that the second, the
brown burly breed of the West Riding, is more Norwegian in
character. He probably selects the Swedes as the purest’ or
most typical of the Scandinavian nations. For my own part, I
am disposed to treat the first as Norwegian more than Anglian,
the second as Anglian rather than Norse, and Norse rather than
British. The tall fair type engrosses most of the beauty of the
north, having often an oval face, with a fine straight profile
nearly approaching the Greek, as Knox and Barnard Davis,
two close observers, have both remarked. And it is
markworthy that it reappears in force almost everywhere
in Britain where Norse blood abounds, eg. in Shetland,
Orkney, Caithness, in the upper class of the Hebrideans,
in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lonsdale, about *Lin-

coln (where Professor Phillips also noted it) and the Vale of

Trent, and about the towns of Waterford and Wexford. The
second type, on the other hand, much resembles a prevailing
form in Staffordshire, a very Anglian county. A notable point
about it is the frequency of eyes of a neutral, undecided tint,
between light and dark, green, brown, and grey, the hair being
comparatively light. The third is of more doubtful and of more
manifold origin. Iberian, Britokeltic, Roman, Breton, French-
man, may all, or any of them, have contributed to its prevalence.
I am inclined to think, though on rather slender grounds, that it is
common in some of the districts depopulated by the Conqueror.
Professor Phillips speaks of its smaller proportions, but it in-
cludes many robust men. It is probably far from well repre-
senting the Brigantian type, which seems to me to have influenced
the other types, but rarely to crop out all purely.

The breadth of the head is, on the average, somewhat greater
in Yorkshire than in other parts of Britain ; so we are informed
by the hatters. In this the natives of Yorkshire agree with those
of Denmark and Norway, who haye rather broader heads than
those of Sweden and of Friesland, ;

I have already spoken of the colours of the eyes and hair.
The latter is, on the whole, lighter in Yorkshire than in most
parts of England ; but dull rather than bright shades prevail. In
the east, at Whitby, Bridlington, and Beverley, in Teesdale and
Middle Airedale, light hair is particularly abundant ; in Craven,
as might have been expected, it is less so. Other parts of the
county are not so well known to me, and in this matter I have
to trust to my own observations,

As to the stature and bulk of the people, however, I have
much and accurate information, through the kindness of nume-
rous observers, some of them of repute as naturalists. These
are Mr, Atkinson of Danby, Mr. Tudor of Kirkdale, Dr. Wright
of Melton, Dr. Christy of the North Riding Asylum, Drs. Kel-
burne King and Casson of Hull, Mr. Ellerton of Middlesborough,
Mr. Wood of Richmond, Mr. Kaye of Bentham, Mr. Edy of
Grassington, Dr. Paley of Ripon, Dr. Ingham of Haworth,
Messrs, Armitage of Farnley, Dr. Wood of Kirkby Overblow,
Dr. Aveling and Mr, Short of Sheffield, Mr. Miller, late of
Wakefield Prison, and a clergyman on the Wolds, whom the
prejudices or fears of his parishioners will not allow me to name.
“A Yorkshireman,” complained this last gentleman, ‘‘is a diffi-
cult animal to catch and weigh and measure ;” but a very large
number of them have been subjected to these processes by my
obliging correspondents. The general result is that in the rural dis.
tricts they are remarkably tall and stalwart, though not, except
in parts of the west, so heavy as their apparent size wouid indi-
cate—but that in the towns, and especially in Sheffield, they are

-rapidly degenerating ; and I conclude from the Haworth report
that the same is the case in the manufacturing villages. In
many of the rural districts the average ranges between 5 ft. 8 in.
and 5 ft. gin., and about Richmond and on the Bentham Fells
is considerably higher : while at Sheffield and even at Haworth,
it may hardly reach 5 feet 6 inches. The causes of this great

NATURE

~

degeneration are manifold : some of them may easily be traced;
but either the will or the power to remedy the evil is wanting.

_ Of the moral and intellectual endowments of Yorkshiremen,
it may perhaps appear presumptuous or invidious to speak ; but
the subject is too interesting to be passed by in silence, and
I will endeavour to treat it without either ‘fextenuating, or
setting down aught in malice.” In few parts of Britain does
there exist a more clearly marked moral type. To that of the
Trish it has hardly any affinity; but the Scotchman and the
Southern Englishman alike recognise the differences which dis-
tinguish the Yorkshire character from their own, but are not so
apt to appreciate the numerous respective points of resemblance.
The character is essentially Teutonic, including the shrewdness,
the;truthfulness without candour, the perseverance, energy, and
industry of the Scotch, but little of their frugality, or of the
theological instinct common to the Welsh and Scotch, or of the
imaginative genius, or the more brilliant qualities which some-
times light up the Scottish character,

The sound judgment, the spirit of fair-play, the love of
comfort, order, and cleanliness, and the fondness for heavy
feeding are shared with the Saxon Englishman; but some
of them are still more strongly marked in the Yorkshireman, as
is also the bluff independence—a very fine quality when it does
not degenerate into selfish rudeness. The aptitude for music
was remarked by Giraldus Cambrensis seven centuries ago ; and
the taste for horseflesh seems to have descended from the
old Norsemen, though it may have been fostered by local cir-
cumstances. The mind like the body, is generally very vigorous
and energetic, and extremely well adapted to commercial and
industrial pursuits, as well as the cultivation of the exact
sciences ; but a certain defect in imaginative power must, I think,
be admitted, and is probably one reason, tho \,h obviously not
the only one, why Yorkshire, until quite modern times, was
generally behindhand in politics and religion, and why the
number of her sons who, since Czedmon, have attained to
i eminence in literature is not above the average of Eng-
and.

GG
DIARY

WEDNESDAY, Ocrtoser 1.

Roya Microscoricat Society, at 8.—A description of some new species
ae eee F. Kitton.—On an Organism found in fresh pond water ?
rr. aadox,
———— ee
aaa eee

CONTENTS

AFRICAN TRAVEL.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :—
Tait and Tyndall. «) ss a0 0 s+ 4) wn 2 oe ee
On the Males and Complemental Males of certain Cirripedes, and
on Rudimentary Structures.—Cuarves Daxwin, F.R.S.. . . 431
Reflection of the Rainbow.—Prof. J. Tynpatr, F-R.S. . . . . 432
Original Research at the Universities. A. W. BEeNNgTT, F.L.S.. 433
Endowment of Research.—T. Frercngr, F.C.S. . ..... 433

FERTILISATION OF FLrowers. By Dr. HERMANN MUuLtErR (With
Tihushpationsy - 56s eee ee) os =i o lp Ter at haRSE

Tue Polaris Arctic EXPEDITION . . . . 2... « ‘sd at) ee
NOTES 6 3 6 es 6s YF ies 6 6 se
Movecutss. By Prof. Cterk-Maxwett, F.R.S. ......¢ 437
Fuser. By Dr. Simmens, F-RS. . . .. . - 6% { 2h
Coat Anp Coat Piants. By Prof. W. C. Wittiamson, F.RS.. . 446
Tue Britisu Association MgeTING AT BRADFORD. . . . . . . 447
Section A.—Opening Address by the President, P.of. H. J. S.
Smire, PRB As we... Fs 448
Report of Committee on Geometry. . .......6, 452
Section B.—Sectional Proceedings. - . ....... + + 453
Section D,—Sub-section]Zoology—Report of Committee on Zoo-
logical Stations... =); <2) ps « = 2 2) 5) epee 454
a Sub-section Anatomy and Physiology. Opening Ad-
dress by President, Prof. RuTHERFoRD . . . ,. 455
oy Sub-section Anthropology. Opening Address by Pre-
sident, J. BEDpOE, F-R.S., .: 5, 1 0s aun 457
RR se oe 5: 1's ce sg t+ 2 90) ae ohana

| Sept. 25, 1873 4

By Atrrep R. Wattace, F.L.S. .. 2. +. 429

_ NATURE

© THURSDAY, OCTO3ER 2, 1873

Se

ON MEDICAL STUDIES

S at the present time so many students have just
assembled at the medical schools in London and
the provinces to commence or continue their medical
education, we think that notwithstanding the Jadvice so
fre-ly giveh them in all directions by their friends, and
especially by those who deliver the introductory addresses
at the different hospitals, there are some few points to
which their attetition cannot be too frequently directed
First; wich regird to the ranze of subjects which is
required by the higher examining boards, such as the
University of London, ia the earlier stagés of the medical
curriculum. There cannot be the least doubt, though

several who have not patticipated in its advantages are

fond of expressing an opinion to the contrary, that the
wider and more extended the field of study that can be
grasped by a student at the outset, the more chance he
has of ultimate success; and he who has no higher
o>j2ct in view than that of passing the least difficult of
the necessary examinations which give him a licence to
practise, mist ultimately find himself far behirid in the
race. In surgery, no doubt, there are a few who, without
much scientific knowledge, have attained great eminence
as operators, on accoutit of their manual dexterity ; but
this position ought not to be the aspiration of the com-
mencing student, as the reputation is generally of short
daratioa, and is not much higher than that of a man who
has rowed in a winning University boat-race.

Oae great argunent in favour of a liberal medical
education is that the meatal capacities of the young men
who commence it are very different ; and if those who
are the most gifted have but little chance of acquiring a
knowledge of the facts and theories of Science, as they
stind at the tim: at which they study, they are placed in
a position of disadvantage for future research; and find it
always difficult to make up for lost time. Wa4en all have
t> start on the extended course, which includes a know-
ledge of physics, botany, pure physiolozy, and chemistry,
those wh? have the capacity for higher work in Science
obtain an opportunity of developing their tendencies, and
are often led to give up their origiaal design of being
medical practitioners, to becom2 specialists in their
fayourite subjects, and an honour to Natural and Medical
Science. This means of selecting the best men for
scientific work would be a sufficient result in itself to
justify the primary education of all medical students in
the pure sciences that relate indirectly to medicine ; for
it must be remembered by those who hold the contrary
opinion, that it is to its scientific supporters that the
medical profession owes most of its dignity. If we look
at the names of those who stand highest in the pro-
fession at the present day, it is readily seen that nearly
all have their reputation based on a thorough scientific
foundation. The lowering of the scientific standard would,
therefore, undoubtedly lower the status ofthe profession
amongst society at large, and it will be generally acknow-
ledged that such a result is anything but desirable.

The recent thorough working out of the cause of the
gutbreak of typhoid fever in the west end of London this

No, 205—VOL, VII,

summer, shows how satisfactory are the results which
follow the employment of a rigorotis scientific method of
observatioa. How long it would have remained undis-
covered that the impurities in the milk-supply of a locality
are the not unfrequent caus? of an outbreak of typhoid
fever it is impossible to say, if the subject had not béen
entered upon and carried through in a miafiner which
does great credit to those who detected its origin; as
Dr. Ballard had done on a former occasion in Islington.

A second point worthy of attention is the social posi-
tion of the medical studeat. That he generally does not
compare favourably with the undergraduates of Oxford
and Cambridge is certain ; but why this is thé case does
not seem to be so definitely settled: One of the gréat
reasons is that the medical education does fiot ificlude
anything but the mental training : and although the medi-
cal student is like the average University under-
geaduate so far as age, preliminary education, and
object of life are concerned, nevertheless after a curti-
culum of three years or more; the latter has made more
progress as a social individual; The different natures of
their studies cannot be proved to have anything to do
with the difference in the results, and nearly all may be
traced to the systems in which each participates. The
University undergraduate is subject to two independent in-
fluences for good. A fixed code of University and College
rules restrains him in many directions, as with regard to
his conduct and the allotment of his time ; at the same
time that a much more stringent, but not written code, the
result of his necessarily intimate relations with a large
number of companions of his own age, regulates the
details of his actions continually, the infringement of which
code removes him from his most pleasurable source of
enjoyment during leisure hours. Most medical students
miss both of these. The absence of a Proctorial system
and College rules mikes him free to his heart’s content ;
and the comparative smallness, a3 a rule, of the clique to
which he belongs, helps to encourage rather than remove
objectionable individual peculiarities, which would not be
tolerated in general society. It is excessive freedom which
is the bane of the young medical student, and the introduc-
tion of any system which provided a reasonable amount of
restraint during the medical education would undoubtedly
improve the social status of its undergraduates. At=
tempts have been made, but on too small a scale to be
really successful. If the leading schools could be
persuaded to invest money in building suitable apart-
ments for their pupils, and spend part of the
profits which must necessarily accrue to them, in
giving scholarships, open only to those who resided in
such buildings, a system might be developed which, after
some time, from the convincing evidence it would give
of its advantages, would cause all to participate in it,

Until there is much more co-operative feeling among the
different schools in London, it is difficult to conceive how
this orany other really marked improvement can be effected.
Whilst things stand as they do, we are convinced that, in
the long run, those will enjoy the most profitable student
ship, and afterwards find themselves in the most advan-
tageous position, who put themselves under reasonable
restraint, and endeavour to extend their circle of ac-
quaintance beyond the few sympathising “ chums,”
who generally have but little influence for good, at the
ALA

462

NATURE

ee ieee Lh ae en TO} Bi ee
tabikods eee bs ma sa ee ee

| Ocd, 2, 1873

same time that they often, by an unconscious process
of approval and persuasion, help to exaggerate bad
qualities and develop worse.

LVELL’S “ ANTIQUITY OF MAN”

The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, with
an Outline of Glacial and Post Tertiary Geology,
and Remarks on the Origin of Species, with special
reference to Man’s First Appearance on the Earth. By
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Fourth Edition
Revised. Illustrated with Woodcuts. (London: John
Murray, 1873.)

INCE the first volume of “ The Principles of Geo-
logy” appeared—now more than forty-three years
ago—Sir Charles Lyell has put forth an uninterrupted
series of new works or new editions, and we have
now arrived at the 11th edition of the “ Principles,” the
7th of the “Elements of Geology,” and the 4th of the

“ Antiquity of Man.” A most striking feature of these

works is, that they give the fullest and most accurate

scientific details, and the most philosophical discussion of
principles and results,.without for a single page ceasing
to be interesting to any well educated and thoughtful

man. Perhaps no author has attained in so perfect a

degree the art of making science popular without ever

attempting to popularise it, or has produced a series of
works which are equally acceptable to the experienced
geologist and to the general reader.

The present edition of the well-known “ Antiquity of
Man” will fully sustain the author’s high reputation, since
it is not a mere corrected reprint of former editions, but,
in several important respects, a new work, embodying all
the most recent discoveries and researches on the various
subjects of which it treats, while several discussions of
temporary or personal interest have been omitted. Al-
most every chapter contains either important new facts or
new results derived from a more careful study of old
ones; while some are almost wholly rewritten, as, for
example, chap. xii., in which the most recent researches
on the climate of the Crag period is very fully given ; and
it would need a very acute critic to discover in these any
lack of that lucidity of arrangement and vigour of
thought which have always distinguished Sir Charles
Lyell’s writings.

The most striking additional facts bearing directly on
the Antiquity of Man are so well known and have been
so often before the public, that it is unnecessary to enume-
rate them here ; but it may be advisable to remark briefly
upon a theoretical point of some importance on which the
author’s views seem open to question ; and there are also
a few matters connected with the general subject which
seem worthy of attention.

Although Professor Gastaldi, of Turin, after a careful
study of the Italian Alps, has adopted Professor Ramsay’s
view of the excavation of alpine lake basins by ice, Sir
Charles Lyell is still strongly opposed to that view. He
maintains that they have been produced by changes of
level in valleys, producing depressions which have been
preserved during the glacial epoch by being filled with
ice, while at all other times they were either soon filled by
débris, or their lower barriers were cut down as fast as
they were formed. He thus accounts for the fact that

lakes only occur in any abundance in glaciated districts.

-He further maintains that the erosive power of glaciers, as

indicated bythe muddytorrent thatalways issuesfrom them
has been overrated, because “the flour of rock” thus pro

duced is due, not solely to the wearing down of the floor of
the valley, but, “ toa considerable extent,” to the grinding
up of the stones which fall upon'the glacier and are en-
gulphed in its crevasses.

There are doubtless many difficulties in Prof. Ramsay’s
theory, and much remains to be done to verify it, but it
does seem to cover a larger portion of the facts than
that now opposed to it. There is no evidence before us
to show how much of the glacier mud is respectively due
to the two sources above referred to, but the enormous
bulk of many of the old moraines, where they have
not been destroyed by subsequent denudation, seems
amply sufficient to account for the ¢éb77s which falls upon
a glacier ; while the wide extent of glaciated surfaces, and
the manner in which the very hardest upturned Strata are
often planed off or #zonlonnées, is equally convincing proof
that large masses of rock have been ground down by
glaciers. The evidence of this is very remarkable also,
in the case of the Loess, a deposit which covers an enor-
mous extent of country, and in some parts of the valley
of the Rhine reaches a thickness of near 1,000 feet, and
which Sir Charles Lyell himself considers to be undoubt-
edly glacial mud. It is difficult to conceive how such an
enormous amount of mud could have been formed except
by a grinding power capable of producing most of the
effects imputed to it by Prof. Ramsay. It is considered
to be one of the most powerful arguments against the
ice-erosion theory that no lakes exist in certain valleys
which were undoubtedly filled with enormous glaciers ;
but the answer to this is, that a lake will only be produced
when the erosion is considerably greater at one part of
the valley than at another, and this inequality may be
caused either by unequal hardness of the subjacent rocks
or by the piling up of the ice to a greater thickness in
certain spots by the convergence of several branch
glaciers, as must have béen notably the case over the site
of Lago Maggiore, which received the icy streams de-
scending from near roo miles of the loftiest Alps. It
must also be remembered, that at such points of con-
vergnce the rate of motion of the glacier will be much
more rapid than elsewhere, in order to discharge the accu-
mulated ice-streams ; and we shall thus have a double
cause of increased grinding in such positions. A
difficulty of a somewhat similar nature, and which cannot
be so easily overcome, besets the unequal-subsidence
theory, which can hardly be made to account for the
thousands and tens of thousands of lakes so thickly
scattered over the lowlands of Northern Europe and
America.

It is somewhat remarkable that notwithstanding the
numerous researches in post-tertiary caves and gravels in
all parts of Europe, no human remains have been disco-
vered which can be proved to be older than those found
by Dr. Schmerling “more than forty years ago in the
caverns near Liége. After many years’ labour this gentle-
man, a skilful anatomist and paleontologist, published, in
1833, a detailed account of his researches, copiously illus- -
trated. It is curious to sec, from Sir Charles Lyell’s —
account of this work, how completely its author antici-

Oct, Va 1873]

pated all the more important results of modern cave ex-
ploration, and how thoroughly he had worked out that
doctrine of the antiquity of man which the great majority
of geologists so long attempted to put down. Such
wholly independent researches as those of Schmerling in
Belgium, McEnery in Devonshire, and Boucher de
Perthes in France, made by careful and conscientious ob-
servers, and all converging to the demonstration of one
fact, were for many long years laughed at or ignored,
solely because they clashed with preconceived opinions.
When this occurred with the students of a science which
had already fought andjwon many hard battles against
popular and theological prejudice, and whose whole course
of study should have taught them how to interpret the
evidence adduced, we are bound to deal tenderly with the
less unjustifiable prejudices of those who have had no
such training.

Notwithstanding the lesson these long-ignored facts
should have taught them, some geologists still exhibit a
strange fear or hesitation in facing the whole results of
modern inquiries on the subject. How is it that, when-
ever any estimate is made of the lapse of time (expressed
in years) since any human remains or works of art were
deposited, the lowest possible estimate is almost always
chosen? One would think that, having once got beyond
the traditional six thousand years, the period of man’s
past existence would be a matter of purely scientific in-
quiry, to be arrived at by careful estimates in a variety of
ways. But how can we possibly arrive at the truth by
always taking the lowest estimate? we might just as
reasonably always take the highest. Is there any merit
in arriving at a false result so that the figures are small ?
Is it really the “safe” side so to calculate that we shall
almost certainly be wrong? Astronomers do not think
those observations most likely to be correct which give
the smallest distances and sizes of the heavenly bodies
and it would be more dignified and more scientific if
geologists, whenever any data exist on which to found a
calculation, should insist on taking the mean result of
various impartial estimates as that most likely to be the
true one. From this point of view it may be interesting
to give a summary of the more important attempts, which
have yet been made to determine the antiquity of human
remains or works of art.

From observations at the delta of the Tiniére and on
the lakes of Neufchatel and Bienne, the bronze age in
Europe has been determined with approximate accuracy
to have been from 3,000 to 4,000 years ago, and the stone
age of the Swiss Lake dwellings at from 5,000 to 7,000
years and an indefinite anterior period. The burnt brick
found 60 ft. deep in the Nile alluvium indicates an anti-
quity of about 20,000 years, taking, from a calculation by
Mr. Horner, the estimate of 3} in. per century as thejrate
of deposit of the mud. Another fragment found at 72 ft.
deep is estimated by M. Rosiére to be 30,000 years old.
Some human bones found in a lacustrine formation in
Florida have been considered by Agassiz, after a careful
examination of the locality, to be at least 10,000 years
old. A human skeleton found at a depth of 16 ft. below
four buried forests superposed upon each other, has been
calculated by Dr. Dowler to have an antiquity of 50,000
years.

These latter estimates may be very uncertain, but

NATURE

463
we have no reason to think them improbable, from
what we know of the great changes of physical
geography that have undoubtedly taken place since
man existed. Kent’s Cavern at Torquay furnishes a
good example of these, since the whole drainage of the
surrounding country must have been very different when
the great thickness of cave earth was deposited by floods
rushing through the cavern which is now situated in an
isolated hill. We have here indications of an immense
antiquity from various sources, The upper stalagmitic
floor itself marks a vast lapse of time, since it divides the
relics of the last two or three thousand years from a
deposit full of the bones of extinct mammalia, many of
which, like the reindeer, mammoth, and glutton, indicate
an arctic climate. It has been remarked that the varying
thicknesses of the stalagmitic floor, from 16 in. to 5 ft. and
upwards, closely correspond to the present amount of
drip in various parts of the cave, so that the cave itself
with its various fissures and crevices does not ‘appear to
have been materially altered since the stalagmite was
deposited. It is true that the drip may once have been
greater, but it may also have been less, and we do not
know that a more copious drip would necessarily produce
amore rapid deposit of stalagmite. But names cut into
this stalagmite more than two centuries ago are still
legible, showing that, in a spot where the drip is now
very copious, and where the stalagmite is 12 ft. thick,
not more than about one-eighth of an inch, or say one-
hundredth of a foot, has been deposited in that length
of time (British Association Report, 1869, p. 196). This
gives a foot in 20,000 years, or 5 ft. in 100,000 years ; and
there is no reason whatever to consider this to be too
high an estimate to account for the triple change of
organic remains, of climate, and of physical geography.
But below this again there is another and much older
layer of stalagmite, generally broken up and imbedded in
the cave earth. This older stalagmite is very thick and
is much more crystalline than the upper one, so that it
was probably formed at a slower rate. Yet below this
again, in a solid breccia, very different from the cave
earth, undoubted works of art have been found. A fair
estimate will therefore give us, say, 100,000 years for the
upper stalagmite, and about 250,000 for the deeper layer
of much greater thickness, and of more crystalline texture.
But between these we have a deposit of cave-earth which
implies a different set of physical conditions and an altera-
tion in the geography of the surrounding country. We
have no means of measuring the period during which this
continued to be formed, but it was probably very great ;
and there was certainly some great change in physical
conditions during the deposit of the lower stalagmite,
because the fauna of the county underwent a striking change
in the[interval. Ifwe add 150,000 years for this period,
we arrive at the sum of half a million as representing the
years that have probably elapsed since flints of human
workmanship were buried in the lowest deposits of Kent’s
Cavern. It may be objected that such an estimate is
so loose and untrustworthy as to be altogether valueless ;
but it may be maintained, on the other hand, that such
estimates, if sufficiently multiplied, are of great value,
since they help us to form a definite idea of what kind
of periods we are dealing with, and furnish us with a
series of hypotheses to he corrected or supported by

464.

NATURE

further observation, and will at last enable us to arrive
at the antiquity of man within certain probable limits of
error. Without laying stress on any portion of the above
very rude estimate, it may, I think, be averred that it is
not palpably too high, but is just as likely to be too low ;
and this last supposition will be rendered more probable
when we consider the vast lapse of time implied by the
position of some of the recently discoverd palzeolithic
weapons.

The flint tools found in the gravel at Bournemouth, in
the Isle of Wight, and near Salisbury, at elevations of
from 80 to 100 feet above the present valleys, imply, ac-
cording to the best observers, that the whole series of sur-
rounding river valleys have been excavated since they
were deposited, and that the system of drainage and posi-
tion of the coast-line have been very greatly altered. The
hippopotamus of the Gower Caves implies changes equally
great, since the peninsula of Gower now contains only
small streams, and could not possibly have had a large
river without very important changes in its relations to
the adjacent country. The position of the flint weapons
in the valley of the Somme, at Hoxne in Suffolk, and in
many other places, all combine in indicating that very
important changes in physical geography have taken
place since they were deposited. We can hardly
suppose that in all these different localities the changes
were abnormally rapid, especially as in no case
do records of the historic period indicate that any
remnant of the process was then going on; and from
what we do know of the rate of such changes, and their
intermittent nature, we are entitled to affirm that the most
extreme estimates yet made of the antiquity of the men
who fashioned and used the palzolithic implements is
quite as likely to be under as over the truth,

There is as yet no clear evidence that man lived in
Northern Europe before the glacial epoch, and even if he
did so the action of the ice sheet would probably have ob-
literated all records of his existence. Every evolutionist,
however, now believes that he must have existed far back
in the tertiary period, and that the proof of it will be
found, if at all, in some of the warmer regions of the old
world. Here is surely a problem of grand and absorbing
interest awaiting solution at our hands. Geologists are
not usually wanting in energy or enterprise, and they
number in their ranks many wealthy men. It is to be
hoped that they will soon energetically attack the prob-
lem ; and no more promising field of research offers itself
than the limestone caves of Borneo, which can be explored
with perfect safety, and at a moderate expense.- We can
hardly now expect any great additions to our knowledge
respecting the antiquity of man in Northern and Central
Europe, and must go to warmer regions if we wish for
new discoveries and startling revelations.

A. R. WALLACE

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymens
communications. |

Fellowship at Magdalen College

I THINK the noticejin NATURE of Sept. 25 respecting the
election about to take place to a Natural Science Fellowship at

Magdalen College requires some comment. The amount of
academic preferment which falls to the share of science in Oxford
is so small, that it might reasonably be demanded that what
there is should be thrown open to as many candidates as possible,
When, therefore, it was announced that the Fellowship would
be given for proficiency im Biology, it might have been inferred
that the electors had this object in view. Biology is held, else-
where than in Oxford, to be the science which treats of the laws
governing organization and vital activity ; in other words, struc-
ture and function in a// forms of life, whether vegetable or animal,
It was not, perhaps, an unreasonable inference, therefore, to
draw from the terms of the notice, that it was the intention of
the College to make Biology in its widest sense the foundation
of the examination, and to allow individual candidates to exhibit,
in addition, such detailed knowledge as they might possess of
Zoology, Botany, or even Paleontology. This would not have
attributed to Biology a wider meaning than, for example, Mr.
Herbert Spencer or the Science and Art Department attach to
it. Thinking it desirable, however, to get some official in-
formation upon the subject, I wrote to the President, who, after
some delay, replied that, in his opinion, as preference would be
given to Biology, it would be useless to offer Botany as a special
subject. This is not more reasonable than it would be to say,
that because Physics was to be the subject of an examination it
would be useless to offer Electricity or Heat as a special subject.
But the terms of the President's reply were rather ambiguous, and
I therefore made some further inquiries. I learnt, as the result,
that the College considered it impossible to compare the merits
of a candidate who stood on the Zoological, with one who stood
on the Botanical, side of the general subject . :

I think myself the difheulty is not one which should have been
found insuperable ; but, assuming that the College had sufficient
grounds for a different opinion, then I think the electors should
not have offered their Fellowship for Biology, when what they
really had in view appears to be a detailed knowledge of the
Zoological preparations in the University Museum,

W. T. THISELTON DYER

The Sphygmograph

THERE appears in NATURE, vol. viii. p. 330, a notice of a
thesis for the M.D. Cantab. on the subject of Bright’s disease, in
which reference is especially made to some sphygmographic
observations therein contained. It is apparently from the pen of
Mr. Garrod, who is himself the author of interesting aiid im-
portant researches with the sphygmograph and cardiograph.
While agreeing with a part of my explanation of the normal
pulse tracing, as regards the points in which it differs from the
view commonly received, he takes exception to the account
which I have given of the tidal or first secondary wave. It may
be well to say in reply a few words upon the point at issue,
since the reference to it in the thesis was very brief and inci-
dental, and I should not wish it to be taken as a full account of
my views as to the mechanism of the pulse.

The explanation of Mr, Garrod himself is that the tidal wave
is an instantaneous wave due to the closure of the aortic valves,
This theory was first proposed by M. Marey to account for the
tidal wave in many of its forms ; but, so far as I know, it has
not been adopted by any writer on the subject in England with
the exception of Mr, Garrod. There is this difference, however,
between them, that while M. Marey holds that the dicrotic wave
has nothing to do with the aortic valves, but is a reflection from
the periphery, Mr. Garrod considers that it is the wave of ex
pansion from the closure of the aortic valves, which becomes
separated from the instantaneous wave as it recedes from the
heart. Thus the faculty of originating two waves of different
velocity, which by most writers is attributed to the first impulse
of the heart, combined with the closure of the mitral valve, is
es Mr. Garrod denied to that event, but ascribed to the closure
of the aortic valves. Now I believe it to be mechanically im-
possible for any wave to be propagated with a velocity different
from that of the wave of expansion, except the purely vibtatory
wave of sound, and Mr. Garrod appears himself to hold that &

mere vibration produces no elevation in the tracing, The ques
tion, however, may easily be determined experimentally. t
there appear in the tracing two waves which are travelling with
different velocities, their relative position will vary at different
distances from the heart. Let, therefore, anyone who wishes
toysettle the question for himself take tracings of a good many

oni i $,

Ott, 2, 187

3]

NATURE | 465

markedly tricrotic pulses, say from the femoral and also from the
dorsalis pedis arteries. According to the view of Dr. Burdon
Sanderson 2nd most other writers, the interval between the
rimary and tidal wayes ought to be more than doubled in the
orsalis pedis; according to the view of Mr. Garrod, on the
contrary, that between the tidal and dicrotic waves. It will be
found that there is no such considerable and constant variation
as would be required by either theory, although the tidal wave
aps not maintain its relative position so closely as does the
icrotic wave. The kind of pulse best of all suited for this ex-
periment is fortunately * rather’scarce ; it is that of a young
person who has a granular kidney, but is free from dropsy,

The theory of Mr. Garrod may appear at first sight suitable
to one of the forms of healthy pulse, in which the tidal wave ap-
pears as a slight elevation preceding the dicrotic wave ; but I do
not think that it will be accepted by anyone who has watched its
variation in a Jarge number of diseased pulses, and has seen it
pass through eyery gradation, from a separate and distinct wave
to a mere convexity in the descending curve, which may com-
mence immediately from the top of the primary upstroke. In
the pulse of rigid arteries this latter form is often taken when
‘the heart is quiet, but when it acts more vigorously the tidal
waye becomes separated, owing to the development of the so-
called “percussion element,” which is really the effect of 2c-
quired yelocity in the sphygmograph. The case which should
afford the most crucial test is perhaps that very rare one in which
the aortic orifice is closely obstructed, and scarcely any valves
remain to produce a wave by their closure. The tidal wave
should then, according to Mr. Garrod's theory, be at least greatly
diminished, but, in point of fact, it is then more greatly deye-
loped than under any other circumstances whatever. Evidence
to the same effect may be derived from the use of an artificial
heart with experimental elastic tubes, for it is found that, under
suitable conditions, the tidal wave may be greatly prolonged by
a protracted contraction of the heart. This was first shown by
Mr. Mahomed in the Jedical Zines, and although I believe his
theory to be erroneous as to the relation between the primary
_and tidal waves, yet, with regard to the practical associations of
the tidal wave, my experiments have led me to conclusions
which are quite in agreement with his, namely, that three things
contribute to the development of the tidal waye—increase of
pressure, diminution of elasticity, and prolongation of the heart’s
contraction.

Mr. Garrod argues that the tidal wave cannot haye anything
to do with the inertia of the long lever, because it is shown in
the reflecting sphygmoscope, in which that is absent, I do not,
however, consider that the result is due solely, and possibly not
even chiefly, to the inertia of the lever, but to that of the instru-
ment altogether, and inertia is possessed likewise by the sphyg-
moscope. Moreover, since the latter dogs not record its indica-
tions, it would be difficult to ascertain whether the tidal wave
shown by it corresponds precisely to that of the sphygmographic
tracing, Another instrument has also been called a sphygmo-
scope, in which the motion of the pulse is shown by the variation
ofa gas flame. In this there appears indeed the counterpart of
the tidal wave, but not in the form of a single wave ; instead of
this a series of small waves is shown. ~ These may appear only
as a slight quivering motion, and are evidently due to the oscil-
lation of the elastic diaphragm upon which the pressure of the
pulse is received.

Mr. Garrod maintains his own theory especially on the ground
of observations with his cardio-sphygmograph, showing the
commencement of the tidal wave in the radial pulse .to be syn-
chronous with the closure of the aortic valves. But the deter-
‘mination of the moment of that closure depends on the correctness
of his interpretation of the minor elevations in the cardiographic
tracing. ‘These are numerous, and his interpretation of them all
is most ingenious, but to accept it requires an implicit faith that
the instrument itself has no part in producing. any of the minor
features of the curve. Now, that curve was drawn by a lever,
moving ona pivot, and balanced between two springs, which
would seem a contrivance peculiarly liable to oscillate. When
therefore it is further found that in cardiac tracings published by
other observers, or those obtained by applying the sphygmo-
graph directly to the heart, there is no close correspondence
either in the number or the position of the elevations, the con-
clusion can hardly be resisted that some of them are due to such
oscillation. My own opinion is that neither in the cardiographic

* [We have omitted the prefix z= from this word; we hope Mr. Galabin
will forgive us,—Ep.]

2
mal 2 g

nor in the radial pulse tracing can the point corresponding to the
end of’systole be precisely determined.

The whole subject is one which it is difficult even to state in-
telligibly without a constant reference to diagrams of tracings,
and therefore, for a fuller account of my views as ta the theory
of the pulse, particularly in reference to the complete explanation
of the dicrotic waye, I must refer to a paper to be published in
the next number of the Yournal of Anatomy and Physiology.

While I consider that the construction of the sphygmograph
has some influence on the tracing produced, yet I believe that,
by a fortunate chance, the result is more practically useful than
if the pulse-wave were recorded with perfect accuracy, for I think
that slight differences in it, which would then perhaps escape
notice, are, as it were, magnified and made manifest to the eye.

I may say in conclusion that I do not quite agree in the view
that we must wait for the practical application of the sphygmo-
graph until physiologists are agreed about the theory of the pulse,
for, according to present appearances, that consummation is
distant indeed. There is, however, among sphygmographers an
agreement about practical inferences which is almost as notable
as the confusion which prevails as to mechanical causes, It is
possible therefore for a person to use the sphygmograph for
diagnosis and prognosis, who does not even attempt to under-
stand the cause of the waves seen in its tracings. But it must
be allowed that the settling of the mechanical question is much
to be desired, and that, without it, the sphygmograph cannot
afford that service, which otherwise it would he capable of doing,
to the solving of all general physiological problems relating to
the vascular system. And, from a practical point of view, these
may perhaps be regarded as among the most important in phy-
siology, for it is probably through the agency of the vascular
system that many of the greatest effects of remedies are pro-
duced. A. L. GALABIN

On the Origin of Nerve-Force

In a paper on this subject, by Mr. A. H. Garrod, in
NATURE, vol. viii. p. 265, the author states that in cold-blooded
animals, nerve-force must be generated by the difference between
their own temperatures and that of the medium by which they
are surrounded, Now, to take the case of a frog as a common
example of a ‘‘so-called” cold-blooded animal: A few days
ago, when the thermometer was standing at 71°, I took the tem-
perature of two frogs, one was 69°, and the other 67°; the
difference between their temperature and that of the surround.
ing air was practically #7/, Now, on a day of this sort of tem-
perature, it would seem that the pervious integument of the frog
is continually exhaling moisture, and that in consequence the
temperature falls, and would continue to fall below that of the
surrounding air, were it not that it was raised by the heat gene-
rated ‘* by the destruction of tissue that is continually going on
within the body of the animal ;” so between these two contend-
ing forces a state of equilibrium results, and the temperature of
the animal and the surrounding air are the same. But, if this
be true, it follows that the whole of the heat from the animal is
used up in keeping up its temperature, and therefore none can be
spared for conversion into nerve-force. Therefore, a frog at rest
ona summer's day ought to have no nervous energy. Now,
suppose our frog takes to leaping vigorously, he will develop a
certain amount of heat, and then he ought to have a great deal

‘of nerve-force ; but it is not found that an active frog is more

“*nervous” than a quiescent one,

Again, the neryous irritability of a frog, though perhaps not
acting with the instantaneous energy with which it acts in a
mammal, still persists far longer than in other vertebrates, and
will continue much longer after the somatic death of the animal,
when it is quite clear that the temperature of the body and the sur-
rounding medium will be the same, Nowin this case the nerves
may be so irritated as to lose all irritability, and yet, after a
period of rest, this irritability will be regained, clearly, to my
mind, showing that nervous energy must be generated after the
death of the animal, when all differences of temperature have
ceased,

Finally, it must be admitted, without the aid of any hypothes
sis, that the difference between the temperature of a frog and the
surrounding air is, at any time, very slight ; and yet this animal
possesses what we call an extremely “persistent” form of nerves

force,
R, LYDEKKER

+ oll

466

On the Polarisation of Light in the Rainbow

As I do not remember seeing any notice, in books on light
and colour, about the polarisation of light in the rainbow, I
think it my duty to relate the following facts, although I can
scarcely think the appearance has been unobserved till now.

Three times I have tested the rainbow-light this summer,
and each time I found it wholly polarised. On the first occa-
sion, while looking at the rainbow, I thought I would examine
it with a tourmaline, which I kept in my pocket.
at the bow, through the tourmaline, and saw the bow; but
on rotating the tourmaline the bow alternately disappeared and
reappeared at every quarter turn: while the light from a stack
of chimneys which stood within the bow remained apparently
unchanged. From this I interred that the light of the rainbow
was wholly polarised, while the other light in its neighbour-
hood was not so.

I have observed the. vanishing and reappearing of the light
of the rainbow on rotating the tourmaline on two occasions
since that. I have waited for these additional occasions to
make sure of the fact, as I was called away from the first ob-
servation ; and when I could go back the rainbow had vanished.

The date of the second and third times are August 28 and
September 4, 1873.

Leicester, Sept. 5 Gro, FINLAY

[The polarisation of the light of the rainbow was observed
by Biot in 1811, and by Brewster in 1812. (See “ Brewster's
Optics,” art. 185.) With respect to rainbows by reflection,
there are two kinds—(1) that observed by X. Z. Y., in which
the light comes to the eye from the water. This is not thought
worthy of special mention by Brewster. (2) That in which the
light of the sun reflected from water strikes the shower and
forms a bow not concentric with the common bow. (See
“Brewster’s Optics,” art. 186.) It is very easy to see that
these two kinds of bow form parts of the same cone whose
axis is at the same altitude as the sun, but in the opposite
azimuth.—J. C. M.]

Autumnal Typhoid Epidemics

THERE appear to be two types of these,—first, the malignant
and dangerous, which breaks out in isolated spots and is usually
traceable either directly or indirectly to some sins of sewerage ;
and a second or milder form, which extends over far larger areas,
is much more general, and apparently unconnected with sewage
exhalations or liquid contaminations. Some observations I have
lately made suggest an explanation of the origin of this latter
form. We have had just a moist and rather warm summer,
followed by an unusually wet autumn, Turnips, swedes, beets,
mangolds, cabbages, potatoes, peas, &c., put forth luxurious
foliage, and much of this, especially the lower leaves of turnips,
swedes, and cabbages, have been rotted by the recent rains—so
much so, that many a country lane that should have exhaled
sweet balmy odours has been'the abode of most unromantic
stink. This is especially the case in the flat market garden
areas that lie by the side of the Thames, and in these the most
especially where cabbages are cultivated. I have no doubt that
the partridge shooters of 1873, who have largely availed them-
selves of the cover of turnip-fields, will confirm my observation
of their offensive odour.

Modern agriculture is, in England, chiefly developing and
extending in the direction of root crops for cattle feeding, and
the foliage of these is very liable to offensive decomposition
under the conditions above named. When the autumn is hot
and dry, their outer leaves, and also those of kitchen vegetables,
drop off and return to the soil in a dry, crisp, and inodorous
condition.

That the moist decomposition of such vegetable matter should
supply nourishment to disease germs analogous to those which
are fed by sewage, and that the exhalations of the decomposing
vegetables should spread them after the manner of sewage ex-
halations, is obviously probable.

If I am right, the widely extended and milder forms of autumn
epidemics should be most prevalent in such years as the present,
and should prevail more especially in market-garden and cattle-
feeding districts.

So far as my own means of observation extend, this appears to
be the case, but as these are too limited to justify any positive
conclusion, I throw out the above as a merely suggestive ex-
planation, demanding further confirmation, which some of the
readers of NATURE may be able to supply.

Woodside, Sept. 8 W. Marttigu WILLIAMS

NATURE

I looked |

[ Oct. 2, 1873

nnn meee Ea ats SESS

Venomous Caterpillars

OBSERVING a letter in NATURE respecting venomous cater-
pillars, I venture to offer a few remarks from personal ex-
perience.

The rough hairy caterpillars have a bad reputation everywhere.
Asa boy, the nurses told me if one got tight round my finger, 7
(and of course I understood the fingef) would have to be cut off.
In Switzerland they are regarded by the common people as
poisonous, though, as far as I know, without foundation.

In Portugal there is a most remarkable gregarious species,
known as the “‘ procession caterpillar,” from the great numbers
that may be seen advancing in a body. This kind has undoubt-
edly the power of causing very considerable irritation to a
tender skin. A specimen once crawled up the arm of my little
girl, then one year old, leaving the skin-surface red and in-
flamed along its track; and there was a tradition at Lisbon of
a child that had fallen into a mass of these larvae, and subse-
quently died from the consequent inflammation.

In Brazil there is a species in the neighbourhood of Rio that,
with regard to the formidable nature of its external clothing, is
a veritable porcupine. It corresponds remarkably with the de-
scription of the Burmese specimen, both in size and colour.
The hairs, in a state of repose, are, however, but slightly erect,
and it is only when irritated- or alarmed that it raises them in
hostile guise. There can be no question as to the stinging pro-
perties of these hairs, to which my wife, among others, can bear
testimony ; but as our experimental ardour did not induce us to
grasp the creature, the consequences were never serious. The
largest hairs must be nearly an inch long, and the points of all
have a lighter appearance, as though singed. It was interesting
to watch theirelevation by the animal on the approach of the
finger, as though by some electric attraction. The stinging sen-
sation is analogous to that caused by a nettle. I am inclined to
think that in this case the cause was likewise analogous. It is,
however, possible that the hairs are brittle, or armed with articu-
lated branches.

With reference to the power of detaching hairs possessed by
some caterpillars, a remarkable instance came under my notice
in Tiguca (Brazil). It was observed in the larva of a beautiful
black and white butterfly with conspicuous yellow tail. The de-
termining principle of its existence appeared to be rather economy
than defence. Consequently the hairs with which its body was
covered were utilised in the construction of its cocoon. For this
purpose it was first clearly necessary to shed them ; after which
they were dexterously crossed and recrossed over the creature’s
body ensconced under the shadow of some convenient leaf. In
this process, if thread was used at all, it was with the greatest
economy. i

As it was evident that such hairs must be well adapted to their
purpose, I examined them under a good microscope, when I
found them armed with short barbs on all sides, especially
towards the extremities. The spines were tolerably thick, giving
under the lens much the appearance of a sprig of juniper.

Berne, Switzerland C. EDEN

In reference to the article on venomous caterpillars in
NaTuRE of the 14th inst., I beg to offer you, if the subject is
not closed, my own very unpleasant experience.

On the 19th of June last, as I was sitting in my drawing-
room near an open window, looking on the garden, I suddenly
felt an itching sensation in my throat and arm, and on examining
my dress I found a large brown long-haired caterpillar, In a-
few moments my skin, on the parts affected, was covered with a
strong eruption attended with intense heat. Thinking it im-
possible that the insect could have produced this inflammation,
I sent fora doctor. After examining the skin he assured me he
could see no other cause, and that the eruption resulted from the
hairs of the caterpillar remaining in the skin.

He ordered me some simple applications, telling me that a
few hours would bring relief. In this he was totally mistaken.
The inflammation increased to the extent of producing general
fever ; I passed a sleepless night, and the next day it continued
unabated. After that it very gradually subsided, but the traces
of the eruption were visible ten days afterwards,

The insect could not, I imagine, have bitten me, as I felt
nothing at the moment.

Ihave frequently been bitten by tropical insects, but in no
one instance have I suffered so severely, or been so disfigured.
The sensation reminded me somewhat of the prickly heat, only
it was infinitely more intolerable.

There was no predisposing cause, as I was at the time in good

fe
‘3

Oct. 2, 1873]

health, and had no tendency to fever, although the temperature

was remarkably high for the month of June.

* I have not seen a similar accident during my fifteen years’

residence in France, but I presume they are not unfrequent

here, or there would be no reason for the vulgar French ex-

pression ‘* Mauvaise comme une chenille.” A, GILLANDER
7, Rue St. Claire, Passy, Paris

The Glacial Period

Pror. TYNDALL has several times called attention to a point
in regard to the height of the snow-line, which seems to be
steadily overlooked by those who speculate on the causes of the
great prevalence of snow. during the glacial epoch. It is of
course well known that the height of the snow-line at any place
is determined mainly by two things, viz., the depth of annual
snow-fall, and the temperature of the place. If the amount of
snow falling over the whole earth is to be increased, the evapora-
tion must also be increased. (‘‘ Heat asa Mode of Motion,”
pp. 206-7. New York, 1866.) This would also raise the tem-
perature, but the snow-line might nevertheless descend. We
have a case of exactly this kind in the Himalayas. On the warm
southern side of these mountains the snow-line is, nevertheless,
3,000 ft. lower than on the northern side, where the temperature
is very much colder. This is evidently due to a difference in the
amount of annual precipitation. Assume that the sun was
at one time much warmer than now, and that since then it has
been steadily cooling ; and I believe you have the key to the
solution of the questions asked by J. H. Rohrs, as well as to
such questions as the widespread occurrence of tropical vegeta-
tion during the past ages.

Towa City, U.S. FRANK E, NIPHER

RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE LOCALISA-
TION OF THE CEREBRAL FUNCTIONS

‘THE fifth part of Dr. Brown-Séquard’s new “ Archives
of Scientific and Practical Medicine” contains an
excellent report by Dr. Neftel, “on some of the recent
researches in neuropathology” embracing a digest of
several important modern methods, recently introduced,
for the purpose of analysing the functions of the different
parts of the cerebral hemispheres, together with a suc-
cinct account of the results arrived at by their employ-
ment, An abstract of this report forms the substance of
the present notice.

The researches of Longet, Magendie, Matteucci, and
others have led to the assumption by most physiologists,
that the cerebral hemispheres, especially their cortical
substance, are destitute of sensibility, being the seats of
origin of higher mental phenomena only. The experi-
ments from which these conclusions were arrived at, con-
sisted in the irritation of the hemispheres in living
animals by mechanical, chemical, and electrical means ;
and in none were they succeeded by muscular contrac-
tions. As if to put the question beyond a doubt, Flourens
removed the entire hemispheres without disturbing the
muscular mechanism.

But the tendency of modern observation is in a diffe-
rent direction ; the new researches have been made inde-
pendently by several investigators, with entirely different
methods, nevertheless the results are the same, contrary
to that of the earlier workers ; the evidence going to prove
that the cortical substance of the cerebral hemispheres is
in close relation with certain muscular groups, forming

‘the “ psychomotor centres ” of Gudden.

Fritsch and Hitzig commenced these researches, the
latter having observed that galvanic excitation of the
hemispheres in the living man produced contraction of
the eye-muscles. This aberrant result suggested further
experiments. They irritated the cerebral hemispheres in
a dog with an extremely weak current, and found that
movements of certain groups of muscles followed the ex-
citation of definite spots on the anterior convex portion of
the brain, always upon the side opposite to that which was
acted on; whilst the same excitation of portions of the

NATURE

467

hemispheres situated more posteriorily, produced no
effect. Thus they found the centre for the extensor and
adductor muscles of the anterior extremity at the external
end of the pre-frontal convolution; and somewhat be-
hind it the centre for the flexor and rotating muscles of the
same extremity. The irritation of these centres by
metallic closing of a very weak galvanic current produces
a single contraction, whilst the interrupted current pro-
duces tonic and gradually disappearing contractions of
these muscles, followed by epileptiform movements. The
anode has much more influence in producing these results
than the cathode, so much so, that with a current of
minimal intensity contractions can only be produced by
the anode.

When Fritz and Hitzig removed in dogs the centre for
the anterior extremity, this latter did not become entirely
paralysed, the animal could use it, but imperfectly, and
seemed quite unconscious of the condition of the limb,
which could be placed into any position without attracting
its attention.

Nothnagel employs a new method for the determina-
tion of the functions of the brain. His observations are
made mostly on rabbits. An incision is made in the
scalp, the skull is perforated with a needle. Through the
canal thus formed in the bone a very small drop of a con-
centrated solution of chromic acid is injected by means of
a hypodermic syringe with avery slender nozzle. The
scalp wound is then united by suture, and the animal does
not seem to be affected, except with regard to the func-
tional derangement incidental to the lesion. Generally
they survive the operation two or three weeks, and die
from causes which Nothnagel cannot explain, no consti-
tutional symptoms being developed. However, when the
chromic acid is injected into the lateral cerebral ventricles
death is the immediate result. On post-mortem exami-
nation, where the chromic acid was injected a minute cir-
cumscribed place appears, of a green colour, resistant and
hard.

In methods employed previous to this, many causes
acted to impair the value of the results arrived at ; there
was considerable hzemorrhage, refrigeration of the brain
surface, and modification of the intra-cranial pressure, in
addition to which the animal died very shortly. These
are obviated by the new means just described ; many fresh
facts have therefore been brought to light. In one of his
experiments Nothnagel madea chromic acid lesion on the
surface of the cerebral cortex, which penetrated very
slightly into its substance, in a spot corresponding exactly
to the outer end of the post-frontal convolution. The
animal appeared healthy, but it was found on careful ob-
servation that it had lost the muscular sense in the an-
terior extremity, on the opposite side to the cerebral lesion,
it being possible to put, and retain for some time, the
affected paw in strained positions. This condition passed
off before death, which seems to indicate that the terminal
station or the real centre for the muscular sense exists
elsewhere, and that after a time other ways to it become
developed.

Nothnagel found, further, a circumscribed locality in
the cerebral cortex, the lesion of which produces a partial
and transient hemiplegia of the opposite extremity.
This spot is in front of that for the muscular sense, and
deeper than it. In no other portions of the cerebral cor-
tex, except those above mentioned, have the chromic acid
lesions been followed by paralytic symptoms.

Gudden has introduced another method by which the
function of the different parts of the cerebrum may be
studied. He finds that newly-born animals, as rabbits,
will undergo a very great amount of mutilation without
interfering seriously with the nutritive functions, so that
portions of the brain may be removed, and the animal
will grow to full size, with no peculiarities excepting those
resulting from the absence of the parts removed. The
slight sensibility, rapid coagulation of the blood, and the

468

quick growth, are all in favour of operations. The fol-
lowing are the results of his experiments on the cerebral
hemispheres ;—“ Very convincing facts are obtained by
removing the cerebral hemispheres in new-born animals,
and allowing them to grow up. The result is idiotismus,
There is also reason to locate the organic conditions of
voluntary movements in the cortical substance of the
brain, but there is no reason to accept the corpus striatum
as a motor ganglion, The hemiplegion following the
destruction of the nucleus lenticularis can be satisfactorily
explained by the rupture of fibres passing through the
internal capsule. But admitting the cerebral cortex as
the organ for voluntary movements, there is no necessity
to have another motor ganglion. Indeed, Gudden’s ex-
periments on new-born rabbits, by removing portions of
the hemispheres, have demonstrated that the organ of
voluntary motion is located in the frontal part of the
cerebral cortex.”

Dr. Ferrier, whose results are referred to in another
column, is working in a similar field of observation, with
the view of elucidating the relations between certain con-
volution centres, and definite sets of muscles at the
periphery.

FRENCH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE-
MENT OF SCIENCE

of Rea second meeting of the French Association for the

Advancement of Science was held at Lyons from the
21st to the 28th of August, under the Presidency of Prof.
Quatrefages. This Association bids fair to become as
popular in France as the British Association in this
country. The work done in the sections which I yisited,
those of Anthropology and Geology, was, to say the very
least, as valuable as that done by our own sections. Among
the papers brought before the former, the pleistocene station
of Solutré excited considerable interest, and was subse-
quently visited by the section. The site has been used by
man for habitation and burial, as late as the Merovingian
times, in which it was a cemetery, and the strata are toa
considerable extent vevzanié. The association of remains
on that spot of varying age, Paleolithic, Neolithic, and
Frankish, seems to throw a doubt on the precise date of
the human skeletons, buried at full length, and generally
believed to be of the same age as the associated imple-
ments of reindeer, and bones of mammoth. Dr. Gosse
also read a paper on the reindeer-cave of Veyriers,
Switzerland, and exhibited carved implements of reindeer
antler, usually called ‘ batons de commandement,” which
are of the same form as the arrow-straighteners of the
Eskimos. Here, as in the caves of Belgium explored by
M. Dupont, they {presented but one perforation. The
debates were yery animated, and drew out many valuable
remarks from the eminent anthropologist, Dr, Paul
Broca.

In the Geological section, papers were contributed by
the Comte de Saporta, MM, Dumortier, Beboux, and
others, and in the debates Prof, Carl Vogt of Geneva took
a prominent part. MM. Falsan and Chantre exhibited
and described an elaborate map of the glacial phenomena
cf the middle basin of the Rhone, drawn on a large scale.
They traced the glaciers of the Alps, and of the Jura,
as far to the west as the Saone, and as far to the south as
Valence ; and they proved that there were two epochs of
glaciation, the one during which the area in question was
covered by a great ice-sheet, conveying Alpine blocks over
the Jura into the valley of the Saone and middle basin of
the Rhone, and the other during which the glaciers were
isolated, and local moraines accumulated in the river
valleys. ‘These two periods correspond with those which
have been noted in Great Britain and Ireland, by Prof.
Ramsay, Hull, and others. The map presented a com-
bination of artistic skill, with careful work in the field,
which is very rarely met with,

NATURE

| Oct. 2, 1873

In the evening three popular lectures were given to the
public, one of which, by M. Janssen, on the Constitution of
the Sun, was admirably illustrated. i

The times of meeting of the sections differ from ours,
the programme of the day being, first, a morning sitting
from 8.30, or 9 to II A.M.,—dejeuner; and, an afternoon
sitting from 3 to 5 P.M.—then dinner ; and sometimes an
evening sitting commencing at eight, when there were no
lectures going on. The sections were 15 in number, and
comprised Agriculture and Medicine, as well as those
represented in the British Association. There were ex-
cursions down the Rhone, and to Geneva ; a grand feée
given by one of the merchants, and a magnificent enter-
tainment given by the City of Lyons in the Town Hall.

In writing this short notice the extreme courtesy and
consideration of the French Association to the strangers
should not be omitted. Their hospitality to the only
English guest present was too great to flow from any
personal motive, and evidently was intended as a mark
of respect to the British Association. W. B. D.

THE METEOROLOGICAL CONGRESS AT
VIENNA

HE Meteorological Congress which met at Vienna
during the past month worked very hard amid many
difficulties, and we believe will have good results. The
Congress sat from Sept. 2 to Sept. 16. The protocols and
appendices are in the press, and will appear officially in
French and German; while Mr. R. H. Scott has under-
taken an English translation, which will appear as soon
as possible. The following is a list of the delegates
from the various countries :—Antonio Aguilar, Spain;
H. Buys-Ballot, Netherlands ; Carl Bruhns, Germany ;
Alexander Buchan, Great Britain and Ireland; f. D.
Campbell, China ; Giov. Cantoni, Italy ; Aristide Coum-
bary, Turkey ; v. Czelechowsky, Austria ; F. Doergens,
Germany; Prof. Ebermayer, Bavaria; Fradesso da
Silveira, Portugal ; M. Gloesener, Belgium ; Julius Hann,
Austria ; Hoffmeyer, Denmark ; Carl Jelinek, Austria ;
Josef Lorenz, Austria ; Heinrich Mohn, Norway ; Robert
Miller, Austrian-Hungary ; Albert Myer, United States ;
Georg Neumayer, Germany; E. Plantamour, Switzer-
land ; Ernst Quetelet, Belgium; R. Rubenson, Sweden ;
Guido Schenzl, Hungary ; Julius Schmidt, Greece; H.
Schoder, Germany; Rebert H. Scott, Great Britain and
Ireland ; Carl Sohncke, Germany ; H. Wild, Russia ; F.
Winnecke, Germany ; A. Zamara, Austria. The following
is the programme of subjects discussed :— ?
I. Justruments.—1. What is the construction of the
barometer most suitable for stations of the second
order? Is the use of aneroids at such stations advis-
able? 2. What modefof exposure of thermometers for
the observation of air temperature is the best and most
suitable for general adoption? 3. What is the best con-
struction for maximum and minimum thermometers? 4,
What instruments should be used for determining intensity
of radiation, and in what way can the comparison of
the results obtained be secured? 5, What is the
best apparatus for observing earth temperatures ?
At what depths ought they to be made, in order that
the desired agreement may be attained? 6. What
instruments should be used for ascertaining the state:
of moisture of the atmosphere? Does the psychro-
meter suffice for this purpose? Can the hair hygro-
meter be made applicable, and with what Jimitations ?
7. In what way can an agreement in the signs for the
directions of the wind be attained? Is the deduction of
the mean direction of the wind according to Lambert’s
formula desirable? Is it desirable or not to in-
clude very light winds (force o) in constructing wind
roses for the direction of the wind? 8. What scale is
to be used for the force of wind where it has to be
estimated without the aid of an instrument? 9. Is the

.
“>

Oct. 2, 1873)

NATURE

4°9

introduction of simple counting instruments for ascertain-
ing the rate of the wind desirable? What units should
be fixed upon as a basis for ob:erving the rate of the
wind? 10. What is the most suitable form, size, and
position for rain-gauges? At what time of day should
the measurement of rainfall be made, 11. Should days
of rain and snow-fall be separated from each other, or be
counted as the same? 12. Is it desirable in recording
the amount of hail to separate the falls of sleet (gvaufe/)
from those of,hatl proper? 13. In reckoning thunder-
storms, are the storms only to be recorded, or the days in
which they occurred? How is sheet-lightning to be
regarded? 14. What apparatus is to be recommended
for measuring evaporation? What is the most suitable
exposure for the vaporimeter? 15. How should the
amount of cloud be estimated and recorded? Is it
desirable to introduce for clouds, hydrometeors, and
for other extraordinary phenomena, a nomenclature
which shall be independent of local language, and
therefore universally intelligible? 16, Moreover, should
other elements which are reckoned meteorological, ¢ x.
atmospheric electricity, ozone, &c., be included in the
circle of normal observations, and what are the most
suitable instruments for observing them. 17. For meteo-
rological measurements should the same units of measure
(units of length, degree, time, &c.), be introduced into all
countries ? or is it sufficient to establish fixed rules for the
reduction of the measurements used in different countries ?

Il. Taking and calculation of the observations.—18.
Could corresponding times of observation be established
at all meteorological stations. 19. According to what rules,
periods of time, &c., are the mean values of the varicus
meteorological observations to be calculated? Is it
expedient to begin the meteorological year with the month
of January, or with the month of December? 20. In what
way, and for what periods of time are the normal values
of the several meteorological elements to be deduced ?

Ill. Weather telegrams.—21. Does the interchange of
weather telegrams appear so useful that a wider circulation
and more complete organisation should be given to it?

IV. Maritime Meteorology.—22. In what way would
maritime meteorology be best intioduced into the system
of general meteorology ?

V. Organisation.—23. Is it desirable that in each
country one or more ccntral stations for the superinten-
dence, collection, and publication of meteorological ob-
servations, should be estabjished? 24. In reference to
the verification of instruments and the inspection of
meteorological stations, can any adequate general rules
be Jaid down? And is it advisabie to introuuce general in-
structions for taking and calculating meteorological obser-
vations? 25. In what way can the agreement of the stan-
dard instruments of the various ceuiral esitabiishments be
best secured ?

VI. Publication of Observations.—26, Is it desirable
and practicable to publish the meteorological observations
of a limited number of stations in each cuuntry in a uni-
form manner and within a reasonably short time after the
observations have been made? 27. How is the inter-
change of meteorological publicatioas of various institu-
tions and coyntries to be organised most simply, speedily,
and certainly ?

VII. The Carrying Out of the Decisions of the Congress.
—28. What measures shouid be adopted for the accom-
plishment of the decisions and purposes of the Meteoro-
logical Congress? For this purpose, is the estavlish-
ment of a permanent committce and the arrangement of
further metcorological Congresses necessary ?

BIRMINGHAM NATUKAL HISTORY AND
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

Peres twenty members of this society, including
several ladies, proceeded to Teignmouth in the
beginning of September, in fulfilment of the proposed

marine excursion, and took up their quarters according to
agreement at the Queen’s Hotel. The yacht Rudy had
been chartered for the occasion, and proved a most sea-
worthy and seryiceable craft. Dredging operations com-
menced on Monday, Sept. 1, and were continued daily
throughout the week, in depths varying from 54 to 20
fathoms. The atmospheric, surface, and bottom te:mpera-
tures were taken at each sounding, the maximum and
minimum results being as follows :-—-
Atmospheric temperature, Maximum 66° Minimum 64°
Surface ” ” ” 61° ” 583°
Bottom x 9 » 603° ” 58°.
The averages were: atmospheric, 65°, surface, 593°,
bottom, 582°. A Miller-Casella thermomctcr was used.
On the whole the results of the dredging were very satis-
factory. The weather was fine, but cloudy, with occasinnal
rain, and sometimes a little too calm for the work.
About 30 hauls of the dredge were made, and specimens
of many of the marine invertebrate animals in the neigh-
bourhood secured. The tangles attached to the bag of
the dredge sometimes came up literally swarming with
echinoderms. By far the most noteworthy capture was
Comatula rosacea, the feather-star, two individuals of
which were taken in the larval pedunculate condition
attached near the base of a frond of Lasinaria, which
was torn off by the dredge.* The specimens measured
about one-third of an inch each in leugth. Five young
Comatulz in a free condition, the largest about an
inch across, were also taken. A subsequent haul on
the following day brought up from the same locality
three adults. The members of the Society had the
unusually rare opportunity of seeing under the micro-
scope the young feather-stars in the living state. They
were but little thicker than sewing-silk, of graceful, erect
lily-like form, and very lively, bending and waving on the
peduncle; the arms vigorously contracting in an inward
direction. Drawings of the larval Comatulz in the living
state were made to scale by Mr. Wills, with the camera
lucida, and the specimens mounted b. him for exhibition
to the Society. A full description will be communicated
to the Society in a report of the excursion, During the
evenings the members had the opportunity of examining
under the microscope the pedicellirize of the star-fishes
and sea-urchins, and the whip and bird’s head processes
of certain of the polyzoa, also the s'ructure of Botryllus
and other tunicates, the larval formis of crustacea &e. ;
objects always interesting, but specially so toa society
carrying on its work in an inland neighbourhood far
removed frum the sea. In the course of the week very
enjoyable excursions were made by some of the members
down the River Dart to Berry-Pomeroy Castle, Lustleigh,
Becky Falls, Moreton Hampstead, Chayiord, Exeter, Tor-
quay, &c, On the whole, the excursion has proved a most
successful experiment, quite fulfilling the expectations of
those who projected it, ana it is to be hoped may be suc-
ceeded by others in a wider field. Tue members ieceived
much kind attention from the Rev. R. Cresswell, Mr. W.
G. Ormerod, Rev. R. C. Douglas, Mr. Adams, and other
gentlemen. Most of the party returned to Birmingham
by train on Monday, having had a most delightful
excursion.—The members of the society who remained in
Devonshire after the marine excursion had a great
treat on the jfollowing Friday, when they were escorted
through the famous cavern by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., who
courteously explained to them the mode of conducting
the explorations, the contents of the flora, and their rela-
tion to geological time. Mr. Pengelly also showed them
at his own house t..e collection of bones, teeth, &c., of
man, and the extinct bear, hyzena, dog, and other animals,
and the flint implements of earlier and later manufacture
found therewith in the cavern,

* They were taken in the vicinity of Torbay on Thursday, Sept. 5, at a
depth of 12 fathoms on a limcstone bottom, the bottom temperature regis.
tering 59°. ‘

THE COMMON FROG
fr

\ HAT isa Frog? At first, almost all persons will think, on

meeting with this question, that they can answer it readily
and easily. Second thoughts, however, will show to most that
such is by no means the case.

Indeed many a man of education and culture will find himself
entirely at a loss, if suddenly called upon for a reply to what is
in fact a problem by no means easy of solution.

“The Frog is a small saltatory Reptile” will probably be the
reply of the majority. But zs it a Reptile? At any rate it begins
life (in its Tadpole stage) like a Fish!

By the great Cuvier, however, as by very many naturalists
since, it has been regarded as a Reptile and classed with Lizards,
Crocodiles, and Serpents ; and yet it may be a question whether
the murine affinity connubially assigned to it in the Nursery tale,
be not the lesser error of the two.

If the Frog was only known by certain fossil remains it would
be considered one of the most anomalous of animals.

Many persons are accustomed to make much of the distinctive
peculiarities of the human frame. In fact, however, Man’s
bodily structure is far less exceptional in the animal series, is far
less peculiar and isolated than that which is common to Frogs
and Toads,

The number and nature of both the closer and the more remote
allies of the Frog ; its distribution both as to space and as to
time ; its relationships whether of analogy or affinity * to very
different animals ; its bony frame-work ; its muscles and nerves ;
its brain and sense-organs ; its respiratory and excretory struc-
tures ; its various changes from the egg to maturity, together
with peculiarities of habit in allied forms ; are all matters which
will well repay a litile attentive consideration.

Indeed it is probable that no other existing animal is more
replete with scientific interest of the highest kind, than is the
Frog.

About it are gathered biological + questions which bear upon
the origin of species, and upon the course and mode of or-
ganic development, as well as other speculative problems to
which answers are as yet far to seek.

If it is a fact that all the various species of animals have arisen
through ordinary genera'i n one from another by a process of
development, the life history of the Frog may with reason be
expected to have some bearing upon such a process, since
every Frog begins its free existence with the organisation of a
Fish, and after undergoing a remarkable ‘* Metamorphosis,”
attains the condition of an air-breathing quadruped, capable of
easy and rapid terrestrial locomotion,

There is a matter with respect to which the zoologist can
hardly avoid regarding the botanist with envy. The creatures
sought after by the latter may be rare or inhabitants of stations
difficult of access, but at any rate they are incapable of flight or
concealment, and specimens of some kind or other generally
present themselves in plenty.

On the other hand not only does the townsman of a thickly-
peopled land like our own, often meet with fewer animals in his
couhtry walks than he anticipated, but the explorer of tropical
lands and virgin forests has frequently to endure disappointment
from the contrast between the richness of a known local fauna
and the little to be actuaily seen of the animal population of the
place. ‘

Frogs and Toads, however, are often enough seen both at
home and abroad, and when perceived generally fall a far more
ready prey to the collector than do the swift-running Lizards and
small Beasts which are the commonest ground-animals met with
besides. The group is also rich in species as well as in indi-
viduals, and it is spread over the far greater part of the habitable
globe. Nevertheles Frogs and Toads have few admirers even
amongst professed zoologists, and meet with no little neglect.

While the term ‘‘ Ornitholozist” + is familiar to everyore, and
the tile *‘ Erpetologist” § is so to all naturalists; the name
‘‘ Batrachologist ” || has not yet been conferred on or assumed
by any one worker in Science.

* Analogous relationship refers to the uses to which parts are put. Rela-
tionship of affinity refers either to such a relationship as that of kindred or to
an ideal a‘finity reposing on similarities of structure.

+ Biological questions are questions referring to living beings. “ B’ology
1 eve the science which treats of all living things, including both plants and

nimals.

t “Opudoc, a bird, and Adyoe, a discourse,

§ 'Epmeroy, a reptile, and Adyor,

i Barpaxog, a frog, and Adzog.

a) NATURE |

[Océ 2, 1873 |

Economically, Frogs are of little esteem in England save
occasionally for bait and as the staple food of certain rare and
interesting animals preserved in our menageries. Our American —
cousins indeed have given one more evidence of their French
sympathies by the introduction of the Frog into their cuésine,
and, as suits that land of the longest rivers and the largest lakes,
it is no less a creature than the gigantic Bull-frog which figures
in the menu of Transatlantic gourmets. ;

If zoologists and economists have neglected the Frog, the
same assertion can by no means be made with respect to physio-
logists.

‘The Frog is the never-failing resource for the physiological
experimenter. It would be long indeed to tell the tee of
much-enduring frogs in the cause of Science! What Frogs |
can do without their heads? What their legs can do without
their bodies? What their arms can do without either head or
trunk ? What is the effect of the removal of their brains? How
they can manage without their eyes and without their ears?
What effects result from all kinds of local irritations, from chok-
ings, from poisonings, from mutilations the most varied? These
are the questions again and again addressed to the little animal
which perhaps more than any other deserves the title of *‘ the
Martyr of Science.” i

To return to our question at starting, ‘‘ What is a Frog?”

To answer this, it will in the first place be well to make a cer-
tain preliminary acquaintance with the frog absolutely.

Fic, 1.—The Common Frog, Rana tenporaria,

Secondly, to study those creatures which are most like it,
and are, therefore, as we shall directly see, its ‘class fellows,”
living and fossil.

Thirdly, to investigate its anatomy so far as to be able to in-
stitute fruitful comparisons between its organisation and that of
all other creatures belonging to the same great primary group of
animals to which it pertains.

Fourthly, to sum up the results in a series of successively
wider and wider comparisons, and by the light thence derived to
answer as fully as the present state of Science allows the question
first asked,

We shall then be able to answer that question, because we shall
have ascertained how various parts of this creature form one
organic whole as a system of mutually related structures ; and
how this whole and its parts are related to the entire series of —
animal existences from the monad up to man. Then, and then
only shall we be able to say what a frog is. ,

In the first place it is necessary to acquire a general notion of
the way in which animals are distinguished and segregated into
groups, as well as the general system of arrangement of those
groups and the mode of Lestow ng names which has been adopted
by zoologists in common with botanists.

When we have acquired an adequate general notion of zoolo-
gical classification we shall be able to see with what creatures
the Frog is now admitted to be, in various degrees, allied. }

The whole mass of animals of all kinds from man down to
the lowest animalcula) is spoken of by the fanciful term Ring-

_ dom. Thus we have the animal kingdom in contrast with and
in distinction from the vegetable and mineral kingdoms.
This great whole, the animal kingdom, is subdivided into
seven great groups or su5-kingdoms, to one or other of which
every SIME eneen to us belongs. ;

__ Each of these sub-kingdoms (like every more subordinate zoo-

_ logical group) is characterised and defined by certain points of
structure possessed by the animals which compose it and which
serve to distinguish them. .
Thus, if we take up an earthworm we see that its body is com-
_ pesed of a series of similar segments or rings placed one behind
_ the other, and we know that it belongs to that great sub-kingdom
_ of ringed animals termed Anzzudlosa.

If we examine a thousand-legs or a wood-louse we see that
here again the body is evidently composed of a series of rings or
segments, to most of which jointed legs are attached. A suc-
cessive survey of a lobster, a scorpion, a bee, a beetle, or a
butterfly will reveal to us that all these creatures, however diffe-
rent in other respects, all belong to the same ringed type, i,
that they are a'l members of the sub-kingdom Axnulosa, which

7 a

G. 2.—Tadpoles in different stages of development, from those just hatched
(x) till the adult form is attained (8).

contains all such animals, all insects, together with spiders,
earthworms, and leeches.

Another great sub-kingdom called J/o//usca contains all snails,
slugs, cuttle-fishes, and creatures of the oyster and scallop class,
Such animals have not the body composed of a series of similar
segments, but are united by characters less obvious indeed, but
as distinctive.

A third sub-kingdom called A/ol/uscoida is made up of the
sea-squirts, or Ascidians (sometimes called Tunicates) and lamp-
shells, together with minute animals living in water in compound
aggregations, like the /vustra (or Sea-mat) so common on our
coasts, the surface of which is pitted with minute depressions, in
each of which a minute animal had in life its abode—as doves in
a dove-cot, if we imagine each fastened in its cell by natural

wth,

A fourth sub-kingdom, Azuloida, is composed of such
animals as star-fishes and sea-urchins, together with internal
parasites (tape-worms, &c.) and their allies.

The fifth sub-kingdom is named Caventerata, and contains all
sea-anemones, jelly-fishes, Portuguese men-of-war, polyps, and
coral animals, these being the little creatures which have formed
the atolls (or coral islands) of southern seas, and the vast reefs

| order.

Gt

which stretched for so many hundred miles on the earth’s
surface.

The sixth sub-kingdom, Frofesoa, comprises the Sponges, the
Infusoria, and all the lower forms of animal life.

Now the whole of these six sub-kingdoms may be contrasted
with the last and seventh, which bears the name Vertebraia,
from which they all differ in several important particulars, and
therefore they are often spoken of hy the common and con-
venient term Zrvertebrata.

When we examine a fish (such as a sole, a herring, ora
mackerel), one of the first things likely to be noticed by us on
dividing it, is a solid structure—tke backbone—extending from
the head to the tail, and coated externally by the flesh.

This backbone is soon seen to be made up of a number of
pieces jointed together. Each piece is called in natural
history a vertebra, and every animal in which such a
structure is found, is called, on that account, a Vertebrate
animal.

Now every kind of beast and reptile agrees with these fishes
in the possession of the vertebrate backbone, as well as in a
variety of other important characters, which constitute the
definition of the sub-kingdom Vertebrata.

Thus in the development of the egg of every Vertebrata (such
ég. as in that of the fowl), the first indication of the future
animal, is the appearance on part ofits surface of a minute
longitudinal furrow called the primitive groove. Next the
margins of this groove ascend to meet together above, thus
enclosing a canal, the lining of which becomes thickened and
transformed into no less important a structure than the brain
and spinal marrow.

Concomitantly with the development of this canal, there is
found, immediately beneath it, a little gelatinous rod enclosed
in a membraveous envelope, and called the xofochord, or chorda
dorsalis, It is this structure which is subsequently developed
and becomes the backbone. ‘

Ancther singular condition is invariably presented in the
development of every vertebrate, whether the structures formed
are transitory or permanent.

This condition is the appearance of a certain series of open-
ings formed at the side of the neck, and which, in fishes,
remain permanent as the gill openings. These openings are
termed visceral clefts, and lead from the exterior into the throat.
The solid pillars (or intervals) between the clefts are called
visceral arches, and in creatures (e.g. fishes) which develop gills
upon them, dranchial arches.

In all vertebrates again (unlike insects or spiders) there are

never more than four limbs, and these are supported by bones,
orcartilages, which are clothed externaliy with flesh, and are not
moved by muscles placed within the hard parts, as is the case
with lobsters, insects, and all their allies.

The heart in all vertebrates, consists of at least two distinct
cavities, and sends forth blood into a system of arteries, thence
it is brought back again to the heart by other vessels termed
the veins. On its way back to the heart, however, some of the
veins carry blood to be redistributed in the liver, forming what
is called the Zorta/ circulation. -

Tn all the points above enumerated, the Frog (as we shall
shortly see) fully agrees with beasts, birds, reptiles, and fishes,
and thus shows that it differs from the immense majority of
animals—the /vertebrata—and pertains unmistakeably to the
seventh sub-kingdom of animals—the Vertebrata.

Now every sub-kingdom of animals is further divided into a
greater or lesser number of subordinate (though still Jarge) groups,
termed classes. Each class is again subdivided into a certain
number of smaller and more subordinate groups, each of which
is termed an order. Each order is made up of families, each
family being of course, smaller, and more subordinate than an
Eyery family consists again of still more subordinate
groups, each of which is termed a genus. And every genus
comprises one or more sfecies.

In zoology, every animal bears a name composed of two
words. The first of these is a substantive, and denotes the
genus to which any given animal belongs, The second word
is an adjective—or a word used in an adjective sense—and
denotes which species of the genus that given animal is. Thus
the Chimpanzee is called Zroglodytes niger, it is the species
Niger of the genus TZroglodytes, which genus contains also
another species, namely, the Gorilla, ;

St, GEORGE MIvART
(To be continued.)

[ Oct. 2, 1873

NOTES

Ir would be well if our men of science were to be found more
frequently distributing prizes and taking an interest in the
schools in which, thanks to the wisdom and energy of Mr.
Cole, so many thousands of our people are learning science. In
this Prof. Williamson has just set a good example by distributing
the prizes at the Keightley School of Science and Art on
Thursday last. Prof. Williamson, at the end of his speech,
remarked that ‘‘ We in this country give a peculiar position to
Science in relation to material affairs. If we find a coal-seam
we look upon it as wasteful not to work it and make the most of
it, but what he said was, that to leave the clear heads and true
hearts of our countrymen left useless was a greater waste, be-
cause he believed that they were infinitely more valuable than
any coal-seam that ever was discovered.”

AN anonymous donor has placed a large sum in the hands of
the Committee of the Birmingham and Midland Institute, for
the foundation of a Lectureship on the Laws of Health, and also
for a prize fund in connection with the class. Dr. Corfield has
been offered the post for this year, has accepted it, and will
deliver an inaugural lecture in the Town Hall, Birmingham, on

. Thursday, October 9, at 8 p.M., on ‘‘ Sanitary Progress.” The
course will begin on Tuesday, October 14, at 8 P.M., and be
continued on succeeding Tuesdays until some time in April. It
is intended more especially for the working classes, and both
men and women will be admitted.

THE programme of the Birmingham and Midland Institute
for Session 1873-4 is a very full one, and, to judge from what is
set down, is well organised in its departments, and doing a
thoroughly good educational work among all classes of the popu-
lous and important district in the midst of which it is established.
At a merely nominal fee it places valuable scientific instruction
within the reach of the poorest artisan.

Sir SAMUEL and Lady Baker left Alexandria for London on
Tuesday.

WE would draw our readers’ attention to a letter from Pro-
fessor Thiselton Dyer, in this week’s number, on the Oxford
Fellowships in Science about to be competed for. ,We hope
that, at any rate, the matter of Research will be taken into
consideration.

NExT year’s meeting of the American Association for the:
Advancement of Science will be held at Hartford, Conn., and
the officers elect are :—President, Dr. John L. Le Conte, of
Philadelphia ; Vice-President, Prof. C. S. Lyman, of New
Haven; Gen. Sec., Dr. A. C. Hamlin, of Bangor; Treasurer,
Mr. W. S. Vaux, of Philadelphia.

THE Italian Association for the Advancement
meets on the 20th inst.

THE business of the Social Science Congress opened at
Norwich yesterday, with a meeting of the Council, after which
there was a special service in the Cathedral; and in the:
evening the inaugural address was delivered by the Presi-
dent. To-day the exhibition of sanitary and educational appa-~
ratus and appliances at the Drill Hall, kindly lent for the
occasion, will be opened with an address by the High Sheriff of
Norwich. The address of the President of the Council, Mr.
G. W. Hastings, will follow, after which the depawtments will
meet in their respective rooms, and in the evening a soirée will
be given by the local Executive Committee in St. Andrew’s
Hall. On Friday morning Mr. Joseph Brown, Q.C., will
deliver his address as president of the De partment of Jurispru-
dence and Amendment of the Law ; anda fter the meetings of the
various departments for the reading and discussion of papers, a
working men’s meeting in St. Andrew’s I fal], at which the Mayor
will preside, will conclude the bysiness «>f the day. On Satur¢lay

of Science:

an address on education will be delivered by Prof. W. B.
Hodgson, LL.D., and after the rising of the departments the
President of the Congress will distribute the certificates and
prizes to the successful candidates at the last Cambridge middle-
class examination. The address of Capt. Douglas Galton, C.B.,
F.R.S., president of the Health Department, will be given on
Monday morning. The departments will meet as usual in their
respective rooms, and in the evening a grand concert will be
given in St. Andrew’s Hall. Mr. Thomas Brassey, M.P., wi
deliver his address 02 Economy and Trade on Tuesday, and
after the business of the departments a sorrée will be given in St.
Andrew’s Hall by the Mayor, and the concluding meeting, pre-
ceded by a meeting of the Council, will be held on the Wednes-
day. In connection.with the Congress there will be a conference
on female education, and in the Exhibition short addresses will
be delivered daily in the afternoon on the subject of the articles
exhibited in the various classes. Excursions to various places,
it is understood, are being arranged.

THE Diana, screw steamer, in which Mr. B. L. Smith left

Dundee in May last on a voyage of discovery to the Polar Seas,

by the Spitzbergen route, arrived in Dundee on Saturday last.
The Daily News sums up the voyage of the Diana as follows :—
A succession of gales was experienced—the weather on almost |
all occasions when the ship was in the open sea being such that,
although she was provided with complete apparatus for sound-

ing, deep-sea temperatures, &c. not nearly what was intended ~

has been accomplished. Owing to the unfavourable nature of
the ice, little in the way of exploration has been possible. The
time had, however, been very fully occupied in dredging, trawl-
ing, photographing, surveying, and making as complete and
perfect collections as circumstances permitted of the flora of
Spitzbergen. Specimens of rare birds have been secured, and
collections made, probably the first of any value. The collec-
tions of marine plants and animals are likely to prove especially
interesting, and it has been discovered, among other things,

that some parts of those seas hitherto reported as almost desti- —
In the way of
geology everything possible was done in the parts unexplored —

tute of fish, abound in cod of excellent quality.

by the Swedes, and numerous specimens of fossils have been
brought back from the hitherto unyisited parts of the coast of
the north-east land. From the appearance of open water seen
in this expedition beyond Cape Platen, and also reported by the
Swedes as existing—ascertained during their sleigh journey—it

seems to be by no means certain that the route farther north-

wards which the Diana on leaving England hoped to reach does

not exist, and the question still remains open, were it possible to

reach this early in the season, whether a means of reaching a
higher latitude to the north-east of Spitzbergen is not available.
Mr. Smith has ascertained that the North Cape is situated on

an island separated by a sound from the main land, and to this —

extent a knotty point has been determined. The expedition

never got beyond 81°, while Mr. Smith in his expedition of 1871

got to'$1‘24°. He states that the Diana behaved admirably,
but he did not realise his anticipations which would be achieved
by the substitution of steam for sailing power.

Wrru reference to our announcement of the forthcoming’work
by Mr. Boyd Dawkins on Cave Hunting,—the new line of inquiry
which has added so much to our knowledge of ancient man,—we
may now state the work will comprise the physical history of
caves and thcir relation to the general physical geography of the
district, as well as the history of their contents ; and will treat of
the men who have inhabited the caves of France, Spain, and
Britain, during the historic, pre-historic, and pleistocene ages.
The subject bristles with problems ethnological, archzeological,
and geographical, and demands a careful criticism that will
sift the certain from the uncertain. The evidence will be
given from which it may be concluded that the Eskimos lived as

NATURE

rene as the Pyrenees in the palolithic “age, and
ue or Iberic population ranged as far north as the

yton, Essex,” by Mr. C. G. Talmage, contains well-arranged
bles of double star observations, followed by copious notes
on the observations, and occultations, and phenomena of
_Jupiter’s satellites. Mr. Barclay thinks it so advisable to
reduce and print observations at short intervals, that he has
determined, wisely we think, to adopt the plan without waiting
for a number to form a large volume.

AMONG Messrs. Smith, Elder and Co.’s announcements of
forthcoming works, we observe the following :—A translation
of Prof. ‘‘ Hermann’s Elements of Physiology,” by Dr. Arthur
- Gamgee; and “A Text Book of Pathological Anatomy,” by
_ John Wyllie, M.D., Lecturer on General Pathology at the
- School of Medicine, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

AMONG Mr. Robert Hardwicke’s autumn announcements we
notice the following scjentific books—‘‘ Man and Apes:” an
Exposition of Structural Resemblances and Differences bearing
upon questions of affinity and origin, by St. George Mivart,

_ F.R.S. This work will be published simultaneously in America

and England. ‘* Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances :”
a synopsis of progress during the last quarter of a century at
home and abroad, by P. L. Simmonds, the editor of the
“Journal of Applied Science.” ‘‘ Where there’s a Will there’s
a Way ; or, Science in the Cottage,” by James Cash ; being an
account of the labours and lives of some north-country botanists
in humble life. ‘The British Hepatica,” with descriptions by
Dr. Carrington, and drawings by J. E. Sowerby. This will be
issued in twelve monthly parts. ‘‘ Hooker’s Synopsis Filicum,”
a new edition brought up to the present time by J. G. Baker,
Royal Herbarium, Kew. ‘‘ On Mounting Microscopic Objects,”
by Thomas Davies. A new edition, much enlarged, by John
Matthews, M.D., F.R.M.S. This last-named work is nearly
ready for publication.

THE library of the Manchester Athenzeum was destroyed by.
fire on Sept. 24. The damage, estimated at 10,000/., is said to
be wholly covered by insurance.

WE have received the programme of the Edinburgh Vete-
rinary College. We hope that, under the superintendence of the
new Principal, Prof. Fearnley, this important institution will
become more prosperous than it has ever been, and that the
principles of the veterinary art will be taught in a thoroughly
scientific way. That this is likely to be the case may be seen
from the following list of professors :—Dr. Balfour, F.R.S.,
Dr. Murie, Mr. Dewar, F.R.S.E., Dr. Young, and Mr, Wally,

Tue following are some ofthe most important recent additions
to the'Brighton Aquarium :—2 Octopus (O. wx/garis) ; 1 Group
of Barnacles (Zefas /7illt’) ; 30 Sea-horses (Hippocampus ramu-
Tosus) ; 5 African Crocodiles ; 2 Alligator Terrapins (C/e/yara

__ serpentina) ; 1 Edible Turtle (Chelonia midas) ; 1 Sturgeon (Aci
penser sturio).

Tue additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include a Brown Capuchin (Cebus /atuellus) from
Guiana, and two Bonnet Monkeys (Macacus radiatus) from
India, presented by Lord Louth; two Crested Ground Para-
keets ( Calopsitta nove-hollandia) from Australia, presented by
Miss L. E. Lyon, and two hatched ; four Alpacas (Lama pacos),
two Llamas (Zama feruana) from Peru, a Vicuna (Lama
vicugna) from South America; a ‘Cuvier’s Gazelle (Gaze//a
cuvieri) from Muscat ; a Sultry Hermipode (Ortyxelos metffreni)
from West Africa; a Southern Mynah (Acridotheres mahrat-
tensis) from §, India, deposited; a Philantomba Antelope
Cephalophus maxwellt) from Sierra Leone, received in exchange.

MOLECULAR EVOLUTION

AT quite uncertain times and places
The atoms left their heavenly path,

And by fortuitous embraces
Engendered all that being hath,

And though they seem to cling together
And form “associations ” here,

Yet, Jate or soon, they burst their tether,
And through the depths of space career.

So we, who sat, oppressed with Science,
As British Asses, wise and grave,

Are now transformed to fierce Red Lions,
As round our prey we ramp and rave.

Thus by a swift metamorphosis,

Wisdom turns wit, and Science joke ;
Nonsense is incense to our noses,

For when Red Lions speak they smoke,

Hail, Nonsense! dry nurse of Red Lions, *
From thee the wise their wisdom learn,
From thee they cull those truths of science

Which into thee again they turn.

What combinations of ideas

Nonsense alone can wisely form,
What sage has half the power that she has
_ To take the towers of Truth by storm ?

Yield, then, ye rules of rigid reason !
Dissolve, thou too, too solid sense !
Melt into nonsense for a season,
Then in some higher form condense.

Soon, ah ! too soon, the chilly morning
This flow of soul will crystallise,

And those who nonsense now are scorning
May learn too late where wisdom lies,

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION

WE are glad to say that the attendance at the Brad-
ford Meeting was considerably larger than was at
first stated. The total number of persons who attencel
the meeting Is 1,983, and the total amount received,
2,102/,

The following is a list of the grants of money
appropriated to scientific purposes by the General
Committee :—

Mathematics and Physics Ae
Cayley, Prof.—Mathematical Tables tS “ie X00! “Ofd
Cayley, Prof.—Printing Mathematical Tables ... 100 0 0
Glaisher, Mr. J.—Efficacy of Lightning Conductors
(renewed) ... a 50 0 Oo
Balfour Stewart, Prof. ~ Mauritius Observatory “=e 100 OG
Balfour Stewart, Prof—Magnelism of Iron cae 2 ao TED
Brooke, Mr. C.—British Rainfall es rea 5 1GOL| Go
Glaisher, Mr. J.—Luminous Meteors 6 zon” 30) ORIG
Tait, Prof.—Thermo- Electricity (renewed) — 50 0 Oo
Williamson, Prof. A. hs Baa be Siemens’ 5 Byro-
meter (renewed)... 30 9 O
Ginn
Brown, Prof. Crum.—High temperature of Bodies
(partly renewed)... jo 0 0
Williamson, Prof. A. W. —Records of the Progress
of Chemistry 100 0 O
Gladstone, Dr. —Chemical Constitution and Optical
Properties of Essential Oils wet 10 0 O
Armstrong, Dr.—Ison.cric Cresols and their Deri-
vatives sae ses as0 iG HS vey QA OL LO
Carried forward £780 0 ©

* “VLeonum arida nutrix.”

¥ ts. Ps :
Ke net a ; os roe. '
Vy es af ™ , > * ‘ -
oY ony Om a ’ e Le fv,
4 ‘a 7 “ = 24
ei

i ‘ t %

or NATURE [Oct. 2, 1873,

Brought forward I ey; .. £780 © © | expelled, confirms the discoveries of Grahame and Professor

‘Coleg Mallet, in America, of the existence of the same gases in other

F meteoric irons. Dr. Wohbler has thus detected the oxides of

ee Pegs ee eras 10 o o | ¢atbon as gases in the vast waesicfia) iron of a in
Sie ts . a .y iA ag Greenland, and brought to Stockholm during the last few years
Piullips, Prof-—Labyrinthodonts of the Coal Mea- TOD Scare oe Tor. Nordenskidid, and the same gas was found by Prof.
Sia Tr Collection sof. Woesteaen thecantothe Laurence Smith in the siderite which fell recently in the United

States. A connection between comets and meteorites a ears to
West of Scotland ... 10 te

comme) : ge

os ea 2) Siaeaee bt “ be indicated by these discoveries, in the spectra of ‘some o

Y v. T.— igatio i Is} <255'50" mo : oa. ? a
Wilts, Me Fe The Seb Vemma Beene Pa ee which gases containing carbon appear to have been certainly
Lyell, Sir C.—Kent’s Cavern Exploration a maESO, 10 0 OTR ae , pin. Fe
: sees : nێ past year was distinguished by the occurrence of a
fae ae Positions of Erratic 10 0 o | Most remarkable star shower on the night of November 27 last,
Woodward. Mr. Ht ate of Geological arid to the expected appearance of which astronomers were looking
Paleontological literature ... is s4 .. 100 0 o | forward with especial attention from the unexplained absence of
Lubbock, Sir J.—Exploration of Victoria Cave ... 50 0 0 | the double comet of Biela (to which it belongs) from its accus-
z : tomed returns in the last three of its periodical revolutions, - he

. Biology 4 probability of the comet’s path being marked by a meteoric stream
Lane-Fox, Col. A.—¥Forms of Instruction for into which the earth might plunge on or about Noy. 27 every year

Travellers (25. renewed) ... ” 59 © © | was already become a certainty, by the observation of such

Stainton, Mr.—Record of the Progress of Zoology 100 0 o
Jeffreys Mr. Gwyn.—Dredging off the Coasts of
Yorkshire ... Bs ae bis on oe 80).
McKendrick, Dr.—Physiological Action of Light 20 o
Brunton, Dr.—The Nature of Intestinal Secretion 20 0
Foster, Dr. M.—Methods of Breeding the Embryos
of Delicate Marine Organisations at ae
Statistics and Economic Science

Houghton, Lord.--Economic Effects of Trades
Unions “oh A ae

meteoric stream on Noy, 30, 1867. On that night M. Zezioli
of Bergamo, observed a distinct star-shower, according to
Schiaparelli, no doubt of whose belonging to the missing comet
could be entertained, Although the exact date of the shower
could not be accurately foretold with certainty from the want
of recent observations of the comet, yet every probability of
its being seen was favourable to its reappearance last year, and
those who awaited it, as well as many unexpected watchers o
meteor-showers, were surprised by the brilliant spectacle which

rae af 25 © 0 | it suddenly presented. At the first approach of darkness on the

ies evening of Wednesday the 27th of November last, the cloudy

Mechanics ; state of the sky unfortunately deprived observers in the south of

Froude, Mr, W.—Instruments for Measuring the England from witnessing the sight, but in Scotland, and north of
Speed of Ships and Currents (renewed) a ts0140 JO

the Midland Counties of England many uninterrupted views of
it were obtained. On the European continent and in the United
States of America, as well as in the East Indies, at the Mauritius
and in Brazil observers were equally fortunate in recording its ap=
pearance, and few great star-showers have hitherto been more
satisfactorily observed, or indeed more abundantly described. —
In an astronomical point of view the agreement of the time and
other circumstances of its appearance with the supposed path of
the lost comet is so exact as to prove that the calculations made
by astronomers of that comet’s orbit cannot be affected by an
errors of a large sensible amount, and a proof almost certain. S
thus obtained that the disappearance of the comet is owing to no
unexplained disturbances of its path; but that like some former
comets of variable brightness, it has not improbably faded for a
time out of view, and that at a future time a reasonable ex: f
tion may be entertained of re-discovering it pursuing its original |
path in repeated visits to the earth’s neighbourhood, and to the
field of-telescopic observation. ; nq
Only partial views of the ordinary periodical meteor showers
of December, January, and April last were obtained, of which
some descriptions are contained in the Report. |
Reductions of the scattered meteor-observations on ordinary |
nights of the year are an important subject of the Committee’s
inquiries, which haye been kept in view in their operations of the —
past year. Captain Tupman having obligingly placed a list of
nearly 6,000 such observations (made by himself) at their dis-
posal, the greater part of which he has reduced to their most -
conspicuous radiant points, the present purpose of the Committee
is most effectually obtained by the publication of the yaluable
meteor list which has thus unexpectedly come into their posses-
sion; and a graphic projection of the radiant points has been
prepared, which will be printed as an illustration of the copious —
information that will be gathered by observers from the contents
of Captain Tupman’s list. The catalogue will be distributed this
year to observers interested in the research; and to enable suit-
able lithographic charts to be added to it, it is hoped that the
members of the British Association will assist the Committee 2
with such liberal communications of their observations as they
have hitherto abundantly supplied, — ‘

Note on a Natnral Limit to the Sharpness of the Spectral Lines,
by Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. j

In the explanation usually given of the broadening of the —
fixed lines with increased pressure, it appears to beassumed that —
their finite width depends on the disturbance produced by the
mutual influence of the colliding molecules. I desire to point
out that evenif each individual molecule were allowed to execute
its vibrations with perfect regularity, the resulting spectral line

1,495 0 oO
Widow of the late Mr. Askham (Clerk! to the
Association) Seu ePaxe ar emma 1 50\"0, vO

41,545 0 0
SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS

SECTION A.—MaArTuxMatics

Report of the Luminous Meteor Committee of the British Asso-
ciation on Observations of Shooting-stars in 1872-7 3.

Shooting-stars and large fireballs have appeared during the
past year in more than usual varieties. Large meteors have pre-
sented themselves in considerable numbers, and ordinary shoot-
ing-stars in a more striking manner as regards the explanation of
their origin than has often been the case in former years, Of
all these kinds of shooting-stars, both large meteors and
meteoric showers, much accurate information has reached
the committee ; but the extent of the knowledge acquired
on all hands, has at the same time advanced so rapidly,
that a smaller amount of attention has this year been di-
rected towards the discussion of the individual descriptions,
than the committee have hitherto bestowed upon them, and
a more complete reduction of the separate observations will
accordingly be attempted when the opportunities of the com-
mitice allow of their closer examination.

Those meteors, however, which have been observed simultane-
ously at more than one observing station have been selected from
the collection for transcription in suitable columns in this
report, and a list of large meteors is added, among which some
have occuried that have without doubt been noticed, and
may have attiacted attention in other directions, than has
hitherto come to the knowledge of the committee. Two of
the largest fire-balls seen in Great Britain were aérolitic, or
burst with the sound of a violent explosion on November 3
and February 3 last. The first passed over the central
part of Scotland, and the second burst oyer Manchester
and its neighbourhood at half-past five, and at 10 o’clock respec-
tively on the evenings of those days. Aérolitic meteors and
acrolites have also been noticed in the scientific journals of other
countries, which have given rise to experiments on the compo-
sition of aérolitic substances, both chemical and micro-
scopical, the conclusions of which continue to extend the
range of our speculations regarding the origin of these
bodies. Thus the existence of carbon and hydrogen in
the atmosphere from which the largest iron meteorite yet
fcund (a few years since upon the shores of Greenland) was

ia :

Oct. 2, 1873 | :

of the molecules in the line of sight. If there is any
truth at all in the kinetic theory of gases, the molecules of
sodium, or whatever the substance may be, are moving in all
directions indifferently, and with velocities whose magnitudes
_ cluster about a certain mean. The law of distribution of velo-
_ Cities is probably the same as that with which we are familiar in
__ the theory of errors, according to which the number of molecules
affected with a given velocity increases, the nearer that velocity
is to the mean.

___ By the principles of this theory of gases the mean square of the
velocity of the molecules can be deduced from the known pres-
sure and mass. If wv denote the velocity whose square is equal
to the mean, it is found that for air at the freezing-point, v = 485
metres per second.

At the temperature of flame, the velocity may be about three
times greater. For the purposes of a rough estimate it will be
accurate enough to take the mean velocity of the molecules at
1,500 metres per second, and that of light at 300,000,000
metres per second. The wave-length of the light emitted by a
molecule moving with the mean velocity from the eye will therefore
be ter by about five millionths than if the molecule were
atrest. The double of this will be a moderate estimate of the
width.of the spectral line, as determined by the cause under con-
sideration. We may conclude that however rare the gas, and
however perfect our instrument may be, a fixed line cannot be
reduced to within narrower limits than about a hundredth part of
_ theinterval between the sodium lines. I must leave it to spectro-

_ scopists more practised and skilful than myself to say whether

this result is in agreement with the appearance of the spectrum,

SECTION B.—CuHEMISTRY

The report of the Committee appointed to examine the
Methods of making Gold Assays and stating the Results thereof,
was read by Mr. W. C. Roberts.

The report stated that although the amount of alloy in gold
could be ascertained to within a maximum error of o’o! per cent.,
or one ten-thousandth part, yet there was an amount of differ-
ence between the results obtained by different assayers which
required an explanation. The committee considered that the
difference between different assayers was too great to be ac-
counted for by the ordinary causes of error in analysis, and they
had therefore come to the conclusion that the nominally assayed
gold must have contained some impurity which had escaped the
assaying process. The committee had precipitated eighty ounces
of gold from no less than a hundred gallons of chloride of gold,
and they suggested that the gold thus ohtained might be used
as a standard with which the gold assayed by different assayers
might be compared.

Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., and Mr. F. W. Fison,
F.C.S., explained a Continuous Process sor Furifying Coal Gas
and oblaining Sulphur and Ammonium Sulphate.

Mr. Vernon Harcourt said that the usual method of freeing
coal gas from sulphuretted hydrogen was by passing it through
lime. But oxide of iron was also employed in place of the lime,
the advantage possessed by the oxide being that whilst the lime,
after it had served its purpose, was useless and difficult to get rid
of, the oxide of iron could be used repeatedly for the same purpose.
The chemical changes involved were, that when the gas had
passed through the oxide the latter was changed into sulphide of
iron ; when the sulphide was exposed to the air, the sulphur
separated and the oxide was re-formed, thus enabling the oxide
to be again used. This was called a continuous process, because
the oxide could be continuously used. But the process was not
quite continuous, for after the oxide had been used some thirty
times, it became so clogged with sulphur as to be useless. The
advantage of the process he was about to describe was that the
oxide could be used over and over ad infinitum ; and, besides,
the ammonia was secured in a marketable form. The present
method of freeing gas from ammonia by “‘ scrubbing,” or passing
it through a large receiver containing a small quantity of water
spread over a large surface, had one or two defects. It did not
secure the ammonia in a good form, and it probably diminished
the illuminating power of the gas, for olefiant gas was soluble in
water. The new process was applicable wherever oxide of iron
could be used in the purifying process. The difference from
the old process was that the oxide during revivification was
moistened with a solution of ferric sulphate (per sulphate of iron),

NATURE

: I
would still have a finite width, in consequence of the motion

a Mee eee a

< aSe

475,

and a portion of the oxide was removed from time to time, and
treated as follows :—It was first extracted with water by the use
of a well-known arrangement. The soluble salts were sulphate
of ammonia—formed in the purification by the reaction of am-
monia upon ferric sulphate—and, in smaller quantities, sulpho-
cyanide, hypo-sulphite, and probably sulphate of ammonia.
This extract was mixed with a small excess of sulphuric acid ;
and yielded when concentrated by evaporation, crystals of am-
monium sulphate. The remainder of the substance was then
boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, which dissolved the oxide and
left a residue of sulphur. The actual process of extraction by
acid consisted in treating the substance successively with (1) a
solution of ferric sulphate containing some free sulphuric acid ;
(2) with a more dilute solution of ferric sulphate to which
sulphuric acid had been added ; (3 and 4) with more dilute
solutions of ferric sulphate—all these liquids being the product
of a former extraction—and (5) with water. The liquid resulting
from the first of the treatments enumerated above was a strong
solution of ferric sulphate, which was used as already mentioned,
by being mixed with the charge of oxide before it was replaced
in the purifier. The residue of the final washing consisted
almost entirely of sulphur, and required only to be dried. It
would be evident that all the oxide which had been freed from
sulphate of ammonia and sulphur by this treatment passed into
the condition of ferric sulphate, and in this condition it was
replaced in the purifier. There it again became oxide by the
action upon it of the ammonia in the gas, which it completely
removed, fixing it as sulphate. This system had been brought
into use as a manufacturing process, and had been found to be, as
far as could be judged, a complete success.

Mr. Fison explained at length the apparatus by which the pro-
cess was carried into effect.

Mr. J. Spiller, F.C.S., gave a short communication on 4rfi=
ficial Magnetite, the object of which was, first, to point out an
error in the statement of a chemical reaction occurring in several
standard works of reference ; and, in the second place, to indi-
cate the formation of crystallised magnetic oxide of iron (mag-
netite) in the ordinary process of manufacturing aniline from
nitro-benzol by the reducing action of metallic iron. Reference
was made to ‘‘ Reimann’s Aniline and its Derivatives,” and to
Wagner’s ‘‘Chemical Technology,” where the action of iron upon
nitrobenzol in the presence of acid (Béchamp’s process) is stated
to give ferric oxide, or a ‘‘ hydrated oxide of iron.” The author
pointed to the fact that the ordinary residual product in this
operation was é/ack, and could be so far purified by washing and
eJutriation from the excess of iron, usually remaining in ad-
mixture, as to give a fine black pigment, which appeared under
the microscope as minute octohedra, and was strongly magnetic.
Chemical analysis showed this to consist almost entirely of mag-
netic oxide of iron, with such impurities as were inherent to the
process, or previously existed in the cast iron. The physical
properties of this form of oxide were further described, and its
analogy to the native varieties of magnetic ore (Commish and’
Dannemora) shown,

Mr. W. C, Roberts exhibited some specimens of artificial
horn silver which he had formed by mixing strong solutions of
silver nitrate and common salt.

Prof. Schafarick, of Prague, read a paper Ox the Constitution of
Silicates, in which he developed his views as to the manner in
which certain members of this class of bodies might be graphically
represented.—Prof. Crum Brown, whilst complimenting the
author on the importance of the step taken, pointed out that we
should guard against confusing graphic formulz, as applied to
minerals, with those applied to organic substances, because they
do not represent the same kind of knowledge. Structural for-
mulze in organic substances represented reactions, and not merely
composition ; in the case of minerals we had as yet no method
of following their reactions.

Prof. Crum Brown then read a paper On the Action of Sul-
phide of Methyl on Bromacetic Acid. We said bromacetic acid
dissolved readily in sulphide of methyl. The solution soon be-
came warm and separated into two layers, the lower of which
solidified into a white crystalline mass. The crystals were easily
purified by washing with absolute alcohol, in which they were
very sparingly soluble. Analysis had given a result for this
compound which showed it to be a compound of one molecule of
bromacetic acid, and one ofsulphide of methyl. The compound
was obviously analogous to hydrobromate of betain.

Mr, Jesse Lovett described an improved gas-burner,

476 | NATURE

simply a modification of Wallace’s gas-burner, The improve-
ment consisted in a simple mechanism whereby the air and gas
could be shut off by one movement.

SECTION C.—GroLocy

Second Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts
of the Norih-western Highlands, by W. Jolly.

During the past year search has been made at various points
along the great limestone strike of the North-western Highlands,
but, with the exception of the Durness basin, from which the
fossils already collected have been alone obtained, none have
been found at any new locality. It is most Gesirable that con-
tinued search should be made for fossils, and to determine if the
fossiliferous Durners limestone be the same as that in the line of
strike from Eribol to Skye.

Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, by Dr. J. Bryce, F.G.S.

Last year a report on this subject was read at Brighton,
stating that there had been but little to record during the year
then reported on; but whilst the Association was sitting a shock
occurred in the Comrie district, an account of which is given in
the report now presented. The earthquake occurred on Aug. 8.
1872, at from 8m. to 1om. past 4 o’clock in the afternoon. The
successive phases, according to almost all the observers, were :—
a noise or sound, loud, heavy, and rumbling ; a shock with a
shaking and rattling of objects ; and a wave-like motion of the
ground. ‘The undulations appear to have come from the W.
or N.W.; according to some observers, from the opposite
direction ; but these probably did not distinguish between the
first impulse and the recoil.

The extent of country through which the shock was felt is
greater than that of any which has occurred since this in-
quiry was undertaken. The limits are marked by Stirling and
Blair Logie on the S.E., and by St, Fillans on Loch Earn, and
Glen Lednock on the N.W. “The shock was feebler at their
limits than in the country between, as about the Bridge of Allan,
Dunblane, &c, The breadth of the disturbed area does not
appear to have extended more than two or three miles from the
Allan Water ; the shock seems to have emanated near Comrie.
The geological formations of the district are very various in
character, and it does not appear that any connection can be
traced between the nature of the rock forming the surface and
the severity of the shock.

Another shock, which occurred at 9.55 P.M. on April 16,
1873, is briefly described. This was in the South of Scotland,
in the parishes of Tyrone, Glencairn, and others adjacent. Ac-
cording to one observer, there was another shock in this district
at 2.46 A.M. on the following morning.

Report of the Committee for Exploring the Settle Cave, by
W, Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

This cave is of great interest, and is heing explored by a local
committee, aided by a grant from the Brilish Association. In
the newest layers there is evidence of human occupation during
the historic period ; but in the older cave earth, which contains
the remains of extinct mammalia, no trace of man has yet been
discovered. The exact age of the cave earth is a matter of dis-
pute, Mr, Tiddeman, from the physical evidence alone, re-
gards it as pre-glacial, or rather as older than the great ice-
sheet of that district. Mr. Dawkins, whilst doubting the
physical evidence afforded by the cave alone, is inclined to
regard the fauna as pre-glacial, and he remarks :—It is
obvious that the hyenas, bears, mammoths, and other creatures
found ia the pleistocene stratum could not have occupied the dis-
trict when it was covered by ice ; and had they lived soon after
the retreat of the ice-sheet, their remains would occur in the
river-gravels, from which they are absent throughout a
large area to the north of a line drawn between Chester and
York, whilst they occur abundantly in the first glacial river de-
posits south of that line. On the other hand, they belong toa
fauna, that overran Europe, and must have occupied this very
region, before the glacial period. It may, therefore, reasonably
be concluded that they occupied the cave in pre-glacial times,
and that the stratum in which their remains lie buried, was pro»
tected from the grinding of the ice-sheet, which destroyed nearly
all the suface accumulations in the river-valleys, by the walls
and roof of rock, which has since, to a great extent, weathered
away,

. en of the Boulder Committee, by.Rev. H. W. Crosskey,

a.

1 eS
[ Oct. 2, 1873
This committee was appointed at the Brighton meeting t
collect and tabulate information upon the distribution of errati
blocks throughout England and Wales. Good work has alread
been done in Scotland by a committee formed for a simil
purpose, It is evident that some steps should at once be ta
to record the existence of remarkable blocks, and if possible
take some steps to ensure their preservation. ,
The report, which is necessarily chiefly preliminary, describe
the distribution of boulders around Charnwood Forest, an
refers to the existence of Charnwood Forest boulders in Shrop
shire. It also contains a notice, by Mr, Pengelly, of a larg
granite boulder below the raised beach in Barnstaple Bay. At
account is given of the place adopted by the Geological Sectio
of the Birmingham Natural History Society for mapping th
boulders of their district, 2 plan so effective that we reproduc
the paragraph referring to it in the hopes that other districts }
follow the good example here set. ‘The Ordnance map of
neighbourhood of Birmingham has, in the first place,
divided by ruled lines with squares of one inch wide,
square enclosing a representation of one square mile of ‘
Enlarged maps, on the scale of six inches to the mile,
prepared from this. On these enlarged maps the boulders”
to be marked by circles, the number of concentric circles r
senting the diameter ofone boulder in feet. For collecting t
mens of the rocks of which the boulders are composed, bags
were made and numbered, corresponding to each square on
map. At the same time notes were to be made of any specim
that was of unusual interest. Finally it was proposed to rep
sent, on a duplicate map, the number of boulders and
character of the rocks by discs of colour, so that a graphic r
sentation of the boulders as to position, numbers, and kind
rock, would be given, and the source of any class of boulders,
granite eg., could be readily traced. It was further proposed
make a rough relief map of the district, so as to judge in wi
way the configuration of the country had affected the distributi
of the boulders. i

On the Whin Sill of Northumberland, by W. Topley, F.G.S.,
and G, A. Lebour, F.G.S. 3
This paper, the result of work by the authors during the pro-
gress of the Geological Survey, was laid before the section |
permission of the Director-General of the Survey. f
The basaltic rocks of the North of England occur in t
forms, either as dykes cutting vertically through the rocks, or
deds lying amongst them. ‘The intrusive character of the dy]
is undisputed, but there is much uncertainty prevailing as to th
character of the beds of basalt. The authors endeavoured
show that it too is intrusive, and has been forced in a melted
state through the rocks long after their deposition and parti
consolidation. ;
The Whin Sill is best known in Teesdale and along the face o
the great Pennine escarpment. This district was only b i
alluded to, partly because it has already been often described,
especially by Professors Sedgwick and Phillips, but also becaus
the intrusive character of the rock is less evident there than in
Northumberland. ag
An account of the literature of the subject was then ran and
a MS. section of the Northumberland coast, made in 1822, by Sir
Walter C. Trevelyan, Bart., was exhibited. Although the Whin
Sill of more southern districts had been mentioned by earlier
writers, it was not till the publication of Sir Walter Trevelyan’s
paper in the Wernerian Transactions for 1823, that attention
was drawn to the intrusive character of the rock, ~~
The Whin Sill is a true basalt, and does not differ in appear-
ance or composition from the whin dykes of the district. In
Teesdale it is very uniform in its position amongst the sedimentary
strata ; for this reason, and because it generally alters but slightly,
if at all, the rocks above, Prof. Phillips, and most geologists who
have given most attention to the Teesdale district, believe the
whin to be of the same date as the beds amongst which tit
lies. :
The object of the paper was to show that through Northum-
berland the Whin Sill is not so constant in position, that it fre-
quently very greatly alters the beds above it as well as those
below, and that, in numerous instances, it can be shown to cut
through the strata in a manner that would be impossible with a _
contemporaneous bed, It also varies in position to an extent of
more than 1000 feet, and often comes up, not in true beds, but —
in bosses,
Nothing can be certainly known as to the age of this Whin
Sill. That it is later than the beds with which it is associated is

i

to

cextatr, bit many considerations*lead to the inference that/it may
not be later than the latter part of the carboniferous period.

rae "SECTION D.—Brotocy.
De: ; DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

_ The Localisation of the Functions in the Brain, by Professor
‘Ferrier.

All are agreed that it is with the brain that we feel, and think
and will, but whether there are certain parts of the brain devoted
‘to particular manifestations is a subject on which we have only
imperfect speculations or data_too insufficient for the form-
ation of a scientific opinion. The general view is that the brain
as a whole subserves mental operations, and that there are no
eh specially devoted to any particular functions. This has

n recently expressed by so high an authority as Professor
Séquard. The idea rests chiefly on the numerous facts of dis-
ease with which we are acquainted. There are cases where
extensive tracts of brain are destroyed by disease, or removed
after a fracture, apparently with no result as regards the mind of
the individual. Along with these facts we have others which
are yery curious, and which hardly seem to agree with this doc-
trine. One of these is that when a certain part of the brain is
diseased, in Aphasia, the individual is unable to express himself
jn words. Other curious phenomena have been well described
by Dr. Hughlings Jackson, viz., that certain tumours or patho-
logical lesions in particular parts of the brain give rise, by the
ifritation which they keep up, to epileptiform convulsions of the
whole of one side, or of the arm or leg or the muscles of the
face; and from studying the way in which these convulsions
show themselves he was able to localise very accurately the seat
of the lesion. ~ ~
_ The great difficulty in the study of the function of the brain
has been in the want of a proper method. When we study the
function of a nerve, we make our experiments in two ways. In
the first place, we irritate the nerve by scratching or by elec-
tricity, or by chemical action, and observe the effect ; and in the
second place; we cut the nerve, and observe what is lost. In
regard to the brain and nervous system, the method has been
almost entirely, until recently, the method of section. It has
been stated by physiologists that it is impossible to excite the
brain into action by any stimulus that may be applied to it, even
that of an electric current ; they have, therefore, adopted the
‘method of destroying parts of the brain. This method is liable
to many fallacies. The brain is such a complex organ that to
destroy one part is necessarily to destroy many other parts, and
the phenomena are so complex that one cannot attribute their
loss to the failure only of the parts which the physiologists have
attempted to destroy.

About three years ago, two German physiologists, Fritsch and
Hitzig, by passing galvanic currents through parts of the brains
of dogs, obtained various movements of the limbs, such as ad-
duction, flexion, and extension. They thus discovered an impor-
tant method of research, but they did not pursue their experi-
ments to the extent that they might have done, and perhaps did
not exactly appreciate the significance of the facts at which they
had arrived.

I was led to the experiments which I shall have to explain by
the effects of epilepsy and of chorea, which have been explained
to depend upon irritation of parts of the brain. I endeavoured
to imitate the effects of disease on the lower animals, and deter-
mined to adopt the plan of stimulating the parts of the brain by
electricity, after the manner described by Fritsch and Hitzig.

I operated on nearly a hundred animals of all classes—fish,
frogs, fowls, pigeons, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, cats, dogs,
jackalls, and monkeys. The plan was to remove the skull, and
sa the animal in a state of comparative insensibility by chloro-
form, So little was the operation felt that I have known a
monkey, with one side of the skull removed, awake out of the
state induced by the chloroform, and proceed to catch fleas or
eat bread and butter, When the animal was exhausted I some-
times gave it a little refreshment, which it took in the midst of
the experiments.

First, as to the experiments on cats, I found that on applying
the electrode to a portion of the superior external convolution
the animal lifted its shoulder and paw (on the opposite side to
that stimulated) as if about to walk forward ; stimulating other
parts of the same convolution, it brought the paw suddenly back,
or os out its foot as if to grasp something, or brought forward
its

ind leg as if about to walk, or held back its head as if

NATURE

ayy

astonished, or turned it on oné side as if looking at something,
according to the particular part stimulated. The actions pro-
duced by stimulating the various parts of the middle external
convoltition were a drawing up of the side of the face, a back-
ward movement of the whiskers, a turning of the head, and a
contraction of the pupil respectively. A similar treatment of
the lower external convolution produced certain movements of
the angles of the mouth ; the animal opened the mouth widely,
moved its tongue, and uttered loud cries, or mewed in a lively
way, sometimes starting up and lashing its tail as if in a furious
rage. The stimulation of one part of this convolution caused
the animal to screw up its nostrils on the same side ; and, curi-
ously enough, it is that part which gives off a nerve te the nostril
of the same side.

Results much of the same {character were produced by the
stimulation of the corresponding or homologous parts of the
rat, the rabbit, and the monkey. Acting upon the anterior
part of the ascending frontal convolution the monkey was
made to put forward its hand as if about to grasp.
Stimulation of other portions acted upon the biceps, and
produced a flexing of the forearm, or upon the zygomatic
muscles. The part that appeared to be connected with the
opening fof the mouth and the moyement of the tongue was
homologous with the part affected in man in cases of aphasia.
Stimulation of the middle temporo-sphenoidal convolution pro-
duced no results ; but the lower temporo-sphenoidal, when acted
upon, caused the monkey to shut its nostrils. No result was
obtained in connection with the occipital lobes.

These experiments have an important bearing upon the diag-
nosis in certain kinds of cerebral disease, and the exact localisa-
tion of the parts affected. I was able to produce epileptic
convulsions of all kinds in the animals experimented upon, as
well as phenomena resembling those of chorea or St. Vitus’s
dance. The experiments are also important anatomically, as in-
dicating points of great significance in reference to the homology
of the brain in lower animals and in man, and likewise served to
explain some curious forms of expression common to man and
the lower animals, The common tendency, when any strong
exertion is made with the right hand, to retract the angle of the
mouth and open the mouth on the same side, had been stated by
Oken, in his Matur-geschichte, to be due to the homology be-
tween the upper limbs and the upper jaw ; the true explanation
being that the moyements of the fist and of the mouth are in
such close relation to each other that when one is made to act
powerfully the impression diffuses itself to the neighbouring part
of the brain and the two act together.

The experiments have likewise a physiological significance,
There is reason to believe that when the different parts of the
brain are stimulated, ideas are excited in the animals experi-
mented upon, but it is difficult to say what theideasare. There
is, no doubt, 2 close relation between certain muscular move-
ments and certain ideas which may prove capable of explanation.
This is supported by the phenomena of epileptic insanity. The
most important guide on the psychological aspect of the question
is the disease known as Aphasia, The part of the brain which
is the seat ot the memory of words is that which governs the
movements of the mouth and the tongue. In Aphasia the
disease is generally on the left side of the brain, in the posterior
part of the inferior frontal convolution, and it is generally
associated with paralysis of the right hand, and the reason might
be supposed to be that the part of the brain affected is nearly
related to the part governing the movements of the right hand,

It is essential to remember that the movements of the mouth
are governed bi-laterally from each hemisphere. The brain is
symmetrical, and I hold it to bea mistake to suppose that the
faculty of speech is localised on the left side of the brain. The
reason why an individual loses his speech when the left side of *
the brain is diseased is simply this. Most persons are right-
handed, and therefore left-brained, the left side of the brain
governing the right side of the body, Men naturally seize a
thing with the right hand, they naturally therefore use rather the
left side of the brain than the right, and when there is disease,
there the individual feels like one who has suddenly lost the use
of his right arm.

I may, finally, briefly allude to the results of stimulating the
different'ganglia. Stimulation of the corpora striata causes. the
limbs to be flexed ; the optic thalami produces no result: the
corpora quadrigemina produce, when the anterior tubercles are
acted upon, an intense dilatation of the pupil, and a tendency to
draw back the head and extend the limbs as in opisthotonos ;

478

NATURE

while the stimulation ofthe posterior tubercles leads to the pro-
duction of all kinds of noises. By stimulating the cerebellum
varios movements of the eye-balls are produced.

-In the discussion which ensued Dr. Geo. Harley alluded to
the effect of mental emotion on the bodily functions, and the
possibility of producing disease by simply acting on the nervous
system. Referring to phrenology, he said it was one thing to
localise function in the interior of the brain, and quite another
to specify functions by manipulating the external cranium ; and
he quoted a saying of Flourens with reference to phrenology :
“Les hommes qui Ja pratiquent sont des charlatans, et les
hommes qui la croient sont des imbeciles.”

Dr. Carpenter remarked that the great work of the brain is
done in the cortical substance, and in Dr. Ferrier’s experiments
the first effect of the stimulus is upon that particular substance,
producing an intensification of the circulation through it; being
in that respect different from the ordinary stimulation of a nerve
which acts upon the fibrous substance of the medullary matter of
the brain. He had long since expressed his disbelief in phreno-
logy, which maintained that the animal functions were placed at
the back of the head, and the intellectual at the front. Dr,
Ferrier’s experiments tended to show that the real seat of
the intellectual functions was in the posterior part of the

rain,

Dr. Brunton, however, alluded to the faculty of will and of
self-restraint as distinguishing man from the lower animals, and
said that this was probably situated in the anferior part of the
brain. It was noticeable that criminals, who were deficient in
that faculty, possessed only a small portion of brain in front of
the head.

Prof. Burdon Sanderson said that the stimulus in Dr. Ferrier’s
experiments was, contrary to Dr. Carpenter’s supposition, exactly
like the ordinary excitation of a nerve, and that the effect was
produced in an extremely short space of time.

Note on Huisinga’s Experiments on Abiogenesis, by Dr. Burdon-
Sanderson,

Under the title of a “ Contribution to the Question of
Abiogenesis,” Prof. Huizinga has very recently published
(Pfliiger’s Archiv. vol. vii. p. 549) a series of experiments which
deserve notice as constituting a new and carefully worked out
attempt to support the doctrine of spontaneous generation.

Prof. Huizinga begins his paper with the words J/uéta venas-
¢entur que jam cecidere, using them as an expression of the recur-
ring nature of this question. He then proceeds to say that he was
induced to undertake his inquiry by the publication of the well-
known work of Dr, Bastian (whom he compliments as having
awakened the exhausted interest of physiologists in the subject),
his special object being to repeat the much-discussed turnip-
cheese experiment.

Everyone knows what Dr. Bastian’s observation is. It is
simply this, viz. that if a glass flask is charged with a slightly
alkaline infusion of turnip of sp. g. 1015, to which a trace of
cheese has been added, and is then subjected to ebullition for ten
minutes and closed hermetically while boiling, and finally kept
at fermentation temperature, Bacteria develop in it in the course
of a few days, This experiment has been repeated by Huizinga
with great care, and the accuracy of Dr. Bastian’s statement of
fact confirmed by him in every particular ; yet notwithstanding
this he thinks the evidenee afforded by these results in support
of the doctrine so inadequate, that he, desiring to find such
evidence, has thought it necessary to repeat the experiment
under what he regards as conditions of greater exactitude.

Huizinga’s objections to Bastian’s experiment are two. First,
that when a flask is boiled and closed hermetically in ebullition,
its contents are almost entirely deprived of air, and (2) that cheese
is a substance of mixed and uncertain composition. To obviate
the first of these objections, he closes his flasks, after ten minutes
boiling, not by hermetically sealing them, but by placing over
the mouth of each, while in ebullition, a porous porcelain plate
which has just been removed from the flame of a Bunsen’s lamp.
The hot porcelain plate is made to adhere to the edge or lip of
the flask by a layer of asphalt with which the edge has been
previously covered. The purpose of this arrangement is to
allow air to enter the flask, at the same time that all germinal
matter is excluded. It is not necessary to discuss whether this
is so or not.

To obviate the secord objection he alters the composition of
the liquid used: he substitutes for cheese, peptone, and for
turnip infusion, a solution containing in a litre of distilled
water ;—

Grapesugar .. ,

+ ie vs « « ® 25 grammes
Potassium nitrate, 7.,7. sewn ure <4
Magnesium sulphate. . . . . .. 2
Calcium phosphate. . =)... 40%

The phosphate is prepared by precipitating a solution of cal-
cium chloride with ordinary sodiuth phosphate, taking care that
the chloride is in excess. The precipitate of neutral phosphate
so obtained is washed and then added to the saline solution in
the proportion given. On boiling it is converted into soluble
acid phosphate, and insoluble basic salt, of which the latter is
removed by infiltration. Consequently the proportion of phos-
phate in solution is less than that above indicated,

To the filtrate, peptone is added in the proportion of o°4 per
cent.

The peptone is obtained by digesting egg-albumen at the tem-
perature of the body in artificial gastric juice made by adding
the proper quantity of glycerin extract of pepsin to water acidu-
lated with hydrochloric acid. The liquid so obtained is first
rendered alkaline by the addition of liquor sode, then’slightly
acidulated with acetic acid and boiled. The syntonin thus
precipitated is separated by infiltration from the clear jliquid, ~
which is then evaporated to a syrup and poured in a thin stream
into strong alcohol, with constant agitation. The precipitated
peptone is separated after some hours and washed with alcohol,
and redissolved in a small quantity of water. The solution is
again precipitated by pouring it into alcohol in the same way as
before, and the precipitate washed and dried. :

Flasks having been half filled with the liquid thus prepared
(in 1,000, 2 each of nitre and Epsom salts, a trace of phosphate
of lime, 25 parts of grape sugar, and 4 parts of peptone), each is
boiled for ten minutes, closed while boiling, with the earthenware
plate as above described, and placed as soon as it is cool in the
warm chamber at 30°C. The experiment so made ‘‘gave, without
any exception, a positive result in every case. After two or
three days the fluid was crowded with actively moving Bacterium
termo.”

The readers of NATURE are aware that in June last I published
a repetition of Dr. Bastian’s experiments with a variation not of
the liquid but of the mode of heating (see NATURE; vol. viil., p.
141). Instead of boiling the flasks for ten minutesjover the
open flame and closing them in ebullition, I boiled them, closed
them hermetically, and then placed them in a digester in which
they were subjected to ebullition under a pressure of two inches
or more of mercury. The result was negative. There was no
development of Bacteria.

Since the publication of my experiments Huizinga’s have
appeared. His result, regarded as a proof of spontaneous genera-
tion is clearly not superior to Bastian’s. The substitution of a
soluble immediate principle for an insoluble mixed product like
cheese, and the use of a definite solution of sugar and salts
are not material improvements. The question is not whether
the germinal matter of Bacteria is present, but whether it is
destroyed by the process of heating. Consequently what is
necessary is not to alter the liquid but to make the conditions of
the experiment as regards temperature as exact as possible. In ~
this respect Huizinga’s experiment is a confirmation of Bastian’s
and nothing more.

I have recently repeated it with the same modifications as
regards temperature as those employed in my repetition of the
turnip-cheese experiments. The result has been the same. In
all other respects I have [followed the method described by him
in his paper.

I have prepared the solution of salts, grape sugar, and bra

objection

in exact accordance with his directions, To obviate his
as to the absence of air, I have introduced the liquid, not into
flasks, but into strong glass tubes closed hermetically at each end
and only half filled with liquid, the remainder of the tube con«
taining air at the ordinary tension. Each of these tubes, after
having been subjected to the temperature of ebullition under two”
inches of mercury for half an hour, has been kept since Septem-
ber 10 at the temperature of fermentation (32° C.), Up to
the present time, no change whatever has taken place in the
liquid. bah
ths acontrol experiment I opened one of the tubes immediately
after boiling, and introduced a drop of distilled water. It became
opalescent in twenty-four hours. :
In conclusion let me observe that I still maintain my resolution ~
to take no side whatever in this controversy. I do not hold
that spontaneous generation is impossible. I do not regard
heterogenists as scientific heretics. All I say is, that up_to the

NATURE oe Fes

which are endowed with the property of contracting when stimu-

lated—viz., nerve and muscle—this property is associated with
the existence of voltaic currents which have definite directions
} the tissue. These currents have been the subject of very
“careful observation by physiologists. They require delicate in-
struments for their investigation, but the phenomena dependent
_ on them admit of the application of the most exact measure-
ments. The constant current which can be shown to exist in a
_ muscle is called the normal current. The most important fact with
reference to it is that it exists only so long as the muscle is alive,
_ and that it ceases during the moment that the muscle is thrown
| into action. Other characteristics of the muscle currents were
referred to, which we have not space to mention,

In certain plants said to possess the property of irritability,
contraction of certain organs on irritation occur which strikingly
_ suggest a correspondence of function between them and the
motor organs of animals. Among the most remarkable are
_ those of Drosera and some other plants belonging to the same
natural order, particularly the well-known Venus’ Flytrap

(Dionza muscipula). The Sensitive Plant, the Common Monkey
_ Flower, the Rock Cistus, afford other examples.
| ___ Strange as it may seem the question whether these contractile
i. moyements are accompanied with the same electrical changes as
' those which occur in the contraction of muscle and in the
functional excitation of nerve has never yet been investigated by

vegetable physiologists. Mr. Darwin, who for many years has
| _ devoted much attention to the animal-like functions of Dionza
_ and Drosera, kindly furnished plants for the purpose of the
"necessary experiments, which have been made by Dr. Sanderson
_ inthe laboratory of University College, London. The result
has been that the anticipations he had formed have been con-
a firmed as to the existence of voltaic currents in these parts, and

particularly in the leaf of Dionzea. By a most remarkable series
of experiments (which will be published subsequently) made with
the aid of Sir W. Thompson's galvanometer, he has shown that
' these currents are subject, in all respects in which they have been
_ as yet investigated, to the same laws as those of muscle and
nerve,

On Physiological Researches on the Nature of Cholera, by Dr.
Brunton.

Without entering into the question of the nature of cholera
poison, the writer regarded it as probable that its effects might
be counteracted in the same way as those of other poisons—by
appropriate antidotes. He supposed that if a poison could be

found having a similar action to that of cholera, an antidote to
_ the former might prove a remedy for the latter. The condition
of cholera collapse has been attributed by Parkes and Johnson
- to contraction of the vessels in the lungs, and their theory is
_ generally adopted. The writer fround that muscarin—an alkaloid
derived from a species of poisonous mushroom—caused contrac-
tion of the vessels of the lungs and some of the symptoms which
are counteracted by atropia. It therefore seems probable that
atropia might be useful in cholera, and in fact an American
practitioner has recently employed large doses of it with success.
The fact that nitrate of amyl, which also relaxes the pulmonary
vessels, is useless as a remedy in cholera, as well as the absence
of distension of the right side of the heart in cholera patients
during life, shows that Parkes and Johnson’s theory is imperfect,
and that one of the most important conditions in cholera is
active dilatation of the large veins in the interior of the body.
The condition might be relieved by digitalis. The effect of this
poison was at once observed in cholera. The rice water stools
in cholera were stated to have exactly the same composition as
the fluid secreted after the division of the intestinal nerves in
Moreau’s experiment, and the profuse secretion from the intes-
tines in cholera was therefore attributed to paralysis of some of
the intestinal nerves, Injection of Epsom salts into the intes-
tines also produced a profuse secretion, though this might be due
to irritation and not to paralysis of the nerves. This is not les-
sened in the least by atropia, and it seems therefore probable
that atropia will not prove a perfect remedy for cholera. Dr.
Brunton is still endeavouring to find a remedy which will arrest
this secretion,

a ee =

On the Movements of the Glands of Drosera, by Alfred W.
Bennett, F.L.S.

The peculiar movement of the glands which cover the margin
and the upper side of the leaf of the Sundew has often attracted
the attention of botanists. The observations were all made on
the commonest species, Drosera. rotundifolia.

It should be noted in the first place that the glands of Drosera
are in no sense hairs, z.e, cellular expansions of the epidermis
of the leaf. They have been shown by Groenland and Trécul
to be an integral part of the leaf itself, penetrated by a fibro-
vascular bundle with spiral threads (in other words by a vein or
nerve of the leaf) from one end to the other, and even furnished
with stomata on their surface. They terminate in a pellucid
knob within which is found their peculiar viscid secretion.
Under low magnifying power this secretion may be seen col-
lected ubout the knobs, and stretching in thin glutinous strings
from one to another. The secretion has probably an attraction
for flies and other small insects, as, if the plant is examined in
its native bogs scarcely a leaf will be found in which an insect
is not imprisoned, and one leaf will very often show as many
as three or four. The experiment was made of placing a very
small insect, a species of Thrips, ona leaf at that time quite
unencumbered beneath a low power of the microscope. Im-
mediately on coming into contact with the viscid secretion
it made vigorous efforts to escape, but these efforts only seemed
to entangle it all the more deeply. The contact of the insect ap-
peared to excite a stronger flow of the secretion, which soon en-
veloped the body of the animal in a dense almost transparent slime,
firmly glueing down the wings, and rendering escape hopeless.
It still, however, continued its struggles, a motion of the legs
being still clearly perceptible after the lapse of three hours.
During all this time the insect was sinking lower and lower down
among the glands towards the surface of the leaf, but only a
slight change had taken place in the position of the glands
themselves, which had slightly converged so as to imprison it
more completely. But afier the struggles of the prisoner had
ceased, a remarkable change took place in the leaf. Almost the
whole of the glands on its surface and its margin, even those re-
moved from the body of the insect by a distance of at least
double its own length, began to bend over, and point the knobs
at their extremities towards it, though it was not observed that
this was accompanied by any increased flow of the secretion from
them. The experiment was made in the evening; and by the
next morning almost every gland of the leaf was pointing to-
wards the object in the centre, forming a dense mass over it.
The sides of the leaf had also slightly curved forwards so as to
render the leaf itself more concave. The nearly allied Venus’s
Fly-trap, or Dioneza muscipula of the United States, which im-
prisons flies by a much more sudden motion of the sides
of the leaf, collapsing when irritated on the upper surface,
is said to digest and absolutely consume the insects thus en-
trapped. What becomes eventually of the prisoners of the sun-
dew, my experiments have not been carried sufficiently far to ascer~
tain. It will be seen that the most singular feature in the pheno-
mena here described is that the motion of the greater number of
the’glands did not begin till after the insect had become compara-
tively motionless ; and therefore it is very difficult to attribute it
to the excitement caused by the struggles on any ‘‘contractile
tissue” at the base of the glands, an explanation which has been
offered for the sudden and rapid motions of the stamens of
Berheris or the leaves of Mimosa. It is also quite certain that
the impinging of raindrops on the surface of the leaf causes no
similar motion, a peculiarity similar to that which Darwin
has observed in the case of the motions of tendrils and
of climbing stems. In order to determine what share
in these motions of the glands was due to the organic nature of
the substance imprisoned, and to its power of motion, the fol-
lowing experiments were also made :—A small piece of raw
meat was placed on another leaf similar to the first. No imme-
diate change was observable, and no increased flow of the se-
cretion ; but after the lapse of a few hours a perceptible inclina-
tion of the more distant glands towards the object took place.
The next morning the piece of meat was found, like the fly,
sunk down on to the surface of the leaf, with almost the whole
of the glands converging towards'it and above it in just the same
manner. The changes here were therefore perfectly of the same
kind as in the case of the fly, though apparently somewhat
slower. After the lapse of twenty-four hours the piece of mest
appeared decidedly lighter in colour ; but an accident prevented

the process of digestion being further traced. On other leayes

~~

objeciions raised by the Italian observer to the cyclonic théory
on the ground of the appearance of prominences where there
areno spots. M. Faye considered that the pores, which are |
vertical cyclones, are the cause of the circulation of the solar
hydrogen, and hence of the prominences. He also replied to some
objections relating to the direction of the circular motion in
cyclonic spots,—New researches oh the analysis and the theory —
of the pulse in normal and abnormal states, by M. Bouillaud. —
The author announced the discovery of a secondary beat in the —
pulse, which he ascribed to a contraction and expansion of the —
arteries themselves.—On choleraic dejections as agents in the
propagation of cholera, by M. Ch. Pellarin.—On the changes of —
form exhibited by Comet 1V., 1873, by MM. Rayet and André,
—On the movement of an elastic wire one end of which has a
vibratory motion, by M. E. Mercardier.—On the products of
the oxidation of meteoric irons and a comparison of them with —
the terrestrial magnetites, by M. S:an. Meunier.—Process for the —
preparation of a new aniline red, by M. E. Ferriére. The new
colour is prepared by acting on acetate of aniline with ammo- —
niacal cupric hydrate, and then saturating with sulphuric acid.
On concentration ammoniac sulphate is deposited, ani the
colour remains. It is a purple red. PB).
Sept. 22.—M. Bertrand in the chair. —On the chairman taking ©
his seat, he at once proceeded to announce the deaths of M.
Coste, of the Section of Anatomy and Zoology, and of M,
Nelaton, of the Section of Medicine and Surgery; and to ex-
press in a few words the sorrow of the Academy at the grievous
loss it had thus sustained. At the conclusion of the chairman's
remarks. M. le Baron Larrey at once proposed that, to marl: its
sense of the double loss, the Academy should not hear any
papers at the meeting, and that the correspondence only should
appear in the Comfles Rendus. The following papers were ac- —
cordingly printed :—Thermic researches on the condensation of —
gases by solids—continuation : absorption of hydrogen by pla- —
tinum-black, by M. P. A. Favre.—Certain observations on the
winged form of the PAylloxera vastatrix in connection with the
propagation of the insect, by M. Max. Cornu.—On the proper
time for the application of the submersion treatment to vines —
tainted by Phylloxera, by M. L. Faucon.—On the proportion of
carbonic anhydride in atmospheric air, and on its variation with |
the altitude, byM. P. Truchot. The author finds that the quantity —
of this gas diminishes as the altitude increases. —On coralline, by
M. Commaille.—Note on a meteorite with a phosphorescent —
train seen on the night of September 28, 1873, by M. Chapelas, —
—The second part of M. Mercadier’s note on the movement o
an elastic wire, one end of which is endued with a vibratory
motion, :

were placed a minute piece of wood and a small piece of worsted :
and in neither of these cases was the least change perceptible
after the lapse of a considerable time in the position of the
object, nor ia that of any of the glands, either those in contact
with it orthe more remote ones. It wotild appear, therefore,
that the organised structure of the fly and of the piece of raw
meat had some power of exciting this motion which is not
possessed by matter of a different description.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Poggendorff’s Annalen der Phystk und Chemie, No. 6, 1873.—
This number commences with a paper by M. Seebeck, on the
motion of sound in bent and branching tubes. THe finds, among
other things, that the gradual bending of a tube has little effect
on the size of wave-length, but if a tube be suddenly bent to an
angle, the sound-motion is considerably affected ; iv would seem
that the motion of the air-particles did not suddenly alter in
direction with the tube. —A series of experiments on the electro-
motive and thermo-electric forces of some metallic alloys,
on contact with copper, is detailed by M. Sundell. The
alloys examined were bismuth-tin, bismuth antimony (in
various proportions), and German silver; the method em-
ployed in the case of electromotive force being that of Edlund,
lased on the fact, that a galvanic current, passing through an
electromotor, produces in it, proportionally to its electromotive
force, an absorption or production of heat, according as the cur-
rent is in the same direction as that of the electromotor, or con-
trary to it. The alloys, like the pure metals, have the same
order in electromotive as in thermo-electric series ; and it appears
that the proportion of thermo-electric to electromotive force is
constant, and® equal to that for the combinations iron-copper,
and copper-bismuth. Comparative experiments on various
pyrometric methods—air thermometer, expansion of solid bodies,
calorimeter, dissociation of a compound, and electrical re-ist-
ance, lead M. Weinliold to a preference for the last (or Siemens’),
as the most reliable. The calorimeter, properly used, also gives
good results. —M. Lorenz, of Copenhagen, furnisies a new de-
termination of the electrical resistance of mercury, in absolute
measure. He attributes the discordance in previous results to
the employment of induced curvents, of variable strength, and
he adopts an ingenious method in which a constant electro-
motive force without current, is applied. -The result of five
experiments is I mercury tinit = 0°9337 Olim’s unit, or the
mercury unit equal to 0°9337. 10" absolite units —Of the re-
maining papers we may note one by Kohlrausch on the electro-
chemical equivalent of silver, and mineralogical notes oh wolfram,
and on a néw mineral, ardenite.

BOOKS RECEIVED

Enc.isu.—Centrifugal Force and Gravitation: John Harris (Supplement
A.).—Half Hours with the Microscope. New Edition ee
and

Zoological Record, Vol. viii., Edited by Prof. Newton (Van Voorst),—C

ters on Trees: M. and E. Kirby (Cassell).—The Amateur Greenhouse

Conservatory: Shirley Hibberd (Groombridge).—Proceedings of the —

Literary and Philosophical Society cf Liverpool, Vol. xxvi. (Longmans).—

A Discourse on the Pursuit of Truth: A. Elley Finch (Longwauey :

RO ice eechiorce Physiographie : H. Rosenbusch (Williams’&
orgate). :

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

LONDON

Royal Horticultural Society.—General Meeting, Aug. 20,
—W. A. Lindsay, Secretary, in the chair.—The Rev. M. J.
Berkeley said Kerson’s seedling gooseberry, a fine variety which
gained a first-class certificate at the last ‘meeting, turned out to

be not a garden seedling but one originally taken from a common ; CONTENTS Pace
hedge in the neighbourhood of Peterborough. Tais was not a A Be Stupies . Ma’ By A. Ro Wackabe REG ee rs
solitary instance of a fine variety of fruit being found in such | [isiensdo rue kumeRic Ne Eee ,
places—the Bess Pool apple having been discovered in a planta- Fellowship at Magdalen College.—Prof TutseLton Dyer. » 1 464
tion at Nottingham, Mr, Berkeley then alluded to a disease of The Sphygmograph.—br. A. L. GALABIN. «4 2 + + 5 6 5 Og
the crocus very destructive to the gladiolus, and which also BOE oe a ey ttn eo ane aa
teslett ff x acer ze : On the Polarisation of Light in the Rainbow —G. Fintay. . . >
attacked the saffron crocus and the narcissus; it was first Autumnal Typhoid Epidemics —W. Marrtieu Wititams, F.C.S. 465
described by Montague under the name of 7acon. He concluded Venomous Caterpillars—C. Even ; A. GILLANDER. . . . . + 466
by remarking that vegetables treated with sewage were apt to be fieoke eS en ee Bi ae a adiow ok Pat Gegenaee 467
much deteriorated in flavour, rage H eri »
; 23) i : FUNCTIONS "0.03 woe ee 20 1.18) eS
Sept. 3.—General Meeting.—Dr. Kellock in the chair, —Ad- | Tue Fkencu AssocraTION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE . . 4 ;
verting again to the subject of Zacon in the Gladiolus, the Rev. Be AES TECRGLOCIC RL Comankss aT Mra ts ‘ dnichs Soca ae
M. J. Berkeley was inclined to attribute it to ‘ sunstroke:’—A sIRMINGHAM NaTURAL HisTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOcIETY . . 469
bunch of grapes was exhibited from the parent plant of the fae tn og ae ry “yp ee iaae mores a eo fide en BC
Hampton Court vine; it dated from 1761.—A fungus (Zentinus Nore ee ee
lepideus) was sent by Sir Gilbert S f OLECULAR EvoLuTION . Bis pin Sase gto? 4 ond oo
at Gre se y Sir Gilbert Scott, from the roof of a church Tue British Association Mgetinc At BRADFORD. . 2...
y' j Section A.—Secriciial Proceedings: ¢ * . } : 4). 2 6
Pais 6 CB 34 3 a shoe hk senak oeltee
F he ee ree a ” * » » % cena oe °)
Academy of Sciénces, Sept. 1s.—M. Bertrand in the Sai HE Sakis” ” * Syye Se eck oe eae
. The ree 2 Sh Eh Oe bn a - Ae NTI £ 0 Ses be ee Eee ee
chair, —The following papers were'read >—aednswer to Father | cc ortes awn ACADEMSEMMISTS) = lc) cence ena
a-vuitii’s last note, by M, Faye, The author replied td the | Booxs Receivap. . . . « + mre Seto a

NATURE

481

THURSDAY, OCTOBER 9, 1873

=) FOREIGN ORDERS OF MERIT

} 4 'N a recent number of NATURE (vol. viii. p. 292) we
: intimated that honours had been conferred upon
ie a large number of British men of science by the
_ Emperor of Brazil and the King of Sweden. Some of
the gentlemen to whom these Foreign Orders have been
offered have, however, thought it right to refuse acceptance
of them, mainly from loyalty to Her Majesty’s stringent
regulations respecting Foreign Orders, as issued by the
_ Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. A correspondent,
_who has himself refused to accept the Foreign Orders
alluded to in our note, has favoured us with a copy of
these regulations, and as many people are ignorant of
_ their nature, or are even unaware that any such regula-
tions exist, we shall be doing a service by giving them
' publicity in our columns. These “ Regulations respecting
_ Foreign Orders” are dated Foreign Office, May 10, 1855,
_and are as follows : —

“1, No subject of Her Majesty shall accept a Foreign
Order from the Sovereign of any foreign country, or wear
the Insignia thereof, without having previously obtained
Her Majesty’s permission to that effect, signified by a
_ Warrant under her Royal Sign-Manual.
“2. Such permission shall not be granted to any subject
_ of Her Majesty, unless the Foreign Order shall have been
conferred in consequence of active and distinguished ser-
vice before the enemy, either at sea or in the field ; or
unless he shall have been actually and entirely employed,
beyond Her Majesty’s dominions, in the service of the
Foreign Sovereign by whom the Order is conferred.

“3, The intention of a Foreign Sovereign to confer
upon a British subject the insignia of an Order must be
notified to Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs, either through the British Minister accre-
dited to the Court of such Foreign Sovereign, or through
his Minister accredited at the Court of Her Majesty.

“4. If the service for which it is proposed to confer
the Order has been performed during war, the notifica-
tion required by the preceding clause must be made not
later than two years after the exchange of the ratifications
of a Treaty of Peace.

“ Tf the service has been performed in time of peace, the
notification must be made within two years after the date
of such service.

“5. After such notification shall have been received,
Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs shall, if the case comes within the conditions pre-
scribed by the present regulations, and arises from naval
or military services before the enemy, refer it to Her
Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the War De-
partment, previously to taking Her Majesty’s pleasure
thereupon, in order to ascertain whether there be any
objection to Her Majesty’s permission being granted.

““A similar reference shall also be made to the Com-
mander-in-Chief if the application relates to an officer in
the Army, or to the Lords of the Admiralty if it relates to
an officer in the Navy.

“6, When Her Majesty’s principal Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs shall have taken the Queen’s pleasure on
any such application, and shall have obtained Her
Majesty’s permission for the person in whose favour it
has been made to accept the Foreign Order, and wear the
Insignia thereof, he shall signify the same to Her Ma-

_jesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Home Depart-
ment, in order that he may cause the warrant required by
Clause 1 to he prepared for the Royal Sign-Manual,

No. 206—VolL. vir

“When such warrant shall have been signed by the
Queen, a notification thereof shall be inserted in the
Gazette, stating the service for which the Foreign Order
has been conferred. J

“7. The warrant signifying Her Majesty’s permission
may, at the request and at the expense of the person who
has obtained it, be registered in the College of Arms.

“8. Every such warrant as aforesaid shall contain a
clause providing that Her Majesty’s licence and permis-
sion does not authorise the assumption of any style,
appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege appertaining to
a knight bachelor of Her Majesty’s realms.

“9. When a British subject has received the Royal
permission to accept a Foreign Order, he will at any
future time be allowed to accept the decoration of a
higher class of the same order, to which he may have
become eligible by increase of rank in the Foreign Ser-
vice, or in the service of his own country ; or any other
distinctive mark of honour strictly consequent upon the
acceptance of the original Order, and common to every:
person upon whom such Order is conferred.

“to, The preceding clause shall not be taken to apply
to decorations of the Guelphic Order, which were bestowed
on British subjects by Her Majesty’s predecessors King
George IV. and King William IV., on whose heads the
crowns of Great Britain and of Hanover were united,

“Decorations so bestowed cannot properly be consi-
dered as rewards granted by a Foreign Sovereign for
services rendered according to the purport of Clause 2 of
these Regulations. They must be rather considered as
personal favours bestowed on British subjects by British
Sovereigns, and as having no reference to services ren-
dered to the Foreign Crown of Hanover.”

Having given these Regulations, we may be permitted,
perhaps, to make some remarks upon them. It will be
seen that so far as scientific men, as such, are concerned,
they are positively interdicted from accepting Orders ©
offered to them by a foreign sovereign except in the
improbable case of their doing scientific work for such a
sovereign. On the face of them it is evident that they
are the product of a time when it was thought that such
rewards gained otherwise than on the field of battle might
be open to suspicion. We can well understand that there
may be reasons why diplomatists, projectors, and the like
are better without such Orders, but these reasons do not
apply to men of culture, whom a king might delight to
honour for work done for mankind at large.

It is clear, therefore, either that the triumphs of Science
and her followers were little known or were unappreciated
when these Orders were issued, or that such possible reci-
pients were purposely excluded. But are not the triumphs
achieved by scientific men over the multitudinous forces
of nature of infinitely more importance to humanity, and
far more conducive to the highest glory of any country,
than the greatest military triumphs that soldiers have ever
achieved? Indeed, to what is it supposed that the dire
art of war itself has reached its present state of compara-
tive perfection, if not to the advantage which has been
taken of the discoveries of Science? And does not the
military superiority of one nation over another depend
almost entirely on the thoroughness with which scientific
theories have been applied to army organisation and the
matériel of war ?

It seems to us unjust and cruel that men of science,
to whose labours it is mainly owing that our country and
the world generally are mounting rapidly higher and
higher in the scale of civilisation, should be practically
debarred from accepting the few honours that come in

BB

a Beate iterds » age Be URE eae ane ee cae a
482 NATURE [ Oct. 9, 1873

their way. Moreover, we should think that those who
have the framing of these Regulations ought to be proud
to think that our country produces so many men of science
whom foreign sovereigns delight to honour, and instead
of throwing obstructions in the way, should afford every
reasonable facility to those who are thus honoured to
acceptand wear the Foreign Orders which may be offered
to them. We cannot see that in any way their doing so
would endanger the safety of the country nor be dero-
gatory to the dignity and honour of our sovereign. May
we not hope, then, that these Regulations as to Foreign
Orders should not for ever remain as they are? They
certainly permit one to infer that the only glory which
those who promulgate them desire to see shed upon their
country, is the barbarous glory which can be gained by
a good fighter.

We shall be glad to receive the opinions of scientific
men on this question.

LUBBOCK’S “MONOGRAPH OF THE COL-
LEMBOLA AND THYSANURA”

Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. By Sir
John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., &c. Pp. 265. Seventy-
eight plates. (Printed for the Ray Society: 1873.)

i: lap insects which constitute the Linnean genus

Podura, though small and apparently insignificant,
present many interesting peculiarities of structure, and
still more interesting characters bearing on the great
problem of ‘the true affinities and historical evolution of
insects generally. They have, however, been compara-
tively neglected, and those who have worked at their
classification have often done so in ignorance of each
other’s labours, so that the nomenclature of the group is
confused. Sir John Lubbock has patiently investigated
the characters of the British species, and compared them
with those given by Gervais, Nicolet, Bourlet, and Tull-
berg. The genera he has been led to adopt are arranged
in a tabular form on page 39. He gives good reasons for
separating Podura, Degeeria, Sminthurus, and their allies
from Lefisma and Campodea; and, while retaining

Latreille’s name Thysanura for the latter group, proposes

for the remainder the new term “Collembola” (xéAXa,

€#BoXov), in allusion to the projection by which they attach
themselves to foreign bodies. If this be adopted, there
will be no title to designate all the insects belonging to

Latreille’s Thysanura ; but though there is some inconve-

nience in restricting the meaning of a term already in

use, the author would probably hold that the distinctions
between the two orders are too great for them to retain
with advantage a common name. The change would
then be very much like what has been made in separating
the herbivorous Cetacea of Cuvier from the rest, giving
them a new name, and retaining the old one for the re-
mainder. The relative affinities of either group to other

Arthropoda are difficult to decide on. The absence of

wings has long, and with ample reason, been discarded

by entomologists as a character of importance in classi-
fication ; the absence of tracheze, though at first sight
more important, does not apply to Smnthurus (not

Smynthurus); the mouth is unlike either the mandibu-

late or the suctorial type; and the caudal appendage

and ventral tube are too peculiar to be of service for com-

parison. On the whole, the author concludes that “ if we
represent the divisions of the Articulata like the branch-
ing of a tree, we must picture the Collembola and Thysa
nura as separate branches, though small ones, and much
more closely connected with the Insecta than with the
Crustacea and Arachnida.”* After the chapters on the
previous literature of Thysanura and their classification
and affinities, comes what to many naturalists will be the
most interesting part of the book, a discussion on the
evolution of Insects, the origin of wings, and the light
thrown on these questions by the study of the groups in
hand. It would be impossible to do justice to this chapter
in the limits of this article, and it is the less necessary
since Sir John Lubbock has lately given our readers an’
exposition of his views on this subject in the series of.
papers lately published in these columns on the Meta-
morphosis of Insects. The remainder of the work con-
sists of a general account of the anatomy of the Collem-
bola and Thysanura, in which there are numerous ex.
ceedingly valuable original observations, and a systemati
description of the characters, habitat, manners and
customs of the various genera and species at present
known, with copious synonymy. The value of the work
is further enhanced by an appendix by Mr. Joseph Bec
on the Scales of Collembola and Thysanura, illustrated by
twelve beautiful microscopic drawings, from the hand of
the late Mr. Richard Beck. Thus the various points of
interest offered by the groups treated of, to the micro-
scopist, the entomologist, and the natural philosopher,
are fully illustrated. Beside the figures, most of them —
coloured, many showing different stages of growth, which
illustrate nearly fifty of the species described in the text,
there are numerous careful outlines of anatomical details,
which supply what is too often neglected by systemati
naturalists. The tribute paid bythe author to the artist
whose intelligent skill has overcome the most grievous
obstacles, will be endorsed by all who see these beautiful
drawings. q
We congratulate the Ray Society on the production of
so excellent a work. This and the preceding volume by
Prof. Allman on the Gymnoblastic Hydroids, will main-
tain its reputation, and we trust that a society to which
we owe such works as Darwin’s “ Cirripedia,” Parker’s
“Shouldergirdle,” and Huxley’s “Oceanic Hydrozoa,”
will continue to make so good a choice of books to pub-
lish, and will be still more widely supported than it is,
Bastse

MONCKHOVEN’S “PHOTOGRAPHY”

Traité General de Photographie. Sixiéme Edition. Par
Dr. v.Monckhoven. Avec figures dans le texte et trois
planches photographiques. (Paris, 1873. Georges

Masson, Libraire-Editeur, Place de Ecole de Méde-
cine.)

See great advance made by photography as an art,
and the yearly increasing number of processes, have
made it almost an impossibility for anyone {not profes-
sionally engaged as a photographer to keep abreast of the
tide of improvement. ,
* The relation of both to the Myriopoda is expressed in a sentence
which some error of the press has rendered unintelligible. It would seem

to make the Collembola, alone, a group of equal “ value” with Myriopoda.
We may remark here that there are an unusual number of misprints,

NATURE

483

It is therefore with great pleasure that we welcome Dr.
vy. Monckhoven’s “ Traité Général,” which seems to omit
nothing in the way of recent additions to the number of
photographic processes.

The Doctor commences his book with an historical notice
of the origin of the art, in the course of which the irre-
pressible Egyptians make their appearance as having un-
pated observed the effects of light on certain bodies ;

but, unfortunately, they have not handed their experience
in the matter to posterity. The Egyptians an Greeks,
however; having been disposed of, we have sixteen pages
of really very useful historical matter, so arranged that a
short paragraph is devoted to each of the more important
processes, and which is rendered still more valuable by
‘humerous references to the original papers of the various
investigators to whom we owe the art.
_ The author then proceeds to give a sketch of the nature
of light. Perhaps in a treatise of this sort one cannot
expect a very comprehensive definition of such a subject.
‘Still, however, something more satisfactory than the fol-
lowing might have been expected .. . . “il existe néces-
sairement entre le soleil et nous, un certain mode de com-
munication dont nos yeux sont l’intermédiare ; c’est ce
mode de communication qui constitue ce que l’on appelle
Ta lumitre.”
__ We then have a sketch of the chemical action of light,
and a very good description of what a photographic
laboratory ought to be, but, we fear, very rarely is. Con-
siderable space is devoted to a description of the method
of preparing the various substances required, including
gun-cotton and collodion ; and here we may observe that
Dr. van Monckhoven makes use of the old system of
chemical equivalents obsolete in England, and very nearly
‘so onthe Continent, a proceeding which is to be regretted
in a work which is likely to remain for some time a
standard book on its subject. We have noticed that
photographers are singularly conservative on this point,
for, to the best of our belief, there is not even nowa photo-
graphic journal which makes use of the present atomic
system of notation, a system which even nine years ago
was largely used by chemists. A really admirable
chapter on photographic optics succeeds that on photo-
graphic chemistry; one soon perceives how much
the art has owed to the lenses constructed on the
formule of Dallmeyer and Steinheil, and to the credit
of English opticians we find that in the summary the
lenses of the former are stated to surpass all others.

After dealing with cameras, printing frames, studios,
and every other photographic requisite, the various pro-
cesses are dealt with at length. Here we may note that
specimens are given of two of the more recent mechanical
printing processes, the “ Woodburytype,” and “ Helio-
type.” Both are pigment methods, and so are not liable
to the slow fading inevitable to the ordinary prints con-
taining silver. Of them we can only say that while it is
difficult to imagine that any process can surpass the
former for artistic effect, the latter seems equally unsur-
passable for any purpose requiring excessively minute and
faithful reproduction of fine detail, such as is required
in copying maps, prints, or diagrams.

A specimen of what is modestly termed the “ retouche

des clichés,” is also given, but here we feel that we are
treading on dangerous ground, as a portrait of a lady is

the subject. Suffice it to say, that the ge~eral effect of
this process seems to be like that of the elixir vite, and
to make the happy patient young and handsome again.

We find considerable information also on photographic
enamelling, and on the production of enlargements, where
we observe that the heliostat and its use are described.

The work is illustrated with 280 woodcuts, executed itt
a style which is only found in foreign scientific works, and
three specimen photographs are also given: In conclusion
we must congratulate Dr. van Monckhoven on the pro-
duction of so useful a book, hoping only that the chemical
portion will be modernised and extended in future edi-
tions. Why do not some of our many amateur or pro-
fessional photographers devote some attention to the
chemical nature of their art? Of the rationale of many
of the reactions we know absolutely nothing, and of the
others our knowledge is not much greater. Such a
research would not be of theoretical value only, but would
materially aid in the attainment of that perfect application
of means to ends by which alone the best results either in
art or science can be obtained,

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Relations of the Air to the Clothes we wear, the
Houses we live in, and the Soil we dwell on. Three
popular lectures delivered before the Albert Society at
Dresden. By Dr. Max von Pettenkofer, Professor of
Hygiene at the University of Munich, &c. Abridged
and translated by Augustus Hess, M.D., Member of the
Royal College of Physicians, London, &c. (London:
Triibner and Co., 1873.)

Dr. HEss has done well in translating these lectures by so
great an authority on hygiene as Dr. Pettenkofer. Though
the author does not believe that any knowledge of real value
can be imparted by means of popular lectures, still they
serve a good purpose in the way of “ scientific edification
and elevation, which are to raise our minds and hearts
and to affect us like listening to good music.” Though
we in this country have perhaps less need to be instructed
in the rules of hygiene than the mass of people on the
Continent, still, it will be universally admitted that very
few are acquainted with the principles which underlie
healthy living, and still fewer can be at the trouble to put
them into practice. In the little volume before us, which
is well translated by Dr. Hess, the author expounds in an
interesting and yet thoroughly scientific manner, the
rationale of healthy living so far as our relations to the
air are concerned, and shows the scientific principles on
which we should choose our clothes both as to’ material
and make, and which should guide us in building our
houses. In the third lecture he speaks of the relations of
the air to the soil, or on the Ground-air, and shows how
much remains to be done before the principles of hygiene
and their practical application can reach anything like
perfection. The following extracts will give an idea of
Dr. Pettenkofer’s method of treatment :—

With regard to Clothing, the author says :—“‘ When
exposed to Zuminous heat, the materials of our clothing
do not show very great differences, but in experi-
menting on shirtings of different co/ours, the following
result was obtained :—When white absorbed 100, pale
straw colour absorbed 102, dark yellow 140, light green
155, dark green 168, Turkish red 165, light blue 198,
black 208. In the shade these differences nearly vanish.
Krieger, in experimenting on tin cylinders filled with
warm water, has found that a double tight covering by
the same material does not retard the heat loss much
more than a single one; but when the outer layer was

484

loose it retarded it very much. From this follows the
practical truth, that we can produce a very different
effect by the same number of clothes according to their
make.

“ Generally our clothing has been considered as an ap-
paratus for keeping the air from us. This conception is
utterly erroneous, and we can bear no garment which
does not allow of a continual ventilation of our surface.
Just those textures which are most permeable to the air
keep us warmest. I have examined different materials for
their permeability to air, and taking the permeability of
air passing through flannel as 1oo, linen allowed 58, silk
40, buckskin 58, chamois 51, kid 1 part of air to pass
through them. If the above-stated notion were correct,
kid would keep us I00 times, chamois warmer by half,
than flannel, and so on, while everyone knows) that it is
quite the reverse.”

With reference to Fur the author says :—“A fur
is so arranged that its fine hair projecting into the
air intercepts all the heat which flows from the surface of
the body by radiation and conduction, and distributes
this heat through the air which circulates between the
single hair-cylinders. Thus the air, however cold it may
be, reaches the nerves of our skin as a warmed air.
Furred animals in winter, when touched superficially, give
a very cold sensation ; it is only near the skin that their
hair feels warm. Ina severe cold, certainly little of our
animal heat comes as far as the points of the hair, from
which it would escape by radiation or conduction, as the
current of air in the fur cools the hair from its points
towards its roots, and a severe cold penetrates only a little
farther into the fur, without reaching the skin of the same.
This can take place only at an exceedingly low tempera-
ture, or when avery cold air is in violent motion. Ina
well-furred animal the changes of temperature in the
surrounding air only change the latitudes at the cold and
warm zones in the fur ; the place where the temperature
of the body and the air equalise each other, moves be-
tween the roots and points of the hair, and for this reason
a furred animal is not warmer in summer than in winter.
In summer its heat leaves at the points, in winter near the
roots of the hair.”

Fournal of the Proceedings and Annual Report of the
Winchester and Hampshire Scientific and Literary
Society, vol. i., part ii, 1871-2 (Winchester: Warren
and Son, 1873).

WE are glad to see from the Third Annual Report of this
Society that it continues prosperous, the number of mem-
bers being, in 1872, 105. We hope good use will be made
of the valuable herbarium of flowering plants, ferns,
lichens, &c., collected and arranged by the late Mr. Hill,
which has come into the possession of the society, through
the generosity of the Mayor, Mr. R. P. Forder, and the
President. The present part of the journal contains a
number of papers, literary and scientitic, read at various
meetings of the society. The principal one is the Intro-
ductory Address delivered at the commencement of the
third session, by the Rev. Canon Kingsley, on “ Bio-
Geology—the science which treats of the distribution of
plants and animals over the globe, and the causes of that
distribution.” The address is an eloquent one, it can
easily be imagined, shows extensive knowledge and great
shrewdness, and contains many valuable hints both to
young and old naturalists. Most of the other papers are
also by clergymen, the principal ones being the follow-
ing :—“ On the Dawn of Thought in Greece,” by the
Rev. W. Awdry ; “On the Metamorphosis of Lepidop-
tera,” by Mr. J. Pamplin; “the Planet Jupiter,” by the
Rev. E. Firmstone, in which the author gives many inte-
resting facts and speculations as to the condition of that
planet ; “‘ Vesuvius previous to and during the Eruption
of 1872,” by the Rev. C. A. Johns, in which the author
describes an ascent he made shortly before the last erup-

NATURE

[Oct. 9, 1873

tion, and appends a condensed abstract of Palmieri’s
account of the eruption. Appended to the journal is a
valuable list of 315 works on the Geology, Mineralogy,
and Palzontology of the Hampshire Basin, compiled by -
Mr, William Whitaker, of the Geological Survey.

=

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 1

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

Wyville Thomson and the Ventriculide

I Trust that you will afford me a little space fora few
remarks upon some passages in Prof. Wyville-Thomson’s book,
the ‘‘ Depths of the Sea,” which, owing to many engagements,
has only just come into myhands. So earnest a labourer in the
wide field of truth will not, I hope, deem me discourteous if I
point out one corner where his feet have slipped ; and if it be —
objected that, after all, it is only in a small spot, the learned —
Professor will, I am sure, agree with the answer that, even in
the smallest steps towards truth, attainable accuracy is im-
portant.

In 1847-48 my father published a series of papers in the
“Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” which were after-
wards collected into a volume, on the ‘‘ Ventriculidze of the
chalk, their microscopic structure, affinities, and classification.”
This work, which still remains, I believe, the authority on its
subject, introduced order and classification where before all was
confusion, expressly founding these upon two guiding principles
of anatomy, the existence of which had been proved by searching
tests. These two principles—the first being the structure, the
second the fold, of the membrane—I am careful to recall, as I
think there is considerable misapprehension regarding them.
The chief locality of these fossils was in the south and west of
England.

In his chapter on the Continuity of the Chalk, Prof. Thomson
brings forward several families of ancient fauna as palzolontolo-
gical evidence in support of his argument. Among these he
devotes some attention to the Ventriculidz (he calls them Ven-
triculites, but why? In the same sentence he uses the family
name Hexactinellide) ; but, though he acknowledges my father’s
work, and refers to his ‘‘minute and most accurate description
of their structure,” it does not appear by what follows that he
has quite comprehended it: ‘‘He (Mr, Toulmin Smith) found
them to consist of tubes of extreme tenuity, delicately meshed,
and having between them interspaces usually with very regular
cubial or octohedral forms” [‘‘ Depths,” &c., p. 482]. This de-
scription (the Professor will forgive me for saying so) does not
convey a very clear idea of any structure, and certainly does not
apply to the Ventriculide : if the word ‘‘tube” here means the
body of the creature, it may in one sense be partially true of a 9
few species in each of the genera—Ventriculites, Cephalites, and
Brachiolites ; but if it is intended to apply to the substance o
the structure, I must say that it denotes a complete error. M:
father’s words are, that ‘‘ the membrane of the Ventriculide is
composed of very delicate fibres,” ‘‘ the fibre is single and solid,
never fistular,” and that in this structure ‘‘ there are no tubes what-
ever” (pp. 21,25, 30). My father carefully describes this membrane,
and marks it as the essential characteristic of the whole family o
Ventriculidz, Among the thirty-five species, for the most pa
marked by strong differences, he points out that Ventriculii
simplex is the type of the whole family, consisting of a single
membrane without a trace of fold.

Now, Prof. Thomson gives a figure of the octohedral structure -
to which I will not take exception, but he writes underneath it,
“© Vintriculites simplex, Toulmin Smith. Section of the outer
wall, showing the structure of the silicious net-work.” This
implies, while citing my father’s name (1) that this structure is
proper to that species ; and (2) that there is an inner wall. I
also speaks of the net-work as silicious, while, two pages before,
it is said, that ‘‘ Mr. Toulmin Smith supposed that the skeleton
of the Ventriculite had been originally calcareous.” But though
mistakes of this sort might easily arise through misapprehension,
I must say I was very much astonished to see the figures, one of
the entire fossil, the other of the ‘‘outer surface,” given as
“ Ventriculites simplex, Toulmin Smith,” from Mr. Sanderson’s
collection (*‘ Depths,” &c., pp. 483, 484.) A glance at Fig.1,
on the second plate in my father’s book, will show that the name

7a

Oct. 9, 1873 |
has been misapplied to this specimen, which, as far as can be
judged from the drawing, appears to be either Ventriculites quin-
cuncialis, or one of the Cephadites, both quitedifferent in outward
appearance from the plain simg/ex. I know that it is often not

_ so easy to distinguish the species of those preserved in’ flint as of

_ those in chalk, but in this instance it is quite evident that it is

not simplex.

My object in writing the above has been to vindicaté my father’s

_ scientific accuracy, and to recall the facts he worked out. With

_ regard to another point : it is stated by Prof. Thomson that some
of the beautiful sponges discovered in the late deep-sea dredgings,
especially the Ho/tenza and its allies, and the Ventriculites, ‘‘ be-
long to the same family, in some cases to very nearly allied
genera,” or, as Dr. Carpenter puts it (‘‘Good Words,” October
1872, p. 703) :—‘‘ Here we found the type of the old Ventriculites,
which were supposed to be extinct, still living on in the deep
sea.” Much as my father would have delighted in the exquisite
beauty of these new forms (the Zuflectella he had examined in
1848), I do not think that he could have acknowledged the /o/-
tenia as belonging to the ancient Ventriculide ; nor, if the use of
the word ‘‘type” depend for its force upon the character of
structure, can it be truly said to be a type of that family. True,
it possesses a silicious skeleton, but so does the Euplectella ; and
neither from Prof. Thomson’s description (“‘ Depths,” pp. 70-72),
nor my own examination, can I discover in the Holtenia any
trace of or resemblance to the delicate structure and folded
membrane of the Ventriculide. With great deference, therefore,
to the opinion of these investigators (if I am wrong I will gladly
learn), it appears to me that the modern type of the old Ventri-
culite is yet to be found.

I will add that the series of specimens figured in my father’s
book is in the Britith Museum, open to examination by students,
together with a large portion of hi collection of the Ventri-
culidze.

Highgate, Sept. 27

Lucy TouLMIN SMITH

**Deidamia”

IT NOTICE in Prof. Wyville Thomson’s extremely interesting
papers the name Deidamia v. Willemoes-Suhm, used for a crus-
tacean genus. This name must be changed, inasmuch as it is
preoccupied in Articulata by Dr. Clemens in 1859. Dr. Clemens
has used the title for a valid genus of North American Sphingide.
I propose, therefore, for the genus in Crustacea, the name W7l/e-
moesia, in honour of its discoverer, with the two species /epiodactyla
and crucifer, the former the type.

Auc. R. GROTE,
Curator of Articulata, B.S.N.S.

Buffalo, U. S., Sept. 15.

Dr. Sanderson’s Experiments and Archebiosis

In a communication made to the British Association during its
recent meeting at Bradford, Dr. Sanderson criticises the experi-
ments of Prof. Huizinga, and also throws doubt upon the validity
of the conclusions which I havedrawn from experiments of my own.
The “‘ Note” appears in your columns this week ; and seeing the
nature of the conclusion drawn by Dr. Sanderson from his
experiments, I am not a little surprised to find no mention
in it of one most important point, viz., the temperature at which
Bacteria are killed when immersed in fluids.

It must be obvious to all who understand the real nature of
the question at issue, that no valid conclusion can be drawn by
Dr. Sanderson from his experiments, unless he is able to argue
from a definite conviction as to the temperature at which Bacteria
are killed in fluids.

Now a study of Dr. Sanderson’s writings would show the
reader that up to the time of their publication he had every
reason to believe that Bacteria were uniformly killed in fluids at
a temperature of 100°C. If he still believes this to be true, he
cannot (in the light of facts which he has learned concerning the
productivity of previously boiled fluids in closed flasks) refuse
his assent to my main proposition, viz., that Bacteria are capable
of arising in fluids independently of living reproductive or germi-
nal particles.

But the conclusion which Dr. Sanderson does draw from his
experiments, and his imputation that facts do not warrant the
conclusion of Prof. Huizinga and myself, would seem to imply
that he is in possession of some new evidence subversive of his
previous opinion, and tending to contradict views which I have
recently published concerning the death-point of Bacteria in

Fey SS
.

NATURE

485

heated fluids.
145, 1873.)

As Dr. Sanderson is entirely silent upon this point, I venture
to ask, both for my own information and for that of your readers,
whether he still believes that Bacteria are killed by a temperature
of 100°C. in fluids; and if not, upon what grounds he has
changed his opinion ?

In the face of his expressed intention (not a little contradicted,
as I venture to think, by his public action) of taking no part in
the ‘* spontaneous generation’ controversy, I ask Dr. Sanderson
this question, because I cannot suppose that he would publicly
throw doubt upon the validity of the conclusion which Prof.
Huizinga and I have drawn from our experiments, in the absence
of fresh evidence of his own upon the thermal death-point of
Bacteria.

At present he has publicly expressed the opinion that we are
not warranted in our conclusions, whilst he has given no suffi-
cient information either to the world of science or to ourselves
by which to test the correctness of his own conclusion. This
seems neither just to us nor to himself.

H. CHARLTON BASTIAN

(** Proceedings of Royal Society,” Nos. 143 and

University College, Oct. 3

_———_

Mr. D. Forbes’s Criticism of Mr. R. Mallet’s Volcanic
Theory

AFTER the lapse of half a year Mr. D. Forbes has recurred
in NATURE for Sept. 4, 1873, to my remarks published in NATURE
of March 20 last, to his remarks upon my Theory of Volcanic
Energy and Heat contained in his review of my translation of
Palmieri’s ‘‘ Incendio Vesuviano,” which appeared in NATURE
of February 6 preceding.

I pray your permission to make some remarks upon Mr.
Forbes’s last production. They are the last by which I shall
prolong this unpleasant controversy.

Mr. Forbes affirmed that if anything was certain, it was that
the ejecta of volcanoes in all ages and all over the world are
identical chemically or mineralogically, and upon this assumption
passes a summary condemnation upon my theory, which he
predicts will never receive acceptance from anyone—chemist,
or mineralogist, or geologist. This rash and I will now say
discourteous prediction I at once disposed of by giving the
names of two authorities, whose competence even Mr. Forbes
could not question, who had already accepted my views.

To this Mr. Forbes now says, that, as these gentlemen pos-
sessed for their guidance in assenting to the bare statement of my
views, no better information than that upon which he dissented
from them, so they may have been mistaken and not he. How
is Mr. Forbes sure they had no better information, and can it be
possible that he is so dull in weighing the force of evidence as to
see no difference in probability of error between two assumed
equally competent men—one of whom can assent to a proposition
upon his prior knowledge and without waiting for proof ; and
another, who dissents, before he has heard what can be advanced
in favour of the proposition and against his own previous know-
ledge or supposed knowledge? This, however, is now immate-
rial except as an indication of Mr. Forbes’s capacity for weighing
evidence.

To Mr. Forbes’s grand objection I replied that it is based upon
error as to fact—that it is not true that all volcanic solid ejecta
are identical at all times and everywhere.

While I denied, and do again deny, that identity, chemical or
mineralogical, exists in those bodies, I admitted that they do pre-
sent a great general resemblance—which is just what we should
expect.

t added a very important remark, namely that whether it were
true or false that all volcanic ejecta were identical, chemically
or mineralogically—the fact, whether one way or the other, did
not apply to or affect my theoretic views as to the nature and
origin of volcanic energy and heat; one way or the other, the
identity or dissimilarity between the ejecta as found at the sur-
face must be the same, whether they be derived from materials
already and constantly in fusion, or be fused by elevation of tem-
perature locally and temporarily produced ; the materials fused
being the same in both cases.

This last objection, which is fatal to Mr. Forbes’s criticism,
whether the foundation on which he has rested it be true or false,
he either has not noticed or finds it convenient now to ignore.

T illustrated the want of identity, chemical or mineralogical,
and yet the great general similarity at all times and places of

486

volcanic ejecta, by the analogy of the blast furnace, in which
the same materials in the same proportions do not even in any
one furnace, or at all times, produce identical slags.

What is Mr. Forbes’s reply? That the zzdention of the iron
master is to produce slags always the same, as the indication that
the furnace is working well.

Doubtless the intention and desire of the iron-master is to pro-
duce good iron, and at all times as nearly as he can such a slag
as indicates that he is doing so, But, asa matter of fact, he is not
able to reach this. He can only approximate to constancy in
the chemical or mineralogical constitution of his slags, which are
never identical, even for short periods, Is this substitution of the
intentions of the iron-master for the actual facts of the blast fur-
nace slags, on Mr, Forbes’s part, worthy of the candour of the
searcher for truth ; or does it not rather resemble the dialectic
wriggle of the advocate?

Complete identity between any two rocky masses, ejected or
otherwise, can only exist where the same elements in the same
proportions are combined inthe same way, and in the same
molecular aggregation. If the mere presence in greater or less
Proportion in the mass, of certain crystallised minerals in any
variable proportion, such as felspar, pyroxene, or leucite, in the
magma of lavas, were enough to constitute identity, then nearly
all the known rocks of ‘the world, crystalline, igneous, and sedi-
mentary, might be viewed as identical, for all consist of a few
elements and of a few prevailing simpler minerals,

While still seeming to maintain his original statement, Mr. Forbes
nowsubstitutes forzdentity—a great similarity in all volcanic rocks,
Further discussion is therefore needless—nor indeed would discus-
sion of my views as to volcanic heat, &c., lead to ‘any good result—
with a gentleman whose notions of scientific method are such,
that after six months’ consideration he holds} any distinction
between hypothesis and theory to be mere hair-splitting, and
whose notions of physico-mechanics are of that confused cha-
racter, that he views pressure and work to be quite the same,
and that it is matter of indifference whether we talk of “ pressure
conytrted into its equivalent, heat,” or of work transformed into

eat.

Would Mr, Forbes enlighten your readers by stating in figures
what is the equivalent in heat, of the pressure _of a weight of ten
pounds, resting upon arigid level plane?

Were Mr. Forbes of any real authority upon volcanic subjects,
‘there might have been more ground for his sweeping and antici-
patory condemnation of my views as to volcanic energy, which,
however, in that case, he would never have uttered ; but on looking
down the list of his published papers, I do not find any treating of
vulcanology simply, nor am I aware that he thas ever enlarged
the boundaries of our knowledge in that department by a hair’s
breadth.

Mr. Forbes appears to think that chemists, mineralogists, and
geologists are the sole arbiters of all questions as to the nature
and origin of volcanic heat and energy, Whatever they may have
done to add to our knowledge of the visible and tangible pheno-
mena of volcanic vents or cones, they have as yet contributed
really nothing to discovering the nature and origin of volcanic
heat itself, if we except some valuable negative evidence drawa
from the gaseous emanations by chemists of late years, subver-
sive of the older theories of the chemical origin of volcanic heat,
still not quite extinct. It is much more to the physicist and
theoretic mechanician dealing largely with the physigue du globe,
that we must look for further light, and whose province it will be
to decide when the right key shall have been found to that enigma
of ages, the true nawure and origin of volcanic heat and energy.

Iam done, sir, with this controversy, unwillingly entered upon,
not in irritation, as Mr, Forbes states, but because I felt justified
in protesting against new and I believe important views being
obscured 2x dimine, by objection based only on error.

My paper containing those views will ere long be before the
world. My 100 separate copies (as author) from the ‘ Phil,
Trans,” are already in the hands of or on the way to many men
of science. The volume itself of the ‘ Transactions” will no
doubt appear before the end of the year, and to the verdict of
the real men of science of the world, versed in the subject and
competent to judge of it, I leave the result.

London, Oct. 6 ROBERT MALLET

On the Equilibrium of Temperature of a Gaseous
Column subject to Gravity

From Mr. Clerk-Maxwell’s reply to my note on this subject
which appeared in yom columns a short time since, it would

NATURE

appear that he does not profess so much fully to explain the

difficulty suggested by me as to show that it is capable of ex-
planation, referring your readers to his other works for further
information. I would not, therefore, have troubled you further —
on the subject had it not occurred to me on reading Mr.
Maxwell’s letter that I could state the case in such a way as to
render clearly apparent the ground§ for taking different yiews on
this point.

Let a vertical column of gas, subject to gravity and in a state
of equilibrium as to pressure and temperature, be divided by a
horizontal plane P into two parts, A above and B below.

In the time A?# let a mass M, of particles pass in their free
course from A to B, and amass M, from B to A,

Let the portion of A from which the particles composing M,
proceed be called the upper stratum, and the corresponding
part of B the lower stratum, then the following consequences
may b2 deduced :—

I. From the equilibrium of density

M,= M,

2. From the equilibrium of temperature the amounts of work
in M, and M, while passing through P are equal.

3. From the effect of gravity the work in M while in A
reckoning from the commencement of the free course of each
particle composing My, is less than at P, while that in M, is
greater, .

4. Whence it follows that of the two equal masses M, and My
in the upper and lower strata respectively M, contains less work
than Mg.

5. The work in M, while in the upper stratum reckoned as
before, is the same as that of any other equal average mass in
that stratum, and the same is the case also of Mz.

6. The average amounts of work in equal masses in the two
strata, and the consequent temperatures of the strata are unequal,
the lower stratum having the higher temperature.

I suppose Mr. Maxwell would deny the truth of statement (5).
I presume he would argue as follows :—

“Of all the particles in the lower stratum which in the time
Athave at the commencement of their free course a velocity
and direction such as would take them through P, gravity in
selecting those which compose Mp excludes those whose veloci-
ties are insufficient to overcome the effects of their weights, while
in forming M, particles of low velocity are selected (included ?),
which, but for the effects of gravity, would not have cut P in
their free courses, consequently the particles in M, have an
average velocity less than that of the upper stratum from which
they come, while the particles of M, have a greater average
velocity than that of the lower stratum, and consequently the
inequality of the average velocity of the particles in the two
Strata cannot be inferred from the inequality of the average velo-
cities of the particles composing M, and M, while in those
strata,”

This argument, therefore, assumes the theory that ina given
mass of uniform temperature there are particles moving with
every velocity from nothing upwards to a certain limit, and
mixed in certain proportions. ‘That this is actually Mr. Max-
well’s view I own I might have remembered, but I suppose I
overlooked it from an impression in my own mind that the
molecular motion was to be regarded as being of a planetary (or
in the case of gases a cometary) nature. That in masses of the
same temperature velocities were to be regarded as practically
uniform, except in so far as affected by the distance of the par-
ticles apart, and that the so-called impacts of particles were
more properly to be regarded as perihelion passages of bodies
moving among each other in hyperbolic orbits. If this view is
the more accurate one, then obviously the argument which I
have assumed that Mr. Maxwell would use, falls to the ground,

Is there no possibility of testing the nature of the thermal
equilibrium of a column of still air? The result would at any
rate throw an unexpected light’on the nature of molecular
motion.

Graaff Reinet College, July 19 F, GUTHRIE

The Sphygmograph
Dr. GaLABIN, in his letter published in your last number,
criticises my explanation of the cause of the small wave in the
first part of the sphygmograph trace, which he calls the tidal
wave, In his criticism he does not take into consideration the
hmodromograph traces of Chauyeau, on which my explanation

Oct. 9, 1873]

is entirely based, and without a reasonable interpretation of

which no explanation can be considered satisfactory. The
heemodromograph trace proves that the “tidal wave” of Dr.
Galabin has a shock origin, as I have shown in the ‘*‘ Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology” (Nov. 1872), and that the dicrotic
wave is its resulting tidal wave.

Dr. Galabin appeals to the ‘‘ tidal wave” in the trace from the
artery at the foot, in proof of his explanation ; I have taken
many from that locality, and find that the tidal wave is never

represented at all (as my explanation requires), for it is thrown
so far back that it becomes blended with the primary rise.

My explanation of the details of the cardiograph is ques-
tioned, because my tracings are said to have been taken with ‘‘a
lever moving on a pivot, and balanced between two springs.”
Such was undoubtedly the case in my cardio-sphygmograph
observations, but not in my paper on the cardiograph trace, when
the instrument employed was, what Dr. Galabin recommends,
the ordinary sphygmograph, applied to the chest-wall.

As long as Dr. Galabin has not full faith in the reliability of
the sphygmograph and its indications, it is almost impossible
to maintain an argument with him, for it is hardly worth discuss-
ing points which may be only the results of instrumental imper-
fections, These are now understood, and can be easily elimi-
nated. A, H. GARROD

Venomous Caterpillars

THE caterpillars mentioned by R. Benson in your paper of
August 14, are not at all uncommon in Calcutta. One day my
little girl was brought to me with what appeared to be a good
sized hairy caterpillar under her arm, and crying as if in pain,
and on my trying to remove it in a hurried way, I discovered
that it was nothing but a mass of small hairs. The child had
put her arm into an empty tub on the inner edge of which the
caterpillar was crawling. As soon as she pressed it, she started
as if she had been stung. All the servants crowded round the
child and pointed to their heads, but as I was not a proficient in
their language I could not make out what they meant. I tried
to do what I could with my fingers to remove the hairs, but
this seemed very painful, and the swelling round about kept in-
creasing. The ayah, however, soon appeared, attracted by the
child’s crying, and seemed to know what was to be done, She
got some of my hair, madea kind of small brush of it, and gently
passed it over the injured part. In a few moments the hairs
were all removed, and nothing was left but a white blister. This
remained for two or three days and then subsided. In the
Calcutta schools the boys call these caterpillars ‘* woolly bears,”
and if stung by them ask for ‘‘a head,” and a few rubs soon
removes the disagreeable appendages.

C. H. C. B.

Calcutta, Sept. 9.

Harmonic Echoes

Lorp RAYLEIGH’s notes on Harmonic Echoes recall to my
‘recollection a little experience which I had in hearing what I
= supposed to be overtones reflected. ’

T have frequent occasion to cross a portion of an open public
{park in which there are few trees. When any sharp sounds are
-heard in the neighbourhood, as, for instance, the sound of the
‘rod in the beating of carpets in a field near at hand, curious re-
“sponses to the blows of the rod are heard, and these responses
-or echoes have not the same pitch as the originating sound. I

was puzzled for some time to account for this echo in an open
park, with almost nothing above the level of the grass but the
‘iron railings, till I satisfied myself, by occupying various posi-
tions, that the echoes were reflections of sound from these narrow
‘fences. But why the difference in pitch between the originating
*sound and the echo? This, I concluded, mzg/é result from the
overtones of the sound being reflected from the thin iron bars
which constitute the railing. It was also observable that it was
only the sharp sound emitted by the beating rod which was
~echoed, and not the dull sound arising from the carpet when
struck. The hands struck sharply together will also cause an
echo from the fences, which is higher in pitch than the sound of
‘the clapping hands. It would be very interesting to experiment
on this point by sounding, at a proper distance, notes of known
pitch before narrow, upright, or horizontal bars, and then ascer-
taining the pitch of the echo, and the relation of the latter to the
size of the reflecting surface, W. J. M.

Glasgow

NATURE

487

Ir appears tolerably well established that harmonic echoes are
selective echoes ; that is to say, echoes which, from whatever
cause, select and return one of the harmonies of the original
without the fundamental.

It may perhaps be found that there are other selective echoes
than the harmonic kind. In one of the galleries of the very
large parish church of Monkstown, co. Dublin, the sound of S
is heard with peculiar intensity, both in the singing and in
the responses, This is not an echo, but it may perhaps be a
fact of the same kind with selective echoes.

Old Forge, Dunmurry Jos¢PpH JoHN MuRPHY

Carbon Battery Plates

CouLD you oblige me with information (or state where it
could be obtained) respecting the process of manufacture of hard
carbon battery plates, as I have some experiments on hand
which necessitate the manufacture of plates of a peculiar shape,
and [ can neither get them made nor obtain sufficient informa-
tion to enable me to make them well.

Warrington T. W. FLETCHER

Brilliant Meteor

On the evening of September 7, at about 9.7 P.M., while
walking in a northerly direction in one of the streets of Tiverton,
I saw a very large and brilliant meteor slowly descend from east
to west, but in an almost vertical direction. The sky was almost
entirely covered with a thin veil of cloud, which obscured the
stars, so that I was not able to note its course with reference to
then ; but the altitude of the point at which it first appeared
was about 45°, its path was inclined to the vertical at an angle
of about 5°, and it disappeared behind a roof at an elevation of
about 20°, at a point about 9o° to the north of the moon which
could be seen through the clouds. The light of the meteor was
greenish and flickering, and far exceeded in intensity that of
Venus when at her maximum brilliancy, but I could not see any
train. T. PERKINS

Reading School

NORTHERN LIMIT OF PHANEROGAMIC
VEGETATION

Cae MARKHAM has most kindly presented to

the Herbarium of the Royal Gardens, Kew, a small
but very interesting collection of plants brought back by
him from his recent Arctic voyage. Amongst them are
four specimens which he obtained from Dr. Bessel, who
collected them in lat. 82° N., the most northern position
from which any phanerogamic vegetation has hitherto
been procured. The locality appears to have been on
the east side of Smith’s Sound. The species are Draba
alpina, L.; Cerastium alpinum, L.; Taraxacum Dens-
leonis, Desf. var. ; Poa flexuosa, Wahl.

Jos. D. HOOKER

THE WEALDEN BORING

sg gre readers of NATURE will be interested in learning
that the lowest beds now reached by the Sussex bor-
ing are not Wealden, but of marine origin ; that the most
distinct of the shells yet examined by me isa Lingula, that
itis Zzngula ovalis, a shell of the Kimmeridge clay. The
specimens which contain it were placed in my hands by
Mr, Peyton, with Mr. Willett’s consent. We are, in fact,
already below the Wealden, in the pelagic sea-bed far
from its ancient shore.
J. PHILLIPS

THE NEW MARINE ANIMAL FROM WASH-
INGTON TERRITORY

Ne the meeting of the British Association in 1872,
I exhibited before Section D specimens of some
long white bodies resembling peeled willow-wands, which
I had received from Barraud’s Inlet, Washington Terri-
tory, with the information that they were the “ backbones
of a fish.” Subsequently I published what intelligence I

488

NATURE

[ Oct. 9, 1873

could collect-upon the subject in this journal,* and urged
the expediency of further investigation in order to dis-
cover the true nature of these curious objects. I also
called the attention of various correspondents in America
to the same subject, and sent them copies of the article
in NATURE.

It appears that the problem has now been satisfactorily
solved, and that Prof. Kolliker, Mr. Mosely, and other
naturalists, who held that these organisms were the axes
of an unknown Alcyonarian polyp of the family Pennatu-
lidze were correct.

In a paper communicated to the Californian Academy
of Sciences on the 18th of August last, of which I have
received a separate copy, Mr. R. E. C. Stearns states that
a specimen of the Polyp, of which these bodies are the
axes, had been presented to the Academy by Dr. James
Blake. Mr. Stearns describes the polyp at full length,
and proposes to call it Verrillia blaket. He describes the
general aspect of the species as resembling that of Pavo-
naria guadrangularis, but states that the polyps are
arranged in “ two unilateral longitudinal series.”

I may add, that a communication from Dr. Edward
L. Moss on the same subject, has been received by the
Zoological Society of London, and will be read at one
of the meetings next session. P. L. SCLATER

THE RAY SOCIETYt

“BE Council, in presenting their thirtieth Annual Re-
port, congratulate the members upon the continued
prosperity of the Society.

The lapse of time, so marked by the production of a
long series of volumes on zoology and botany, issued
under the auspices of the Society, has scarcely lessened
the original dimensions of the Printed List of Monographs
in preparation and in progress ; the completion of old
memoirs being ever counterbalanced by offers of works
from new authors. A recent proposal by Mr. G. B.
Buckton to describe the British Aphides is a case in
point. This addition will occupy the place left void by
the publication of Sir John Lubbock’s very valuable and
interesting contribution to the study of insect life.

Since the last annual meeting some attempt has been
made, not unsuccessfully, to reduce the arrears in the
issue of the volumes. The monograph for the year 1871,
the “ Collembola and Thysanura,” by Sir John Lubbock,
Bart., M.P., has already been distributed to the mem-
bers ; the work for the year 1872, the “ British Annelids,”
Part I., containing the Nemerteans, by Dr. W. C. McIn-
tosh, has been so far finished that it will be ready ina
few weeks’ time for the binder ; whilst the volume for the
year 1873, the “ Spongiadze,” vol. iii., by Dr. Bowerbank,
is, with the exception of a single piate, completed.

The Council have considered that it would be to the
advantage of the Society if members could obtain the
past annual volumes at the original (or in some cases at
less than the original) subscription price. With this view
resolutions have been passed; first, that the annual
volumes, or sets of annual volumes, issued during the last
ten years should be purchasable by members at the sub-
scription price of one guinea; and, secondly, that the
books in stock, published earlier than the year 1863,
should be supplied at a lower cost than that named in
previous reports ; and, thirdly, that certain of the volumes
belonging to the years 1865, 1866, 1867, and 1868, for-
merly not distributed separately, should be offered to
members for sums less than that of the year’s subscrip-
tion,

In accordance with these resolutions, a list of books
and prices has been prepared. The volumes may be ob-
tained on application to the secretary.

* See Nature vol. vi. p. 436.
+ Extracted from the Report.

The volumes in preparation for future years are :—
Mr. St. George Mivart’s “Monograph of the Tailed —
Amphibia.”

Rev. O. P. Cambridge’s supplementary volume on
“ British Spiders.” F

Messrs. Douglas and Scott’s work on the “ British —
Hemiptera Homoptera.”

Dr. Gaertner’s work on “ Hybridism in Plants” (Bas-
tarderzeugung), translated from the German by W, Carru-
thers, F.R.S.

Prof. Haeckel’s “ Morphologie.” A new edition, revised
by himself, and translated from the German.

Mr. Hancock’s Monograph of the “ British Tunicata.”

Mr. Andrew Murray’s work on the “ Conifera.”

Rev. H. B. Tristram’s “Synopsis of the Fauna and
Flora of Palestine.”

Prof. Westwood’s Monograph of the “ Mantidzee,” with
illustrations by Mr. E, A. Smith.

Mr. Buckton’s Monograph on the “ British Aphides.”

The Council, in conclusion, would urge the members to
assist in the work of obtaining new subscribers, seeing —
that very many old friends are being removed from the ~
list of the Society year by year through death and various
causes.

ON THE INTERNAL NOSE OF THE PECCARIES ~
AND PIGS

N examining the sections of the skulls of the Wild Boar
the Babirussa, the Phacochoer, and the Peccary, I was
struck with the great difference in the form and develop-
ment of the internal part of the organ of smelling of the
peccary as distinguished between it and the other genera,
The Wild Boar, Babirussa, and Phacochoer, have the
nasal cavities on each side of the head large, broad, and
continued from the outer to the internal nostrils in a
simple manner, and they are only separated from the
palate by a thin bone, as they are in the sheep and the
generality of allied animals. In these animals the turbi-
nal bone arises from the centre of the outside of each
nasal cavity, and is divided above into two plates which
are rolled backwards, towards the outer side of the nose,
There is a perforation between the hinder edge of the in-
termaxillary bone and the palatine bone in front of the
palate behind the cutting teeth which opens directly into
the front of the nasal cavity just within the nostrils, as
figured in Huxley’s “ Elementary Atlas,” t. i. 4d
In the peccary the internal nostrils open into a small
cavity, which soon becomes tubular, pervading a large
hollow cellular part which occupies the space above the
palatine bones, and then gives off a large opening on the
outer side to the turbinal bones, and is continued in a
smaller tube to a small opening on each side of the front
part of the palate, behind the cutting tooth. This aper-
ture is evidently analogous to the large perforation in
front of the palate of the pigs, but is quite of a different
structure. There is a cavity further in near the external
nostrils, which forms an opening to the pituitary con-
volutions, to which I see nothing like in the skull of
the pigs. The naso-turbinal is fixed by its upper
edge to the upper part of the nasal cavity, and is.
rolled inwards, and there is a lamina on the lower side
from the expanded part of the tubular internal nostril,
which meets the one from the upper edge. The whole
structure of this part is quite different from that in the
pigs, and Phacochoer, and justifies the separation of the
Peccaries as a different group from the pigs. I may also
remark that in this genus there is a well-marked bony
plate on each side of the brain cavity, that separates the.
edge of the cerebrum from the cerebellum, This septum —
is only slightly marked in the skull of the wild boar, and
is entirely absent in the Babirussa and Phacochoer.
J. E. Gra¥

ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND

MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF
WEIGHT AND MEASURE *
‘See
the time when the metric system was originated, the

& T
i A French standards of weights were the series known as
the Pile de Charlemagne, the unit being the Livre poids

de marc of 16 onces, and double the Jozds de marc. The

metric equivalent of the fod de marc was subsequently

determined to be 244°753 grammes, The omce was divided
into 8 gros (or drachms), and the gros into 72 grazms.
The old French Livre of 9216 French grains was there-

fore equal to 489506 grammes, and 7554 English troy

grains. The French grain was thus equal to 0818
English troy grain. In determining the new unit of
metric weight, it was necessary to ascertain the actual
value in terms of the existing system of the ure and its

subdivisions, of the provisional weights used ; and from

accurately comparing them with the old standards, it was
_ deduced from the ascertained weight of the measured

cylinder, that the weight of a cubic decimetre of distilled

water at its maximum density, or at 4° C., which was
0°9992072 of the provisional kilogram, was equal to
18827°15 grains of the foids de marc. This, accordingly,

was definitively adopted as the true weight of the kilo-

gram, the new unit of metric weight.
The determination by the French Commission of the

_ weight of a cubic decimetre of water at its maximum

density differs somewhat from later authoritative deter-
minations made in England and other countries, as may
be seen from the following tabular statement :—

‘Weight of- cubic

Date Country. Observer. pacar
pt4- C

Grammes
1795 | France . Lefevre-Gineau. . . 1000°000
ag England Shuckburgh and Kater 1000480
1825 | } Sweden. Po Sa 1000°296
1830 | Austria . Stampfer . 999°653
1841 | Russia . Kupffer 999°989
Mean. 1000°084

- But the latest and most carefully executed determination

by Kupffer agrees so closely with the French determi-
nation, that the actual weight of the primary kilogram
may be taken as nearly identical with its theoretical defi-
nition, and sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes.
From the provisional brass kilogram, with its error thus
ascertained by the French Commission, two new standard
kilograms were constructed by Fortin, one of platinum,
the other of brass, and each was determined, after numerous
comparisons and the requisite corrections, to be of the
true weight when weighed in a vacuum. The platinum
weight was constituted the primary metric standard
kilogram, and is known as the A7zlogramme des Archives.
Its form is that of acylinder of about 39°4 millimetres in
diameter, and 39'7 metres high, having its edges slightly
rounded, being similar to that of the English platinum
kilogram shown of the actual size in Fig. 12. The density
of the Kzlogramme des Archives has never been precisely
determined, as it has been deemed hazardous to weigh it in
water from a fear of its not being entirely free from the
arsenic used in preparing the platinum, and of dissolving
this arsenic, and thus diminishing the weight of the kilo-
gram. Prof. Miller has assumed the volume of the
-Kilogramme des Archives when in its normal temperature
of o° C to be equal to the volume of 48°665 grammes of

* Continued from p. 389.

NATURE

489

water at its maximum density, as determined by its cubic
measurement, and consequently its density to be 20°5487,
Other computations, however, differ slightly from this
determination.

The brass kilogram was intended as the commercial
standard, for regulating all ordinary metric weights in
air, and was deposited at the Ministére de l'Intérieure
Paris. One uniform shape is adopted in France for all
brass kilograms. They are made in the form of a cylinder
surmounted witha knob. The height of the cylinder
is equal to its diameter, and the height and diameter of
the knobs are equal to one half those of the cylinder.
Like the platinum A7zlogramme des Archtves, the brass
standard kilogram was never weighed in water, and its
volume has been computed from its cubic measurement
to be equal to that of 124'590 grammes of water at its
maximum density, thus making its density 8206. In our
standard air, ¢ = 62° F. 6 = 30in,, the platinum standard
kilogram will thus displace 59°25 milligrams of air, and
the brass kilogram 151'75 mgr. ; the apparent weight in
air of the brass kilogram is consequently about 92 mer.
less than that of the platinum standard. This brass
kilogram was assumed by the French Commission to be
88°5 mgr. lighter than the platinum standard, when
weighed in ordinary air.

The primary platinum metre and kilogram were pre-
sented by the Commission on June 22, 1799 to the Corps
Legislatif at Paris, and were legally constituted as the
standards of length and weight of the new metric system
throughout France by the law of Dec. 9, 1799. They
were deposited at the Palais des Archives.

A platinum copy of each of the primary metric standards
of the metre and kilogram was constructed at the same
time, and deposited at the Paris Observatory. These
standards, known as the d/étre de l’Observatoire, and
the Kzlogramme de V-Observatoire, were considered as next
in authority to the primary standards.

The unit of capacity of the metric system, the Z¢ve, repre-
sents theoretically the measure of volume of a cubic deci-
metre, or the cubic contents of a metallic vessel of this
capacity when at the temperature of melting ice. But
practically, there is no material primary standard litre, and
the legal measure of the litre is determined from the kilo-
gram ; that is to say, the litre actually is a measure con-
taining a kilogram weight of distilled water at its maximum
density. Such a measure can only be verified by com-
putation, as the vessel itself must be taken at a different
temperature from the water contained in it, the vessel at
o° C., the water at 4° C. Authoritative tables are there-
fore prepared for ascertaining the allowance to be made
in every case for differences of temperature from the
normal temperature, as well as for the difference of
weight of air displaced by the metallic weight and the
larger volume of water.

For metric measures of surface, the ave, equal to 100
square metres in the unit ; and for solid measures, more
particularly for measuring wood, the s¢eve, or cubic
metre, is the unit.

The number and denominations of the metric weights
and measures actually used in France and other countries,
for which specific standards are provided, are as follows :
they include the double and the half of each decimal
unit, with a duplicate unit to make up the number 9
units :—

Double metre
{ Metre, divided into tenths or deci-
metres, &c,
Half-metre, > 3
6 Metric Measures } Double decimetre, divided into cen-
of Length . ; timetres and millimetres
| Decimetre, + -
(For land) Chain of double deka-
metre, or 20 metres, divided into
metres, and links of 2 decimetres

490

20, 10, 5, 2, I, I kilograms
500, 200, 100, 100 grammes (hectograms)

30 Metric | 5° 2% 1% 7° » (dekagrams)
Weights ORS » ,
0°5,0°2,0°1,O°1 gramme (decigrams)

0'05, 0'02, O'OI, O'OI_,, (centigrams)
.0°005, 0002, o’001, o'‘oo!_ gramme (milligrams)

( Hectolitre, or 100 litres
| Demi-hectolitre, ,, 5O ste;
Double dekalitre, ,, 20, eh,
Dekalitre, TOs o
Demi-dekalitre, a Si aes
13 Metric Measures Ot Bee, By 4 litre
of Capacity f Demi-litre, zs Os its,
Doubleidecilitre, .,, .). O'2 . ;,
Decilitre, rie ovis A
Demi-decilitre, BA RIOIOSY dies
Double centilitre, ,, o'02 ,,
[ Centilitre, EOI! tals

Total number of metric weights and measures used in
France and other countries, 49.

For dry commodities, the demi-dekalitre is the smallest
measure used. The litre being equal to a cubic deci-

Fic. rr.—Decimetre and its nearly equivalent length of four inches

On one plane surface the word “ METRE ” is engraved,
and on the other “FORTIN A PARIS,” and “ Royal
Society, 44.” This end-standard was determined to be
exactly the length of a metre at the temperature of melt-
ing ice. The other was a line standard, the bar being
nearly equal in width, but only 5°3 millimetres thick, and
it is about 4 centimetres longer. On the upper surface is
engraved “ Royal Society, 45,” and transverse lines,so fine
as hardly to be seen with the naked eye, are cut about 2
centimetres from each end for defining the length of the
metre, as shown in the following figure :—

The length of a metre is to be taken between the two
transverse lines at the mid-width of the bar, and it has been
determined to be less than a metre by 0'01759 millimetre,
taken at the standard temperature of melting ice.

On being brought to this country, the two platinum
metres were carefully compared by Captain Kater with
the length of 39'4 inches on the Shuckburgh scale, con-
sidered by him to be the British scientific standard of
length. Full details of the comparisons made with
Captain Kater’s microscopical comparing apparatus are
given in Phil. Trans, 1818. It was required to determine
the length of the platinum metre at its standard tempera-
ture of 32° Fahr. in terms of the brass standard yard of
36 inches at its standard temperature of 62° Fahr. Allow-
ance was made for the different rates of expansion of
the two metals, the co-efficient of expansion of the
platinum being taken to be 0'00000476 for 1° Fahr.,
as determined by Borda, and that of brass o’oooo!o1,
as found by Kater’s experiments. The length of the metre
at 32° Fahr. was thus determined from the méfre a bouts
to be 39'37086 inches of the Shuckburgh scale at 62°
Fahr., and from the métre a traits 39'37081 inches, after
allowing for its error = o‘oo069 inch. The mean length
of the metre was therefore 37°37084 inches of the Shuck-
burgh scale, and as this scale had been found o'o0005
inch longer than the Parliamentary standard, the true

NATURE

q
metre, or 1,000 cubic centimetres, in volume, is also equal
to 1,000 grammes weight of distilled water at its maxi-
mum density ; consequently the
Demilitre = 500 cubic centimetres, or grammes

weight. of water.
Double decilitre = 200 :; i
Decilitre = 100 *3 mn
Demi-decilitre = 50 na i
Double centilitre = 20 = i
Centilitre = 10 . as

There are also graduated measures of 5, 2, and 1 cubic
centimetres or grammes weight of water.

The earliest recognition by the British Parliament of
the metric system thus established in France took place
soon after the close of the war. On March 15, 1816, Mr. »
Davies brought forward a motion in the House of Com-
mons, which was carried, for comparing the imperial
standard yard with the French standard metre. The
Government entrusted the necessary operations to the
Royal Society, who obtained for the purpose two platinum
metres from Paris. These had been verified by M. Arago,
by comparison with the French standard. Onewas an
end-standard, like the “ Metre des Archives,” but was
nearly twice as thick, being 7°3 milimetres in thickness.

length of the metre was finally determined by Captain |
Kater to be 39°39079 British inches. :

Ever since this period, this authoritative equivalent of
the metre in imperial measure has been recognised as the
true equivalent, and it received the sanction of Parlia-
ment, in the Act of 1864, for legalising contracts made in
this country in terms of the metric system. It is, how-
ever, to be observed that it is the sczentific equivalent of
the metre in imperial measure. For all commercial pur-
poses, on the other hand, the measure of a metre is
always used at ordinary temperatures just as a yard
measure is used, and the comparison of the two should
therefore be more properly made at the same average
temperature of 62° F. At such temperature a brass metre
is equal to 39382 inches, and this length is to be taken as
the commercial equivalent of the metre in British measure.
Of course, this difference of the equivalent in imperial
measure of the metre at its legal and at its ordinary tem-
perature, amounting only to 77455 inch is perfectly imma-
terial in commercial measurements of small quantities,
and the metre may safely be estimated as equal to 398 of
Be inches, and the decimetre at 3°94 inches, as shown in

ig. II.

No satisfactory comparison of the primary kilogram
with our unit of imperial weight was made until the year
1844, after the construction of the new imperial standard
pound, under the authority of the Standards Commission.
The comparison of the standard units of weight of the
two countries was then undertaken by Prof. Miller, at the
request of the Commission. He found that previous de-
terminations of the weight of the kilogram varied
amongst themselves from a minimum of 15432°295 gr. to
a maximum of 15438°355 grains. Under these circum- —
stances, he proceeded to Paris in the autumn of 1844, and
obtained permission from the French Government to
compare the Kilogramme des Archives with our English
weights. For the comparison, he took with him the Par-

Oct. 9, 1873]

liamentary copies Nos. 1 and 2 of the standard pound,
and two auxiliary platinum weights together, equal to
about 1432°35 grains. The mean result of 60 compari-
sons was to find the Kilogramme des Archives epual to
15432°34813 grains. But Prof. Miller was not satisfied
with this result, as one of the auxiliary weights was found
to contain a small cavity filled with some hygroscopic
substance, which rendered its weight slightly variable.

|
|
|
| i]

Fic. 12.—Platinum Kilogram &.

He therefore considered it requisite to make further com-
parisons directly with the English standard pound.

For this purpose, a platinum kilogram, constructed by
Gambey, was procured at Paris by Prof. Miller, and was
accurately compared by him with the Kilogramme des
Archives. This platinum kilogram, designated as € by
Prof. Miller, is similar in form to the prototype, but is a
little smaller, in consequence of the somewhat greater
density of the platinum of which it is composed. Its

Fic. 13.—Gilt Gun-metal Kilogram R.

density was determined by hydrostatic weighings to be
21°13791. From the mean of 100 direct comparisons
with the Kilogramme des Archives, € was found to be
lighter in a vacuum than the French standard by 1°56
mgr. (0'02412 gr.). For ascertaining the weight of € in
terms of the new imperial standard pound, Prof. Miller
subsequently compared this kilogram with the imperial
standard pound, together with each of its Parliamentary
copies successively, and one of four auxiliary platinum

NATURE

491

weights, each of 1432°324 grains, constructed for the
purpose, and accurately verified in terms of the imperial
standard, by means of supplementary platinum weights.
The mean result of 166 direct comparisons of & was to
find its value = 15432°32462 grains. The Kilogramme
des Archives was consequently determined to be equal in
a vacuum to 15432°34874 imperial grains, or 2'20462125
standard platinum lb. ; and the imperial standard pound
equal to 453°5926525 metric grammes. These equivalents
have since been generally accepted, and were legalised in
this country by the Metric Act, 1864.

The platinum kilogram € has since been deposited in
the Standards Department, together with a second kilo-
gram, of gilt gun metal, also made under Prof. Miller’s
directions, and intended as a standard for the adjustment
of commercial metric weights, like the French £7/ogramme
aiton deposited at the Ministére de l’Intérieure at Paris.
This gilt gun metal kilogram was constructed by Oertling
and has been denoted as R by Prof. Miller. Its form is
spherical with a knob. Its density is 8'3291°. The mean
result of 24 comparisons with € showed that in a vacuum
the weight of # was 1°47 mgr. less than &, and 3'04 mgr.
less than the Kilogramme des Archives. In standard air
(4 = 18°7 C., d. = 755°64 mm.) # displaced 143'92 mgr.
and the Kilogramme des Archives 58°36 mgr. was
then found to be 88°6 mgr. lighter in air than the French
platinum prototype, and only o'06 mer. lighter than the
French commercial brass standard kilogram.

Although the metric system was established in France
as the legal system of weights and measures in 1799, it
was not until more stringent provisions of law for enforc-
ing its exclusive use were passed in 1837, that metric
weights and measures began to be generally adopted in
that country. Since that period it has been gradually
adopted in other countries, and there is now every pros-
pect of its finally becoming universally in use, and being
acknowledged as an international system of weights and
measures, Attention has been already drawn in NATURE,
vol. vii. p. 197, to the proceedings of the International Metric
Commission at Paris for the construction of uniform
metric standards for all countries who have adopted or
contemplated the adoption of the metric system, as well
as to the material, an alloy of platinum and iridium,
adopted for the new standards, and the peculiar form of
the new International standard metre. It will therefore
be sufficient here merely to show the adopted form of the
new standard metres, as compared with that of the exist-
ing Standard Metre des Archives, in the following figures,
all of the actual size :

Fic. 14.—Form of New Standard Metres.

The form of the new International kilogram will be the
same as that of the Kilogramme des Archives, a cylinder
of equal diameter and height, with the edges slightly
rounded, as already described.

H. W. CHISHOLM

(To be continued.)

NOTES
A LETTER has been addressed by Dr. Anton Dohrn to the Col-
leges, and other bodies of the University of Oxford, giving an
account of the cost, extent, and purposes of his zoological esta-
blishment at Naples, pointing out the incalculable advantages

ee ig
ies

i

492

furnished by the establishment to students of biology, and urging
that at least one out of the many fellowships belonging to Oxford
should be devoted to the purpose of affording a suitable man the
opportunity of pursuing the practical study of biology at the
Naples station. We have already printed the Report presented
to the British Association by M. Dohrn, from which it will be
seen that the University of Cambridge has hired a table ; we
believe the University of Oxford has refused to do so, and hence
this appeal to the separate Colleges, by M. Dohrn. Let us hope
that at least one of these bodies will come forward and maintain
the credit of the University.

Pror. Henrici’s Introductory Address for the session at Uni-
yersity College, delivered on Thursday last, dealt chiefly with the
distinction between the results of Mathematical teaching in Ger-
many and in England ; that while in Germany almost every great
mathematician (as an example the late Prof. Clebsch was pointed
out) was the founder of a school, in England, on the contrary, no
mathematical school had been founded in recent times. This the
lecturer did not attribute to the paucity in this country of mathema-
ticians of the very highest eminence,—indeed the names of Sylves-
ter, Cayley, and Sir Wm. Thomson are alone sufficient to show
that no country of Europe is ahead of England in this respect, —
but rather to the want of personal influence exercised by them on
younger minds, which has become almost impossible by the
antiquated institutions of our ol d Universities. While the num-
ber of mathematical students at Cambridge exceeds that at a large
number of German universities put together, the proportion of
these students who are pursuing their studies for any higher pur-

* pose than that of taking a good degree—after which they allow
them to be all but entirely neglected—is very small ; and hence
England is lameutably deficient in mathematical inquirers of
the second and third class. Without wishing to see the
German system introduced into this country in its entirety,
Prof. Henrici pointed out some of the defects of our English
system which he considered to conduce to this end ; especially
the encouragement given by the mode of examination to
‘* cramming ;” the small number of professorships ; the fact that
the remuneration of the professors is to a great extent dependent
on the student’s fees, and hence the comparatively high scale of
charges ; the slight encouragement given to the pursuit of pure
science as a means of livelihood ; and, above all, the want of that
personal communication and interchange of ideas between
teacher and pupil which tends so greatly to a promotion of the
love of science,

A SPECIAL Meeting of the Council of the Society of Arts was
held on Wednesday, Oct. 1, to consider the subject of National
Museums and Galleries, and their bearing on public education:
A Standing Committee was appointed for the purpose of bringing
under Parliamentary responsibility the national museums and
galleries, so as to extend their benefits to local museums, and to
make them bear on public education. The following are the
several objects in view for effecting this purpose:—1. All
museums and galleries supported or subsidised by Parliament to
be made conducive to the advancement of education and technical
instruction to the fullest extent, and be made to extend their
advantages to the promotion of original investigations and works
in science and art. 2. To extend the benefits of national
museums and galleries to local museums of science and art which
may desire to be in connection, and to assist them with loans of
objects. 3. To induce Parliament to grant sufficient funds to
enable such objects to be systematically collected, especially in
view of making such loans. 4. For carrying out these objects
most efficiently, to cause all national museums and galleries to
be placed under the authority of a minister of the Crown, being
a member of the Cabinet, with direct responsibility to Parlia-
ment ; thereby abolishing all unpaid and irresponsible trustees,

NATURE

PE AUT Me ee Ie ee

except those who are trustees under bequests or deeds, who
should continue to have the full powers of their trusts, but should
not be charged with the expenditure of Parliamentary votes. 5.
To enter into correspondence with all existing local museums
and the numerous schools of science and art (including schools
for music) now formed throughott the United Kingdom, and
to publish suggestions for the establishment of local museums.
6. Also to cause the Public Libraries and Museums Act (18 and
19 Vict. c. lxx.) to be enlarged, in order to give local authori-
ties increased powers of acting. We congratulate the Society of
Arts on the step it has taken : we believe it is the most important
piece of work it has ever set its hands to.

THE Council of the Society for the Promotion of Scientific
Industry, looking to the enormous waste there is in the consump-
tion of coal, whilst its cost is every day increasing, have resolved
that an exhibition shall be held in Manchester of all appliances
and apparatus, that tend to the economic use and saving of fuel,
for the purpose of inducing attention to, and eliciting opinions of
practical men on the matter, and of giving all consumers of coal
an opportunity of comparing the various appliances, with a view
to their adeption of that which will best serve their purpose.
The exhibition will comprise :—1st. Appliances which may be
adapted to existing furnaces, &c., whereby an actual saving is
effected in the consumption of fuel. 2nd. Appliances which may
be adapted to existing furnaces, &c., whereby waste heat is
utilised. 3rd. New steam generators and furnaces, boilers and
engines specially adapted for the saving of fuel and appliances,
whereby waste products are utilised, and the radiation of heat
prevented, &c., &c., The exhibition will include appliances
used for manufacturing, agricultural, and domestic purposes,
Either the apparatus itself, or diagrams, or models may be ex-
hibited, and no limit is placed upon the class of articles to be ©
exhibited. Exhibitors will be required to deliver their exhibits
free of charge at the place of exhibition, and to remoye them at
the close of the exhibition ; they must also erect them if neces-
sary at their own expense. Every exhibit must be accompanied
by a full description, which must include a statement of the par-
ticular work the apparatus is intended to perform. A duplicate
of this statement must be handed in when application is made to
exhibit. Exhibitors will be given every opportunity of explain-
ing the speciality of their apparatus. All articles are exhibited
at the risk of the exhibitor, though every reasonable care will be
exercised. Further information may be obtained from the secre-
tary of the society.

Sir SAMUEL AND LaDy Baker, with their nephew and some —

black servants, arrived at Paris on Monday morning, en route
for London. The whole of them are in excellent health, and
bear strong traces of exposure to an African sun. Interesting
information concerning Sir Samuel’s work in Africa, will be
found in the Daily News of the 7th and 8th inst.

Str HENRY RAWLINSON delivered the inaugural address on
the commencement of the winter session of the Midland Institute
at Birmingham on Monday evening. Referring to Aretic
explorations, he said he indulged the hope that the year will not
close before an assurance has been given that the Cha/lenger Ex-
pedition will be supplemented by the despatch during next spring
of a well-equipped Admiralty vessel which will be commissioned
to endeavour to reach the Pole by pushing through Smith’s
Sound from Baffin’s Bay in the track of the American ship,
Folaris, whose fate has recently elicited so much sympathy
throughout England.

SurGron E, J. MILLIGAN, of the steamship 4/rica; writes
from Sierra Leone, on the 12th ult., to the Zrish Times, stating
that on August 17, when returning from Loanda homeward,
they steamed up the River Congo, and when at Banana one of

| Oct. 9, 1873 —

4

9

o

the passengers, M. Cressy, received a letter from a friend
stationed 300 miles up the river. It contained the intelligence
that about 200 miles farther in the interior a white man, accom-
panied by a number of native attendants, was proceeding in the
direction of the West Coast. His supplies becoming short, he
was prevented from proceeding by a tribe, and retained prisoner

__ until some should be secured. From the description given by

the native traders to M. Cressy’s friend of this person, and also
from the fact that no other white man is known to be in this
region, it is generally inferred that it is Dr. Livingstone.

WE regret to record the death of Sir Paul Edmund de
Strzelecki (perhaps better known as Count de Strzelecki) who
died on Monday morning at his residence in Savile Row, at the
age of 77 years. Early in life he was a great traveller, and ex-
plored a great portion of Australia. He was elected a Fellow of
the Royal Society in June, 1853, was a D.C.L., and a member
of several of our learned societies.

Pror. WATSON, of Ann Arbor, telegraphs to the Detroit
Tribune: ‘‘ On July 24 I observed a star of the twelfth magni-
tude, which, on Saturday night last (August 16), was missing
from the place where first seen. A little to the west I saw a star
of the eleventh magnitude, which proves to be the new planet
(No. 133), and at present I suppose it to be that seen

July 24.”

THE Fungus-show at the Royal Horticultural Society on Oct.
Ist was a great success ; never had there been a greater or better
arranged display of these plants, classified under the two sections
of “edible” and ‘‘ poisonous.” A new economical use for this
class of plants was indicated by the Rey. Mr. Berkeley, who pro-
duced a cap made out of the beaten out interior mass of Polyforus
fomentarius, the amadou or German tinder of commerce, which
he described as both warm and light. It is stated that large use
is made in Hungary of this material for caps and waistcoats,
and it is also used for caulking boots.

One of the important and beautiful publications which
‘characterise the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge is just
issued under the title of ‘‘ A Contribution to the History of the
Freshwater Alge of North America,” by Horatio C. Wood,
jun., M.D.

Now that so much attention is being paid to the introduction
nto our colonies of useful foreign trees and crops, we desire to
‘call special attention to the publication at Brisbane of ‘‘ The
‘Olive and its Products : a treatise on the habits, cultivation, and
‘propagation of the tree, and upon the manufacture of oil and
‘other products therefrom,” by L. A. Bernays, F.L.S., Vice-
President of the Queensland Acclimatisation Society. The work
thas special reference to the advantages to be derived from the
‘introduction of the olive into Queensland, and is printed and
published at the expense of the Colonial Government.

News ‘has been received to the date of May 1, from Mr,
‘Henry Elliott, who has been engaged for two years past in
making explorations and observations in the fur-seal islands in
tthe Behring Sea. He announces the continued prosecution of his
Jabours, the results of which were transmitted to the National
Museum in the summer.of 1872. He has especially devoted
himself to an investigation of the habits of the fur-seal, walrus,
and sea-lion, and has made a topographical survey of the
‘rookeries upon a portion of the islands on which these animals
‘come to bring forth their young. His work in 1872 was de-
voted mainly to St. Paul Island, but he expected, very soon after
the date of his letter, to visit St. George and the other islands
‘of the group, there to prosecute similar inquiries.

WE consider it extremely creditable to the Leeds Daily News
that it chronicles regularly and at considerable length the pro-
ceedings of the Leeds Naturalists’ Field Club and Scientific As-
sociation, and we should like to see other provincial, and indeed
metropolitan papers follow its example. The principal paper
read at the Society’s meetings during September was by Mr.
James Abbott, on the structure and development of the Hepa-
tice. The Society continues, we are glad to see, to investigate
very thoroughly the natural history of the district.

WE heartily endorse the following sentiment of the Athenzum
in reference to the meeting of the British Association :—‘* The
opinion is gradually forcing itself upon many of those who attend
the meetings of the Association that some change in its method
of procedure is becoming necessary. For the scientific men, on
whom rests, more or less, the responsibility of keeping up the
sectional business, either by doing official work or attending the
meetings and taking part in the discussions, the labour is too
exacting on an occasion which should have something of relaxa-
tion about ft. Again, the tendency of the papers is necessarily
to take a technical direction, which must put them beyond the
range of the non-scientific audience. The sectional business is
consequently unsatisfactory, both to those who take part in it and
to those who attend as listeners. The Association should fulfil
two functions—first, that of bringing together scattered scientific
men, who} otherwise rarely or never meet ; secondly, of giving
the general public some idea of what the scientific world is
doing. For the first object, more leisure is required during the
meetings—more opportunity of talking over amongst them-
selves the work which different men are occupied with. To at-
tain the second object, instead of miscellaneous papers, short
addresses, carefully prepared, might be delivered, with one or
two invited speakers to follow. These addresses should be
given at morning meetings, which might advantageously break
up at one, leaving the afternoons free.

Messrs. SAMPSON Low, MARSTON, and Co. announce the
following books to be published during the forthcoming sea-
son :—* The Heart of Africa; or, Three Years’ Travels, Dis-
coveries, and Adventures in the Unexplored Regions of the
Centre of Africa,” by Dr. George Schweinfurth. The district
explored by Dr. Schweinfurth embraces the wide tract of country
extending southward from the Meschera on the Bahr el Ghazal,
and between the roth and 3rd degrees of north latitude. The
work will form two large octavo volumes, and will be illustrated
by about 130 woodcuts from drawings made by the author
during<his journey. —‘‘ A Whaling Expedition to Baffin’s Bay and
the Gulf of Boothia. With an account of the rescue by his ship
of the survivors of the crew of the Po/aris,” by Captain Mark-
ham, with maps and illustrations. The maps to this work will
give the first authentic delineation of Hall’s discoveries, and also
contain several important corrections of the old charts.—‘*‘ The
Land of the White Elephant ; or, Lights and Scenes in South-
Eastern Asia,” being a personal narrative of travel and adventure
in Farther India, embracing the countries of Burma, Siam,
Cambodia, and Cochin-China, by Frank Vincent, jun., with
maps and plans.—‘‘ The Wild North Land,” a winter journey
with dogs across Northern North America, by Captain W. F.
Butler, with a map; and a new work on Peru by Thos. J.
Hutchinson, F.R.G.S., entitled, ‘*‘Two Years in Peru, with
Exploration of its Antiquities.”

Messrs. TRUBNER’S List of forthcoming books includes the
following scientific works :—‘‘ From the Indus to the Tigris :”
a narrative of a journey through the countries of Balochistan,
Afghanistan, Khorassan, and Iran in 1872; together with a
synoptical grammar and vocabulary of the Brahoe language,
and a record of the meteorological observations and altitudes

494

NATURE

[Oct. 9, 1873

on the march from the Indus to the Tigris, by H. W. Bellew,
C.S.I,, Surgeon to the Bengal Staff Corps. ‘‘The Rod in
India ;” being hints how to obtain sport, with remarks on the
natural history of ‘fish, otters, &c., and illustrations of fish and
tackle, by H. S. Thomas, F.L.S., F.Z.S. A third and enlarged
edition of the ‘*Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon,” a history
of the early inhabitants of Britain, down to the conyersion of the
Anglo Saxons to Christianity, illustrated by the ancient remains
brought to light by recent research, by Thomas Wright, M.A.,
F.S.A. :

A DEPUTATION from the Trades’ Guild of Learning waited
on Tuesday afternoon on a Sub-Committee of the London School
Board, at the invitation of the School-Management Committee,
in order to urge upon the Board the adoption of systematic
training in mechanics, &c., with the object of adapting the scien-
tific instruction, provided or contemplated in the Board schools,
to the future employments of the children. A memorial to the
same effect has been presented to the Board, and is now under
their consideration, in favour of the elementary teaching of ap-
plied science and art in the schools, in such a manner as to lay
the foundation of a connected system of technical education.

News has been received of the death at Quito, Ecuador, in
June last, of Dr, William Jameson, an eminent naturalist, who
resided for many years in Quito as a professor of chemistry and
botany in the University. His contributions, both in zoology
and botany, to public institutions in America and Europe have
been very extensive,

Dr. DAviD Moore reprints from the ‘‘ Proceedings of the
Royal Irish Academy ” a complete Muscology of Ireland, under
the title ‘‘ Synopsis of all the Mosses known to inhabit Ireland
up to the present time.”

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
past week include two Black-headed Parrots (Caica melano-
cephala) from Demerara, presented by Judge Lovesy ; a Brown
Bear (Ursus arctos), European, presented by Mr. M. B. Wilson ;
a Thicknee (Oedicnemus crepitans), British, presented by Mr.
Patey ; a Lesser Black- backed Gull (Zarus fuscus), British, pre-
sented by Mr. C. W.\Wood; a Hairy Armadillo (Dasypus
villosus), from River Plate; a Burrowing Owl (Pholeoptynx
cunicularia), from the same place, deposited ; a Wattled Crane
(Grus carunculata), from Africa, and two Bataleur Eagles
(Helotarsus ecaudatus),

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION

SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS
SECTION A,—MATHEMATICS AND Puysics
On Etherial Friction, by Prof. Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S.

Professor J. C. Maxwell has made a series of experiments on

the friction of gases. In these experiments a horizontal disc
was made to oscillate in an imperfect vacuum near a similar disc
at rest, and it was found that the motion of the oscillating disc
was carried away by the residual gas of the vacuum ata rate
depending on the chemical character of the gas, and depending
also upon its temperature, but nevertheless independent of its
density.
_ While the temperature of the arrangement remained constant,
it was found by Prof. Maxwell that this fluid friction was rather
greater for atmospheric air than for carbonic acid, while for
hydrogen it was, I think, about half as great as for air.

On the other hand, when the temperature was made to vary
the result was found to be proportional to the absolute tem-
perature,

These experiments do not show that there is no such thing as
etherial friction, that is to say, friction from something which
fills all space, and is independent of air ; but we may argue from
them that such an etherial friction must either have been nearly
insensible in these experiments, or it must, as well as the friction
from the gas, have varied with the absolute temperature, in

which case the two frictions would not be separated from one
another by the method of the experiment. ‘

Prof. Tait and myself have made some experiments upon the
heating of a disc by rapid rotation in ‘vacuo. In these experi-
ments we found a mere surface heating due to air which varied
not only with the quality, but also with the quantity of the residual
gas; and we also found a surface, effect (more deeply seated
however than the former), which appeared to be a residual
effect, and which it is possible may be due to etherial friction.
We made no experiments at varying temperatures, but we made
use of various residual gases, and we found that the heating
effect for carbonic acid was perhaps a trifle less than for air,
while that for hydrogen appeared to be about four times less than
that for air. Now comparing Prof. Maxwell’s experiments with
ours, we have in the former a stoppage of motion which is rather
less for carbonic acid than for air, and about half as large for
hydrogen as for air, In the latter again we have a heating effect
rather less for carbonic acid than for air, and only about one-
fourth as large for hydrogen as for air. Thus it appears that the -
stopping effect of hydrogen in Prof Maxwell’s experiments is
relatively greater in comparison with air than is its heating
effects in our experiments, when compared with that of air.
The effects of these various gases would bear to one another
more nearly the same proportion in both experiments, if we
might suppose that in Prof, Maxwell’s experiments there was
mixed up with gaseous friction a very sensible etherial friction ;
but in that case it would be necessary to suppose that the etherial
friction was proportional to the absolute temperature,

During the meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh,
I brought before this section reasons for imagining that if we
have a body in visible motion in an enclosure of constant tem-
perature, the visible motion of the body will gradually be
changed into heat. The nature of the argument was such as to
render it probable (although not absolutely certain) that in such
a case the rapidity of conversion will be greater the higher the
temperature of the enclosure,

Iwill now refer to some experiments by Prof. Tait which
formed the subject of the last Rede Lecture. These experi-
ments were suggested to Prof, Tait by an hypothesis derived
from the theory of the dissipation of energy which led him to
think that the resistance of a substance to the conduction of
electricity, and also of heat, would be found proportional to the
absolute temperature. Mattiessen and Von Bose in the case of
electricity, and Principal Forbes in the case of heat, had already
proved that asa matter of fact the law was not very different
from that imagined by Prof. Tait. The result of these experi-
ments has been to confirm the truth of this law. =

The following considerations also connected with the dissipation
of energy point to the same conclusion, Perhaps we may
the etherial medium as that medium whose office it is to degrade
all directed motion, and ultimately convert it into universally
diffused heat, and in virtue of which all the visible differential
motion of the universe will ultimately be destroyed by some pro-
cess analogous to friction, 4

Now in order to imagine the way in which either may possibly
act in bringing about this result, let us imagine some familiar
instance of directed motion, as for instance a railway train in
motion. The train, let us suppose, and the air in it, are both in
rapid motion, while the air outside is at rest. Now as the train
proceeds, suppose that a series of cannons loaded with blank
cartridges are fired towards the train. A series of violent
sounds will go in at the one window, and out at the other of
each carriage. Each sound will push some air from the stratum
of air at rest into the carriage on the one side, and it will push
some air from the carriage into the stratum at rest on the other
side. Now in this operation it would seem that part of the
visible motion of the train must be taken from it. To make another
comparison, it is as if a series of individuals were jumping into
the train at the one side, and out of it at the other, the result
being that each carries away so much of the motion of the train,
and therefore renders it difficult for the engine to drive the train.
Each individual comes to the ground with an immense forward
impetus, and rubs along the ground till this is lost ; in fact, he’
carries with him so much motion of the train, and converts it
into heat by friction against the ground.

Now something similar to this must happen to a substance in
visible motion in an enclosure of constant temperature. The
rays of light and heat will play very much the same part as the
waves of sound, or as the crowd of people in the above illus-
tration, at least if we except those which fall perpendicularly

Oct. 9, 1873 |

NATURE ;

495

upon the surface of the moving body. The moying body is like
the train, and the rays of light and heat are similar to individuals
entering the train from a stratum of ether at rest, and leaving
the train into a stratum of ether at rest again, each probably trans-
muting into heat a certain small portion of the visible motion of
the train as it were by a species of friction, Of course the in-
tensity of such an influence would depend upon the intensity of
the rays of light and heat. Now it matters not what the par-
ticular kind of motion be which constitutes this train—we
may assert that all directed motion will suffer from such a cause,
and possibly according to the same laws. Visible motion, such
as that of a rotating disc, or of a meteor, is of course one form
of such motion; but a current of electricity or of heat may
equally represent some form of directed motion. In fine, we
may perhaps suppose that all forms of directed motion are re-
sisted by this peculiar influence, which evidently depends upon
what we may term the temperature of the ether, or at least upon
the intensity of those vibrations which the ether transmits.

On a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connection with
the Sunspot Periodicity, by Charles Meldrum.

At the Brighton meeting (1872) it was stated that the cyclones
of the Indian Ocean between the Equator and lat. 25° S., were
much more frequent during the maxima than during the minima
sunspot years, Since that time the subject has been more fully
examined, and I now beg to present a catalogue of all the
cyclones known to have occurred during the last twenty-six
years. The Tables given last year only contained cyclones of
sufficient violence to dismast or otherwise disable vessels at sea,
whereas the accompanying Catalogue gives all the cyclones of
force 9 to 12, that is, ‘‘strong gale” to “*hurricane.”

The number of cyclones for each year from 1847 to 1873, is
as follows :—

ig

Years.
canes.

No. of Storms.
Cyclones.

No. of
Whole Gales
No. of Stron,

Gales.

Total No. of
No. of Cyclones
in Max. and
Min. Periods.

No.of Hurri-

~

—~
b
cea)

—
-
we

5
8
°
8
7
8
8
4
5
4
4
9

39

21
{

WerWOiNWNHKWeH HE NND DH HH OOM O00
OXWLNOOHOOHNHNORNOHOOHOOONOO

POW NWW OR NNO PUNTWWD HOW MPR w OM
UAND EA DPRR HON HOHNE NH HON HH ONWNNO

Ay

The observations for the years 1847-1850, are probably not so
complete as those for the subsequent years during which the
Meteorological Society of Mauritius made it a special duty to

~ collect storm statistics. Still it is evident that not only the years
1860 and 1872, but also the year 1848, were remarkable both
for the number and violence of cyclones, while the years 1856
and 1857 were quite the reverse. By taking the number of
cyclones in each maximum and minimum sunspot year, and in
each year on either side of them, so as to form maxima and
minima periods of three years each, we obtain the results given
in the last column of the above table, showing that during the

maxima periods 1848-1850, and 1859-1861, the number of
cyclones was 65, whereas in the minima periods 1855-1857, and
1866-1868, it was only 34, or little more than one half. In 1856,
there was only one hurricane of small extent, and in 1867, no hur-
ricane at all. Indeed it is doubtful whether several of the cyclones
in those years classed under “ storms,” should not have been put
down in the columns of ‘‘ whole gales” and “ strong gales.”

As, during the last twenty-two years, information respecting
the hurricanes of the Indian Ocean has been carefully and sys-
tematically collected and tabulated, I believe that the results
now given are substantially correct, and it seems to me that they
point unmistakeably to a close connection betwen sunspots, or
solar cyclones, and terrestrial cyclones, or what might be called
earth-spots, by an observer, on anothe. planet. :

Most of the severest cyclones have already been traced, ani
the others will also be traced. When this shall have been done,
an attempt will be made to express numerically the amount of
cyclonic area and cyclonic force for each year. The catalogue
gives little more than the number of cyclones, but from what is
already known, there is little doubt that their extent and force
were also far greater in the maxima than minima years,

Being desirous of extending the investigation as far back as
possible I have been examining the lists of former hurricanes,
and it is interesting to find that the evidence from this source
strongly corroborates the correctness of the conclusions deduced
from the observations of the last twenty-six years. From a
‘chronological table” published in the ‘* Mauritius Almanack ”
of 1869, we obtain the following list of Mauritius hurricanes :—

r No. of
Years janpicaes
1731
ET Meee
1760 ..
1766 ..
DT ..
DTI. on
1773 ++
1786 ..
1806 ..
1807 .. oe
BOG peers Saat 0c a2 sady es

-

mee ete

Probably the above list gives only the hurricanes that were re-
markable from their destructive effects in the island ; and much
stress should not be laid on observations taken at a single locality.
But it is rather suggestive that out of the twenty-four hurricanes
mentiened, seventeen fall within, or very nearly within,
maxima sun-spot periods, and only seven within minima

periods. Thus :—
Max. No.of Min. No. of
Years hurricanes Years hurricanes
MUPENY cate conai a's sis Cues chiens I TA Ore
1771 SA. on
1772 Raeeocdeea ee sewt ss 3 T7600.
1773 1824 ...
MOG esas ce Oaewcectaccensas I 1834 ... 2
1806 } (SE bee SORA oa Pe
1807 j Se asertecrsrensepees 3
1815 ) PDORAR reacts apacenee 7
1818 ae =
1819 j
1828 si
el ae
DI eas ons wonneae I
1848
840 | a 2
V0 ee ee 17

The same “ chronological table” contains the following re-
marks :— 1760, Dec. 1, ‘‘ Meteorological Phenomena,” 1815,
Feb. 5, “ Meteorological Phenomena.” —I have not ascertained
what these phenomena were ; but it is not improbable that they
were auroras. The auroraof the 4th Feb., 1872, was described
in the newspapers as a phénoméne météorologique.

Baron Grant, in his History of Mauritius, p. 194, regrets the
destruction of the woods near Port Louis, because, he says, the
town was thereby ‘‘ exposed to the violence of the winds, as well

“

496

NGTURE

| Oct, 9, 1873

as to the heat of the sun ;” and in a foot-note it is remarked :
«‘ These inconveniences, however, are fully counterbalanced, if it
be true that the cessation of hurricanes since 1789 has been caused
by the great diminution of the woods.” As the history was
published in or after 1801, it would appear that during the twelve
years 1789-1801 no hurricanes occurred. Now, since according
to the Table of Sunspots the years 1788 and 1804 were maxima
years, and the intervening minimum occurred in 1798, our theory
would lead us to expect a comparative cessation of hurricanes
during the period mentioned. ‘ ;

If time permitted, I would adduce similar evidence respecting
the hurricanes of Bourbon and other parts of the world.

The hurricanes of the Indian Ocean are well known to be
attended with torrential rains. So much is this the case that the
popular belief at Mauritius is that cyclones are the cause of our
rains. Heavy rains over extensive areas are certainly concomi-
tant with cyclones in the Indian Ocean, and it was therefore re-
solved to examine whether there was a rainfall periodicity. As
far as the Mauritius observations went, the matter was clear ; but
it was desirable to extend the investigation to other localities.
The Queensland and South Australia observations, which were
the only ones available at the time, gave a similar result, and as
Adelaide is far beyond the limits of the region of cyclones, it was
surmised that there was a rainfall periodicity generally, The
Cape observations afterwards gave additional support to this
view. The rainfall of England was next examined, and also
found to bear out the hypothesis.

It would occupy much more time than I can at present spare
to enter fully into this question of rainfall periodicity. With the
help of the researches of Mr, Lockyer, Mr, Symons, and Dr.
Jelinek of Vienna, I haye now examined 93 tables of rainfall for
various parts of the world, and I find that, scarcely without ex-
ception, more rain falls in the maxima than in the minima sun-
spot years. I beg to append a table showing the general results
for the quarters of the globe. It will be seen that, so far as the
observations go, Europe, Africa, America, and Australia give
very favourable results. Asia is only represented by three sta-
tions, one of which is Jerusalem, where the excess of rain in one
minimum period exceeds the excess in the maxima periods for
two stations in India. France is the only European country (of
which the rainfall has been examined) that gives an unfavourable

‘return, but it must be remarked that we have as yet got only five
stations there, which are all inland, and probably do not fairly
represent the rainfall of the whole country.

By taking the longest possible series of observations for several
stations, the periodicity comes out, and there is, I think, strong
evidence that the rainfall for the whole globe is subject to an
annual variation.

Having given the facts, as far as I have been enabled todo so,
I abstain from offering any theoretical remarks. If cyclone and
rainfall periodicities be fully established, a corresponding (di-
rect) temperature periodicity should exist, and this presumable
variation of solar heat may be the indirect cause of the periodi-
city of auroras and magnetic disturbances.

(The catalogue of cyclones was appended. )

On the Effect of Pressure and Temperature on the Widening
of the Lines in the Spectra of Gases, by Arthur Schuster, Ph. D.

One of the questions in Spectrum Analysis yet open to discus-
sion, is what influence pressure and temperature exert on the
widening of the lines, which is sometimes observed when an
electric current passes through certain gases. The subject of
this communication is to point out a little ambiguity which has
crept into the very statement of the question at issue, and to
show the only way by which a decisive answer can be arrived
at, and, in my opinion, has already been arrived at. I shall
begin by assuming that the convection of electricity has no direct
influence on the character of the spectrum ; that is to say that
under the same pressure, and at the same temperature, the gas
will always show the same spectrum, whether the temperature
has been produced by the passage of an electric current or by
any other means. In the present state of science this is the only
reasonable assumption that can be made, and it has been tacitly
made, I think, by every one who kas written on the subject.

Let us imagine a vessel filled with hydrogen, and let the tem-
perature of the gas be brought up to incandescence. The heat
communicated to the vessel is partly used to increase the trans-
latory motion of the gas, and thereby to increase its pressure,
and the other part of the heat has increased the periodical
motion in the molecules of the gas, which is generally admitted
to be the cause of its incandescence. If the temperature is

such that the lines are widened we can account for this fact in
two different ways. We may think that the forces which
maintain the molecule in vibration, and which are such that
at a lower temperature only perfectly isochronous vibrations
can take place are somewhat altered, so that the bonds which
keep the molecules together are loosened and now allow vibra-
tions to take place, the period of which is somewhat altered and
varying. We might secondly explain the widening of the lines
by saying that they are caused by the disturbances caused by the
frequent shocks of other molecules. If we increase the number
or the force of these shocks by increasing either the number of
molecules or their velocity we might well obtain disturbances
large enough to change a little the period of vibration. These
are the only two explanations that can be given, and if we say,
therefore, that temperature is the cause of the widening of the
lines we can only mean that part of temperature which has its
equivalent in the vibrating energy within one molecule. If we
say that pressure is the disturbing cause we include that part of
heat which increases the pressure with increasing temperature.
Let us now see whether we can obtain a clear answer to the
question which has now been clearly put.

It is evident that no result can be arrived at by subjecting the
same quantity of gas in the same vessel to different tempera-
tures, for we cannot increase the vibrating energy of the mole-
cules without increasing at the same time and in the same
proportion (as Clausius has shown), their translatory velocity.
By varying in the same ratio the two possible causes we shall
never be able to say which is the right view to be taken,

There are two ways open to us to mend this difficulty, We —

might increase the temperature of the gas under the same pressure.
Ifthe perturbation caused by the shocks of other molecules cause
the widening of the lines this widening ought not to take place
as we have reduced the number of these shocks in the same ratio
as we have increased their force. If on the contrary the disturb-
ance in the period of vibration has its cause within the individual
molecules it ought to remain.

We might, secondly, decide the question in subjecting the gas
at the same temperature to different pressures. If perturbations
are the cause the lines would be widened. Which of these two
ways is most easily pursued in experimenting? Can we easily
heat up a gas to incandescence under constant pressure? I
think not. If an electric discharge takes place in a gas only
comparatively few particles of the gas are heated up, and at
a very small distance from the points through which the dis-
charge takes place the gasis hardly heated up at all. But if the
heat is not diffused through the whole mass of gas, the increase
of pressure caused by this gas will also be merely confined to

the luminous streak, and we can therefore obtain no answer to -

our question (as this has been attempted) by filling a tube with
a certain quantity of gas, and altering the strength of the pass-
ing current or the mode of discharge. ;

We are, therefore, compelled to abandon this route and to
turn our eyes to the second way which I have indicated ; but
here we meet another difficulty, and even one over which we
cannot easily get. We cannot alter the pressure of a gas with:
out altering its electric resistance, and, therefore, also the
strength of the electric current and the heat developed. We
can only decide the question by subjecting the gas at the same
temperature to different pressure. Now have there ever been
any such experiments made? I think there have, and even
very decisive ones. Frankland and Lockyer have found that
if we increase the pressure of hydrogen while an electric cur-
rent is passing through it the lines begin to expand till the spec-
trum becomes continuous, and finally the resistance becomes so
large that the electric current will not pass at all. On the other
hand Gassiot and Plucker have observed that if we diminish the
pressure of hydrogen its electric resistance force diminishes,
attains a minimum, then increases again, and if we keep up ex-
hausting the tube it becomes again so great that the current can-
not pass. Plucker says that a tube exhausted to its utmost
limits shows the lines of hydrogen and silica. He mentions
at one place, I think, that the lines are very fine and distinct.
If there would have been any widening he would have been
sure to mention it. Now it is not too much to assume that
the resistance of the gas at the moment when the discharge just
ceases to take place is the same whether the increase of resist-
ance is produced by too great a pressure or too great an ex-
haustion. At this moment, therefore, the current is the same
and the same energy must be converted into heat by resistance.
But in the case in which the current does not pass on account ot
the excessive diminution of pressure, only a much smaller

x

Oct.9, 1873)

NATURE

497

quantity of gas has to be heated than in the other case. It must,
therefore, be heated up to a much higher temperature, and yet
the spectrum is not continuous and the lines are not even
widened. We are, therefore, compelled to accept Frankland
and Lockyer’s original conclusion, that pressure and not heat is
the cause of the widening of the lines.

The question is one of considerable importance. If tempera-
ture would widen the lines, the widening ought always to begin at
the same temperature, and the hydrogen in the solar protuber-
ances which show only narrow lines could not be at a higher
temperature than the hydrogen in our vacuum tubes, the moment
the lines begin to widen. If our conclusion, however, is cor-
rect the breadth of the lines will give us no indication whatever
as to the temperature of the gas. .

Dynamometers, by R. S. Ball, LL.D., F.R.S.

If we adopt that force which acting on one gramme for one
second will impart the velocity of one centimetre per second as
the unit, then one million of such units is a convenient magni-
tude for practical purposes. The large figures on the dyna-
mometers represent these million units, for which it is hoped that
ere long a suitable name will be adopted. The dynamometers
are intended for educational purposes. They are exhibited to
the Association with the desire of aiding the present movement
in favour of an improved system of fundamental unity.

SECTION C.—GEOLoGY

Concluding Report on the Maltese Fossil Elephants, by Dr. A.
Leith Adams, F.R.S. -

For thirteen years Dr. Leith Adams has prosecuted his re-
searches upon the fossil elephants of Malta, and he now presented
the final report upon this subject. Three forms of fossil elephants
occur here which are unknown elsewhere, all of small size. The
largest is the Zlephas Munaidriensis (L. Adams), which attained a
height of seven feet. In the crown sculpturing of the molars
this species resembles Zilefhas antiquus; as regards the
ridge-formula, its nearest ally is Loxodon meridionalis. Llephas
Melitensis (Falconer and Burk) varied in size ; its average height
was about five feet ; this too belonged to the Loxodon group.
The smallest bones known to the author belonged to an ele-
phant only three feet high, called Zvephas Falconeri, by Busk.
Although there appears to be some evidence for separating
this from the other forms, yet the author stated that
“there is no difficulty in arranging a graduating series of
specimens from the smallest up to the largest bones ascribable to
the Zilephas Melitensis.”

The elephants all occur in the same deposit, and with them
there are remains of Hippopotamus Pentlandi and H. minutus.
There is also a gigantic dormouse and a large extinct swan,
besides some reptilian remains not yet fully worked out.

The report concludes as follows :—‘‘It must be apparent that
this (for the most part) unique fossil fauna restricted to a small
mid-ocean island, presents several interesting contrasts with
reference to the Mammalia in general, and elephants in par-
ticular,.which frequented Europe during late geological epochs.
For example, between Rome and Sicily we find remains of the
Elephas primigenius, Elephas antiguus, and Elephas meridionalis.
In the caves of Sicily, traces of the African elephant have been
discovered, and also molars, barely distinguishable from those of
the Asiatic species, and which, under the name of Zi/ephas Ar-
meniacus, are traceable eastward into Asia Minor, in the direc-
tion of the present habitat of the living species. It looks,
indeed, as if the eastern basin of the Mediterranean had been at
one time a common ground where all these extinct and living
elephants met, and from whence, with other animals, they have
disappeared or been repelled to distant regions.”

Sub‘ Wealden Exploration.—1. General Report, by Henry
Willett.

In this report Mr. Willett gave a summary of the results
achieved up to the present time, the details having already been
published in his quarterly reports.

The boring was commenced at the time of the last meeting of
the British Association at Brighton, and its object is to explore
the rocks underlying the Weald of Sussex. A bore of 63
inches diameter was at first adopted, but at the urgent recom-
mendation_of Mr. Prestwich, one of g-inch diameter was em-
ployed. The bore has now reached a depth of 300 feet, and
the engineer (Mr. Bosworth) has contracted to increase it to a

depth of 418 feet at the cost of only 1/. per foot. Of the 300
feet of strata already passed through, about 70 were previously
known, but the remaining 230 are new to science ;+50 feet of
this consists of valuable beds of gypsum.

Mr. Willett has designed a novel form of drill which possesses
the following advantages :—(1) It cuts only the circumference ;
(2) it makes better progress ; (3) the central core is Jeft intact ;
(4) the tool not unfrequently extracts the core itself. The gyp-
sum was extracted by this means, and it is believed that no such
cores have been brought to the surface from similar depths in
this country.

Sub-Wealden Exploration.—2.
Topley, F.G.S.

The author commenced by repeating the protest, often made
already, that the Sub-Wealden Exploration was not a “search
for coal.” It is simply an endeavour to explore the rocks which
underlie the Weald and especially to reach the Palzeozoic rocks.
Whatever these rocks may prove to be, if reached at all, the
boring will have succeeded. The results of this boring cannot
fail to have important bearings upon the question of the probable
occurrence of coal measures beneath the South-East of England,
but the discovery of coal is not the object in view.

An account was then given of the lowest beds exposed at the
surface in Sussex, and of the reasons which have led many
geologists to consider them as representatives of the Purbeck
Beds. The thickness of Purbeck Beds previously known in
Sussex was somewhat over 300 feet ; probably about 230 addi-
tional feet of strata have been made known by the boring, in
which there are some valuable beds of gypsum.

The boring commences about 250 down in the known Purbeck
Beds ; up to Sept. 1 it had reached a depth from the surface of
294 feet. It is not safe at present to speculate upon the geologi-
cal age of the lowest beds reached in our boring, but additional
evidence will probably soon be obtained.*

The author then pointed out that most of the bore holes
which have been put down to the Palzeozoic rock through newer
strata have reached those older rocks at about 1,000 feet below
the sea. There is a probability then that at or about this depth
the palzeozoic rocks will occur beneath the Weald. These places,
however, are on, or to the north of, the westerly prolongation of
the Axis of Artois, whilst the boring is to the south of that line ;
it is therefore possible that different conditions may prevail
here,

Attention was then drawn to the fact, already pointed out by
Mr. Godwin-Austen, that the dip of the carboniferous limestone
in the Boulonnais is to the south, whilst in the Pays de Bray
the same limestone has been found at a depth of 57 feet from the
surface, underlying Kimmeridge clay. It is then probable that
under the secondary rocks near to the south of Boulogne there is a
basin of palzeozoic rocks, in which the coal measures may be pre-
served ; this basin might possibly be prolonged to the west be-
low the Wealden district of the south-east of England.

In the course of the discussion which followed the reading of
these reports, Sir John Hawkshaw stated that many people,
himself included, took an interest in this question chiefly from
the hope that coal might be found ; but even if in this respect
we were doomed to disappointment it would still be of great
importance to show that, at that particular spot, no coal existed.
Prof. Phillips thought that the object sought was neither coal,
gypsum, nor salt ; but that something exists below the Wealden
is certain, and that something we are now searching for. A dis-
cussion then took place as to the best mode of conducting deep
borings. Mr. R. Russell, C.E., spoke of the great value of the
diamond boring process; but from remarks made by other
speakers it appeared that, although the diamond is admirably
adapted for boring small holes in hard rocks, it is not so well
suited for conducting such an operation as that under discussion.

On the Arenig and Llandeilo Rocks of St. David’s,by Henry
Hicks, F.G.S.

The object of this paper was to follow out the succession of
the rocks in the neighbourhood of St. David’s, commenced in
previous papers communicated to the British Association. The
section was now completed to the top of the Llandeilo series,
The Arenig and Llandeilo groups were each divided into an
upper and a lower series, the author believing that in each case

Geological Report, by W.

* Since this Report was read, Prof. Phillips has broken up and carefully
examined parts of the cores brought up from the bottom of the boring ; in
a he a found Linguda ovalis, which occurs in the Kimmeridge Clay.

ee p. 457. ; ;

NATURE

(Oct, 9; 1893

there was sufficient evidence to enable him to do so, The Lower
Arenig series it was stated occur as black slates and flags about
1,000 ft. in thickness, and are characterised by many species of
graptolites as well as by numerous trilobites entirely restricted to
the series. The Upper Arenig series occur as fine-grained, soft
black shales, not much cleaved, also about 1,000 ft. in thickness,
resting conformably on the Lower Arenig series. Their grapto-
lites are distinct from those found in the lower beds, as are also
all the other fossils. The Lower Llandeilo series, the lowest
rocks recognised by Sir R. I. Murchison in the typical Llandeilo
district, occur at St. David’s as black slates and hard grey flaggy
sandstones, and are about 1,500 ft. in thickness, The most cha-
racteristic fossils are Didymograptus Murchisoni, Diplograptus
pristis, Asaphus tyrannus, Calymene Cambrensis, and /llenus
perovalis. The Upper Llandeilo series occur as black slates
and flags, several thousand feet in thickness, forming several folds
of strata, and resting conformably on the Lower Llandeilo series.
The typical fossils are Ogysia Buchii, Barrandea Cordayi, Caly-
mene duplicata, Cheirurus Sedgwickit, Trinucleus fimbriatus,
Ampyx nudus, and Lingula Ramsayt.

The author doubted whether any other spot hitherto examined
in Britain could show so continuous a section of these rocks ;
still he believed that there was ample evidence to prove, from
researches made in other parts of Wales and in Shropshire, that
the succession here made out was, in most of its important
details, capable of being applied to many other districts.

SECTION D.—BIoLocy
DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

On the Relation of Morality to Religion in the Early Stages of
Civilisation, by Edward B. Tylor, F.R.S.

Investigations of the culture of the lower races of mankind
show morality and religion subsisting under conditions differing
remarkably from those of the higher barbaric and civilised nations.
Among the rudest tribes a well-marked standard of morality
exists, regulating the relations of family and tribal life. There
also exists among these tribes some more or less definite religion,
always consisting of some animistic doctrine of souls and other
spiritual beings, and usually taking in some rudimentary form of
worship. But, unlike the higher nations, the lowest races in no
way unite their ethics and their theology. As examples, the
Australians and Basutos of South Africa were adduced. The
Australians believe spiritual beings to swarm throughout the
universe ; the Basutos are manes-worshippers, considering the
spirits of deceased ancestors to influence all the events of hu-
man life, wherefore they sacrifice to the spirits of near rela-
tives, that they may use their influence with the older and
more powerful spirits higher in the line of ancestry. Yet these
races and many others have not reached the theological stage
at which man’s good or evil moral actions are held to please
or displease his divinities, and to be rewarded or punished
accordingly. The object of the present paper is to trace the
precise steps through which the important change was made
which converted the earlier unethical systems of religion into
ethical ones. This change appears to have been a gradual
coalescence between the originally independent schemes of
morality and religion.

In order to show the nature of such coalescence between
religion and other branches of culture, not originally or not
permanently connected with it, the author traced out on an
ethnological line the relations between religion, and on the one
hand the rite of marriage, on the other hand the profession of
medicine.

First as to marriage :—The evidence of the lower races tends
to show that at early stages of civilisation, martiage was a purely
civil contract. -Its earliest forms are shown among savage tribes
in Brazil and elsewhere. The peaceable form appears well in
the customs of the marriageable youth leaving a present of fruit,
game, &c., at the door of the girl’s parents; this is a clear
symbolic promise that he will maintain heras a wife. Another
plan common in Brazil is for the expectant bridegroom to serve
for a time in the family of the bride, till he is considered to have
earned her.

The custom of buying the wife comes in at a later period of
civilisation, when property suited for trade exists. The hostile
form of marriage, that by capture, has also existed among low
tribes in Brazil up to modern times, the man simply carrying off
by force a damsel of a distant tribe ; the antiquity of this ‘‘ Sabine
mattiage” in the general history of mankind being shown by its

survival in countries such as Irela‘:1 and Wales, where within
modern times the ceremony of capturing the bride in a mock
fight was kept up. i

Now in none of these primitive forms of marriage, as retained
in savage cultures, did any religious rite or idea whatever enter.
It is not till we reach the high savage and barbaric conditions
that the coalescence between marriage and religion takes place ;
as where among the Mongols the priest presides at the marriage
feast, consecrates the bridal tent with incense, and places the
couple kneeling with their faces to the east to adore the sun, fire,
and earth; or, as where among the Aztecs the priest ties
together the garments of the bridegroom and bride in sign of
union, and the wedded pair pass the time of the marriage festival
in religious ceremories and austerities. So complete in later
stages of culture did this coalescence become, that many have
come to consider a marriage hardly valid unless celebrated as a
religious rite and by a priest.

Second, as to the relation of the profession of medicine to re-
ligion. In early animistic philosophy, one principal function of
spiritual beings was to account for the phenomena of disease,
As normal life was accounted for by the presence of a soul
operating through the body, in which it located itself, so abnor-
mal life, including the phenomena of disease, was accounted for
in savage and barbaric culture as caused by some intruding spirit.
Thus spiritual obsession and possession becomes the recognised
theory of disease, and the professional exorciser is the doctor
curing disease by religious acts intended to expel or propitiate
the demon. Since the middle period of culture, however, this
early coalescence has been gradually breaking away, till now in
the most civilised nations the craft of healing has become the
function of the scientific surgeon or physician, and the belief
and ceremonies of the exorcist survive in form rather than in
reality.

By these cases it is evident that coales~-nce between religion
and other matters not necessarily connected with it may take
place at different periods of culture, and also that this coalescence
may terminate after many ages of adhesion. Having shown this,
the author proceeded to ascertain exactly when and how in the
history of civilisation the coalescence of morality and religion
took place.

First, where manes-worship is the main principle of a religion,
as among some North American tribes and the Kafirs of South
Africa, the keeping up of family relations strongly affects the
morality. It is, for instance, a practice among the ruder races to
disinter the remains of the dead or to visit the burial place, in
order to keep the deceased kinsman informed as to what takes
place in his family, in which he is often held to take the liveliest
interest. Thus it is evident that any moral act of an individual
damaging to his family would be offensive to the ancestral manes,
whose influence must therefore strengthen kindly relations among
the living members of the tribe. Higher in the social scale this
ethical influence of manes-worship takes more definite form, as
when in China the divine ancestor of an emperor will reproach
him for selfish neglect or cruelty to his nation, and even threaten
to induce their own highest divine ancestor to punish him for
misdeeds. Thus amongst the ancient Romans, the Lares were -
powerful deities enforcing the moral conduct of the family, and
punishing household crime.

Second, the doctrine of the Future Life begins at the higher
levels of savagery to affect morals. In its first stage the doctrine
of metempsychosis is seen devoid of moral meaning, men being
re-born as men or animals, but when the distinction appears in
the higher savagery between migration into vile or noble animals,
it is not Jong before this distinction takes the form of reward or
punishment of the good and wicked by their high or low re-
incarnation, an idea which is the basis of the Buddhist schemé
of retributive moral transmigration through successive bodies.
In its earlier stages this doctrine was of mere continuance, as
where South-American tribes expected the spirits of the dead to
pass to another region where they would live as on earth. Here
the distinctions of earthly rank are carried on, the chief’s
soul remaining a chief, and the plebeian’s soul a plebeian,
but no sign of moral retribution appears. The first stage of this
seems to be where warriors slain in battle are admitted to the
paradise of chiefs in the land of the Great Spirit. This idea,
which comes into view in several districts, leads to the fuller
moral scheme in which goodness of any kind—valour, skill, &e;
—are more and more held to determine the difference between
the next life of the good man in happy hunting-grounds, or of the
bad man in some dismal wilderness or subterranean Hades, In

ae
Oct. 9, 1873]
the higher nations this element becomes more and more distinctly
marked, till the expectation of future reward and the fear of
future punishment becomes one of the great motives of human
life.

Third, when theology among the rudest tribes is mostly con-
fined to consideration of ghosts, demons, and nature-spirits, the
intercourse with these leads to little inculcation of moral action,

It is when ideas of the great deities become predominant, when
men’s minds are turned to the beneficent action of the sun, or
heaven, or earth, or to a Supreme Deity yet above these, that it
is conceived that the order of nature includes moral order of
human conduct. Then, as in the religion of ancient China, the
universe and its Supreme Deity are regarded as furnishing the
model and authority regulating man’s actions towards his kindred
and his subjects. Thus appears, not in the beginning, but in the
middle of the development of religious ideas among mankind,
the leading principle of a moral government of the world and its
inhabitants.

In these three ways it appears from the evidence of ethnology
that the vast transition was made from the earlier unethical to
the later ethical systems of religion. Its course, so different from
that imagined by the older speculative theologians, has to be
ascertained from examination of the actual stages through which
the religions of the world have passed. The very attempt to
make this investigation on a basis of facts is, however, a novelty.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Monthly Microscopical Journal commences with an article,
illustrated with a plate, ‘‘ On Organic Bodies in Fire Opal,” by
Mr. H. J. Slack, in which the author, from the appearances
which he finds and describes, expresses an opinion, though not a
decided one, that these minute bodies may be vegetable fossils,
possibly algae, though the evidence he adduces is extremely slight.
Dr. G. W. Royston Pigott continues his researches on the high-
power definition of organic particles, and re-affirms that the
generally received description of the Podura scale is erroneous, on
account of the employment of spherically over-corrected objec-
tives——Mr. Wenham criticises Dr. Pigott’s paper in the preced-
ing number of the Journal, remarking truly that the patience of
microscopists must eventually become exhausted by the repe-
tition of the same theme. He then shows that Dr. Pigott claims,
without foundation, discoveries with regard to the improvement
of object-glasses and the ‘‘ colour test.”—Dr. Maddox, On the
apparent relation of nerve to connective-tissue corpuscles,
&c., in the Frog-Tadpole’s Tail, describes, in connection with
the observations “of Eberth, Kuhne, and Moseley, cases in
which nerve-fibres seem to lose themselves in connective tissue
corpuscles. His results are not very decided, and hardly tend to
settle the question.—Mr., Edwin Smith describes a new sub-
stage for the microscope, and certain appliances for illumina-
tion.—The paper read before the Royal Society, by Messrs.
Pode and Lankester, is given in full. Their experiments are
divided into eight series, in which infusions of hay and turnip,
mixed or unmixed, with cheese finely divided or in lumps, are
boiled and some of them sealed. When the cheese was finely com-
minuted, Bacteria did not appear ; when in lumps, they were
frequently found. In a boiled turnip infusion, placed in a retort
of which the end Was left open, there was no cloud developed
after many weeks, which is quite contrary to the observations of
Dr. Bastian (NATURE, Feb. 6, p. 275.)

THE Geological Magazine contains Prof. T. Sterry Hunt’s article
from the Canadian Naturalist, on the history of the names
Cambrian and Silurian in Geology. The subject is divided into
three parts: 1. The history of Silurian and Upper Cambrian in
Great Britain from 1831 to 1854. 2. That of the still more
ancient rocks in Scandinavia, Bohemia, and Great Britain up to
the present time. 3. The history of the Lower Palzozoic rocks
in North America.—Mr. E. Hardman describes and gives ana-
lyses of the Siliceous Nodular Brown Hematite (Géthite) in the
Carboniferous Limestone Beds near Cookstown, Co. Tyrone.
The ore contains as much as 52°2 per cent. of iron, on the
average, and no sulphur.—Mr. J. C. Mansel-Pleydell has a brief
memoir on the geology of Dorsetshire, which is an interesting
summary of the most important points in the unbroken series
from the Liassic to the Quaternary formations found in_ the
county.—Mr. Joshua Wilson, in endeavouring to arrive at the
time when the Gulf Stream reached the British Coast and so
dispersed the then abundant glaciers, ingeniously shows that a

NATURE

499

raised beach, containing Arctic shells, mentioned by Geikie in
his “‘Scenery of Scotland,” must have been produced before that
event, otherwise i: would have been removed by the offshore
under-current which always accompanies an onshore wind, —Dr.
Winkler’s description of Prerodactylus micronyx in the Jeyler
Museum, from the Lithographic Stone of Eichstitt, in Bavaria.
The specimen is very small and complete. There are four
phalanges in the long finger of the hand. In the foot there are
two in hallux ; three on the second and third ; and two, with no
metatarsus, on the fourth (Stiimmel).—In a letter to the editor,
Mr. T. W. Danby, after comparing the new method of writing
crystallographic formulz proposed by Mr. Rutley, shows that it
is not so advantageous as that of Dr. Whewell, modified by
Prof. W. H. Miller; it is therefore doubtful whether its partial
ar will not place a further obstacle in the student’s
path.

THE numbers of the Journal of Botany for August, Septem-
ber, and October, fully maintain the character of this magazine.
In addition to the short notes and queries in each number, which
often contain points of great interest to the systematic or physio-
logical botanist, the following articles may be mentioned as of
special value :—Dr. Alfred Nathorst, of the Geological Survey
of Sweden, contributes a paper on the Distribution of Arctic
plants during the Post-Glacial Epoch, which he considers to
exhibit gradual changes of climate from the Forest-bed down to
the Boulder-clay.— Prof. Church gives an analysis of the giant
puff-ball, Lycoperdon giganteum, which he finds to contain, when
dried, as much as 66°78 per cent. of albuminoids, and the ash
46°19 per cent. of phosphorus pentoxide.—Mr. J. G. Baker
describes a very interesting new genus of ferns, Diflora, of the
tribe Asfleniez, from the Solomon Islands.—From the same
botanist we have a valuable synopsis of the East Indian species
of Dracena and Cordyline.—Mr. J. Ball commences a descrip-
tion of some of the new species, sub-species, and varieties of
plants collected by Dr. Hooker and himself in Morocco in 1871;
the flora belongs essentially to the Mediterranean type, and the
number of novelties is not comparatively large.—Mr. Carruthers
gives his very valuable annual Review of the Contributions to
Fossil Botany published in Britain in 1872, comprising 23 dis-
tinct papers or abstracts.—In these numbers we have also parts
vi. and vii. of the Rev. E. O’Meara’s Recent Researches in the
Diatomacez.

THE second part of vol. xxix. of the Zyamsactions of the
Linnean Society, just published, is occupied by a continuation
of Colonel Grant and Prof. Oliver’s ‘‘ Botany of the Speke and
Grant Expedition.” The number of new species described in
this part is thirty-five ; and it is illustrated by thirty-five full-
sized 4to plates, the expense of which is munificently borne by
Col. Grant.

Der Naturforscher, August—The eruption of Vesuvius last
year attracted much scientific observation, and we have in the
present serial an abstract of a valuable paper by M. Heim on
the nature and formation of lava, of which he distinguishes two
kinds, ‘“‘lump” lava and ‘‘cake” lava (Schollen and Fladen),
differing, he found, not in chemical constitution, but merely in
vapour-contents. In the physical division we may note M.
Wiedemann’s experiments in measuring the elliptical polarisa-
tion from reflection on bodies with surface colours, for a series of
angles of incidence, and different parts of the spectrum. Meteoro.
logy is represented by M. Dufour’s recent observations on re-
flection of solar heat from the Lake of Geneva; and an inter-
esting paper entitled ‘‘ Polar Lights and Earth Lights.” There
is a description of M. Zéllner’s new mode of estimating the abso-
lute temperature of the sun, which is based simply on a knowledge
of the density relation between two different layers of the
hydrogen atmosphere, the distance between them being known.
The value his formula gives {fs 61350°. Among botanical
subjects treated are, autumn colouring of leaves and formation
of vegetable acids, summer dryness of our trees and shrubs, and
passage of radiant heat through leaves. Some physiological
experiments by M. Rosenthal, on the time-relations of reflex
phenomena, are described; and there is a variety of other
matter, much of which has already been noticed in these
columns,

Annalen der Chemieund Pharmacie. Band. clxviii. Heft. 1, July
16.—The number opens with four papers by Prof. Ad. Claus, on
azophenylen, on di-iodhydrin, on the action of ammonia on dichlo-
hydrin, and on the preparation of dichlorhydrin. The first of
these contains a long and exhaustive account of the body in ques-

a

BR ia 2 Fa Nie Te
v@ y 4 ard Mea Te

y

NATURE

tionand ofitscompounds. The formula ofazophenylen is C,,H,No.
Bytheaction of ammoniaon it a body having the formula C,,H,,N.
is produced.—On diiodhydrin, by the same author. This body
has the formula C;H,I,0.—On the action of ammonia on di-
chlorhydrin, by the same. The result of the action is the pro-
duction of chlorhydrinimid, a body of the formula C,,H,,N,Cl,O4.
-—Preparation of dichlorhydrin, by the same. The method con-
sists in acting on glycerin with chloride of sulphur,—Applica-
tion of the periodic law to the cerium group, by D. Mendelejeff.
—On the preparation of ethylen and its bromide, by E. Erlen-
meyer and H. Bunte.—On the action of nascent hydrogen on the
oil of bitter almonds, by Hugo Amann.—On the bromised
benzol sulpho acids, by A. Woelz. The author has prepared
dibrombenzol sulpho-acid, and gives an account of its salts and
of its reaction with fused potassic hydrate.—An investigation of
piperin and its products of decomposition, piperic acid and pi-
peridin, by R. Fittg and I. Remsen.—On ethylen-proto-
catechuic acid by the same author, and T. Macalpine.—New
compound of the Naphthalin group, by J. P. Battershall.—On
the action of a mineral sulphur water on cast-iron, by Dr. E.
Priwoznik. The author found an iron water-pipe, through which
this wa -r passed converted as regards its inner side into a mix-
ture of sulphide of iron, hydrated oxide of iron and free sulphur.
The centre stratum was also altered, containing only 79:2 per
cent. of iron.—On sulph-hydantoin (glycolyl-sulpho-urea) by R.
Maly.—Determination of boiling points at the normal barometric
pressure, by Dr. H. Bunte.—Preparation of trimethyl-carbinol,
by Linnemann’s method, by A. Butlerow.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LoNDON

Royal Microscopical Society.—The opening meeting of
the session was held at King’s College, Oct. 1, C. Brooke,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The secretary read a paper by
Dr. Maddox descriptive of an organism found in a pond of fresh
water in the New Forest, near Lyndhurst, which it was proposed
to name Pseudo-ameba violacea. The general appearance of the
organism was minutely described and figured, and the results of a
series of continuous observations upon a growing slide under the mi-
croscope were detailed. —A paper by Mr. F. Kitton, of Norwich,
describing some new species of Diatoms, was taken as read, and
the attention of the meeting was called by the president to one
of great beauty named by Mr. Kitto Aulacodiscus superbus.—
Mr. F. H. Wenham made some interesting observations upon
the microscopical appearance of glass which had been subjected
to the action of the American sand-blast process, showing that
the erosion of the surface was entirely due to the percussive force
of the particles of sand, and that the results of this were demon-
strated by the polariscope. A number of specimens were ex-
hibited in the room.—Mr. C. Stewart, the hon. sec., exhibited
under the microscope, and minutely described, a beautiful pre-
paration of the spermatophores of the common squid ; he also
explained and illustrated the general structure of the generative
organs of the male cuttle-fish.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, April 3.—Conchological
Section.—Dr. W. S. W. Ruschenberger, in the chair,—Dr.
F. A. Hassler presented the following memorandum of experi-
ments by W. M. Gabb and himself to ascertain the tenacity of life
in Littorina muricata. The specimens, 140 in number, were col-
lected by Mr. Gabb in St. Domingo, September 1870, and hung in
a basket in his office. A few (five or six) were moistened after
three months, then each month until May 1871, when all were
alive. May, June, July, and August, r871, 25 were moistened
each month, and all found to be living except two in July and
two in August. These were each month laid aside and not
moistened again until September. At this time 40 of the ori-
ginal lot remained, all were moistened, and 29 found to be alive.
In September, of the roo which had been moistened during May,
June, July, and August, 89 were alive. The 118 living ones were
all placed together Feb, 18, 1872, the lot was again moistened
and about 60 revived at once, and after several hours all but 24
were or had been crawling. These 24 were rejected. March
30, 1872: of the remaining 94, ten were moistened, nine were
alive ; these nine were placed aside with a few which had given
evidence of life since the last experiment, Feb. 18. Sept. 18,

1872: all moistened and found living ; they were also all alive
in December. On Feb, 12, 1873, two found to be dead, and
were separated from the others. March 26: All moistened, and
though exposed for three days, only one began to crawl; this
one was separated, also 27 others which were known to be dead,

leaving 65 undetermined,
-

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Sept. 29.—M. Bertrand in the chair.
—The following papers were read :—Notes on the yellow elastic
tissue, and remarks on its history in relation to a memoir by M.
Bouillaud, and some criticisms on it by M. Bouley, by M. E.
Chevreul.—Researches on the elastic tissue of the elephant and
the ox, by M. Chevreul.—New researches on the analysis and
theory of the pulse, by M. Bouillaud. The author continued
his former papers on this subject, dealing with the abnormal
pulse in this paper.—Remarks on M. Bouillaud’s late paper on
the pulse, by M. Bouley.—Reply to M. Bouley by M. Bouillaud.
—Kemarks on No. 21 of the “ Mémorial de l’officier du Génie,”
by General Morin. The general drew attention to many in-
teresting notes on the late sieges of Paris, contained in this
number.—Note on magnetism, by M. J. M. Gaugain. This was
a fourth instalment of the author’s paper.—On the part played by
gases in the coagulation of albumin, by MM. E. Mathieu and
V. Urbain.—On a new method of treating cholera, and pro-
bably yellow fever, by means of sub-cutaneous injections of car-
bolic acid and carbolate of ammonia, by M. Déclat. The author
recommended drinks containing carbolic acid in doses of from
thirty to forty centigrammes per day, and from four to six in-
jections of five grammes each of carbolic acid solution (24 per
cent.). These doses are to be largely increased in severe stages
of the disease. —Comparison of the Piylloxere vastatrix of galls
with those of roots, by M. Max. Cornu.—On the size and vari-
ation of the sun’s diameter, by S. Respighi. The author, in his
letter, discussed Secchi’s late observations on the same subject.—
On the action of the respiratory apparatus after an opening of the
thoracic wall, by MM.G., Carlet and J. Straus. —On the classi-
fication of the fish of the family of 7yigvide, by M. H. E. Sauvage.
—Researches on the action of heat on the carbuncular virus, by
M. C. Davaine.—On a deposit of Endogenites echinatus in the
Museum (fossil vegetable collection), by M. E. Robert.—On
the influence of sulphates in the producton of goitre in relation
to an epidemic form of that disease in a barrack at St. Etienne,
by,M. Bergeret.

CONTENTS PAGE
ForeIGN ORDERS OF MERIT . PRR
Luppock’s “ MonoGRAPH OF THE COLLEMBOLA AND ,T'HYSANURA” 482
MoNCKHOVEN’S PHOTOGRAPHY. . . . 2. 2 6 ss ew 482
Our Bopk Sieur iia! oes aden) efcen a © (a) ONL waar
LETTERS TO THE EpiTor :—
Wyville Thomson and the Ventriculide.—L. Toutmin SmitH. 484
Deidamia.—A. R:Guorms . . . « 2 ss eee 485
Dr. Sanderson’s Experiments and Archebiosis.—Dr. H. CHARLTON
BASTIAN, FURS: 5"<" i).0.- v.acils # p/n 0le ae 485
Mr. D. Forbes’s Criticism of Mr. R. Mallet’s Volcanic Theory.—
R. Marrer, PVR:S.2 5. 5). es 485
On the Equilibrium of Temperature of a Gaseous Column subject
to Gravity.—Principal F, Gururiz, LLB... . . . . ee 486
The Sphygmograph.—A. H. GARROD. . . . + « + « se 486
Venomous Caterpillars. . . ... . owe) ene
Harmonic Echoes.—J. J. MurpHY . ......e0s se 487
Carbon Battery Plates—T, W. FLetcuer, F.C... .... . 487
Brilliant Meteor.—T..PERKINS . ..;. - « » =) se 487
NortHern Limit of PHANEROGAMIC VEGETATION. By Dr. J. D.
Hooxsr, C.B,, F:R.sSi sw... \s) 0) lps weer 437
THE WeatpeN Boric. By Prof. J. Puups, F.R.S. ... . , 487
Tae New Marine ANIMAL FROM WASHINGTON TERRITORY. By
Dr. .P. L. Sccarer, F:R:SA0 3s )/. .S oC 487
Tue Ray Society. €: le ade a) ble Co nla DS -_« 488
On THE INTERNAL NosE oF THE PECCARIES AND Pics. By Dr. J. E.
GRAY, ERS. es csi eet oo eee) en 488
ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS
or WeIcuT AND Mzasurg, VI. By H. W. CuisHoLM, Warden of the
Standards (With Illustrations) . . . . 1. 6. 0 1 a - . 489
NOTES + oie + 5 o> ne ein tims oy ae ge = (ae ie
BritisH Association, A —Sectional Proceedings ... . . - « 494
c: » ” 0 es ee ign ey
D. i * . 2 woe Soe
Screnriric SERIALS 1.5, « Memes leet Mel, oc ae a e+ 6 499
SocieTIES AND ACADEMIES « 6 « « 50a
ee De

_ Er2aTa.—Vol. viii. p. 480 rst col. |. 23 from bottom, for “ Kerson’s” read
“ Henson’s” ; 1. 14, for “ Montague ” read ‘‘ Montagne.”

“THURSDAY, OCTOBER 16, 1873

DALBERTIS’ EXCURSION INTO THE IN-
. TERIOR OF NEW GUINEA

_ JW a preceding number of NaTuRE (vol. viii., p. 305)
“1 some account has been given of the new Paradise-
birds and other novelties recently discovered by Signor
‘Luigi Maria D’Albertis in the interior of New Guinea.
_ Signor D’Albertis, who is now in New South Wales, has
_ lately published in the Sydey Herald an account of his
_ month’s excursion into the interior of that ferra tncoguita,
_ from which the following particulars are taken :—
_ OD’Albertis started from Andai, a small village about
ten miles from Havre Dorey, where, along with his com-
‘panion Dr. Beccari, he had been resident with a Dutch
_ missionary. By the aid of presents to the Corono, or
_ headman of Andai, and promises of further payment on
_ arriving at his destination, he succeeded in obtaining the
“services of six natives to carry his baggage and provisions
| to Atam, a populous village in Mount Arfak, where there
§ was a Corono with whom | he had already made acquaint-
ance.
f _ An early hour on September 4, 1872, was fixed for the
| traveller’s departure, Dr. Beccari, the botanist, proposing
| to remain at Andai during the absence of his companion.
_ After crossing a small creek in a canoe, the forest was
entered. Besides six natives, D’Albertis was accom-
" panied by a Malay interpreter and the wife of one of the
' natives, making eight persons in all. After a short walk
over level ground a steep hill was reached, and crossed by
_ 4 narrow pathway, fatiguing and difficult. The forest
_ around was mountainous and gloomy, the silence being
relieved only by the deep cooing ef pigeons and the hoarse
voice of a black Megapode (probably Megapodius freyci-
_ neti), One of the latter served as dinner for the day,
_ After arriving at the summit of the hill, an hour’s walk
~ across a level forest-country succeeded, whence a descent
was made to a stream of water, deliciously clear and
fresh. After this, hills were again ascended, gradually
increasing in height, and the road became more and more
difficult. Here the Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisea
papuana) was met with, and the large Crowned Pigeons
_ (Goura coronata) were very numerous. At 4 P.M. a
height of 1,500 feet above the sea, which was seen to
the east, not very far distant, had been attained, and after
a short descent an extensive watercourse, at this time
nearly dry, was reached. Here natives were first encoun-
tered ; a tribe of men, women, and children, accompanied
by dogs and pigs, emerged from behind the large stones
of the water-course. The men were armed with bows and
arrows and the farang, a large knife, narrowed near the
handle and widened towards the extremity, Some of the
men approached and were friendly and inquisitive, whilst
others kept at a distance, and formed small picturesque
groups about the rocks of the watercourse. The women
were very timid, and also kept apart in groups along with
the children. Upon inquiries through the interpreter, it
appeared that these Papuans were returning from an ex-
pedition to the sea-side to procure salt. After taking
_ leave of some of the natives, who were going in another
direction, D’Albertis accompanied the others to their

No, 207—VoL, viu1,

- NATURE

oan = aie

501

house, which was situated about 500 feet above the tor-
rent. Here the forest was of the same gloomy character,
but relieved by occasional clearings. At sunset a magni-
ficent view over the harbour of Dorey and the island of
Mansinam was obtained, and the birds raised their voices
in chorus to salute the passing day. The house in which
the night was passed contained four families. It was
built on trunks of trees and entered by a long ladder.
The stranger was well received, and presented with sugar
canes, in return for which he gave his hosts tobacco.

The following day (Sept. 5), after some little difficulty,
a start was made about 8 A.M., the chief of the house and
some women accompanying the party. After descending
to the watercourse passed on the previous day, the
ascent of Mount Putat was recommenced, under the
shade of large and umbrageous trees. At noon, the
summit and village of Putat were reached, whence a fine
view of the coast of Dorey and island of Mansieain were
obtained. To the south-west rose some high mountains
covered with dense vegetation. After an interval of re-
pose, our traveller was anxious to depart, but was
answered by the natives, that they had already arrived at
Atam, and that they were not going any farther. It was
not without much difficulty, and Signor D’Albertis show-
ing them by his pocket barometer that they had not
arrived at the requisite elevation of the place in question,
that it was ultimately arranged that a fresh start should
be made on the following morning.

The next day, accordingly, the party quitted the village
of Putat, escorted by about 20 additional men, women,
and children, and after descending to about 700 or 800
feet above the sea-level, commenced to re-ascend up the
bed of another watercourse. About noon, a small stream
of fresh water afforded an opportunity for refreshment,
and at evening, after a further ascent, night-quarters were
discovered in some uninhabited huts. On continuing
the journey next day the party still ascended, until the
summit of the mountain at an elevation of 3,600 feet was
obtained. Here a halt was made in some huts similar to
those used for the previous night, and Atam was visible
to the west on the farther side of a deep valley. At this
spot the Superb Bird of Paradise (Lopfhorina atra) was
first seen, but examples were not obtained. To the south
of the halting-place lofty mountains arose, considered to
be 9,300 feet in height : to the east the view was impeded
by thick forests of noble trees.

On continuing the journey a steep and difficult descent
of about goo ft. was made to the bed of a large river, con-
taining more water than other streams previously passed,
and said by the natives to flow into the Bay of Geelvink,
After following up this river-bed for two or three miles, a
rough track led away to Atam, the first houses of which
were reached about 3 P.M. Here Signor D’Albertis deter-
mined to stop, being much exhausted by the journey, the
latter part of which had been rendered fatiguing by the
slipperiness of the paths caused by heavy rain. Next day
messages were sent for the Corono or headman of Atam,
who was resident higher up the mountain. D’Albertis
was anxious to proceed farther himself, but his guides
refused, stating that they had accomplished their agree-
ment to bring him to Atam, and of this our traveller was
satisfied, finding himself now at an elevation of 3,500 ft.
above the sea-level,

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(Omen 1873

Whilst waiting for the Corono, D’Albertis rambled
about in the vicinity of his habitation, and found a fine
young male of the Six-shafted Bird of Paradise (Parotéa
sexpennis), which had never been previously obtained
except through native agency, and in imperfect con-
dition. Other examples of both sexes were subse-
quently obtained, the adult male being always found
alone in the thickest parts of the forest, whilst the
female and young birds are usually met with at a lower
elevation. Respecting this Paradise bird D?Albertis
states that it is very noisy and feeds upon various kinds
of fruit, more especially on a kind of fig which is very
plentiful upon the mountain ranges, To clean its rich
plumage, it scrapes a round place clear of grass and
leaves, where the ground is dry, and rolls itself in the
dust like a gallinaceous bird, at the same time elevating
and depressing its plumage, and also raising and lowering
the six remarkable plumes on its head, from which
it derives its specific name. On the following day
(Sept. 9), D’Albertis was fortunate enough to obtain
adult specimens of the Six-shafted Paradise Bird
just described, and also of the Superb Paradise
Bird which he had observed on his way up the
mountain. The latter is found on the same moun-
tains, and feeds upon similar fruits; it flies about
from branch to branch among the trees of the
forest, uttering a cry of “ni-ed, ni-ed,” and from this
peculiar note is named by the natives, “ Niedda,” while
the Six-shafted Paradise Bird is called “ Coron-a,.” After
skinning his Paradise Birds, Signor D’Albertis roasted
their flesh for his dinner, and found it of an excellent
flavour ; his meal, however, was interrupted by the arrival
of the Corono and his suite. Hearing a noise at the door,
he turned and saw a number of men armed to the teeth.

_ They entered, and defiled before him in silence, laid down

their arms, and arranged themselves about the room.
They were all adorned with necklaces and bracelets
formed of shells, whilst quantities of flowers of bright
and rich colours ornamented their hair, ears, and arms.
After the men, followed women and children, until the
house was full; last of all came the Corono himself,
armed like the others, and lavishly adorned with flowers.
He was followed by his son and daughter, both albinos,
with hair of a clear white colour, eyes blue, and skin very
white. Having entertained the Corono with a cup of
cognac, Signor D’Albertis received a present of yams,
maize, and oranges in return, and was informed that he
was welcome to the country. Next day he received
numerous visits from natives, and made large additions
to his zoological collections, Finding the locality so
rich, Signor D’Albertis determined to take an adjacent
house, for which a rent of 4 metres of blue calico and
four brass bracelets was demanded. On September 11
possession was taken of the new habitation, and the Italian
flag hoisted on the summit. The house was divided by
some pieces of bark into two rooms, one of which served
as a bedroom and a workshop, whilst the other was the
reception-room, and also served as akitchen. When the
news spread abroad that a white man had arrived, the
visits of the Papuans became very frequent. Most of
them brought yams, maize, or tobacco, for which Venetian
beads were given in payment. On September 13 the
guides who had brought Signor D’Albertis from Andai

left him to return home, taking messages to his com-
panion Beccari, to endeavour to send up a new stock of
provisions, which were running very short.

Established in his new quarters, Signor D’Albertis set
to work on his collections of birds and insects, and suc-
ceeded in amassing a large number of interesting speci-
mens. But his provisions quickly began to run short,
leaving him only a small quantity of rice to subsist on
together with the flesh of the birds prepared for his
collections. Salt was not to be had, and powder and
shot also began to fail, and endeavours to get a fresh
supply of ammunition and provisions up from Andai did
not succeed. In consequence of a quarrel between the
Arfaks and the people of Dorey, in which one of the
natives was killed, his friendly intercourse began to be
interrupted. Neither women nor children brought him
insects, and soon afterwards they refused to sell him yams
and maize. The Corono informed him, through the in-
terpreter, that they were expecting an attack at Atam,
and intended to leave the village. This D’Albertis did
not believe until they commenced destroying the planta-
tions, when his position becoming critical from want of
provisions, he arranged with the Corono to return to”
Andai at the end of the month.

On September 29, accordingly, D’Albertis left Atam at
sunrise, accompanied by about forty persons, his health
having been much improved by his sojourn in the moun-
tain air. Returning bya shorter route, he avoided Putat,
and on arriving, on October 1, at Andai, found, to his
regret, that Signor Beccari had gone on to the former
village, so that if he had passed through it he could have
abpamed a fresh supply of provisions.

During his month’s residence at Atam, Signor D’AL-
bertis obtained 122 specimens of birds, and a large col-
lection of insects, besides some mammals and other ©
specimens, The only part of these that have yet reached —
Europe is the series of birds, of which an account was
given in a previous number of NATURE (vol. viii.
p. 305). The mammals obtained are stated to embrace
several species of Czscus, one of which is believed to be
new, two or three species of Tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus),
a Pteropus, a Squirrel, and several species of Mice and
Bats. The Insect collection is rich in Cefonie and
Melolonthe.

Soon after his month’s excursion to the Agee
mountains, Signor D’Albertis was compelled, by continued
attacks of fever, to leave New Guinea and proceed to
Sydney, in the Italian frigate Vettore Pzsano. Dr.
Bennett informs me that his health is now re-established,
and that he will probably return to Europe in a few
months.

This interesting narrative serves to show us that the
dangers and difficulties of penetrating into the interior of
New Guinea, though considerable, have been somewhat
over-rated. Though Signor D’Albertis has been the first
to publish an account of his adventures in this country,
I believe that the naturalist Rosenberg, in the employ- —
ment of the Leyden Museum, had already made an

edition into nearly the same district.* Where these
2, pioneers have found their way, others will doubtless —

* Several of the new birds described by Dr. Schlegel, in his article on
Rosenberg's collections (Ned. Tigdschr. iv. p.,33), were also obtained by
D'Albertis, but the only locality assigned to ‘them is “*Vintérieur oR la
grande presq'ile septentrionale de la Nouvelle-Guinée.” 7

<

ro

‘Oct. 16, 1873}

- quickly follow, and we may thus hope to acquire, before

long, a complete knowledge of one of the most won-

_ derful floras and faunas of the world’s surface.
Beka S.

THE MOTION OF PROFECTILES

_ A Mathematical Treatise on the Motion of Projectiles ,

founded chiefly on the results of Experiments made
with the author’s Chronograph. By Francis Bashforth,
B.D., Professor of applied Mathematics to the advanced
class of Royal Artillery Officers, Woolwich, and late
Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. (London:
Asher and Co., 1873.)

E are told in the Preface to this work that “the
2 " consideration of the motion of a projectile naturally
divides itself into three parts—first, its motion in the
bore of the gun ; second, its motion through the air ; and
third, its motion during its penetration into a solid sub-
stance.” The author directs his attention chiefly to the
second of these parts. Galileo was the first person who
determined with anything like accuracy the motion of a
solid body moving through space under the action of
gravity. Treating the vertical and horizontal motions as
perfectly independent (which of course is in accordance
with Newton’s laws of motion), he showed that a particle
moved in a parabola. In this theoretical investiga-
tion gravity is supposed to be constant, and to act in
parallel directions, while the effect of the resistance of
the air is totally disregarded. The parabolic motion is
approximately true for bodies whose velocities are small,
but the greater the velocity of a projectile, the more does
its path deviate from a parabola, and, in the present days
of large guns and heavy charges, we can at once see the
importance of solving with the greatest possible accuracy
the problem of the motion of a projectile through the air,
considering the air as a resisting medium materially
affecting the motion of the shot. Newton solved the
problem of the motion of a body through a medium
whose resistance varies as the first power of the velocity,
and John Bernoulli extended it to the case of resistance
varying as any power of the velocity.

Experiments, however, show that the resistance cannot
be regarded as varying as any single power of the velocity,
though, within certain limits, the third power gives pretty
accurate results.

Mr. Bashforth has applied himself to the task of
throwing Bernoulli’s solution into a practical shape, so
that by means of copious tables, of which his book con-
tains more than 100 pages, such problems as the following
may be solved :—“ The 16-pounder muzzle-loading gun
fires an ogival-headed shot 16 lb. in weight, and 3°54
inches in diameter. If the angle of projection be 2°, and
the initial velocity 1,358 feet per second, find the trajec-
tory and time of flight.” “A Rodman shot weighing
452 lb. is fired with an initial velocity of 1,400 feet per
second, at a target 500 yards off, find the striking
velocity.”

_ Experiments were made by Robins and Rumford last
century to ascertain the pressure of fired gunpowder
and several persons have attacked the problem during
the present ‘century. General Mayevski attempted to

NATURE

solve the problem by firing shot, into the back of which a
rod was screwed, the rod running through an aperture
in the breech of the gun, and carrying a knife edge
which cut two thin wires at a given distance, the interval
of time between the two breakages being measured as
accurately as possible. Captain Rodman made use of
the following arrangement :—A gun was mounted in a
gun-pendulum, and a revolving cylinder was placed with
its axis parallel to that of the gun. When the gun was
fired, a tracing point on the gun drew a curve on the re-
volving cylinder, the shape of which curve determined
the whole motion of the gun’s recoil. Mr. Bashforth
suggested that much greater exactness would be procured
if the tracing-point were connected with the projectile,
He managed to do this to some extent by firing a shot
through a number of equi-distant vertical screens, made
of very thin metal wires. By an ingenious arrangement,
the time of the shot breaking a wire in each screen was
registered by means of an electric current on a revolving
cylinder, special care being taken that all the registra-
tions should be made under the same circumstances, so
as to eliminate what we might call the personal error on
the different registrations. This gave the times of transit
of the shot over the successive intervals between the
screens : from them, the velocities at the different screens
can be calculated with great exactness, and also the
resistance of the air on the shot. Mr. Bashforth has
made great numbers of experiments with shots of different
shapes and sizes, fired with different charges of powder,
and from them has with great labour calculated the tables
above referred to, which are sufficient for the solution of
the problems we have given above as examples of what
Mr. Bashforth has been able to accomplish.

The work is one which is too mathematical to do full
justice to in our columns, but we have no hesitation in
recommending it to such artillerists as are not unac-
quainted with mathematical analysis.

OUR BOOK
Half-hours with the Microscope.
(Hardwicke.)

THIs excellent and well-known little work would scarcely
require to have special attention now drawn to it, if it
were not that the present edition contains an additional]
chapter, which adds much to its value as a text-book fo,
amateurs. Until now the subject of polarised light ha,
been omitted, and as the many beautiful and striking re_
sults which can be obtained by its employment are among
the most important and attractive in the whole field of
microscopy, any work on the subject in which it is omitted
must be necessarily incomplete. The author, evidently
feeling this, has added a “Half-hour with Polarised
Light,” which he has entrusted to the hand of Mr. F.
Kitton, who, in the short space allowed him, has explained
the theory of this rather intricate subject in a clear and
popular manner, and has described some of the most
striking of the phenomena exemplified by it, such as the
appearance of the slides of iodo-sulphate of quinine, as-
paragine and sulphate of copper in gelatin, together with
the methods for arriving atthem. The addition of this
chapter has made this work as complete as it is useful to
the commencing microscopist.

Proceedings of the Belfast Natural Ristory and Philoso-

phical Society. (Belfast, 1873.)

WE welcome with pleasure the first number of the Belfast
Society’s Proceedings, which includes a number of papers

SHELF
By E. Lankester, M.D.

read during the session 1871-2, some of which are already
known to our readers. We need only name the principal
papers. There is, first, the Presidential Address of 1871,
“ On Motive Power,” delivered by Mr. J. J. Murphy, who
has also a short, paper on “ The Bernina Lakes;” then
comes Prof. James Thomson’s admirable paper, “ Specu-
lations on the Continuity of the Fluid State of Matter,
and on Transitions between the Gaseous, the Liquid, and
the Solid States.” This is followed by two short papers,
one by Dr. J. D. Everett on “ The Reduction of Observa-
tions of Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers,” and another
on “Recent Changes of Coast-level at Ballyholme Bay,
Co. Down,” by Mr. Robert Young, C.E., who has also an
excellent paper on “ The Duty of Preserving National
Monuments.” Mr. John Anderson contributes a paper
on “ The Geological Formation of County Down,” the
Rev. Dr. Macloskie a long paper on “ The Silicified Wood
of Lough Neagh ;” and there are also one or two papers
of antiquarian and social interest. Appended is an in-
teresting obituary notice by the secretary, Mr. Taylor,
of the late Mr. Robert Patterson, F.R.S., one of the
founders of the Society, and. who, amid the cares atten-
dant on the carrying on of a large commercial establish-
ment, managed to find time to prosecute to very good
purpose the study of natural history, and even to write
admirable zoological text-books, and take an active part
in the promotion of science and of social progress. The
first number is edited by Mr. Murphy and Dr. H. Burden,
and we hope the Society will produce material enough to
bring out an equally good number every year.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. ]

Dr, Huizinga’s Experiments

In a letter published in last week’s NATURE, in which Dr.
Bastian comments on a short paper read by me at Bradford on
certain experiments of Dr. Huizinga, he challenges me to deal
with his “ main proposition,” which is “that Bacteria are capable
of arising in fluids independently of living reproductive or
ge rminal particles.”

In so far as relates to the subject of my communication, I
have done so by showing that in the case of Huizinga’s liquid
Bacteria can be prevented from arising by heating the liquid to
a temperature somewhat above boiling.

I hope that Dr. Bastian will allow me to decline to enter on
the general question, and will believe that in doing so I am not
insensible either to the difficulties of the subject, or to the value
and importance of his own experimental investigations.

Oct. 13 J. BuURDON SANDERSON

Experiments on the Development of Bacteria in
Organic Infusions

THE correspondence in: your journal on this subject (relating
chiefly to the statements of Dr. Bastian) in which I took a part
some six or seven months since—renders it necessary, in justice
to myself, and I may add, in justice to the memory of my friend,
Dr. Pode, whose loss has prevented me from continuing a
series of experiments on the nutrition of Bacteria, commenced in
the spring—to give some account in your columns of experi-
ments carried out by us, which demonstrate that Dr. Bastian’s
assertions as to infusions of turnip and turnip-cheese are devoid
of foundation in fact. The paper in which our results are given
in detail was sent in to the Royal Society at the end of last
March and printed in May (Proceedings, No. 145). Since you
are not able to afford space for the reproduction of that paper
in full, I must beg to refer your readers, for details, to that
publication of the Royal Society. Here I may be allowed to
sketch briefly the results and their bearing on Dr. Bastian’s
statements, The following passage from that gentleman’s
“Beginnings of Life” (vol. i. p. 429) induced us to make

NATURE

experiments similar to those mentioned in it, with the view of
testing the correctness of his conclusion as to matter of fact :—

**On the other hand, the labours of very many experimenters
have now placed it beyond all question of doubt or cavil that
living Bacteria, Torule, and other low forms of life will make
their appearance and multiply within hermetically-sealed flasks
(containing organic infusions) whichyhad been previously heated
to 212° F., even for one or two hours. This result is now so
easily and surely obtainable, as to make it come within the
domain of natural law.” And in a note is added, ‘‘in a very
large number of trials I have never had a single failure when an
infusion of turnip has been employed; and from what I have
more recently seen of the effects produced by the addition of a
very minute fragment of cheese to such an infusion (see
Appendix C, pp. xxxiv.-xxxviii), I fully believe that in 999 cases
out of 1,000, if not in every case, a positive result could be
obtained.”

The extract which follows is from a paper by Dr. Bastian in

NATURE, vol. vii. p. 275, and is perhaps more remarkable than the _

preceding, because it is of later date and refers to a simple infu-
sion of turnip.

‘Taking such a fluid, therefore, in the form of a strong filtered
infusion of turnip, we may place it after ebullition in a super-
heated flask, with the assurance that it contains no living organ-
isms.
with the boiled saline fluids, that there is no danger of infection
by Zacteria from the atmosphere, we may leave the rather narrow
mouth of the flask open, as we did in these experiments.
when this is done, the previously clear turnip-infusion invariably
becomes turbid in one or two days (the temperature being about
70° F.), owing to the presence of myriads of Bacteria.” The
italics are my own.

Dr. Pode and I give in our paper the details of 53 experi-
ments, of which 11 were made with hay-infusion, the rest with
turnip- or turnip-and-cheese infusion. We had some trouble at
first in ascertaining some of the conditions under which Dr.
Bastian experimented—since he does not state them in his book.
In the first place we ascertained through these columns the specific
gravity of Dr. Bastian’s turnip-infusion. We made a number of
experiments after obtaining that information, which are recorded
in our paper, and which invariably gave opposite results to those
obtained by Dr. Bastian. At the beginning of this year we

ascertained through Dr. Sanderson, in the columns of NATURE, ~

that Dr. Bastian made use of two-ounce retorts; and that par-
ticles of cheese visible to the naked eye were present in his infu-
sions at the time of boiling. Dr. Sanderson also stated that Dr.
Bastian attached importance to the peeling of the turnips used.
With this additional information we made further experiments,
which tend to explain the failure of Dr. Bastian to keep his in-
fusions free from Bacterian contamination.

There are four points which require attention in these experi-
ments, and which were attended to in our series, but we must
suppose were not attended to by Dr. Bastian.

In the first place the infusions were examined by the micro- —

scope at the time of sealing the tubes, as well as subsequently.
What we sought to determine was whether a change had occurred
in the infusion. Spherical and other particles besides dead Bac-
teria occur in freshly-boiled infusions, which might lead to erro-
neous conclusions when seen subsequently, if their previous
existence had not been ascertained. ‘

Secondly, we employed small tubes, five inches in length and
of half-inch bore. It appeared to us not at all improbable, from
the results of some experiments made by us with retorts such as
Dr. Bastian used, that a boiling for five or ten minutes, before
closure, of an ounce of liquid in a vessel of that peculiar shape,
might sometimes give a development of Bacteria, owing to the
protective effect of ‘‘spluttering,” and the large mass to be
guarded.

Thirdly, in the majority of cases—though we had no reason to
doubt the efficiency (as proved by the results) of the boiling for
five minutes in one of our small tubes, ceteris Sarita to
ensure thorough exposure of every part of the tube and liquid to
the boiling temperature, we submerged many of our tubes in
boiling water for a quarter or a half an hour after their closure,
This method we finally adopted as the most certain to ensure
the destruction of Bacterian contamination ; it is essentially the
same as that subsequently adopted by Dr. Burdon-Sanderson in
the experiments described in a letter in NATURE, vol. viii. p. 141,
the difference being that, ‘*to make assurance doubly sure,” Dr.
Sanderson raises the temperature of the water in which his tubes

Oy -

[ Oct. 16, 1873 ;

Having ascertained also, by our previous experiments —

But ©

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are subme1

for five minutes.

NATURE

505

above 100 C. by increasing the pressure under
which ebullition is effected, beyond the normal atmospheric limit.
A fourth point to which we gave attention was the possible

_ preservative effect of ‘‘ lumps” on Bacteria or their germs. No

one would have supposed that Dr. Bastian neglected the precau-
tion of removing large particles of cheese from his experimental
infusion. We always strained our cheese emulsion very care-
fully, or else filtered it. Prof. Cohn found that an infusion made
by boiling a pea in water developed Bacteria when the pea was

left in it ; but if the pea were removed, and the infusion subse-

quently reboiled, no Bacteria weredeveloped. We found that lumps
of cheese could really act as protective hiding-places for Bacte-
rian contamination. In a retort—similar in every respect to
Dr. Bastian’s—this result was first obtained, though other re-
torts similarly treated were barren. Accordingly we prepared
twelve tubes exactly alike, with the exception that in six the
cheese was added as an emulsion, in the other six in the form of
lumps. The tubes were closed, and submerged in boiling water
Of the ‘‘emulsion ”-tubes, one burst in the
boiling, the other five were barren ; of the ** lumpy ”-tubes, four

developed Bacteria in quantity, two remained barren.

==!n the experiments recorded in NATURE, vol. viii. p. 141, by Dr.
Sanderson, it is shown that even when “‘lumps” are avoided,
and the infusion heated by submergence in boiling water, this
may not prevent the development of Bacteria when a large bulk of
material is employed. But boiling for sucha length of time as one
hour, or heating to ror” C., always gave him a barren infusion.
Dr. Sanderson does not believe that there is a definite relation
between the precise temperature to which the infusion is exposed
and the destruction of Bacterian contamination, but that the
Jonger heating, or the heating to a Aigher degree, will increase
the chance that Bacteria or their germs are destroyed. Further,
Dr. Sanderson’s results agree with those of Dr. Pode and myself
as to simple turnip infusion. With this infusion I understand
that he has not found the same length or amount of heating
necessary as with the turnip infusion to which a fragment of
cheese has been added.

And now, I wish very briefly to point out where Dr. Bastian’s
statements are affected by these results. It is necessary that this
should be clearly and simply put, because I find that many persons
are under the impression that the investigation of the grounds of
Dr. Bastian’s statements has shown that there was some solid
foundation for them. ‘This is, however, in my opinion, not the
case. It is zo¢ ‘‘ beyond all question of doubt or cavil that liv-
ing Bacteria, Torula, and other low forms of life will make their
appearance and multiply within hermetically-sealed flasks (con-
taining organic infusions) which had been previously heated to
212° F, even for one or two hours.” On the contrary, no organic
nor inorganic infusion has been contrived by Dr. Bastian nor by
anyone else which will develop Bacteria, still less Torulze, after
exposure for one hour (or even less) to 212° F. ‘This is the con-
clusion given by the impartial examination of the subject, indi-
cated in the experiments above quoted.

Moreover, the statement in the second quotation from Dr.
Bastian is abundantly contradicted by the experience of Dr.
Sanderson, Dr. Pode, and myself. Such a turnip-infusion,
placed as directed by Dr. Bastian, does zo/ invariably become
turbid in one or two days, owing to the presence of myriads of
Bacteria. We have often kept such infusions free from Bacteria
for manydays, and I preserved one in a retort with its beak in-
clined downwards for more than six months, clear as crystal, but
amply capable of sustaining the life of Bacteria, as was proved
by its accidental contamination a week ago.

It is my opinion that the only fositive addition to knowledge
which this inquiry abou: the development of Bacteria in infu-
sions has led to is, that when you have cheese-emulsion, or similar
material present in an infusion, you must be a little more careful
about heating it than when you have not, if you wish to destroy by
the agency ot heat the life of Bacteria or their germs contained in
the infusion. How it is that cheese-emulsion helps the Bacterian
contamination to escape destruction we do not know. Possibly
in the same way as the larger lumps do. But that matter
remains for inquiry when more is ascertained as to the natural
history of the Bacteria. I think we may now feel fully satis-
fied that ‘‘archebiosis” or “abiogenesis” is not in any way
rendered more probable than it was before by Dr. Bastian’s
experiments with organicinfusions. Prof. Smithand Mr. Archer,
of Dublin—eminent authorities in the study of the lower algaee—
have criticised in detail and suggested explanations of some of
the statements in the third part of ‘* The Beginnings of Life,”

viz., statements relating to the transformation of various species
of organisms into others, They show (the reader may consult
Prof. Smith’s paper in the October number of the Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science, 1873) that the asserted ‘‘ facts”
of transmutations are ot facts. It is abundantly demonstrated
that the fundamental observations recorded by Dr. Bastian are
erroneous, and that he has been mistaken.
Exeter College, Oxford, Sept, 26 E. Ray LANKESTER

Variations of Organs

My father finds that in his letter, published in your number
for September 25, he did not give with sufficient clearness his
hypothetical explanation of how useless organs might diminish,
and ultimately disappear. I therefore now send you, with his
approval, the following further explanation of his meaning.

If one were to draw a vertical line on a wall, and were to
measure the heights of several thousand men of the same race
against this line,recording the height of each by driving in a pin,
the pins would be densely clustered about a certain height, and
the density of their distribution would diminish above and below.
Quetelet experimentally verified that the density of the pins at
any distance above the centre of the cluster was equal to that at
a like distance below ; he also found that the law of diminution
of density on receding from the cluster was given by a certain
mathematical expression, to which, however, I need here make
no further reference. A similar law obtains, with reference to
the circumference of the chest ; and one-may assume, with some
confidence, that under normal conditions, the variation of any
organ in the same species may be symmetrically grouped about
a centre of greatest density, as above explained.

In what follows I shall, for the sake of brevity, speak of the
horns of cattle, but it will be understood that my father con-
siders a like argument as applicable to the variations of any
organs of any species in size, weight, colour, capacity for
performing a function, &c.

Supposing then that a race of cattle becomes exposed to un-
favourable conditions, my father’s hypothesis is that, whilst the
larger proportion of the cattle have their horns developed in the
same degree as though they had enjoyed favourable conditions,
the remainder have their horns somewhat stunted. Now, if we
had made a record of the length of horn in the same species under
favourable conditions, we should, as in the case of the heights of
men, have a central cluster, with a symmetrical distribution of
the pins above and below the cluster. According to the hypo-
thesis, the effect of the poor conditions may be represented by
the removal of a certain proportion of the pins, taken at hazard,
to places lower down, whilst the rest remain i sfat# guo. By
this process the central cluster will be slightly displaced down-
wards, since its upper edge will be made slightly less dense,
whilst its lower edge will become denser; and further, the
density of distribution will diminish more rapidly above than
below the new central cluster.

Now, if horns are useful organs, the cattle with shorter horns
will be partially weeded out by natural selection, and will leave
fewer offspring ; and after many generations of the new con-
ditions, the symmetry of distribution of the pins will be restored
by the weeding out of some of those below the cluster, the cen-
tral cluster itself remaining undisturbed.

If, on the other hand, horns are useless organs, the cattle with
stunted horns have as good a chance of leaving offspring (who will
inherit their peculiarity) as their long-horned brothers. Thus,
after many generations under the poor conditions, with continual
intercrossing of all the members, the symmetry of distribution
will be again restored, but it will have come about through the
general removal of a// the pins downwards, and this will of
course have shifted the central cluster,

If, then, the poor conditions produce a continuous tendency to
a stunting of the nature above described, there will be two ope-
rations going on side by side—the one ever destroying the sym-
metry of distribution, and the other ever restoring it through the
shifting of the cluster downwards.

Thus, supposing the hypothesis to be supported by facts (and
my father intends to put this to the test of experiment next
summer), there is a tendency for useless organs to diminish and
finally disappear, besides those arising from disuse and the
economy of nutrition.

Down, Beckenham, Oct. 4 , Grorce H. DARWIN

Oxford Physical Science Fellowships

I write this letter that in future candidates for Oxford
Fellowships in Physical Science may be aware that outsiders are
ineligible. :

In June last the Warden of Merton Coilege informed me that
the election to a Physics Fellowship would zo/ be limited to
graduates of Oxford, and would altogether depend on the result
of the examination held at Merton on Oct. 7. Candidates had
no other information than was afforded by the notice in your
columns. ;

Although I found that great difficulties were thrown in the
way of outsiders in their not being allowed an opportunity of
examining the physical apparatus which was to be used in the
examination, and with which Oxford men are well acquainted, I
read for the examination, not having the slightest doubt about
my eligibility after receiving the Warden’s letter.

It is now nearly four months since I received the letter, and
although the authorities must have been very well aware of the
grave error which had been fallen into, I was not informed that
a blunder had been committed until the morning of the ex-
amination. It is now found by the Warden, on consulting the
registrar of the university, that only Oxford graduates can com-
pete for these Fellowships.

Oxford, Oct. 8 JOHN PERRY

Simple Method of Studying Wave Motion

Ir is difficult for a student to obtain a clear idea of the move-
ment of the particles of a liquid or gas propagating a wave. To
assist him models have been devised, but as a rule they are ex-
pensive and complicated. The following plan, based on the
principle of the stroboscope, I have found extremely convenient.
Take apiece of cardboard about 3 ft. long and 18 in. broad.
Put this into the tin drum of a ‘‘zoetrope,” pressing the card
well against the interior of the drum, so that it stands up form-
ing a cardboard cylinder, With a lead pencil mark where the
inside fold of card comes, and you have the right size of the
cardboard to form the cylinder. Divide now the length of the
cardboard into 12 equal strips. On each strip paint dots repre-
senting the wave you want to study, taking care that each wave
is represented 34; behind its predecessor. Lastly, cut out 12
slits, about 8 in. by } in., between each representation of the
wave ; restore the card to the drum of the zoetrope, and then
turning the cylinder and observing through the slits, the wave is
seen, as the cylinder revolves, to advance with its characteristic
motion, while by stopping out all but one of the particles repre-
sented the exact character of its oscillation, whether circular,
elliptical, or linear, is clearly seen.

Midland Institute, Birmingham C. J. Woopwarp

The Glacial Period

Just one line in reply to Frank E. Nipher. I have read
Tyndall’s Lectures on Heat, and that some time before I addressed
you on the subject of the Glacial Period. Plainly, it is against
common sense to suppose that an increased outpour of solar
energy would diminish the mean temperature of the air at the
earth’s surface to such an extent that glaciers at or near sea Jevel
should be found in Egypt, or even, I believe, in Central Hia-
dustan, as was the case in the Glacial Period. All I can say is,
that if the sun then were a hotter sun than the sun of our own
age, he must have blundered at his work.

And {now may I crave space for just another line on
another subject? Could not our learned societies be induced
to publish their mathematical contributions separately? I was
compelled to take the whole of the first part of the Royal
Society’s Transactions of 1867, for the sake of Clerk-Maxwell’s
paper on Molecules. For this I paid a guinea—willingly, in-
deed ; but had the paper been published alone, I should probably
have had it for a much lower figure. Then there are Professor
Stokes’ and Sir W. Thomson’s magnificent papers scattered up
and down among the Transactions of the Royal and Cambridge
Philosophical Societies; if these were gathered together and
published apart, it would be a precious boon to persons like
myself who are interested in physical mathematics. And pupils
of the Ecole Inyariantive would, no doubt, be as much gratified
by an easier access to the numerous contributions of Professor

NATURE

| | Oct. 16, 1873,

Cayley to the Theory of Determinants, Is it impossible, or even

inconvenient, to afford such facilities to students and amateurs ?
Hampstead, N. W., Oct 3 J. H. Rours

THE OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER

ite is now upwards of twenty-two years since this col-
lege was opened—for the foundation of which in
Manchester, John Owens, a merchant of that city, left
100,000/,—in a house that belonged to Mr. Cobden, in
Quay Street, which was purchased and presented to the
trustees by Mr. John Faulkner, the first chairman. The
number of students during the first session was 64, which —
went on increasing year by year, until last session the
day students numbered 327, and the evening students
513. A few years ago it was felt that the original house
had become much too small, and that a new building
ought to be erected adequate to the increased needs of
the College. Accordingly, in 1866, a circular was pre-
pared, setting forth the disadvantages of the then institu-
tion, and propounding an extension scheme which should
include the additions to the College of a school of Engi-
neering, a Medical School, and the Natural History Mu-
seum, which the Council of the Natural History Socie
recommended should be deposited in Owens College, “if —
it should appear that the scheme for enlargement was
likely to be successfully carried out within a reasonable
period.” The trustees therefore appealed for funds which
would enable them to lay the foundations of an institution —
which would virtually be the University of South Lan-
cashire, and of the neighbouring parts of Cheshire and
Yorkshire. )

In 1867 an Extension Committee was formed for raising
a fund, which “it was desirable should not be less than —
100,000/,, and, if possible, 150,000/.,” to carry into effect
the proposed system of extension, 24,000/. was almost
immediately subscribed. The engineers of Manchester
and neighbourhood subscribed 10,000/, to found and en-
dow a chair of Engineering Science, and for the provision
of an apparatus and a library. An application to the —
Government for a grant, though never absolutely refused,
was first temporarily shelved on the familiar plea that the
subject was “under consideration,” and on a change of —
Government it was ultimately forgotten. The success of —
the College is therefore a monument of voluntary effort,
After the present site had been purchased, the sum of
12,0007, was subscribed towards the new Medical School.
Principal Greenwood and Prof. Roscoe subsequently
visited Germany, and obtained valuable information as to
the schools of science in that country ; and to the plans
which the Professor of Chemistry especially brought home,
the new College owes the perfect arrangements in its
scientific lecture-rooms, and the handsomely fitted-up
laboratories for chemical and physiological scienee ; labo-
ratories, we believe, which are not equalled by any in the
kingdom, if, indeed, in Europe.

The foundation-stone of the buildings just completed
was laid by the Duke of Devonshire in September 1870, —
and the same nobleman occupied the chair at the
opening of the new building on the 7th instant.

As is well known, the “religious difficulty” has been
entirely obviated, in the case of Owens College, by the
will of the founder, which requires “that the students, —
professors, teachers, and other officers and persons con-
nected with the said institution, shall not be required to
make any declaration as to, or submit to any test whatso-
ever of, their religious opinions,” and that “ nothing shall
be introduced into the matter or mode of education or —
instruction, in reference to any religious or theological —
subject, which shall be reasonably offensive to the con- —
science of any student, or of his relations, guardians, or
friends under whose immediate care he shall be.” It is
no doubt partly owing to this that the’ Manchester

4

— *

fol x6) 18S)

NATURE

5°07

_ College can boast a body of teachers not surpassed in any
respect by any university in the kingdom.

The college is rich in scholarships, fellowships, and
‘prizes founded by Manchester men, and by means of
‘these, and its admirable system of day and evening
classes, affords facilities to all classes of obtaining a
literary and scientific education, both general and pro-
essional, of the highest and most advanced kind. In

Most respects, indeed, it may be regarded as a model

institution for the higher education.
Of the many excellent addresses given on the occasion,
we have only space for a few extracts from those of

Principal Greenwood and Sir Benjamin Brodie. We
Shall take another opportunity of referring to the address

of Prof. Roscoe at the opening of the Chemical School.
Principal Greenwood said :—“I am addressing the

assembled students of the new year; and it is because

TI feel that you are even more concerned in the
‘inquiry than are my colleagues and myself that I
ask you to consider some of the relations which subsist
between culture and practical life, not as matters
of speculative interest, but as bearing closely on the aims
and the temper with which you should take up the studies
of this place. This inquiry might take either of two
directions, according as we consider the debt due from
society to the student, or the debt due from the student to
society. It is not possible altogether to separate these
inquiries ; but it is of the latter that I propose to speak
more especially this morning, not only because in address-
ing students, as in addressing other men, it is more
wholesome to speak of their obligations than of their
claims, but also because in this place and on this day,
there is little need to urge the duties of society to the
student.

“. ...» For us the normal principles of education, in
their whole range and mutual bearings, are of infinitely

greater weight than the special questions which fix atten-

tion at the moment ; but our thoughts are in danger of
being drawn away from these deeper truths, and our
springs of action of being in that degree weakened or
perverted. An illustration of this position may be seen
in the history of the vigorous and successful efforts which,
within a few years, have been made in favour of the claims
of the natural sciences to a leading place in the curriculum
of study. Men of genius and of public spirit have insisted
on them with unanswerable arguments; and I shall not
be suspected by those who happen to be cognizant of the
part which Owens College has taken in this matter with
any inclination to call these claims in question. I wish,
however, to point out that arguments are urged in their
support of very unequal force ; and that while the able
leaders of the crusade dwell most on the stronger among
them, their followers are wont to recur too frequently to
the weaker, and by raising them into undue prominence
to run the risk of inducing—not the general public only,
but what is in reality a more serious thing, of inducing
you and us to hold pernicious views as to what education
is and what are the appropriate motives forit. Of these
arguments the weightiestis, I will venture to affirm, the most
seldom heard. Imean the assertion that the natural and ex-
perimental sciences have a characteristic discipline for the
mind. This positionmay in this place be taken forgranted ;
and it constitutes of itself anargument at once unanswerable
and sufficient. But when we hear the further argument
that physical sciences should hold a prominent place in
education because their promotion contributes to the ma-
terial advancement of the country, or because to possess
a knowledge of them will give the learner a greater com-
mand of money and what money brings, we are then
offered motives of a very different order. As collateral
motives they have great value, I admit, for exaggeration
on one side must not be met by exaggeration on the other,
but a value subordinate to that of the former consi-
deration. It is, of course, true that all good education,

through whatever medium, tends to produce good and
well-furnished citizens, and therefore promotes the gene-
ral, including the material, well-being of a country; and
all good sound education tends to make men manly and
self-reliant, and so trains their faculties as to enable them,
among other things, to win with ease their share of mate-
rial good. It is true too, that in choosing the subjects of
study regard should be paid, in due degree, to the des-
tination of the future life.
by nature inferior aim takes the first rank, the fatal con-
sequence follows that the higher good is not even sought
in the second place. The greater may include the less,
but not the less the greater.

“Another instance of harm to the business of edu-
cation from the passing controversies of the hour
lies in the sudden development of the system of
competitive examinations. To discuss the merits of
this system in itself is altogether beside my object. I wish
to refer only to its oblique influence on teachers and
pupils, or rather (for each of these schemes would admit
of long discussion) of its influence on the temper of the
student. Can anything be more deplorable—if it were
not deplorable it would be grotesque—than the change
which this system threatens to bring about in the mutual
relations of study and examination? By the old theory
the business of education was—first, the discipline of the
intellect by means of the arts and sciences as instruments ;
and, secondly, the storing of the mind with methodical
knowledge gained in the process. Examinations were
but the handmaid of the teaching, designed to test and
measure the results of study, and so to correct its methods ;
and if honours and more substantial rewards were con-
ferred on those who took the foremost places, this was
partly to stimulate the flagging, and enable the more pro-
mising wits to prolong their season of study, and partly
that public or academical offices might be filled by the
fittest occupants. Now, however, men are almost
tempted to think that the public service exists for the
sake of the sharp-witted or the industrious, and not they
for it. ‘La carriére ouverte aux talens, once the stirring
motto of an indignant people, has become a circumlocu-
tory and more decorous version of the frank maxim of
ancient Pistol—

‘The world’s mine oyster,
Which I with sword will open.’

“., Weare now prepared to answer the question which
I wish to propose: What were the conditions under which
for many centuries the theory of the higher education was
this—that to all who sought it a common culture was
provided in the first instance, and that from this, as from
a trunk, three or four types of special or professional
training branched off. And again, to what influences is it
due that in the present day many are found to advocate
the abandonment of this principle in favour of a method
by which, the common groundwork being reduced to the
narrowest limits, the special training is made to begin
with the first years of college life or even at a still earlier
date? One answer to this question (but not the only
answer) I have already indicated, viz., that according to
the older theory ‘a complete and generous education,’ in
the words of Milton, was ‘that which fits a man to per-
form justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices,
both private and public, of peace and war ;’ whilst the
other theory holds that the aims and interests of the
individual are to be chiefly kept in view. Now it is no
doubt true that, as is sometimes urged, these rival theories
may be so handled as in appearance to lead to the same
result ; but in appearance only. It is true that the highest
development of any community not only allows, but re-
quires, that the best possible should be made of each of
its members ; and it is not less true, if less obvious, that
an enlightened selfishness might discover that in the long
run it can serve itself best by serving others, But ‘en-
lightened selfishness’ has been a great many centuries

But when the secondary and

in learning, in this region as in others, how ‘to save by
losing itself.’ If then, as of course no one will seriously
question, the older theory be sound, it will not be safe to
leave the course of study wholly to the caprice of indi-
viduals. The experience or instinct of academic bodies
has aimed at giving effect to this principle by requiring
that students aspiring to academic honours, and to those
diplomas which are the passports to the so-called learned
professions, should pursue a course of studies uniform, or
nearly uniform, up to a certain defined point. In our day,
when university training is no longer sought only by those
who seek to enter the great professions, and when, too,
the narrow list of these liberal professions is from time to
time receiving one and another sister, it is a principal
academic problem to show that the old principles ought
still to be insisted on in their essence, and yet that modi-
fications must be made in detail, in order that they may
be applied with safety. It is when we have to meet the
reluctance—the natural reluctance—of students of this
new order to submit to the yoke of academic traditions
that we are brought face to face with the rival claims of
society and the individual. I say the rival claims ; but,
in fact, they are not rivals, but complementary each of
the other. I mean not only that each has its rights,
which must not be ignored, but that each is necessary to
the perfect development of the other; that unless due
play is given to the special gifts and aspirations of its
members, society cannot reach its highest form ; and that,
unless individual men remember that they exist for the
sake of society at least as much as for themselves, they too
will fall short of their proper standard, and will leave
some of their noblest faculties wholly unused... .
i“... The subject matter of the studies selected is, in fact, of
less importance than the discipline imparted. This only is
essential—that there should be such a selection made as
will (1) draw out and strengthen the several powers of the
mind, and (2) afford a basis so broad that on it may after-
wards be erected the structure of professional study when
the career is chosen. These conditions are met if the
common groundwork includes (1) letters, to cultivate the
taste and judgment, to give a good style in speech or
writing, and to place the student on the threshold of the
best literature of home or foreign growth; (2) mathe-
matics, to discipline the reasoning faculty, to give the
habit of concentrated thought, and to place in the student’s
hand a weapon indispensable for the thorough mastery of
the physical branches ; and (3) some branch of physical
study, to develop the powers of observation and inductive
reasoning, and to impart the method of this study, so
that, should the student afterwards take up a profession
based on some physical science, as medicine, engineering,
or manufacturing art, he may be able with facility and
pleasure to provide himself with the technical knowledge
proper to his calling. It might be added, too, in defence
of the claims of this third prime element of culture, that
it is singularly fitted to counteract the faults alleged, not
without reason, to be inherent in the other two. But I
must not proceed further on this field. I have placed the
justification of the adoption of a common groundwork of
culture for all students on two direct and, as I believe,
sufficient pleas. But, over and above these direct uses,
there are at least two others, which I can only indicate ;
—(1) Grace and vigour are lent to social intercourse when
men feel that they can trust tothe possession by all of a
certain general culture—that a common atmosphere, so to
say, is shared by all, and that subtle criticisms, delicate
shades of thought, apt illustrations, will not fall flat on
the ears of one half of those who listen. Those who are
familiar with the social history of the first half of this
century willagree with me that this element of social life
was far more generally present with cultivated men than
itis now. (2) And, again, from the want of this common
elementary culture, men are without that sympathy with
the pursuits of others which tends so powerfully to soften

NATURE

| Oct, 16, 1873

the bitterness of controversy, and even to make fruitful
discussion possible.” “
Sir Benjamin Brodie’s speech is specially remarkable
as giving the impression which a long connection with
one of the older Universities has made upon a distin-
guished man, whose sympathies would naturally be with
them. We have only space for the following extract :—
“The foundation of such universities as Oxford
and Cambridge is lost in almost prehistoric time ;
and if I say that this is the foundation of an univer-
sity, I say so from what appears to me to be a very good ©
reason, for I believe that Owens College boasts all the —
essential constituents of an university; and I have no
doubt that before long it will go forth into the world —
equipped as an university in every respect. I know that —
some persons take a very different view of universities —
from that which I do. Some consider that the university _
is merely a sort of better grammar-school, which differs —
from the ordinary grammar-school by having more and
older students, and a somewhat wider range of study, I
don’t believe that any enlargement of the curriculum of a
grammar-school will ever elevate it into anuniversity. Some
persons consider that an university is a body which grants
degrees. I confess that the granting of degrees is an
important and responsible function ; yet of all the func-
tions of an university it appears to me the very least. To
claim that function as the distinguishing characteristic of —
an university is equivalent to saying that the man who
puts a stamp on a sovereign is the maker of the coin. An
university should not only be a teaching body, but from
every point of view it should represent, further, and pro-
mote the interest of knowledge, not only by teaching, but
by preserving knowledge through the foundation of libra-
ries, museums, and collections, and by the labours of its
professors in furthering and increasing knowledge. I
fully believe that that was the idea which was present to
those who were concerned in the foundation of Owens
College—namely, that it is to be not merely a grammar-
school, but a great organ for furthering knowledge. . . .
“We have heard many allusions to-day to the financial
condition of Owens College, and I do not doubt that
there are many here who, in considering this question,
look perhaps, I will not say, with some degree of envy,
but with a peculiar interest, upon the statistics relating to
the pecuniary affairs of Oxford and Cambridge. These
great universities differ from Owens College as plus
differs from sinus. These institutions—Oxford and
Cambridge—are in that happy position that their Chan-
cellors of the Exchequer have no taxes to raise, and have
only to consider the appropriate mode of distributing
their budgets. But yet, really, any envy which might be
raised from this consideration might be entirely removed
by a more close intimacy and acquaintance with the sub-
ject, for though undoubtedly money is a good thing, and
money well used is better than money itself, yet in many
cases these endowments of universities have been so con-
nected and linked with inappropriate objects, that they
have really done more harm than good. ‘The question ot
University Reform has been debated for about 30 years
without the end being gained as to how to distribute
these revenues properly. These revenues are also inap-
propriate and sometimes mischievous, doing great evil to
the old universities in consequence of their application to
objects which, though appropriate 300 or 400 years ago,
are now useless, or worse. Unhappily these objects do
not coincide with those which deserve attention at the
present day, and the consequence is that a great amount
of time and a large amount of energy and talent have
been wasted in removing evils which have grown up in ©
connection with these endowments. I hope that this
kind of work will never be necessary in connection with
the University of Owens, and I think you may congratu-
late yourselves that you have to begin de wove, and that
you have only to adapt your arrangements to the purposes

a a a wale

re ait

Oct. 16, 1873]

you desire to be served. That is a much simpler thing to
do than to adapt antique arrangements to purposes which
_ they were not intended to serve. Another point in which
_ there are some difficulties that the old universities have
_ had to contend with comes before us in regard to those

.

_ unfortunate arrangements which for so long a period con-
nected them with a very unpopular party in the State.
It is only recently that, by a prolonged series of efforts on
the part of individuals, we gained the abolition of what
were commonly termed university tests. I do not think
I shall offend anybody by referring to that subject, because
_ these tests may now be regarded with a curious, though
somewhat painful, interest, like the thumbscrews and
_ other instruments of torture of which we read in history ;
_ but in reality they constituted a very atrocious evil. We
must all regret that they ever existed, not only on account
of the labour and difficulty which they involved to those
who took an active part in sweeping them out of the way,
_ but also on account of the far worse amount of evil, in
the shape of immorality and dishonesty, which they
_ created. However, you at Owens College are happily
_ free from all these evils. I earnestly hope, and fully
believe indeed, that Owens College will ever preserve
_ that union between freedom and science—freedom not
4 only to think, but freedom of research and freedom of
__speech—which is absolutely necessary for the progress of
_ science. I hope that nobody will ever meddle with your
professors, and try to put an extinguisher upon their re-
searches,”

ON THE APPENDIX VERMIFORMIS AND
THE EVOLUTION HYPOTHESIS

eo WARDS the close of the last meeting of the British
; Association at Bradford, a paper was read before
the Biological Section, which calls for special comment,
because of the unfavourable impression which it and
much of the subsequent discussion must have left on
non-scientific as well as scientific hearers, as well as on
account of its scientific inaccuracy.

The paper referred to was by Prof. Struthers, who en-
deavoured to show that the appendix vermiformis of the
human intestine may be considered as a good example of
a useless and detrimental addition to the vital economy,
and, such being the case, it must be apparent to all that
evidence of design is not exhibited in the construction of
the living body, and consequently the doctrine of special
creation must be supplanted by that of evolution.

The general weakness of this argument must be appa-
rent to many at first sight, but there are some points with
reference to it which call for special remark. In the first
place it may be shown, if it is assumed as true that the
appendix vermiformis of the human czcum is, as stated,
useless and positively injurious, that the fact militates
quite as much against the doctrine of the evolutionist,
as it does against those of the teleological school. For if
it is positively disadvantageous, on the Darwinian hypo-
thesis, for the individuals of a species to possess an ap-
pendix vermiformis, it is a necessary deduction, that in a
very short period either the species should die out, or be
replaced by another in which the detrimental organ is
absent. The human race and the anthropoid apes, how-
ever, seem quite able to hold their own, without the loss
of their supplementary caecum, consequently either the
appendix vermiformis causes insignificant danger, or the
evolution hypothesis is incorrect.

It is not difficult to demonstrate that it is the former of
these two alternatives which fails, that the danger caused
by the existence of the appendix vermiformis is much
exaggerated, and that its uselessness is only an expression
of ignorance on the part of those who make statements to
that effect. /

Some people have died from perforation of the appendix

ie

P Pex 3s eT re
Fe a ee ennh ;

NATURE 509

vermiformis, or the peritonitis which it induces; the
number of recorded cases are comparatively few, and those
which follow disease of the rudiment of the vitelline duct
in the small intestine are much rarer, though Prof.
Struthers seems to have seen several. This shows
no doubt that there are disadvantages attending the pos-
session of a complicated cecum, or an unobliterated
vitelline duct ; but it shows too much for the argument
on which we are considering its bearing, for there are
many other organs, avowedly indispensable to the eco-
nomy, which have caused death by their simple mechani-
cal presence. A case was lately recorded before the
Zoological Society, in which a kangaroo met its death
from strangulation of a loop of the small intestine by the
coiling round it of the uncomplicated, but long caecum ;
are we from this to infer that the caecum is so dangerous
an addition to the organism, that it would be better if it
did not exist? Such can hardly be correct. Again, in
man, if the testes do not descend into the scrotum, impo-
tency is the result, can we therefore infer that the
abdominal rings would be better away, because some die
of strangulated inguinal hernia? It would be as logical
to wish to dispense with the head, because some have
been killed"by wounds on the scalp.

Again, it can scarcely be said in the present state of our
physiological knowledge, that the appendix vermiformis
is useless, and a remnant of a fcetal structure. Leaving
sexual structures out of the question, as subject to diffe-
rent laws, it is quite contrary to evolutionary doctrine
that useless rudiments of embryonic organs should be re-
tained in after life ; for the individuals encumbered with
the unnecessary remains of a former different végzme
could scarcely be expected to succeed in the struggle for
existence against less trammelled and consequently more
advantageously circumstanced members of its own or any
other class. If also the appendix vermiformis were a
rudiment of a foetal organ, it is not easy to see how it is
that it is retained in man and the anthropoid apes, whilst
it is not found in the lower monkeys, the Ungulata, and
other animals which possess a czecum (the wombat ex-
cepted), and are therefore similarly situated in early life.
On the other hand, the voice of the evolution hypothesis
clearly states that, with the exception above mentioned,
the appendix vermiformis must bring positive advantage
to its possessors ; for it is only developed in the most
elaborated and the highest of those creatures which are
the result of its unceasing and most beautiful routine,
and there is no reason why its action should cease at this
point where it is most called for, and where the struggle
is most acute.

There is another aspect in which we think the whole
subject should be regarded. Prof. Struthers’ remarks all
have an anti-teleological tendency ; in other words, they
are little more than hits at a theory which has had its
day, and which, if left alone, will die a quiet and natural
death. Why make this death a painful one, and attempt
to develop an unplesant party feeling between those who,
from the capacities of their brains and their previous edu-
cation, have been led to adopt the one or the other?
Such discussions, as acknowledged by most who are com-
petent to form a correct opinion, do very little, or nothing,
towards the advancement of science, and tend to lower
it very much in the estimation of the non-scientific world.
The true theory will ultimately predominate, without
doubt, but it willdo so from its own intrinsic value, and not
from attacks on the deepest feelings of its opponents,
especially when they are based on a false interpretation
of its deductions. To quote the words of one of the
greatest of our physiologists, it can only bring ignominy
on the body of scientific workers if they are supposed to
countenance an argument such as that of Prof. Struthers,
which assumes that because one or two individuals have
died from the impactation of cherry-stones in the appendix
vermiformis, therefore there is no God!

ably:

Le er vs en ee
° fa. iM “

he
RT
ya,

:
wa
laps

510

THE COMMON FROG* —
Il.

BEFORE passing on to an enumeration of the subordinate
groups of the sub-kingdom Vertebrata, we may first revert
to our subject, the Frog, and make further acquaintance with it.
The common frog of this country belongs to the genus Rana,
and it is the species 7¢mforaria, therefore its scientific name is
Rana temporaria. Ut is common in Ireland, as well as in Eng-
land and Scotland, and is indeed the most’ widely distributed
species of the frog-order, being found throughout the temperate
regions of both the Old and New Worlds. It is found over
nearly the whole of Europe ; in Africa north of the Sahara, and
in Egypt; in Northern Asia, including Japan and Chusan, and
it is also spread over North America. It is not found in the
northern half of Scandinavia, nor in Iceland. j

Except in winter, the common frog is generally in England
so familiar an object, that any description of it might seem super-
fluous. The purpose in view, however, renders it needful at
least to recall certain external structural characters both of the
adult and the immature condition.

The head and body of the frog together forms an elongated
oval mass, somewhat pointed at each end, of which mass the head
constitutes rather more than one-third. This mass is more or
less flattened both above and below, except at the commence-
ment of the hinder third of the back, where there is a more or
less marked prominence, which indicates the junction of the
haunch bones with the spine. In front of this the only marked
projections are those of the eyeballs.

The short arms project outward on each side just behind the-
head, and each ends in a small hand with four fingers, the
second of which is the shortest, and the third the longest.
When the arm is turned backwards this third finger barely at-
tains (if it can do so at all) the hinder end of the body.

The hind limbs proceed from quite the hinder end of the

~body, there being no vestige of a tail. The thigh is very mus-
cular, and the leg has a good ‘‘ calf.” The foot is exceedingly
long, and what is very remarkabie, is so jointed that the toes
can be sharply bent upwards on its thick and undivided part.
The latter thus seems to form a third segment of the hind limb
following the thigh and the leg, the limb having four segments
instead of three as in ourselves, and in almost all beasts, birds,
and reptiles.

The foot ends in five toes connected by a web. Of these the
fourth is the longest, the first the shortest. On the inner mar-
gin of the sole of the foot, at the root of the first toe, is a small,
hard prominence, called a ‘‘tarsaJ tubercle.” When the hind
limb is turned forward, the knee reaches nearly to the armpit ;
the ankle-joint is about on a line with the end of the snout, and
both parts of the foot beyond it. These two parts of the foot
together are much longer than the whole fore limb, and exceed
Ay a of the length of the whole mass of the head and

ody,

When the animal is viewed in profile, the point of the muzzle
is seen to be very little in advance of the opening of the mouth.
The latter is straight. It is also very wide, extending back even
beyond the hinder margin of the eye. Just above the hinder
angle of the gape, and behind the eye, is a rounded surface of
smooth, tightly-stretched skin. This is called the ‘‘ tympanum,”
and directly covers in the drum of the ear.

When the mouth is opened, if the finger be drawn along the
inner margin of the upper jaw, a series of minute teeth may be
detected. Towards the front of the palate are a pair of small
holes (which are the inner openings of the nostrils), and between
these are two juxtaposed little groups of other minute teeth.
There are no teeth whatever in the lower jaw. At the hinder
end of each side of the palate is another small hole. These
latter two apertures are each the opening of a canal leading
from the mouth to the cavity of the ear within the drum. The
tongue is seen to be large, flat, and fleshy. It is tied down to
the jaw in front, but free for more than its hinder half, with the
processes developed from its free hinder margin.

The skin of the frog is naked and smooth, without a trace of
scales, or other appendages. Its colour on the upper surface is
more or less yellowish, or reddish brown, with irregular black,
brown, or grey patches. Similar patches form transverse bands
upon the legs. Beneath the colour is pale yellowish, often with
a few spots, paler than those of the back. There is constantly
a brownish black subtriangular patch placed behind the eye,

Continued from p. 471.

NATURE

and extending over the tympanum down towards the shoulder, 5
The frog breathes partly by swallowing air (aided by a
mechanism to be described hereafter), partly by the direct respi-
ratory action of the skin, It feeds exclusively upon living
animals, such as insects and slugs, which it catches by suddenly
throwing forwards beyond the mouth, the free hinder half of the
tongue (furnished with an adhesive secretion), and then retract- —
ing it with its prey in a most rapid manner,

In winter the frog passes into that torpid state known as hiber-
nation, as is the case with our bats, hedgehogs, and some other
beasts. Its season of torpidity is generally passed by it buried
in mud and at the bottom of water, and great numbers of indi-
viduals may be dug up in winter all clustered together.

In spring the frogs again congregate for the. purpose of —

oviposition in the month of March, at which period their well- —
known croaking makes itself heard, and though in itself unme-

Fic. 3.—View of left side of head of Embryo Tadpole (after Parker).
br} and 47°, first and second external branchiz3 cé!—cé5, the six viceral
clefts; cf, the left ‘‘holder”; d, the olfactory organ ; ¢, the eye ; df,
th left lip ; #, the aperture of the mouth; of, the hinder margin of the
rudimentary operculum,

lodious, possesses a certain charm through its association with
the vernal outburst of nature.

When first laid, the frog’s eggs are little round dark bodies
enclosed in no solid shell or case, but in a small glutinous enve~

Fic. 4.—The Edible Frog (Rana esculenta).

lope. The latter quickly swells in the water so much that the
“spawn” comes to have the appearance of a great mass of jelly
through which dark specks (the yolks of the egg) are scattered,
Each egg, when microscopically examined, may be seen to —
undergo a process of yolk sub-division and cleavage till a mul-
berry-like mass is formed. Upon this soon appears the ‘* pri-
mitive groove,” which forms a canal and develops beneath it a
“chorda dorsalis” according to the process which has been
already stated to be common to the whole of the Vertebrata,

Gradually the embryo assumes the form of a young tadpole,

and is provided with a pair of little ‘‘ holders” (or organs for

q

[Oct. 16, 1873

3
H

1

t

a Pe Py 2 Paid
Oct..16, 1873)

adhesion) just behind the mouth, with six openings on each side
of the neck (Fig. 3, c/+-c/*), and with a pair of rudimentary
_ external gills (Fig. 3, 471 and 4r*). These openings are termed
visceral clefts,” which lead from the exterior into the throat, as
already described. The solid pillars (or intervals) between the
clefts, z.2., the ‘‘ visceral arches,” become furnished with gills, *
or branchiz, and are therefore called ‘‘ branchial arches.” The
eggs are hatched towards the end of April, and the tadpole
emerges in the stage represented at Fig. 2, 1. It has a relatively
large head, a rounded body, and a long tail, by lateral undula-
tions of which the little creature swims about. From behind
the head, on each side, jut forth external branchie as a small
plume-like structure, but no limbs are visible.

As the tadpole grows the external plumose gills at first greatly
enlarge (Fig. 2, 2 and 22), but afterwards become gradually
absorbed, and are succeeded by short gill-filameats, which are

ai’

eto EA

Fic. 5.—A, Pachybatrachus robustus, nat. size; B, interior of the
mouth of ditto.

developed along each of the branchial arches. These latter
filaments du not appear externally, and indeed a membrane,
termed the operculum (Fig. 3, of), is developed from the front
of each series of branchial apertures, and which, extending back-
wards by degrees, ultimately covers over and conceals them.
Little by little the limbs bud forth and grow, the hind ones
being the first visible because the fore limbs are for a time con-
cealed by the opercular membrane. As the legs grow, the tail
becomes absorbed (Fig. 2, 7), not falling off, as some suppose. The
gills also disappear, and the branchial apertures close, that on the
right side first becoming obsolete by adherence of the operculum
to the skin of the body. ’
As the gills diminish and cease to serve the purposes of respi-
- ration, lungs at the same time become developed in an inverse

* Gills (or branchie) are delicate processes of skin richly supplied with
sminute blood-vessels, whereinthe blood becomes exposed to the purifying
-action of the air dissolved in the water.

NATURE BIT

ratio, and the tadpoles absolutely require to come to the surface
to breathe.

The process, from the hatching to the acquisition of the minia-
ture form of the adult, may be accelerated or retarded by elevation
or depression of the temperature. The frog more than doubles its
bulk in its first summer.* The young tadpole has at first a very
small mouth placed beneath the head and not at its anterior ter-
mination ; it is also for a time provided with a sort of beak
formed of two little horny jaws.

The food of the tadpole, quite unlike that of the adult, con-
sists largely (especially in its earlier stages) of vegetable sub-
stances.

Having now made acquaintance with the Frog considered
absolutely, or by itself, and also clearly seen that it is a member
of the Vertebrate Sub-kingdom, we may enumerate the principal
primary sub-divisions (Classes) of that Sub-kingdom, and enume-
rate such of the next smaller groups (Orders) as more or less
nearly concern the subject of this work—the Frog.

The Vertebrata are divided into five great Classes :—(I),
Mammatia (Man and Beasts) ; (II.), Aves (Birds) ; (III.), Rep-
cilia (Reptiles, z.e. Crocodiles, Lizards, Serpents, and Tortoises) ;
(IV.), Batrachia (Amphibians, i.e. Frogs, Toads, Efts, &c.) ;
and (V.), Pisces (Fishes).

Of these five classes Birds and Reptiles are classed together
in a larger group called Sauropsida, because they present so
many structural resemblances. Similarly Amphibians and Fishes
are grouped together, and to their united mass thegcommon term
Ichthvopsida is applied.

Fic. 6.—The Common Toad (Bu/o vulearis)

The orders into which the two classes, Mammalia and Aves
(beasts and birds), are divided, may here be neglected, as we
sball have little to say respecting them in the following pages.
There are, however, about twelve orders of beasts, and probably
some fourteen of birds,

The class of Fishes has been subdivided into five Orders.

1. Elasmobranchii (the sharks and rays, or highly organised
cartilaginous fishes).

2, Ganoidei, an important order, containing many extinct
forms, and a few very varied existing ones, such as the mud-fish
(Lepidosiren), ceratodus, and the sturgeon.

3. Teleostei, the ordinary or bony fishes, such as the carp,
sole, perch, &c., and containing a remarkable group called Silu-
roids, as also the curious little sea-horse—Hippocampus.

4. Marsipobranchii (the lamprey and myxine, or lowly orga-
nised cartilaginous fishes).

5. Pharyngobranchii (the amphioxus, or lancelet).

Reptiles are arranged in nine different orders, five of which
are now entirely extinct. They are of living forms :—

1. Crocodilia (crocodiles). ’

2. Sauria (lizards, the Amphisbenz, the little Flying-dragon,
xc.)

3- Ophidia (serpents).

4. Chelonia (tortoises and turtles).

Of extinct kinds there are :—

5. Ichthyosauria ; 6, Plesiosauria ; 7, Dicynodontia ; 8, Pteto«
sauria ; and 9, Dinosauria.

The remaining class, Batrachia, will require more lengthy con
sideration, both as a whole and as regards the four orders which
compose it, and which are called respectively, 1, Anoura; 2,
Urodela ; 3, Ophiomorpha ; and 4, Labyrinthodonta,

It will require such consideration, because it is the class to
which the Frog itself belongs,

* Parker, Phil. Trans., 1871, p. 172.

512

NATURE

vrs +

[ Oct. 16, 1873 .

The Frog belongs to the Batrachian order Anoura, to the
family Ranide, and to the genus Kana. ;

The order Anoura, to which all frogs and toads belong, isa
remarkably homogeneous one, consisting as it does of a multitude
of species, all differing from each other by comparatively trifling
characters. ;

Altogether there are about 600 species of frogs and toads,
arranged in about 130 different genera.
St. GroRGE MIvART

(To be continued.)

-

FEAN CHACORNAC*

6 egy eminent French astronomer died on the 6th of
last September, having been born at Lyon, June 21,
1823. Chacornac is chiefly known for his discoveries
among the planetoids whose orbits are contained between
those of Mars and Jupiter. In his earlier years he devoted
himself to commerce, but having, in 1851, made the ac-
quaintance of M. Valz, Director of the Marseilles Ob-
servatory, Chacornac became an enthusiastic student of
astronomy, devoting himself to research in connection
with the solar spots and to the assiduous exploration of
the heavens. Onhis discovery of a new comet on May 15,
1852, he made up his mind to abandon commerce and
devote himself entirely to astronomy.

In 1852, M. Valz, following the example of Mr. Hind,
had drawn some charts of the region of the heavens in
which the small planets were likely to be met with, and
on Chacornac taking the above decision, Valz entrusted
to him the construction of the “Atlas écliptique.”
Chacornac commenced his observations on the region
of the small planets on June 1, 1852, and on September 20
he discovered Massalia, and on April 6, 1853, Phocza,
and that with an equatorial telescope of only thirteen
centimetres aperture.

The poor resources which were at the disposal of the
Marseilles Observatory did not permit of M. Valz’s under-
taking the publication of the ecliptic charts ; and for this
purpose he addressed the Academy of Sciences, which
had appointed a commission to examine the question.
M. Le Verrier, who at this time sought to reform the
personnel of the Paris Observatory, called to his aid
M. Chacornac, who, on March 4, 1854, was appointed
Adjoint Astronomer.

At the Observatory of Paris, Chacornac had at his
disposal an equatorial of 7in. aperture, equal to that
of Mr. Hind; he set down in his charts stars up to
the 13th magnitude, and the limits which they embraced
were at the same time somewhat extended. The publi-
cation commenced very soon after, and from 1854 to 1863,
thirty-six charts, of which some contained not less than
3,000 stars, were put into the hands of astronomers.

During the construction of these charts, Chacornac
discovered many small planets—Amphitrite (March 3,
1854), Polymnia (October 28, 1854), Circe (April 6, 1855),
Lydia (January 12, 1856), Laetitia (February 8, 1856),
Olympia (September 12, 1860), At the same time he
observed all the comets which were then visible and
defined, with the telescope of Foucault, of 80 centi-
metres, many spiral nebula, previously studied by
Herschel. The drawings of M. Chacornac are among
the most careful we possess, and appear to show that
nebulz of this kind undergo in time slight variations
of form.

This collection of remarkable works brought to the
Astronomer of the Paris Observatory many academic and
honorary rewards: thus, he obtained the Lalande Prize
in 1852, 53, 54, 55, 56, 60, and 1863, became titular astro-
nomer February 22, 1857, and Chevalier of the Legion of
Honour, August 15, 1857.

* From an article in La Revue Scientifique, by M. G. Rayet, Chief As-
ronomer of the Meteorological Service at the Paris Observatory.

| own hands a telescope of three metres focus, by

His labours, however, and their attendant anxieties, —
told upon his health. After going to Spain, where he went _
to observe the total eclipse of the sun of July 18, 1860,
the ecliptic charts were issued less frequently, and in June,
1863, he quitted the Observatory to retire to Ville Ur-
banne, in the suburbs of Lyon.” ona

In his country retirement, M. Chacornac, whose spirit
had preserved all its activity, constructed with his”

means of which, until within the last few months, he
assiduously observed the solar spots and their manifold
transformations. In the description of their incessant —
changes he sought new proofs of the gaseous nature of
the sun, an idea which he was one of the first to_
announce. '

SCIENCE LECTURES AT CAMBRIDGE

‘THE following Lectures in Natural Sciences will be

given at Trinity, St. John’s, and Sidney Sussex
Colleges during Michaelmas Term, 1873 :—

On General Physics and Mechanics, By Mr. Trotter,
Trinity, in Lecture Room No. 11 (Monday, Wednesday, —
Friday, at 11, commencing Wednesday, Oct. 15).

On Elementary Organic Chemistry. By Mr. Main,
St. John’s (Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday, at 12, in St.
John’s College Laboratory, commencing Thursday, Oct.
16). Instruction in Practical Chemistry will also be given.

On Paleontology (the Protozoa and Ccelenterata).
By Mr. Bonney, St. John’s (Tuesday and Thursday at 9,
commencing Thursday, Oct. 16). . ;

On Geology for the Natural Sciences Tripos. Pre-—
liminary matter and Petrology. By Mr, Bonney, St. John’s
(Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, at 10, commencing
Wednesday, Oct. 15.) A Course on Physical Geology
will be given in the Lent Term, and on Stratigraphical
Geology in the Easter Term.

Papers will be given to Questionists every Saturday at
11, but the first paper will be set on Wednesday, Oct. 15,
at Ir, when arrangements will be made for further
instruction should it be required.

On Botany, for the Natural Sciences Tripos. By Mr.
Hicks, Sidney (Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday, at 11, in —
Lecture Room No. 1, beginning on Thursday, Oct. 16).
The Lectures during this term will be on the Morphology
of Phanerogamia. /

A Course of Practical Physiology and Histology. By
the Trinity Praelector in Physiology (Dr. Michael Foster)
at the New Museums. Lectures on Tuesday, Thursday,
Saturday, at 12, commencing Saturday, Oct. 25.

This course is intended for those who have gone
through a course of Elementary Biology similar to that —
given last Easter Term. 4

THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION

THe Portland Meeting of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science was in almost every
respect an exceptional success. Its general attendance
was very large, and there was an unusual number of the
older members, whose presence insures consideration of —
the more important topics, and gives dignity and force to
the discussions. An especial effort had been made to
exclude all inferior communications. A regulation had
been adopted, compelling the presentation of an abstract —
of each paper before it was read; and the examining
committee in determining from abstracts what papers
should be read, exercised in general a rigorous but wise
discretion. It will not be the case after this, as after
previous meetings, that a considerable proportion of the —
communications actually read will have to be ignored in
the printed proceedings. But even under such restric-
tions, the number of papers actually read was unusually

NATURE

large, and there were but few instances, as compared

with previous years, of the pernicious practice of reading
papers by title only—a practice which, if pushed to its

logical conclusion, would result in the destruction of the
_ Meetings.

- The discussions were kept well in hand, wandering

but little from the subject, and being, though frequently
brilliant, notably brief. There was in them almost an

entire absence of any display of feeling, except an occa-
sional expression of kindly regards between opponents
whose differences did not extend beyond the debate ; in
fact, the cordiality of the meeting was one ofits prominent
features. ;

The newspaper press sent correspondents from distant
cities—New York, Boston, and Chicago being well repre-
sented. The New York Tribune announced that its
reports would be re-published in an extra, and deter-
mined to make that extra cover, with at least a fair
extract, every communication read and accepted at the
meeting, and the discussions elicited. The practical
difficulties in the way of such an undertaking are con-
siderable. All the sub-sections of the Association carry
on their proceedings in separate rooms simultaneously.
Many of the communications are technical, abstruse, and
difficult to report, and have not been reduced to writing ;
it being the custom of some authors to delay preparation
of MSS. for the official report till some months after the
close of the meeting. Notwithstanding these obstacles
and the expense involved in overcoming them, the extra
was brought out with all the completeness proposed ; thus
anticipating the usual official publication by almost a
year. It is a sheet of eight pages, and gives also
an illustrated series of letters upon Deep Sea Dredging,
as practised by the United States Commission of Fish
and Fisheries, the whole containing as much reading-
matter as would make a large duodecimo volume. The
extra is sold for ten cents, this price including postage.

NOTES

Srr SAMUEL and Lady Baker arrived in London on Thursday
evening last. The young African, a lad of about fifteen or six-
teen years of age, in whom Lady Baker is said to take much in-
terest, accompanied the party. Both Sir Samuel and Lady
Baker looked well, and seemed in excellent spirits. é

For the Biological Fellowship examination at Magdalen Col-
lege, Oxford, there are five candidates, of which we are sur-
prised to hear that three are graduates of the University of
Cambridge. The election takes place on Saturday next.

Mr. Epwarp BacGNnatt Poutton, from Mr. Watson’s
School, Reading, has been elected to an open Physical Science
Scholarship of So/. per annum, in Jesus College, Oxford.

Miss Pocson, daughter of the Government Astronomer at
Madras, has been appointed Assistant Astronomer.

THE American aéronaut,? Mr. Samuel A. King, intends
during September to make an extended balloon voyage from
Buffalo, New York. For this purpose he is building a large
balloon to replace the ‘‘ Mammoth,” which was destroyed by the
recent great fire in Boston. It is Mr. King’s purpose to make
the longest overland voyage, if circumstances favour, ever yet
accomplished. It is no part of his plan to go out over the ocean,
nor to explore the sea, but he expects to be able to settle some-
thing about the upper currents when he comes down. His voy-
age is undertaken wholly in the interest of science, and, in view
of the extraordinary degree of attention now being drawn to
the subject of meteorology, the results will be regarded as of
much more than ordinary importance. From a communication
made by Mr, King in 1871 to the Washington Philosophical

Society, it appeared that out of 170 aérial voyages made by him
during the past twenty-five years, about twenty-five per cent.
showed that the currents of the atmosphere were moving to the
north-eastward ; a second twenty-five per cent. gave westerly
currents ; and a third gave north-westerly currents. The re-
maining forty voyages were about equally distributed among
northerly, southerly, and easterly currents. Mr. King’s expe-
rience, therefore, agrees with that of most European aéronauts,
who have repeatedly testified that there is no constant westerly
current of air prevailing at any altitude above the earth’s surface
which they have been able to reach in their balloons.

CANADA is doing its part toward the exploration of the Great
West. Besides the surveying parties out on the route of the
Pacific Railroad, it has special parties in the field in connection
with the Geological Survey and the Boundary Commission.
Mr. Selwyn, F.G.S., Director of the Survey, and Mr. R. Bell,
F.G.S., are at work on the great regions watered by the North
Saskatchewan, and Mr. Richardson on the other side of the
Rocky Mountains in British Columbia. Mr. G. M. Dawson,
Associate of the School of Mines, Geologist of the Boundary
Commission, has just completed a survey of the Lake of the
Woods and its neighbourhood, and is now exploring the plains
westward of Pembina. All these parties are provided with the
means of making collections in the botany and zoology of the
regions explored.

Mr. J. A. HARVIE BROWN has sent us a reprint of an article
by him which appeared in the Scotlish Naturalist for July, advo-
cating the establishment of a British Naturalist’s Agency, on the
model of the ‘‘ American Naturalist’s Agency,” established
at Salem, Mass. U.S. The American Agency has flourished
and brought forth abundant and good fruit, and in an incredibly
short space of time has become the acknowledged medium for
the sale of the proceedings of all the leamed societies in
America, and through which advertisers on all natural history
subjects make known their wants. The main purpose of the
Agency is to facilitate the circulation of papers and pamphlets on
Natural History, which, from the want of such an Agency, many
who wish to possess them find it difficult to obtain, and which
are often not even known beyond a narrow local circle. The
Agency also undertake to publish new and republish old
standard works in Natural History, and perferm several other
eminently useful offices which can only be sufficiently per-
formed by some such central organisation. The very exist-
ence of such an Agency would create a demand for scientific
knowledge. Such an Agency in this country would un-
doubtedly prove a great boon to naturalists, provided it were
ably conducted, and fully acknowledged and supported by the
leading scientific societies. Scientific circles in time, we believe,
would be enlarged, and not be confined to the metropolis, or nearly
so. There are plenty of good men out of London, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, and the large towns who have no opportunities of
reading, being removed from the principal scientific libraries.
Not one individual, nor indeed any one society, could set such an
undertaking afloat, but if all the leading societies would jointly
discuss its merits and demerits, and at length bring it carefully
and repeatedly before the notice of the British Association, there
is every likelihood that it would become a complete success.
To arrive at this first step it is necessary to ventilate the sugges-
tion, and this cannot be better done than by bringing it before the
notice of the local societies, and asking each to assist in bringing
it finally before a higher court. Parties interested and desirous
of seeing such a scheme successful may communicate with Dr,
F, Buchanan White, editor of Scottish Naturalist, Perth, or
with John Harvie Brown, Dunipace House, Falkirk.

ON Monday last a meeting was held at the Mansion House
with the view of promoting technical education in the City. The

‘

514
meeting was immediately held in connection with the distribu-
tion of prizes by the Turners’ Company, for the best specimens
of workmanship in the turning of articles in ivory and stone. It
is creditable to this Company that it has by this means been en-
deayouring to promote technical education for some years past,
and if all the other City Companies took the trouble to follow
the Turners’ example, and encourage the introductlon into the
various trades and handicrafts with which they are connected of
a scientific method of workmanship founded upon scientific
knowledge of material and on sound scientific theory, we believe
they would be doing eminent service that would be fruitful of the
best results to the trade and commerce and manufactures of the
kingdom.

Mr. T, W. Burr writes us that he has, since 1853, been in the
habit of using a sidereal dial similar to that described by Captain
Mayne, in NATuRE, vol. viii. p. 366.

THE death of Prof. John Lewis Russell is announced as
having taken place at Salem, U.S., on the 7th of June, in the sixty-
fifth year of his age. Prof. Russell was well known as an ardent
student of botany, and especially in the department of New
England cryptogams, in which he was a recognised authority.
He took much interest in the scientific societies of Salem, having
been connected more or less with their foundation and adminis-
tration during the active years of his life.

Pror, AGassiz has recently lost one of his most valuable

assistants in the death of Dr. G. A. Maack, on the 6th of August |

last, in the thirty-third year of his age. He was connected with
the Cambridge Museum for several years, during which time
he was detailed by his chief to act as geologist of the Darien
Isthmus exploring party, under Commander Selfridge, and also
prosecuted similar researches in Brazil and elsewhere in South
America. He was specially charged with the osteological
collection of the Cambridge Museum, which he managed
with great ability.

THE death is announced of Mr, George Ormerod, of Sedbury
Park, Gloucestershire, F.R.S., F.S.A,, D.C.L., &c., a well-
known antiquary. He was eighty-seven years of age.

THE Yournal of Botany records the death of Dr. J. Lindsay
Stewart, late Conservator of forests in the Punjaub, who had
rendered great service to the cause of forest administration in
India, by the commencement of the large and now flourishing
plantations in the plains of the Punjaub, and who was also a
copious writer on Indian botany.

“CONTRIBUTIONS to our knowledge of the Meteorology of
the Antarctic Regions,” published by the Meteorological Com-
mittee, will be of value both to meteorologists and to future
Antarctic navigators, The work has been executed by Mr. R.
Strachan, and the materials which form the paper have been ex.
tracted from the Meteorological Registers kept in the Antarctic
Regions, on board H.M.S. Zvebus and Terror, during the
months December 1840—March 1841, December 1841—March
1842, December 1842—March 1843, and on board H.M. sloop
fagoda during January-March 1845,

As a result of the inquiry into the recent typhoid epidemic, we
are glad to see that the Dairy Reform Company have secured the
co-operation of Prof. Corfield, M.D., Prof. Voelcker, Ph.D.,
and Prof, Wanklyn, to carry out the precautions which have
been adopted. A medical and veterinary examination of the
employés and stock on each farm is made every week, and
reports are forwarded to the Company’s chief office in Orchard
Street, where they are open to the inspection of customers from
TO A.M. to 4 P.M., on week days. Orders of admission to all
their establishments have been given to the medical officers of

ee a

eo ea
[ Oct. 16, 1873
health for the following districts :—St. James's, Marylebone,
Kensington, St, George’s, Paddington, Chelsea, and St. Pancras.

WITH reference to our note in last week’s number concerning —
the Leeds Daily News, we are glad to be able to say that the
Leeds Mercury and the Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer also.
report the transactions of the Leeds Naturalists’ Field Club. :

Messrs. CHURCHILL have in the press and will publish during

the ensuing season the following works of interest to scientific §
men :—‘‘On Food, Physiologically, Dietetically, and Therapeu-
tically considered,” by F. W. Pavy, M.D., F.R.S. ; a third and
enlarged edition of Dr. Lionel Beale’s ‘ Protoplasm, Dissentient™
Demonstrative, and Speculative,” with 16 plates; a second
edition of ‘‘The Thanatophidia of India,” by J. Fayrer,
M.D., C.S.1. ; a new illustrated work on ‘‘ Medicinal Plants,’
by Robert Bentley, F.L.S., and Henry Trimen, M.B., F.L.S,
This work will include full botanical descriptions and an account
of the properties and uses of the principal plants employed —
in medicine, especial attention being paid to those which are
officinal in the British and United States Pharmacopeeias,
The plants which supply food and substances required by the
sick and convalescent will be also included. Each species will
be illustrated by a coloured plate drawn from nature. This
work will be published in monthly parts, of which we
may expect the first very shortly. A translation by Arthur
E. J. Barker, of Frey’s “‘Manual of the Histology and —
Histo-Chemistry of Man,” a treatise on the elements of
structure and composition of the human body ; the book will be-
largely illustrated with engravings on wood, and specially —
revised by the author. ‘‘ The Microscope and its Revelations,” —
by Dr, W. B, Carpenter, F.R.S. ; a new edition with upwards —
of 500 engravings.” ‘Experimental Investigations of the —
Action of Medicines ;” being a handbook of Practical Pharmaco-
logy, with engravings, by T. Lauder Brunton, M.D., one of the 4
lecturers at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital ; ‘The Student’s Guide ©
to Zoology,” with engravings on wood, by Andrew Wilson, —
Lecturer on Zoology at Edinburgh and author of ‘Elements of _
Zoology ;” ‘On Long, Short, and Weak Sight, and their
Treatment by the Scientific use of Spectacles,” by J. Soelberg —
Wells, F.R.C.S., fourth edition, with engravings, ee

Messrs. BLacKwoop will shortly publish, ‘‘ Economic Geo- _
logy, or Geology in its relation to the Arts and Manufactures,”
by David Page, LL.D. ; and an “Advanced Text-Book of
Botany,” for the use of Students, by Dr. Robert Brown, —
F.R.G.S., with numerous Illustrations. ty Sea

Messrs. STRANAN & Co, announce, as nearly ready, “The —
, Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man,” by q
|, James Geikie, F.R.S.E., of H.M. Geological Survey. This _
| work will be copiously illustrated. y

THE third session of the Newcastle College of Science com-
menced on Tuesday, presided over by the Dean of Durham.
Prof. Herschel delivered an address. The necessity for shortly
providing more accommodation was considered, and it was
understood that an effort was about to be made to raise funds for a
a new college. The very rev. chairman also mentioned that a
College of Agriculture was about to be founded in Central North- _
umberland in connection with the University of Durham. :

THE annual distribution of prizes to the successful competitors
in the Guildford Science and Art classes, awarded by the Go-
vernment Department of Science and Art, took place on the
evening of October 1, at the Town Hall. In addition to the
Guildford prizes those won by the students of St. John’s, Woking, |
were also distributed, as well as the Night Art Class of the

Guildfold Working Men’s Institute. The number of students
has continued steadily to increase upon former years, 62 having —

| NATURE

_ attended the classes during the last winter session, Of these,
_ 35 came up for examination in May, and 23 passed. Several of
these obtained very advanced success in more than one subject,
so that the total number of successful candidates in the seven
subjects taught amounts this year to 49, including four outside
candidates, leaving an increase of 13 from last year. Mr.
‘Ethelbert Dowlen, one of the pupils, has been awarded
the ‘‘ Queen’s Silver Medal” in botany, and besides nu-
merous other prizes and certificates, he also obtained the
*Queen’s Gold Medal” for geology at St. John’s College,

¥ Woking. Altogether these classes seem to have been highly

}
,
‘

-

|

successful, and we hope they will continue to be increasingly so.

The classes will be re-opened for instruction on Tuesday, 27th inst.,
and will be continued every!Monday and Wednesday evening for

Physical Geography, and on Tuesdays and Fridays, from 6 to 9

P.M., in the other subjects. A class will be held on Saturdays for
- ladies, in Botany, at a convenient time, commencing from the 11th
inst. at 11 A.M. Proposed Subjects :—1, Mathematics (Ist, 2nd,
and 3rd stage), or theoretic mechanics ; 2, sound, light, and heat ;
3, magnetism and electricity ; 4, chemistry, inorganic ; 5, animal
physiology ; 6, elementary botany; 7, biology; 8, physical
geography. ‘The fees are very moderate.

- THE volume of Artizans’ Reports upon the Vienna Exhibition,
published by the Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry,
_ Manchester, will be published about the 2oth of this month.
There are thirty-six reports, which are said’to be of a very high.
class character.

WE are glad to see, from the Report of the Chester Society of
Natural Science, that that Society, which has concluded its
second year, continues to increase in prosperity ’so far as num-
bers are concerned—the number of members being now 454.
Among these are not a few working members ; and the’secre-

tary gives excellent advice in counselling each member
to devote himself to a special subject, as thus fonly can the in-
terest of the Society and the advance of science be best pro-
moted. During the past year two societies of natural science
have been founded in the neighbourhood of Chester—one at
Wrexham, the other at Whitechurch. The Chester Society does
its work by means of field excursions, general lectures, and sec-
tional meetings. 7

Tux forthcoming number ot Petermann’s AMiittheilungen will
contain a detailed account of Captain Hall’s Po/arzs Arctic ex-
pedition, with its scientific results. 1t will be accompanied by
a carefully constructed map showing the course of the Polaris
from the 80th degree northwards, her course southward from
Aug. 15 to Oct. 15, 1872, the course along which the floe con-
taining the nineteen persons drifted after they were separated
from the ship on the night of Oct. 15, 1872, until they were
picked up off the coast of Labrador six months afterwards, the
distance drifted each day, along with the state of the weather,
and the places where seals, &c. were obtained, being indicated ;
and lastly, the course taken by the men who were picked up
in Melville Bay last June.

SHORTLY before his death the late Colonel J. W. Foster
completed the manuscript of a work upon the prehistoric races
of the United States, which has just made its appearance from
the press of S. C. Griggs and Co., of Chicago, This contains
an excellent summary of the present state of our knowledge of
the aborigines of North America, as illustrated by the remains
found in mounds, shell heaps, and ancient mines, as well as
by their crania.

Tue City of London College, Leadenhall Street, to judge
from the programme we have received, offers excellent oppor-
tunities to young men engaged during the day for obtaining a
good education, literary and scientific, and for intellectual im-
provement in various ways.

THE Times of India says that a scientific geographical survey
of native Sikkim is in contemplation by the authorities.

THE Geological Magazine announces the death of Prof. Dr.
Kemp of Darmstadt, a distinguished zoologist and palzeontologist,
whose name is well known in connection with the discovery of
the Dinotherium.

HERR SCHLOENBACH, proprietor of certain salt works at
Lieberhall, in Hanover, has instituted a foundation of 12,000
florins, the interest of which is to be devoted to assist geologists
who may undertake journeys of exploration beyond the Austro-
Hungarian empire. This is intended as a memorial tribute to
his son, a young German geologist of much promise, recently
deceased.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the
last week include an Arctic Fox (Canis /agopus) and an Iceland

Gull (Zarus leucopterus), European, presented by Mr, B. L. ~

Smith ; a Black-handed Spider-monkey (A¢e/es melanochir) from
South America, presented by Mr. B. Went; an African Civet
Cat (Viverra civetta), presented by Lady Cust ; a Macaque Mon-
key (Macacus cynomolgus) from Africa, presented by Capt.
Denison ; a Raccoon (Procyon lotor) from North America, and a
Vulpine Phalanger (Pialangista vulpina) from Australia, pre-
sented by Miss Breach,

THE ERITISH ASSOCIATION
SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS

On the Introduction of the Decimal Point into Arithmetic, by
J. W. L. Glaisher, B.A.

The following is an extract from Peacock’s excellent History
of Arithmetic, in the ‘‘ Encyclopsedia. Metropolitana,” which
forms the stanndard (not to say the only) work on the subject.
Speaking of Stevinus’s ‘‘ Arithmélique,” Peacock writes: ‘* We
find no traces, however, of decimal arithmetic in this work, and
the first notice of decimal, properly so called, is to be found in
a short tract, which is put at the end of his ‘ Arithmétique,’ in
the collection of his works by Albert Girard, entitled ‘La
Disme.’ It was first published in Flemish, about the year
1590, and afterwards translated into barbarous French by
Simon of Bruges. . . . Whatever advantages, however, this
admirable invention, combined as it still was with the addition
of the exponents, possessed above the ordinary methods of cal-
culation in the case of abstract or concrete fractions, it does not
appear that they were readily perceived or adopted by his con-
temporaries. The last and final improvement in this
Decimal Arithmetic, of assimilating the notation of integers and
decimal fractions, by placing a foint or comma between them,
and omitting the exponents altogether, is unquestionably due to
the illustrious Napier, and is not one of the least of the many
precious benefits which he conferred upon the science of calcu-
lation. No notice whatever is taken of them in the ‘ Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio,’ nor in its accompanying
tables, which was published in 1614. In a short abstract, how-
ever, of the theory of these logarithms, with a short table of the
logarithms of natural numbers, which was published by Wright,
1616, we find a few examples of decimals expressed with refer-
ence to the decimal point ; but they are first distinctly noticed in
the ‘Rabdologia,’ which was published in 1617. In an *‘ Admo-
nitio pro decimali Arithmetica,’ he mentions in terms of the
highest praise the invention of Stevinus, and explains his nota-
tion; and without noticing his own simplification of it, he
exhibits it in the following example, in which it is required to
divide 861094 by 432. . The quotient is 1993,273, or
1993,2'73'", the form under which he afterwards writes it, in
partial conformity with the practice of Stevinus. The same form
is adopted in an example of abbreviated multiplication, which
subsequently occurs. . . . The preceding statement will suffi-
ciently explain the reason why no notice is taken of decimals in
the elaborate explanations which are given by Napier, Briggs,
and Kepler, of the theory and construction of logarithms ; and
indeed we find no mention of them in any English author be-
tween 1619 and 1631. In'that year the ‘ Logarithmicall Arith-

516

NATURE

| Oct. 16, 1873

1
metike,’ was published by Gellibrand, and other friends of
Briggs, who died the year before, with a much more detailed
and popular explanation of the doctrine of logarithms than was
to be found in the ‘ Arithmetica Logarithmica.’ It is there said
. . - From this period we may consider the decimal arith-
metic as fully established, inasmuch as the explanation of it
began to form an essential part of all books of practical Arith-
metic. The simple method of marking the separation of the
decimals and integers by a comma, of which Napier has given a
solitary example, was not however generally adopted.” ...

De Morgan (‘‘ Arithmetical Books,” 1847, p. xxiii.) writes :
“Dr. Peacock mentions Napier as being the person to whom
the introduction [of the decimal point] is unquestionably ue; a
position which I must dispute upon additional evidence. The
inventor of the single decimal distinction, be it point orline, as
in 123°456, or 123 | 456, is the person who first madet his dis-
tinction a permanent language ; not using it merely as a 7st in
the process, to be useful in pointing out afterwards how cnother
process is to come on, or language is to be applied, but making
it his final and permanent indication as well of the way of po!nt-
ing out where thei ntegers end and the fractions begin, as of the
manner in which that distinction modifies operations. Now
first I submit that Napier did not do this; secondly, that if he
did do this, Richard Witt did it before him.”

De Morgan then states that he has not seen Wright’s transla-
tion of 1616, but he proceeds to examine Napier’s claim as resting
on the two examples in the ‘‘ Rabdologia,” in the first of which
a comma is used, but only inone place. After this examination
he proceeds, ‘‘I cannot trace the decimal point in this: but if
required to do so, I can see it more distinctly in Witt, who
published four years before Napier. But I can hardly admit
him to have arrived at the notation of the decimal point. . . .”*

I agree with De Morgan in all that he has stated in the above
extracts, and do not think that the single instance of the comma
used in the course of work, and replaced immediately afterwards
by exponential marks, is a sufficient ground for assigning to
Napier the invention of the decimal point, or even affords a pre-
sumption that he made use of it at all in the expression of
results.

Still one of the objects of this paper is to claim (provisionally
of course, till evidence of any earlier use is produced, if such
there be) the invention of the decimal point for Napier, but not
on account of anything contained in the ‘‘ Rabdologia.” The
mathematical works published by Napier in his life-time (he
died in 1617) were his ‘‘ Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis De-
scriptio,” 1614, containing the first announcement of the inven-
tion of logarithms, and the ‘‘ Rabdologia,” 1617, giving an
account of his almost equally remarkable (as it was thought at
the time) invention of numbering rods or ‘‘bones.” In 1619,
two years after his death, the ‘* Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis
Constructio,” containing the method of construction of the canon
of logarithms was published, edited by his son, and in this work
the decimal point is systematically used in a manner identical
with that in which we employ it at the present day. I can find
no traces of the decimal point in Wright's translation of the
“* Descriptio,” 1616 ; and, as De Morgan says, the use of the
decimal separator is not apparent in Witt. The. earliest work,
therefore, in which a decimal separator was employed seems to
be Napier’s posthumous work, the “ Constructio” (1619), where
the following definition of the point occurs on p. 6. ‘In
numeris periodo sic in se distinctis, quicquid post periodum
notatur fractio est, cujus denominator est unitas cum tot cyphris
post se, quot sunt figuree post periodum. Ut 10000000°04 valet
idem, quod roco000e;4;. Item 25°803, idem quod 25,5",
{tem 9999998 0005021, idem valet quod 9999998zs}0sG00) et
sic de ceteris.” On p. 8 we have 10°502 multiplied by 3°216,
and the result found to be 33°774432; and on pp. 23 and 24
occur decimals not attached to integers, viz. ‘4999712 and
"0004950. These show that Napier was in possession of all the
conventions and attributes that enable the decimal point to com-
plete so symmetrically our system of notation, viz. (1), he saw
that a point or separatrix was quite enough to separate integers
from decimals, and that no signs to indicate primes, seconds,
&c., were required ; (2), he used ciphers after the decimal point
and preceding the first significant figure, and (3), he had no

* In an essay “ On some points in the History of Arithmetic ” (Companion
to the Almanac for 1851), De Morgan has further discussed the invention of
the decimal point, but in the same spirit as regards Napier. He seems
never to have seen Napier’s ‘‘Constructio” of 1619, and the work is very
rare. The only copy I have heen able to see is that in the Cambridge Uni-
Yersity Library.

objection to a decimal standing by itself without any integer.

Napier thus had complete command over decimal fractions and

understood perfectly the nature of the decimal point, and I
believe (except perhaps Briggs) he is the first person of whom

this can be said. When I first read the “Constructio,” I felt
some doubt as to whether Napier really appreciated the value
of the decimal point in all its bearings, as he seemed to have
regarded it to some extent as a mark to separate figures that |
were to be rejected from those that were to be retained; but a
careful examination has led me to believe that his views on the
subject were pretty nearly identical with those of a modern
arithmetician. There are perhaps 200 decimal points in the
book, affording abundant evidence on the subject.

The claim of Napier to the invention of the decimal point is
not here noticed for the first time, as both Delambre (‘‘ Hist. de
l’Astron. mod. t. i. p. 497) and Hutton allude to the decimal
fractions in the “ Constructio” (though the latter claims priority
for Pitiscus), and Mr. Mark Napier (‘* Memoirs of John Napier,”
P: 454) devotes a good deal of space to it.

Briggs also used decimals, but in a form not quite so conve-
nient as Napier ; thus, he writes 63°0957379 as 630957379, viz.,
he prints a bar under the decimals: this notation first appears
without any explanation, in his- ‘‘ Lucubrationes” appended to
the “ Constructio.”* Briggs used this notation all his life (he
died in 1631), and he explains itin the ‘‘ Arithmetica Logarith-
mica’’ of 1624. Oughtred’s symbol first used (as far as I know),
in his “ Arithmeticz in numeris”...Clavis, 1631, differed only
from Briggs’s in the insertion of a vertical bar to separate the
decimals from the integers more completely, thus: 63 | 0957379.
Oughired’s and Briggs’s notation are essentially the same, the
improvement of the former being no doubt due to the uncer-
tainty that sometimes might be felt as to which was the first
figure above Briggs’s line.

From an_ inspection of MSS. of Briggs and Oughtred
(the Birch MSS. contain a letter of Briggs’s to Pell, and
the Royal Society has a Peter Ramus with many of his
MS. notes, while the Cambridge University copy of the
“*Constructio ” is annotated in MS. by Oughtred), it is apparent
that in writing, Briggs and Oughtred both made the separating
rectangle in exactly the same way, viz., they wrote it 63 ; 0957379,
the upright mark usually being just high enough to fix distinctly
what two figures it was intended to separate, and rarely took the
trouble to continue the horizontal bar to the end of the decimals,
if there were many. Thus Oughtred was a follower of Briggs,
and only made an improvement in the /rin/ed notation, It is
clear that in writing Briggs’s rectangle was preity nearly as con-
venient as Napier’s point, and there is every probability that
Briggs appreciated all the properties of the ‘‘separatrix” as
clearly as Napier ; but in his 8 pp. of ‘“ Lucubrationes” he has
left much less to judge by than has Napier. In 1624, as we can
see from his “ Arithmetica Logarithmetica,” he had full command
over decimal arithmetic in its present form (except that he used
the rectangular ‘‘separatrix” instead of the point). Gunter was
a follower of Napier, and employed the point (but see De Mor-
gan). In his “ Description and Use of the Sector” (1623), he
uses the point throughout pretty much as we do at present (e.g.
Pp: 41 of the ‘‘First Booke of the Crosse-staffe”: ‘*As 4°50
unto 1°00 :so 1'000 unto 0'222”), except that he calls the
decimals farts in the text. In Roe’s ‘* Tabulze Logarithmicz, or
Two Tables of Logarithme ” (1633), the explanatory portion of
which was written by Wingate, decimal points are used every-
where ; thus we have (p. 29): “As 1 is to ‘079578 : so is the
square of the circumference to the superficial content,” and he
takes the case of circumference 88°75, and obtains by multiplica-
tion (performed by logarithms) 626°8 for the result. Wingate
refers for explanation on the decimal point to his arithmetic,
but I have not seen any edition of this work that was published
previously to Roe’s tables (Watt gives one, 1630). In his
“Construction and Use of the Line of Proportion” (1628), Win-
gate also uses decimals and decimal points.

On the whole, therefore, it appears that both Napier and
Briggs saw that a mere separator to distinguish integers from
decimals was quite sufficient, without any exponential marks
being attached to the latter; but that Napier used a simple
point for the purpose, while Briggs employed a bent or curved
line, for which in print he substituted merely a horizontal bar

* Acurious blunder is made in Bartholomew Vincent’s reprint of the
“* Constructio,” Lyons, 1620 (of which there is a copy in the Royal Society’s
library). The printer, unaware that the position of Briggs’s subscript bars:
had any meaning, has disposed them symmetrically under all the figures,

Oct 11895

subscript to the decimals ; that Gunter and Wingate followed
Napier, while Oughtred adopted Briggs’s method and made an
improvement in the mode of drinting it. Napier has left so
many instances of the decimal point as to render it pretty certain
that he thoroughly appreciated its use ; and there is every reason
to believe that Briggs had, in 1619, an equal command over his
separator, although there are not enough printed instances of
that date to prove it so conclusively as in Napier’s case (there is
no instance in the “ Lucubrationes” in which a quantity begins
with a decimal point, and there could not well be one). Napier
did not use the decimal point in the ‘‘ Descriptio ” (1614), nor
_ in his book of arithmetic first printed under the editorship of
Mr. Mark Napier in 1839, and there is only the single
_ doubtful case in the ‘*Rabdologia,” 1617, so that there is reason to
believe that he did not regard it as generally applicable in or-
dinary arithmetic. The only previous publication of Briggs’s
_ that I have seen was his ‘‘ Chilias,” 1617, which contains no
_ letterpress at all. The fact that Napier and Briggs use different
_ separating notations is an argument against either having been
_ indebted to the other, as whoever adopted the other’s views
__ would probably have accepted his separator too. It is doubtful
__ whether, if Napier had written an ordinary arithmetic at the close
_ of his life he would have used his decimal point. Wingate em-
__ ployed the decimal point with much more boldness, and regarded
_ it much more in the light of a permanent symbol of arithmetic
_ than did (or could) Napier. The Napierian point and the Briggian
separator differ but little in writing, and as far as MS. work is
y concerned it is quite easy to see why many should have consi-
_ dered the !atter preferable, for it was clear and interfered with
no existing mark. A point is the simplest separator possible, but
it had,already another use in language. In all the editions of
_ Onughtred’s ‘‘ Clavis”” (which work held its ground till the be-
ginning of the last century) the rectangular separator was used,
__and it is not unlikely that it was ultimately given up for the same
reason as that which I believe will lead to the abandonment of
the similar sign now used in certain English books to denote fac-
torials, viz., because it was troublesome to Zrin¢, But be this as
it may, it is not a little remarkable that the first separator used
(or more strictly, one of the first two) should have been that
which was finally adopted after a long period of disuse. All
through the seventeenth century exponential works [seem to have
been common, on which see the accounts in Sir Jonas Moore’s
**Moor’s Arithmetick,” London, 1660, p. 10; and Samuel
Jeake’s “Compleat Body of Arithmetick,” London, 1701
(written in 1674), p. 208, which are unfortunately too long to
quote in this abstract. In his account Peacock is inaccurate in
saying that the ‘* Logarithmicall Arithmetike” was published by
Gellibrand and others, the mistake having arisen, no doubt, from
a confusion with the ‘‘ Trigonometria Britannica,” 1633; and in
any case the reference is not a good one, as the ‘‘ Arithmetike” of
1631 shows (for reasons which must be passed over here) a less
knowledge of decimal arithmetic than do any of the chief lo-
garithmic works of this period, Also Briggs died in 1631, not
1630.

There is no doubt, whatever, that decimal tractions were first
introduced by Stevinus in his tract, ‘‘ La Disme.” De Morgan
(‘* Arithmetical Books,’ p. 27) is quite right in his in-
ference that it appeared in French in 1585, attached to the
* Pratique d’Arithmétique.” A copy of this work (1585) with
“La Disme” appended, is now in the British Museum. On
the title-page of the ‘‘ Disme” are the words ‘‘ Premierement
descripte en Flameng, et maintenant conuertie en Frangois, par
Simon Stevin de Bruges.” These words appearing also in Albert
Girard’s coilected edition of Stevinus’s works (1634) no doubt
gave rise to De Morgan’s inference that ‘‘the method of decimal
fractions was announced before 1585 in Dutch.” The Cambridge
University Library possesses 21585 copy, entitled ‘‘ De Thiende...
Beschreven door Simon Stevin van Brugghe....Tot Leyden. By
Christoffel Plantijn, M.D. LXXXV.” (privilege, dated December
20, 1584), and there seems every reason to believe, inthe absenc
of any evidence to the contrary, that this was the first edition of
this celebrated tract. Peacock’s statement that ‘‘it was first
published in Flemish about the year 1590, and afterwards trans-
lated into barbarous French by Simon of Brages”’ is also, I sus-
pect, founded on no other evidence than the sentence on the title-
page of the ‘‘Disme,” which appears also in Girard. De
Morgan rightly remarks that Simon of Bruges is Stevinus him-

_ self, but he cannot tell whence Peacock derived the date 1590.
It is probable that it was merely a rough estimate obtained by
considering the dates of the other works of Stevinus,

naa

NATURE

Stevinus’s method involved the use of his cumbrous exponents,
Thus he wrote 27°847 as 27(0)8(t)4(2)7(3)* and read it 27 com«
mencements, § primes, 4 seconds, 7 thirds ; and the question

chiefly noticed in this abstract is the consideration of who first

saw that by a simple notation the exponents might be omitted,
and introduced this abbreviation into arithmetic.

Napier’s ‘‘ Rabdologia ” was translated into several languages
soon after its appearance, and I have taken some pains to exa-
mine the different ways in which the translators treated the
example which Peacock regarded as the first use of the decimal
point, as we can thereby infer something with regard to the state
of decimal arithmetic in the different countries. Napier (1617)
wrote 1993,273 in the work, and 1993,2’7"3” in the text. In
Locatello’s translation (Verona, 1623) this is just reversed, viz.
there is 1993.2'7”3” in the work, and 1993,273 in the text.

“The Lyons edition (1626) has 1993,273 in the work, and

1993,2(1)7(2)3(3)+ in the text, while De Decker’s edition
(Gouda, 1626) has 1993,273 in the work, and in the text
1993(0)2(1)7(2)3(3), the last being exactly as Stevinus would
have written it. Ursinus’s ‘‘Rhabdologia,” Berlin, 1623, is
not an exact translation, and the example in question does not
occur there.

SANITARY PROGRESS t

ANITARY science is a thing of yesterday, comparatively
«speaking ; but sanitary art, the art of preserving the health,
whether of individuals or of communities, has been studied and
practised for ages, Sanitary science is the latest and highest
development of medicine. I say it is the highest branch ot
medical science because of the extreme importance of its objects,
and I may also add ofits results. It is the study of the causes
of diseases, and it points out the means of preventing them ; and
Iam sure you are all agreed that ‘ prevention is better than
cure ;” as Rollet of Lyons well said, ‘‘ Medicine cures indi:
viduals, hygiene saves the masses.” But while we contrast hygi-
ene (another name for sanitary science) with curative medicine,
we must not forget that it is altogether a medical science, and
that its great lights have been all medical men (mind, I am not
speaking of the art now, but of the science), and this is neces-
sarily so, and always must be so. I have said that sanitary
science is the study of the causes of diseases, of the modes in
which they originate, and in which they spread from one person
or place to another. It is therefore only those who are acquainted
with disease, that are competent to deal with it all, and these are
those who have made medical science generally their special
subject. You sometimes hear it said that medical men don’t
know much about diseases. Just think what this means; disease
has been studied by earnest men inall its various forms for thou-
sands of years; experiences have been recorded, comparisons
made ; the effects of remedies noted from generation to gene-
ration, and yet we are asked to believe that medical men don’t
ae anything about diseases ; the thing is absurd on the face
of it.

Sanitary science is, then, a medical science, and the most inti-
mate acquaintance with diseases is necessary for its prosecution
—I mean for its advancement as a science. Sanitary inves-
tigations can only be scientifically conducted by medical men, just
as pianos can only be played by musicians. This science is also
the latest development of medical science. We must understand
simple things before we canstudy complex ones. It is little use fora
boy to study higher algebra until he has mastered the rule of
three ; and so pathology, or the study of diseased actions, be-
comes more and more advanced as physiology—the study of
normal healthy actions—is more scientifically pursued ; while the
study of sanitary matters in a scientific way has only become
possible of later years from the great advances made in the study
of pathology, physiology, and chemistry ; but being possible, it
has made such rapid strides, and evolved such startling facts
with regard to the causes of diseases, that it has become the
popular subject of the day. Everyone thinks that he is com-
petent to speak about it, and everyone who wants to make an
effective discourse must needs take upon himself to expound

* Stevinus enclosed the exponent-numbers in complete circles, which
have been replaced above, for convenience of printing, by parentheses.

+ These parentheses are printed instead of the circles which appear in
these works as in Stevinus.

t Abstract of the Inaugural Lecture delivered at the Town Hall, Birming
ham, Thursday evening, Oct. 9, 1873, by Prof. Corfield, M.D. Oxon.

517

‘

some, to him, new view of sanitary matters ; this is very mis-
chievous. A man may do more harm by giving the weight of
his authority to erroneous views respecting the method to be
employed for the prevention of diseases than he has done good
during the whole of his life in any other way. None but those
who have made a special study of this subject have a right to
* speak on it, or at any rate have a right to influence the public
mind with regard to it. The amount of good which may be
done by the exposition of correct views on sanitary matters is
incalculable ; the amount of evil done by the enunciation of
erroneous views, backed by apparent authority, fearful.

But if sanitary science is a thing of yesterday, such is not the
case with the observation of sanitary facts, nor with the practice
of sanitary art ; and, while it is true that sanitary science is essen-
tially and entirely a medical study, and is necessarily so, it is
equally true that the practice of the art of preserving the health
is not only possible to all, but is a duty which devolves upon all.
In all ages we have had writers on this subject. From all
countries we may learn useful lessons about it. From the times
of Hippocrates, Galen, and Celsus, we have had records of the
results of observations on the methods of preserving the health ;
from the time of Moses we have had lawgivers imposing salu-
tary conditions of existence upon unwilling, because ignorant
populations. We look upon the immense engineering works
undertaken and carried out by the Romans to supply their towns
with pure water with astonishment, when we turn round and see
our own towns supplied from polluted rivers, or, worse still, from
shallow wells dug in the soil upon which they themselves stand,
wells supplied in most cases chiefly by the foul water which has
percolated from the surface of the ground. We have found out in
later times that one of the main conditions of the health of com-
munities depends on the purity of the drinking water, and we see
that the Roman engineers, by having to go to a considerable dis-
tance for water in order to get it toa sufficient height in their
cities, accidentally, as it were, fulfilled one of the most important
of sanitary requirements.

“Knowledge is power,” and as we come” to know more of
the conditions which favour the spread of diseases, as we do
daily, it is our own fault if we neglect to use the power which
that knowledge gives us. There are two conditions of insa-
lubrity which are pre-eminent. I hardly know which to place
first. The one is overcrowding, and the other the accumulation
of refuse matters in and about dwellings. These conditions
were those which especially favoured the spread of the fearful
plagues of the middle ages ; as a result of over-crowding we
have a deteriorated condition of the air, from the diminution of
the amount of its most essential constituent, oxygen ; and, worse
still, we have it rendered foul by the exhalation of decomposing
organic matters from the bodies of the persons breathing it.
Such a state of air is especially favourable to the multiplication
of the poisons of diseases ; such a state of the air is also brought
about by the non-removal of refuse matters from the vicinity of
habitations. Dr. Laycock tells us that the plague in York in
each of its visitations, and also the cholera, broke out in the
same abominably filthy place ; and in cholera epidemics it has
been repeatedly noticed that those parts of towns which are
most filthy and most over-crowded, always suffer worst.

But the danger is not only from special epidemic diseases,
Such insanitary conditions induce a lowered vitality of the in-
habitants, who become prone to attacks of diseases of all sorts;
and then we have sickness, inability to work, and consequent
inability to earn bread and to pay rents, and so the evil recoils
from the tenants upon the landlords. One witness says, “ Rent
is the best got from healthy houses.” Another, “ Sickness at
all times forms an excuse for the poorer part not paying their
rent, and a reasonable excuse.”

1 consider that one of the most important conclusions that the
study of sanitary science has forced upon us lately is the conclu-
sion that the immediate removal of, refuse matters is one of the
first necessities of the healthy existence of a community. There
are those who would have you believe that refuse matters may
be rendered innocuous in one way or another, so that they
may be kept with safety in and near to houses. Don’t listen
to them; the principle is wrong—radically wrong. Depend
upon it that the true method is to get rid of such matters at
once, and in the simplest possible way, and that is the cheapest
plan in the end. Show me a town where refuse matters are
kept—no matter how they are treated—and I will show you a
town where the standard of vitality is low ; I will show you a
town with a high death-rate, especially among children.

NATURE

| excellent position of London, it is

To take the other side of the question, look at London. q
There you have a population of 3} millions, with the lowest
death-rate of any very large collected population in the world, —
with one of the lowest death-rates among the large towns of even
our own country. Why is this? I say unhesitatingly, and with-
out fear of contradiction, that with all allowances made for the
ainly due to the fact that the
principle there, however incompletely it may be carried out, is
the immediate removal of all refuse matters; in London, the
water-carriage system, by which the foul water containing a very
large proportion of the refuse matters of the population, is re-
moved by gravitation in sewers, is carried out far more perfectly
than in any other large town, and this system is daily being ren-
dered more perfect there ; it is the right system based upona
true principle, and its results are most salutary. When you have
got rid of refuse matters, then see what you can do with them ;
and here arises a very curious consideration. Sewers, in most
instances, were not originally built as sewers, but as drains; a
sewer is a conduit for the removal of fouled water; a drain is a
channel for the removal of mere superfluous water, the object
being to dry the soil. The pattern of all our old sewers, the
Cloaca Maxima at Rome, was originally a drain ; it was con-
structed by Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth King of Rome, 600,
years B.C., to drain the marshy ground between the Palatine
and Capitoline hills, and it was so well constructed that it drains
that ground at this moment. Pliny wondered that it had en-_
dured 700 years unaffected by earthquakes, by inundations of the
Tiber, by masses which had rolled into its channel, and by the —
weight of the ruins which had fallen over it. What would he
say could he see it now, as any of you may who choose to go to
Rome, still discharging, after more than 2,400 years, its dirty
water into the Tiber? But the convenience of the great drain’
for the disposal of refuse matters soon became apparent, and so
it was turned into a sewer, and has been one ever since.

Well, what are we to do with the refuse sewer water, when we _
have got it out of our towns? This is one of the greatest ques-
tions of the day. Drains, of course, were naturally made to
discharge into rivers, their proper place, so Jong as they were
only drains ; but when they come to be used as sewers, this will
not do; in the first place the rivers are fouled, and in the next
the manure is lost. TI shall be able to show you in the course of
the lecture that the only way known by which sewer water can be
either purified or utilised, is by turning it, with suitable precau-
tions, on to land, that this may be done, not only without
injury to the health of the neighburhood, but with great benefit
in many ways.

We have spoken of drains to dry the soil ; what is the necessity
of this? Every farmer knows that crops will not flourish on un-_
drained land ; neither can human beings ; a damp house is a
synonym for an unhealthy house, you all know that ; but it is”
only within the last few years, as the result of a most important
sanitary research, made by Dr. Buchanan, that we have come to
know as a scientific fact, beyond all dispute, that the drying of —
the soil of a town reduces the number of deaths from consump-
tion in a most extraordinary manner ; in some towns the number
of deaths under this head has been reduced by one-third or even
by one-half, in this way.

To mention some other special diseases which have been suc:
cessfully combatted of late years, look at scurvy, that terrible
malady which formerly decimated our navies! We know now _
that that disease may be prevented by the use of limejuice as
part of the daily food, and we are no longer afraid of it. (Some >
illustrations of the ravages of this disease were given. ) ‘

Look at small-pox, beyond all exception the most fearful
epidemic disease with which the world was ever afflicted! We
know how to prevent it, and we have recently had a v :
lesson from not applying that knowledge. It is to the inpeeae
credit of England that Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination, was —
an Englishman ; there are certain people, and they have actually —
formed a society, who are trying to get compulsory vaccination
done away with in this country. Let me tell you that if there is
one fact established in preventive medicine it is that vaccination |
affords a protection from small-pox ; let me tell you that this ©
statement is founded upon an induction such as has been brought to
bear upon no other subject in medical science; and, let me add,
that those persons who bring isolated facts as arguments against
a statement so supported, show that they have no idea of the
nature of an inductive argument at all. An unvaccinated per-
son is a danger to the community, and ought not to be allowed
to go at large, and so far from persons being merely fined for

~

= “

not allowing their children to be vaccinated, and then permitted
to keep them unvaccinated, the children ought to be vaccinated
_by the public vaccinator, even in spite of their parents, who
_ should not be allowed to risk their children’s lives through their
‘own obstinacy and ignorance; and not only their children’s
lives, but those of the persons around them, The recent epidemic
f small-pox showed us several important things—it showed us
hat we knew before, that small-pox is far more fatal to un-
ecinated than to vaccinated persons ; it showed us that while
small-pox is especially fatal to unvaccinated children, it is less
' fatal to vaccinated children than to other persons ; thus demon-
strating the necessity of re-vaccination, and it showed us that
re-vaccination once performed is actually a better protection
against small-pox than a previous attack of small-pox is. You
know that it is not common for a person to have small-pox
twice. Well, it is much less common for a person to have
small-pox after he has been successfully re-vaccinated, and if he
has it is almost certain to be a very mild attack. Out of nearly
15,000 cases of small-pox admitted into various London hospitals
_ during the late epidemic, only four presented proof of having

_ been re-vaccinated.
___ Let us pass on to typhoid fever. Here is a disease of the very
have only known in recent times, but yet a disease about which,
thanks to the researches of men now among us, one of whom it
_ especially becomes me, as his pupil to mention, Sir William
__ Jenner, we really seem to know more than about almost any other
disease ; a disease which we deliberately hunt down to its source,
and stop just as we could stop the supply of stone from a quarry
or of rifles from an armoury ; a disease, the haunts and habits of
which we know with such accuracy that we are able to go into a
house and say, ‘“‘ Alter this, and alter that, or you will very likely
_ get typhoid fever here,” a disease the ways of which we know so
well, that, when there has been a case of it caused by local
_ defects in a house, we can almost predict what alterations are
required without going to the place. Surely the results obtained
from the study of this disease are some of the most striking
results of sanitary progress in our day. I find that the idea has
become widely spread that the recent epidemic of typhoid fever
in London was due to the distribution of milk from a sewage
farm ; this was not so, and I regard it most in the light of a
special providence that none of the milk sent out from that
establishment came from a sewage farm: had it been so, such a
__ fact, combined with the prejudice and ignorance which exists upon
_ the matter, would have dealt a severe blow to the progress of one
of the greatest sanitary improvements of the day. The cause of

by which the poison got into the dairy well haying been recently
unearthed.

I must allude, for an instant, to the recent sanitary legislation ;
it has been found fault with by many on account of matters of
detail ; but consider the fact that the result of it is that the
country has spent a large sum of money in the employment of
medical officers of health and sanitary inspectors, and that such
men now exist, and you will see that in it we may find great cause
for rejoicing when looking to the future of sanitary progress. In

_ a lecture on the ‘‘ History of Hygiene,” which I delivered some
three or four years ago at University College, London, I said,
“From its very nature, hygiene interests all classes of society ;
but it is to those who are worst off—the poorest and most
wretched—that it must direct its first attention. Civilisation has
its evils as well as its advantages, as Bouchardat has well re-
marked ; and one of the greatest of them is the over-crowding
of people in the great centres of population, with the misery and
disease which are the results of it. It is to better constructed
houses for the working classes, to a free supply of good water,
and to satisfactory sewerage arrangements, that we must look for
an amelioration in these respects ; and I would hasten to add, to
a wider spread among those classes of such an education as
shall lead them to appreciate the means used for the improvement
of their condition, and to lend a helping hand for the furtherance
of those means.”

I feel that I cannot do better in conclusion than congratulate
this town on having, through the munificence of one of its
citizens, been the first to appreciate the importance of the educa-
tion of the people in these subjects, and on having such an
institution as this in which so much useful knowledge is imparted
to the people, and congratulate myself on having the privilege of
such an opportunity of spreading broadcast the great truths of

y . . . . . - e | ‘ , A u , u
Existence of which, as distinct from certain other diseases, we | Thalurania, which is exclusively tropical, and consists of eleven

__ that epidemic is known with absolute certainty, the very channcl |

forward to by Dr. Parkes when he wrote :—‘‘ Let us hope that
matters of such great moment may not always be considered as
of less importance than the ‘languages of extinct nations, or
the unimportant facts of a dead history.”

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE current /éis commences with the latter part of Mr.
Brooke’s notes on the ornithology of Sardinia, special attention
being drawn to O¢is tetrax, which is moderately common ; Fient-
copterus roseus, which occurs in large flocks'during the winter and
even up to June; the presence of P. evithacus is doubtful.
Fulica nigrosa was not seen, though included in both Cara’s and
Salvadori’s lists. In the museum there are several specimens 0
Fhalacrocorax desmarestit, and P. carbo is extremely common.
Larus andouini is found, though very rarely.—Captain F. W.
Hutton, in a note on Radius modestus of New Zealand, gives
evidence to show that Dr. Buller is in error when he considers
R. modestus to be R. dieffenbachii, in an immature state of
plumage, as the proportions of the chicks are different, and the
bill of the latter more slender.—Messrs. Salvin and Elliot in
continuation of their notes on the Zrochilid, discuss the genus

species and five sections.—In notes on Chinese ornithology,
Mr. R. Swinhoe draws special attention to Ceryle rudis at
Ningpo, Gallinago solitaria, Endrominas veredus, and other
land as well as water-birds found at Shanghai.—Mr. Sclater
supplements Mr. Salvin’s list of the birds of Nicaragua, with
additions from a recent small collection made by Mr. Belt,
adding seventeen species, mostly well known through Central
America.—Mr. E. L. Layard gives notes of the birds observed
in Para ; and Mr. Sclater describes and figures two new species
named by him Picolaftes layardi, and Thamnophilus simplex.—
Captain J. H. Lloyd on the birds in the province of Kattiawar
in West India, commences the detailed account with an inte-
resting comment on the general ornithological description of the
region.

THE Monthly Microscopical Fournal for October, commences
with a description, by Mr. F. H. Welch, of the thread-worm
Filaria immitis, occasionally infesting the vascular system of the
dog, with remarks on the same, relative to Haematozoa in
general, and the Filaria in the human blood. The specimens
described were obtained from the right ventricle and pulmonary
artery of adog, from Shanghai, the male, female, and young
being described. The left ventricle also contained some
of the young.—Dr. Royston-Pigott fully illustrates a paper en-
titled ‘‘ Researches in Solar Spectra, applied to test
residuary aberration in microscopes and telescopes; and
the construction of a compensating eye-piece, being a sequel to
the paper on a searcher for aplanatic images.”—Dr. Rutherford
describes a new freezing microtome in which the freezing box
and escape tube are much larger than in his older instrument,
and the indicator is improved.—Mr. Ch. Stodder, in a letter,
points out that it is inaccurate to suppose that the nominal price
of American objectives is directly comparable with that of
English makers, as the value of money in the two countries is
so different, and duty has to be paid on entering the former.

Annali di Chimica applicata alla Medicina, July number, 1873.
—We notice in this journal, besides a number of formulz for
pharmaceutical preparations and other details interesting to the
druggist, a paper by A. Gubler, on experiments with new and
old opium alkaloids, which deals, amongst others, with apo-
morphia.—There is also a translation of Mr, Simon’s memoran-
dum on the diffusion of cholera, and other papers from native
and foreign sources. In the Rendiconto delle sessioni dell? Acade-
mia delle scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna, 1872-1873,” are given
briefly (in about 189 pages) abstracts of the papers read before
the Society, together with other matter of the usual nature.

Reale Istituto Lombardo di scienze e Lettre Rendiconti,\Fascicolo
xiii.,” July 1873.—This number contains several critical lite-
rary, historical, and philosophical papers, including one on
Kant’s philosophy, by C. Cantoni.—In the scientific section
there is a paper by Prof. Cavalleri on improvements in the
helioscope, and a portion of a paper by P. Cantoni on elec-
trical adherence, which is illustrated with several tables of data.
—Fascicolo xiv. contains a paper on the capacity of the nasal
fossa, by-P Mantegazza, and one on cholera by G. Strambio,—

sanitary science, ‘The time is fast coming which was looked | C. Lombroso details some experiments on the tonic action of

maize (gzasto) affected with the Pencillum glaucum. The author
maintains that the maize in this state acts injuriously. G. San-
galli, who replies to the paper, maintains that the effects are due
to another cause.—New comet discovered at the Royal Observa-
tory of Milan, by G. Tempel ; communicated by G. V. Schia-
parelli—The continuation of P. Cantoni’s paper on electrical
adherence is given.—The other papers are on the propagation of
the corpuscle cornalia, by C. Gibell, and a letter ona purulent
disease of one hemisphere of the brain, by L. Porta.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, June 3.—Dr. Ruschen-
berger in the chair.—“‘ Fertilisation of Pedicularis canadensis.”
Mr, Thomas Meehan drew attention to the structure
of the flower of Pedicularis canadensis, in which it was
evident self-impregnation was impossible, and there seemed
to be no special arrangements for fertilisation by distinct
agency, as there were in so many allied plants. In this
case the stamens were included in the closely compressed
arch «f the corolla, and, with the anthers, were directed retrorsely
to the pistil, which at an early stage, and long before the ma-
turity of the pollen, was protruded beyond the corolla, rendering
self-fertilisation almost impossible in this ower. But the flowers
were always abundantly fertile, and though the arrangements
were such as seemingly to afford no chance even for insects to
aid in the fertilisation, it was also probable that in some way it
was accomplished by them. Both last season and this he had
devoted some time to watching the plant, but failed to find any
clue to the process. A species of Bombus seemed to have the
plant especially under its charge, visiting the flowers in great
numbers ; but they bored through the corolla on the outside of
the tube for the saccharine matter, and the anthers or pollen did
not seem to bein the least disturbed by this. Still it was so
highly probable that in some way some insect aided in the cross-
fertilisation of these flowers, that it might serve a useful purpose
to direct attention to it, as others with time and opportunity might
discover what he had failed to find.

RIGA

Society of Naturalists, April 16—M. Tank communicated
some observations on honeydew, which he thinks is an imme-
diate excretion of the leaves due to cooling.—M. Behrmann
gave reasons for doubting the supposition that certain fires which
occurred almost daily from October to December last year, in a
village of the Orel Government, arose from phosphuretted hy-
drogen out of the marshy ground. "

April 23.—M. Petzholdt read a paper on the composition and
formation of Imatra stones. Various hypotheses of formation
have been given—the gyratory, the stalactitic, the geological,
the vegetable, the animal, &c. Parrot supposed the stones to
be petrified, shell-less molluscs. M. Petzholdt formulates his
view thus :—In a slimy layer of fine sand, mud, and carbonate
of lime, are formed, through mutual attraction of particles of
the latter, several ball-heaps of lime. Next, dry deposition of
the whole at a later epoch. Disturbance of the stratum by
water, setting free the hard spherical masses (Imatra stones).

April 30.—M. Pfeiffer showed a small headless chick with
large legs, found dead with another, which was alive in the
same egg, The two were connected bya fibre. After separa-
tion the living chick throve normally.

May 21.—M. Glasenapp gave a note on blackened wood in
certain trees blown down in a storm, The blackening is attri-
buted to a kind of fungus which formed on the north side of
the trees while yct standing.—M. Gottfriedt read a paper on
enclosure of diamonds in xanthophyllite; the supposed dia-
monds he finds to be merely hollow spaces, erosion figures,
—M. Teich gave an account of an excursion to North-West of
Kurland.—The Correspondenz Blatt, No. 9, contains a descrip-
tion of the snakes of the Baltic Provinces, of which there are
patel species— Vipera verus, Tropidonolus natrix, and Coronella

laevis.
GOTTINGEN

Royal Academy of Sciences, Aug. 6.—Dr. Paul du Bois-
Reymond communicated a paper on the representation of func-
tions by Fourier’s series. J

_Aug. 13.—M. Waitz compared some points in the Annales
Sithiensis, relative to Pippin and Charlemagne, with other

a SS
‘| Oct. 16, 1873

annals of the time.—M. Ewald gave a paper on the passage, —
Ezek. xlv. 12: ‘‘ Twenty shekels, five-and-twenty shekels, ten-
and-five shekels shall be your maneh.” The maneh, it is known, —
originally contained 60 shekels (which these numbers make up),
and this enumeration, he thinks, was in order to exactness and
certainty, not because there were coins of these several values.
The Septuagint version (rightly read) makes the maneh 50
shekels, and it is known there wassuch a maneh. The author
advances a theory, on which the passage affords evidence of both
manehs having been known in the first half of the sixth century
B.C.—Dr. Voss communicated a note on the geometry of focal
surfaces of congruences. i |
Aug. 20.—M. Minnigerode gave a long paper on a new
method of solving Pell’s Equation #2 Du=1. 5

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, October 6.—M. Bertrand in the
chair.—The following papers were read :—Note on the means
used to obtain a constant temperature in rooms and on the
methods of moderating it during the heat of summer, by General
Morin.—On new propyl compounds, by M. A. Cahours. The
author described several ethers of the propyl series.—Certain
considerations on the yellow elastic tissue and its immediate
organic analysis, by M. Chevreul, —Treatment of carbuncle and
malignant pustule by carbolic acid and ammonic carbolate, by
M. Déclat.—Statistical tables of the losses of German armies in
France during the war of 1870-1, by Capt. D. H. Leclere.—The
subcutaneous infarctus of cholera, by M. Bouchut,—On the im-
provement in healthfulness caused by the growth of Zucalypius
globulus in marshes, by M. Gimbert.—Studies on the Phylloxera,
by M. Max Cornu.—On the action on the vine of the carbonic
disulphide used to destroy the Fhylloxera, by M. Lecocq de
Boisbaudran.—On the size and variations of the sun’s diameter,
by S. Respighi. The author in his letter criticised Secchi’s
statements as to the difference between the nautical almanac
diameter and his own observations by monochromatic light. He
regarded Secchi’s observations as erroneous.—On the theory of
the thrust of earthworks, by M. J. Curie.—On the condensation
of gases and liquids by carbon, by M. Melsens. The author —
noticed the thermal phenomena produced by the contact of the —
liquids with carbon, &c,—On the production of certain borates in —
the dry way, by M. Ditte.—Researches on tribromacetic acid, —
by M. H. Gal.—On the development of Aatrachians. This was
a note on the embryos of Hy/odes martinensis, by M. Bayay.

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Enc isu.—Synopsis of all the Mosses known to inhabit Ireland: David
Moore, Ph.D.—Lobley’s Geologist’s Excursion to the Malvern District.— —
Proceedings of the Belfast, Natural History Society for 1371-2—Leyton Astro-
nomical Observations.—Report, Chester Society of Natural Science.—Law
of Elliptic Motion deduced from the Laws of Gravitation and Compound
Rotation: G. Hamilton.—Milk, Typhoid Fever and Sewage : Alfred Smee, —
—Contributions to the Knowledge of the Meteorology of the Antarctic
Regions.—A new Method of obtaining the Differentials of Functions; Profs.
Rice and Johnson.—Count Rumford, How he Banished Beggary from
Bavaria: T. L. Nichols, M.D,—A Scamper across Europe: T. L. Nichols, —
M.D. '

CONTENTS
D’ALBERTIS’ EXcurRSION INTO THE INTERIOR OF New GuInBA . .
Tue Morion or PRoyecTingS). ss "s 515 15) 0 pense
Our Book SHELF. . . a's) 0) (eke, foes <c0l be «atta

LETTERS TO THE EpiTor :—
Dr. Huizinga’s Experiments —Dr. J. Burpon SANDERSON, F.R.S.
Experiments on the Development of Bacteria in Organic Bodies.—
EH. Rav LANKESTER:. [45s ) <5 sje |e 8 Se, a
Variations of Organs.—G, H. Darwin . . . . «
Oxford Physical Science Fellowships.—J. PERRY . Aes Rear
Simple Method of Studying Wave Motion.—C. J. Woopwarp.
The Glacial Period:—J..EiRouRs' | J), 4) LS
Tue Owens CoLLeGE, MANCHESTER. « . « «+ « 6» sa 6
ON THE APPENDIX VERMIFORMIS AND THE EvoLuTIOoN Hyporuesis .
Tue Common Fros, II. By St. Gzorce Mivarr, F.R.S. (Wath

> ie Sale

Wihistrarcons) De. > “ae Oe oe bei tev ge.
JBAN CRACORNAC)- » 3s (0 gia Qs ys vk pbs) ve) We
SCIENCE LECTURES AT CAMBRIDGE...» . 4 « «© jou neueene
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION “(TEES ore oo) oe enn
INOTES hte sg hd CORRE Sob n a ce tS Ae
‘Tue British Association MEETING AT BRAprorD.~. Section A. . .
Sanitary Procress. By Prof, Corrigtp,M.D. . ......
ScreNTIFIC SERIALS . . . ss «+ °. = ele" ane a oe
SocigTIEs AND ACADEMIES . . ... 6 eee -

.

PAMPHLETS RECEIVED. < ga§ss > 1c is) + Le

Oct. 23, 1873].

LOCAL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES
. A:

E have devoted part of our space this week
to a kind of Census of our Local Scientific
scieties. It will be seen’ that in these Islands we
ready muster a goodly number, but no friend of
cience would consider the number satisfactory ; it does
ot, we are sure—seeing that there are twenty counties in
ngland and Wales, and a much larger proportion in
Scotland and Ireland, which appear not to boast of any
‘such society—represent the true activity of the different
eeeions from which, so to speak, the societies are fed.
We do not suppose that our list is accurate ; indeed our
present purpose in printing it is to gather information.
‘We hope that many societies exist which are not in our
‘list ; we fear that some have already ceased to exist since
the time that Sir Walter Elliot, with infinite pains, com-
piled some of the data on which we have had to rely in
‘the absence of information forwarded by the officers of
the societies themselves.
On the whole, however, all lovers of Science and advo-
-eates for the spread of scientific education among all
classes, ought to feel greatly gratified at the rapid increase
during recent years, of local scientific societies and field-
clubs indicated by the dates of foundation to be found
in our list. No more unmistakeable sign of a general
elevation of taste, of the spread of the scientific influence
and of a desire for scientific knowledge, can, we think,
be obtained, than this starting-up, in all parts of the
country, of societies for the express purpose of scientific
work in one form or another, and that generally as a
means of recreation. By far the greater number of the
societies have had their birth within recent years. With
‘one or two exceptions, the older societies are not very
_prominenly scientific, while as a rule the recently founded
ones bear on their very front the declaration that they
have been established solely for the pursuit of Science.
Thisisindeed very encouraging, more especially when
we reflect that this result is no outcome of any temporary
burst of enthusiasm, of any exciting scientific “ revival ”
agitation, but is simply the natural fruit of the slow but
sure development of the scientific spirit in our country.
From the information which has been kindly sent us by
the secretaries of the various societies many interesting
facts might be presented, and many curious and valuable
inferences drawn. It will be seen from the list, that the
societies are very unequally distributed over the country,
quite a busy hive of them being clustered around the border
counties of England and Scotland, while not a few counties
in both countries, as well as in Ireland, are quite unre-
presented, and many large counties by buta single society.
Why should this be? Is it to be attributed to the backward
state of intelligence and education in the unrepresented
districts? We do not think so; we believe that in every
county in the three kingdoms, men and women will be
found with an intelligent love of Science, a desire for scien-
tific knowledge, and a wish for the spread of scientific edu-
cation. Such peopleonly require to be roused to perceive the
advantages of the establishment of scientific societies and
field-clubs in their midst ; if only some one would take
the initiative and start such societies where they do not
at present exist, we have no fear, if judicious means be
used, that ample success will follow. From the large

—— oe

NATURE

523

number of members belonging to many of the societies
members belonging to all classes of society, it will be
seen that it is now considered honourable to be connected
with such an association ; and although in most societies
there is only a small nucleus of working members, still
while efforts should be made to engage all in the work,
the non-working majority should be considered as, at least
by their subscriptions and good-will, they help on the
good cause.

Into these and other details we hope to enter in one or
more future articles, founded partly on the statistics we pos-
sess. At the present time, when a Committee of the British
Association is considering the whole question of our local
Societies, we think it useful to point out the extreme
importance of an increased activity in this direction. The
recent action of the Government in aiding the establish-
ment of Science Schools has enormously increased the
advantages which such local associations may confer on
outsiders, while at the same time it has greatly widened
the recruiting ground, And it is in this double capacity
that the formation, encouragement, and extension of such
societies should be the care of all, whether scientific in
their tastes or not; while, to friends of Science it is
crucial, for Government aid, under existing arrange-
ments, can only come where there are Science Classes ;
and without Government aid, in nine cases out of ten,
the thing will fall to the ground altogether, or drag on
an existence of second-rate utility.

If there then be any Scientific Societies without Science
Classes attached to them, let them be assured that their
museums are comparatively valueless ; and further, that
their museum must always remain as it is, for though
it is clear to many that the Government must soon supply
typical collections to museums which are available for
teaching purposes, it is equally clear that there is no
reason why they should do so to museums the utility of
which is limited merely to members of a society.

Again: If there be any Scientific Societies without
Science Classes attached to them let them be assured that
their courses of lectures will prove of the least possible
value ; for mere lectures to those anxious to learn, but who
are debarred from more serious study, are more than dis-
appointing, they are hurtful.

In the ordinary course of things the Lecture should be
the precursor of the Science Class. The Science Class
should drive the student to the Museum, and from the
zealous students the society should be recruited.

There is one point in which all will acknowledge our
local societies have of late made considerable progress,
and here again the British Association has been helpful
to them—we refer to the more general establishment of
courses of lectures, and the more general engagement of
competent men of science, to place things new and strange
before their members. Let not such lecturers forget that
their duty is almost a sacred one ; though he may not be
a Davy, there may yet be a Faraday among the audience,
one who may be gained or lost to Science according as
the lecturer does his allotted work well or ill.

This brings us to another point. Why should not
physical and chemical apparatus available for high-
class experimental lectures be occasionally seen in
our museums or in rooms adjoining them? Why
should the stuffed crocodile and curious weapon of some

524

southern race of savages have it all their own way to the
extent that they do? Here, no doubt, our Government
has been greatly at fault, for after all, humble local
museums, farvis componere magna, are little British
Museums, and there is no help provided by the govern-
ment for any physical, or chemical, or astronomical
students in the British Museum. But though our govern-
ment is behind the age in London, the South Kensington
authorities are alive to the weak point in the armour, as
regards the provinces, and if a local society will only
establish a Science Class, travelling collections of the most
important modern scientific instruments are to be had for
the asking; and we may hope that ere long there may
be ‘a model museum at South Kensington, doing for
physical science what is done for it in Paris by the magni-
ficent Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers,a museum in
which the applications of Science, and the implements for
the teaching of Science hold the first place.

FARADAY ON SCIENTIFIC LECTURING

T a time when the lecture season is commencing, we
believe we shall be doing good service by placing
before those of our readers who are not already ac-
quainted with them in Dr. Bence Jones’ “Life of
Faraday,” the opinions of that great man on many points
connected with lectures on Science.

They were written to a friend when Faraday was but 21
years of age, but we believe he would have changed little
though he might have added much if he had revised them
in his later years. He commences by explaining that :—-

“The subject upon which I shall dwell more particu-
larly at present has been in my head for some considerable
time, and it now bursts forth in all its confusion. The
opportunities that I have latterly had of attending and
obtaining instructions from various lecturers in their
performance of the duty attached to that office, has
enabled me to observe the various habits, peculiarities,
excellencies, and defects of each of them as they were
evident to me during the delivery. I did not wholly
let this part of the things occurrent escape my notice,
but when I found myself pleased, endeavoured to ascer-
tain the particular circumstance that had affected me ;
also, whilst attending Mr. Brand and Mr. Powell in their
lectures, I observed how the audience were affected, and
by what their pleasure and their censure were drawn
forth.

“On going to a lecture I generally get there before it
begins ; indeed, I consider it as an impropriety of no
small magnitude to disturb the attention of an audience
by entering amongst them in the midst of a lecture, and,
indeed, bordering on an insult to the lecturer. By arriv-
ing there before the commencement,’ I have avoided this
error, and have had time to observe the lecture-room,”

He dwells on the form of the lecture-room, and then
indicates how important a matter ventilation is.

“There is another circumstance to be considered with
respect to a lecture-room of as much importance almost
as light itself, and that is ventilation. How often have I
felt oppression in the highest degree when surrounded by
a number of other persons, and confined in one portion
of air! How have I wished the lecture finished, the
lights extinguished, and myself away merely to obtain a
fresh supply of that element! The want of it caused the
want of attention, of pleasure, and even of comfort, and
not to be regained without its previous admission. At-
tention to this is more particularly necessary in a lecture-
room intended for night delivery, as the lights burning

NATURE

[Oce. 23, 1873

add considerably to the oppression produced on the
body.”
He then goes on :—

“ Having thus thrown off, in a cursory manner, such -
thoughts as spontaneously entered my mind on this
part of the subject, it appears proper next to consider
the subject fit -for the purposes of a lecture. Science is
undeniably the most eminent in its fitness for this pur-

ose. There is no part of it that may not be treated
of, illustrated, and explained with profit and pleasure to
the hearers in this manner. The facility, too, with which
it allows of manual and experimental illustration, places
it foremost in this class of subjects. After it come (as I
conceive) arts and manufactures, the polite arts, belles
lettres, and a list which may be extended until it includes
almost every thought and idea in the mind of man,
politics excepted. I was going to add religion to the
exception, but remembered that it is explained and laid
forth in the most popular and eminent manner in this
way. The fitness of subjects, however, is connected in an
inseparable manner with the kind of audience that is to
be present, since excellent lectures in themselves would
appear absurd if delivered before an audience that did
not understand them. Anatomy would not do for the
generality of audiences at the R. I. (Royal Institution),
neither would metaphysics engage the attention of a
company of schoolboys. Let the subject fit the audience,
or otherwise success may be despaired of.”

Now for the lecturer :-— ;

“A lecturer may consider his audience as being polite
or vulgar (terms I wish you to understand according to
Shuffleton’s new dictionary), learned or unlearned (with
respect to the subject), listeners or gazers. Polite
company expect to be entertained not only by the subject
of the lecture, but by the manner of the lecturer; they
look for respect, for language consonant to their dignity,
and ideas on a level with their own. The vulgar—that is
to say in general, those who will take the trouble of
thinking, and the bees of business—wish for something
that they can comprehend. This may be deep and
elaborate for the learned, but for those who are as yet
tyros and unacquainted with the subject must be simple
and plain. Lastly, listeners expect reason and sense,
whilst gazers only require a succession of words,

“These considerations should all of them engage the —
attention of the lecturer whilst preparing for his occupa-
tion, each particular having an influence on his arrange-
ments proportionate to the nature of the company he -
expects. He should consider them connectedly, so as to
keep engaged completely during the whole of the lecture
the attention of his audience. ey

“T need not point out to the active mind of my friend
the astonishing disproportion, or rather difference, in the
perceptive powers of the eye and the ear, and the facility
and clearness with which the first of these organs conveys
ideas to the mind—ideas which, being thus gained, are
held far more retentively and firmly in the memory than
when introduced by the ear. ’Tis true the ear here
labours under a disadvantage, which is that the lecturer
may not always be qualified to state a fact with the utmost
precision and clearness that language allows him and
that the ear cannot understand, and thus the complete
action of the organ, or rather of its assigned portion of
the sensorium, is not called forth; but this evidently
points out to us the necessity of aiding it by using the —
eye also as a medium for the attainment of knowledge,
and strikingly shows the necessity of apparatus.

“ Apparatus, therefore, is an essential part of every
lecture in which it can be introduced ; but to apparatus
should be added, at every convenient opportunity,
illustrations that may not perhaps deserve the name of
apparatus and of experiments, and yet may be introduced —
with considerable force and effect in proper places. Dia-
grams, and tables too, are necessary, or at least add in an

a a ae

Oct.

obstruct the lecturer.

23, 1873]

NATURE

525

eminent degree to the illustration and perfection of a
lecture. When an experimental lecture is to be delivered,
and apparatus is to be exhibited, some kind of order
should be observed in the arrangement of them on the lec-
ture table. Every particular part illustrative of the lecture
should be in view, no one thing should hide another from
the audience, nor should anything stand in the way of or
They should be so placed, too, as
to produce a kind of uniformity in appearance. No one

_ part should appear naked and another crowded, unless

some particular reason exists and makes it necessary to be
so. At the same time, the whole should be so arranged
as to keep one operation from interfering with another.
If the lecture-table appears crowded, if the lecturer (hid
by his apparatus) is invisible, if things appear crooked, or
aside, or unequal, or if some are out of sight, and this
without any particular reason, the lecturer is considered
(and with reason too) as an awkward contriver and a
bungler.

“The most prominent requisite to a lecturer, though
perhaps not really the most important, is a good delivery ;
for though to all true philosophers science and rature
will have charms innumerable in every dress, yet am
sorry to say that the generality of mankind cannot accom-
pany us one short hour unless the path is strewed with
flowers. In order, therefore, to gain the attention of an
audience (and what can be more disagreeable to a lec-
turer than the want of it ?), it is necessary to pay some
attention to the manner of expression. The utterance
should not be rapid and hurried, and consequently unin-
telligible, but slow and deliberate, conveying ideas with
ease from the lecturer, and infusing them with clearness
and readiness into the minds of the audience. A lecturer
should endeavour by all means to obtain a facility of
utterance, and the power of clothing his thoughts and
ideas in language smooth and harmonious, and at the
same time simple and easy. His periods should be round,
not too long or unequal; they should be complete and
expressive, conveying clearly the whole of the ideas in-
tended to be conveyed. If they are long, or obscure, or
incomplete, they give rise toa degree of labour in the
minds of the hearers which quickly causes lassitude, in-
difference, and even disgust.

“With respect to the action of the lecturer, it is requi-
site that he should have some, though it does not here
bear the importance that it does in other branches of
oratory ; for though I know of no species of delivery
(divinity excepted) that requires less motion, yet I would
by no means have a lecturer glued to the table or screwed
on the floor. He must by all means appear as a body
distinct and separate from the things around him, and
must have some motion apart from that which they
possess.

“A lecturer should appear easy and collected, un-
daunted and unconcerned, his thoughts about him, and
his mind clear and free for the contemplation and descrip-
tion of his subject. His action should not be hasty and
violent, but slow, easy, and natural, consisting principally
in changes of the posture of the body, in order to avoid
the air of stiffness or sameness that would otherwise be
unavoidable. Azs whole behaviour should evince respect
for his audience, and he should in no case forget that he
is in their presence. No accident that does not interfere
with their convenience should disturb his serenity, or
cause variation in his behaviour; he should never, if
possible, turn his back on them, but should give them full
reason to believe that all his powers have been exerted for
their pleasure and instruction.

“Some lecturers choose to express their thoughts
extemporaneously immediately as they occur to the mind,
whilst others previously arrange them, and draw them
forth on paper. Those who are of the first description are
certainly more unengaged, and more at liberty to attend
to other points of delivery than their pages ; but as

every person on whom the duty falls is not cqually compe-
tent for the prompt clothing and utterance of his matter,
it becomes necessary that the second method should be
resorted to. This mode, too, has its advantages, inas-
much as more time is allowed for the arrangement of the
subject, and more attention can be paid to the neatness
of expression.

“But although I allow a lecturer to write out his
matter, I do not approve of his reading it ; at least, not
as he would a quotation or extract. He should deliver it
in a ready and free manner, referring to his book merely
as he would to copious notes, and not confining his tongue
to the exact path there delineated, but digress as circum-
stances may demand or localities allow.

“ A lecturer should exert his utmost effort to gain com-
pletely the mind and attention of his audience, and
irresistibly to make them join in his ideas to the end of
the subject. He should endeavour to raise their interest
at the commencement of the lecture, and by a series of
imperceptible gradations, unnoticed by the company, keep
it alive as long as the subject demands it.
digressions foreign to the purpose should have a place in
the circumstances of the evening ; no opportunity should
be allowed to the audience in which their minds could
wander from the subject, or return to inattention and
carelessness. A flame should be lighted at the commence-
ment, and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the
end. For this reason I very much disapprove of breaks
in a lecture, and where they can by any means be avoided,
they should on no account find place. If it is unavoidably
necessary, to complete the arrangement of some experi-
ment, or for other reasons, leave some experiments in a
state of progression, or state some peculiar circumstance,
to employ as much as possible the minds of the
audience during the unoccupied space—but, if possible,
avoid it.

“Digressions and wanderings produce more or less
the bad effects of a complete break or delay in a lecture,
and should therefore never be allowed except in very
peculiar circumstances ; they take the audience from the
main subject, and you then have the labour of bringing
them back again (if possible).

“ For the same reason (namely that the audience should
not grow tired), I disapprove of long lectures ; one hour
is long enough for anyone, nor should they be allowed to
exceed that time.

“A lecturer falls deeply beneath the dignity of his
character when he descends so low as to angle for claps,
and asks for commendation. Yet have I seen a lecturer
even at this point. Ihave heard him causelessly condemn
his own powers. I have heard him dwell for a length of
time on the extreme care and niceness that the experi-
ment he will make requires. I have heard him hope for
indulgence when no indulgence was wanted, and I have
even heard him declare that the experiment now made
cannot fail from its beauty, its correctness, and its appli-
cation, to gain the approbation of all. Yet surely such
an error in the character of a lecturer cannot require
pointing out, even to those who resort to it ; its impro-
priety must be evident, and I should perhaps have done
well to pass it.

“ Before, however, I quite leave this part of my subject,
I would wish to notice a point in some manner con-
nected with it. In lectures, and more particularly experi-
mental ones, it will at times happen that accidents or
other incommoding circumstances take place. On these
occasions an apology is sometimes necessary but not
always, I would wish apologies to be made as seldom
as possible, and generally, only when the inconvenience
extends to the company. I have several times seen the
attention of by far the greater part of the audience called
to an error by the apology that followed it.

“ An experimental lecturer should attend very carefully
to the choice he may make of experiments for the illus

No breaks or |

rete:

eee,
‘

Pals ¥ so"
Ae ae

526

NATURE

| Oct. 23, 1873

tration of his subject. They should be important, as
they respect the science they are applied to, yet clear, and
such as may easily and generally be understood. They
should rather approach to simplicity, and explain the
established principles of the subject, than be elaborate
and apply to minute phenomena only. I speak here (be
it understood) of those lectures which are delivered
before a mixed audience, and the nature of which will not
admit of their being applied to the explanation of any but
the principal parts of a science. If to a_ particular
audience you dwell on a particular subject, still adhere to
the same principle, though perhaps not exactly to the
same rule, Let your experiments apply to the subject
you elucidate, do not introduce those which are not to the
oint.

Pe Though this last part of my letter may appear super-
fluous, seeing that the principle is so evident to every
capacity, yet I assure you, dear A., I have seen it broken
through in the most violent manner—a mere alehouse
trick has more than once been introduced in a lecture,
delivered not far from Pall Mall, as an elucidation of the
laws of motion.

“Neither should too much stress be laid upon what I
would call small experiments, or rather illustrations. It
pleases me well to observe a neat idea enter the head of a
lecturer, the which he will immediately and aptly illus-
trate or explain by a few motions of his hand—a card, a
lamp, a glass of water, or any other thing that may be by
him ; but when he calls your attention in a particular way
to a decisive experiment that has entered his mind, clear
and important in its application to the subject, and then
lets fall a card, I turn with disgust from the lecturer and
his experiments.
ready wit and the presence of mind to turn any casual
circumstance to an illustration of his subject. Any par-
ticular circumstance that has become table-talk for the
town, any local advantages or disadvantages, any trivial
circumstance that may arise in company, give great force
to illustrations aptly drawn from them, and please the
audience highly, as they conceive they perfectly under-
stand them.

“ Apt experiments (to which I have before referred)
ought to be explained by satisfactory theory, or otherwise
we merely patch an old coat with new cloth, and the
whole (hole) becomes worse. If a satisfactory theory can
be given, it ought to be given. If we doubt a received
opinion, let us not leave the doubt unnoticed, and affirm
our own ideas, but state it clearly, and lay down also our
objections. If the scientific world is divided in opinion,
state both sides of the question, and let each one judge
for himself, by noticing the most striking and forcible
circumstances on each side. Then, and then only, shall
we do justice to the subject, please the audience, and
satisfy our honour, the honour of a philosopher.”

We trust that during the ensuing session, these
opinions of Faraday may be in the minds of every
lecturer on Science.

ECKER’S “CONVOLUTIONS OF THEB RAIN”

On the Convolutions of the Human Brain. By Dr.
Alexander Ecker, Professor of Anatomy and Compara-
tive Anatomy in the University of Freiburg, Baden.
Translated, by permission of the author, by John C,
Galton, M.A., Oxon., M.R.C.S., F.LS., &c., &c.
Translator of Prof. Roser’s “Manual of Surgical
Anatomy,” &c, (London: Smith, Elder, & Co., 1873.)

©* late years the topographical anatomy of the surface
of the brain has deservedly attracted considerable
attention ; and the recent able investigations of Hughlings

’Tis well, too, when the lecturer has the:

Jackson and Ferrier have shown the importance, in fact
the absolute necessity of a correct and generally recog-
nised description and enumeration of the cerebral con-
volutions. Mr. Galton therefore deserves the thanks of
all interested in the subject, forshaving introduced to us
in English dress this valuable monograph by Prof, Ecker
of Freiburg.

There are two methods by which the complex human
brain may be analysed and reduced to its simpler
elements, two paths that lead to the same goal; the one
is by a careful examination and comparison of the brains
of the lower animals, and especially of apes, which latter
in their higher groups present a “ sketch map ” as it were,
which is filled in and completed in man only. This has
been carried out with great success by Gratiolet primarily,
and in England it has been followed amongst others by
Huxley, Marshall, Flower and Rolleston. The other
method is by tracing the development of the fcetal brain,
and observing which fissures, and therefore which convo-
lutions, are the first to make their appearance, and so are
of primary importance, and how these subsequently under-
go farther evolution and complication. Tiedemann and
Reichert have hitherto been our authorities on this point,
and it is by this method chiefly that Prof. Ecker arrives
at his conclusions,

In this country the admirable little treatise of Prof.
Turner has been welcomed and the classification therein
adopted is now generally accepted, and taught in several
of our anatomical schools. Prof. Ecker in the main
follows Prof. Turner, although the nomenclature, of
course, is that of the German school, and so differs
occasionally from ours, which follows rather Gratiolet and
the French school. The synonyms are, however, in all
cases faithfully given.

The author insists upon the essential difference between
the Sylvian fissure and the other sulci, these being mere
indentations of the cortex, whilst that is formed by the
folding of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe on the fore part of
the brain during its development. The anterior or as-
cending branch of this fissure! is here correctly described
as being short and arrested by the hinder end of the lower
frontal convolution, whilst that described as such by Prof.
Turner is a distinct sulcus (pracentral) terminating close —
behind the ascending ramus. The gyrus connecting the
inferior and ascending frontal (anterior central) convolu-
tions is always present, although it is not always super-
ficial, being occasionally concealed by the over-lapping of
those convolutions. Instead of the orbital lobule usually ~
described on the under surface of the frontal lobe, the
three frontal convolutions are traced round the apex to
the orbital surface. The narrow ridge internal to the
olfactory sulcus (gyrus rectus) is regarded as the con-
tinuation of the first, the gyrus between that and the
orbital sulcus as the second, and outside the last as the
third. We should rather consider all internal to the
orbital sulcus as first frontal, whichis grooved by a special
olfactory sulcus, and the second as ending posteriorly
between the anterior branches of the triradiate orbital
sulcus. The marginal convolution is regarded as simply
the inner surface of the superior frontal,

In the parietal lobe the supra-marginal and angular
convolutions are amongst the most difficult in the brain
to indicate and circumscribe. Prof. Ecker describes the

Oct. 23, 1873]

NATURE 527

supra-marginal convolution as arching over the end of
the fissure of Sylvius and joining the upper temporo-
sphenoidal convolution, and the angular as folding over
the hinder end of the parallel fissure and joining the middle
temporo-sphenoidal convolution. This description, and
it is supported by our experience, is not quite in accord-
ance with that of some other anatomists; for in-
stance, in Mr. Marshall’s well-known essay on the brain
of the bushwoman, the supra-marginal convolution is
correctly defined thus, whilst the angular would require
the anterior enlarged portion of the third annectent
gyrus, as marked in the figure, to complete its bend and
unite it to the second temporal gyrus. Similarly, in the
_ idiot boy’s brain, the angular gyrus would be a large
folded convolution, there indicated as the bifurcated
anterior extremity of the second annectent convolution ;
and in the idiot woman the parallel fissure extends so far
back that it quite cuts off the angular gyrus from the
temporo-sphenoidal, and the convolution is represented
by the straight, also bifurcated fore part of the second
annectent gyrus in the figure. The intra-parietal fissure
of Turner is here called less correctly inter-parietal.

In the occipital lobe, a tolerably constant transverse
depression, into which the intra-parietal fissure often
debouches is appropriately named “occipital sulcus.”
Prof. Ecker regards the bridging, or annectent convolu-
tions, as unworthily distinguished by special names in
the human brain, since they do not bridge over any fissure
as in the lower apes. He carefully points out their
homology with those gyri in the ape, yet deprecates the
transference of the names from the Simian to the human
brain. But this comparison and correspondence of no-
menclature is precisely what we require for the satisfac-
tory determination of the cerebral functions, and the
homological significance of a part is quite sufficient to
justify the application of the same name to it. So also,
on the inner surface, the lower annectent gyrus is described
as the “gyrus cunei,” and the occasional presence%of the
upper annectent gyrus is alluded to, of which we have now
seen several examples. The operculum of the ape’s brain
is discussed, but the same term is unfortunately here
applied to quite a different part of the human brain, viz.
the united lower ends of the ascending frontal and pari-
etal convolutions which overhang the island of Reil.

The middle convolution on the under surface of the
occipito-temporal lobes is regarded, not without precedent,
as the direct continuation of the gyrus fornicatus, and the
uncinate gyrus of Huxley thus comes to be divided into
three parts, the “lingual lobule” behind the union of the
two gyri, the “convolution of the Hippocampus” imme-
diately below the dentate fissure, and the recurved hook
or “uncinate lobule”; but the connection between the
gyrus fornicatus and this convolution is small and nar-
row, whilst that between it and the lingual lobule is large
and direct ; further, the author points out, after Gratiolet,
that in many apes the calcarine is prolonged into the
dentate fissure and cuts off the arched from the uncinate
gyrus; surely this shows the essential unity of the
uncinate convolution, and that the junction with the
gyrus fornicatus is a superadded and secondary element
in the human and certain Simian brains.

The translator has generally performed his work well ;
there are, however, one or two slips; for instance, the

dentate fissure is said to produce an eminence in the floor
of the Zosterior corner of the lateral ventricle; the
parieto-occipital fissure also is described correctly as
being concave forwards, whilst in the diagram it is repre-
sented as convex: the figures are exceedingly clear.
Prefixed is an exhaustive bibliography by the translator,
which adds materially to the value of the work; and
finally, we can cordially recommend it as an accurate
and lucid guide to a somewhat difficult study.
Gi. Deis

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Zoological Record for 1871. Edited by Prof. Newton.
(J. Van Voorst, 1873.)

THE birth of true biological science is of so recent origin,
and its development has been so rapid that until lately
many of the necessary steps in the furtherance of its
proper progress have remained beyond the cognizance of
its most enthusiastic followers. The difficulties connected
with, and the unmanageableness of the large number of facts
accumulated day by day on all branches of zoology, and
recorded by observers in all parts of the civilised world,
have until lately been scarcely realised. Only by those
who, from the disappointment which they have experi-
enced on finding that observations which have cost them
incalculable time and labour, have been previously under-
taken and exhausted by others before them, either in
their own or some other country, appreciate fully the
necessity for an easily accessible, accurate, and not over
ponderous account of the labours of previous workers.

It is only the full appreciation of the advantage to
future science students which stimulates the authors of
the several parts of the work before us to continue and
commence their contributions to this, what may be truly
termed, labour of love. The labour involved in obtaining
a complete and condensed account of the gist of each
zoological paper published here or elsewhere throughout
a year, is so great, and the smallness of the class who are
disposed to purchase the work when produced, so neces-
sarily restricted, that at first sight it is evident that it is
only with the assistance of donations from scientific
bodies, or from contributions of one kind or another on
the part of amateurs in the subject, that the necessary
expenses can be covered and the staff maintained.

These considerations will recommend this valuable
work to the consideration of all interested in zoological
progress.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressea

by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous
communications. |

On the Equilibrium of Temperature of a Gaseous
Column subjected to Gravity

Srnce reading Principal Guthrie’s first letter on this subject
(vol. viii. p. 67), I have thought of several ways of inves-
tigating the equilibrium of temperature ina gas acted on by
gravity. One of these is to investigate the condition of the
column as to density when the temperature is constant, and to
show that when this is fulfilled the column also fulfils the con-
dition that there shall be no upward or downward transmission
of energy ; or, in fact, of any other function of the masses and
velocities of the molecules. But a far more direct and general
method was suggested to me by the investigation of Dr. Ludwig
Boltzmann* on the final distribution of energy in a finite system
of elastic bodies. A sketch of this method as applied to the
simpler case of a number of molecules so great that it may be
treated as infinite, will be found on p. 535. Principal Guthrie’s
second letter (vol. viii. p. 486) is especially valuable as
stating his case in the form of distinct propositions, every cne or

* Studien iiber das gleichgewicht der lebendigen Kraft zwischen bewegten

materiellen Punkten. Von Dr. Ludwig Boltzmann. Sitzb. d. Akad. d.
Wissensch, October 8, 1868 (Vienna).

528

NATURE

which, except the fifth, is incontrovertible. He has himself
pointed out that it is here that we differ, and that this difference
may ultimately be traced to a difference in our doctrine as to the
distribution of velocity among the molecules in any given portion
of the gas. He assumes, as Clausius, at least in his earlier inves-
tigations, did, that the velocities of all the molecules are equal,
whereas I hold, as I first stated in the 7277. A/ag. for Jan. 1860,
that they are distributed according to the same law as errors of
observation are distributed according to the received theory of
such errors.

It is easy to show that if the velocities are all equal at any
instant they will become unequal as soon as encounters of any
kind, whether collisions or ‘‘ perihelion passages” take place.
The demonstration of the actual law of distribution was given
by me in an improved form in my paper on the J)ynamical
Theory of Gases, ‘‘Phil, Trans.” 1866, and P/il. A/ag. 1867,
and the far more elaborate investigation of Boltzmann has led
him to the same result. I am greatly indebted to Boltzmann for
the method used in the latter part of the sketch of the general
investigation (see p.535) which was communicated in a condensed
form to the British Association on Sept. 20, 1873 .

J. CLERK-MAXWELL

Mallet-Palmieri’s Vesuvius

As Tam assured that it would be most undesirable as well as
unbecoming of me to continue a scientific controversy in the
tone of Mr. Mallet’s letter which appeared in NATURE of
October 9, I would only beg those who have perused it to
remember that my remarks were altogether directed to the
assertions contained in Mr. Mallet’s introductory sketch, and
not comments upon his theory of yoleanic energy of which, as he
himself admits, we as yet know little or nothing. I would then
ask them to compare its contents with the substance of my
letter in NATURE, Sept. 4, and judge for themselves whether
so far from its being any answer to my arguments, it does not,
on the contrary, furnish additional ‘‘evidence of his confound-
ing chemical constitution with percentage composition, &c.,”
the very keynote of this discussion.

Mr. Mallet writes—‘‘ Mr. Forbes appears to think that
chemists, mineralogists, and geologists are the sole arbiters”’ of
such questions ; a remark he could not have made had he read
some of my publications ; yet I am quite willing to admit that I
do place more faith in them collectively, than in any one
physicist or mere mechanician whether theoretical or practical ;
and I believe I am correct in asserting that no theory of volcanoes
will be accepted by the scientific world until its doctrines are
proved to be fully in accordance with the facts brought forward
by these sciences.

When the reasons for my delay in answering Mr. Mallet’s
criticisms were fully stated, is it not, to say the least, most unjust
of him to harp on this string, after having already taken more
than a month to produce a rejoinder the reverse of an answer,
and the style of which, peculiar to himself, is in complete har-
mony with that of his introductory sketch, of which one of his
favourable reviewers writes —‘* We do not cordially approve of his
method of dealing with other writers. There is, if we may be
excused the expression, a tone of bitterness all through his
writing whlch gives the reader a most uncomfortable sensation,
and leads a person altogether unbiassed to imagine a feeling of
jealousy on the part of so distinguished a writer as Mr. Mallet
which we are sure cannot exist in reality. After giving a sketch
of the various authors who have ventured to give different
and erroneous opinions on the subject of vulcanicity,” &c. An-
other reviewer remarks that—‘“ While objecting to most of the
views of geologists, which, however, he frequently distorts, Mr.
Mallet claims the character of physical truth for his own ideas,”
and adds, ‘what we chiefly object to inthis portion of the
volume is the assumption on Mr. Mallet’s part of a conscious
superiority to others, and a freely expressed contempt for all
previous observers, especially for geologists.” Need I add
more? DAVID FoRBES

11, York Place, W. Oct. 20

Oxford Science Fellowships

As Mr. Perry’s letter, in the last number of NATURE, contains
assertions calculated to impede the progress of science here by
deterring persons, not graduates of Oxford, from competing for
appointments in colleges, and also involves charges of, to say
the least, discourtesy to himself, I trust you will find space in
your next number for the following explanation.

First, as to Mr. Perry’s general assertion’respecting fellowships.

From the fact that a graduate of Belfast is ineligible for a
Fellowship in AJerton College, Mr. Perry infers that “ outsiders
are ineligible for Oxford Fellowships in Physical Science.” This
is clearly illogical, and it is also untrue.

Secondly, as to the special case of Mr, Perry. :

The ordinances of Merton College state that “‘no person shall
be eligible” for a fellowship’“ who shall not have passed all
the examinations required by the University for the degree of
Bachelor of Arts.” It appears a possible interpretation that
Cambridge and Dublin B.A.’s, who can at any time incorporate
in this University, may be candidates. If this be so, the reply
of the Warden of Merton, as Mr. Perry gives it (of the actual
correspondence I know nothing), may be correct, though perhaps
not sufficiently explicit. This, however, is a legal question, and
the college is taking steps to obtain the opinion of an eminent
counsel,

Mr. Perry was not left, as his letter would naturally lead ~
readers to infer, without warning as to this difficulty ; for in
July I wrote to Mr. Perry strongly expressing my doubt as to his
eligibility, but as I was away from Oxford I could not quote the
words of the ordinance; I advised him to consult the sub-
warden, but I believe he did not follow my advice.

Mr. Perry received my letter, and replied to it on July 27.

The great difficulties which Mr. Perry asserts to have been
thrown in his way, simply arose from the fact that he only pro-
posed to come to Oxford during the vacation. Now it is not to
be expected that I should allow any person who chooses to apply
to overhaul the physical apparatus of the University in my ab-
sence, and it is unreasonable to suppose that, to suit the con-
venience of such a person, I must give up engagements made
long before, in order to assist him in a candidature for an office
of emolument in a college.

Tt must be borne in mind that there are nineteen colleges, any
one of which may at any time offer a fellowship for proficiency in
physics, and consequently to have to be at the service of out-
siders, who may wish to be candidates, during the long vacation
(the only time I have for real study) might become a serious
matter, and to ask for such “assistance seems to me to make}a
most unreasonable request. 4

I must add that if Mr. Perry imagines he would have been at
any appreciable disadvantage by not knowing the particular in-
struments in the University cabinet (which it is by no means cer-
tain would be used for a college examination), either he assumes
that the examiners would be guilty of the absurdity and unfair-
ness of puzzling candidates by new or peculiar apparatus, or he
feels very uncertain about his own practical knowledge. =

A Cambridge B.A. is a candidate for the Merton Fellowship,
and I have every reason to think that he found the Oxford can-
didates on exactly equal terms with himself in the practical exa-
mination, H. B. CLirron

Oxford, Oct. 18

P.S.—Since writing the above I have been informed that a
Cambridge graduate has been elected to a Science Fellowship in
Magdalen College, Oxford. ‘This is a proof of the inaccuracy of
Mr. Perry’s statement as to the ineligibility of outsiders for
Oxford Fellowships.

Harmonic Echoes

] BELIEVE the echo observed by W. J. M. is of a different na-
ture {rom mine and more analogous to one described by Oppel
(Pogg. Ann, xciv. 357, 530). Each bar of the railing, when
struck by the aérial pulse, diverts a small portion, which is scat-
tered in all directions, much as if the bar were itself the source of
sound. These derived pulses reach the ear of the observer at
approximately equal intervals, and accordingly blend into a
musical note, whose pitch, however, may not be quite constant.
Oppel discusses the effect of different positions of the original
source and the observer with respect to the grating, on which
alone the pitch and its variations depend. It is evident that an
echo formed in this way is in no sense selective.

I have been asked several times how the Bedgebury echo
would be affected by the character of the original sound. Of
course, if my theory is correct, the octave could not be returned,
unless it were originally present ; but the intensity of the echo
was too feeble to give any promise of a successful observation
with such an instrument as the clarinet. The experiment would
be most interesting if a more powerful echo of the same class can
be found. RAYLEIGH

Terling Place, Witham, Oct.

[ Oct. 23, 1873 1

x

NATURE 529

Deep-sea Soundings and Deep-sea Thermometers

__ We feel sure you will not deny us space in your valuable periodi-
cal, when we tell you that, however unconsciously on your part,
as well as other scientific authorities, are the means of doing us
_ injustice and much professional injury, by the frequent allusions to
the so-called Casella-Miller Thermometer, now used in deep-sea
_ investigations. We are certain that we have only to call your
attention to the real facts of the case for you to set the matter
right before your readers.

I. We beg to state that in the year 1857 we invented, made,
and supplied the Meteorological Department of the Board of
Trade with upwards of fifty instruments of this description.

2. This thermometer we called the Double Bulb Deep Sea
Thermometer, and a notice of it was published in the first
number of the Meteorological Papers for the year 1857.

3. This thermometer, identical in every respect (except in
its size), has been, after a lapse of some twelve years, ve-invented
and ushered before the scientific world with all the prestige of
having a paper read upon it by the Vice-President of the Royal

_ Society, Dr. Miller, who declared that he had just invented the

Now it is true that in the spring of 1871, at a meeting of the
Settle Caves Committee, I suggested the probability of the beds
of lower Cave-earth in the Victoria Cave being of preglacial age
from the physical evidence in the cave alone ; butat a committee
meeting at Settle soon after I laid much stress upon the im-
possibility of any animals, existing before the time of the Ice-
sheet, having their remains preserved in the open country,
although it was very likely that they might be found sealed up in
sheltered caves. Acting on this idea the committee, notwith-
standing some opposition, fortunately determined upon continuing
their researches, and the result was the interesting discovery of
the older mammals

May I be permitted to cite the following paragraph from
the Geological Magazine of Jan. 1873, to show that I do not rely
upon the physical evidence in the cave alone as determining the
age of the lower cave-earth, although I confess that evidence,
to my mind, is almost conclusive. ‘‘ Perhaps one of the strongest
pieces of evidence that the older cave mammals mentioned lived
in this district only at a time previous to the great ice-sheet is,
that so far as we know the remains of none of them (except of

instrument, in which task (of inventing an instrument well-known
to all leading instrument makers, and Mr. Casella among the
number) the learned doctor says he was assisted by Mr, Casella.
(See Proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 113, page 482).

4. Annexed is an extract from Dr. Miller’s paper describing the
instrument, and by its side we give an extract from a treatise
published by us in the year 1864, called ‘‘ A Treatise on Meteo-

rological Instruments.”

Extract from ‘‘ The Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Soci-
ety,” vol. xvii. page 483.
Paper read June 3, 1869, by
Dr. Miller.

“The expedient adopted for
ae the thermometer

om the effects of pressure
consisted simply in enclosing
the bulb of such a Six’s ther-
mometer ina second or outer
glass tube, which was fused
upon the stem of the instru-
ment.

** This outer glass tube was
nearly filled with alcohol, leav-
ing a little space to allow of
variation in bulk due to ex-
pansion.

‘The spirit was heated to
displace part of the air by
means of its vapour, and the

Extract from ‘‘Negretti and
Zambra’s Treatise on Meteo-
rological Instruments,” pub-
lished 1864, page 90 :—

‘‘The usual Six’s thermo-
meters havea central reservoir
or cylinder containing alco-
hol. This reservoir, which is
the only portion of the instru-
ment likely to be affected by
pressure, has been in Negret
and Zambra’s new instrument
superseded by a strong outer
cylinder of glass containing
mercury and rarefied air ; by
this means the portion of the
instrument susceptible of com-
pression has been so strength-
ened that no amount of pres-
sure can possibly make the
instrument vary.”

outer tube and its contents
were sealed hermetically.”

5. We leave your readers to draw their own conclusions as to
the similarity of the two instruments. Dr. Miller, when we called
his attention to the fact of our prior claim, stated that he was
not aware of the existence of our instrument, and we freely acquit
Dr. Miller of conscious plagiarism, but we cannot omit to state,
at the same time, that at the date at which Dr. Miller’s paper
was read, any scientific instrument maker worthy of the name
was fully acquainted with our arrangement.

6. In order to prove what we thought of our instruments and as
to their fitness for the purpose they were intended, when we
were written to by the Meteorological Committee, three or four
years ago, to produce a thermometer to be submitted to them
for approval, we replied that we had already produced
the only thermometer which in our opinion would answer the
purpose, and that the thermometer was well known to them ; we
also said we were ready to make that instrument smaller, or
larger, but that we could not possibly produce a better one.

Holborn Viaduct, E.C. Hy. NeGRETTI & ZAMBRA

October 14

Settle Caves Report

In your abstract of the ‘‘ Report of the Committee for explor-
ing the Victoria Cave at Settle, by W. Boyd Dwakins, F.R.S.”
vol. viii. p. 476, are the following sentences. ‘“‘The exact
age of theCave-earth is a matter of dispute. Mr. Tiddeman
from the physical evidence alone regards it as preglacial, or rather
as older than the great ice-sheet of that district.’

Cervus elaphus, which ranges from the Forest-bed to the present
day) have been found in any of the Post-glacial deposits in this
district. Though so common in the river-gravels in the Midland

and Southern counties, they are never found except in caves

until we get much farther south or east. Leeds, I believe, is
the nearest locality where they occur. This would seem to imply
that their remains were wiped off the area by the great ice-sheet
which occupied what is now the Irish Sea and its tributary river-
systems, and only left in the shelter of caves to which it could
have no direct access. Brown bear, horse, red deer, reindeer,
megaceros, the more modern Bovidz, and other more recent
forms are not uncommon in the Post-glacial beds ; but the older
cave mammals seem conspicuous only by their absence.”
Clapham, Lancaster, Oct. 6 R. H. TIpDEMAN

Carbon Battery Plates

Mr. T. W. FLETCHER will obtain what he requires from the
India Rubber, Gutta Percha, and Telegraph Works Cv., No. 100,
Cannon Street, E.C.

I have 12,000 Carbons, or as we call them Graphite Plates, at
work at this moment, and for some years past have obtained them
solely from the above Company.

Tunbridge, Oct. 14 CHARLES V. WALKER

ASTRONOMICAL ALMANACS *

I1].—Foundation of the Nautical Almanac

URING his voyage of 1761 to the island of Saint
Helena, for the purpose of observing the transit of
Venus, Maskelyne, like La Caille, investigated the methods
for determining longitudes at sea, and on his return, in
“The British Mariner’s Guide” (1763), proposed to adopt
the plan ofan almanac sketched by the French astronomer.
There existed at this time in England a commission in-
stituted by George III. for the discovery of longitudes at
sea ;+ it was a body almost analogous to the present
French “ Bureau des Longitudes.” Maskelyne took many
steps to induce this Commission to approve of his pro-
posal ; and, at the same time, he commissioned several
ship-captains to put it to the test. Their reports con-
firmed his assertions, and on February 9, 1765, Maskelyne
presented to the Commissioner of Longitude a detailed
report,t in which, besides a complete exposition of the
method and plan of a nautical almanac, he gave from
the entries in the log-books the result of this new
method. The proposition of the wise abbé was
adopted, and Maskelyne was entrusted with the cal-
culation and publication of the “ Nautical Almanac

* Continued from p. 352- : '

+ ™ the GC: mmissioners appointed by Act of Parliament or the discovery
of longitude at Sea, and for examining, trying, and judging of all Proposals,
Experiments. and Imperiments (sic) relative to the same, and encouraging
attempts to find a Northern Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,
and to approach the Northern Pole.”

t It is found zx exéenso in the ‘‘ New and Correct Tables of the Motions

of the Sun and Moon,” by Tobias Mayer: London, 1770. Published by
order of the Commissioner of Longitude.

530

and Astronomical Ephemeris.” The Commissioners did
more ; they ordered the printing of the Tables of the
Moon, left by Tobias Mayer, according to which the lunar
distances were to be calculated. At the same time par-
liament voted a sum of 3,000/, to the widow of the astro-
nomer of Gottingen, and a sum of 300/. to Euler, for
having furnished to Mayer the theorems which he used
to construct his theory.*

The first volume of the “ Nautical Almanac” is con-
cerned with the year 1767, and appeared in 1766. Although
infinitely superior to the ‘‘ Connaissance des Temps” for
1767, this publication is far from the perfection which it
has since attained. Its object is two-fold, but not well-
defined ; it contains much information useless to the
astronomer, and many things besides which the mariner
could dispense with. There is first a calendar with the
aspects of the planets ; then a solar table giving for each
day the longitude of the sun at noon, calculated to 745 of
a second ; the right ascension of the sun in time to ,}, of
a second, his declination to a second, and the equation of
the time; next follow the eclipses of the four first
satellites of Jupiter ; then tables of the planets, giving the
longitude (to a second) and the latitude (to a minute),
heliocentric and geocentric, the declination (to a second),
the hour of the passage of the meridian (to a minute),
every third day for Mercury, and every sixth day for the
other planets. The table following gives, for every day
from noon to midnight, the longitude (to the 74, of a
second) and the latitude (to a second) of the moon, her
right ascension and declination from noon to midnight,
as well as her apparent semi-diameter and horizontal
parallax. Then follow the distances calculated for every
three hours, of the moon from the sun and from a certain
number of stars of the first magnitude, and lastly the
configuration of the satellites of Jupiter for every day in
the year, at 5.30 P.M. The work is completed by
detailed and well-written instructions, telling the signi-
fication and use of the various tables contained in the
volume.

The calculations are, moreover, made with an amount
of care far greater, according to Lalande, than was ever
bestowed on the “ Ephémérides.” Each article was cal-
culated separately by two persons and verified by a third
calculator. In the case of the longitudes, latitudes, right
ascension, declination, semi-diameter, and parallax of the
moon, these were calculated by one person for noon and
another for midnight, and afterwards verified by the mean
of the differences which were carried as far as the fourth
order.

Some years later, in 1772, three English astronomers,
Lyons, Parkinson, and Williams, published some exceed-
ingly convenient tables, entitled, ‘‘ Tables for correcting
the apparent Distance of the Moon and a Star from the
Effects of Refraction and Parallax” (Cambridge, 1772),
by the aid of which ten minutes sufficed to calculate an
observation of distance between the moon and a star, and
therefrom to deduce the longitude. The use of the lunar
distances became from that time a great convenience. It
was in the same year, 1772, that Lalande transferred into
the “ Connaissance des Temps” for 1774 the calculations
of the lunar distances copied in the “‘ Nautical Almanac,”
“not having,” said he, “either the leisure to do it my-
self, nor the means which the Commission of Longitude
of London furnished to the Astronomer-Royal Maskelyne,
for maintaining calculators, whose work he had only to
superintend and verify.” The introduction of these lunar
distances doubled the value of the “Connaissance des
Temps,” which became a work useful at once to astrono-
mers and mariners.

IV. Foundation

of the Berlin “ Astronomisches

Jahrbuch”
This same year, 1774, witnessed the appearance of a

* Fifty years later, another parliament authorised the printing of the new
lunar tables of Hansen, his compatriot, and awarded to that illustrious
astronomer a sum of 1,000/. by way of national recompense.

NATURE

[ Oct. 23, 1873

great number of publications analogous to the Conmais-
sance des Temps and the Nautical Almanac,all intended to
regulate the publication of the Ephemerides, which in
nearly all countries astronomers published at different
times. Of these we shall mention the “Jahrbuch” of ©
Berlin, the ‘“‘ Ephemerides” of Vienna, and those of Milan.

The idea of the “ Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch ”
originated with Lambert. Born August 29, 1728, at Mul-
house, then a free town of Alsace, of parents who kept a
small tailor’s shop, Lambert received a very incomplete
elementary education, which he afterwards supplemented
by assiduous labour and persevering determination. In
1748 Count Pierre de Solis entrusted Lambert with the
education of his children; this was an opportunity of
which he’knew how to take advantage. He found in the
Chateau of Coire, the abode of this nobleman, an exceed-
ingly rich library, by means of which he not only com-
pleted his imperfect education, but from which he drew
the elements of one of his finest works, the “ Dissertation
on the remarkable Properties of Light.” Shortly after, in
1763, the restraints to which Protestants were subjected
in France, and in particular the law which prohibited
them from exercising any public functions, induced him
to yield to the invitations of Frederick the Great ; Lam-
bert went to live at Berlin, and became, in 1764, a fen-
stonnaire of the Royal Academy of Prussia. France thus
lost one of her scientific glories; for, not only was
Lambert a distinguished astronomer,{ but pre-eminently
remarkable for the universality and extent of his attain-
ments.*

Long before the time to which we refer there had ap-
peared at Berlin Astronomical Ephemerides ; the first,
due to the astronomer Grischow, date from 1749 ; it is the
“Calendarium ad annum 1749 pro meridianum Beroli-
nense cum approbatione Academicz regize Scientiarum et
elegantiarum litterarum Borussiz.” They were carried
on by Grischow until 1754, and suffered afterwards many
interruptions. It was these Ephemerides which Lambert
undertook to revive. According to the plan which he
proposed to the Academy of Berlin, each volume of the
“Jahrbuch” would appear two years in advance and
consist of two parts. One part was devoted to the
astronomical ephemerides (Prussia not then having any
marine, Lambert had not to trouble himself with nautical
ephemerides) and so disposed that it could easily serve
for a place of different latitude; the other forming a
collection of all the news concerning the astronomical
sciences (observations, remarks, and problems), Lambert
also proposed to collect, in another work, all the tables
serving either for the calculation of the ephemerides or
for other astronomical calculations. ‘

The proposal of Lambert having been adopted, an
astronomer who was afterwards director of the Berlin
observatory, and whose reputation became universal, J.
El. Bode, was entrusted, under the direction of Lambert
and the nominal superintendence of the Academy, with
the numerous calculations which the publication of these
Ephemerides necessitated. The first volume appeared in
1774, under the title of “ Berliner astonomisches Jahrbuch
fiir 1776, unter aufsicht und mit Genehmhaltung der
k6niglichen Academie der Wischenschaften verfertigt
und zum Drucke beférdert.”

Lambert had the direction of the “ Jahrbuch” for only
a very short time; death came soon after to deprive
Science of one of her most ardent worshippers. Never-
theless his initiative, though of short duration, was
successful, and from its first appearance, the work which
he founded progressed more notably than those which
preceded it.

At the same time also appeared the Ephemerides of
Milan,—“ Effemeridi artronomiche per l’anno 1775, cal-
culate pol meridiano di Milano, del abbe Angelo de

* His most important astronomical work is entitled ‘‘ Insigniores Orbits
Cometarum Proprietates.”

Oct. 23, 1873
Cesaris.” It was also the first volume of a series of
ephemerides which have been since continued without
interruption.

In 1799 the publication of the Portuguese ephemerides
commenced —‘ Ephemerides astronomicas calculadas
para o meridiano Observatorio nacional de universidade
de Coimbra, para uso do mesmo Observatorio, e para o
_ da navegacao Portugueza.”

Lastly, in 1756, appeared the ephemerides of Vienna :—
“ Epbemerides astronomice anni 1757, ad meridianum
Vindobonensem jussu Augustorum calculis a Maximiliano
Hell. Czesario regio astronomo et Mechanicus experi-
mentalis professore publico et ordinis,” which were con-
tinued by Triesmecker. The Ephemerides of Vienna were
constructed upon the model of the Abbé de la Caille,
much more than upon that of the Conmaissance des

Temps. Moreover, at this period, the Ephemerides of La
Caille were almost exclusively employed by French
astronomers.

(To be continued.)

c SS ES eee

THE BRIGHTON AQUARIUM

7s accordance with an intention entertained previous to

resigning the tenure of my office as Curator to the

_ Brighton Aquarium, I propose to give a brief outline

of the plan of construction and general system of arrange-
ments obtaining in that institution.

The Brighton Aquarium, while emulated by several
buildings of a similar nature, in different parts of the
kingdom and on the Continent, still holds its own in being
on a scale of magnitude hitherto unsurpassed, more than
one of its tanks, in illustration of this, being of sufficient
size to accommodate the evolutions of porpoises and other
small Cetaceze. The architect and originator of the un-
dertaking, Mr. Edward Birch, well known as the engineer
of the new pier at Hastings, entertained the idea of con-
structing this Aquarium as long ago as the year 1866 when
visiting the one on a small scale then existing at
Boulogne ; Brighton was selected as a site on account of
its proximity to the sea-coast and its great popularity as a
place of resort. The works were commenced in the
autumn of the year 1869, but owing to various interrup-
tions the building was not formally thrown open to the
public until August 1872, the ceremony taking place dur-
ing the week in which the members of the British Asso-
ciation honoured Brighton as their place of meeting.

The area occupied by the Brighton Aquarium averages
715 feet in length by 100 feet in width, running east and
west along the shore line between the sea and the Marine
Parade ; the principal entrance is at the west end facing
the eastern angle of the Royal Albion Hotel. The build-
ing internally is divided into two corridors separated from
one another by a fernery and_considerable interspace.
The approach to the first or Western corridor is gained
through a spacious entrance-hall supplied with reading-
tables, and containing between the pillars which support
the roof portable receptacles of sea-water for the display
of small marine specimens that would be lost to sight in
the larger tanks.

The tanks for ordinary exhibition commence with No.
1 on the left side of the western corridor, and, as shown
in the ground-plan, follow in consecutive order round the
two corridors, the last, No. 41, immediately facing No. I.
The smallest of these tanks measures 11 feet long by 10
feet broad, and is capable of holding some 4,000 gallons
of water, while the largest, No. 6, in the western corridor,
and the subject of the accompanying engraving, presents
a total frontage, including the two angles of 130 feet, with
a greatest width of 30 feet, and contains no less than
110,000 gallons. Every gradation of size occurs between
these two extremes, the depth of the water in all ranging
from 5 to 6 feet. Supplementary to the foregoing, a series

of half-a-dozen shallow octagonal table-tanks occupies a

NATURE

portion of the interspace between the two corridors,
these being especially adapted for the exhibition of ani-
mals such as starfish, anemones, and others seen to best
advantage when viewed perpendicularly through the
water, Flanking one side of this same interspace are
several ponds fenced off for the reception of seals and
other amphibious mammalia and larger Reptilia, while at
its further or eastern extremity artistic rock-work runs
to a height of 40 feet, thickly planted with choice ferns
and suitable exotic plants, and broken in its course by a
picturesque waterfall and stream. Tanks 12 to 17 in the
eastern corridor, in addition to the stream and basin be-
neath the waterfall, are set apart for the exclusive exhibi-
tion of fresh-water fish, the remaining tanks being devoted
to marine species.
fresh and sea-water tanks collectively amounts to 500,000
gallons, and in addition to this several smaller store tanks
in the Naturalists’ Room, adjoining the eastern corridor,
afford accommodation for reserve stock,‘ or for new
arrivals before their display to public view.

The bulk of water thus utilised in the

The style of architecture dominant throughout the

building is Italian and highly ornate, the arched roof of
the corridors being groined and constructed of variegated
bricks, supported on columns of Bath stone, polished ser-
pentine marble, and Aberdeen granite ; the capital of each
column is elaborately carved in some appropriate marine
device, while the floor in correspondence is laid out in
acrostic tiles.
the tanks are composed each of three sheets of plate glass,
each plate having a thickness of one inch, and measuring
six feet
another and supported centrally by upright massive iron
mullions ; in the smallest tanks the front is represented
by but one of these divisions, while that of the largest,
No. 6, consists of as many as eleven, Among other con-
spicuous structural features of the aquarium demanding
notice are the huge masses of rock entering into the com-
position of the tanks and fernery.
composed of porous tufa brought from Derbyshire, while
the remaining and greater portion presents the appear-
ance at first sight of old Red Sandstone of the Devonian
epoch, This latter, however, is entirely artificial, being
built up of
cement and coloured sand, though so true to Nature have
the boulders been
ranged, that more than one eminent geologist has been
deceived by their aspect, and it is difficult in looking into

The divisions constituting the fronts of

high by three feet wide, separated from one

Part of these are

smaller nondescript fragments, faced with

fashioned and stratigraphically ar-

the larger tanks to get rid of the impression that some of
the miniature picturesque coves characteristic of the

Devonshire coast have been transported bodily to
Brighton.

The system adopted at the Brighton Aquarium for
continually renewing the supply of oxygen necessary for
the well-being of the animals agrees with that followed at
Berlin, streams of compressed air being constantly forced
into the tanks through vulcanite tubes carried to the
bottom of the water, and each tank being fitted with a
greater or less number of these tubes according to its
size. Following the same principle there is no true circu-
lation, each tank being distinctly independent and the
same water remaining in it perpetually unless required to
be changed on account of turbidity, an accident such as
the cracking of a front glass, or for altering the arrange-
ment of the inhabitants. In such cases the tanks are
refilled from four large reservoirs situated beneath the
corridors, holding in aggregate a quantity approximating
but not exceeding that contained in the tanks above,
and into which the water is first pumped by a six-horse
power centrifugal engine direct from the sea, and thence
conveyed by the same force to the tanks, through a
main extending round the building.

The system above described, while practical in aquaria
at the seaside, where the supply of water is unlimited,
does not answer inland, as exemplified in the decadence,

532 NATURE

from a scientific point, of the one from which that at
Brighton is copied, and even in the former case is asso-
ciated with serious drawbacks and disadvantages, which
forbid it from yielding in compensation for the outlay and
labour expended the results realised by those constructed
on later and more approved principles. It is impossible,
for instance, to keep in health at the Brighton Aquarium
the number of fish in comparison to the size of any given
tank as will be found in the aquarium at the Crystal
Palace or that of Hamburgh, or Copenhagen, or any
other constructed on the same principle, though at the
same time it is essential to remark, that lately the capa-
bilities of the Brighton tanks have not been turned to
their greatest advantage, as instanced in No. 6, holding
110,000 gallons of water, which for many weeks past has

‘been occupied by but three dogfish, a ray, anda few turtle 3

No. 11, with 9,000 gallons, by two mackerel, and so on,
A remaining still greater source of dissatisfaction asso-
ciated with the non-circulatory system, and yet one
capable, perhaps, of full appreciation by those only who
have held practical aquarium responsibility, arises from
the difficulty, verging upon the impossibility, of maintain-
ing the tanks uniformly bright and clear throughout the
building. Some fish foul the water to a much greater
extent than others, notably the Flat-fish or Pleuronectide,
who in a few weeks will render a clear isolated tank too
opaque for the opposite side some twenty feet distant to
be discerned. The only existing remedy for such a case
is to run off the water and supply fresh from the reservoirs
beneath ; but this water being drawn from the shore-line,
the feeding pipe remaining exposed at half tide, is neces-
sarily loaded with impurities, which re-agitated by the
action of pumping involves the lapse of several more
days before the tank is in a fit state for exhibition, At
the suggestion of my predecessor, the late Mr. J. K. Lord,
oysters and other bivalve mollusca were introduced into
the tanks for the purpose of removing the organic par-
ticles which rendered the water turbid, but though these
have proved of great service, the root of the evil remains
undisturbed, and it is only by the application of the cir-
culatory system, securing with it the more thorough oxy-
2 of the water, that the problem is to be effectually
solved.

This system, initiated by Mr. W. A. Lloyd at the
Hamburgh Aquarium, and now maintained under his
personal superintendence at the Crystal Palace, consists
in having, in the first place, a bulk of water in the reser-
voirs beneath exceeding by four or five times the total
amount contained in the tanks above, and which, being
pumped up by steam power and circulated through the
building, takes up in its course by exposure to the atmo-
sphere an amount of oxygen, permitting the preservation
in health not only of a much larger number of inhabitants
to each tank, but at the same time communicates to the
water a degree of clearness and brilliancy unattainable
by other means, and which brilliancy is increased or
diminished in exact proportion to the uniformity and force
of the current s) maintained. One theoretical objection
urged by the architect of the Brighton Aquarium against
the circulatory system, is that in the event of paint or
other deleterious substance falling into any one tank the
water of the neighbouring tanks would suffer equally.
Practically, such mishaps have no business to occur, and
though in such a case, on the “siphon” mode of circula-
tion first attempted but abandoned as impractical at
Brighton, some mischief might be done, it would be im-
possible under that to be presently suggested as still
feasible at the institution here under consideration, and
until the adoption of which the Brighton Aquarium can-
not be expected to fully realise the highest anticipations
of its promoters, while the greater or less turbidity of its
tanks must continue as hitherto a constant source of dis-
satisfaction to the directors, and of anxiety and mortifica-
tion to the officers held responsible,

F 6. 1.—Front View of Tank No. 6 (110ft. long), Western Corridor, Brighton Aquarium.

ae. y ’ é 4

NATURE 533

M Naturalist’s Rooms.
T Clerk’s Office.

$ LL Gentlemen’s do.
S Heating Apparatus.

EEE Western Corridor with Tanks on each side.

KK Ladies’ Cloak Room,
R Grotto.

-Ponds, &c.

AS

MC

with Seal

Hand Chairs.

XZ

X)

XX?

LSS

D Restaurant and Dining Hall.

YY]

e Room, Stores, &c.

Rockwork,

Q

W Inclines for

EREN

JJ Engin

P Curator's Office.

U Board Room.

Madeira Road facing the Sea
OF.

SCALE
111 Table Tanks.

C Entrance Hall and Reading Room.

B Entranee Court.
O Business and Private Entrance.

H Rockwork, Fernery, and Cascade.

End.

ta] }20|21|22|23]24]95|26]27} 28/25) 30]31|

G Interspace.

N Steps to Corridors with Promenade over

all

s descending from West

P

A Ste
FFF Eastern Corridor.

At the eastern extremity of the building there is still a
considerable plot of ground unutilised belonging to the
company ; admirably adapted for the construction of a
supplementary reservoir, holding, say, one million and a
half gallons, and whose contents, added to those of the
existing ones, would yield a body of water sufficient for
the purpose. This ground, in fact, being considerably
above the level of the tanks, would permit of simplifying
matters by pumping the water up from the existing reser-
voirs to the proposed new one, whence it would
circulate through the tanks and return to its original
source by the mere force of gravitation. As now the
individuality of each tank might be maintained, the water
flowing from the main through the existing cocks, and
escaping to the reservoirs beneath, through the same over-
flows, two or more of which are supplied to each tank,
which might be enlarged or further multiplied, if requisite
to carry off the accelerated stream. Should any tank
now become unduly turbid through unforseen circum-
stances, the accident could be immediately remedied by
emptying it into the large reservoirs beneath where so
small a quantity in proportion would effect no appreciable
alteration, the tank being refilled through the main;
while in the event of paint or other poisonous ingredient
being upset the water would be run off to waste as under
existing circumstances. An important and _ essential
preliminary step to these proposed alterations will,
however, be to render the existing reservoirs water-
tight, their present defective condition in this respect
being one of the chief obstacles to the storage of
clear water, which in an inland aquarium would have
simply proved the ruin of the undertaking. These
difficulties surmounted, and the reservoirs filled with water
drawn from.some little distance off shore, say|at the head of
the pier close by, and so free from the chalky wash and in-
numerable organic impurities inseparable from the pre-
sent supply, the aquarium will be entirely independent
of the sea, and much waste of labour now occupied in
pumping from it saved. The still more important results
accruing to the institution through the uniform clearness
of the water, and the capability of each tank to support a
number of inhabitants compatible to its size, cannot be
overrated. *

Under any circumstances, it the remedy here proposed
is not adopted, itis to be trusted that the weak points of
the Brighton Aquarium here noticed will prove sufficient
to prevent the repetition of the same errors of construction
in any of the Aquaria now in contemplation or being
built in this country. On the Continent, the type initiated
by our own countryman at Hamburgh, and at the Crystal
Palace, with such improvements as practical experience
dictates, is almost invariably adopted, and it is incumbent
that England, as the initiator of the movement, should
maintain her lead. So far, from its size and its
proximity to the sea, the Brighton Aquarium has been
able to achieve results unrealised by any other institution
of its description, as instanced in the recent preservation
in its tanks of creatures so large as porpoises, and fish
so delicately constituted as herrings and mackerel ; but
these results are by no means commensurate with the
' expenditure involved in its establishment, and we hope

steps will be forthwith taken to remedy the defects

indicated.

The Isle of Wight and the Devonshire coast, especi-
ally Torquay, are localities offering far greater advan-
tages than Brighton, as zoological stations for the acqui-
sition of specimens, and now that the financial success of
large Aquaria under judicious management in centres of
sufficient population is well established, the temptation
these places offer to an enterprising company cannot be
long resisted. W. SAVILLE KENT

* Defects of construction in the Brighton Aquarium likely to interfere
with’the future efficiency of the establishment were alluded to without specifi-
cation, while the building was in the hands of the contractor.—See
NATURE, vol. iv. p. 394-

534

THE RAPIDITY OF DETONATION

at CIRCUMSTANCE of singular interest has recently

been revealed in connection with the investigations
still being carried on with gun-cotton at Woolwich Ar-
senal. The experiments made with this powerful explo-
sive have now extended over a period of ten years, and
although many discoveries of vital interest have been
made by Professor Abel and by Mr. E. O. Brown, who is
aiding in the research, the results teach us, before every-
thing, how much more we have yet to learn of the pro-
perties of pyroxilin. First of all, the violence of its
explosion had to be tamed, then a compressed form of
the material was devised, and after that it was shown
that, like its sister-explosive, nitro-glycerine, gun-cotton
could be violently detonated, if ignited by a charge of
fulminate. Gun-cotton, in fact, turns out to be sympa-
thetic, for, according to the energy with which it is in-
flamed, so it responds in its behaviour: thus, if gently
ignited by a spark, the cotton, in the form of yarn, smoul-
dered slowly away ; when set fire to by a flame, it burnt
up rapidly ; if in the form of a charge it was exploded in
a mine or a fire-arm, it at once resented the shock and
replied with corresponding energy, behaving like gun-
powder under similar circumstances ; while, lastly, if fired
with great violence with a few grains of fulminate, it is
detonated with as much force and with the same terrible
effect as its instigator.

More recently, as many may have heard, our inves-
tigators have succeeded in detonating, or, in other words,
exploding to the best advantage, gun-cotton when in a
damp condition ; and in this state the explosion is every
bit as violent as when the material is dry. This grand
discovery is naturally of the utmost importance, because,
although many objections may be advanced as to the
danger of storing and using gun-cotton when dry, the
most nervous of us would scarcely hesitate to employ it
sopping wet. In this latter condition the material is,
strange to say, not only non-explosive, but positively non-
inflammable ; so much so, indeed, that it would be probably
as serviceable in putting out a fire as a wet blanket
or a damp towel would be. It can neither be inflamed
nor exploded when wet; and further, unless one has
the key to its detonation—a little fulminate of mercury—
it is of no more value as an explosive than so much wet
paper pulp. When placed in contact, however, with a
fuse of the proper construction and a cake of dry gun-
cotton, to start the action, the wet pyroxiline, as we have
said before, detonates as readily as when the moisture
amounts to but a fraction of a percent. Moreover, the
quantity of water in the material is really of no import-
ance, for it has been found that for submarine mines,
compressed cakes enclosed in a fishing-net and thrown
overboard with a dry primer and a fulminate fuse, will
explode with just as much energy as when confined in a
water-tight steel case.

It is in respect to this detonation, and more particularly
to the rapidity of its action, that we desire to speak at the
present moment. Recent experiment has shown that the
rapidity with which gun-cotton detonates is altogether un-
precedented, the swiftness of the action being truly mar-
vellous. Indeed, with the exception of light and electricity,
the detonation of gun-cotton travels faster than anything
else we are cognizant of. Thus, detonation will run along
a line of gun-cotton cakes, placed so as to touch one
another. with a rapidity only inferior to that of electricity,
setting fire to a charge or conveying a signal, if desired,
almost instantaneously. Twenty thousand feet, or nearly
three miles per second, is calculated to be its rate of
travelling according to Noble’s electric chronoscope. In
one experiment forty-two feet of the material was fired,and
records secured at every six feet; and in this case the
results given were most uniform, for the velocity only
varied from nineteen to twenty thousand feet per second,
the ratio of transit being in no instance less than this.

NATURE

[Oct. 23, 1873

To form an approximate idea of this extraordinary
rapidity, it is necessary to call to mind the rates of
travelling of other mediums. Light and electricity we
may leave out of the question, as these are immaterial
bodies. A bullet usually flies at the rate of 1,300 feet
per second, although rifled barrels have been known to
project a shot with a velocity of 1,400 feet. Sound is
much slower in travelling, for a second of time is required
in getting through some I,100 feet. A quick match of the
most delicate construction would probably be longer still
in making way, and a train of gunpowder would be left
far behind. So it may be safely affirmed, we think, that
the detonation of gun-cotton travels more rapidly than
any other known medium, with the exception, we repeat, —
of light and electricity.

It is curious to note that not every detonating or fulmi-
nating substance will induce the detonation of gun-cotton,
It seems as if a certain number of vibrations require to”
be set up—a certain key-note to be struck—in order to
secure the decomposition of the material. Thus it is
found that fulminate of mercury detonates guncotton
readily, while again it is also capable of being detonated
by itself; so that if a line of compressed cakes is deto-
nated at one end by a charge of fulminate of mercury,
the detonation is communicated rapidly from one cake to
another, until they are all consumed. Nor does the force —
diminish at all as it runs along the line, as might perhaps
be imagined ; if this were the case, the detonation set up
at the beginning of a line would only run up to a certain
distance, and there come to a full stop, as soon, that is,
as the vibrations are insufficient to explode the gun-cotton.
This, however, does not happen in actual experiment ;
and, on reflection, it stands to reason that if the first cake
of pyroxilin is capable of firing the second one, the
ninety-ninth is just as ready to detonate the hundredth,
Thus the detonation can be carried along a line of any
length, and the force is as powerful and violent at the end
as it was at the beginning.

This property of gun-cotton may obviously be put to
valuable use both in industrial and military operations.
In any case where it is of importance that a-series of
blasting or mining charges should be fired simultaneously,
their connection together by means of gun-cotton would
ensure such a result. True, the same effect could be
obtained by means of an arrangement of insulated wires,
the charges being detonated simultaneously with the aid
of a battery, but such a plan is not always convenient
nor practicable. For cutting down palisades, or stout
wooden walls, a line of gun-cotton discs exploded in this
way would be most efficacious ; and a more ready plan of
felling timber does not probably exist than that of placing
around the stem of a tree a chain or necklace of the ex-
plosive in the form of compressed cakes, the detonation
of these dividing the trunk as sharply as the keenest axe.

NOTES

WE read in the Daily News :—‘‘ Mr. Ilenry Cole, C.B., pre-
sided at the annual meeting of the Hanley School of Art, on
Monday evening, and after speaking of the results of the South
Kensington Museum, said it was his painful duty to announce
that this organisation, which had borne such great fruits, and
which was so highly prized by the nation, and was so indispen-
sable to the commercial and social progress of this country, was
in jeopardy. The Government contemplated changes which
were directly opposed to the further development of the Science
and Art Department. It had hitherto flourished under a
management which ensured individual Parliamentary responsi-
bility, but it was now proposed to hand over South Kensington
to the Trustees of the British Museum, who were already fully
occupied in their own departments. The management of the
British Museum was not such as to make them desirous of seeing’

Oct. 23, 1873]

NATURE

535

it extended to South Kensington, nor were fifty trustees the
proper administrators of public money to the amount of hundreds
of thousands a year granted to science and art. He appealed to

_ art students throughout the country not to allow the work of

the Prince Consort to be destroyed, and the means of their

own instruction to be taken away or muddled with old

Sas

decaying notions. He urged them to call upon their repre-
sentatives in Parliament—and an election was not far off—
to protect their interests and rights from unprincipled invasion ;
and he offered his humble services, if he could assist them, to
preserve the institution which the Prince Consort founded from
the hands of the ignorant spoiler. Mr. Melly, M.P., in propos-
ing a vote of thanks to Mr. Cole, spoke in terms of praise of his
efforts to spread art and science, and said it would be far more
sensible to transfer the British Museum to South Kensington
than to place the latter under the management of the British
Museum. It was not by following antiquated notions that the
work of education was to be carried on, but by adopting the free-
trade principle which Mr. Cole had carried out at South Ken-
sington. He was the Cobden and Bright in the education of art
and science. He had been in this matter a true free-trader, and
in following the public he had served it. Mr. Cole, in respond-
ing, offered 50/. towards the establishment of a local museum.”
Surely it is monstrous that while a Royal Commission is sitting
to inquire into these matters the Government should thus
attempt to make the Commissioners look ridiculous by taking

_ such a step without waiting for their report. This is another

tion to New Guinea.
the west coast, and crossed the main land to the Bay of

al

instance of the ignorant action of Government in all matters ap-
pertaining to Science.

THE Challenger reached the coast of Brazil on September 15
last, after a successful but rather stormy voyage across the
Atlantic. She was to have left Bahia on September 25 for the
Cape of Good Hope.

Mr. SCLATER has received a letter from Dr. A. B. Meyer,
announcing his return to Vienna after a most successful expedi-
Dr. Meyer landed in Mac Cleur’s inlet on

_ Geelvink. He has obtained fresh specimens of nearly all the

known Paradise-birds, and of one which he belives to be new to
science,

THE examination for Natural Science Scholarships, held in
common at the same time and with the same papers for Mag-
dalen, Merton, and Jesus Colleges, Oxford, has terminated in
the following elections :—At Magdalen College, to the Demy-
ship, Mr. W. W. Jones, of Clifton College ; to the Exhibition,
Mr. F. J. Bell, of Christ’s Hospital. At Merton College, to the
Postmasterships, Mr. W. Carter, of Blackburn Science School,
and Mr. F, J. Bell, of Christ’s Hospital. At Jesus College, to
the Scholarship, Mr. E. W. Poulter. It will be seen that Mr.
Bell was elected by two colleges and has decided to accept the
election to Magdalen. There were fourteen candidates. The
election to the Biological Fellowship at Magdalen College took
place on Saturday last, when Mr. C. J. F. Yule, of St. John’s
College, Cambridge, was announced jas the successful candidate.

' The election to the Physics Fellowship at Merton College will

not take place until Oct. 30.

WE regret to have to announce the death of M. Jules Pierre
Verreaux, Aide-Naturaliste au Musée d’Histoire Naturelle du
Jardin des Plantes. M. Verreaux was_a great traveller in early
life, and enriched the French National Museum by large collec-
tions from the Cape and Australia. On his return to Europe, he
was for many years scientific assistant to his brother, the late
Edward Verreaux, at the Maison]|Verreaux in the Place Royale at
Paris, so well known to naturalists of all countries. After
his} brother’s death, M, Verreaux accepted the office in the Jardin

des Plantes, which he held until his decease. M. Verreaux had
a very complete and extensive knowledge of the class of birds,
and was the author of numerous ornithological memoirs and
papers. His loss will be severely felt by ornithologists who
have occasion to consult the rich collection in the Jardin des
Plantes, and by many friends and correspondents in this country
and elsewhere.

WE have also to record the death of Dr. Otto Wacherer, a
German physician, resident at Bahia, who made large collec-
tions in various branches of Natural History, and was the
author of an excellent memoir on the Ophidians of that district
of South America, published in the Zoological Society's ** Pro-
ceedings,”

Dr. BEsSELS, of the olaris expedition, has given evidence
that the death of Captain Hall was solely due to natural causes.

Sir C.'B, ADDERLEY, M.P., speaking at the annual meet-
ing of Saltley Reformatory yesterday, expressed his satisfaction
at the undoubted diminution of crime in this country. He did
not attribute the decrease to any change in our system of secon-
dary punishments but to the gradual spread of education and
enlightenment, more especially among the lower classes.

On November 18 there will be an election at Balliol College,
Oxford, to a scholarship on the foundation of Miss Hannah
Brackenbury, “for the encouragement of the Study of Natural
Science ;” worth 8o0/. a year (and tuition free) for four years :
open to all such candidates as shall not have exceeded eight
terms from Matriculation. At ten o'clock, A.M., papers will
be set in the following subjects :—(1) Mechanical Philosophy
and Physics; (2) Chemistry ;°(3) Physiology ; but candidates
will not be expected to offer themselves in more than two of
these. There will also be a practical examination in one or more
of the above subjects, if the examiners think it expedient. Can-
didates are requested to communicate their intention to the
Master of Balliol by letter, on or before Monday, November fo,
enclosing testimonials from their colleges or schools, and (if
members of the University) certificates of their Matriculation ;
and stating the subjects in which they offer themselves for ex-
amination.

WE have received the List of the Candidates who took
Honours at the May Examination of Science Schools and Classes
in connection with the Science and Art Department. We are
sorry that our space does not permit us to publish the list of
names, which we are glad to see is very large ; it is, moreover, very
gratifying to notice that in nearly every department a considerable
proportion of the successful Candidates have been “ self-taught.”

THE following science-teachers, who attended the special
course of instruction in magnetism and electricity to science-
teachers, in connection with the Science and Art Department,
having passed first class, are registered as qualified to earn pay-
ments in magnetism and electricity :—T. N. Andrews, G. Arm-
strong, T. Bayley, J. Bresland, R, Brown, W. Cook, S.

Cooke, J. Hamilton, H. Harris, J. Harte, D. Low, S.
G. Maunder, A. J. Rider, A. Robinson. J. Sayle, J.
Simpson, C. Symons, P. H. Trachy, J. Webb, J. W.

Woods. The following for the same reason are registered
as qualified to earn payment in acoustics, light, and heat :—
J. Alexander, T. J. Baker, S. Barbour, J. Beavis, G. R. Begley,
P. Doyle, J. B. Duckett, T. Elliott, T. Isherwood, G. Jeffrey,
L. M. Leader, E. Leech, E. Magennis, J. Marsahll, J. Moylan,
W. Patterson, E. Reynolds, L. J. Ryan, J. Schofield, G. Severs,
W. J. Snowdon, W. Sturgess, C. Symons.

THE name of Dr. Kaup, whose death we noted last week,
was inadvertently misspelled ‘‘ Kemp.” Jean Jacques Kaup was
Grand-ducal Inspector of the Natural History Museum of Darm-
stadt.

Sir SAMUEL AND Lapy BAKER, it is said, have accepted an

uf

Par

536

invitation from the Geographical Society of New York to visit
that city during the summer months of next year.

THE inaugural lectures in connection with the scheme of edu-
cation adopted by the University of Cambridge for the town of
Nottingham, were delivered on the oth inst. in the Lecture Hall
of the Mechanics’ Institution of that town, and were largely
attended. Mr. E. B. Birks, M.A., Fellow of Trinity, who has
been appointed to conduct classes and to lecture on English
Literature, gave his inaugural lecture in the afternoon to a large
audience, "composed principally of ladies, for whom this subject
has been specially selected ; and in the evening Mr. V. H.
Stanton, M.A., Fellow of Trinity, who had been appointed to
teach Political Economy, opened his course. On Friday week
Mr. T. O. Harding, B.A., B.Sc., Fellow of Trinity, commenced
his instruction in “ Force and Motion,” the introduction to Phy-
sical Science. The Session will continue to next April, and will
be divided ‘into two terms. For the second term, which will
commence after Christmas, arrangements have been made for
the study of Astronomy, Physical Geography, and English Con-
stitutional History. Examinations will be held at the conclusion
of each Term in the’work done, and University Certificates will
be granted to those who succeed in them,

WE learn from the Bulletin International of the Paris Obser-
vatory, that Lieutenant Parem and Dr. Wykander, while
passing the winter of 1872-3 on the coast of Spitzbergen, made
a series of spectrum observations on the Aurora, and determined
seven different spectral lines, which, according to Wykander,
are identical with the spectrum at the bottom of the flame of}a
candle or petroleum lamp.”

Messrs. RouTLEDGE & Sons, have in the press, a ‘‘ New
Illustrated Natural History,” by the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A.,
with 500 Illustrations ; and ‘‘The Book of African Travel,” by
W. H. G. Kingston. This work is intended to give records of
the journeys of all the celebrated travellers in Africa down to the
present time, It will be profusely illustrated.

Messrs. HODDER and STouGHTon will shortly publish
“Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa,” with an
account of the first successful ascent of the equatorial snow
mountain Kilima Njara, and remarks on the East African slave
trade, by the Rev. Chas, New, of the Livingstone Search and
Relief Expedition, illustrated.

THE annual migration of the butterfly from east to west across
the isthmus of Panama in August and September was, according
to the Star, proceeding. The butterfly has golden green stripes
on a black ground, and is very beautiful. It has been recognised
by Mr. O. Salvin, of London and Guatemala, as the Urania
Julgens,

WE have received the diminutive prospectus of what is likely
to be at least an ingenious and curious work; it is entitled
“ Chemistianity,” and will contain ‘‘ 2,000 chemical facts, relat-
ing to inorganic chemistry, explained within 5,000 lines of ora-
torical verse, compiled by permission from the works of leading
chemists of the day ; together with the views of the author (ex-
pressed in verse) as to the advantages of a general knowledge of
chemistry.” If the book is readable it will certainly bea
triumph of ingenuity, if not of genius, on the part of the author,
Mr. J. C. Sellars, manufacturing chemist, Birkenhead, who is
also publisher.

In the Chemical News for Oct. 17 will be found a long list of
subjects for prizes to be awarded in May 1874, by the Société
Industrielle de Mulhouse.

THE first three parts are published (price 6¢. each) of “ British
Marine Alge ; being a popular account of the Seaweeds of
Great Britain, their'collection and perservation,” by W. H,

NATURE

Grattann, It is intended as a cheap and popular rather than
scientific handbook to our marine flora, and will apparently
serve a very useful purpose as such. The illustrations, though
on a small scale, are sufficient to recognise the more striking
forms. -

THE last two parts, xi. and xii., of the new edition of Griffith
and Henfrey’s Micrographic Dictionary, bring down the work
as faras Hydra. The botanical articles have been written up to
the present state of science by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley.

Mr, A. ELLEY FINCH has published the lecture he delivered
last March before the Sunday Lecture Society, ‘‘On the Pursuit
of Truth.” We think he has done well in so doing, ashe shows
clearly and shortly the only principles of evidence upon which,
permanent and satisfactory belief can be founded, showing the
distinction between the evidence which satisfies the theologian,
the lawyer, and the man of science. Mr. Finch has added
many footnotes and appendices, which, though often irrelevant,
are in most cases valuable and interesting, the appendices being —
mostly abstracts of passages from the works of well-known
authors bearing more or less on the subject alluded to in the
lecture. We wish the lecture a large circulation among the
general public, whom it would tend to enlighten.

THE Gazetie de Vos publishes some statistics with regard to
education in Germany, which appear in Za Mature. According
to the latest official information, the German Empire numbers
380 gymnasiums, pro-gymnasiums, and academies (/ycées) ; 156
Latin schools (in Bavaria and Wurtemberg); 270 ‘*real-
schulen,” 12 high schools, technical and polytechnic. Prussia
possesses besides, 26 provincial schoois of arts and industry ;
Saxony, 5 commercial schools and 4 schools of arts, industry, and
architecture ; 'Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 3 schools of the kind last
mentioned ; the City of Hamburg possesses a school of art for
boys and another for girls. Bavaria has 33 schools of arts,
commerce, and agriculture ; Prussia, 26 agricultural schools,
with 41 winter schools of rural economy. The rest of the
German Empire possesses 56 other schools belonging to one or
other of these categories. Prussia numbers 260 superior public
schools for;girls, and the rest of Germany, 54. 143 seminaries
for the training of teachers are in full activity in the German
Empire during the present year ; primary instruction is given in
60,000 schools. All the German States have schools for deaf-
mutes and for the blind ; Prussia possesses 35 for the former and
14 for the latter. With regard to schools for the artistic profes- —
sions, Bavaria occupies the first rank, but Wurtemberg and
Prussia have latterly made great progress in this direction.

‘THE Pearl of the Antilles; or, An Artistin Cuba,” by Walter
Goodman, is the title of a volume just published by Messrs. King
& Co. Since Mr Goodman calls himself an artist, we should
have expected a few illustrations of Cuban scenery in his work,
but there are none. The work makes no pretensions to be a
contribution to the natural history of Cuba, but in a very enter-
taining manner the author gives a series of sketches of social life
on the lovely island.

THE additions to the Zoological Society’s collection during
the past week include two Weka Rails (Ocydromus australis)
from New Zealand, presented by the Acclimatisation Society of
Otago ; an Alligator (A//igator mississipiensis) from New Orleans,
presented by Capt. M. Cowper; two Patagonian Conures
(Conurus patagonus) from Chili, two Solitary Tinamous (7ina-
mus solitarius) from Brazil, received in exchange ; a Macaque
Monkey (MJacacus cynomolgus) and a Bonnet Monkey (JZ. radia-
tus) from India, presented by Mr. G. Veitch, and deposited ; a
Cape Petrel (Daftion capensis), purchased, from Manilla, which
is the first specimen of this bird obtained by the Society.

| Oct. 23, 1873 |

ON THE FINAL STATE OF A SYSTEM OF
MOLECULES IN MOTION SUB¥ECT TO
FORCES OF ANY KIND

; LET perfectly elastic molecules of different kinds be in motion
+ within a vessel with perfectly elastic sides, and let each kind of
nolecules be acted on by forces which have a potential, the form
of which may be different for different kinds of molecules.

Let x, y, , be the the coordinates of a molecule, J/, and é, , ¢
_ the components of its velocity, and let it be required to determine
the number of molecules of a given kind which, on an average,
have their coordinates between x and. x + dx, yandy + dy, z and
2+ dz, andalso their component velocities between andi +dé,
nm andy +dyand ¢and ¢+d¢ This number must depend
on the coordinates and the components of velocities and on the
limits of these quantities. We may therefore write it

aN=f(x,7,%, 81, ()dxdydzdtdnd¢ (1)

We shall begin by. investigating the manner in which this
quantity depends on the components of velocity, before we pro-
_ ceed to determine in what way it depends on the coordinates.

If we distinguish by suffixes the quantities corresponding to
different kinds of molecules, the whole number of molecules of
the first and second kind within a given space which have velo-
cities within given limits may be written

A (fy a» G) 2h, day, dG = my (2)
and Se (Ea) Nz S) @ by Anz Uy = Ny (3)

The number of pairs which can be formed by taking one
molecule of each kind is 77, 7.

Let a pair of molecules encounter each other, and after the

encounter let their component velocities be &/, 7,', 6’ and
&', no', G'. The nature of the encounter is completely defined
when we know f)—&, 1) — 7, (2—G the velocity of the second
molecule relative to the first before the encounter, and +,— 2,
Vg—J'xs 2-2, the position of the centre of the second molecule
relative to the first at the instant of the encounter. When these
quantities are given, &,' — §', m’ — m’ and ('- G’, the compo-
nents of the relative velocity after the encounter, are determin-
able.
Hence, putting a, B, y for these relative velocities, and a, 4, ¢
_ for the relative positions, we find for the number of molecules of
_ the first kind having velocities between the limits , and & + v,
_ &c., which encounter molecules of the second kind having velo-
cities between the limits é and & +, &c., in such a way that
the relative velocities lie between a and a + da, &c., and the re-
lative positions between a and a + da, &e.

4 Eqny ty) d dn dt. fe (E2,n2,F2) a dn dt. (abe aBy) da dbdcda dB dy (4
and after the encounter the velocity of J/, will be between the
limits £,' and ¢,' + dé, &c., and that of JZ, between the limits =,’
and é,' + dé, &c.

The differences of the limits of velocity are equal for both
kinds of molecules, and both before and after the encounter.

When the state of motion of the system is in its permanent
condition, as many pairs of molecules change their velocities
from V,, V, to Vy’, V,' as from V,', V,' to Vy, Vo, and the
circumstances of the encounter in the one case are precisely simi-
Jar to those in the second. Hence, omitting for the sake of
brevity the quantities df, &c., and , which are of the same
value in the two cases, we find—

Sz (Ess nvbt) Fe (Ea, nas So) = Sz (Ex, ma Or) So (Eo'y 2's So’) (5)
writing—

ll ad ee ee Ee ea ee

log /(é, 1, ¢) = F(A, fm, x) (6)
where 7, m, # are the direction cosines of the velocity, V, of the
molecule JZ.

Taking the logarithm of both sides of equation (5)—
e (4, V Zhan) + Fy (MqV.7lom tte) = Fy (MV 7h, my ny) +
Fy (MV i7lemene) (7)
The only necessary relation between the variables before and
after the encounter is—
MV? + M, Vz? = M, VV," + MV? (8)
If the righthand side of the equations (7) and (8) are constant,
the lefthand sides will also be constant ; and since /; m, m, are
independent of Z, 7. #7, we must have—
Ff, =A M,V,? and F, = AM, Ve? (9)

where 4 is a quantity independent of the components of velo-
city, or—

NATURE 537

AM, V2
A1 (Ey Mv» G) = Cre 7 (10)
AMyV2

Fy (Eos Nas (3) = Cye (11)

This result as to the distribution of the velocities of the mole-
cules at a given place is independent of the action of finite forces
on the molecules during their encounter, for such forces do not
affect the velocities during the infinitely short time of the en-
counter.

We may therefore write equation (1)

2 ‘2 2
¢aGe | aed did eee
where C is a function of « yz which may be different for different
kinds of molecules, while 4 is the same for every kind of mole-
cule, though it may, for aught we know as yet, vary from one
place to another.

Let us now suppose that the kind of molecules under conside-
ration are acted on by a force whose potential is y. The varia-
tions of x, y, arising from the motion of the molecules during a
time 5/ are

bx=54, 8y = 784, 82 = (dz (13)
and those of &, 7, ¢ in the same time due to the action of the
force, are

sE= _ 25, 67 = ae bg = - 4 5, (14)
ax dy dz
If we make
c=logC (15

log ites pt BOM» Hondo,
dtdnd(dxdydz
The variation of this quantity due to the variations 6x, 54, 52,

df, 5m, 5G is d Z d
c e ce
(s+ ers Cx )ae

d d d
— 2am (eS* + nFh + coe) (17)

c+ AM (4+ 24+ C) (16)

dz

Since the number of the molecules does not vary during their
motion, this quantity is zero, whatever the values of &, 7, ¢
Hence we have in virtue of the last term—

dA dA dA

= == =o — =9O0 1§
Biante tod F dz CF
or A is constant throughout the whole region traversed by the
molecules.

Next, comparing the first and second terms, we find
c= 2AM) + B) (19)
We thus obtain as the complete form of dV
(AM, (F,? +7 + OF +2¥14+ BD

ae dxdydrdtdnd¢ (20)
when A is an absolute constant, the same for every kind of mole-
cule in the vessel, but 4, belongs to the first kind only. To
determine these constants, we must integrate this quantity with
respect to the six variables, and equate the result to the number
of molecules of the first kind. We must then, by integrating
dN, k M, (&2 + m2 + G2 + 24) determine the whole energy
of the system, and equate it to the original energy. We shall
thus obtain a sufficient number of equations to determine the
constant 4, common to all the molecules, and L,, By, &c, those
belonging to each kind.

The quantity A is essentially negative. Its value determines
that of the mean kinetic energy of all the molecules ina given

+ U(2 + n+ pez + nA + c24)ee
ax dy

ae I E A
lace, which is =e -, and therefore, according to the kinetic
piace, Da ig

theory, it also determines the temperature of the medium at that
place. Hence, since 4, inthe permanent state of the system,
is the same for every part of the system, it follows that the tem-
perature is everywhere the same, whatever forces act upon the
molecules

The number of molecules of the first kind in the element
dzdydr.

m\i AM, (2x + B)
= AJ e dxdydz (21)
The effect of the force whose potential is y, is therefore to cause

the molecules of the first kind to accumulate in greater numbers
in those parts of the vessel towards which the force acts, and

538

NATURE :

the distribution of each different kind of molecules in the vessel
is determined by the forces which act on them in the same way
as if no other molecules were present. This agrees with
Dalton’s doctrine of the distribution of mixed gases.

J. CLERK-MAXWELL

ORIGINAL RESEARCH AS A MEANS OF
EDUCATION*

THE subject of the value of original scientific investigation

may be considered from many points of view. Of these,
that of the national importance of original research is the one
which naturally first engages attention; and it does not take
long to convince us that almost every great material advance in
modern civilisation is due, not to the occurrence of haphazard or

fortuitous circumstances, but to the long-continued and dis-

interested efforts of some man of science. Nor do I need to quote
many examples to show us the immediate dependence of the
national well-being and progress upon scientific discoveries thus
patiently and quietly made. If it had not been for Black’s re-
searches on the latent heat of steam, James Watt’s great dis-
covery, which has revolutionised the world, would not have been
made. Practical applications cannot be made until the scientific
facts or principles upon which those applications rest have been
discovered. In our own science I might instance hundreds of
cases in which discoveries made in the pure spirit of scientific
inquiry have (generally in the hands of others than the original
investigators) led to results of the first importance to civilisation.
Chloroform was first prepared by Liebig in 1834; but it was
Simpson who long afterwards applied it to the relief of suffering
humanity. Faraday in 1825 discovered benzole, and from it
Zinin prepared a substance called aniline, which for many years
remained a chemical curiosity only interesting to the scientific
man. In due course, however, a practical sphere of usefulness
was to be opened out for this little known substance. Perkin
discovered that this rare body was capable of yielding
splendid colours. Commercial skill then at once seized upon
aniline, and, instead of its being made by the ounce, it is now
manufactured by thousands of tons, and the bright and beautiful
colours which it yields are known all the world over, and are
alike pleasing to the eye of the connoisseur of fashion and of
the dusky denizen of the forest primzval. Thus, too, the
purely scientific researches of our distinguished fellow-citizen
Dr. Schunck, respecting the dyeing principle contained in the
well-known madder root, laid the foundations for the subsequent
discovery, by Graebe and Lieberman, of the artificial production
of this naturally occurring principle, termed alizarine, the manu-
facture of which is now assuming such gigantic proportions.
Again, the discovery of chlorine by Scheele, in 1774, lies at the
foundation of the whole of our Lancashire trade, for without
bleaching powder the cotton and paper manufactures could not
exist on their present extended scale. I might almost indefinitely
extend this list of discoveries, which, when first made, were
apparently far removed from any useful application, but which
all at once become the starting-point ofa new branch of industry,
and a source of benefit or gratification to mankind.

This subject of the national importance of original research is
one which is gradually but surely forcing itself on public at-
tention. A few years ago national elementary education was
looked upon as a chimera ; now it has become the question of
the day. As soon as English people see as clearly as we do the
imperious necessity for encouraging, stimulating, and upholding
original research as containing the seeds of our future position as
a nation, they will not be behindhand in securing the free growth
of those seeds. It is therefore the bounden duty of all those whose
employment or disposition has led them to feel the truth of this
great principle, to leave no stone unturned to make widely
known and keenly felt the importance of the national encourage-
ment of original investigation. :

It might have been a useful task for me to contrast what is
done in other countries for the encouragement of free inquiry
and research, and what is done, or rather left undone, in Eng-
land. We should have seen that on the Continent of Europe,
to a great extent, and in the United States, in some measure,
those who have to wield the sceptre of government are not only
aware of the national importance of original research, but, what
is more, that they act up to their convictions, whilst we feel
that the same cannot be said in our country. We should have

* Address by Prof. Roscoe at the opening of the new buildings of the
Owens College Manchester.

seen that in Germany the facilities given in the universities,
which are Government institutions, and in the other numerous
and well-organised scientific educational establishments, to origi-
nal research are very great ; that an original investigation in
some branch of human knowledge is considered the usual termi- —
nation of the student’s university @areer; and that degrees are
generally given only when some new observations or experiments
have been added to the mass of human knowledge. We should

[ Oct. 23, 1873

find that the position of professor is mainly influenced by the —

amount and quality of his original researches, and that this
power, and not any secondary or subsidiary ones, as is some-
times the case with us, is taken as the proof of a man’s fitness
to fill the professorial chair.

It is my wish, however engrossing this view of the subject
may be, to ask you {to consider to-day another aspect
of the question--viz. the educational value of original re-
search; the value of personal communication with nature
for its own sake, the influence which such employment
exerts on the mind, the effect which such studies produce
as fitting men for the active duties of life, and the question,
therefore, as to how far original investigation should be encou-
raged as an instrument of intellectual progress. It may be well,
however, before we commence this special question, to place
clearly before our minds what is meant by scientific inquiry in
general, and to see how it is related to the studies and habits of
mind with which men up to the dawn of the present, or scientific
age, have been familiar.

In the first place, then, the essence of the scientific spirit is
that it is free and disinterested. If, therefore, any of the habits
of mind, studies, or beliefs in which men have hitherto indulged
have not been free nor disinterested, in so far they have not been
scientific. In the second place, the spirit of true scientific inquiry
knows nothing of tradition or authority. It lays down laws for
itself, and refuses to be bound by any others. Scientific edu-
cation begins with no preconceived idea in accordance with
which everything else must be moulded. It starts in simple
communion with Nature, and is content to pick up little by little
the truth which she is always ready to communicate to patient
listeners. Thus step by step and generation by generation, slowly
but surely, the perfect edifice of science is being built up, and all
those who contribute, however insignificantly, to this great work
have the safe assurance that their labour has not been in yain.
This processis, itis clear, at once opposed to, and, if successfully
carried out, subversive of the old order of things. Betweena
system based on authority and one founded on freedom of
thought and opinion there can never be any united action; and
whilst fully acknowledging that- intellectual eminence, and, of
course, moral excellence, are common to all classes of men, and
are not confined to those holding particular opinions, if only they
be honest, it is as well that we should admit with equal candour
that the followers of the old system have no claim to be called
scientific, and that there is, from the nature of things, a great and
impassable gulf between us and them. :

It does not concern us at present to inquire which of these
two systems, the free or the authoritative, is for the future to
rule the world. It must now suffice for us to see clearly that the
habits of mind necessary for the establishment of the one are
absolutely opposed to those needed for the success of the other.

I must, however, here not be misunderstood. It would ill be-
come me, connected as I am with a college to which it has been
our constant aim to impart a university character, to undervalue
or depreciate the study of subjects other than those included
under the head of the physical sciences. Literary studies,
whether of modern or ancient authors, giving an acquaintance
with the noblest thoughts and opinions of the great men of past
ages ; historical studies, giving us a knowledge of the acts of
men in times gone by ; the study of language and philology, as
giving a knowledge of how men of all times and countries ex-
pres; their ideas and language ; of logic, as pointing out the laws
of thought ; and above all, that of mathematics, are all matters
of the highest importance, the neglect of which would render our
education poor and incomplete indeed. ‘The same rules, how-
ever, which all acknowledge to be necessary for the teaching of
physical science must be applied to the study of all these sub-
jects. In short, the scientific method must be employed in all
cases and carried out to its fullest extent. Whilst attempts to
shackle the mind, or to stifle free inquiry, which have too fre-
quently succeeded in past times, and which may, if we are not
on our guard, succeed again, must be repulsed with all our
vigour.

Oct. 23, 1873]

y

NATURE 539

I would, however, here wish to protest against the supposed
materialistic tendency of scientific studies. It is true that certain
opinions and professions of belief have been and will be shaken
by studying the book of nature ; it is also equally true that the

_ study of nature does not and cannot interfere with the highest

and noblest aspirations of the mind of man. In the investiga-
tions of every branch of science we come at last to a point at
which further inquiry becomes impossible, and we are obliged to
acknowledge our powerlessness and insignificance. We can see
and learn concerning only the minutest fraction of the great
whole of nature, and it is with this minute fraction alone that we
as men of science are concerned.

In inaugurating, as we are now doing, a scientific depart-
ment of an institution devoted to the higher education, it
may be well to glance for a moment at the preliminary
stages through which, in the subject of chemical science,
with which alone I am competent to deal, a student mist
pass to reach the portal of original inquiry. And first let me
gratefully acknowledge the help which we have received in
endeavouring to find a habitation for a school of chemistry
aspiring to be worthy of the intellectual vigour and manufactur-
ing power of the great district of which this city is the centre—
help not only of the necessary, and therefore valuable kind of
pecuniary assistance generously and willingly given, but help of a
personal, and therefore still more valuable kind, without which
the funds would haye been useless, and our scheme for the foun-
dation of a really great scientific institution would have fallen to
the ground. The results of this help you now see in this large
theatre, and in the splendidly fitted laboratories behind it. They
are, I say it with confidence, the most spacious and best
arranged laboratories in Great Britain, and will be found, I
believe, second to none in the world for convenience and suita-
bility to their proposed uses. It now remains for my colleagues
and myself to discharge our debt ; to show that the confidence
which has been placed in us has not been misplaced, and to
prove year by year that the goods we furnish in the shape of
soundly and scientifically educated chemists bring a return
worthy of the capital, both in specie and intellect, which has
been expended upon their production.

Our mode of instruction in the principles of chemistry is of
two distinct kinds: (1), by lectures, accompanied by experi-
mental illustration by the lecturers, as well as by recapitulatory
and tutorial classes ; and (2), by experimental work practically
carried out by the student himself in the laboratory. Both of
these means of obtaining command over the facts and principles
of our science should be carried on simultaneously ; the lectures
serve as giving a general view of the main features of the sub-
ject ; the laboratory work brings the student into direct contact
with Nature, and gives him an insight into her processes, which
can only thus be obtained. In the lecture room the student
forms an idea, as in a panorama, of the general appearance of
the country ; but it is in the laboratory, as in a walk through a
given district, that he first learns what the land he is travelling
through is really like. And although we know that we must
spend much time and labour if we go on foot, we know that we
shall be rewarded by a vivid and lasting impression, and one
which may perhaps give a new colour to our lives. It is thus
with the study of chemistry ; the laboratory is the place where
the details of the science are really mastered ; and a young man
must not expect to become a competent chemiSt without having
passed several years of hard and unremitting toil in solving the
sometimes tedious and difficult problems which are presented to
him.

It is not necessary for me here to detail to you the particulars
of the course of instruction which all students of chemistry, as
arule, go through. Suffice it to say that this course begins at
the very A B C of our subject; and, if I am freely to speak my
mind, I would say that in general I do not object to take stu-
dents who know nothing of the science. We first seek to give
him some notion of the kind of phenomena with which the
science is concerned ; we then begin to train him in manipula-
tive dexterity, and, by a graduated series of examples and exer-
cises, make him acquainted with the fixed and exact quantitative
laws upon which our science is founded. From the beginning
we introduce a strict system of note-taking and of carrying out
simple chemical calculations, so as to insure a firm foundation
for the subsequent building. The student then begins to learn
the properties of the more commonly occurring amongst the
sixty-three elementary bodies of which (as far as we are yet aware)

the material world is built up, and properties of their compounds,
He commences the study of qualitative analysis, and at last he
is able to tell you the nature of the exact constituents of any
substance, whether of earth, of air, or of sea, of mineral, vege-
table, or animal nature, which you may ask him to examine.
He has accomplished a great work, and if he has carried his
examinations as far as the reactions of the rare elements (as is
usually the case with all our students), he is master of the first
or qualitative stage of the science, Next the question arises as
to the quantity of each constituent present in the given sub-
stance, and theseccnd or quantitative stage is reached. This is
necessarily a longer and more difficult matter than his preceding
task. Not only must the choice of methods of separation and
estimation be successful, so as to employ good ones and eschew
the bad or inaccurate ones, but skill in manipulation must be
forthcoming. All depends on accuracy and care in performing
delicate operations, such as weighing, collecting and washing
precipitates, and a hundred other manipulations, and the results
of many days’ work may be in a moment lost by cne false step
or one careless action.

In all this preliminary work the hand is gradually trained to
perform the various mechanical operations, the eye is at the
same time taught to observe with care, and the mind to draw
the logical inferences from the observed phenomena. Habits of
independent thought and ideas of free inquiry are thus at once
inculcated ; no authority besides that of the senses is appealed
to, and no preconceived notions have to be obeyed ; the student
creates for himself his own material for observation, and draws
his own conclusion therefrom. If he is inaccurate either in his
manipulation, his observations, or in his conclusion, nature soon
finds him out. Something or other is out of order, and he is
sent back with the task of finding out his mistake for himself,
Not until all this has been accomplished (and very often not
then) is the student fit to think about original research. Before
he can successfully grapple with new difficulties he must have
learned to overcome the old ones. His hand must be dexterous
and accustomed to meet all the mechanical difficulties which
invariably accompany such investigations ; his eye must not only
be open to what he expects to see, but, what is far more difficult,
it must quickly seize upon the occurrence of phenomena which
he does o# expect to see ; his mind, working, perhaps, with a
leading thought—for without this, original work is almost
impossible—must be free in its power to grasp any new combi-
nation of ideas to which the phenomena may suddenly and
unexpectually give rise, and be willing at once to relinquish a
favourite and cherished hypothesis if the results of experiment
prove that hypothesis to be erroneous. This dexterity of hand,
quickness and keenness of sight, and pliability of mind must in
greater or lesser degree be possessed by all who would undertake
original scientific work. I do not mention as a preliminary
necessity a competent theoretical knowledge of the phenomena
and laws of our science, because, though this is a matter of
course, many having this knowledge will altogether fail, owing
to their not possessing the other requisites.

In carrying out, then, even the simplest original investiga-
tion, some or all of these requirements are needed. In
addition, other faculties are called into play by the very fact
of the phenomena being in part at least new. Not only do we
ourselves not know what to expect, but nobody can tell us what
will happen. We are exploring new country, and our outlook
must therefore be doubly sharp ; we must be prepared for every
possible event, and ready to meet every change of fortune. We
must, like a traveller, not be discouraged by reverses, but
patiently persevere in our course, feeling convinced that the path,
which for a long time may be a thorny one, must in due course
lead us to a point from which we shall enjoy an extended view
of the surrounding country, and be able to trace the tortuous
paths by which the elevation was reached. The faculties which
are called into active operation in the prosecution of experimental
scientific research are, in fact, exactly those which are valuable
in the every-day occurrences of life, the proper employment of
which leads to success in whatever channel they may happen to
be directed. A man who has learnt how successfully to meet
the difficulties and overcome the obstacles which occur in every
experimental investigation, is able to grapple with difficulties and
obstacles of a similar character with which he comes in contact
in after-life.

(To be continued.)

Pinal
oO pe *y

%2

540

CONDUCTING POWER FOR HEAT OF CER-
TAIN ROGKS*

A collection of more than twenty specimens of rocks of the best

marked descriptions were chosen for the purpose, and were
cut to a uniform shape and size by Messrs. Walker, Emley, and
Beall, of N ewcastle-on-Tyne, and a part of them were sub-
jected to experiment. The plates are circular, 5 in. in diameter,
and half-an-inch thick, and they are as smoothly and accurately
ground to this uniform size as was possible in the case of some
of the refractory substances as granite, whinstone, &c., that were
employed. On the other hand, many more friable and softer
rocks, as chalk, coal, marl, &c., are not included in the list of
sample sections now collected.

The purpose of the present paper is simply to establish from
the experiments the general dad conducting powers of the harder
rocks, and to corroborate in the case of a few examples that
were numerically reduced the conclusions of a similar kind that
were obtained by Peclet.

The rock-plate to be tested is placed on a flat-topped tin
boiler of its own diameter to raise its temperature on the under-
side to the boiling-point of water, while on its upper side a
conical flat-bottomed tin flask of spring-cold water is placed,
and absorbs the heat transmitted through the rock section from
its heated side. A thermometer inserted through a cork in this
flask marks the rise of temperature and the quantity of heat
transmitted through the rock,

A small quantity of heat is also intercepted and absorbed by
it which requires a part of the higher temperature on the heated
side to introduce it into the rock, but this quantity is so small
compared to the quantity which passes through it and enters the
water, that it may easily be allowed for by a suitable correction.

The flask above the rock contained about $1b. of water, and
under the action of the steam heat below, it rose in temperature
about 1° in 35 seconds for s/aée, and 1° F. in 38 or 40 seconds for
different kinds of hard and close-grained rocks, as granite, ser-
pentine, marble, and sandstone ; while the time occupied for a
similar rise in temperature was greatest in the case of a specimen
of black shale from the coal-measures round Newcastle, when
the thermometer rose 1° in 48 or 50 seconds, or slower than in
the case of slate in the proportion of about 5 : 8,

Tn this series of trials it was easily supposed that the real tem-
perature of the surfaces of the rock-plates was considerably dif-
ferent from those of the metallic surfaces in contact with them ;
and a thermo-electric pair of wires attached to cork-faces was
now applied to test the real difference of temperatures of the two
faces of the rocks. Two platinum wires were twisted on to the
two ends of a piece of iron wire and were connected with the
poles of a Thomson’s reflective galvanometer. The iron wire
itself was bent so as to bring its two twisted ends into contact
with the opposite faces of the rock. On testing the thermo-elec-
tric arrangement by means of a double tin lid placed between
its cork-faces, filled with water of different degrees of tempera-
ture on its two sides (which were measured by thermometers
inserted in the lids), it was found that a difference of between 3°
and 4° F. produced a deflection of 1 division of the galvano-
meter.

On now taking a plate of marble out of the heating vessel and
placing it between the thermopyles, it was found that no sensible
heat difference was recorded by it; the rock was reversed, top
for bottom between its poles, and the effect was still insensible,
although the heat of the finger pressing alone on one of the wire
junctions moved the galvanometer 3° or 4°. In order to increase
the temperature difference the rock-plate was then brought into
contact with the metal surfaces by means of mercury; and the
thermometric flask itself being filled with about 10 lbs. of meroury
instead of 4 Ib. of water, it was found that the thermometer rose
I° in Io seconds, corresponding to a transmission of 330 heat units
per hour through a standard plate 1 in. thick, and 1 square foot
in surface. When taken out of its cell and transferred to the
galvanometer, the temperature difference was now found to be
about 7° ; giving the rate of conduction about 47 heat units per
bout, instead of between 22 and 28 heat units as assigned by

eclet.

The process of lifting the rock out of its cell having undoubt-
edly produced a loss of the heat difference before the measure-
ment was made; a new mode was} now employed, and the

* Paper read by A. S.Herschel, F.R.A.S., before the British Association,
Bradford,

' NATURE
ee

| Oct. 23, 1873

wire junctions were pressed against the rock faces in situ, being
at the same time protected from the heat of the boiler and ther-
mometer plates facing opposite to them by thick felt wads upon
which they were fastened to those plates. In this case a very
different variation between the two rock-faces was now found the
difference in the case of marble being 50° or thereabouts, while
the passage of heat into the water thermometer flask was now
about 264 heat units per hour, corresponding to a conducting power
of about 5} heat units per hour. The same process was applied to
two kinds of the black shale already described, and their con-
ducting power was found to be much less than that of the fine-
grained marble specimen, being at the rate of only 2 or 2} heat
units per hour. These quantities are not more than $th or ith
part of the values obtained by Peclet for the same kinds of rocks,
Although time did not permit these experiments to be repeated
with a different arrangement of the apparatus, when the sources
of error peculiar to each of them would have been easily removed,
as their origin in each case is easily explained, yet they confirm
provisionally the values of the thermal conductivities found by
Peclet ; since in two experiments which certainly gave the values
alternately in excess and defect, the quantities obtained varied
from 5 or 7 to 42 or 47 heat units per hour for a kind of marble
to which Peclet assigns 22 or 28 heat units per hour as its con-
ducting power ; and in the case of some other rocks of which
Peclet describes the conductivity as about half that of the close-
grained marble just mentioned, the values found by experiment
also indicate a smaller thermal conductivity of these rocks in
almost exactly the proportion which Peclet has assigned. -

The form in which it will be desirable to repeat these experi-
ments is one which will show the amount and kind of influence
exercised by junctions between the surfaces of solid, liquid, and
gaseous bodies in retarding the transmission of heat across them ;
as well as to conclude the actual thermal conductivities of the
materials employed, and for this purpose a suitable modification
of the apparatus and of the mode of conducting the experiments
has been contrived, which it may be expected will fully effect
the objects which it is thus intended t o obtain.

THE DIVERTICULUM OF THE SMALL INTES-
TINE CONSIDERED AS A RUDIMENTARY
STRUCTURE *

“THE author took this structure as an illustration in reply to

those who are not yet satisfied that structures exist which
are useless to the animal body containing them, Referring first
to the case of the appendix vermiformis of the great intestine, a
survey of the anatomy of the caecum in various animals, and of
the stages of its development in man, leads to the inference that
this worm-like appendage is a rudimentary and virtually a useless
structure. It has, however, been generally supposed that, being
present, it must have some function ; and as it was manifest that
a thing of this kind at the otherwise closed end of the great
intestine is a source of danger by admitting foreign bodies which
it could not expel, it has been argued that contrivances designed
to avert this danger might be recognised. That it opens at the
back instead of at the bottom of the cecum 3, that its opening is
oblique ; that it has a kind of valve ; that it is directed more or
less upwards ; and so on. On the contrary, the worm-like
appendix is a vestige, the rudimentary representative of the true
cecum, and all these supposed contrivances by which the danger
is lessened are simply the result of the forward and downward
development of the great intestine away from the resisting wall
of the abdominal cavity against which the appendix and back of
the intestine lie. Although from this cause the appendix vermi-
formis is not nearly so dangerous a structure as it might have
been, it is, notwithstanding, occasionally the cause of death.
The author knew of several cases of this, and every experienced
pathologist must have met with it. Foreign matters get im-
pacted, causing ulceration, and perforation takes place, followed
after a few hours by death. :

The conclusion, however, that there are parts within the animal
body which are useless, and worse than useless because dange-
rous, is so distasteful to the adherents of the extreme theological
school that they will rather fall back on the bare possibility of
some unknown function even for such a rudiment. The diverti-
culum of the small intestine may be employed here to complete
the argument. Although in “a classification of rudimentary

* Abstract of a paper read by Prof. Struthers, F.R.S.E., of Aberdeen,
before the British Association, Bradford, r

hig cdi Ha Me at
| Oct. 23, 1873]
eee
structures they would be placed in different groups, the one
being normal though often varying, the other only occasional,
they are on the same footing for the purposes of this argu-
ment. It is known to bea vestige of the structure joining the
intestine by which, at an early stage of the evolution of the
animal frame, nourishment is introduced. All trace of it usually
_ disappears, but occasionally part of it remains as a pouch open-
_ ing from the small intestine. It has the usual coats of intestine,
_ the inner coat presenting the same food-absorbing villi. It is
therefore acting, but no one will argue that it is designed for use
in those comparatively few persons who possess it. Unfortu-
nately it is sometimes the cause of death. The author had met
with cases of this, and it is well known to surgeons. It may be
unable to expel its contents ; or by adhering to a neighbouring
part a noose is formed, a most dangerous condition, a sort of
bowel-trap, through which a knuckle of intestine slips, and
strangulation, followed by death, is the result. Here then we
have an elaborate structure which is useless, or worse because
dangerous. Were a railway contractor to leave open a siding
which he had used in the construction of the line, the train might
dash into it and a fatal accident result. This is exactly what is
done when this diverticulum of the small intestine is left un-
closed, and the fatal accident occasionally occurs. Were further
illustration necessary we might refer to the fact of disease some-
times attacking that functionless structure the rudimentary breast
in the male. a
The consideration of such structures as the diverticulum may
be said not to take us farther than to clear the ground, showing
us that we have been on the wrong path. But a survey of
rudimentary structures generally carries us farther. On the
hypothesis of the independent origin of species they are unin-
telligible, while the hypothesis of evolution furnishes a clue to
the whole. The facts of embryology, of paleontology, of rudi-
mentary as well as developed structures are harmonised, and
the whole present themselves as the result of the operation of a
great law, the equivalent in the organic world of the law of
vitation in the inorganic. Although we do not as yet see so
well how this biological law operates, the anatomist sees enough
to make him feel that he is shut up to some form or other of the
theory of evolution, and that the notion which we imbibed in
our early years, and have long cherished, that so-called species
arose independently of each other, must be a mistake.
The slow progress which this view has made in this country
compared with Germany, the author attributed partly to the
teleological bias which anatomy early received among us, but
mainly to the fact that anatomy has been taught in the medical
schools of this country for the most part as a mass of detail in
its professional application, without reference to the ideas which
it suggests when more widely and profoundly studied as a
science.

Be eae a ee ee ee ee

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Ocean Highways, October.—The principal article in this
month’s number is one by Lieut. Salaverry, of the Peruvian
Navy, on the ‘Navigation of the Upper Amazon and its
Peruvian Tributaries,” in which he gives some very interesting
particulars of the measures that have been adopted by the Peru-
yian Government to open up and encourage the flow of com-
merce along the great fluvial highways which connect the rich
provinces of the Andes with the Atlantic, The amount of work
done by the Peruvian Government during the last few years in
the exploration of the region with which the article is concerned
is wonderful, and we are sure quite unknown even to many of
those who take an interest in geographical discovery. Captain
Davis contributes a second article on the Challenger, which is
followed by one on the Pacific Railways of the South, 7.2 the
Southern United States. Two very interesting narratives are
“A Visit to the Kuh-I. Khwajahin Sistan,” the place mentioned
being a remarkable hill to the west of Naseribad, the chief city of
Sistan; and ‘A Visit to Kuloja,” by Mr. Ashton Wentworth
Dilke, the plain of Kuloja being “‘a continuation of the Seven
Rivers country running up between the Ala Tau and Thian-
Shan Mountains.”—Mr. E. G. Ravenstein contributes a paper
on “Elmina, and the Dutch Gold Coast ;” which is followed by
an article on the Polaris, the usual reviews, proceedings of
societies, &c. There are Maps of the former Dutch Pos-
sessions on the Gold Coast, of the Amazonas in Peru, of the

NATURE

541

Pacific Railways of the South, and a Chart of the Challenger’ s
course to the Cape de Verde Islands.

Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou, No.

3, 1872.—In a paper on tantalum, in this number, M. Herman de-
scribes five different combinations of the metal with oxygen, two
only having been hitherto known. —Thereareseveral zoological and
botanical lists, —M. Becker gives an account of beetles and flies
met with on a journey to the Astrachan region; Mr. M‘Lach-
lan ‘gives
a Chrysopa, found in Finland and the Caucasus ; M. Hochhuth
enumerates the beetles
Lindemann furnishes a report on the formation of his herbarium.
——M. Lubimoff’s paper ,on a new theory of the field of vision
and magnification of optical instruments, has been elsewhere
noticed in our columns.

drawings of some new species of {Phryganides, and

of Kien and Volhynien, &c., while M.

No. 4 (1872) commences with an interesting article, with

illustrations, by M. Mayewski, on evolution of the barbules of
Begonia manicata, showing the various stages from that of
simple hairs consisting only of epidermic cells.—Some strictures
on M. Lubimoff’s views as to the field of vision are offered by M.
Bredichin, who thinks the theory neither new nor exact.—M.

Hochhuth continues his list of beetles (as also in the following

number), and M. Kryloff describes some geological formations

in the Government of Kostroma.—Dr. Dreschler communicates
an account of a collection of mathematical and physical appa-
ratus in Dresden: and the number concludes with a table of
meteorological observation in Moscow, in 1872.

—-—

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LonDON
Royal Horticultural Society, Sept. 17.—General Meeting.

—Mr. Henry Little in the chair.—The Rev. M. J. Berkeley called

attention to some pears, part of which were cracked and small,
while the rest were perfect. They had been taken from opposite
sides of the same tree, and the difference was probably caused by
injury from wind when in a young state. —Mr. Bull exhibited for
the first time Odontoglossum Roeslit, a near ally of O. vexillarium,
and which Prof, Reichenbach suggests may be a hybrid between
that species and O. Phalaenopsis.

Oct. 1.—General Meeting.—Mr. Henry Little in the chair.—
The Rey. M J. Berkeley alluded tothe numerous interesting and
rare species of fungi which were exhibited. Faxillus atro-
tomentosus, sent by the Rev. W. W. Newbould from
Woburn ; Russula aurata, by Miss Hubbard, from Horsham ;
Hydnum squamosum, new to Britain, from Somerset, by Mr.
Aubrey Clark ; Cortinarius orellanus, also new to Britain, from
Epping Forest, by W. G. Smith, &c, Mr. Berkeley also referred
to Schwendener’s theory as to the nature of lichens. Bornet
had recently published an admirable paper in support of the
same views. He himself, however, was not convinced of their
correctness. On the contrary he believed he had seen the
gonidia of Parmelia originating from hyphz within the cells of
some drift wood from the Arctic regions, He also read a letter
from Dr. Thwaites, of Ceylon, who thought that the symme-
trical growth of the lichens was an argument against one portion
being parasitic on the other.

PHILADELPHIA

Academy of Natural Sciences, June 10.—Dr. Ruschen-
berger, president, in the chair.—Mr. Gentry made the fol-
lowing remarks :—At the last meeting of the Academy,
Mr. Meehan made some observations upon the peculiar struc-
ture of the flowers of Pedicularis canadensis, observing that
he had vainly watched them during two seasons with the
view of determining the manner in which they were fer-
tilised. He further said that he had noticed that they received
the attention of a species of humble-bee, for the sake of their
honey, which, in order to accomplish its purpose, always bored
a hole into the side of the tube. On Wednesday morning last, I
visited a spot where the plants were growing luxuriantly, afford.
ing an interesting field for observation. It was not long before
I observed a Bombus terrestris to alight upon the outer side of
the tube of a flower, at a distance of three feet from me. At
this distance it did seem as if the bee in order to obtain the
honey which it secretes, produced a slit into the tube, as Mr.
Meehan observed. But the movements of the bee being so
quick, and the distance too great to judge accurately, I ap-

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Buri

ata ae pst
ay: 3 <prr age:
heen ey el Ae ee

Me COO is

542

proached the insect by degrees, until I was within three inches
of it, when the whole process became apparent. The bee,
however, was so intent upon its labours, as not to take any notice
of me. The flower is composed of an erect tube, with a natural
cleft running along its lateral walls from above, through one-
third its entire length, presenting outwardly apparently a mere
crease, from the manner in which the compressed margins of
the upper lip fit into the rolled-in edges of the lateral lobes of
the under lip. The upper lip is compressed, arched, and
beaked, presenting an aperture at the apex, through which
passes a curved pistil, the lower lip is reflexed, consisting of
three lobes, one median and two lateral, assuming a platform
arrangement. Enclosed within the upper lip are four stamens,
didynamous, with their anthers turning backwards, facing each
other vertically. When ripe these anthers split upon the inner
side, thus giving a fancied resemblance to an oval snuff-box
thrown backwards upon its hinges. Each cell is filled with
white pollen grains. Now when the bee alights upon the tube,
by means of its trunk, it opens the natural cleft above alluded
to, and having tus gained partial entrance, it would defeat its
intention did not the length of the flower’s tube when contrasted
with that of the bee’s trunk, necessitate the admission of the
entire head also. In this operation the lips of the flower are
pressed apart, the margins of the upper lip are separated to
receive the head, and the pollen grains, already ripe, by the
considerable motion to which they are subjected, become dis-
lodged from their cells, and fall down ina dense shower upon
the bee’s back and head. Having obtained the coveted sweet,
it flies to another flower upon a different stalk, as I observed in a
score of cases during two days; but before renewing the pre-
ceding operations, stations itself awhile upon the lower lip, its
head coming in contact with the stigma of the pistil. Then, by
means of the hairs that line the inner side of the tarsus of each
interior leg, and the constant rubbing together of the parts
comprising its trophi or its instrumenta cibaria the attached
pollen grains are sent flying in every direction, sure to
adhere to the stigma. Whilst observing the above pro-
cess, I also noticed that after the lips had been pressed
apart, and were permitted to regain their position, the
upper lip, being somewhat elastic, sprang back to its place
with considerable force, sending through the aperture, through
which passes the pistil, a complete cloud of pollen, enve-
loping the stigma upon every side. This operation can be
performed artificially, by taking hold of the under lip with the
jeft thumb and fore-finger, and pulling the upper lip backward,
by the right, and then releasing the hold of the latter: the
upper lip springs to its place, spirting the pollen through the
aperture upon the left hand. From the above it is to be seen,
that the plant has two chances of being fertilised—one by its
own pollen, and the other by that of another. Although the
flower seeds abundantly, yet I am disposed to think that it is
mainly through the pollen of another that the seeds become per-
fect. I incline to this opinion because, in an examination of
many pods, I noticed that a few seeds were found in a rudimen-
tary condition, apparently manifesting a tendency to abort, while
the majority were in a vigorous condition; the former, doubt-
less, being the effects of self-fertilisation in part, which, as is
well-known, is a degenerating process. I desire also to call
attention to an interesting discovery which I was enabled to make
recently, whilst engaged in an examination of.a double flower of
Ranunculus fascicularis. In the genus Ranunculus, the corolla
of anormal flower is made up of five petals, each of which on
the inner side of its basal part is usually provided with a scale.
This scale from its position is denominated the necturiferous scale.
In the specimen under consideration three of these scales had
assumed the character of petals, agreeing with the flower’s true
petals in every particular except size, being but three-fourths the
dimension of the latter. It very frequently happens that we
find, in examining flowers, parts which we can refer to no organ
with which we have become acquainted. They appear to be
distinct from any of the whorls which make up a perfect flower,
although located among them and attached perhaps to them.
All such parts are designated as appendages. Under this cate-
gory are placed the scales that are characteristic of some species
of Crowfoot. Prof. Lindley thinks that these small appendages
are barren stamens united to the bases of the petals. This
opinion I think is a just one. From the facts here indicated it
is reasonable to conclude, that the double flowers of the Ranun-
culus do not always originate by true staminal metamorphosis,
but sometimes by scale transformation ; also that nectariferous

NATURE

[ Oct. 23, 1873

scales when they exist are barren stamens, which favourable con-
ditions may develop into true petals. Whilst examining several
specimens of otentilla canadensis lately, I was struck with the
variableness displayed in the number of segments which con-
stituted their outer or calycine whorls. This series in Pofentilla,
as is well known, consists of five sepals, with as many inter-
mediate bractlets. In the specimens to which I refer, I counted
from seven to ten bractlets. This numerical variation I am
confident results from the splitting, so to speak, of some or all
of the primary bractlets, as specimens were observed which
exhibited all the transitional forms, from a slight indentation at
the apex to partial and complete division.

PARIS

‘Academy of Sciences, Oct. 13.—M. de Quatrefages, pre-
sident, in the chair.—The president announced the death of M.
Antoine Passy.—The following papers were read :—On crys-
talline dissociation, by MM. Favre and Valson. This portion of
the author’s researches deals with the estimation of the work
done in saline solutions. Tables of the value of this work were
given.—Researches on the ancient fauna of the Island of Ro-
driguez, by M. Alph. Milne-Edwards.—Verification of Huy-
ghens’s law by means of the prismatic method, by M. Abria.—
Monograph on the fishes of the family of the Symbranchide,
by M. C. Dareste.—On a mechanical purifier for illuminating
gas which will also serve to mix vapour with the gas, by M. D.
Colladon.—Researches on the action of the so-called antiseptics
on carbuncular virus, by M. C. Davaine. The author found the
bodies in question were, as a rule, effective in destroying the
virus.—Studies on the Phyl/oxera, continuation by M. Max
Cornu.—On the oak P4ylloxera, by M. Balbani.—Note on a
new method of tempering steel, by M. H. Caron. The method
consists in quenching the heated steel in heated water, the tem-
perature varying with the size of the article. The author stated
that this method augmented the elasticity considerably without
altering the softness of the metal.—On the use of potassic
disulphate as a means of detecting galena, by M. Jannettaz.—
Meteorological observations made in a balloon, by M. G.
Tissandier.—New remarks on the epidemic goitre of the St.
Etienne barracks, by M. Bergeret.

CONTENTS PacE
List oF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND FIELD CLUBS 5 oye a
Loca ScrenTIiFIc Societies, I. . ° os . 523
FARADAY ON SCIENTIFIC LECTURING. . « + ee * Sehac Gam
Ecker’s CONVOLUTIONS OF THE BRAIN . . + + a eee
Our Book SHELF. «. . oe 0 0 © © © © 6 © © » «© 6 =eeeeg

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :—
On the Equilibrium of Temperature of a Gaseous Column sub-

jected to Gravity.—Pror. J. CLerK-Maxwett, F.R.S. . . . 527
Mallet-Palmieri’s Vesuvius—Davip Forses, F.R.S.. . +. . . 528
Oxford Science Fellowships.—Prof. H. B. Ciirron, F.R.S. . . 528
Harmonic Echoes.—Lord RayLeiGH, F.R.S. . . . + « » + 528
Deep-sea Soundings and Deep-sea Thermometers.—Hy. NEGRETTI

and ZAMBRA. we ahaa? fe eee eae Pry de Sh I
Settle Caves Report.—R. H. TIppDEMANN. «. « « + « « 529
Carbon Battery Plates —CHARLEs V. WALKER, F.R.S.. - 529

ASTRONOMICAL ALMANACS, III. . » 1s je > ©) fe ei netnie mn mem
THE BRIGHTON Aquarium. By W. Savitte Kent, F.Z.S. | (With
Illustrations) . aide: ore A are te. oe Mel fen hiat Matte maga
Tue Rapipity OF DETONATION. . « s+ - = + + o 6 + » 534
Norgs . o 3 ee ee 8 se st 8 8 Uw meee
On THE Fina STATE OF A SYSTEM OF MOLECULES IN MOTION SUB-
jJecT TO Forces oF ANY KIND. By Prof, J. CLerk-MAxweELt,
FURS. os ee 0 8, eh sue & le et vl en
OriGINAL RESEARCH As A MEANS OF EpucaTion. By Prof. Roscog,
B.Ris. ry Carpe eee rae Serer
ConpucTinG Power For HEAT OF CERTAIN Rocks. By A. S.
HerscuEL, F,.R.A.S. . See Oe ee 54°
Tue DIVERTICULUM OF THE SMALL INTESTINE CONSIDERED AS A
RuDIMENTARY STRUCTURE. By Prof. STRUTHERS, F.R.S.E. . . 540
ScienTIFIC SERIALS . , . we le! 0 6 ve lel sly eain mea
SoclETIES AND ACADEMIES - + 54¥

s ErrATuM.—Vol. viii. p. 519, 2nd col. last line, for “‘tonic” read
toxic.”

OUR NATIONAL MUSEUMS
E may congratulate ourselves that the Museum

question is now being taken up with vigour. Not
only must the Royal Commission on Science include it
among their inquiries, but the Society of Arts is directing
_ public attention to it.

This is the more opportune, as the intention of the
‘Government to transfer to irresponsible trustees the only
‘museums under the direction of a Minister of State has
recently been declared, and needs only to be declared to
‘be condemned on all hands.

_ We now let the following documents speak for them-
selves. Next week we shall return to the subject :—

I.
Memorial to the Right Honourable W. E. Gladstone, M.P.

“tj. We, the undersigned members of the Council and
Members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures, and Commerce, request the attention of
Her Majesty’s Government to the remarkable proof of
the public desire for instruction and pure enjoyment
afforded by the examination of works of Art and Science,
which has been shown by the opening of the Bethnal
Green Museum,

“2. This Museum, established in one of the poorest
and busiest districts in London, where men, women,
and children are most laboriously employed, has been
frequented during three months by more than 700,000
visitors,* a number which probably exceeds that of the
Visitors to all the other metropolitan museums and gal-
leries during the same period.

_ “3. The undersigned submit that this museum could
never have come into useful existence, and have been in-
strumental in conferring great benefits on the people,
without the aid of Parliament; and they desire to press
this fact upon the consideration of Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment, with the hope that they will submit to Parliament
the policy so essentially national of voting increased
_ means to facilitate the establishment of museums, libra-
‘ries, and galleries of Science and Art in large centres of
population, wherever such localities are willing to bear
their share in the cost.”

Appended to this are the signatures of 250 Peers,
_ Members of Parliament, and other well-known and dis-

tinguished men.

.

Ef,
- CORRESPONDENCE RELATING 10 THE ABOVE MEMORIAL.

“The Secretary of the Society of Arts to the Right Hon.
, W. £. Gladstone, MP.

4 “ July 3, 1873.

__“Str,—A memorial relative to the beneficial action of

the Bethnal Green Museum, has been prepared by the

Society of Arts for presentation to you.

“It has been signed by one hundred and fifty members
of the Council and of the Society, of whom twenty-two
are peers, and sixty-three are members of the House of
Commons. In addition to the above, thirty-seven peers
and sixty-three members of the House of Commons, not
members of the Society, have expressed their concurrence
in the object of the memorial.

“T am directed to request that you will have the kind-
; "ness to receive a deputation to present the memorial, and
| to name a day for doing so, giving, if possible, at least a
_week’s notice.”

* “The numbers up to the end of September were upwards of one million

and a half of Reople i to 31st December, 1872, only six months and a half,
they amounted to gor,464, whilst the number of the general visitors to the

No, 209—Vol, VIII.

- NATURE

ritish Museum for the whole year 1872 were only 424,068.—October 1873. J

“ Mr. Gurdon io the Secretary of the Society of Arts.

“July 5, 1873.
“StR —Mr. Gladstone desires me to acknowledge the
receipt of your letter of the 3rd inst., requesting him to
receive a deputation to present the memorial from the
Society of Arts, on the subject of the museum at Bethnal
Green. I am directed to express Mr. Gladstone’s sincere
regret that the pressure of his duties, as First Lord of
the Treasury, renders it absolutely necessary that he
should confine his attention to those matters which fall
directly within his province ; and he therefore trusts that
those on whose behalf you have written will kindly

excuse him if he asks them to address themselves to the

Privy Council Office.”

“ The Secretary of the Society of Arts to Mr. Gurdon.

“S1R,—I have brought before the Council your letter of
the 5th July, in reply to mine of the 3rd July, asking Mr.
Gladstone to receive a deputation to present a memorial
from this Society on the subject of the Bethnal Green
Museum. The Council observe that you express Mr.
Gladstone's regret that the pressure of his duties as First
Lord of the Treasury renéers it absolutely necessary that
he should confine his attention to those matters which
fall directly under his province, and his trust that those
on whose behalf the reception of a deputation was sought
will kindly excuse him if he asks them to address them-
selves to the Privy Council Office.

I am directed, in reply, to point out that the memorial,
having relation to a subject of vast importance to the
education, general cultivation, and social welfare of the
people, did appear to the Council to bring the subject
strictly within the consideration of the Prime Minister,
rather than of a department of the Government. More-

over, it did appear to the Council that the deep interest ~

which the subject excites is manifested by the unusual
character of the signatures, being those of 60 peers and
130 members of the House of Commons attached to the
memorial, and justified the Council in asking for the spe-
cial attention of Mr. Gladstone himself.

“Under these circumstances, the Council submit their
conviction that the subject involves considerations of
principle and policy worthy the attention of the Prime
Minister of this country, and too wide in its political and
fiscal considerations to be dealt with effectually by any
single department of the Government.

“They, therefore, respectfully decline to adopt Mr.
Gladstone’s suggestion that they should address them-
selves to the Privy Council Office,”

“Mr. Gurdon to the Secretary of the Society of Arts.

“S1r,—I am directed by Mr. Gladstone to acknowledge
the receipt of your letter of the 18th inst., and to request
that you will be kind enough to acquaint the Council of
the Society of Arts that the intention of the reply to your
communication of July 3 was to point out that, in regard
to a subject of the nature of that which you brought
before him (viz. the beneficial action of the Bethnal Green
Museum), which falls properly within the province of a
department of the State appointed to deal with it, the First
Lord of the Treasury could not take the initiative out of
the hands of that Department.

“This Mr. Gladstone would be doing were he to re-
ceive the proposed deputation ; and he would be acting
contrary to the rules of administration which are neces-
sary for the conduct of public business.

“Tf, however, the Society of Arts think fit to favour
him with a written communication, Mr. Gladstone will
himself correspond with the proper department concern-
ing it.”

“The Secretary of the Society of Arts to the Right Ron.
W, E. Gladstone, M.P.
“StrR,—The Council of the Society of Arts have
EE

544 NATURE

directcu 1.0 tv reply to Mr. Gurdon’s letter of July 22, in
which he states that, ‘if the Society of Arts think fit to
place before you a written communication, you would
yourself ccrrespond with the proper department concern-
ing it.’

% The deputation which desired to have the honour of
waiting on you, and explaining in detail the objects of
the memorial, would have stated that, in their view, the
experiment of the Bethnal Green Museum is suggestive of
the following points :—

“yy, That a general popular desire exists for such
museums, and that it would be good national policy for
the Government to encourage the establishment of them.

“>. That like primary elementary schools, it would be
impossible that such museums could, without State aid
and inspection, become part of a national system, aiding
technical instruction and secondary education.

“3. That this question, unfettered by any denomina-
tional difficulties, is quite ripe for solution; that the
necessary expenditure for aiding museums of science and
art would be advantageous from every point of view, even
remunerative as respects commerce ; and, further, would
be auxiliary in promoting morality and social good
order.

“4, That such museums are absolutely necessary to
the industrial progress of the country, which is behind
other countries already in the possession of them.

“5, That the time has come when it is necessary that
all public museums and galleries of works of science and
art receiving Parliamentary aid, should be brought under
an intelligible system of administration, controlled by a
responsible Minister of State, so as to render them
auxiliary to the development of local museums and gal-
leries.

“The Council submit that these are subjects not only
of general policy, but involve some new principles of ad-
ministration, large financial considerations, the reform of
old institutions, &c., which it is the province of the gene-
ral Government, and not of any single department, to
deal with. The Council especially desired that the
answer they might receive should come direct from your-
self as Prime Minister. They could not hide from them-
selves the knowledge they possessed of the several de-
partmental difficulties which attended the opening of the
Bethnal Green Museum, and that they had been made
cognizant, through Parliamentary returns and the revised
estimates for 1871-2, of the opposition which the Treasury.
as lately administered, had persistently offered to carry
into effect the decisions made by Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment in 1866, for conducting the Bethnal Green Museum.

“The Council respectfully request you to have the
kindness to bring this memorial before Her Majesty’s
Government. They hope it will meet with favourable
consideration, and lead to decisive action ; and they will
feel obliged by receiving an answer upon it at as early a
period as convenient.”

“ Mr. Gurdon to the Secretary of the Society of Arts.

“ SiR—Mr, Gladstone desires me to acknowledge the
receipt of your letter of October 6th, the contents of
which he will not fail to make known to his colleagues.”

III.
Resolutions of the Council of the Society of Aris passed

at their last Meeting -—

“1, That the undermentioned persons be invited to serve
ona Standing Committee for the purpose of bringing under
parliamentary responsibility the National Museums and
Galleries, so as to extend their benefits to Local Museums,
and to make them bear on public Education. The follow-
ing are the several objects in view for effectirg this pur-

ose :—

“>, All Museums and Galleries supported or subsidised
by Parliament to be made conducive to the adyancement

| Oct. 30, 18

of Education and TechnicalInstruction to the fullest extent,
and be made to extend their advantages to the promotion
of original investigations and works in Science and Art. —
“3. To extend the benefits of National Museums and
Galleries to Local: Museums of Science and Art which
may desire to be in connection, and to assist them with
loans of objects. wy
“4. To induce Parliament to grant sufficient funds to
enable such objects to be systematically collected, es-
pecially in view of making such loans. :
“5. For carrying out these objects most efficiently, to
cause all National Museums and Galleries to be placed
under the authority of a Minister of the Crown, being a
member of the Cabinet, with direct responsibility to
Parliament; thereby rendering unnecessary, for the
purpose of executive administration, all unpaid and
irresponsible trustees, except those who are trustees under
bequests or deeds, who might continue to have the full
powers of their trusts, but should not be charged with the
expenditure of Parliamentary votes. .
“6, To enter into correspondence with all existing
Local Museums and the numerous Schools of Science and
Art, including Music, now formed throughout the United

Kingdom, and to publish suggestions for the establish-

ment of Local Museums.

“7, Also, to cause the Public Libraries and Museums
Act (18 and 19 Vic. c. lxx,) to be enlarged, in order to
give local authorities increased p owers of acting,

“ Farl of Carnarvon,

Earl Russell.

Lord Elcho, M.P.

Lord George Hamilton, M.P.

Lord Houghton.

Lord Lyttelton.

Sir T. Acland, Bart, M.P.

Sir Antonio Brady.

Sir John Lubbock, Bart, M.P.

Right Hon. Sir Stafford North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.

Sir S. Waterlow, Bart., Lord
Mayor of London.

Sir Joseph Whitworth, Bart.

Right Hon. Sir John Paking-
ton, Bart., M.P.

Right Hon. W. J. Henley,
M.P

Right Hon. Cowper Temple,
M.P.

The Hon, Mr, Justice Grove.

Thomas Ashton, (Manchester).

E. A. Bowring, M.P.

Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S.

Henry Cole, C.B.

Montague Corry,

W. De La Rue, F.R.S.

I. B. Eastwick, M.P.

Gabriel Goldney, M.P.

Principal Greenwood (of
Owens Coll., Manchester).

John Henderson, M.P.

(By order)

Dr. Hooker, F.R.S,

C. Wren Hoskyns, M.P.5

James Howard, M.P.4

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. ;

U.J. Kay Shuttleworth, M,P.

George Melly, M.P.

S. Morley, M.P.

Dr. Mouat.

A. J. Mundella, M.P. rg

Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. (of Owen:
College, Manchester),

Lyon Playfair, C.B., M.P.

Hodgson Pratt.

Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S.

C. Seely, jun. M.P.

Col. Strange, F.R.S. ;

E. Thomas, F.R.S. (Athe-
nzeum Club).

George Trevelyan, M,P.

Thomas Twining.

Prof. Tyndall, F.R.S.

G. W. Ward (Nottingham).

Prof. Williamson, F-.R.S.

Also the Heads of the City
Companies for the time 7
being. —

Also the Chairmen of Loca
Committees of Schools of 9
Science and Art, and of 9
Local Museums Committees.

Also the members of the
Legislature who signed the
Bethnal Green Memorial. —

;
|

“P, Le NEVE FOSTER,
Secretary.” ‘

SPENCER’S DESCRIPTIVE SOCIOLOGY

Descriptive Sociology ; or, Groups of Sociological Facts.
Classified and arranged by Herbert Spencer. No. 1,
—English ; compiled and abstracted by James Collier.
(London : Williams & Norgate.) ‘

OT long since, an announcement appeared in
NATURE of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s plan of pub-
lishing, not a complete and finished treatise on Socio-

eee ”.

culture, confirmed this unfavourable expectation.

.
By

Pe

Oct. 30, 1873]

logy, but a collection of classified materials for the use
of students and investigators. The origin of this impor-

_ tant work is explained in the following extract from the

preface to Part I., which has now appeared.
“Tn preparation for the Principles af Sociology, re-
quiring as bases of induction large accumulations of

data, fitly arranged for comparison, I, some five years

ago, commenced by proxy the collection and organisa-
tion of facts presented by societies of different types, past
and present: being fortunate enough to secure the
services of gentlemen competent to carry on the process
in the way I wished. Though this classified compilation

_ of materials was entered upon solely to facilitate my own

work ; yet, after having brought the mode of classifica-
tion to a satisfactory form, and after having had some of
the tables filled up, I decided to have the undertaking
executed witha view to publication: the facts collected
and arranged for easy reference and convenient study of
their relations, being so presented, apart from hypotheses,
as to aid all students of Social Science in testing such
conclusions as they have drawn, and in drawing others.”

An objection to this scheme, which struck most who
noticed its announcement, was that materials thus

_ atranged would form a patch-work of dead scraps, rather

than an organic whole. The specimen which was first
circulated, relating to one of the barbaric grades of
Now,
however, thata section of the actual work has been pub-
lished, it is evident that the scheme can be made to
Carry an interest of its own, and even to serve an educa-
tional purpose. This first section is a methodical summary

_ of the development of England, intellectual and moral,
_ from the beginning of its history in Czesar’s time, to about

A.D. 1850. At the first glance, it suggests a question
which may disconcert not a few of the lecturers and

tutors engaged in training students in history at our

Universities. This question is, whether the ethnological
record of national life ought any longer to be treated as

subordinate to the political record of the succession of

rulers and the struggles for supremacy of ruling families,
or whether the condition of society at its successive
periods is for the future to be considered as the main
subject, only marked out chronologically by reigns,
battles, and treaties. This question has, it is true, been
already raised, It is, in fact, the issue between historical
chronicle and the philosophy of history as rival subjects
of study. But Mr, Spencer’s work brings it more clearly
and practically into view than any previous one, as will
be seen from the following outline of his scheme. It con-
sists of two parts.

The first part is aseries of tables, arranged in thirty to
thirty-five columns, each with a heading of some depart-
ment of social life or history, which again are combined
into groups. Thus the group of columns relating to the
structure of society takes in political, ecclesiastical, and
ceremonial departments, under which again we find
separately given the laws of marriage and inheritance, the
regulation of tribes and castes, the military and ecclesias-
tical organisation, and the ceremonies and customs of
daily life. Next,the group of columns devoted to the
functions of society, regulative and operative, contains
particulars of the morals, religion, and knowledge of each
age, the state o language, and the details of industry,

=

NATURE

545

commerce, habitations, food, clothing, and artistic pro-
ducts. Three special columns at the beginning, middle,
and end of this long colonnade, contain the skeleton of
ordinary history: namely, the principal dates, names of
rulers, and political events. Thus, by glancing across
any one of the huge double pages, we see the whole
condition of England at any selected period. Thus, in
the century after the Norman Conquest, the influence of
the invaders is observed in the growth of architecture, paint-
ing, music, poetry, the introduction of new food and more
luxurious living, the importation of canonical law and of
mathematics from the East, and so on through all the
manifold elements which made up the life of noble and
villain in our land. If the page be turned to the 16th cen-
tury, the picture of English life is not less distinct. The
scholastic philosophy is dying out, men’s minds are newly
set to work by the classical revival, by voyages into new
regions, the growth of mercantile adventure and political
speculation ; chivalry ceases, archery declines; judicial
torture is introduced, the “ Italian” crime of poisoning
becomes frequent ; the ancient belief in witchcraft and
pervading demons holds its ground, as do the miracle-
plays and local festivals; but a highway act is passed,
new roads are being made, the new houses have chimneys,
their furniture and fare become more luxurious; the
power of the old feudal families is destroyed, the Star-
Chamber is new-modelled ; church-fasts are still observed
under pain of imprisonment, and high offices of state are
still in the hands of churchmen, but among the signs of
momentous change come the dissolution" of monasteries,
and the distinct appearance of a sect of Protestants. Thus
the tabulated record goes on till it ends near the present
day, among such items as Trades’-Unions, Divorce
Courts, the Manchester School, County Courts, Free
Thought, Railways, Rifled Cannon, Prae-Raphaelitism,
Chartism, Papal Aggression, and the crowding events of
modern manufacture and science.

It is by following the several columns’ downwards, that
the principle of Evolution, the real key to Mr. Spencer’s
scheme, is brought out into the broadest light. It seems
most strange, however, that he should not have placed in
its proper niche the evidence of pre-historic archeology.
Mr. Spencer can hardly doubt that the stone implements
found in England prove the existence of one, or probably
two, stone-age populations before the Kelts, who, under
the name of Ancient Britons, begin his series. If he ac-
knowledges this, why should a first link so important in
his chain of evolution have been dropped? Otherwise
the chain is carefully stretched out so as to display it
from end to end, In many matters simple and direct
progressis the rule, From the Ancient Briton’s bow with
its bronze-tipped arrows, to the cross-bow, the matchlock-
gun, and thence through successive stages to the rifled
breech-loader ; from the rude arithmetic before the intro-
duction of the “ Arabic” numerals, through the long series
of importations and discoveries which led to the infini-
tesimal calculus in its highest modern development ; from
the early English astronomy, where there was still a
solid firmament studded with stars, and revolving on the
poles about the central earth, to the period when the per-

, turbations of planets are calculated on the theory of gravi-

tation, and the constitution of the fixed stars examined
by the spectroscope—these are among the multitude

546 NATURE

of cases illustrating the development of culture in its
straightforward course. Harder problems come before
us, where we see some institution arise, flourish, and
decline within a limited period, as though resulting from
a temporary combination of social forces, or answering
only a temporary purpose in civilisation.

To take aninstance from Mr. Spencer’s Table, English
history has seen the judicial duel brought in at the
Conquest, flourishing for centuries, declining for centuries
more, till its last formal relic was abolished in 1820.
Again, in the Old English period, marriage appears as a
purely civil contract, on the basis of purchase of the
wife; then with Christianity comes in the religious
sanction, which by 1076 had become so absolute that
secular marriages were prohibited : with a strong turn of
the tide of public opinion, the English Marriage Act of
1653 treated marriage as a civil contract, to be solemnised
before a justice of the peace ; till after a series of actions
and re-actions, in our own day the civil and ecclesiastical
solemnisation stand on an equal footing before the law.
Closely similar has been the course of English society
on the larger question of a National Church, which, soon
after the introduction of Christianity, claimed an all but
absolute conformity throughout the nation, practically
maintained the claim for ages, and then was forced back
to toleration, which has at last left it with a supremacy
little more than nominal. This is not the place to discuss
these subjects for themselves, but to show how the table
before us, by its mere statement of classified events in
chronological order, must force even the unwilling student
to recognise processes of evolution in every department of
social life. The writer of the present notice once asked
an eminent English historian, a scholar to whom the
records of medizval politics are as familiar as our daily
newspaper is to us, whether he believed in the existence
of what is called the philosophy of history. The historian
avowed his profound distrust of, and almost disbelief in,
any such philosophy. Now it may seem a simple matter
to have tabulated the main phenomena of English social
and political history in parallel columns, as Mr. Collier has
here done under Mr. Spencer’s direction, but his tables
are a sufficient answer to all disbelievers in the possibility
of a science of history. Where the chronicle of individual
lives often perplexes and mystifies the scholar, the gene-
ralisation of social principles from the chroniclers mate-
rials shows an order of human affairs where cause and
effect take their inevitable course, as in Physics or
Biology.

It may be objected, however, that summing up com-
plex events in short headings, and arranging these in
columns, is a rough and ready method often leading to
erroneous inferences, and even liable to gross error. It
is evidently in order to guard against this that Mr.
Spencer follows the first part of his scheme by a second.
Here, under their proper headings, the passages from
standard authorities which vouch for the brief statements
in the tables are given in full, and with references. This
part of the work, much the largest in extent, is thus an
elaborate historical commonplace-book, containing some
thousands of selected quotations. Mr. Collier is on the
whole to be congratulated on the completeness of his
reading, and the discrimination with which he has chosen
his passages. So much information, encumbered with so

meant Co ae, SEY ee eae
mea VES Ieee - he eae Re Puen

a : . Rie i fas

>

| Oct. 30, 1873

little rubbish, has never before been brought to bear on
the development of English institutions. There is hardly
a living student but will gain something by looking
through the compilation which relates to his own special —
subject, whether this be law’ or morals, education or
theology, the division of labour or the rise of modern
scientific ideas. Of course it is very far from perfect.
There are some actual blunders; a weak authority is
often taken where a strong one was to be had; small
matters are often put in, and large ones left out ; the want
of notes leaves no opportunity of correcting an author’
half-true statement. ‘Thus under the heading of Acces-
sory Institutions, there is a good account of the Royal
Institution and the Pharmaceutical Society, and a men-
tion of the Russell Institution and the Swedenborg
Society, but not a word of the Royal Society. An extract
from the Pictorial History of England ascribes the
system of Sunday Schools to Mr. Robert Raikes, of the
Gloucester Fournal, about 1780, whereas their real in-
ventor, Jonas Hanway, flourished at an earlier date.
Again, under the heading of Religious Ideas and Super-
stitions, various slips are to be noticed. It was natural
enough that, years ago, Brand should, in his Antiquities,
have considered the country rite of throwing toast to the
apple-trees to secure a fruitful year as being a “ relic of the
heathen sacrifice to Pomona;” but a modern reader
quoting him, should never in Brand’s old-fashioned way
have dragged in a Roman deity to account for a genuine
English superstition. Just below this is the following
sentence in brackets, and without an author’s name :—
“The resistance of tides in the Wash caused by their
meeting with the ebb-waters is called the A.gar—one of
the gods of the Scandinavian mythology.” This statement
is misleading, and not the less so for having a real ety-
mology hidden behind it. Our English word eag7e, sig
nifying the “ bore” of an estuary, is Anglo-Saxon eagor,
the sea, and its use merely asserts the plain fact that the
sea runs up the channel. It is true that there is a corre-
sponding old Norse word @g?r, the sea, and that this in
Scandinavian mythology becomes the personal name of
Gegir, the Sea-god. But it does not follow that our
eastern counties’ word had ever any such mytho-
logical notion attached to it. These happen to be the
first weak points which struck the writer in glancing over
a page or two in quest of errors. It is needless to con
tinue this critical process ona professed book of extracts
enough has been done to show that the proper use of such
a work as the present is not so much to furnish the scholar
with complete second-hand ideas, as to indicate how the
ideas lie and where they may be obtained first-hand.

Mr. Spencer, out of the evidence amassed by the
readers collecting facts under his direction, might have
made an admirable treatise of the usual kind on the
History of English Civilisation. No doubt, however,
for years to come lectures will be delivered and articles
written full of suggestive facts in the history of culture,
which the initiated will recognise as borrowed from the
unwieldy pages of this present atlas-like compilation.
In the meantime, we may hope that Mr. Spencer’s
scheme may be carried out through the whole range of
savage and civilised life, and that his tables of develop-
ment of culture (printed on one side of the paper asi
anticipation of such use), may be set up like maps on

at intervals by Herr Oldenbourg, of Munich.

>. =

NATURE

" walls of class-rooms. They are certainly to be compared
with maps for the range and precision and correlation of

parts with which they show their contents at a glance.
‘Mg E. B, TYLOR

ug

OUR BOOK SHELF

Aus der Urzeit. Bilder aus der Schépfungsgeschichte,
von Prof. Dr. Karl A. Zittel, in Miinchen, Mit 78 Halz-
schnitten. (Miinchen: Rudolph Oldenbourg, 1871-2.)

THIS is one of a serics of popular works on Science

entitled “Die Naturkrifte,’ that are being published

Prof.

| Zittel, in his preface to the present work, speaks of

_ that is characteristic or informing.

the vast influence which popular scientific litera-

ture is calculated to have upon the entire development
of a people, and therefore insists on the great im-

portance of diffusing, in an intelligible manner, among

the people thoroughly correct notions of every science, in-

stead of mincing down scientific truths until they lose all
It is, perhaps, of far
more importance that scientific books meant for the
people should be as absolutely correct and as far ad-

vanced as it is possible to be, than those intended for
_ scientific men themselves.
_ reject the false or imperfect ; the former in their ignor-
ance accept what is written as the truth, and the injury
_ thus done is often serious in its consequences and may

The latter can discover and

take a generation or longer toremedy. Popular scientific
works, like school text-books of science, ought to be
written only by those who are thoroughly masters of their
subjects.

respect satisfactory. In a series of chapters, each

_ corresponding mainly with one of the great geological

periods, the author endeavours to present a series of
pictures of the gradual development of our earth, mainly
with reference to the life which it supports. He seems to
know his subject well in all its aspects, and present$ in an

_ interesting and intelligible way the latest results of geolo-

gical research, with the conclusions derived therefrom by
the most advanced thinkers. The illustrations are very
good, and the work as a whole is a good specimen of a
popular scientific treatise.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

r [ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed

by his correspondents,

No notice ts taken of anonymcus
communications. |

Remarkable Phenomena

Ty may be within the memory of some of your readers that
between the 15th and 2oth August, 1868, a succession of waves
reached Sydney, and were recorded by the self-registering tide-
gauge. The average interval between the waves was about 25
minutes, and the greatest oscillation 34 inches, measuring from
the crest uf one wave to the hollow of the next. It was thought
at the time that they were earthquake phenomena.

A similar visitation has just reached us, but it was not so
marked in its character. The self-registering tide-gauge shows
that the disturbance began during the afternoon of the 15th, and
attained its maximum between 1 A.M. and 4 A.M. of the 17th,
the greatest oscillation, amounting to 5 inche-, occurred between
3.15 A.M. and 3 33 A M. o! the 17:h, the average interval of the
waves at this time was 25 minutes, but the average of 20 between
8 P.M. and 5.30 A.M. was 28 minutes. The waves cannot be
traced beyond the 18th,

On the afternoon of the 16th we had a thunderstorm, during
which the barometer was very unsteady, and the barograph
sheets show some peculiar curves ; strange to say, the average

The book before us seems to us to be in this.

547

interval of the 5 most conspicuous of the barometer curves or
waves between 5.40 P.M. and 7.30 P.M. is 25 minutes ; the largest
oscillation was 0'045 in. of mercury, equal to about 6 inches of
water. Just before daylight on the morning of the r7th several
fine meteors were seen to N.E., but the observer who reported
them to me did not make notes of particulars. At Newcastle,
which is a port 60 miles north of Sydney, I have another selt-
registering tide-gauge, which recorded a disturbance similar to
the Sydney one ; it began on the afternoon of the 15th and was
greatest between 8 P.M. of 16th and 7 A.M. of 17th ; the greatest
oscillation, 9 inches, occurred between 12.15 A.M. and
12.30 A.M. of 17th, and the average interval of all the waves
from 8 P.M. to 5.3 A.M. of 17th, amongst which are several that
only occupied 5 minutes, and look like double oscillations, is 20
minutes,

Struck by the circumstances that both sets ot waves, though
separated by an interval of 5 years, occurred in August, I deter-
mined to examine all the tide-gauge sheets since 1866, when the
instrument was set up, and was surprised to find a repetition otf
it every year, the amounts were too small individually to attract
notice, but are nevertheless unmistakable, the periods are as
follows :—

1866 August 9th to roth, and again 15th to 21st.

play) 5th ,, 13th, very marked from 9 A.M to midnight
of 12th. :

1868 ,, 15th,, 20th, remarkable (see beginning of this
letter).

T8609), yy Siath,,.27th.

187o ,, 12th,, 22nd, marked from 5 P.M. of 17thto4 P.M.
of 18th.

IS7T 55 gth ,, roth and 2oth to 21st.

1872) 43. toth:,.~ 13th:

1873 ,, I5th,, 18th, as recorded in this letter.

It is not easy to believe that earthquake phenomena will recur
with such regularity, and we must seek another cause depending
it would seem on the earth’s annual motion, and to a certain ex-
tent affecting air and ocean alike.

It would be premature to express a decided opinion without
further investigation, which I have not had time to make yet, but it
seems very probable that the August meteor stream through or near
which the earth passes about 1oth August may be the cause. It
will be observed that even in the few observations given above
there are indications of a five-year period ; for the double dis-
turbance of 1866 is reproduced in 1871, and the great disturbance
of 1868 is followed by a similar one in 1873.

Sydney Observatory, Aug. 23 ’ H. C. RussELt

Periodicity of Rainfall

I po not altogether agree with Governor Rawson when he
says, in his interesting letter in NATURE, vol. viii. p. 245, that
“*the experience of Barbados is opposed to the theory broached by
Mr. Meldrumand Mr. J. N. Lockyer.” On the contrary, I rather
think that Mr. Rawson’s figures support the theory. He has
taken 1846 and 1871 as middle maxima years (in my first paper
I also took 1848), whereas 1849 and 1872 are probably more
correct. Making this slight alteration, we get, according to
Mr. Rawson’s statistics :—

Years. Rain. Sums.
In. In.
_ | 1843 45°31 )
Min. 4 1844 74°45 163 °67
l 1845 43°91 j
\ 1848 63°77 )
Max. { 1849 52°77 184°42
| 1350 67°88 |
§ 1855 77°31
Min. 31856 ... 48°49 cen ol BORE
( LBS 7. pees 60°90

Years, Rain. Sums.
In. In.
RESO Wea... | ORs
Max, 41860 ... ... 57°91 187°05
ROOD ceo se: Zio
TSOB 50° -s. - 5G'65
Min. {1867 ... ... 69°93 174'21
1868 +3: .!. 4460
[S7E ses sss. ALO
Max. 41872 ... ... 48°39 154°85
1873 «i °.:. 65'00
Grouping the results we obtain :—
Rain in : Rain in
Max. Years. H Min. Years.
184°42 16367
187'95 186°70
154'85 174'21
527°22 524°58; showing an ex-

cess of 2°64 in. on the maximum side.

The quinquennial periods, as far as they admit of comparison,
give also an excess in favour of the maxima years.

The heavy falls in 1844 and 1855, and the comparatively small
fall in 1872, are apparently opposed to the theory; but it
should be borne in mind that rainfall is greatly affected by local
causes, and that to reveal the effects of a weaker but more
general cause we must, as far as possible, eliminate chance, by
comparing the total falls in maxima and minima periods. Tried
by this preliminary test, the experience of Barbados can scarcely
be said to be opposed to the theory.

My main object, however, is to draw attention to some dis-
cordances between Mr. Rawson’s figures and those given by
Mr. Symons in Nature (vol. vii. p. 143) ; for until this dis-
agreement be explained, there will be considerable uncertainty
respecting the rainfall of Barbados. The following table will
show where the two statements are at variance :—

Years. Rain. Rain.
(Mr. Symons.) (Mr. Rawson.)

Dee mmcer Mince! 55 45°31

Min. Toth? coh he} 745 163°7 74°45 % 163°79
1845 we we 439 43 91
1847 42°5 48°10

Max. } 184d bon 6258 158°3 63°77 ¢ 164°64
RSAC Mieas=.10y bes a heed 52°77
EGS maim cos ccs SES P20

Min. Hoe” FRSmeeee 464 | 1707 48°49 186°70
RSSvimitis-- .. SO 60°90
RESON eek sree 5 Sil 56°22

Max. | 1860 i BS 60°41 186°6 57°91 187°95
1861 71'I 73°82

The greatest differences are in 1847, 1855, and 1857, and
amount (for these three years alone) to 19°4. in.

It is worthy of remark that both statements show an excess on
the side of the maxima years ; Mr. Rawson’s of 2'2 in., and Mr.
Symons’s of 10°5 in. But how did such great differences arise.

A remark made by Mr. Rawson may explain the matter. He
says ‘f the average of the island for twenty-five years, from 1847
to 1871, is 57°74 inches, based upon the mean of three stations
ia 1843, and increasing to 141 in 1871.” Now it would be use-
fal to know how the mean yearly rainfalls were determined. Is
the fall given for 1844 (74°45 inches) a mean of the falls at three
stations, and the fall for 1872 (48°39 inches) a mean of the falls
at 141 stations? If so, and if the other yearly means were simi-
larly obtained, Mr. Symons may not have taken the same
number of stations as Mr. Rawson. Yearly means thus deter-
mined would not of course be comparable, for even in a small
island the rainfall varies greatly according to locality. The rain-
fall in maxima and minima sunspot years cannot be fairly com-
pared except by taking the same number of gauges and the
same stations ; and it is desirable that the falls in the intervening
years should be given.

‘© Assuming that sunspots affect all parts of the globe egua//y,
and that periodicity prevails in all a/ike,” Mr. Rawson, with the
above experience of Barbados before him, is “led to the con-
clusion that it was ‘chance alone’ that led to the coincidences
noticed by Mr. Symons.” Now the theory makes neither of
these assumptions. It assumes that there is a sunspot periodicity ;
that this periodicity implies a secular variation of solar heat and

NATURE

radiation ; that, therefore, there is a corresponding periodicity of —
temperature, wind, and rain on our earth; but that, from
various counteracting causes, the observations at some stations
will not show a periodicity, while those at a large ma-
jority of stations, and a mean of all the observations, will ©
doso. Inshort, with respect to rain, the theory assumes that —
the annual fall over the globe is subject to a variation, cor-
responding with the sunspot variation, but that from disturbing
influences, local exceptions must be expected, Granting, there-
fore, that the rainfall of Barbados is opposed to the theory, I do
not think it follows that the favourable experience of the British
Isles must be owing to chance alone ; for that experience is what
theory leads us to expect, and it is much more extensive both as
to time and space than the experience of Barbados. If England —
and Barbados were the whole globe, the theory would be well-
nigh proved, as far as observation goes; for, according to Mr, —
Symons’s Table 1, there was not, from 1815 to 1864, a single
exception to the rule that more rain falls in the maxima years 5;
and if we take the aggregate falls for England and Bar-
bados from 1843 to 1873, it will be found that there was a large
excess on the maximum side. :

I have now examined 93 rainfall tables from various parts of
the globe. They are all I have as yet been able to procure, and
they have been published zz extenso, so that the evidence they
afford may be scrutinised. That evidence is such that if no rain
at all had fallen at Barbados in the nine principal maxima years
since 1843, and the rainfall in the nine minima years were to be
put in the other scale of the balance, there would still be a large
surplus in favour of the theory. Up to the present time the
more numerous the observations, the stronger the evidence. Still
I shall be prepared to abandon the theory whenever a prepon-
derance of undoubted facts may be brought against it. ButI ~
see no prospect of this, for the rainfalls of England, Scotland,
the Continent of Europe, India, Africa, America, and Aus-
tralia, as far as they have yet been examined, sustain the
theory. C. MELDRUM

Mauritius, Sept. 15

Dr. Sanderson’s Experiments and Archebiosis

Dr. SANDERSON has strangely misunderstood the wording of
my letter which appeared in NATURE on the gth inst. Any one
may see that I did not challenge him to ‘‘ deal” with my main
proposition ‘‘ that Bacteria are capable of arising in fluids inde-
pendently of living reproductive or germinal particles.” That
position was merely alluded to by me in order to show the
relevancy of the question which I asked Dr. Sanderson : and the
question itself was—‘‘ Whether he still believes that Bacteria are
killed by a temperature of 100° C. in fluids; and if not upon
what grounds he has changed his opinion ?”

Whilst tacitly declining to answer this question, Dr. San
derson now says, ‘‘I hope that Dr. Bastian will allow me
to decline to enter on the general question.” But it is pre-
cisely because Dr. Sanderson has distinctly expressed himself —
upon the general question both at the late meeting of the British
Association and in your columns (NATURE, vol. viii. p. 181),
that I feel he may, both from a moral and from a scientific point
of view, be called upon to reply to the question above quoted.

The need that Dr. Sanderson should express the grounds
of his opinion concerning the death point of Bacteria in heated
fluids is further shown by Mr. Ray Lankester’s communication
in last week’s NATURR, in which he says, ‘‘ Dr, Sanderson does not —
believe that there is a definite relation between the precise tem-
perature to which the infusion is exposed and the destruction of —
Bacterian contamination.” Now if this is really Dr. Sanderson’s
present opinion, it may not inappropriately be asked whether it
is an opinion based upon defmite evidence or whether it is a mere
surmise? I say the question is not inappropriate because, as
Dr. Sanderson will recollect, I have heard from his own lips,
since his return from Bradford, that he has made no defi-
nite observations upon the subject, and that he is quite
unprepared to question the truth of the experimental evidence
which I have recently brought forward (Proceed. of Royal
Society, Nos. 143 and 145) showing that Bacteria are killed
in fluids which have been raised for five minutes to a tempe-
rature of 60° C, (140° F.)*

Dr. Sanderson previously supposed that Bacteria were in-
capable of appearing and rapidly multiplying in certain fluids —

* I should have hesitated about referring to what has passed in conversa-
tions between Dr. Sanderson and myself, if he had not set the example
both in your columns (NATURE, vol. viii. p, 181) and in a discussion atone
of the meetings of the Royal Society. Y

ee eS ee

Oct. 30, 1873]

é
.
PA

raised to 100° C. and subsequently protected from contamination.
He has been convinced that his supposition on this subject was
erroneous, And since this period, whilst I have been careful to
undertake fresh researches concerning the death point of Bacteria,
he has been content to rest in the stage of mere supposition on

_ this most important point, and is now, as it appears, quite un-
_ prepared to question the truth of my assertion that Bacteria are

killed at 60°C. It is right that the public should know this,
and I only regret that Dr. Sanderson himself cannot be induced
to inform them as to the real extent of his knowledge upon
this part of the subject.
H. CHARLTON Bastian
University College, Oct. 20

_—

Foreign Orders

THE acceptance and refusal of foreign orders by British
subjects has hitherto been universally misunderstood. The exist-

ence of the Queen’s Regulations, which you have reprinted in your

columns (vol. viii. p. 481), prohibiting the receipt of these orders
without special permission, must, after the discussion which took
place in the House of Commons during last session, surprise
many of your readers, who will naturally ask why regulations so
stringent and so habitually disregarded, have been either kept
entirely private in the Foreign Office, or, if published, have never
been followed up. As it is, I will venture to say that not one
out of some hundreds who have received foreign orders are aware
of the prohibition or have any obvious means of becoming aware
of it. Announcements of the presentation to British subjects
(and it is assumed acceptance of by them) of such orders habi-
tually appear in the most conspicuous type of the most widely
circulated papers, but never a hint on the part of the Foreign
Office that the recipients are violating Her Majesty’s rules, as
drawn up by itself and signed by the Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs.

Such being the case, it is somewhat singular that the Foreign
Office should issue regulations approved by Her Majesty, forbid-
ding British subjects to accept or to wear foreign orders and
their decorations, except in the very rare cases in which Her
Majesty's permission is obtainable, and yet take no steps through
its agents at foreign courts to instruct the habitual givers that
Her Majesty not only disapproves of their action, but requires
of her subjects to tell them so in the most ungracious of all
ways, namely by refusing to accept their favours, and returning
the tokens thereof.

Surely if the prohibition to accept is wise and good (and I
am the last person to doubt Her Majesty’s wisdom) the obvious
course for the Foreign Office to pursue is to inform all foreign
Sovereigns of the fact, and instruct British subjects to transmit
any orders that they may receive or have received to the Foreign
Office to be returned to the sovereign who sent them, if the ser-
vices of the recipient are not of such a nature as to enable him to
obtain permission to accept them.

Into the merits of the prohibition I am not disposed to
enter at much Jength. That foreign orders are comparatively
valueless in themselves is generally admitted ; and it is well un-
derstood that not a few are to be had for the asking by men of real
or supposed eminence, and others by solicitation from men of no
eminence at all, or of doubtful eminence. It would surprise your
readers to know how many of these orders there are in the pos-
‘session of their countrymen, whose habitual disregard of such
‘honours leads them in most cases to toss them into a drawer and
‘say nothing about it to any one but their wives, who think they
would suit their necks better than their husbands’ long-tailed coats.

Some few (very few) no doubt have a definite scientific or
iterary value ; but so long as the British public are entirely ig-
norant of this value, they will be held in no higher estimation
‘than the others, nor do I see any way by which the value
-of a foreign order could be made known and recognised, or by
which the title of the recipient to wear it could be appraised

I believe that it is to the rarity of British orders that any
‘desire to obtain foreign ones is mainly due. Had we more, or
none, their value would diminish or expire; as, however, I am
not prepared to propose either the restriction or multiplication
of British orders, a third alternative might be suggested to the
Foreign Office, and that is the command to wear them if accepted ;
which would result in a display in our soiveés and assemblies of
which men of eminence would be heartily ashamed, and lead to a
petition for relief, that would be followed by an abandonment of
the practice of giving by the powers that be. D.C.L.

"NATURE

Mr. Forbes on Mr. Mallet’s Theory of Volcanic
Eruption,

I po not intend to depart from my purpose, as stated in my
last (NATURE, vol. viii. p. 485), to have done with further contro-
versy. I must, however, beg your permission to correct a state-
ment as toa matter of fact which constitutes the prominent
feature of Mr. D. Forbes’ letter on the above, and which is
published in the Jast number of NATURE.

Mr. Forbes says, and begs your readers to remember that his
remarks [namely, in his original review of my translation of
‘* Palmieri”] were altogether directed to the assertions contained
in my introductory sketch, and not comments upon my theory of
volcanic energy—of which Mr. Forbes now says we, viz., he and
your readers, as yet know little or nothing, That is to say,
nothing beyond what is given in the abstract in the Proceedings
of the Royal Society and in my Introduction to Palmieri.

Mr. Forbes’ review (NATURE, vol. vii. p. 259) which called forth
this correspondence, was no doubt confined to my translation of,
and introduction to, ‘‘ Palmieri’s Vesuvius,” &c. But in that
same introduction was contained a sketch of my theory of vol-
canic energy—upon which Mr. Forbes deemed himself war-
ranted to make his sweeping condemnation—that it was not
probable that this hypothesis will receive the adhesion of either
chemist, mineralogist, or geologist.

If this were not a comment upon my theory of volcanic
energy I know not what a comment means.

My complaint has been that it was a comment condemnatory
—based on erroneous as well as inapplicable premises—and
made at a time when, as Mr. Forbes himself in his last admits,
he knew very little about that theory, as fully expounded in my
paper in the Phil.yTrans, RoBeRT MALLET

Oct. 28

Settle-Cave Report
I HAVE just read with considerable astonishment Mr. Tidde-

man’s letter (NATURE, October 23) relating to an abstract which ©

I never saw tll to-day, and for which, therefore, I am not
responsible. The whole question of the antiquity of cave-
deposits as well as thatof those in the Victoria Cave, in parti-
cular is treated in my work on “ Cave-Hunting,” shortly to be
published, and therefore I see no reason for entering into any
argument based on the distribution of the Pleistocene Mammalia,
or to depart from my rule of not entering into a controversial
correspondence. W. Boyp DAWKINS
Owens College, Manchester, Oct. 24

The Oxford Science Fellowships

I write to confirm Prof. Clifton’s letter (in the last number
of NaTuRE) respecting Mr. Perry and Oxford Scieace Fellow-
ships. Nothing, it seems to me, can be more conclusive than
the way in which Mr. Perry’s letter has been answered. Any
remark further of mine on this point would be superfluous.

I will only say that, in the practical part of the examination,
no subject could have been chosen better fitted for giving per-
fectly fair play to allconcerned. If it were possible to imagine
that any advantage was given, it was, by the choice of the
subject, given to those who were unacquainted with the Univer-
sity laboratory.

In conclusion—far from being looked on as an unwelcome
intruder, I met with from all, whether candidates or examiners,
the most generous courtesy and kindness.

Cambridge, Oct. 24 THE CAMBRIDGE B.A,

Professor CLIFTON cannot have considered what a great
mistake I have been the victim of, or he would not in his
hastily written attempt to defend the general science arrange-
ments at Oxford, have forced me to the following explanation.
He knows that I stated my case fairly, and he might surely have
given credit for this whilst letting us have the benefit of his later
information.

1. [have not at hand a copy of my letter to the Warden. I
am quite sure that I told him I was a graduate of the Queen’s
University in [reland. The Warden simply directed me to the short
notice in the 7imes (afterwards given in your columns), said that
the clection would not be limited to graduates of Oxford, and
would altogether depend on the results of the examination held
at Merton on Oct. 7. I thought this letter perfectly satisfactory

549

empath

*i

Se Nn a Oe TaN A een ee

$s.
us
-*

/

his ‘‘ warning.

as to my eligibility, as did several Oxford graduates to whom it
was shown. I shall presently refer to Prof. Clifton’s ‘‘ warning.”

The examination was to begin on Oct. 7, at9 A.M. On pre-
senting myself, a gentleman whose name I do not know, told me
that the Paysics papers would not be given out before Oct. 10,
that if I felt inclined to work the paper given to candidates for the
Mathematical Fellowship 1 might do so, and credit would be given
for Mathematics in the event of two men being equal in the Piysics
examination. I shali not comment on this promising arrange-
ment, or on the fact that the candidates for the Physics fellow-
ship had not till then heard of the Mathematical paper. Our
informant told me that there were grave doubts as to the eligi-
bility of outsiders. He certainly gave me to understand that these
doubts extended to a//who were not Oxford graduates. [understood
that some Cambridge men had presented themselves also ; that
the question of our eligibility was about to be settled with the
Registrar of the University, and that if I called on the Warden
between four and five in the afternoon (the time mentioned in the
original notice) he would be provided with the results of the
deliberations.

At 4.30 I found the Warden about to go away somewhere. I
had an audience of avout two minutes ; was asked what Coliege
I belonged to (meaning in Oxford).—Not an Oxford man, I
answered.—Then he was afraid I was ineligible. I then in-
formed him that I was the graduate of the Queen’s University,
to whom he had written in June. I suppose he had very little
time for apologies, but he let me know, before leaving, that he
had misinterpreted the results of some late commission when he
wrote in June, and that I need have no hope.

I have stated the grounds for my former general statement.
If Prof. Clifton is certain that graduates of Dublin and Cam-
bridge are eligible, we must rely on his information being most
correct, but 1 am troubled to know who is answetable for my
being left in ignorance until now, and if anybody knows whether
elections are never made of men who would really be ineligible
by the laws of the University.

2. He insinuates a deception on my part, in not mentioning
” I take it that Prof. Clifton has partly forgotten
the matter of which he speaks. I wrote to him for leave to in-
spect the Physical Laboratory at Oxford, not certain that he was
one of the examiners, but aware that he had charge of that in-
stitution and that the examination must be held there (see 3). I
cid not speak of my eligibility.

There is no doubt about the fact that great difficulties are
thrown in the way of outsiders, but I should have been wrong if
I had laid any blame on Prof. Clifton for taking the only course
open to him. The case is simply this : according to the present
Physics arrangements at Oxford, outsiders preparing for the
October Fellowship examination at Merton couid not without
giving the greatest imaginable trouble to Prof. Clifton get any
opportunity of inspecting the apparatus.

After stating that he was unable to afford me the desired oppor-
tunity, he asked if I-had ascertained about my eligibility, inform-
ming me that the warden or sub-warden was the proper person
to apply to. I immediately wrote ¢hat [had already made such
an inguiry, stating the result.

I now infer that he, after receiving my letter and aware that I*
had made the proper inquiries, allowed both the Warden and
myself to remain in ignorance of the grievous mistake. On re-
ceiving no answer I felt perfectly certain that the information
received from the Warden was correct.

When I last wrote to Nature I felt grateful to Prof. Clifton
for his inquiry, incomplete and worse than useless ‘* warning ” as
it had been. Surely no one will think that I had any right to
introduce his name. ‘

3. He says it was by no means certain that the Practical
Physics examination would be held in the Physical Laboratory.
Will he assert that in any one of the nineteen colleges of which
he speaks, or in the nineteen collectively there is apparatus for
conducting such an examination ?

He wonders why it should be necessary to inspect the parti-
cular apparatus to be employed in the examination. I do not
know if Prof. Clifton was really one of the examiners for the
fellowship, but surely he cannot have thought about the matter
without being aware of the immense importance of a previous
acquaintance with the apparatus such as Oxford men are sure to
have. I heard by accident in July that there was no delicate
apparatus, nor were proper arrangements made for exact experi-
ments in Staiic Electricity. Can Prof. Clifton not understand

that to an outsider such information might be of the greatest im-
portance,

NATUR een 873

ie
cf

“ What arrangement of ino stand is there for measuring
wave-lengths?” *Is there a Soleil's instrument for measuring 4
the angle between the axes in biaxial crystals?” ‘* Will the —
arrangements for observing deflections of a needle enable us to”
employ the logarithmic decrement?” These questions and a 7
hundred others as important werg constantly distracting me
during the four months of preparation. bes
My letter to Prof. Clifton was, I believe, modest, and showed —
my respect for him asa man who had done a great work in his
attempt to create a Physics School at Oxford. My request
was not “‘unreasonable.” I did not know that his presence —
was necessary during an inspection of the Physical Cabinet or
the University. I maintain too, that he has no right to assert ,
that I must feel very uncertain about my own practical know-
ledge. ae
London, Oct. 28

i's

JOHN PERRY

Simple Diffraction Experiment an

THE apparatus for this experiment consists of a slit and a _
grating. A slit may be made by ruling a line on a piece of
smoked glass. The grating is made by slightly greasing the
thumb and forefinger (there is naturally sufficient on the hot and
moist hand), and by drawing a piece of clean glass through them
so as to obtain alternate parallel light spaces and greasy lines on _
both sides of the glass; out of several trials a grating may be —
made which when used in the following manner will give very
pretty results, Gets

The grating being placed close to the eye, the slit (with its
direction parallel to that of the lines on the grating) is held up
before some bright light, as of a candle, and looked at, as ifthe
grating did not exist. Very beautiful and numerous spectra may _
then be seen ranged on each side of the slit. pr

The vitreous surface of window glass does not seem to give
such good gratings as a worked and polished surface, as for in-
stance that of a weak spectacle lens.

Oxford H. L.

>

Publication of Learned Societies’ Transactions

In NATURE, vol. viii. p. 506 Mr. Robrs wishes thatour learned _
societies would publish their papers separately. I have urged this _
betore in NATURE, but unsuccessfully, With Transactions such as
those of the Royal Society, the present system is almost an ab- _
surdity, for papers on most incongruous subjects are bound up —
together, and the cost is too great. When once a paper 15
printed, the Council seem to think that there is nothing more to
be done, and do not in any way try to make the work known. _
All papers should be sold separately as cheaply as possible, and
on publication, should be advertised in the scientific journals, ve

If this were done, we should not have men like Prof. Sylvester _
writing as follows :—‘* I owe my thanks to M. Radau and the.
editor of the Annals of the Ecole Normale Superieure for —
having been at the pains to disentomb the little known conclu-
sions contained therein from their honourable place of sepulture
in the Philosophical Transactions.” W. B, Gieps- ate

EXAMINATIONS OF THE SCIENCE AND ART
DEPARTMENT IN BIOLOGY ys

THE syllabus of the Biological subjects in which ex-
aminations are held by the Science and Art Depart-
ment, has undergone considerable modifications in the _
edition of the Directory which has been recently issued.
Animal Physiology, Elementary Botany(including Flower-
ing Plants only), are subjects which at present appear to”
be best adapted for the purposes of school instruction,
They stand, therefore, in no necessarily logical relation to”
the other two which are grouped together under the head _
of General Biology. These involve the use of the com-
pound microscope, and some amount of microscopic —
manipulation. They are therefore better fitted for rather
more adyanced, or at any rate, older students than the
first stages of the subjects first mentioned. ’ z

J

The two subjects included under General Biology have
-acommon first or Elementary stage. After passing this,
‘the candidate may proceed at choice, either with the
_ zoological or the botanical side,
_ The following extract from the syllabus will show how
this arrangement is intended to work, and will afford the
best idea of the direction which the examination is likely
0 give to elementary biological study. It does all that a
_ written examination can do to encourage practical work,
and discourage the prevalent habit of cramming from
text-books :—

Sugyects XVI. AND XVII.—GENERAL BIoLocy
First Stage or Elementary Course

Questions will be confined to the following subjects with which
the candidate will be expected to show practical acquaintance.
1. The form and size; the results of optical, chemical, and
| mechanical analysis; the mode of growth and multiplication ;
_ the conditions of life; and the results, direct and collateral, of
the living activity of Zorula, Protococcus, Am@eba, Bacterium,
_ and of the colourless corpus-ies of the blood of man.

2. The structure and mole of growth of Penicillium ; its mode
of multiplication ; the development of £yphe and mycelium from
. conidia: the conditions and resuits of the living activity of this
mould.

3. The structure and mode of growth of Chara; the differ-
entiation of axis and appendages, of nodes and internodes ; the
structure and arrangement of the nucleated cells of which the
_ body of this plant is composed. The process of cell-division and
its laws ; protoplasmic movements ; Chlorophyll ; asexual propa-
_ gation; sexual propagation. Development of the pro-embryo
and of the embryo.

4. Thestructure and mode of growth of a Fern. The differen-
tiation of cells into tissues. Epidermis, parenchyma, fibres,
ducts, spiral vessels. The Frond as a respiratory and ali-
mentary organ; air-passages; stomata. Asexual multipli-

cation. Sporangia and spores. Development of spores ;
structure of the Prothallium. Structure and functions of Arche-
gonia, Antheridia and Antherozoids. Development of the
_ embryo.

5. The anatomy and physiology of a flowering-plant, with
especial reference to the morpholozy of the stem and root.
_ Leaves and their modifications. The structure of pollen and
ovule. The process of impregnation and the development of the

embryo. The resemblances and differences between flowering-
plants and ferns.

E 6. The anatomy and physiology of the frog. The general

_ disposition of the parts of the body, and the plan of structure

_ characteristic of the frog as avertebratedanimal. The structural

_ characters of the tissues of which the body is composed and
their ultimate resolution into nucleated cells.

4 The physiological properties of the tissues.

__. The form and structure of the chief organs and the modes in

_ which their functions are performed. .

, The development of the embryo and the metamorphoses of the

arva.

7. The anatomy and physiology of the freshwater Polype.

8. The anatomy and physiology of the Lobster or Cray-fish.

g. The anatomy and physiology of the fresh-water Mussel.

to. The anatomy and physiology of the Sea-anemone.

Second Stage or Advanced Course of Subject XVI,
(Division of Animal Morphology and Physiology.)

Questions may be set in all the topics enumerated under the
first head, and in addition on :—

The leading facts relating to the anatomy and physiology of the
skeleton, of the brain, and of the cerebral nerves ; of the organs
of the higher senses ; of the alimentary, circulatory, respiratory,
renal, and reproductive apparatus, in the Lamprey, in an osseous
fish (Pike or Cod), bird (Pigeon, Fowl, or Duck), in a quadru-
pedal mammal (Sheep, Rabbit, Dog, or Cat,) and in Man.

2. The morphology of the vertebrate skull and limbs, as
exemplified by the Vertebrata already mentioned, and by the
Dogfish, Horse, Bat, and Porpoise.

3- The general outlines and process of the development of
the chick within the egg.

4, The characters of the orders of the Vertebrata.

5. The broad facts relating to the geographical and geological
distribution of the Vertebrata. ,

.
4

7

,
3
7)
.
b

NATURE

xf

551
6, The anatomy and physiology of insects, as illustrated by
Blackbeetle, a Bee, a Butterfy, and an Aphis.
ee oe anatomy and physiology of an Earthworm and of a
ech. :
8. The anatomy and physiology of a Fluke and of a Tape-
worm, and the history of their development.

9. The anatomy and physiology of the Rofijera and of the
Polyzoa.

10. The anatomy and physiology of a Sea-urchin (Echinus)

and the history of its development.

11, The anatomy and physiology of a Snail and of a Whelk,
and of a Cuttlefish, Squid, or Octopus.

12, The morphology of the Hydrozoa.

13. The anatomy and physiology of the Zn/usoria.

14. The anatomy and physiology of sponges, Foraminifera
and Radiolaria.

Honours.

In this examination questions will be set at the discretion o
the Examiner, who will have regard to the state of Zoologica
teaching in the country and the means of acquiring information.

Second Stage of Advanced Course of Subject X VIT.
(Division of Vegetable Morphology and Physiology.
Questions may be set in all the topics enumerated under the
first head, and, in addition, on—
1. The principal modifications in the minute anatomy of the
axis in flowering plants.
2. The nature of the parts used for support in climbing plants.
3. The various modes of agamogenesis in flowering plants.
4. The leading facis in the development of the parts of a

flower, including that of the pollen, ovule embryo sac, endo-

sperm (albumen), and embryo.
5. The morpholozy and relations to one another of the parts
of the flower and fruit throughout the classes Dicotyledons and
Monocotyledons, more especially as exemplified in the following
genera :—
Ranunculus, Nymphzea, Capsella, Viola, Stellaria, Malva,
Geranium, Ilex.

Eunonymus, Vicia, Rosa, Saxifraga, Lythrum, Epilobium,
Anthriscus.

Lonicera, Senecio, Campanula, Erica, Solanum, Plantago,
Lamium.

Polygonum, Urtica, Viscum, Fagus.

Orchis, Iris, Potamogeton, Allium, Arum, Lemna, Typha.

Carex, Triticum.

6. The various adaptations by which cross-fertilisation is
effected in Flowering plants.

7. The modes by which seeds are diffused.

8. The broad facts of the geographical distribution of Flower-
ing plants.

g. The distinctive characters and origin of the Arctic-alpine
flora, and the floras of oceanic islands,

10. The morphology and physiology of the vegetative and
reproductive organs in Pinus, Taxus, and Juniperus.

11. The geographical and geological distribution of the genera
of Gymnosperms.

12. The morphology and physiology of the vascular crypto-
gams, more especially with reference to the following types :—

Selaginella, Pdularia, Lycopodium, Equisetum, Polypodium,

Lastrea, Osmunda.

13. The morphology and minute anatomy of the Carboni-
ferous Lycopodiacec.

14. The morphology and physiology of Mosses and Liverworts
as exemplified by Polytrichum (or Funaria) and Marchantia.

15. The morphology and physiology of Algae as exemplified

Fucus, Ceramium, Saprolegnia, Spirogyra, Closterium, Ulva,

Volvox, Protococcus, Palmella,
16. The modes of reproduction in Fungi as illustrated by—

Agaricus, Peziza, Penicillium, Peronospora, Mucor, Uredo, —

Saccharomyces (yeast).
17. The processes of plant nutrition, comparing also their
modifications in Fungi, Neottia, and different parasitical plants.
18. The ash constituents of plants and their distribution in th
tissues.
19. The influence of heat and light upon plants.

Flonours

Questions at the discretion of the eximiner, who will have
regard to the state of botanical learning in the country, and the
means of acquiring information,

552 NATURE

ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND
MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF
WEIGHT AND MEASURE *

VII.
WEIGHING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS, AND
THEIR USE
HE instrument universally used for weighing is the
balance, with its various modifications. It serves to

determine the weight of bodies by comparison with a

body of known weight, such as a standard weight. The

simplest form of balance is a beam made to vibrate upon
a centre or axis of motion, with pans hanging from the

extremities of the two arms of the balance. These two | may be, in relation to their thickness and the weight they

pans hold the bodies compared, and their equality or
difference of weight can thus be determined.

Balances are of two kinds:—1. Ordinary balances
with equal arms, which have the beam suspended by the
middle. If an equal-armed balance is accurately ad-
justed, so that the beam is exactly horizontal when the
pans are empty, the beam will also be horizontal, and the
balance will be in equilibrium when equal weights are
placed inthe pans. 2. Balances with unequal arms, in
which the beam vibrates upon the centre of motion placed
more or less near one of the extremities. In both of these
kinds of balance the beams are levers of the first order,
the fulcrum upon which the beam vibrates being placed
between the power and the weight, that is to say, between
the extremities of the beam which support the bodies
compared. On the principle of the lever, the power of
any weight to move a balance is proportionately greater
according as the part of the beam which supports that
weight is more distant from the fulcrum or centre of
motion of the balance. Hence it follows that the power
of the weight to move a balance is in a ratio compounded
of the weight itself and of its distance from the centre of
motion of the balance. A multiplying or proportionate
balance may consequently be constructed for determining
the weight of a body placed in the pan suspended from
the shorter arm of the bearer, and required to be equal
to any multiple of a given unit weight placed in the pan
suspended from the longer arm of the beam, termed
the weight pan. For this purpose, if the beam be divided
into, say three equal parts, and the centre of motion be
placed at the first division, one pound placed in the
weight pan will form an equipoise with two pounds placed
in the other pan, and so on. This principle is greatly
extended in larger weighing machines by lengthening the
longer arm, through the use of compound levers, so that
one pound can be made to form an equipoise with 100
pounds or more.

The ancient Roman balance is perhaps the earliest form
of a well-constructed multiplying balance, and corre-
sponds with our modern steelyard. It has been remarked
by Sir Gardiner Wilkinson that no instance has been
found of the existence of the steelyard before the Roman
era. But the principle of its construction was in use
amongst the ancient Egyptians, who ascertained the
weight of articles suspended from different parts of a
scale beam by means of a heavy determinate weight
placed in one scale. The Roman balance consists of a
determinate weight attached to the longer arm of the
beam, and made to traverse along a number of divisicns
marked upon it. The multiplied power of the traversing
weight when resting on the several sub-divisions, as they
increase in distance from the centre of motion, is indi-
cated by corresponding figures upon the graduated beam.

The following figure (iaken by permission from the
“Tmperial Journal of Art,” vol. i. p. 85) represents an
ancient Roman balance of an elegant form, found at Pom-
peii, and in use A.D. 77. It is described as having the
graduated divisions on the longer arm of the beam marked

* Continued from p. 49%

a

[ Oct. 30, 1873

with Roman numerals from X. to XXXX. (probably

Roman pounds), and with a V. on the half of each deci-
mal series, the smaller subdivisions being also marked.
The inscription on the shorter arm of the beam (shown
in a separate and enlarged figure) denotes its having been —
proved at the Capitolin the 8th of Vespasian Emperor

Augustus, and in the 6th Consulate of Titus Emperor
Augustus his son. This steelyard is consequently a duly
verified standard weighing machine.

For the justness of an equal-armed balance, it is requisite
(1) that the points of suspension of the pans from the beam |
be exactly in the same line as the centre of motion ; (2) that
these points be precisely equidistant from the centre of
motion ; (3) that the arms be as long as conveniently

are intended to carry, in other words, consistently with —

SS GSS IGS OOS Oe PEN Ce TY]

Oe ae ee ne

SSS SS SSS

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POLICE =

Fic. 15.—Ancient Roman Balance,

the stability of the balance; (4) that there be as little
friction as possible at the centre of motion and the points —
of suspension ; (5) that the centre of gravity of the bear
be placed a little below the centre of motion.

_ The fulcrum upon which the beam of a balance rests
is formed with a steel knife edge, and the two pans at its
extremities are hung upon similar knife edges. In
ordinary trade balances, these knife edges, are placed in
contact with steel bearings having a spherical curve. But
in the practical construction of balances of a high degree
of sensibility, such as are required for scientific purposes
or for the comparison of standards in which very minute —
differences of weight are to be determined, there are
many circumstances to which attention is requisite, that
may properly be neglected in balances used for com-
mercial purposes. In such balances of precision great —

A

‘Oct. 30, 1873]

‘care is required in the adjustment of the knife edges.

_ the action of the balance very much depends.
_ tral knife edge rests upon an agate or polished steel plane,
_ whilst the two pans are suspended from agate or steel

_ moveable in a vertical direction upon it.

_ means of a lever handle, and the knife edges are brought

successive weighings with a balance of precision arises

t

They are first made quite sharp, and are then slightly
rounded with a fine hone or a piece of buff leather. On
the regular form of this rounded edge, the excellence of
The cen-

planes bearing upon the knife edges at the ends of the

m. In order to preserve the nice adjustment of the
knife edges, they are never allowed to rest upon their
bearings, except when weighings are made. At all other
times, the beam and pans are separately supported upon
a brass frame attached to the column of the balance, but
When required
to be put in action the support is gradually lowered by

upon their bearings.
The principal cause of discordances in the results of

from the risk of the knife-edges not being brought again
to exactly the same position on the plane bearings, after
the balance has been stopped and again set in action.

NATURE

The most perfect balance is that which varies least in the
points of contact between the knife-edges and their bear-
ings during successive weighings. For the attainment of
this very important requirement, the supporting frame
is furnished at eack of its extremities with two pins termi-
nating in cones and miade to fit exactly into corresponding,
conical holes in the plane bearings, at each of the extremi-
ties of the beam. The pins and holes are in a linenormal
to the axis of the beam. The points of these four cones are:
allin the same horizontal plane. As the movement of the
supporting frame in a well-constructed balance of precisiom
is always in the same vertical line, being guided by a ver-
tical rod fitted to a cylindrically drilled hole in the column
of the balance, the knife-edges and their bearings are
always brought into contact in the same relative positions.
Balances of precision are always enclosed in plate glass:
cases, with a view both to their preservation, and to keep
the balances as far as possible from being affected in their
ge by draughts of air, alternations of temperature,
cc,

As to the theory of the relative positions of the centre

of motion and the centre of gravity of a balance, it is to

Beer

x

Fic. 16.~Index Scale, &c., of No.73 Balance of Standard Department.

353

be remarked, (a) If the fulcrum be placed in the centre | the fulcrum be below the line joining the points of sus-
_ of gravity of the beam, and the three edges be all in the | pension, and these be loaded, the beam will upset, unless
same right line, the beam of the balance will have no| prevented by the weight of the beam tending to produce
tendency to one position more than another, but will rest | a horizontal position, as shown in (c). In such case, small

a

in any position in which it may be placed, whether the
pans be suspended to it, or not, and whether the pans
be empty or equally loaded. (4) If the centre of gravity
of the beam, when level, be immediately above the ful-
crum, it will upset with the smallest action ; that is to
say, the end which is lowest will descend; and it will
descend with the greater velocity, according as the centre [
of gravity is higher, and the points of suspension less |
loaded. (c) But if the centre of gravity of the beam be
immediately below the fulcrum, the beam will not rest |,
in any position but when level; and if disturbed from
that level position, it will vibrate, and at last come to
rest in a horizontal position. Its vibrations will be
quicker, and its tendency to the horizontal position
stronger, the lower the centre of gravity, and the less the
weight upon the points of suspension,

Again, as to the relative position of the central knife

_ edge, which constitutes the fulcrum of the beam with the

line joining the two outer knife edges, which form the |

weights will form an equipoise. In case of (a), a certain
exact weight will rest in any position of the beam; and
all greater weights will cause the beam to upset, as in (4).
(2), If the fulcrum be above the line joining the points of
suspension, the beam will come to its horizontal position,
unless prevented by its own weight, as in (6). (3) If the
centre of gravity be nearly in the fulcrum, all the vibra-
tions of the loaded beam will be made in lines nearly

| equal, unless the weights be very small, when they will

be slower. The higher the fulcrum the quicker will be

| the vibrations of balances, and the stronger the horizontal

tendency.

It is thus-evident that the nearer the centre of gravity
of the beam is to the centre of motion, the more delicate
will be the balance, and the slower the vibrations. The
tendency toa horizontal position is therefore increased
by lowering the centre of gravity, in which case it will
also require a greater additional weight to cause it to tura
or incline to any given angle, and it is therefore less

points of suspension, it is further to be remarked, (1) If | sensible with a greater load. The fixing of the centre of

|
3

554

‘ motion in a balance is consequently of peculiar import-
‘ad ance, for on this depends the ease with which it will be
. affected by a smaller weight, and the readiness with which
the beam will return to a horizontal position. And it will
be seen that the best position of all is that in which the
centre of motion is a little above the centre of gravity.
Even in this, it should be proportioned to the distance of
the weights from the fulcrum, and the amount of the load,
which can only be attained in different beams by practice
and experience. In order to regulate the centre of gravity
in balances of precision, they are made to carry a small
weight either over or under the centre of motion, which is
moveable by means of a screw.

From what has been said it would appear that if the
arms of a balance be unequal, weights which form an
equipoise will be unequal in the same proportion, But
although for many purposes the equality of the arms of a
balance is advantageous, yet a balance with unequal arms
will weigh just as accurately as one with equal arms, pro-
. vided the standard weight itself be first counterpoised,
; then taken out of the pan, and the weight to be compared

be substituted and adjusted against the counterpoise. Or
when proportional quantities only are required, they may
be weighed against standard weights, taking care always
to put these weights in the same pan. But in this case it
is indispensable that the relative lengths of the two arms
of the beam continue invariable. For this purpose, either
the three knife-edges should be truly parallel, or the points
of suspension and support be always in the same part of
the knife-edge.

If the beam of an equal armed balance be adjusted so as
to have no tendency to any one position, as in(@), and the
pans be equally loaded, then if a small weight be added to
one of the pans, the balance will turn, and the point of
suspension move with an accelerated motion, similar to

that of falling bodies, but very nearly as much slower in
proportion as the added weight is less than the whole
weight borne by thefulcrum. The stronger the tendency
to a horizontal position in a balance, or the quicker its
vibrations—see (c) and (2)—the greater additional weight
will be required to cause it to turn or increase to any
given angle. Ifa balance were to turn with zpt00 part of
the weight, it would move at the quickest, 10,000 times
slower than a falling body ; that is to say, the pan con-
taining the weight, instead of falling through 16 ft. in a
second of time, would fall only through jy part of an
inch ; consequently all accurate weighing must be slow.

Long beams have been generally recommended because
the quantity of motion in a given body varies as its
distance from the fulcrum ; and therefore the greater the
distance, the most distinguishable will be the motion
arising trom any small difference between the weights
compared, On the other hand, there are certain advan-
tages in the quicker angular motion, greater strength,
and less weight of a short beam.

The pans of a balance should be suspended in such
‘a manner that in all positions the corresponding cords or
rods may be parallel to one another; else the weights,
though equal, will not be in equilibrium.

In ordinary commercial balances, the preponderance of
‘either pan is indicated by a slender rod attached to the
beam immediately over its centre of motion in a line
perpendicular to the axis of the beam, and moveable
freely between the two forks of the handle. It is called
the tongue of the balance, and the degree of preponder-
ance of either pan is shown by the greater or less devia-
tion of the tongue from its normal vertical position, In
balances of precision, the index is’ a longer needle-rod,

- fixed either in a line perpendicular to the axis of the

beam, and below its centre of motion, or in a line in
continuation of its axis. In both cases the pointer moves
along a graduated index. But an index placed perpendi-
cular to the beam affects its equilibrium when turning
from its horizontal position ; the momentum of the index

NATURE

being measured by its weight multiplied with the distance —
of its centre of gravity from a line perpendicular to the
horizon. The error thence arising may, however, be
corrected by continuing the index-rod or counterpoising
it, on the opposite side of the beam. :

The finest balances of the*® Standards Departments
have the index pointer in the line of the axis of the
beam, as shown in Fig. 16, which represents the left-—
hand side of the balance, the right-hand side being
similarly furnished with a pointer and index scale. 7

This is the medium size of six of the finest balances of
the Standards Department, constructed by Mr. Oertling,
For all weighings of standards requiring special accuracy,
the highest and lowest points reached by the needle in
each oscillation of the balance are read on the index scale
through a telescope fixed at about 5 ft. distance, by which —
means each reading can be satisfactorily taken by esti-
mation to one-tenth of a division of the scale. ¥

Another balance of the Standards Department is one
constructed by Barrow, and used by Prof. Miller for all
his weighings during the construction of the new Stan-
dard pound. The knife-edges work upon quartz planes,
Index scales marked ona thin and nearly transparent
slip of ivory are fixed immediately above each end of
the beam and oscillate with it. They are of the following
form and size. These scales are illuminated by a candle

Fic. 17.—Index Scale of Barrow’s Balance.

placed at a little distance either in front of or behind the
balance case, a lens being interposed; and they are
viewed through compound microscopes having a single
horizontal wire fixed in the focus of the eye-piece. The
microscopes are fixed to the front of the balance-case, —
and as the observer must necessarily be close to the micro-
scopes during weighings, a second glass screen is inter-
posed between him and the front of the balance-case,
having openings opposite the eye-pieces of the micro-
scopes.

The weight intended to be carried by each of these
balances, and the mean value of one division of the index
scale, or the weight represented by it, when the balance is
fully loaded, may be seen in the following table :— ;

ee —— ee

Tenetuad ; Mean value of —
Balance, | eee To carry in each pan. 1 div. of Index
Scale.
In. ~~ Avoir. Troy. Grains.
No.1 36 56 to 14 lbs., or 500 to 200 oz. |o'r5
No.2 2 7to 21bs,, or 200to 2002, lo’oz
No.3 | 16 rb. to20z. or 29to20z. |o'oors
No. ay th 10 1 oz, and under, x oz. and underjo‘0008
ay? 5 10 aoe and under. o"0002 :
No. | 20 1 kilo. and under, 0°0015,0ro'r m,
Barrow’s ade 1 kilo. and under. i mt

0°005, Or 0°34,

‘

There is another much larger balance which was origi-
nally constructed for weighing the contents of water of -
the Imperial Standard bushel, the total weight in each pan
being nearly 300lbs, The beam of this balance is of —
mahogany, 67fin. inlength. With a full load, the mean
value of 1 div. of the index-scale iso'4 grain, This balance,
like the other, is enclosed in a large plate-glass case. :

_ In all these balances, the value of a division varies from —
time to time according to the weight in the pans, the
condition of the balance, the state of the atmosphere, —
&c., and in all very accurate weighings it is desirable to
determine the value for each comparison, by an additiona
weighing, after a very small weight, accurately verified and —
equal to a few divisions only of the balance, has been”
added to one of the pans, so that its effect on the read
of the index scale may be noted. The above stated value

indicate nearly those found when the balance is in good
_ working condition, and fairly weighted.
Allthese balances, when in equilibrium, will turn witha
_ very small additional weight, equal to thevalue of two or
three divisions, placed in one of the pans. They are
_ exceedingly sensitive, for the sensibility of a balance is to
be measured by the least amount of additional weight
placed in either pan that is sufficient to turn the index-
pointer from its normal position, when the balance is in
- equilibrium, and by the greatest amount of deviation
— from the normal position which is produced by a very
_ small difference in the weights.

H. W. CHISHOLM
(To be continued.)

q CINCHONA CULTURE*
ew subjects have been so frequently before pharma-
ceutical readers during the past ten or fifteen years
| as the efforts of the governments of Holland and Great
' Britain to introduce the various species of Cinchona
into their respective colonies. It would be hardly pos-
sible to overrate the importance of the enterprise, and it is
S one that interests alike the pharmaceutist, the botanist,
' and the votary of economic science. The records of pro-
gress which have been made public are so scattered and
| unconnected, the opinions and reports so conflicting, that
| it has been difficult for the general reader to retain the
| thread of the story or to arrive at any very clear estimate
of the present position and prospects of the undertaking.
' The earliest steps in this great experiment in acclima-
_ tisation date back to a period before that which we have
hhad under review, but so far as results are concerned,
the subject is one which pertains essentially to the past
' few years, and I propose to place before you, in as few
"words as may be, and unencumbered by the contro-
| versial matter with which its literature abounds, an out-
line of the beginning of the enterprise and of its present
practical aspect.
The initiative in Cinchona cultivation was taken, as you
_ well know, by the Dutch Government, whose efforts were
_ directed toits introduction into the Islandof Java. The first
-Cinchona trees which were sent out to that colony were a
| few specmens of C. Cadésaya + raised from seeds collected
by M. Weddell in Bolivia, and forwarded by a firm of
“Murserymen in Paris in exchange for rare Javan plants.
In the same year, 1852, the Dutch Government were
_ induced to send M. Hasskarl, a gentleman previously
attached to the Botanic Gardens at Buitzenorg, on a mis-
_ sion to South America, for the purpose of collecting plants
and seeds. During the two years following M. Hasskarl
~ pursued his labours, and succeeded in forwarding consign-
_ ments from some parts of Peru, the Cinchona districts of
Bolivia being for the most part closed against him; and
his efforts were supplemented as to the New Granada
" species by the assistance of Dr. Karsten. The resulting
collections were sent in part direct to Java, and the re-
mainder to Amsterdam for re-shipment. I need not dwell
on the mishaps and disappointments inevitable in so new
and difficultan enterprise—it is sufficient tonote that within
three or four years, that is by the middle of 1856, upwards
of 250 plants, almost exclusively of two species, C. Pahu-
_ diana and C, Calisaya, were flourishing in the Java plan-
tation as the outcome of the expedition. In the same
year, with wise forethought, an accomplished chemist,
Dr. De Vrij, was sent out to conduct chemical obser-
vations on the growing barks.
We may pass over the Jong series of troubles that
attended the early efforts of those in charge of the trees,

* From the Address delivered at the Pharmaceutical Conference, Bradford,
by Henry B. Brady, F.L.S., F.S.C,, President. v
+ My friend, J. E. Howard, F.L.S,, to whose kind revision subsequent
phs owe any scientific value they possess, tells me that, accuratel
speaking, these were C. Cadisaya, and var. Yosephiana.

NATURE

305

the ravages of insects, the destruction of youug plants by
rats, the devastation committed by wild cattle and rhi-
noceroses, and, above all, the difficulties dependent on
climate, which eventually necessitated the transplantation
of nearly the whole of the trees from the locality first
chosen, on the north side of the mountain range, to one
with a southern aspect. We will pass on, I say, to the
year 1863, and we shall find that the total number of Cin-
chona trees in Java was then 1,151,810, Of these about
99 per cent. were of the species know as C. Pahudiana,
the remainder comprising about 12,000 of C. Ca/isaya and
trifling numbers of four other species. This proportion
was unfortunate, for the bark of C. Pahudiana was found
to be deficient in alkaloids, and therefore supposed to be
valueless, and by decrees dated 1862 and 1864 its further
culture was ordered to be forthwith stopped.

We may now turn to the steps taken by the British
Government in the same direction.

Dr. Ainsley, in his work on “ Materia Medica,” was
perhaps the first to suggest the idea of the acclimatis-
ation of the Cinchona in India, and, as early as 1839,
Dr. Forbes Royle especially indicated the Neilgherry and
Silhet mountains as eligible for the experiment. Appeals
were subsequently made to the East India Company by
Mr. Grant and Dr. Falconar, with the object of inducing
them to take up the matter, and in 1852 instructions were
sent to the British consular agents in South America to
endeavour to procure seeds of the various species, but
without much real effect. Dr. Royle, as Reporter on the
Products of India, continued to urge the subject on the
attention of Government up to the time of his death, and
eventually, in 1859, at the instance of his successor in
office, Dr. Forbes Watson, the services of Mr. Clements
R. Markham were called into request by the home
authorities.

Mr. Markham proposed a fourfold expedition to South
America, and his scheme was at last sanctioned by the
Secretary of State for India, and ordered to be carried
out. The first portion of the expedition was directed ta
Bolivia and Caravaya, the region of Cinchona Calisayo
and C. micrantha (var. Boliviana), Secondly, Huanuco
and Huamalies were to be searched for C. wé¢ida and
C. glandulifera Thirdly, Cuenca and Loxa in the Re-
public of Ecuador for C. Chahuarguera, C. Uritusinga, and
C. Condaminea ; and lastly, New Granada as the habitat
of C. pitayo and C. Jancifolia. Mr. Pritchett and Mr.
Spruce were appointed coadjutors to Mr. Markham, and
the expeditions set out in 1859, the latter gentleman pro-
ceeding to the northern part of Bolivia, the district of the
yellow barks; Mr. Spruce to the mountain region of
Chimborazo, in quest of red cinchonas; Mr, Pritchett
taking the grey bark forests of Huanuco, in the north of
Peru. The perils encountered by these travellers, the
hardships they endured, the disappointments they suf-
fered, form a chapter in the history of travel. But illness
and privation, bad roads, and even native jealousies left un-
affected the general success of the expedition, and though,
unfortunately, the plants collected at great risk by Mr.
Markham, including many of the best species of Bolivia,
perished in the Red Sea in their transit to India, leaving
no survivors, it is to the work accomplished by these
three enthusiastic labourers that we owe the basis of our
present Cinchona plantations, In 1860, the Ootamacund
station was established, and the following year the
number of young Cinchona trees was reported to be 1,128.
Under the excellent care of Mr. Mclvor these had been
increased in 1863, the date to which I have brought my
account of the Java plantations, to 248,166,

It is no part of my purpose to enter into minutia of
history, nor to do more than associate with the first steps
in Cinchona culture the names of Messrs. Hasskarl and
Markham, Spruce, and Pritchett as travellers, those of
Dr. De Vrij and Mr. John Eliot Howard as advisers in
technical details, and more recently, Messrs, McIvor and

556

Broughton, who have been conspicuous, so far as India is
concerned, in the rapid development of the enterprise.

The efforts of our own Government have not been con-
fined to India, but localities have been sought in other
parts of the world where natural conditions seemed to
favour the chance of success in the introduction of
quinine-yielding trees, and at the time I speak of (1863)
there were under the care of Mr. Thwaites in Ceylon up-
wards of 20,000 young Cinchona plants. Jamaica also
had made a successful beginning, and the authorities of
several European countries were considering how far their
respective colonies might be utilised to the same end,
though but little decided action beyond what I have stated
had been taken.

The ten years that have intervened need not detain us,
but having noticed the origin, we will turn at once to the
practical aspect of the subject at the present time.

The latest official return places the number of Cin-
chona trees in cultivation in the Island of Java at two
millions,

I can find no published account of the exact extent of
the British plantations at the present time. My latest in-
formation I owe to the kindness of C. R. Markham,
F.R.S., of the India Office. It is contained in the Par-
liamentary Blue-book of August 1870, and refers only to
the Madras and Bengal Presidencies. This gives the
total number of Cinchona plants growing on the Neil-
gherries in January of that year at 2,595,176, of which
nearly one-half (1,143,844) were permanently planted
out.* The number at Darjeeling in the Bengal Presi-
dency in March 1870 is stated at 2,262,210, of which a
million and a half were in permanent plantations.

Of the extent of the plantations in Ceylon and Jamaica
I know nothing, but reports from time to time state that
they are prospering, It is needless to refer to the experi-
ments in cultivation in the south of Europe, the Caucasus,
Brazil, the Philippines, or Australia, as these are not yet
sufficient in extent to have any practical significance.

The relative value of the bark produced by the various
species and varieties of Cinchona is a question that has
received close attention, and perhaps cannot be considered
settled until something more like uniformity in the sub-
division and nomenclature of the genus prevails. Plants
regarded as merely varieties of the same species yield

widely differing proportions of alkaloids, and the subject -

is further complicated by considerations as to the possible
effects of cultivation and of different climatal condi-
TOUS. ye)

The barks now being produced in the Dutch and ;British
colonies are referrible to five species, viz. :—

C. Calisaya, of which, as I have said, only a small pro-
portion realises expectation in its yield of quinine ;

C. Hasskarliana {called a hybrid), which appears to be
of little value in respect of alkaloids ;

C. Pahudiana, deficient in the same particulars, but pro-
ducing a bark which finds a ready market for pharmaceu-
tical purposes ;

* Since this was written I have reeeived a copy of a return which is be-
lieved to represent the actual number of Cinchona trees in the Government
plantations in the Neilgherries at the present time. It shows an increase of
12,330 ‘‘planted out,” and isas follows :—

Crown barks (C. officinalis) .. aaa des 508,878
Red barks see aos ae sue 579,938
Yellow barks... a 33,850
Grey barks ase - 28,759
Other species 45749

1,156,174

In addition to these it must b recollected that the Government had up to
1870 distributed upwards of 178,009 trees from the Neilgherry nurseries, 2s
well as nearly three hundred ounces of the seeds of various species, to pri-
vate individuals disposed to plant on their estates, After all, when the ex-
perimental stage of such an undertaking is over, private enterprise would
seem to be its safest basis. A Parliamentary paper on the progress of India
in 1872, just issued, gives the total number of plants in the Neilgherry plan-
tations as 2,639,285, but this probably includes the very young trees still in

Siete I have no particulars beyond what appear in a paragraph in the
tmes,

NATURE

[ Oct. 30, 1873

C. officinalis, which, in British India,* appears to be
the most generally satisfactory ; and ¥
C. succirubra, which, notwithstanding certain excep-
tional samples, has not turned out altogether well... ..
I can say little about the West Indian plantations as
to extent, but the quality of the bark they produce is
encouraging. Mr. Howard reports that the chemical
examination of barks from Jamaica is “ highly satisfac-
tory as regards the prospects of Cinchona culture in that —
island.” “
Various questions are still pending :—the influence of
manures on the chemical constituents of the trees, the
various methods of removing the bark from the tree, and —
the encouragement of renewal by the processes of strip-
ping and mossing, and many others of like importance,
the solution of which must be left to time, and need not”
occupy our consideration here.

DONATI

GCIENCE, and more particularly astronomy, has re-
- cently sustained a serious loss in the death of Prof.
G. B. Donati, Director of the Royal Observatory of Ar-
cetri, near Florence, and Professor of Astronomy in the
Royal Institution of that city.

On his return from Vienna, where he had represented
Italy at the International Meteorological Congress, he
was scized by a severe attack of Asiatic cholera, to which
in avery short time he fell a victim, dying at his villa
near the Observatory, on the morning of the 20th of Sep-
tember last, being only forty-seven years of age. He was
born at Pisa in 1826, In 1852 he began his astronomical
career at the Observatory of Florence, and by his talents,
his attainments, and his indefatigable industry, rapidly
gained the esteem and admiration of the learned, attaming ©
a well-merited fame, not so much by the discovery of new
comets—among which the most remarkable was that of
1858, to which he bequeathed his name—as by the impor-
tant observations which he made and published. Of ©
these we need only mention his observations on the
study of the spectra of the stars, by which work he
successfully inaugurated in 1860 one of the most im-
portant ‘branches of physical astronomy, namely, the
spectroscopy of celestial bodies. iy

In 1864 he succeeded Prof. G. B. Arnia as Director
of the Observatory, after which much of his time
and energy were devoted to the establishment of
an observatory for Florence and for Italy, which should
be completely adapted to the present exigencies of
Science, both as regards astronomy and terrestrial physics.

He was in no way discouraged by the serious difficulti
of this undertaking, but, inspired by a true love of Scien
he overcame them all, insomuch that in a short time,
under his active and keen-sighted superintendence, the
new observatory was erected on the hill of Arcetri; an
observatory which, by the excellence of its position, as
well as by the convenience and solidity of its construction,
has guaranteed for astronomy and terrestrial physics the
most important advantages in every branch of observa-
tion,

The observatory was already in working condition, and —
an important series of observations had been commenced
when Science was robbed, by a premature death, of one o
her most valued worshippers, who was thus cruelly cut off
just as he had entered upon a brilliant career, in which,
had he lived, he would certainly have greatly augmented ~
his fame, and shed glory on the Observatory of Arcetri

Prof. Donati had already commenced a series of no es
from the new observatory by the recent publication

* This limitation is at present necessary. Dr. De Vrij’s late paper ¢
Jamaica barks (‘* Pharm. Journal,” August 16, 1873) shows the produce
C. officinalis in that island to be very deficient in quinine, inferior indeed |

C. Pahudiana, whilst a still later communication confirms Mr. Ho’
opinion asto the richness of Indian-grown specimens,

Oct. 30, 1873]

some most careful observations of his own on the luminous
phenomena of the great Polar aurora of the 4th to the 5th
_ of February, 1872 ; and we had hoped that other important
observations by the illustrious Italian astronomer would,
_ to the great advantage of Science, have been published
in the future Notes issued from that scientific establish-
ment.

NOTES

WE regret to have to record the death of two notable men this
_ week. Theone is Sir Henry Holland, Bart., M.D., F.R.S., &c.,
who died on Tuesday, the 28th inst., at the age of 85 years. Sir
_ Henry had caught cold on returning from Paris, which, in spite
_ of his wonderfully robust constitution, proved too much for the
_ veteran iraveller, The other is Mr. Albany Harcock, the
_ distinguished anatomist, who died on the 24th inst. He was a
_ medallist of the Royal Society, though not a Fellow. We hope
shortly to give memoirs of both men.

Sir Rosert Mac ture, C.B., so well known in connection
with Arctic discovery, died on the 17th inst., at the age of 66.

_ Srp SAMUEL BAKER was announced to appear before the Geo-

graphical Society on Monday first, and give an account of the
geography of the country he has lately visited ; but we regret
very much to hear that illness will ‘prevent him from fulfilling
this and other engagements. He has been suffering from in-
flammation of the lungs.

Pror, FLOWER, we regret to hear, has been compelled to
spend the winter in Egypt on account of the state of his health,

Dr. J. Emerson REYNOLDs has been elected Professor of
Chemistry to the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. The
College of Surgeonsis to be congratulated on this appointment.
Dr. Reynolds will, we believe, still hold his appointment of
Keeper of the Minerals and Professor of Analytical Chemistry
to the Royal Dublin Society.

Mr, Joun Stuart Mi1v has left his herbarium of European
plants to Kew.

WE are informed that the authorities of the Jardin des
Plantes, of Paris, have acquired the valuable collection of books
on Natural History belonging to the late M. J. Verreaux, and
also his private collection of Sugar birds (Mectarinide), which
includes many unique specimens, ;

IN connection with St. John’s College, Cambridge, there will
be offered for competition an Exhibition of 50/7. per annum for
proficiency in Natural Science, the Exhibition to be tenable for
three years in case the exhibitioner have passed within two years
the previous examination as required for candidates for honours :
otherwise the exhibition to cease at the end of two years. The

examination (commencing on Friday, December 12, at 9 A.M.)

in (1) Chemistry, including practical work in the Laboratory.

(2) Physics, viz., Electricity, Heat, Light. (3) Physiology.

_ They will also have the opportunity of being examined in one
or more of the following subjects, (4) Geology, (5) Anatomy,
(6) Botany, provided they give notice of the subjects in which
they wish to be examined four weeks prior to the examination.
No candidate will be examined in more than three of these six
subjects, whereof one at least must be chosen from the former
group. It is the wish of the Master and Seniors that excellence
in some single department should be specially regarded by the
~ candidates. They may al-o, if they think fit, offer themselves
_ for examination in any of the Classical or Mathematical subjects.
Candidates must send their names to one of the tutors fourteen

NATURE

| phide of carbon.

candidates for the Natural Science Exhibition will have a spec’al |

days before the commencement of the Examination. The tutors
are Rev. S. Parkinson, D.D. ; Rev. T. G. Bonney, B.D., and
J. E. Sandys, Esq., M.A.

THE Royal Horticultural Society of Tuscany has announced
an International Horticultural Exhibition to be held at Florence
from May 17 to 25, 1874, and has also issued the programme of
an International Botanical Congress to be held on three days
during the Exhibition. A very large number of prizes, including
100 gold medals, are offered for collections of plants or single
plants, which are included in 248 different classes ; and among
other objects for which prizes may be obtainei are bouquets,
botanical drawings, models, garden tools and ornaments, garden
structures, manures, herbaria, specimens of timbers, &c. The
Congres; will be opened by the president, Prof. Parlatore ; ex-
cursions to the neighbourhood of Florence and the principal
gardens will be inaugurated, &c. ; and among the subjects pro-
posed for discussion, zxfer alia, are the following :—On the
duration of dormant vitality ia plants, and on the means of re-
storing it; on the causes of the movements in leaves; on the
acclimatisation of perennial plants ; on the analogy between the
reproductive organs of flowering and (so-called) flowerless plants ;
on the general occurrence, or otherwis2, of cross-fertilisation,
and on the durability of the vitality of pollen; on the nature
and functions of the gonidia of lichens: on the nature and
origin of Bacteria ; on the possibility of establishing rules for a
rational distinction between the groups called species, race,
variety, &c. ; on the value to be set on the determination of
fossil plants, &c. ; on the character and origin of Alpine floras,
and especially on the causes which have limited their extension.
The Horticultural Society of Tuscany seem determined to do
everything they can to attract visitors, who must send their
names to the president or secretary at the Musée Royale de
Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle at Florence ; and altogether
botanists and horticulturists seem likely to have a gool time
of it.

AN effectual remedy for the devastations committed on the
vines by the Piyl/loxera vastairix is said to have been discovered
by MM. Monestier, Lautand, ani D’Ortoman, of Montpellier.
It consists in placing in the ground, close to the root of the in-
fected plant, an uncorked tube containing about 2 0z. of bisul-
The vapour from the bisulphide in a short
time permeates the whole of the ground about the root; the
vapour is not, like the liquid itself, injurious to the plant, but is
immediately fatal to the insect. Care must be taken not to spill
any of the liquid on the roots of the vine.

THE following subjects for prizes to be awarded in 1874 hay
been proposed by the Batavian Society of Experimental Philo-
sophy :—1. To discover if tiere exists in the molecular state ot
bodies, modifications other than thos? caused by temperature,
which are such as to give for the same body, different spectra,
The Society wishes that this inquiry should bear chiefly on the
magnetic condition of bodies. 2. To find out by new experi-
ments if the vapour of water exercises on raliant heat an absor-
| bant effect much more powerful than dry atmospheric ait, as
Mr. Tyndall maintains ; or if there exists no difference in this
respect between dry and moist air, as M. Magnus maintains.
| The Society desires that the new experiments which it asks for
| be conclusive and enable it to decide between the two opinions,
| 3. To determine what influence the pressure which is put upon
| an electrolyte has on electrolysis, and how far in this case is the
principle of conservation of energy confirmed. It is wished that
this inquiry bear on three liquids at least, to be chosea by the
competitor. 4. To determine the resistanc2 of the liquid amalgams
of zinc and gold to the galvanic current. Six at /east of each of

|

| these amalgams, in various proportions, ought to be examined.

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NATURE

| Oct. 30, 1873 :

certain decision to be come to on the opinion advanced by M.
Gaugain as probable, viz. that voltaic electricity is propagated
by matter, while induced electricity is propagated by ether.

THE German expedition for the exploration of the Libyan
desert is expected to start from Europe about the end of Novem-
ber, and from Egypt early in December, and it is thought that
the first reports may accordingly be looked forward to about
Christmas, The leader of the expedition is Dr. Gerhard Rohlfs.

FATHER SECCHI, we are glad to see, has received permission
from the Italian Government and Cardinal Antonelli to remain
at the Royal College of Astronomy.

AMONG the societies concerning which we have received in-
formation since the publication of our list last week, is the
Working Men’s College Field Club, of which Prof. Flower is
president. It meets in the Museum of the College in Great
Ormond Street, has been in existence only five months, but ap-
pears from a reports before us to be in good working trim. It
has meetings at which papers are read, courses of lectures by
well-known scientific men, and several field-days each month.
These field-days seem generally to be Saturday and Sunday,
and we only wish that working-men generally put their Satur-
days and Sundays to such an excellent recreative use.

WE congratulate the Sunday Lecture Society on the excellent
beginning, to be made next Sunday, of their winter course of lec-
tures. Dr. Carpenter, we see, is to give a series of two lectures
on the brain; and we think the society ought to consider
whether it would not be advisable to have more connected series
of lectures than they have hitherto had.

In a final letter to yesterday’s Dazly Telegraph, Mr. George
Smith concludes the account of his Assyrian Expedition. Alto-
gether both Mr. Smith and the Zé/egvaph are to be congratulated
on the results of the enterprise.

THE following ‘‘ Science Lectures for the People,” are an-
nounced to be delivered at the Memorial Hall, Manchester ; the
Hulme Town’ Hall being now required for other purposes :—
Wednesday, Oct. 29, ‘‘ Polarised Light,” illustrated by experi-
ments in the electric light, by Wm. Spottiswoode, F.R.S.,
Treasurer of the Royal Society. Noy. 5, ‘‘ How Flowers are
Fertilised,” by A. W. Bennett, M.A., Lecturer on Botany, St.
Thomas’s Hospital, London. Nov. 12, ‘* On Parasites and their
Strange Uses,” profusely illustrated, by T. Spencer Cobbold,
M.D., F.R.S. Nov. 26, “Animal Mechanics,” illustrate1 by
experiments with the electric light and the oxy-hydrogen lantern,
by S. M. Bradley, F.R.C.S. Dec. 3. ‘‘The Senses,” by Prof.
Croom Robertson. Dec. 10, ‘* On Muscle and Nerve,” illustrated
by experiments with the electric light and the oxy-hydrogen lan-
tern, by Prof. Gamgee, F.R.S. Dec, 17, “The Time that has
e'apsed since the Era of the Cave Men of Devonshire,” by Wm.
Pengelly, F.R.S.

Tue French Association, as is known, is to meet at Lille in
1874. Among the many towns which desire to be favoured with
its presence in 1875 is Nantes, the Municipal Council of which
has already devo'ed 10,000 francs to defray the preliminary ex-
penses of the session, should it take place there. _

AccorDING to Za Nature the voleano of Mauna Loa, in
Hawaii, is at present in full eruption.

A Microscopic Society has recently been founded at Mel-
bourne,

Last Thursday the whaler Z77é arrived in Dundee, having on
board R. W. D. Bryan, who was astronomer to the Po/aris Ex-
pedition ; B. Manch, seaman; and J. W. Booth, fireman. All

the men were in excellent health. On Friday the Ravenscraig
arrived at Dundee, haying on board one of the boats ingeniously
constructed by Mr. Chester, in which the castaways effected their
escape from their winter quarters. It is about the size of a
whaling-boat, and somewhat similarly shaped.

THE Journal of the Society of Arts gives, from the annual
report published by the Minister of Public Education, the fol-
lowing particulars respecting education in Italy during the
scholastic year 1872-73:—The number of students registered at
the Royal Universities was 5,614, and in addition to this number
1,333 persons were allowed to attend the course of lectures,
making in all 6,497. At the Universities of Camerino, Ferrara,
Perrugia, Urbino, 284 students and 22 non-students, in all 806,
attended the course of lectures. At the Royal Institute of high
studies at Florence the number of students was 214. The Lite-
rary and Scientific Academy of Milan numbered 26, At the
Royal School of Application for Engineers the number of
students was 173, and at that at Naples 185. The Technical
Institute of Milan was attended by 209 students, and the Normal
School of Pisa by 41. 295 students were registered at the
schools of Veterinary Science of Milan, Turin, and Naples. —
The royal lyceums are 79 in number, with 4,228 pupils; the
royal gymnasiums 104, with 8,462 pupils. In the royal colleges,
which are 26 in number, there were 2,208 pupils. The following —
schools received subsidies from Government :—32 in Piedmont,
67,290 francs ; 19 in Lombardy, 49,810 fr. ; 10 in Venetian pro-
vinces, 16,550 fr. ; 24 in Emilia, 52,800 fr.; 14 in Tuscany,
31,200 fr.; 17 in Marshes, Umbria, and Roman provinces,
20,800 fr. ; 54 in Neapolitan provinces, 90,350 fr. ; 5 in Sicily,
6,200 fr. The number of elementary schools throughout the
kingdom was 41,713 (being 3,413 more than were opened
during the previous year). Of this number 21,353 were for
boys, and 16,280 for girls. 33,556 were public and 8,157 pri-
vate schools. The number of pupils attending those schools
during the scholastic year 1872-73 was 1,723,007, showing an
increase of 145,853 on the number of the previous year ; of this
960,517 were boys, and 762,490 girls. The total number of —
pupils attending the! public schools was 1,545,820, and those
of the private schools 177,187. The total number of teachers
in these schools was 43,420, being an increase of 3,102 on the -
number of the previous year. Of these 23,212 were teachers
in the boys’ schools, and 20,211 in the girls’ schools; the
public schools being conducted by 34,309 teachers, and the pri-
vate by 9,114.

WE have received the Catalogue of the publications of Gaus
thier-Villars, of Paris, for April, May, and June of this year.
It contains the publications of most of the scientific societies of
Trance, beside a number of original works in mathematics,
physics, engineering, &c., which recommend it to the attention —
of scientific men. A few more foreign catalogues have also come
to hand, which we would recommend to those who wish to
know what is being published on the Continent; no doubt the —
publishers would be glad to send these catalogues to any oae
asking for them :—Catalog des Antiquar. Biicherlagers von —
Fidelis Butsch Sohn (Augsburg, 1874, sic.) ; A catalogue of
works in Anatomy and Physiology, and Medicine generally,
which belonged to the late Dr. Fahle, of Altona (T, O. Weigel,
Leipzig) ; the satne bookseller has sent a Catalogue of standard
works in all departments of Science.

WE are glad to see that the Quarterly Fournal of Education,
which is shortly to become a monthly, has opened its columns to —
a correspondence upon questions relating to science-teaching.

WE have received a separate reprint from the “ Proceedings
of the Geologists’ Association” of Mr. D. C, Davies’ yaluable
paper on ‘‘ The Overlapping of the Several Geological Forma-
tions of the North Wales Border,” a

Oct. 30, 1873]

THE United States Signal Service has recently constructed a
telegraph line to the summit of Pike’s Peak, in Colorado, which
is said to be the highest point reached by any line in the United
States, or perhaps in the world. The height is said to exceed
11,000 ft. Regular reports as to the weather are to be sent to
Washington three times daily.

THE additions to the Zoolozical Society’s Gardens during the
past week include an American Cross Fox (Canis /ulvus), a
Golden Eagle (Aguila Chrysaétus), and a Virginian Eagle Owl
(Bubo virginianus), from North America, presented by Capt.
D. Herd ; a Mexican Deer (Cervus mexicanus), from Porto Rico,
presented by Mr. W. Isaacson; two Sand Badgers (AZéles an-
uma), from Japan, presented by Lieut. Hon. A. C. Littleton ;
a Black-eared Marmoset, (Hefale penicillata), from Brazil, pre-
sented by Mr. C. Hawkshaw ; a Spotted Hyzena (Hyena evocuta),
and two Bronze-winged Pigeons (Phafs chalcoptera), born in the
Gardens ; two Rheas (R/ea americana), from S. America, depo-
sited ; two Chilian Tinamous (X/ynchotus perdicarius), three
Banded Tinamous (Cryfturus noctivagus), and two Obsolete
Tinamous (C. oéso/etus), from S. America, received in exchange.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH AS A MEANS OF
EDUCATION*
Il.

T is the greatest possible mistake to suppose—as, unfortunately,
-many yet do—that a scientific education unfits a man for
the pursuits of ordinary professional or commercial life. I be-
lieve that no one can be unfitted for business life or occupations
by the study of phenomena, all of which are based upon law,
the knowledge of which can only be obtained by the exercise of
exact habits of thought, and patient and Jaborious effort. I
dare say many who have had a scientific education make bad
men of business, but so do many who have not had such an edu-
cation ; it is not the scientific education which has spoilt them.
Even more directly does the value of scientific education bear
upon professional and manufacturing life. The medical man’s
success depends mainly upon the exercise of faculties which are
pre-eminently called forth, and strengthened in original scientific
investigations. The manufacturer who aspires to something
more than following the rule-of-thumb work of his predecessors,
requires exactly these habits of mind which are developed by
original research. If the brewer, the calico-printer, the dyer,
the alkali-maker, the metallurgist wish to make any advance of
their own in their respective trades, they cannot do so without
the exercise of powers which can only be gained by the prosecu-
tion of original inquiry. Doubtless many—nay, even most—of
the great discoveries and improvements in the arts and manufac-
tures may have been made by men who have been self-taught.
But these men have acquired for themselves, by slow and diffi-

Bs ches
< -

NATURE

cult steps, the same habits of exact observation, patient and |

laborious devotion, and manipulative or constructive skill which
the modern student of science may, at any rate to a very con-
siderable extent, gain in his college course. So valuable is this
kind of education found to be, that in Germany, where it is most
practised, the chemical manufacturers now refuse to take young
men into their works unless they have not merely had a scientific
education, but also have prosecuted original investigation.

Tf, then, education in its widest sense has for its objects, as I
presume will be generally allowed, the training of the mind and
faculties in such a way as most fully to qualify the possessor to
discharge with benefit to mankind his duties in after-life, surely
plans for the encouragement of original scientific research should
form no inconsiderable portion of the work of every institution
professing to deal with the higher education of the country. And
yet when we come to look at the provision made for encouraging
original research, either at our older or at most of the more
modern seats of learning, we are astonished to find that this
essential provision is almost altogether ignored. At Oxford and
Cambridge thousands of pounds are each year lavished upon the
encouragement of classical and mathematical attainments, whilst
the claims of original research can scarcely be said to be
recognised. Hence these highly endowed universities, whilst
they are justly celebrated for their critical faculties, have ceased

Concluded from p. 539.

ENE SI fers oe a

559

to represent, in any one direction, the productive power of the
country.

Original research, the true life-breath of civilisation, does not
in England, as is the case in Germany, look to the universities
as the nurseries where its young shoots shall be tended and che-
rished, for there, at present, its value is scarcely recognised.
Indeed, Sir William Thompson has expressed his opinion
that the system of examinations at the universities has a
tendency to repress original inquiry, and exerts a very in-
jurious effect in obstructing the progress of science. The
time is, however, not far distant when this want of appre-

ciation of the value of original research will be a thing of the

past, and when the universities will vie with each other in en-
couraging this mainspring of progress, and in honouring more
those whose lives are devoted to this high calling. Owing to
the want of means of promoting original investigation in our
great seats of learning, the scientific activity of the country has
found vent through other channels. No want of encouragement
can repress really great minds or powerful wills. Manchester
can boast the names of many men who, in spite of want of uni-
versity aid, have done much for science. Who, for instance, in
the whole scientific annals of Oxford, can be placed on a footing
of equality with Dalton or Joule? These men are, however, great
in spite of our systematic negligence of the subjects, the mastery
over which has made their names immortal.

If, inthe face of so much that is discouraging in this want of
recognition of science, England has still no reason to fear the
comparison of her great men of science with those of other
countries, we may feel sure that our position among the nations
will be raised when the Government, our universities, and the
country at large become alive to their duties as regards the encou-
ragement of original scientific research, and when the number of
able men who devote themselves to this pursuit shall thereby be
largely increased. Much assistance in this direction may con-
fidently be expected from the Royal Commission on Scientific
Instruction and the Advancement of Science, of which his Grace
our President is chairman, and which has lately published its
third report on the progress of scientific education and research
in the two old universities. In this report, the importance, from
a national point of view, as well as an educational instrument of
original research is fully recognised, whilst the means of enabling
the universities to take their due share in the management of this
branch of human activity is suggested. The evidence given
before this Commission by Sir Benjamin Brodie, Prof. Frank-
land, Dr. Carpenter, and other competent authorities, is of the
most decided and unanimous character, and the opinion thus
strongly expressed must ere long produce its effect.

‘The importance of fostering scientific research in connection
with higher education is, however, now well understood to the
authorities of this college. Very considerable facilities for carrying
out original work are given both to the teachers and to the pupils,
whilst in the appointment of the professors special weight is
always laid on their power of conducting scientific research. In
my department, which has now been organised for many years,
I make bold to say that we have not been behind any chemical
laboratory in this kingdom in the original work we have pro-
duced, The physical laboratory, which has only recently been
inaugurated, has already, under the care of its talented Direc-
tor, whose original researches are valued wherever Science
is appreciated, done valuable work, and the new depart-
ment of practical physiology which has just been established
will doubtless soon bear fruit of a similar character. In the
biological sciences our teaching resources have hitherto been
limited ; but although this has necessarily prevented the prose-
cution of research by the students, the professors of this depart-
ment have long been distinguished for original investigation in
their special branches.

To assist in developing in the practical community the appre-
ciation of scientific research, and owing to the liberality of Man-
chester men and to the wise advice of Prof. Frankland, who then
occupied the chair which I have now the honour to hold, a scho-
larship for original chemical research—our Dalton Chemical
Scholarship—was founded in 1853 as a testimonial, and a fitter
one could not have been proposed, to our great townsman. The
establishment in England of a scholarship for excellence in ori-
ginal research was, twenty years ago, a circumstarice without a
parallel, but in spite of the novelty of the experiment, time has
fully proved the wisdom of the course which its originators
adopted. We can already point to a fairly long list of men who
haye taken our Dalton Scholarship, who now hold high and

560

responsible positions in scientific, manufacturing, and official life ;
and these men will all acknowledge the benefit conferred upon
them by the training they received when competing for the scho-
larship, and whilst occupied for the first time in their lives in
carrying out an investigation on some original subject.

On the model of our Dalton Chemical Scholarship, an im-
portant physiological scholarship has lately been founded in this
College by Mr. Robert Platt ; the conditions of tenure involve
the prosecution of an original investigation in physiology ; and it
is to be hoped and expected that this scholarship will do as
much to stimulate the study of physiology amongst us as the
Dalton has certainly done in the case of chemistry. The estab-
lishment of similar scholarships in the branches of physics and
biology is much to be desired, and benefactions made for these
special purposes will assuredly prove of the greatest value.

It is unnecessary for me to point out the direct applications
which the knowledge and experience gained in the labora-
tory receive in the arts and manufactures dependent upon
chemical science. These everyone can see for himself. The
ordinary routine work of the alkali maker, the dyer, the brewer,
the calico printer, calls immediately for chemical knowledge, and
manufacturers who do not yet see the value of the training
afforded by original experimental investigation, are ready enough
to appreciate chemical knowledge if it can show them that their
drugs are adulterated or their water.impure.

Concerning the exact mode by which encouragement should
be given in this country to original research, opinions may differ.
One proposal has lately been made by the distinguished presi-
dent of the British Association (Prof. A. W. Williamson), in his
able address at Bradford, which it behoves all interested in the
progress of the country carefully to consider. Without attempt-
ing to discuss the details of this or other schemes, it may be well
to point out thore general features of the subject upon which
these proposals are based.

In the first place, then, we shall agree that the measures which
have to be taken must be systematic, must apply to the country
at large, and must include all classes. What we need is the
development of the latent intellectual resources of the country as
regards science, the means of sifting out from the great mass of
the people those golden grains of genius which now too often are
lost amongst the sands of mediocrity. This can only be fully
accomplished by a system extending from the lowest primary
schools up to the highest educational establishments in the land,
and therefore almost necessitates the action of Government.
But whilst believing that a national system is needed in order
that the potential scientific energy of the country shall become
active, I for one should most strongly object to the establish-
ment of a complete system of State education, One of our
greatest safeguards and sources of national strength has been and
is the freedom trom Government control which our educational,
municipal, and local institutions have always enjoyed ; and the
evils of a uniform State system_ as existing in France (which is
such that the Minister for Education remarked with pride, that
at a given moment the classes in all the Lycees in France were
engaged in reading the same chapter in Czesar’s Commentaries)
need only be felt to be deplored.

Secondly, it is clear that in order to be able to select from
amongst the people those whose mental and physical powers fit
them for ultimately advancing science themselves, the rudiments
of a scientific training must be much more widely diffused than
is at present the case. This can only be slowly accomplished ;
the methods of teaching science are only beginning to be under-
stood, and, unfortunately, in school teaching the introduction of
a scientific subject has too often been looked upon more as an
amusement than as a study requiring as much or more attention
and exactitude than the older subjects, one which when properly
taught acts to quite as great an extent as a mental discipline.
Science teachers have yet to be trained, and a system of intro-
ducing elementary science as disciplinary teaching into primary
andsecondaryschoolshas yet tobemadegeneral. Atthe sametime
new institutions have to be founded in which the higher branches
of the various sciences are taught and criginal research en-
couraged, and into which youths of conspicuous merit must be
drafted, whilst existing colleges and universities have to be
modified to suit the requirements of the time. These institutions
must contain laboratories, not only for teaching purposes, but
suited for scientific research, and the professors must take in a
certain number of advanced students to work on original in-
vestigation. This is indeed, as Sir Benjamin Brodie points
out’ in his evidence before the commission, an educational

NATURE

1

[ Oct. 30, 1873

function of the most important character ; because here scien-
tific education is carri-d out to its end, and if this is not
done, you stop short of the most important part of all in ©
scientific education, for the perfection of science as a means of —
education is seen only in scientific inquiry. The pupils thus
trained eventually pursue science as their main business in life,
and become in their time teachers and professors of their subject.
Thus by degrees the profession of the investigating teacher will —
become recognised as one in which the ablest of our youths may
obtain reward and recognition, as well as satisfaction and delight,
and thus the scientific power of the country will be vastly in-
creased.

Concerning the ennobling nature of original scientific inquiry
it is needless for me to say much, for although I should be the
last to contend that men of science are free from the foibles and —
weakness common to all mankind, I think it stands to reason
that the habits of mind which an investigator must cherish, are
such as must raise him above the petty struggles of ordinary ex-
istence, and must, for a time at least, lift him into an atmosphere
free from the cloud and smoke which too often darken the usual
current of men’s lives. In order to give you an idea in what
original research consists, and to point out to you the interests
attaching to an inquiry, the practical applications of which seem
as far distant as those of a newly-discovered planetoid, I will
for a few moments draw your attention to a case of the kind
with which I happen to be familiar. Amongst the sixty-three
different elements of which the earth, so far as we know, is
made up, there are many which have been found only in the
most minute quantity. Indeed, in the list of elements sus-
pended on the wall, you will notice that a large number out
of the sixty-three are marked as rare. A few only of these sub-
stances are employed in the arts and manufactures, or are known
to play any part in the economy of nature ; the rest are rarities
of interest at present only to the scientific chemist. It would,
however, be presumptuous on our part were we to assume that
the existence of these bodies is a matter of no moment, for we
are constantly learning that substances hitherto supposed to be
useless are of the most vital importance. Hence itis obviously
our duty to get to know all we can about the properties of each,
even the rarest, of these elementary bodies, and especially about
their relation to, and mode of action on, the other elements,
It is clear, too, that as long as our knowledge of the properties
of any one of these elementary bodies is inaccurate, or if mis-
taken views regarding any one have arisen, our science must
suffer in completeness. For just as an error made in the base-
ment of a house throws the upper storeys wrong, so a mistake
concerning the size and shape of the foundation blocks of our
science may render the whole chemical superstructure faulty.

In 1830 the great Berzelius fully examined a new elementary
body termed vanadium, the existence of which had been pre-
viously discovered by his countryman Sefstrom. Having most
carefully ascertained the remarkable properties of this new sub-
stance and its compounds with the other elements, Berzelius gave
to vanadium and its compounds a certain chemical position and —
place amongst the other elements. Thus to the compound of
vanadium and oxygen containing the largest proportion of the
latter element, and called vanadic acid, he assigned the formula
V.O 3, meaning thereby, in the atomic language of our great
townsman Dalton, that two indivisible particles or atoms of the
metal are combined with three indivisible particles or atoms of
oxygen ; and these views, enforced by experiments of the most
unimpeachable character, were for years universally adopted by
chemists. ;

In 1858 a fact was observed by the German chemist, Ram-
melsberg, with regard to the crystalline form of the best known
mineral containing vanadium which exhibited Berzelius’s conclu-
sions in a new light. It had long been known that substances
which have an analogous chemical composition are found to cry-
stallise in anidentical form. Thus the different alums containing
alumina, oxide of iron, oxide of chromium, oxide of ma’ ese,
all crystallise in octahedra; and the oxides contained in these
alums have all an analogous composition ; that is, the relations
between the number of atoms of metal and of oxygen in each —
case is identical, Now, Rammelsberg found that the crystalline —
form of a mineral contained yanadic acid, and lead was identical
with another mineral containing phosphoric acid and lead,
Hence we should expect to find that the oxide of vanadium,
termed vanadic acid, and the oxide of phosphorus, called phos-
phoric acid, possess an analogous chemical constitution. Such, —
however, was found not to be the case. Phosphoric acid is well —

“Oct. 30, 1873 |

_ known, and, without doubt, consists of two atoms of phosphorus,
_ united with five atoms of oxygen, whereas Berzelius only found
three atoms of oxygen to two of the rare metal in vanadic acid.
How is this discrepancy to be explained? We have here to do
either with an exception to the otherwise general law of iso-
morphism, so that we may have identity of crystalline form,
_ without any analogyin chemical composition, or Berzelius’s experi-
‘ments and conclusions respecting the constitution of this vanadic
acid are incorrect. By experiments on the properties of vanadium
and its compounds, made with much larger quantities than it fell to
the lot of the Swedish chemist to work with, it was shown that
_ something had been overlooked by him. It was proved that the
substance which he supposed to be a metal was not a metal at all,
_ but an oxide, and that vanadic acid really contains more oxygen
than he believed it to contain. And what is remarkable is that
this quantity of oxygen, which had been overlooked, is exactly
the quantity which is needed in order to make the constitution of
yanadic acid identical with that of phosphoric atid. We have to
take out of each atom of Berzelius’s metal one atom of oxygen in
order to get the true vanadium, so that the real atomic weight of
_ this element is less than that given to it by Berzelius by the
atomic weight of oxygen, 67°3— 16 = 51°3. Thus the chemical
constitutions of phosphoric and of vanadic acids are represented
by the formulse P, O;. V, O;. The law of isomorphism re-
mains unassailed, and the goddess (Vanadis is a cognomen of
the Scandinavian goddess Freia) who was found wandering as a
waif and a stray amongst her companion elements, has been re-
stored to her natural friends, and now forms a recognised
member of a family group.

To sum up, my aim in the foregoing remarks has been to
show that if freedom of inquiry, independence of thought, disin-
terested and steadfast labour, habits of exact and «ruthful ob-
servation, and of clear perception, are things to be desired as
tending to the higher intellectual development of mankind, then
original research ought to be encouraged as one of the most
valuable means of education. And that on this ground alone,
and independent of the enormous material benefits which such
studies confer on the nation, it is the bounden duty not only of
the Government, but of every educational establishment, and of
every citizen of this country who has the progress of humanity
at heart, to promote and stimulate the growth of original research
amongst us,

| HELVETIC SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES

‘THE fifty-sixth annual meeting of this society was held on the
18th, 19th, and 2oth of August last, at Schaffhouse, under
the presidency of Dr. Stierlin, and is described as having been
a highly animated one. We shall note a few of the more im-
portant papers presented; for particulars of which we are
indebted to the Archives des Sciences.
In the section of Physics and Chemistry, M. Soret described a
method for studying ultra-violet spectra. It consists in placing
a thin fluorescent lamina (sulphate of quinine, ¢.g. between two

is formed,and observing, with sufficient inclination of the eyepiece
the image of the ultra-violet spectrum then developed on the
lamina. Prof. Kopp read a paper on bresiline and its deriva-
tives. The Deacon process of manufacturing chlorine was the
subject ofa paper by M. Hurter, which gave rise to lively dis-
cussion. Dr. Heim, who has been observing the sounds of cas-
cades, find they all give the note C sharp, or F.

In Geology, Dr. Schalch had a paper on the volcanic rocks of
Hohzau. These are in two groups, that of basalts, and that of
phonolites. They form isolated cones surrounded with thick
deposits of volcanic tufa, the nature and arrangement of which
indicate that the eruptions happened at successive intervals about
the end of the tertiary epoch. M. Favre showed a section of the
Vaudois Alps made at Pleiades, near Vevey aux Ormonts ; in
which he distinguishes three zones, consisting of superior Jurassic
and Necomian, and different portions of Eocene, strata. Nr.Heim
exhibited a new method of geological representation of a country ;
it consists in a series of sections, on the same scale, coloured and
fixed vertically at equal distances on a geological map. He also
made some observations on the zone of contact of crystalline
rocks and sedimentary strata in Eastern Switzerland and the
Bernese Alps. M. Lang announced the early publication, by
the Alpine Club of a glacier-register, in which information will
be given as to dimensions, from progress, &c., of glaciers, At the

NATURE 3 561

first general séance Prof. Heim gave a valuable vesum? of the various
theories of glacial motion. At the second, Prof. Desor presented
a memoir on worainic landscapes, by which he denotes those
indicating a former extension of glaciers. ‘The most striking
types are at the southern base of the Alps. There is discernible
a zone consisting of a succession of verdant hillocks, sometimes
aligned, sometimes separate ; these are found to be composed of
the débris of old formations bruised and triturated, and clearly
indicating glacial action, A good example occurs at the base of
Monte Campo di Fiori.

At the general opening s¢awce Prof. Forel gave an account of
his researches on the deep-water fauna in Lake Leman, of which
he enumerates some thirty species. He had also studied the
fauna of the lakes of Neuchatel, Zurich, and Constance. His
conclusions are briefly these :—There are in the lakes three dis-
tinct fauna : (@) a littoral, extending to 15 or 20 metres depth ;
(4) a deep fauna, from 20 to 300 metres; and (c) a pelagic
fauna. All the forms of the deep fauna have analogous or simi-
lar forms in the littoral fauna ; but the converse does not hold,
At the same level the deep fauna are the same. A few species
found between 30 and 100 metres are not found at 300 metres.
but all the types at 300 metres are found between 30 and 100
metres. There are local and seasonal differences. The deep
fauna are best studied between 30 and 60 metres. In comparing
different lakes the general characters of deep fauna are the same,
but special characters vary.

In the section of zoology and botany. M. Bugnion described
some sensitive organs found in the epidermis of Proteus and
Axolotl. They are considerably developed in the former (1460
were counted in one specimen), and are disposed in linear groups
of three or four along certain nerves of the head, and the lateral
nerve to the end of the’tail. They resemble the cyathiform
organs discovered by M. Leydig in 1850, in the epidermis of fishes.
Dr. Cartier gave a paper on the sensitive hairs of crocodiles.

In the medical department Prof. Karsten, of Vienna, made a
communication on zecrodiosis in which he pointed out that Bac-
teria, Vibriones, and microcosms, &c., are not to be regarded as
organic species, properly so called ; the phenomena of animal re-

roduction have never been observed in them, They are pathor
ici! products, which grow in the interior of vegetable or ani-
mal cells, but which do not penetrate these when once developed
as parasites.

In the department of Pure Mathematics the principal
paper was one by Prof. Schwarz on a new example of a con-
tinual function which does not admit of derivatives. This
paper will be found 27 evfenso in the Archives.

This is the third time in its history that the Helvetic Society
has met at Schaffhouse, the former occasions having been in

glass plates) before the eyepiece of a spectroscope, where the image |

1825 and 1847. The next annual session is to be held at Coire.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Stlsungsberichte der Kénigl. Béhmischen Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften in Prag. Jan. 1871 to June 1872. (3 numbers).
—Among the more valuable matter in these numbers may be
noted some contributions to palzontological botany; more
especially a paper by M. Feistmantel describing the various
fruit-forms met with in Bohemian coal formations. (As pub-
lished separately, the paper contains several excellent plates).
The same author communicates also full accounts of the flora in
coal-measures at the foot of the Riesengebirge, and at Merklin.
—M. Dvorak describes some curious experiments on individual
differences between the two eyes, and between different parts of
the retina of thesame eye. He shows that two non-simultaneous
impressions, each affecting one eye, appear simultaneous, when
the time-interval is of a certain length ; this interval he measures
with suitable apparatus.—In chemistry we have a note by
Prof. Stolba, giving a new method of preparing borofluoride of
potassium, and an account of the properties of this substance.—
Dr. Weyr investigates mathematically the distance-action of
electrical solenoids on material plane surlaces ; anda note by
M. Domalip furnishes experimental proof of certain laws deduced
by M. Dub as to the dependence of magnetic moment on the
dimensions of a magnetic bar.—There are also papers on the
fauna of lakes in the Bohmerwald, on basaltic formaticns, and
on several points in mineralogy and pure mathematics.

Bulletin de V Académie Royale de Belgigue, No. 8, 1873.—In
this number is described a recording #ctcoregraph, devised by
| M. Van Rysselberghe, and which seems to have some merit ;

562

the advantage being that the readings of several different instru-
ments can be recorded by means of a single steel graver, making
traces on a varnished copper sheet. The sheet is fixed on a
vertical cylinder, which rotates at equal intervals (e.g. every ten
minutes) ; an electric circuit, of which the instrument to be ob-
served forms part, is closed by the movement of the cylinder ;
this liberates the graver, which then gives a tracing proportional,
in length, to the indication of the instrument. At each revolu-
tion the graver descends a little; thus a series of equidistant
lines are obtained, the extremities of which form the curve of
observations. The copper sheet is afterwards dipped in an acid
and thus made ready for engraving.—M. Terby communicates
some drawings made by M. Schroeter, in the end of last century,
which show the configuration of the spots of Mars at that time.
He finds, in these, fresh proof of the permanence of the spots.—
A letter from Prof. Genocchi, of Turin, on several mathematical
questions, calls forth a long report from M. de Tilly with refer-
ence to the alleged impossibility of demonstrating the postulates
of Euclid by plane geometry, or by any geometrical reasoning.—
We further find notes on the congelation of alcoholic liquids,
(Melsens), on the motion of projectiles, on hypo-sulphurous acid,
on some storms at Aartselaer in July, and other topics.

Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou,
No. 1, 1873.—In this number there is a valuable paper of
spectroscopic solar observations in 1872, by M. Bredichin. Four
plates are appended, showing the spectroscopic profile of the sun
from July 22 to September 10. The author's results confirm, in
the main, those of Secchi.—M. Berg gives some particulars as
to the successful acclimatisation of a Japan silkworm, the Az-
therea Yama Mayu, in the Baltic provinces. Cultivators were
looking in this direction partly because of the difficulty of accli-
matising mulberry in the north ; the new animal feeds on oak
leaves. One striking fact is, that some of the eggs were ex-
posed, at times, for three days successively, to a temperature of
12° R., without apparent injury. The temperature at which
the worms were kept after leaving the egg till spinning time,
varied between 12° and 16° R. The entire extra-oval life of the
Yama Mayu in Riga is about 164 weeks ; or 9 in the caterpillar,
6 in the chrysalis, and 14 in the moth stages respectively. Ex-
periments, extending over three years, have fully shown that the
scheme in question is a practicable one. We have further to
note a long and interesting account, by M. Wolkenstein, of cer-
tain ancient cemeteries named ‘‘Jalnikis,” found on many of the
hill-sides in Novgorecd, The tombs are made of unhewn stones
arranged in form of a rectangular cyst, which contains the
skeleton. In his study of the question whether these cemeteries
belonged to ancient Novgorodians, or some other people, the
author is led to assign a Slavic origin.— Among the remaining
papers are a note by M. Stepanotf on the development of Calyp-
treea, and a reply by M. Lubimoff to M. Bredichin.

Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze Lettere Rendiconti Fasci
cole, XV, 1873.—In addition to a large quantity of historical
and philosophical matter, which includes a fourth paper on Kant’s
philosophy, by C. Cantoni, this number contains observations of
Comet II, 1873, by S. Tempel ; a long paper on the polymor-
phism of Pleospora Herbarum, by Drs. Gibelli and Griffini ; and
also some anatomical and medical notices.

THE Annali di Chimica applicata alla medicina for September
contains the usual number of notices on pharmaceutical prepara-
tions, &c.

American Fournal of Science dnd Arts, October.—This
number contains a description of some valuable improvements
in the silt analysis of soils and clays, by Mr. Hillgard. From
minute observations on the working of the elutriating appara-
tuses of Nodbel, Schulze, Fresenius, and others, he concludes
that all determinations hitherto made with conical vessels are
vitiated by irregular currents, and a kind of miniature avalanche
formed by the particles. He employs a cylindrical elutriating
tube, having a rotary churn attached to its base, but screened by
wire from the liquid column. This has given good results.—
Prof. Dana has a (continued) paper on the quartzite, limestone,
and associated rock of the vicinity of Great Barrington, Berk-
shire Co., Mass.—Mr. May describes some experiments on the
determination of lead as peroxide, and Mr. Remsen communi-
cates a note on isomeric sulpho-salicylic acids.— Mr. Bentham’s
anniversary address to the Linnean Society is given; also a
French Academy notice of Dr. Verneuil, who did valuable
service to North American geology.—We further note accounts of
various survey operations in Colorado, Sierra Nevada, Utah, &c.

NATURE

[Oct. 30, 1873

Atti della Reale Academia det Lincei, Roma, Dec. 1872
This publication contains, among other papers, an interesting
description, accompanied with plates, of certain human bodies
found in a remarkable state of preservation in a cemetery at Fe-
rentillo, The authors, MM. Maggiorani and Moriggia, made
analyses of the soil, which abounded in salts of lime having, of
course, avidity for water. The ground was porous, and readily
permitted passage of vapour from one stratum to another.
Scarcity of humus and good ventilation were other fayouring
causes. There was a popular tradition that the soil was brought
from Palestine, but this is thought incorrect. The mummies
were throughout invaded with sporule and various other para-
sites, which doubtless contributed to the mummification.—A long
paper by M. Volpicelli offers a complete and general solution,
through the geometry of situation, of the problem relating to the
course of a horse over a checkered surface.—Prof. Cantoni has an
article on the various modes of electrical testing (es//orazione) and
on the influence of hypothesis in electrostatics ; in which he makes
some strictures on certain passages in Tyndall’s little work on
Electricity, referring to the existence of two fluids: —We further
notice a paper by Prof. Cadet on the functions of the white
nerve substance, and one by Prof. Respighi on the shower of
falling stars observed November 28, 1872. j

St

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
Paris

Academy of Sciences, Oct. 20.—M. de Quatrefages, pre-
sident, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—Theory ~
of the movement of a point attracted towards a fixed centre, ©
by M. J. Bertrand.—On Dr. Reye’s explanation of the solar
spots, by M. Faye. Dr. Reye considers that the heat of a
facula causes an up-rush and expansion of the superincumbent
atmosphere, causing a sort of vortex through which the materials —
of lower strata rise, expand, cool duwn, and condense, M. Faye,
a(ter explaining the theory in question, argued that a very simple
fact overthrows it at once. Dr. Reye’s theory would make the -
vortex or spot oz the sun, while the measurements of Carrington:
have shown that it is really zz the sun.—Anatomical researches —
on the tardigrade Zdentata, by M. P. Gervais—M. Alph, de -
Candolle presented the last volume of the “ Prodromus Syste-—
matis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis.’—The secretary reported on
a number of papers on the Py//oxera.—Researches on an easy ©
method of measuring the capacity of ships, by M. d’Avout.—
Additional note to the monograph on the fish of the family of the
Symbranchide, by M, C. Dareste.—On the production of galls
on vines attacked by the Phy//oxera, by M. Max Cormu.—On -
the reproduction of the oak Phylloxera, by M. Balbiani.—On
the production of certain crystalline borates in the dry way, by
M. A. Ditte. The paper in question described several borates o}
barium and magnesium, and also several double salts of the
same class.—Note on the chlorovanadates, by M. P. Haute-
feuilie. —On the production of methylamines in the manufacture —
of pyroligneous products. ;

CONTENTS

Our NATIONAL MusEUMS. . « «sss 5 «= «© )5)ey eee
Spencer’s Descriptive SocioLocy. By E, B. Tytor, F.R.S. . .
Our Book SHELF fice. 5) 6 ys) eo) 0) Ww Gey ct
LeTrers TO THE EDITOR :—
Remarkable Phenomena.—H. C. Russet, Government Astronomer 547
Periodicity of Rainfall—C. Metpkum . . . . .. . . . «6 5ag
Dr. Sanderson’s Expzriments and Archebiosis.—Dr. H. CHARLTON ;
Bastian, FURS, 20. (5. 6) te 2 Oy) 8 548
Foreign Orders... <=)» « 8) © ©» (os jalan 549°
Mr. Forbes on Mr. Mallet’s Theory of Volcanic Eruption.—Roserr
Ma tet, F.R.S.. . See Mee ih
Settle-Cave Report.—W. Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S.. . . 2. .
The Oxford Science Fellowships—The Campripce B.A, ;
JORN.PERRY sep ie + se 1a) os >! oy eh y
Simple Diffraction Experiment. . . .. . . » «» = » =). )S500m
Publication of Learned Societies’ Transactions.—W. B. Gipps. .
EXAMINATIONS OF THE SCIENCE AND ArT DEPARTMENT IN BioLoGy
ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS s
or WeicHtT AND Measure, VII. By H. W. CuisHotm, Warden «

of the Standards (With Iélustvations) . . .. . Seer |)
CincHona CuLTuRE. By Henry B. Brapy, F.L.S. oe.
IDONATI Og 4. Ce he ee eat ne i oe + 55
Norges... 7

Oricina ResEARcH AS A MEANS OF “Epucation, In By Prof,
Roscoz, F.R.S. . . .

Hexrvetic Society or Naturat ScIENCES . . .... :
SCIENTIFICISERIALS +5) .-1) ese ih at om, eae
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIRS«% as...) cee) et oe

Abel (Prof.), Experiments with Gun-cotton, 534

Aberdeen University, Prof. Huxley and Ciassical Studies, 12
Abiogenesis, Huizinga’s Experiments, 85 (Br. A.), 478, 504

_ Acclimatisation Society of Paris, 57

Acoustics, Organ-pipes and Reeds, 26

Acquired Habits in Plants, 7, 46

Adams (Dr. A. L.), Maltese Fossil Elephants (Br. A.), 497

Adelaide, Botanic Garden at, 35 7

Aérial Spectres, 227

Aéronautical Society, 192

Africa : East Coast Livingstone Expedition, 13, 170 ; Drawings
by Bushmen, 6; Schweinfurth’s Vocabularies, 17; West
Coast Livingstone Expedition, 170; Central Exploration by
Dr. Nachtigal, 75, 313; Schweinfurth on the Monbutta
Tribes, 374 ; S. African Museum, Cape of Good Hope, 352

*€ African Sketch Book,” by Winwood Reade, 429

African Travel, Publications of the Geographical Society, 429

Agassiz (Alex.), Originators of Glacial Theories, Claims of Agassiz
and Forbes, 24, 44, 222 ; ‘‘ Revision of the Echini,” 103

Agassiz (Prof. Louis): Penikese Island, Anderson School of
Natural History, 12, 34, 230, 271, 314, 404, 454; Lectureson
Animal Life, 210 ; Survival of the Fittest, 34

Agency for British Naturalists, Proposed, 513

Agricultural Society’s Journal, 211

“ Air, its Relations to Clothes, Houses, and Soil,” by Dr. Max

von Pettenkofer, 483

Airy (Sir G, B., K.C.B.), Transit of Venus, 129

Airy (Hubert), Flight of Birds, 362

Albany (U.S.), Dudley Observatory, 389

Albert Gold Medal of Soc. of Arts, awarded to M. Chevreul, 110

Almanacs, Astronomical, 311, 350, 529

America (See Albany, Baltimore, Bermudas, Buffalo, Cincinnati,
Cordoba, Cuba, Indiana, Massachusetts, New York, Para-
guay, Philadelphia, Washington)

American Association for the Advancement of Science, Meeting

- at Portland, Maine, 354, 389, 472, 392, 512

American Exploring Expeditions, 169, 231, 331, 385

American Signal Office, 35, 112, 124

Ammonites in Margate Cliffs, 155

Anatomy (See British Association, Sec. D)

* Anatomy, Elementary,” by St. George Mivart, F.R.S., 221

Anatomy of Fish, 74

Anderson (J. F.), Geological Subsidence and Upheaval, 223

Anderson School of Natural History (Sve Agassiz, A.)

Andrews (Jas. B.), Perception in Dogs, 6

Animals, Instinct in, 6, 65, 67, 78, 252, 284, 302, 322

Ant, Honey-making, 116, 250

Anthropological Institute, 19, 58, 79, 135, 195

Anthropological Society, Berlin, 17 ; Society, Paris, 113

Antiquity of Man, Discussion at American Association, 392

** Antiquity of Man,” by Sir C. Lyell, Bart., F.R.S., 462

Ants, Habits of, 244, 303

Aphides and Bees, 201, 263

** Aphis,” Etymology of, 103

Appendix Vermiformis and the Evolution Hypothesis, 509

Appleton (Dr. C. E.), Endowment of Research, 262

Approach Cansed by Velocity, 25

April Meteors, Observations by W. F, Denning, 6

Aquarium, Brighton, 25, 171, 191, 229, 231, 313, 372, 473;
Additions to Collection, 36, 55, 76, 94, 113, 131, 173,193,
232, 273, 294, 473 ; Official Guide-book, 160 ; Description by

W. S. Kent, F.Z.S., 531

Aquarium, Crystal Palace, 12, 131, 230, 532

Arabia, Travels in, 395

Archeological Association, Meeting at Sheffield, 333, 354

Archeological Institute, Meeting at Exeter, 270, 289

Archeology, Leciureship in Scotland, 54

Archebiosis, Bastian, Sanderson, and Huizinga’s Experiments,
85, 141, 161, 181, 199, 200, 212, 232, 273, 478, 485, 504, 548

Arctic Exploration, 83, 102, 192, 211, 370, 472, 487, 492, 514;
Voyage of the Polaris, 54, 75, 131, 171, 214, 217, 271, 313,
355, 494, 435, 515, 535, 558

| Aurora, Spectrum of the,

INDEX

Argentine Republic, Observatory at Cordoba, It, 252

Aristotle, his Knowledge of Zoology and Physiology, 119 ; Trans-
lation by Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, 152

Arithmetic, Recent Works on, 159, 280

Arithmometer, The, 325

Arrowsmith (John), Death of, 54

Association for the Organisation of Academical Study, 71

Assyrian Expedition, Mr, G. Smith’s, 75, 271, 333, 430

Assyrian Inscriptions, 112, 115

Astronomical Almanacs, 311, 350, 529

Astronomical Society, 174

** Astronomy, Romance of,” by R. K. Miller, 140

Atmosphere of the Sun, 127, 149

Atomic Theory, 407

Atoms and Ether, 322, 361

** Atoms, World of,” by Marce- Antoine Gaudin, 8

Audas (T.), Mode of Deposit of Cuckoos’ Eggs, 182
6

Australia, Geological Map at 352; Exploration in the Interior,
94; Science in, 389 (See Adelaide, Melbourne, Victoria)

Ayrton (F.), Bequest of Oriental Caligraphy to Brit. Museum, 232

Babington (Prof. C. C., F.R.S.), Acquired Habits in Plants, 7

| Backhouse (T. W.), Zodiacal Light, 181

Bacteria, Dr. Bastian’s Experiments, 85, 141, 161, 181, 199, 200,
212, 232, 273, 478, 485, 504, 548; Temperature at which they
are killed, 273 ; their Development in Organic Infusions, 504 .

Baker (Sir Samuel), Safety of his Party, 75, 131; Arrival at
Khartoum, 192, 209 ; Return to England, 472, 492, 513, 5353
Illness, §57 ; on Lakes Tanganyika and Albert Nyanza, 313

Balfour (F. M.), Scientific Endowments, 25

Ball (R. S., F.R.S.), Dynanometers (Br. A.), 497

Balkwill (F. H.), A Difficulty for Darwinists, 252, 395

Balloon, Voyage from America to England, 364, 389, 436, 513

Balloons, Aérial Spectres seen from, 227

Balsam Fir of Canada, Structure of its Pith, 53

Baltet (C.), ‘‘ Grafting and Budding,” 180

Baltimore, Peabody Institute, 253

Baptista (P. J.), Journey across Africa, 429

Barlow (W. H.), Opening Address, Sec, G, Br. A., 426

Barometer, Proposed New, 6

Barometers, Discussion on, 19

Barrett (W. F., F.C.S.), Flammarion’s ‘* Atmosphere,” by
Glaisher, 22 ; Westerly Progress of Cities, 102

Bashforth (F., B,D.), ‘‘ The Motion of Projectiles,” 593

Bastian (Prof. A.), Worship of the Heavenly Bodies, 17

Bastian (Dr. H. C.), (See Archebiosis, Bacteria)

Batavian Society of Experimental Philosophy, 557

Bath Natural History Socicty, 153

Beadle (B.A.), Journey of the Pombeiros across Africa, 429

| Beddoe (John, F.R.S.), Opening Address, Sec. D, Br. A., 457

Bedwell, F. A., Ammonites in Margate Cliffs, 155

Bees and Aphides, 201, 263

Beke (Dr. C. T.), African Travels, 429

Belfast Natural History Society, 503

Belgium Royal Academy of Science, 130, 275, 375; Records of
hundredth Anniversary, 4 ;

Bell (Lowthian), Address to the Iron and Steel Institute, 34

Bengal, Asiatic Society of, 111

Bennett (Alfred W.), Fertilisa:ion of Wild Pansy and Ground Ivy,
49, 121, 143 ; Research at the Universities, 433 ; Movements
of Glands of Drosera (Br. A.), 479

Benson (Col. R., F.R.S.), Venomous Caterpillars, 303

Bentham (G.), Address to the Linnean Soc,, 171; Composite, 352

Berlin: Anthropological Society, 17, 272 ; Chemical Society,
80, 135, 176, 236, 256, 316 ; Geographical Society, 195

Bermudas, Geoloyical Peculisrities 01, 267

| Berwickshire Natu alists’ Club, 141

Beryls and Emeralds, Researches on, 254, 284

Bessemer, Mr., and the Iron and Steel Inst tute, 54

Bettany (G. T., B.Se.), Orceudon Remains in Woodwardian
Museum, 309, 385

1V

Riblical Archeology, Society of, 112, 115

Liichromate Photographs, 67

Liela’s Comets, 4

Biological Professorship, Magdalen College, Oxford, 464, 513

ljiology, Examinations of Science and Art Department, 550

sird of Paradise, new, 151, 305, 501

Birds, Classification of, 131

Birds, Flight of, 86, 324, 362

“ Birds of the Humber District,” roo

Birds of the Malay Archipelago, 54

Hirds of New Zealand, 151

‘* Birds, North American,” by Elliott Coues, M.D., 21

Birmingham: Free Libraries Committee, 172 ; Natural History

and Microscopical Society, 334, 355, 469; Birmingham and
Midland Institute, 472, 492

Boa Constrctor killed in India, 231

Bologna, Academy of Sciences, 113

Bonney (Rev. T. G., F.G.S.), Lakes of the North-eastern Alps,

18 ; Science at Cambridge, 83

Borlase (W.C.), Free-Standing Dolmens, 202, 344

Botanic Gardens, Adelaide, 35 ; Melbourne, 334

Botanical Society, 313

Botanical Society of France, 171

3otany (Sze British Association, Sec. D)

Botany ‘‘ Grafting and Budding,” by C. Baltet, 180

Brachiopoda, Systematic Position of, 391

Bradford, British Association Meeting at (See British Associa-

tion)
3rady (George S.), Collecting and Preserving Microzoa, 68
wrady (H. B., F.L.S.), Cinchona Culture, 555

Drain, Effect of Education in Developing the, 152

I’ rain, Localisation of the Cerebral Functions, 468, 477

** Brain, Convolutions of the,” by Dr. A. Ecker, 516

Krazil Rock Inscriptions, 46°

Bream, Variation of Colour in, 25

brewer (W. H.), Gassendiand Natural Selection, 163

Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society, 334 —

aghton Aquarium (Sve Aquarium, Brighton)

Gritish Association for the Advancement of Science :—Mee'ing
at Brad‘ord ; Arrangements, 251, 312, 370, 405 ; Officers,
292; Inaugural Address by Prof. A. W. Williamson,
F.R.S., 406; Soirée, 448; Report of Council, 448; At-
tendance, Grants, 473

Section A (Mathematicaland Physical Sctence).—Officers, 292 ;
Opening Address by Prof. H. J. S. Smith, 448; Report
on Instruction in Elementary Geo netry, 452; Report on
Shooting-stars, 474 ; Etherial Friction, by Pr f. B. Stewart,
494; Cyclones, Rainfa'l, and Sunspots, by C. Meldrum,
495; Effect of Pres-ure and Temperature on Spec'ra of
Gases, by A. Schusver, 496; Dynimometers, by R. S. Ball,
497; Inroduction of the Dectmal Point, by J. W. L.
Gliisher, 515

Section B (Chemical Science).—Officers, 292 ; Opening Ad-
dress by W. H. Russell, F.R.S., 415; Report on Gold
Assays, 475; Process for Purifyg Coal Gas, by A. Ver-
non Harcourt and F, W. Fison, 475 ; Artificial Magnetite,
by J. Spiller, 475 ; Constitution of Silicaces, by Prof. S ha-
farick, 475; Sulphide of Methyl and Bromacetic Acid, by
Prof. Crum Brown, 475

Section C (Geology).—Officers, 292 ; Opening Address by John
Phillips, 419 ; Fossils in the North-western Highlands, by
W. Jolly, 476; Earthquakes in Scotland, by Dr. Bryce,
476; Report on the Settle Cave, by W. Boyd Dawkins,
476; Report of the Boulder Committee, by the Rev. H. W.
Crosskey, 476; Wein Sill of Northumberland, by W.
Topiey and G. A. Lebour, 476; Maltese Fossil Elephants,
by Dr. A. Leith Adams, 497 ; Sub-Wealden Exploration,
by H. Willett and W. Topley, 497; Rocks of St. David’s,
by H. Hicks, 497

Sectiom D (Biology). —Officers, 292; Opening Address by
Prof. Allmann, 421

Sub-Section D (Department of Zoology and Botany).—Report
on the Foundation of Foreign Stations, 454. (Department
of Anatomy and Fhysiology).—Opening Address by Prof.
R ithe ford, 455 ; Localisation of the Functions in the Brain,
by Prof. Feriier, 477; Huizinga’s Experiments on Abio-
genssis, by Dr. Burdon-Sanderson 478: Electricity of
Diomea muscipula, by Dr. Burion-San ierson, 479; Nature
of Cholera, by Dr. Brunton, 479. (Department of Anthro-
fology).—Opening Address by John Beddoe, 457 ; Morality

INDEX

British Association (continued) :—

and Religion in Early Civilisation, by E. B, Tylor, 498 ;
Glands of Drosera, by A. W. Bennett, 479
Section E (Geography).—Officers, 292
Section F (Economic Science and, Statistics).—Officers, 292
Section G (Mechanical Science).—Officers, 292 ; Opening Ad-
dress by W. H. Barlow, 426
British Medical Association, 270, 292, 304, 313
British Museum, Purchase of Mr. Wallace’s Birds of the Malay
Archipelago, 54; Report on Botanical Department, 210;
Bequest of Oriental Caligraphy, 232 ; Pay of Officers, 217
Brodie (Sir B.C., Bart., D.C.L.), Marsh Gas and Formic Acid ;
Electric Decomposition of Carbonic Oxide, 164; Scientific
Instruction at Universities, 197, 339 ; Speech on Opening of
Owens College, 508 :
Brook-Smith (J.), “ Arithmetic in Theory and Practice,” 159
Browne (A. H.), Order of Merit for Scientific Men, 223
Bruhns (Prof. Karl), ‘‘ Life of Alex. von Humboldt,” 238
Brunton (Dr.), Nature of Cholera (Br. A.), 479
Bryce (Dr. J., F.G.S.}, Earthquakes in Scotland (Br. A.), 476
Bubale from Abyssinia, 364
Buck (E. C., B.C.S.), Collective Instinct in Animals, 302 ‘
Buckland (Frank), ‘* Familiar History of British Fishes,” 261
Buddington (Capt. S. O.) and the Fo/aris Expedition, 75, 218,
404, 435
Buffalo, Society of Natural Sciences, 172, 315
Buller (Dr. W. L.), Birds of New Zealand, 151
Burton (Capt. R. F.), Lacerda’s Journey to Cazemhbe, 429
Bushmen of South Africa, their Drawings and Paintings, 6
Butterflies, Migration across Isthmus of Panama, 536

Calcutta, Zoological Garden at, 34
California : Academy of Sciences, 116 ; Acclimatisation of Fish,

171

Caligraphy, Oriental, Bequest to British Museum, 232

Cambrian Archeological Association, 292

Cambridge ; Oreodon Remains in Woodwardian Museum, 30),
385 ; Rede Lecture 86, 122; Report of Science Commission,
3373; Science at, 12, 54, 93, 110, I51, 512, 557; A Voice
from, 21, 41, 83 ; Trinity College Natural Science Fellowship
and Scholarship, 25, 35 ; Observatory at, 131

Canarese Snakes, 303

Cannibalism in Florida, 112 ; in Central Africa, 374

Carbon Battery Plates, 487, 529

Carné (Louis de), ‘f Travels in Indo-China,” 258

Carpenter (Dr. W. B., F.R.S.), elected Member of Paris Aca-
demy of Sciences, 230

Carpenteer-bees killed by Orioles, 253

Carruthers (W.), Report on Botanical Department, British Mu-
seum 210 ;

Carus (Prof. J. Victor), Address on Zoology, 55; History of
Zoology, 118 q

** Castleton, Derbyshire, Handbook to,” 172

Caterpillars, Venomous, 7, 44, 101, 303, 466, 487 :

Cave at Setile, W. B. Dawkins, F.R.S., on (Br. A.), 476, 540

Caves in West and South Coast of Scotland, 293

“ Cazembe, The Lands of,” by Dr. D. Lacerde, 429

Cephalopod, Gigantic, in Japan, 112

Cerebral Functions, Localisation of the, 467, 477, 516

Chacornac (Jean), Obituary Notice of, 512

Challenger, The, Progress of, 53. 333, 5353 Notes from
the Challenger, by Pzof. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., 28, 51,
109, 246, 266, 347, 400

Challis (Prof. J.), ‘‘ Mathematical Principles of Physics,” 279

' Charterhouse School of Science, 210

Chauveau (A.), ‘‘ Comparative Anatomy of Domesticated Ani-
mals,” 158

Chemical S_ience (Sze British Association, Section B)

Chemical Society, 39, 79, 135, 194

Chemical Society, Berlin, 80, 135, 176, 236, 256, 316

Chemistry : Laboratories of Natural History Museum, Paris, 226;
Prof. A. W. Wiulliamson’s Inaugural Address at British Asso-
ciation, 406 ; Professorship in Engineering College at Jeddo,
12; ‘‘Chemistry, Elements of,” by Dr. W. A. Miller, 260 ;
“* Chemistry for Schools,” by C. H. Gill, 160 ; ‘* Chemistry,
History of,” by F. Hoefer, 320; ‘‘ Chemistry, Practical, Junior —
Course of,” by Prof. Roscoe, 242; ‘‘Chemistry, the ABC —
of,” by Mrs. R. B. Taylor, 260; ‘‘ Chemistry, the Birth of,”
by G. F. Rodwell, 56; Valentin’s ‘‘ Qualitative Analysis,” 199 —

Cherry-laurel, Spots on the, 245
Chester Society of Natural Science, 51
heyreul (M.), Albert Gold Medal of Society of Arts awarded
to him, 110
** Childhood of the World,” by Edw. Clodd, 99
shina, Meteorology in, 389 :
Chisholm (H. W.). International Metric Commission, 403 ;
_ Weighing and Measuring, and Standards of Weights ana
_ Measures, 268, 307, 327, 367, 386, 489, 552
Chlorine and Hydrogen, Explosion of, 363
“Chlorophyll Colouring Matters,” by Dr. Kraus, 202, 224
Cholera, Nature of (Br. A.), 479
_ Chronometer Tests, 150
| Chronometers, Determining the Rates of, 394
**Chronos: Mother Earth’s Biography,” by Dr. Wood, 259
Cincinnati ; Acclimatisation Society, 315 ; Observatory, 54
Cinchona Culture, 555
_ Cirripedes, Males and Complemental Males of, 431
City Companies and Technical Education, 293, 314, 514
Civil Engineers, Institution of, 39, 59, 75, 115
Clarke (Hyde), Natural History Collections in East India Mu-
-seum, 5; Rock Inscriptions of Brazil, 46; Egyptian Colony
| _ and Language in the Caucasus, 79
Clerk-Maxwell (Prof. J., F.R.S.), Approach caused by Velocity,
_ 25; Kinetic Theory of Gases, 85; Loschmidt’s Experiments
' on Diffusion, 298; Molecules (Br. A.) 437; Temperature of
a Gaseous Column subjected to Gravity, 527; Molecules in
Motion, 537
_ Clifford (Prof. W. K.), Riemann’s Hypotheses of Geometry,
14, 36
- Clifton (Prof. H. B.), Oxford Science Fellowships, 528, 549
_ Clodd (Edwd.), ‘‘ Childhood of the World,” 99
Clouds, Cirrus and Cirronus, 126
Coal : Coal and Coal Plants (Br. A.), 446; Rev. J. R. Leifchild
on, 372; Consumption of, 492; Prizes for Economy in the Use
of, 371; Explorations in Leicestershire, 334; in Peru, 192 ;
Coal Gas, Process for Purifying (Br. A.), 475
Comage, International, proposed, 229

on the South Kensington Museum, 534

College of Practical Science endowed by Sir Josiah Mason, 93

**Collembola, Monograph of the,” by Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,
M.P., 482

_ Colmar (Thomas de), The Arithmometer, 325

Colour : of the Emerald and Beryl, 254, 263, 284; its Variation

_ _ in Fish, 25, 46, ror ; of Lightning, 383
Colour Blindness, 375

Colours, Mechanical Combination of, 262

Comets : Biela’s, Tempel’s, Brorsen’s, and Faye’s, 4, 153, 371, 389

Comets, New, 371

“Comparative Anatomy, Student’s Manual of,” by G. H. Mor-
rell, M.A., 4 ’ :

“Comparative Anatomy of Domesticated Animals,” by A.
Chauveau, 158

Comte on the Survival of the Fittest, 283

Condensation of Air and Steam on Cold Surfaces, 134

_ Condensed Milk, 97

Cook (Capt.), Treatment of his Remains in Hawaii, 211

Coolie Labour, 58

_ Cope (Prof. E. D.), Geology of Wyoming, 19, 20, 34, 93, 116,
156, 390; the Wyandotte Cave, 229

Copenhagen, Scandinavian Scientific Congress, 333

Coral dredged by the Challenger, 29

Coral Sand in Bermudas, in process of Formation, 267

Cordeaux (John), ‘‘ Birds of the Humber District,” 100

Cordoba, Argentine Republic, Observatory at, 111, 252

Corfield (Prof. W. H., M.D.), Typhoid Epidemic in London,
343 ; Sanitary Progress, 517

Coronal’Atmosphere of the Sun, 127, 149

Cornu (Alfred), Experiments on Velocity of Light, 184

Cornu (Maxime), A French Physical Society, 73

Cornwall Polytechnic Society, 55

Coste (M.), Obituary Notice of, 436

Cotton Cultivation in Egypt, 194

Coues (Elliot, M.D.), ‘* Key to North American Birds,” 21

Cox (Prof. E. T.), his Survey of Indiana, 228 =

Cox (Serjt. ), ‘‘ Whatam I? The Mechanism of Man,” 179

Crabtree, his Correspondence with Horrox, 117, 137

Cranes at the Zoological Gardens, 383

Cole (Henry, C.B.), his Retirement, 209 ; Testimonial to, 357; |

Cookery : at South Kensington, 178, 371 Training School for, 293 |

INDEX

Cromlechs and Dolmen-mounds, 202, 344

Croonian Lecture, by B. W. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S., 132

Crum-Brown (Prof.), Sulphide of Methyl and Bromacetic Acid
(Br. A.), 475 :

Crustaceans, Blind, 51, 112

Crystal Palace: (See Aquarium) ; School of Engineering, 294

Cuba Observatory, 294

Cuckoo, Mode of depositing her Eggs, 182

Cyclones, Prof. T. B. Maury on, 124, 137; Capt. Maury and
J. J. Murphy on, 182 ; and Sand-storms, 405 ; Rainfall and
Sun-spots (Br. A.), 495

Daisy, Abnormal, 303

D’Albertis (Sig. L. M.), New Bird of Paradise, 151, 305;
Travels in New Guinea, 501

Danube, Delta of the, 115

Darien, Isthmus of, proposed Ship-canal, 172

Darwin (C., F.R.S.), Habits of Ants, 244 ; Males and Comple-
mental Males of Cirripedes, 431 ; Variations of Organs, 505

Darwin (George), Moving in a Circle, 6; Variations of Organs,
505

‘Darwinian Theory and Migration of Organisms,” by Moritz
Wagner, 180

Darwinism, F. H. Balkwill on, 252, 395

Dawkins (W. B.), Report on the Settle Cave (Br. A.), 476, 549

Dawson (Dr.), Evolution Theory, 392

Dawson (George, M.A.), ‘‘ Manual of Photography,” $2

Dawson (Principal J. W., F.R.S.), A Modern Sternbergia, 53

Decimal Point in Arithmetic, its Introduction (Br. A.), 515

| Deep-sea Researches, New York ship JZercusy, 13 ; in Gulf of

St. Lawrence, 112; Forms of Animal Life, 180; Soundings
and Thermometers, 266, 529. (See Challenger)

Deidamia leptodactyla, new Crustacean, 51, 485

De La Rue (Dr. Warren, F.R.S.), on Sun-spots, 234, 292

Demagnetisation of Needles, 102 .

Detonation, Rapidity of, 534

Deutsch (Emanuel), Death of, 74

Development Theory in Germany, 37

Devon and Exeter Schools of Science, 153

| Dewar (J.), Physiological Action of Light, 204 ©

| Diana, Arctic Voyage of the, 472

Dick (Capt. St. John), ‘* Flies and Fly Fishing,” 220

Dietz (E.), ‘‘ Chemical Analysis and Assaying,’’ 180

Diffusion, Experiments on, 298

“* Dissection, Guide to,” by G. H. Morrell, 4

Diverticulum of Small Intestines, as a Rudimentary Structure
(Br. A.), 540

Dogs, Perception and Instinct in, 6, 65, 67, 284, 302; Dogs
reared by Cats, 78

Dohrn (Dr.), Zoological Station at Naples, 34, 81, 454, 491

Dollinger (Dr.), President of Bavarian Academy of Science, 75

Dolmens, W. C. Borlase on, 202 ; Mounds and Cromlechs, 344

** Domesticated Animals, Comparative Anatomy of,” 158

Donati (Prof. G. B.), Obituary Notices of, 436, 556

Dor (Prof.), Colour Blindness, 375

Dragon-flies of California, 19

| Draper (Dr. J. C.), Evolution of Structure in Seedling Plants,

252

373

Drayson (Lieut.-Col. R.A.), ‘* The Last Glacial Epoch,” 301

Dredging in Lake Toronto, 193 ; on the Devonshire Coast, 469.
(See Deep-sea Res2arches)

Dresser (H. E., F.ZS.), “ Birds of Europe,” 380

Drosera, Movements of Glands of (Br. A.), 479

Druitt (Dr.), Testimonial to, 151

Dublin, Trinity College, 191 ; Royal College of Science, 230, 436

Durham University, 514

Dust Whirlwind, 126

Dyer (Prof. Thiselton), ‘‘ Aspects of Vegetation,” 13 ; Fungi,
59; Spots on the Cherry-laure', 245 ; Biological Fellowship
at Magdalen College, 464, 513

Dynamometers (Br. A.), 497

Eagle’s Eggs, 19

Earley (Wm.), Habits of Wild Rabbits, 77

Earthquakes : Dumfries, 5; Rangoon, Peshawur, Lahore, Al-
bania, Doncaster, 13; Assam, 95; Attock, 112; Chili, India,
Italy, 191 ; Bagdad, Italy, Buffalo, 210; Italy, 231 ; South-.
port, Chile, 253 ; Jamaica, 294; Valparaiso, 314 ; Samoan
Islands, 325 ; Nottingham, 370; Scotland (Br. A.), 476

Eastbourne Natural History Society, 371 ri

“Wl

East India Museum, Natural History Collections, 5

East Kent Natural History Society, 131

Echinoderms, Recent Works on, 103

Echo corrected by the Use of Wires, 120

Echoes, Harmonic, 319, 383, 487

Ecker (Dr. Alex.), “ Convolutions of the Human Brain,” 526

Eclipses, Solar: Dec. 12, 1871, Dr. Janssen on the Coronal
Atmosphere, 127, 149; Dr. Oudemans’ Photographs, 175 ;
May 26, 1873, 131

Eclipses and Magnetism, 113

Eden (C.), Venomous Caterpillars, 466

Edinburgh : University, 251 ; Museum of Science and Art, 313;
School of Arts, 191 ; Scottish Meteorological Society, 256;
Veterinary College, 473

Education : in Germany, 536; in Italy, 558 (Sze Universities)

Edwards (H.), Honey-making Ant of Texas, 250

Eels, Hermaphroditism of, 113

Eggers (A.), proposed International Coinage, 229

Egypt, Cotton Cultivation, 194

Egyptian Inscriptions, 112

Electric Decomposition of Carbonic Oxide, 164

Electrical Illumination, New Method of, 372

Electrical Measurement, 134

“ Electricity,” by R. M, Ferguson, Ph. D., 63

“Electricity and Magnetism,” by Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.,
42

Electricity, Flammarion on, 24

Elias (Ney), Western Mongolia, 114

Emeralds and Beryls, Researches on, 254, 284

Endowment of Research, The, 157, 197, 237, 243, 257, 261, 262,
297; 317, 337; 354) 377; 414, 433

Engineering School at the Crystal Palace, 294

Entomological Society, 19, 59, 195, 215

Entomology : North American Moths, 193 ; Origin and Meta-
morphoses of Insects, by Sir J. Lubbock, Bart. M.P., F.R.S.,
31, 70, 107, 143, 167, 207

Entromostraca, collecting and preserving, 68

Equilibrium of Temperature of Gaseous Column subjected to
Gravity, 527

Ether and Atoms, 322, 361

Ethereal Friction (Br. A.), 494

Ethnology : Aleutian Islands and Alaska, 112 ; Berlin Anthropo-
logical Society, 272 ; ‘‘ Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie,” 17

“‘ European Spiders,” by T. Thorell, Ph.D., 378

European Weeds and Insects ia America, 202

Evolution Theory, 37, 509

“Evolution, The Philosophy of,” by B. T. Lowne, 242

Evolution of Structure in Seedling Plants, 373

Exeter, its Place in English History, 289

“Eye, Physiology of the,” by S. H. Salon, 322

Faraday, Lessons of his Life (With Portrait), 397 ; on Scientific
Lecturing, 524

Farrer (T. H.), Fertilisation of Lotus corniculatus, 162

Fauna of Kiel Bay, 3

Faye’s Comet, 389

Fayrer (Dr.), Snake Poison, Venomous Caterpillars, 44

Female Education : Certificates granted in London University,
130; London University, 210; Miss Pogson appointed As-
sistant Astronomer at Madras, 513; Bequests by John Stuart
Mill, 371

Ferguson (R. M.), ‘‘ Electricity,” 63

Ferrier (Prof.), Localisation of the Functions in the Brain (Br.
A.), 468, 477

Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects, 49, 59, 121, 143, 161, 162,
187, 202, 205, 223, 244, 433, 541 :

Festing (A. M.), Venomous Caterpillars, tor

Feuchtwanger (Prof.), Existence of Live Mammoths, 393

*‘ Field and Forest Rambles,” by A. Leith-Adams, F. R.S., 320

Field Clubs, List of, 521

Finlay (Geo,), Polarisation of Light in the Rainbow, 466

Fish, W. K. Parker’s Researches on their Anatomy, 74; dis-
tinguished by their Action, 263 ; Fish, Variation of Colour in,
25, 46, 1o1 ; Fish-Acclimatisation in California, 171

Fisheries of New England and New York, 55

*‘ Fishes, British, Familiar History of,” by Frank Buckland, 261

E; Sea Company, Grant for Research on the Anatomy of

ish, 74
Fison (F. W.), Process for Purifying Coal Gas (Br, A.), 475
Flammarion (Camille), ‘The Atmosphere,” 22

INDEX

Fleming (G.), Chauveau’s ‘‘ Comparative Anatomy of Domesti

cated Animals,” 158 c
“Flies and Fly-fishing,” by Captain St. John Dick, 220
Flight of Birds, 89, 222, 324, 362
Flint (A., jun., M.D.), “* Physiology of Man,” 89
Flora of Hampshire, 129
Florence, Memorial to Galileo, 329 ; International Horticultural
Exhibition at, 557
Flounder, Variation of Colour in the, ror
Flower (Prof. W. I., F.R.S.), Paleontology, 192; Pay of
Scientific Men, 243 ; .
Flowers, Fertilisation of, by Insects (See Fertilisation)
Flycatcher’s Nest, 263
‘* Foods,” by E. Smith, M.D., F.R.S., 301 vy?
Forbes (W. A.), Fertilisation of Orchids, 121 i ee
Forbes (David, F.R.S.), Mallet-Palmieri’s ‘* Vesuvius,” 362,
528 ; his Criticism on Mallet’s ‘‘ Volcanic Theory,” 485, 549
Forbes (Prof. George), Claims of Forbes and Agassiz on Glacial
Theories, 44, 64, 84, 222 7
Forbes (W. A.), Grus vipio, 164
Foreign Orders of Merit, 481, 549
Formic Acid and Marsh-gas, 164 ya
Fossils : Carnivora from Wyoming, 93 ; Elephants (Br. A.), 4973
Plants collected by Dr. Goppert, 271 ; Skeleton of Guada-
loupe, 122; in the North-westem Highlands (Br. <A.),
476
Foster (Dr. Michael), Elementary Biology, 54
France : Association for the Advancement of Science, 468;
Meeting at Lyons, 270, 349, 370. (See Paris) Rae
Freeman (E. A., D,C.L.), “The Place of Exeter in English
History,” 289
Fresenius, Anniversary of his School of Chemistry, 74
Frick (Dr. J.), * Physikalische Technik,” 62 /
Frog, the Common, by St. George Mivart, F.R.S., 470, 510
Fryer (C. E.), Growth of Salmon, 285 :
Fuel, Dr. Siemens on (Br. A.), 441
Fungi, Edible, 100; Parasitic, Collections of, 94
Fungus Shows at Horticultural Society, 493

Galileo, Memorial to, 329

Galton, (J. C.), Dr, Ecker’s ‘‘Conyolutions of the Brain,”
2
6

52
Galloupe (C. W.), Presentation of a Yacht to the Anderson
School, Penikese Island, 230, 271
Gamitto (M.), Journey in Africa, 429
Garrod (A. H.), Origin of Nerve Force, 265, 324, 362, 465;

The Sphygmograph, 486

Gassendi, his Anticipation of Natural Selection, 162

Gaseous Column subjected to Gravity ; its Temperature, 486, 527

Gases, Kinetic Theory of, 67, 85, 298 :

Gases, Clerk-Maxwell’s Theory of, 85

Gastaldi (Sig. B.), Glacier-erosion in Alpine Valleys, 18

Gaudin (Mare Antoine), ‘‘L’Architecture du Monde des
Atomes,” 81 .

Gentry, Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects, 541 ;

Geographical Society, 114 ; Medals, 13, 94; Works on African —
Travel, 429 ;

Geographical Society, Berlin, 195 é

“Geography, Physical Text-book of,” by D. Page, LL.D.,
F.R.S., 358 +

Geology: Geological Map of Australia and Tasmania, 3523
Geological Society, 18, 58, 95, 154, 174, 196, 215 ; Geological
Society, Glasgow, 39, 79; Geological Subsidence and Up-
heaval, 223; Geological Survey of Indiana, 228 ; Geologists’

© Association, 58, 155, 235, 335, 3713 “Lyell’s Antiquity of
Man,” 462. (See Br. A., Sec. C)

Geometry, Elementary, Report on Instruction in (Br, A.),
452 ; The Hypotheses which lie at its Bases, by Bernhard Rie-
man, 14, 36 ‘

Germ Theory of Putiefraction, 212, 232

German African Expedition, 313 ‘

Germany, Development Theory in, 37 ; Education in, 536

Giles (Ernest), Exploration in Australia, 94

Gill (C. H.), ‘* Chemistry for Schools,” 160

Gillander (A.), Venomous Caterpillars, 466

Glacial Drifts of North London, 287 :

**Glacial Epoch, The Last,”” by Lieut.-Colonel Drayson, 301 _

Glacial Epoch, Climate of Europe during the, 113

Glacial Period, The, 283, 467, 506 1)

Glacial Theories, Originators of (See Agassiz, Forbes, Tyndall)

INDEX

vii

Glaciation of the Lake District, 154 4

Glacier-erosion Theory, Rev. T. G. Bonney, F.G.S., and Sig. B.
Gastaldi on, 18

Gladstone (Dr., F.R.S.), Black Deposits of Metals (Br. A.), 458

Gladstone (Right Hon. W. E.), Reply to Memorial from Cam-
bridge University, 24, 41 ; Correspondence with Society of
Arts on National Museums, 543

Glaisher (James, F.R.S.), Flammarion’s ‘‘ Atmosphere,” 22

Glaisher (J. W. L.), Introduction of the Decimal Point
(Br. A.), 515 es

Glasgow : University, New Professor of Engineering, 49 ; Geo-
logical Society, 39, 79 :

Gold found in Quartz in Domfriesshire, 371

Goppert (Dr.), Fossil Plants, 271

Gore (G.), Scientific Research, 354

Gottingen, Royal Society of Sciences, 336, 520

Government Aid to Science (Sze State Aid to Science)

“*Grafting and Budding,” by C. Baltet, 180

Gray (Dr. J. E., F.R.S.), The Huemul, 263, 302 ; Internal Nose of
Peccaries and Pigs, 488

Greenwood (Col. Geo.), Lakes with Two Outfalls, 382

Grey-Egerton (Sir P. de M., Bart., F.R.S.), Miners’ Rules in
the 17th Century, 47

Grote (Aug. R.), Deidamia, 485

Ground Ivy, with undeveloped Stamens, 121, 143, 161

Grus vipio, 164, 383

Gubernati’s (Prof. Angelo de), ‘‘ Zoological Mythology,” 43

Guildford Science and Art Classes, 514

Gulf Stream, its Influence on Storms, 147

Gulf Weed collected by the Challenger, 348

Gulliver (Dr. G.), E-xtirpation by Collectors of Rare Plants and
Animals, 73 ; Care of Monkeys for their Dead, 103, 163

Gun-cotton, Rapidity of Detonation, 534

Guthrie (Principal F., LL.B.), Kinetic Theory of Gases, 67;
Equilibrium of Temperature of a Gaseous Column, 486, 527 ;
Flight of Birds, 86, 324, 362

Hague (J. D.), Habits of Ants, 244

Hail, Different Forms of, 22, 23

Hailstorm at Highfield House Observatory, 121

Hall (Capt.) Arctic Exploration and the /o/avis Expedition,
55, 76, 83, 102, 131, 171, 218, 271, 313, 535

Hall (Maxwell), Zodiacal Light, 7, 181 ; Temperature and Pres-
sure, 200

Halomitra, H. H. Higgins on, 245

Hancock (Albany), Death of, 557

Hansteen (Christopher), Obituary Notice of, 349

Harcourt (A. V.), Process for Purifying Coal Gas (Br. A.), 475

Harmonic Echoes, 319, 383, 487

Hart (W. E.), Fertilisation of Flowers, 121, 162, 244

Hartley (Sic C. A.), Delta of the Danube, 115

Hartley (W. N.), Dr. Bastian’s Experiments, 200

Hartnup (J.), Determining the Rates of Chronometers, 394

Hastings (Chas. H.), Spectra of the Limb and Centre of the
Sun, 77

Hayden’s Exploring Expedition, 170, 193, 271, 272, 331

Hayward (Prof. B.), Lakes with Two Outfalls, 383

Heat, Rede Lecture on Thermo-Electricity, 86, 122

Heat Conducted through Rocks (Br. A.), 540

Hegelian Calculus, The, 26

Hegel’s Philosophy, 241, 382

Heidelberg University, 389

Helmholtz (Prof.), Prussian Order Conferred on, 370

Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, 561 5

Henrici (Prof.), Mathematical Teaching, 492 ¢

Hensley (L.), ‘‘ Figures Made Easy,” 159; ‘Scholar's Arith-
metic,”’ 280

Herschel (A. S., F.R.A.S.), Conducting Power of Rocks for
Heat (Br. A.), 540

Herschel (Capt. J.), Flight of Birds, 324, 362

Hess (A., M.D.), Dr. Pettenkofer on Air, 483

Hicks (H., F.G.S.), Rocks of St. David’s (Br, A.), 497

Higgins (H. H.), Halomitra, 245

Hincks (Rey. Thos.), Dr. Sars’ Researches on Animal Life in
Deep Sea, 189

Hobart ‘Town Observatory, 272

Hoefer (Ferdinand), ‘* History of Physics and Chemistry,” 320

Holland (Sir H., Bart., M.D., F.R.S.), Death of, 557

Honey-making Ant, 116, 250

Hooker (Dr. J. D., C.B., F.R.S.), Report on Kew Gardens for
1872, 130; Phanerogamic Vegetation, 487

Horns of Animals, Proposed Collection of, 151

Horrox (Jeremiah), 117, 137

Horses, Perception and Instinct in, 65, 78, 322

Horticultural Society, 39, 59, 95, 155, 255, 315, 480, 493, 541

Houzeau (J. C.), Mind in the Lower Animals, 91 ;

Howitt (A. W.), Sense of Direction in Animals, 322

Huemul, The, Dr. J. E. Gray on, 263, 302

ee (Prof. D.), Experiments on Abiogenesis, 85, (Br. A.)
479, 504

“ Humber District, Birds of the,” 100

‘* Humboldt (Alex. von), Life of,” 238

Hummel (A.), ‘‘ Das Leben der Erde,” 44

Hummel (A. and Dr. Otto Yule), ‘‘ Physikalische und Chemische
Unterhaltungen,” 44

Hunt (Prof. J. Sterry), Origin of Volcanic Products, 66 ; Geo-
logy of New Brunswick, 393

Hutton (Capt. F. W.), Echinodermata of New Zealand, 104

Huxley (Prof. T. H.), Reform in Aberdeen University, 12 ;
Principal Forbes, Prof. Tyndall and Glacier Theories, 64,
84; Intellect of Porpoises, 163

Hyalonema, Japanese Glass-rope Sponge, 393

Hydrogen and Chlorine, Explosion of, 363

Iceland, Volcanoes in, 404

India, Science in, 231, 405, 513. (See Bengal, Calcutta)

Indiana, Geological Survey of, 228

*<TIndo-China, Travels in,” by Louis de Carné, 258

Innsbriick, Society of, 1118

Insects, Fertilisation of Flowers by (Sze Fertilisation)

Insects, Origin and Metamorphoses of, by Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.
F.R.S., 31, 70, 107, 143, 167, 207

Instinct : Moving in a Circle, 6, 27 ; in the Lower Animals, 6,
65, 67, 77, 282, 284, 322; in Plants, 164

Intellect of Porpoises, 163, 229

International Coinage, proposed, 229

International Exhibition, 39, 110, 293 ; 1874, 334

International Metric Commission, 403

Towa, Scientific Journal, 194

Treland (See Belfast, Dublin)

Tron and Steel Institute, 34, 54; Meeting at Liége, 333, 354

Iron, Calcium and Titanium, Coincidence of their Spectrum
Lines, 46

Tron Girder moved by Power of Expansion under Heat, 232

Italy : Association for the Advancement of Science, 472 ; Bo-
tanical Journal, 17 ; Education in, 558; Science in, 113. (Se
Bologna, Florence, Lombardy, Naples, Rome, Turin)

Jacamar shot near Gainsborough, 100, 120
Jagor (F.), ‘‘ Philippine Islands,” 138
Janssen (Dr.), Coronal Atmosphere of the Sun, 127, 149
Japan : Education, 193; Volcanoes, 196 ; Winds, 111
Jeddo, Engineering College, 12
Jeffreys (J. Gwyn, F.R.S.), ‘* Fauna der Kieler Bucht,” by
Mayer and Mobius, 3
Jenkin (Prof. Fleeming, F.R.S.),
netism,” 42
Jenkins (B. G.), Westerly Progress of Cities, 182
Jevons (Prof. W. S.), Lakes with Two Outfalls, 304, 383
Jones (E. D.), November Meteors, 1872, 385
Jose (Amaro), Journey across Africa, 429
Josiah Mason College, Erdington, near Birmingham, 93
Journal of Botany, 210, 499
Joy (Prof. C. A.), on Scientific Research, 13
Jukes (the late J. B., F.R.S.), Order of Merit for Science, 223
Jute Paper, 192

“ Electricity and Mag-

Kangaroos, Fossil Gigantic, 231

Kaup (Prof. D.), Death of, 515, 535

Keightley School of Science and Art, 472

Kensington Entomological Society, 7

Kent (W. S.), Variation of Colour in Fish, 25; ‘‘ Guide to
the Brighton Aquarium,” 160; Intellect of Porpoises, 229 ;
Retirement from the Brighton Aquarium, 251; Action
of Fish, 263 ; Description of the Brighton Aquarium, 191

Kerguelen Cabbage, its Acclimatisation, 67

Kerner (Prof. A.), contributions to Botany, 111

Kerr (Prof. W. C.), Prehistoric Mica Mines, North Carolina, 14

Kew Gardens, Report for 1872, 130; Plants in flower, 313;
bequest of Herbaria by J. Stuart Mill to, 557

Kiel Bay, Fauna of, 3

INDEX

Kinetic Theory of Gases, 67, 85, 298

King’s College, London, 230 j

Kingsley (Rev. Canon), Jacamar shot near Gainsborough, 120
Kirkwood (Prof. Daniel), Biela’s Comets, 4

Kitchener (F. E.), Fertilisation of the Pansy and Ground Ivy,

143 ia he
Koninck (Dr. L. L. de,), ‘‘ Chemical Analysis and Assaying,
180
Kraus (Dr. Gregor), ‘‘ Chlorophyll Colouring- Matters,” 202

Lacerda (Dr. De), ‘* The Lands of Cazembe,”’ 429

Lacustrine Dwellings near Leipsic, 405

Ladiguin (A.), Lighting by Electricity, 372

Lakes of the North-eastern Alps, 18

Lakes with Two Outfalls, 304, 382

Lancelet, from Naples, in the Crystal Palace Aquarium, 12

Landslip at Lima, 372

Langdon (R.), Prominences seen with a Common Telescope,
262

Lankester (E., M.D.), Condensed Milk, 97; Cookery at South
Kensington, 178 ; ‘‘ Half-hours with the Microscope,” 503

Lankester (E. Ray), Development of Bacteria, 504

Lanyon Quoit, Cornwall, 346

Larvee of Membracis supplying Milk to Bees, 201

Lassell (J. and C.), ‘‘ Life of Alex. von Humboldt,” 238

Laughton (J. K.), Proposed New Barometer, 6

Lebour (G. A.), Whin Sill of Northumberland (Br.'A.), 476

Lecturing, Scientific, Faraday on, 524

Leeds, Naturalists’ Field Club, 36, 110, 335, 493, 5143 Philo-
sophical and Literary Society, 153

Leifchild (Rev. J. R.), Papers on Coal, 372 ©

Leipzig, Meteorological Conference at, 114, 341

Leith-Adams (A., F.R.S.), ‘* Field and Forest Rambles,” 320

Lesseps (Ferdinand de), elected Member of the French Academy
of Sciences, 270

Leverrier (M.), appointed Director of French National Observa-
tory, 152

Levi (br: Leone), Resources of Paraguay, 130

Liebig (Justus), Obituary Notice of, 27 ; proposed Monument to,
3, 74

Tes Meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute at, 333, 354

Light, its Action on the Electrical Resistance of Selenium, 134 ;
Physiological Action of, 204; Velocity of, M. Cornu’s Ex-
periments, 184

Lightning, Colour of, 383

Lightning Conductors at St. Paul’s Cathedral, 294

“Light Science for Leisure Hours,” by R. A. Proctor, 243

Lima, Great Landslips, 372

Lindsay (Dr. J. Lauder), Mind in the Lower Animals, 91

Linnean Society, 175, 252, 499; President’s Address, 171

Lister (Prof. Jos., F.R.S.) Germ Theory of Putrefaction, 212,
232

Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club, 272

Livingstone (Dr.), Expeditions to aid hint, 13, 170, 313 ; Statue
at Edinburgh, 35 ; Pension, 170; supposed News of, 492

Lloyd (W. A.), Crystal Palace Aquarium, 532

Lobsters, Young Brood in Brighton Aquarium, 231

Local Scientific Societies, 523

Lockwood (Prof. Dr. S.), Hyalonema, 393

Lockyer (J. Norman, F.R.S.), The Spectroscope and its Ap-
plications, 10, 87, 104; Researches in Spectrum Analysis,
153, 156

Loewy (B., F.R.A.S.), Sun-spots, 234

Lombardy, Royal Institution, 315

London University, 192, 210

Loschmidt (Prof.), Experiments on Diffusion, 298

Lovén (Prof.), on Echinoderms, 104 ;

Lowe (E. J., F.R.S.), Hailstorm at Highfield Observatory, 121

Lowne (B. T.), ‘‘ Philosophy of Evolution,” 242

Lubbock (Sir J., Bart, M.P.), Ancestry of Insects, 249; “‘ Mono-
graph of the Collembola and Thysanura,” 482 ; Preservation
of Public Monuments, 333 ; Silbury Hill bought by him, 191;
Insects (See Origin and Metamorphoses of)

Lucae (Dr. C. G.), Anatomy of Seal and Otter, 222

Lump-fish, Variation of Colour in, 25

Lydekker (R.), Origin of Nerve Force, 465

Lyell (Sir C.), “ Antiquity of Man,” 462

Lyons, Meeting of the French Association for the Advancement
of Science, 270, 349, 370, 468

Maack (Dr. G. A.),'Death of, 514.

McLachlan (Robt.), Venomous Caterpillars, ror

McLeod (H., F.G.S.), Dr. Miller’s Elements of Chemistry, 260

Maclure (Sir R., C.B.), Death of, 557

McKendrick (Dr.), Physiological Action of Light, 204

McKichan (Dugald, M.A.), Electrical Measurement, 134

Madrid, proposed Exhibition of Indistry, 314

Magnetic Survey, Middle States of America, 112

Magnetism and Eclipses, 113

*“‘Magnetism and Electricity,” by Prof. Fleeming Jenkin,
F.R.S., 42

Magnetism ; Demagnetisation of Needles, 102

Magnetite. Artificial (Br. A.), 475 :

Matkins (G. H.), *‘ Manual of Metallurgy,” 302

Mallet (R., F.R.S.),:‘* Chemical Analysis and Assaying”, by De
Koninck and Dietz, 180; Translation of Palmieri’s
“*Vesuvius,” 362, 528; D. Forbes’ Criticism of his Volcanic
Theory, 485, 528, 549

Maltese Fossil Flephants (Br. A.), 497

Maltzan (Baron von), Travels in Arabia, 395

Mammoth, Contemporary Representation of the, 58

Mammoth, Living, in Siberia, 393

Man, Antiquity of, 392, 462 ;

“* Man in Early Times,” by Edw. Clodd, F.R.A.S.. 99

‘Man, Physiology of,” by A. Flint, jun., M.D., 98

Manchester : ‘‘ Science Lectures for the People,” 558 ; Literary
and Philosophical Society, 19 ; Owens’College, 75, 506, 538

Manila described by F. Jagor, 139

Marine Animal, New, from Washington, 487

Markham (Capt.), Plants from Smith’s Sound, 457

Markham (Clements, R., C.B.), Arctic Exploration, 83

Marsh (Prof.), Mammalia from the Rocky Mountains, 76

Marsh-gas and Formic Acid, 164

Mason (Sir Josiah), his Scientific College, near Birmingham, 93

Massachusetts, State Board of Health, 211

Mathematical Science (.Sze British Association, Sec. A)

Mathematical Society, 58, 154

Mathematical Teaching, Prof. Henrici on, 492

Maupertius, his Anticipation of Natural Selection, 163,

Mauritius, Society of Arts and Sciences, 211 ; Observatory, 440

Maury (Commodore), Monument to, 35

Maury (Prof. T. B.), Law of Storms Developed, 124, 147, 164

Mayer (H. A. and R. Mobius), ‘‘ Fauna der Kieler Bucht,” 3

Mayer (John), J. Thomson, C. E., LL.D, Professor of Engi-
neering, 49

Mayne (Capt. Ashton), Sidereal Dial, 366

Messing and Standards of Measure, 268, 307, 327, 367, 386,
409, 552

Mechanical Combination of Colours, 262

Mechanical Science (See British Association, Sec. G)

Medals awarded by French Societies, 55

Medical Studies, 461

Melbourne, Botanical Garden,'334 ; Microscopical Society, 558

Meldrum (C.), Periodicity of Cyclones, Rainfall, and Sun-spots, -
194, 547, (Br. A.) 495

Melsheimer (F. E., M.D.), Obituary Notice of, 236

Mental Science, Journal of, 233

Merrill (G. C.), Motion ina Circle, 77

“* Metallurgy, Manuai of,” by G. H. Makins, F.C.S., 302

Metamorphoses of Insects (.Sze Insects)

Meteor at Tiverton, 487

Meteors, November, 1872, 385

Meteorology: Flammarion’s ‘* Atmosphere ” by Glaisher, 22 :
Law of Storms Developed, 124, 147; in Havanna, 294; in
Japan, 111; proposed Stations in China, 389; Registers of
H.M.S., Avebus and Terror, 514; Symons’ ‘British Rainfall
for 1872,” 231; United States’ Signal Office, 35, 112, 124;
Congress at Leipsic, 341 ; at Vienna, 468 ; Meteorological In-
fluence of Trap Rocks, #81 ; Meteorological Soc., 19, 114, 175

Metric Commission, International, 403 ; Casting the New
Metre, 75

Metric System of Weights and Measures, 386

Meyer (Dr, A. B.), his Expedition to New Guinea, 535

Mica Mines, Prehistoric, in North Carolina, 14

Michez (Dr.), Eclipses and Magnetism, 113

** Microscope, Half Hours with the,” by E. Lankester, M.D.,
593 .

Microscope, New Slide, 79

Microscopes, Power of Objectives, 102

Microscopical Journal, 79, 153, 234, 296, 499, 519

Microscopical Society, 59, 135, 500

Microscopical Society, Birmingham, 469

INDEX

Microzoa, ‘Method of Collecting and Preserving, 68

Milk, Condensed, 97 ? ;

Mill (John Stuart), Obituary Notices, 47, 53; Memorial to,
210; Bequests for Female Education, 371

Miller (R. Kalley, M.A.), ‘‘ Romance of Astronomy,” 140

Miller (S. H.), Mirage in the Fens, 182

- Miller (W. A., M.D.), ‘‘ Elements of Chemistry,” 260

-Miiler-Casella Thermometers broken in Deep-sea Soundings,
f

I
Cy Mind, The Human,” by J. G. Murphy, LL D., 281
Mind in the Lower Animals, Dr. J. Lauder Lindsay on, 91
Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devon, Prizes, 14
Miners’ Rules in the 17th Century, 47

_ Mirage in the Fens, 182
| Mivart (St. George, F.R.S.), ‘‘ Elementary Anatomy,” 221 ;

The Common Frog, 470, 510

Mobius (K., and H. A. Mayer), “‘ Fauna der Kieler Bucht,” 3

Molecules, Prof. Clerk-Maxwell on, 437

Molecular Evolution, 473

Molecules in Motion, 537

Mollusca of Kiel Bay, 3

Monckhoven’s ‘‘ Photography,” 482

Mongolia, Western, Ney Elias’s Journey through, 114

Monkeys, their Tears and Care for the Dead, 103, 163

Montiero (M.), Journey in Africa, 429

Morality and Religion in Early Civilisation (Br. A.), 498

Morrell (G. H., M.A.), ‘‘Students’ Manual of Comparative
Anatomy and Dissection,” 4

Morse (Prof. E. S.) Brachiopoda, 391 ; Variations in Wave-
lengths, 393 ; Mentone Skull, Evolution Theory, 392

Moscow, Société Impériale des Naturalistes, 562

Motion in a Circle, 6, 27, 77

** Motion of Projectiles,” by F. Bashforth, B.D., 503

Mott (A. J.), Atoms and Ether, 322

Miiller (Dr. Hermann), “‘ Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects,”
161, 187, 205, 223

Munich, Royal Academy of Sciences, 118

Muscular Irratibility after Systemic Death, 132

Musical Stones, 46

Murphy (J. G., LU.D.), ‘The Human Mind,” 281

Murphy (J. J., F.G.S.), Winters and Summers, Cyclones,
182 ; European Weeds and Insccts in America, 202; Ab-
normal Ox-eye Daisy, 303 ; Harmonic Echoes, 487

Murray (A.), Venomous Caterpillars, 44

Myers (A. T.), Fertilisation of the Pansy, 202

“Mythology, Zvological,” by Prof. De Gubneratis, 43

Nachtigal (Dr.), Exploration in Central Africa, 75

Napier (Commander R.H.), Ingenuity in a Pigeon, 324

Naples, Zoological Station at, 34, 81, 454, 491

National Museums: Correspondence of Society of Arts and the
Premier, 543

Natural History Collections in the East India Museum, 5

Natural History Museum, South Kensington, 129

Natural History School at Penikese Island (See Agassiz, Alex.)

“Natural Philosophy, Notes on,” by G. F. Rodwell, F.C.S.,

_ 1c0 ‘

Natural Selection anticipated by Maupertius and Gassendi, 162

Nautical Almanac, 529

Naval Architecture, Instruction in, 76

Navigation, Coefficient of Safety in, 394

Negretti and Zambra (H.), Deep:sea Soundings and Thermo-
meters, 529

Nelaton (Dr.), Death of, 436

Nerve Force, Origin of, 265, 324, 362, 465

Nests of Fish, 25

Neumayer (Dr.), Measurement of Deep-sea Temperatures, 195

New Brunswick, Geclogy of, 393

Newcast!e-upon-Tyne, College of Physical Science, 230, 272,
371, 514

Newcomb (Prof.), Tables of the Motions of Uranus, 54

New Guinea, Exploration in, 75; D’Albertis’ Excursion to,
501

New Planets, 192, 371, 493

Newton (Prof. Alfred), Notornis of Lord Howe’s Island, 350

New York: Menagerie in Central Park, 355 ; State Cabinet of
Natural History, 355

New York Tribune, Cheap Reports of Scientific Lectures, 232

New Zealand, Echinodermata of, 104 ; Birds of, 1 51

Nicols (Arthur), Abnormal Colouration in Fish, 46

Nipher (Frank E.), The Glacial Period, 467
Nitrogen, Spectrum of, 161

Noble (Capt. A.), Brazilian Order conferred on, 292
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, 100
North London, Glacial Drifts of, 287

Notornis of Lord Howe’s Island, 350

Nottingham, Science Lectures at, 536

Norwich, Social Science Congress, 472

November Meteors, Brazil, 385

Obermeier (Dr. Oto), Obituary Notice of, 371

Observatories: Washington, 35, 253; Cincinnati, 54; Cor-
doba (Argentine Republic), 111, 252; Paris, 110; Highfield
House, 121 ; Campideglio, Cambridge, 131 ; Columbia (U.S.),
193; St. Petersburg, 273 ; Cuba, 294; Vienna, Marseilles,
371 ; Albany (U-S.), 389 ; Mauritius, 446; J. G. Barclay’s,
473; Sydney, 547

“*Ocean Highways,” 39, 76, 541

| Octopus, Young, bred in Brighton Aquarium, 171, °192, 313

Oldham School of Science, 314

Oliver (Capt. S. P., R.A.), Cromlechs and Dolmen Mounds,
344

Orchids, Fertilisation of, 121

Order of Intellectual Merit, proposed by Earl Stanhope, 177 ;
the late J. B. Jukes on, 223; Foreign Orders, 481, 549

Oreodon Remains in Woodwardian Museum, 309, 385

Organ Pipes and Reeds, 26, 45

Oriental Caligraphy, Bequest to British Museum, 232

Oriental Research as a Means of Education, 538, 559

Orme (Temple), Hensley’s ‘‘Scholar’s Arithmetic,” 280

Ormerod (G., F.R.S.), Death of, 514

Ornithology (See Birds)

Otter and Seal, Anatomy of the, by Dr. C. G. Lucze, 222

Oudeman (Dr.), Photographs of Solar Eclipse of 1871, 175

Owen (Prof. R., F.R.S.), appointed C.B., 74

Owens College, Manchester, Opening of the New Building, 75,
506; Address by Prof. Roscoe, 538

Oxford : Biological Fellowship at Magdalen College, 464, 513;
Natural Science Fellowships and Scholarships, 535, 506, 523,
549; Scientific Education at, 71; Report of Science Com-
mission on, 337; Science at, 21, 55, 130, 170, 171, 404, 436,
464. ,

Ozone Generator, Improved, 146

Packard (A. S.), Ancestry of Insects, 249

Page (D., J.L.D.), “ Text Book of Physical Geography,” 458

Paladilhe (Dr.), Instinct and Perception in Animals, 284

Palmieri’s ‘‘ Incendio Vesuviano,” 362, 549

Pansy, Wild, Fertilisation of, 49, 121, 143, 202

Paper manufactured from Jute, 192

Paraguay, Commission on the Resources of, 130

Parasites of the House Fly, 263

Paris: Academy of Sciences, 20, 40, 60, 80, 96, 116, 136, 156,
176, 196, 209, 216, 236, 256, 270, 276, 246, 316, 336, 376,
396, 405, 480, 500, 520, 542, 562; Acclimatisation Society,
57; 194, 234, 275; Anthropological Society, 113; Bureau
des Longitudes, 110 ; Geographical Society, 214 ; Gold Medals
awarded by Societies, 55 ; Jardin des Plantes, 557; Labora-
tories of Natural History Museum, 226 ; Physical Society, 73

Parker (W. K., F.R.S.), Researches on the Anatomy of Fish, 74

Peccary, Internal Nose of, 488

Penikese Island (See Agassiz, Alex.)

Perception in the Lower Animals, 6, 65, 67, 77, 282, 284, 302,
322

Periodicity of Rainfall, 194, 245, 547

Perry (John), Oxford Science Feilowships, 506, 528, 549

Perthshire Society of Natural Science, 294

Peterman (Dr.), on the Fo/aris Expedition, 271, 313

Pettenkofer (Dr. Max von), “Air; its Relations to Clothes,
Houses, and Soil,” 483

Phanerogamic Vegetation, Northern Limit of, 487

Pharmaceutical Society, 404

Pheasants, Suppression of Scent in, 48

Philadelphia: Academy of Natural Sciences, 19, 59, 115, 156,
276, 500, 520, 541 ; Centennial Exhibition 1876, 355 ; Philo-
sophical Society, 216 ; Zoological Garden, 55

Phillips (Prof. John, F.R.S.), Opening Address, Sec. C, Br. A.,
419 ; Wealden Boring, 487

Phosphorescence in Wood, 46, 103

x

Photography: Photographs, Bichromate, 67; Photographs of
Solar Eclipse of 1871, 175; Photographs of Stars, by Mr.
Sellak, 252; “Photographie, Traité Général de,” by Dr.
Monckhofen, 482; Photography, Celestial, Improved Tele-
scope Tube, 284; “Photography, A Manual of,” by Geo.
Dawson, M.A., 82

Physical Science (Sze British Association, Sec. A)

“ Physics, History of,” by F. Hoefer, 320

“Physics, Mathematical Principles of,” by Prof. Rev. J. Challis,
F.R.S., 279

“ Physikalische Technik,” by Dr. J. Frick, 62

Physiology (.Sve British Association, Sec. D)

“* Physiology of Man,” by A. Flint, jun., M.D., 98

‘* Physiology of the Eye,” by S. H. Salom, 322

Peirce (Prof. B.), Rotation of the Planets, 392

Pigeon, Ingenuity in a, 324

Pigs, Internal Nose of, 488

Placentation of the Sloth, 96

Plaice, Variation of Colour in, 25, 46, 101

Planets, New, 192, 371, 493

Planets, Rotation of the, 392

Plants, Acquired Habits in, 7, 46

Playfair (Dr. Lyon), Scotch and English Universities, 41

Pogson (Miss), Appointed Assistant Astronomer at Madras,
513 :

Poison and Venom, Venomous Caterpillars, 7, 44, 101

Polaris Exploring Ship (See Arctic Exploration)

Polarisation of Light in the Rainbow, 466

Pollen, Natural Protection of, 111

‘*Pollenize” or “ Pollenate,” Use of the Word, 121, 143, 244

Polynesia, New Port and Harbour Discovered, 314

Pombeiros, The, their Journey Across Africa, 429

Population, Statistics of Increase, 172

Porpoises, Intellect of, 163, 229 ; at Brighton Aquarium, 229, 405

Portland (See American Association)

Potato Disease, New, 12

Potential Energy, 35

Preece (W. H.), Demagnetisation of Needles, 102

Prehistoric Art, 6 ; Man in America, 14 ‘

Pringle (E. H ), Relics of the Pyramids, 263 ; Canarese Snakes,

303
Pritchard (H. Baden), Bichromate Photographs, 67
Probosces of Moths of Extraordinary Length, 223
Procter (H. R.), Origin of Nerve Force, 324, 362
Proctor (R. A., B.A.), ‘‘ Light Science for Leisure Hours,” 243
‘* Projectiles, the Motion of,” by F. Bashforth, B.D., 503
Prominences, Solar, seea with a Common Telescope, 262
Psychology, Popular, by Serjt. E. W. Cox, 179
Pulse, the, and the Sphygmograph, 330, 464, 486
Putrefaction, Germ Theory of, 212, 232
Pye-Smith (Dr, P.H.), ‘* History of Zoology,” by Prof. J. Victor
Carus, 118
Pyramids, Relics of the, 263

Quatrefages (M. de), Address to French Association, 349
Queckett Microscopical Club, 275

Rabbits, Wild, Habits of, 77

Rae (John), Arctic Exploration, 102

Rainbow, Curious, 224; Reflected, 361, 432, 466 ; Polarisation
of Light in the, 466

Rainfall, Cyclone and Sun-spot Periodicity, 194, 245, 547(Br. A.),

495

Rainfall, Symons’ “ British Rainfall for 1872,” 231

Rawson (Governor), Periodicity of Rainfall, 245

Rayleigh (Lord, F.R.S.), Harmonic Echoes, 319, 528

Ray Society : Lubbock’s ‘* Monograph of the Collembola and
Thysanura,” 482; Report of Council, 488

Reade (Winwood), ‘‘ African Sketch Book,” 429

Rede Lecture, 86, 122

Reflected Rainbows, 361, 432, 466

Reis (Dr. Paul), Handbook of Physics, 120, 381

Research, Endowment of (See Endowment of Research)

Research, Original, as a Means of Education, 538, 559

Respighi (Prof. L.), Eclipse of May 26, 1873, 131 ; his Method
of Spectroscopic Observation, 162

Richardson (B. W., M.D., F.R.S.), Muscular Irritability after
Systemic Death, 132

Riemann (Bernhard), The Hypotheses which lie at the Bases of

, Geometry, 14, 36 ; |

INDEX

.| Rose (Gustav), Obituary Notice of, 251, 277

Riga, Society of Naturalists, 356, 520

Rigi Railway, 39

Right and Left, 396 i

Rock Inscriptions of Brazil, 46

Rocks, their Power of Cartas wie (Br. A.), 540
a

Birth of Chemistry,” 56; ‘‘ Notes on Natural Phil
100; Hoefer’s ‘* History of Physics and Chemistry,” 320;
Memorial to Galileo at Florence, 329 ‘

Rogers (Prof. W. A), Safety in Navigation, 394

Rohrs (J. H.), The Glacial Period, 283, 506

Romanes (Geo. J.), Permanent Variation of Colour in Fish, ror ;
Curious Rainbow, 224 ; Instinct in Animals, 282 !

Rome, Royal Academy, 562

Ronalds (Sir Francis), Obituary Notice of, 313

Roscoe (Prof. H. E., F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of Liebig, 27 ;
‘*Junior Course of Practical Chemistry,” 242; Original Re-
search as a Means of Education, 538, 559

Rotation of the Planets, 392

Royal Commission on Science, 197, 317, 414

Royal Institution, 55

Royal Society, 18, 34, 96, 134, 151, 153, 173, 194, 214, 234;
Croonian Lecture, 132 ; Soirée, 12

Rudimentary Structures, C. Darwin, F.R.S., on, 431

Rugby School Natural History Society, 160

Russell (H. C.), Meteorological Phenomena, 547

Russell (Prof. J. L.), Death of, 514

Russell (W. J., F.R.S.), Opening Address, Sec. B, Br. A.,
417

Russia, Expeditions for observing the Transit of Venus, 35, 271

Russian Exploration of New Guinea, 75 }

Rutherford (Prof.), Respiration of the Rabbit, 210; Opening
Address, Sec. D, Br. A., 454

St. Andrew’s University, 272

St. David’s Rocks (Br. A.), 497

St. Lawrence, Gulf of, Deep Sounding and Dredging, 112

St. Paul’s Cathedral, Lightning Conductors at, 294

St. Petersburg Observatory, 273

Sale (Lieut.), Action of Light on the Electrical Resistance of
Selenium, 134 ;

Salmon, Growth of, 285

Salom (S. H.), “ Physiology of the Eye,” 322

Samoan Islands, Earthquakes in the, 325

Sanderson (J. Burdon, M.D., F.R.S.), his Experiments on —
Archebiosis, 141, 161, 181, 199, 213, 232, 275, 478, 485, 504,
548 ; Electricity of Dionwa muscipula (Br. A.), 478 ; Address
on Physiology, 304

Sand-storms and Cyclones, 405

Sanitary Progress, Prof. Corfield, M.D., on, 517

Sanitary Science, ‘‘ The Sanitarian ” (New York), 14

Sars (G. O.), Deep-sea Research, Forms of Animal Life, 189

Scent, Suppression of, 48, 78

Schafarick (Prof.), Constitution of Silicates (Br. A.), 475

Schlesinger (Dr. Robert), Microscopic Examination of Textile
Fabrics, 252 :

**Scholar’s Arithmetic,” by L. Hensley, M.A., 280

Schuster (Dr. Arthur), Spectrum of Nitrogen, 161; Effect of
Pressure and Temperature on Spectra of Gases (Br. A.), 496

Schweinfurth (Dr. G.), Vocabularics of Central Africa, 17;
Monbutta Tribes of Central Africa, 374

Science and Art Department, South Kensington, Instruction to
Science Teachers, 93, 210, 333, 371; Queen’s Medallists,
390; Examination in Biology, 550 :

Scientific Instruction, Royal Commission on, 197, 317, 414

Scientific Research, Prof. C. A. Joy on, 13

‘Scientific Research, National Importance of,” by G. Gore,
F.R.S., 354 ,

Scientific Societies, List of, 521, 523

SCIENTIFIC WorTHIES (With Portraits), I, Faraday, 397

Sclater (P. L., F.R.S.), The Huemul, 302 ; New Bird of Para-
dise, 305 ; New Marine Animal, 487

Scotland : Society of Antiquaries, 54; Highland and Agricul-
tural Society, 210 ;

Sea-fish, Distribution of, 192

Seals, Are they Fish or not? 55

Sealand Otter, Anatomy of the, by Dr. J. C. G. Lucae, 222

Secchi (P. A.), his Method of Spectroscopic Observation, 162 ;
and the Royal College of Auatomy, 558 .

INDEX

xi

Sedgwick Memorial, 171

Seedling Plants, Growth or Evolution of Structure in, 373

Settle Cave, W. Boyd Dawkins, on (Br. A.), 476, 540

Shairp (Principal J. C.), Forbes and Tyndall, 84

Shooting Stars observed at Bristol, 385 ;

Sidereal Dial, designed by Capt. Ashton Mayne, 366

Siemens (Dr., F.R.S.), Fuel (Br. A.), 441

Signal Office, Washington, 35, 112, 124

Silbury Hill bought by Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., 191

Silicates, Constitution of (Br. A.), 475

Simple Diffraction Experiment, 550

Smet (Rev. P. J. de), Obituary Notice of, 355

Smith (Archibald), Obituary Notice of, 183

Smith (A. Percy), Instinct of Dogs, 6

Smith (E., M.D., F.R.S.), “ Foods,” 301

Smith (F. J.), Mechanical Combination of Colours, 262

Smith (Geo.), Assyrian Expedition, 75, 271, 333, 436

Smith (Hermann), Approach caused by Velocity and Resulting
in Vibration, 26; Errors respecting Organ-pipes, 45; Har-
monic Causation and Harmonic Echoes, 383

Smith (J. H., M.A.), “Treatise on Arithmetic,” 159

Smith (W. G.), Phosphorescence in Wood, 46

Smith (W.R.), The Hegelian Calculus, 26

Smithsonian Institution, 389

Snakes, Canarese, 303

Sneezing, Physiology of the Phenomenon, 76

School of Mines, 210

- Social Science Congress, Norwich, 472

Societies, Scientific List of, 521 ; Publication of Transactions,

55°
Society of Arts, 110, 112, 371, 492; Memorial to Premier on
National Museums, 543
“* Sociology, Principles of,” by Herbert Spencer, 93
‘* Sociology, Descriptive,” by Herbert Spencer, 544
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society, 333,

354

Sorby (H. C.), Chlorophyll Colouring-Matters, 202, 224

South African Museum, 352

South Kensington Museum, Cookery at, 178; H. Cole, C.B.,
on, 534

Space ot Four Dimensions, 8

Spalding (Douglas A.), Flight of Birds not acquired, 289

ag of Gases, Effect of Pressure and Temperature on (Br. A.),
49)

Spectra of the Limb and Centre of the Sun, 77

Spectroscope, The, and its Applications, by J. Norman Lockyer,
F.R.S., 10, 87, 104

Spectroscope, Improved, 172

= Analysis, Researches in,” by J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S.,
153, 15

Spectrum Lines of Iron, Calcium, and Titanium, 46

Spectrum of Nitrogen, 161

Spencer (Herbert), ‘‘ Principles of Sociology,” 93; ‘‘De-
scriptive Sociology,” 544

Sphygmograph, and the Pulse, 330, 464, 486

Spicer (Rev. W. W.), Etymology of Aphis, 103

““Spiders, European, Synonyms of,” by T. Thorell, Ph.D., 378

Spiller (J., F.C.S.), Artificial Magnetite (Br. A.), 475

Sponge, New, dredged by the Chadlenger, 29

Sporer (Prof. D.), Observations on the Sun, 391

Sprengel (C. K.), Fertilisation of Flowers, 49

Standards of Weight and Measure, 268, 307, 327, 367, 386, 489,

552

Stanhope (Earl), Proposed Order of Intellectual Merit, 177

Star-Fishes, 104, 107

Stars, Southern, Catalogue of, 94

State Aid to Science, 21, 41, 54, 157, 177, 197, 217, 237, 257;
261, 262, 297, 317; 337) 3545 377) 414, 543

Statistical Congress, International, 54

Sternbergia, Modem, Pith of the Balsam-Fir, 53

Steven-on (Thos.), Meteorological Influence of Trap Rocks, 181

Stewart (Prof. B.), Heating of a Disc by Rotation in vacuo, 173;
Sun-spots, 234; Ethereal Friction (Br. A.), 494

Stewart (Dr. J. L.), Death of, 514

Stirling (J. H.), The Hegelian Calculus, 26; ‘‘ Philosophy of
Law,” 241; Hegel’s Philosophy, 382

Stone (Livingstone), Fish Acclimatisation in California, 171

Stone Implements found at New Jersey, 13

Stones, Musical, 46 ;

Storms, Law of, Developed, 124, 147, 164

Struthers (Prof.), Appendix Vermiformis, 509 ; Diverticulum of
Small Intestine, 541

Strezelecki (Count de), Death of, 493 4

Sub-Wealden Exploration (Br. A.), 497

Sullivant (W. S.), Obituary Notice of, 391; his Library and
Collections, 404

Summers and Winters, 182

Sun : Comparison of Spectra of its Limb and Centre, 77 ; Coro-
nal Atmosphere of the, 127, 149; Prof. G. A, Young on the,

393
Sun-spots and Rainfall, Periodicity of, 194, 245, 495, 547
Sunday Lecture Society, 558
Sundevall (Prof. C. J.), Classification of Birds, 131
Suppression of Scent in Pheasants, 48 ; in Rabbits, 78
Survival of the Fittest, Prof. L. Agassiz on, 34, 283
Swallows, Young, Flight of, 289
Switzerland, Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, 561

Tait (Prof. P. G.), Rede Lecture on Thermo-electricity, 86, 122 ;
Heating of a Disc by Rotation in vacuo, 173; Tyndall and
Forbes, 381, 399, 431

Tarry (M.), Cyclones and Sand-storms, 405

Tasmania : Royal Society, 172 ; Geological Map of, 352

Taunton College School, Science at, 171

Taylor (J. E.), ‘‘ Half hours in the Green Lanes,” 361

Taylor (Mrs. R. B.), ‘‘ The A B C of Chemistry,” 260

Technical Education, Meeting at Marlborough House, Deputa-
tion to Privy Council, 293, 314, 513

Tegetmeier, Suppression of Scent in Pheasants, 48

Telegraphic Communications (Transatlantic) of Astronomical
Discoveries, 389

Telescope for Washington Observatory, 253

Telescope Tube for Celestial Photography, 284

Telescope: Webb’s ‘Celestial Objects for Common Tele-
scopes,” 199

Tempel’s Comet, 153

Temperature and Pressure, 200

Temperature of the Deep-sea, 29, 52, 266, 347, 403, 529; Im-
proved Thermometers, 195

Thermo-electricity, Rede Lecture at Cambridge, by Prof. P. G.
Tait, 86, 122

Thermometers, Discussion on, 19; Miller-Casella, broken in
Deep-sea Soundings, 109 ; Deep-sea, 529

Thomé (Dr. O. W.), ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Zoologie,” 198

Thomson (James, C.E., LL.D.), Professor of Engineering at
Glasgow, his scientific Career, 49

Thomson (Prof. Wyville, F.R.S.), Notes from the Challenger,
28, 51, 109, 246, 266, 347, 400; Ventriculid, 484

Thorell (T., Ph.D.), ‘‘ European Spiders,” 378

‘‘Thysanura, Monograph of the,” by Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,
M.P., 482

Tiddeman (R. H.), Settle Caves Report, 529

Timbs’ ‘‘ Year Book of Facts,” 44

Tissandier (M. G.), Aérial Spectres seen from a Balloon, 227

Topley (W., F.G.S.), Whin Sill of Northumberland (Br. A.),
476 ; Sub-Wealden Exploration (Br. A.), 497

Tornadoes, 126

Toulmin Smith (Lucy), Dr. Wyville Thomson and the Ven-
triculidee, 484

“* Trades Guild of Learning,” 151, 171, 293, 494

Transit of Venus (See Venus)

Trap Rocks, their Meteorological Influence, 181

Triangulation of Europe, 192

Turin Industrial Museum, 152

Turkish Scientific Periodical, 13

Tuscan Memorial to Galileo, 329 :

Tylor (E. B., F.R.S.), Clodd’s “ Childhood of the World,” 99 ;
Morality and Religion in Early Civilisation, 498 ; Spencer's
‘Descriptive Sociology,” 562

Tyndall (Prof. J., F.R.S.), Principal Forbes and Glacial The-
ories, 64, 84, 381, 399, 4313; Swedish Order conferred on,
292 ; Reflected Rainbows, 361, 423

Typhoid Epidemic in London, 343, 466, 514

Ule (Dr. Otto and A. Hummel), ‘‘ Physikalische und Chemische
Unterhaltungen,” 44

Univer-ities, English, their Future ; a Voice from Cambridge,
an Echo from Oxford, 71

Universities and Science, Pro” C. A. Joy on, 13

Universities, English and Foreign, Science at, 21

Universities and Science, 41, 157, 197, 237, 243. 257, 261, 262
207, 354; 377) 414, 433 3 Report of the Science Commission,

317, 337 ; ’
Uranus, Prof. Newcomb’s Tables of its Motions, 54

Valentin (W. G., F.C.S.), “ Qualitative Chemical Analysis,” 199

Variation of Colour in Fish, 101, 46

Variations of Organs, 505

Velocity and Vibration, 25 ,

Velocity of Light, A. Cornu’s Experiments, 184

Venom and Po'son, 7, 44, 101

Venomous Caterpillars, 7, 44, 101, 303, 466, 487

Venomous Reptiles of South America, 214

Ventriculidz, 484 P.

Venus, Transit of, Observations of Jeremiah Horrox, 117, 137

Venus, Transit of, 1874, Recommendations of Board of Visitors,
Greenwich Observatory, 129; German Observations, 271;
Russian Expeditions, 35, 271

Verreaux (J. P.), Obituary Notice of, 535, 537

Vesuvius: Palmieri’s ‘* Incendio Vesuviano,” 362; Mallet-Pal-
mieri’s, D, Forbes, F.R.S., on, 528, 549

Vézére, Prehistoric Remains, 58

Victoria Cave Exploration, W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., on, 19

Victoria: Climate of, 152; Mineral Statistics, 335 ; Mining
Department of, 352

Victoria Institute, 334 :

Vienna: proposed Conference on International Coinage, 229 ;
Exhibition, Expenses of Jurors, 54, 272, 333, 355, 5153
Imperial Academy of Sciences, 335 ; Meteorological Congress,
468 ; Student’s Home, 152; New Zoological Museum, 75 ;
Zoological Society, 180

Vine Disease, 557

Violets, Fertilisation of, 50

Volcanic Eruptions, R. Mallett, F.R.S., on, 362, 485, 549

Volcanic Products, Origin of, 66

Volcanoes: in Columbia, 192 ; in Iceland, 404; in Japan, 112,
196

Wacherer (Dr. Otto), Obituary Notice of, 535

Wagner (Moritz), ‘‘ The Darwinian Theory,” 180

Walker (C. V., F.R.S.), Carbon Battery Plates, 529

Walker (Henry, F-.G.S.), Glacial Drifts of North London, 287

Wallace (Alfred R., F.Z.S.), Natural History Collections in
the East India Museum, 5; Collection of Birds from the
Malay Archipelago, Bought for the British Museum, 54; Per-

ception and Instinct in the Lower Animals, 65, 302; Dr. |

Page’s ‘* Text-book of Physical Geography,” 358 ; Works on
African Travel, 429 ; Lyell’s *‘ Antiquity of Man,” 462
Wallis (Dr.), his Latin Translation of the MSS. of Jeremiah
Horrox, 137
Valsingham (Lord), Oreodon Remains from Upper Oregon,

28

Ward (J. Clifton), Glaciation of the’Lake District, 154

Washburn (G.), Antiquity of Man, 392

Washington, Naval Observatory at, 35, 253; Signal Office,
35, II2, 124

Waves and Earthquakes, 547

Wave Lengths, Variations in, 393

Wave Motion, Method of Studying, 506

Wealden Boring, 487, (Br. A.) 497

Webb (Rev. T. W.), “Celestial Objects for Common Tele-

scopes,” 199

Weighing and Standards of Weight, 268, 307, 327, 367, 386, 489,

552

Wellington College Natural History Society, 260

Westerly Progress of Cities, 102, 182

West Kent Natural History Society, 131

Wharton (C, Bygrave), Motion in a Circle, 77

Wheatstone (Sir Charles), Grand Medal of French Society of
National Industry, 74; Elected Associate of the French
Academy Sciences, 209, 251

Whewell (Dr., late Master of Trinity), Proposed Life of, 151

Whin Sill of Northumberland (Br. A.), 476 ‘

Whitmee (S. J.) Earthquakes in the Samoan Islands, 32

Whitworth Scholarships, 335, 395

Wild Birds Protection Act, 1, 209

Willemoes-Suhm (Dr. von), Deep-Sea Dredging on Board the
Challenger, 28, 51 \ ;

Willett (H.), Sub- Wealden Exploration (Br. A.), 497

Williams (Greville, F.R.S:), Emeralds and Beryls, 254, 284

Williams (Rev. S. E., M.A.), “ Arithmetic and Algebra,” 159

Williams (W. Mattieu, F.C.S.), Spectrum Lines of Iron Cal-
cium and Titanium, 46; Science in Italy, 113 ; Intellect of
Porpoises, 163; Mrs. Taylor's ‘A BC of Chemistry,” 260 ;~
Autumnal Typhoid Epidemics, 466

Williamson (Prof. A. W., F.R.S.), Inaugural Address at British
Association, 406 j

Williamson (Prof. W. C., F.R.S.), Coals and Coal Plants (Br.
A.), 446

Wills (Thos.), New Ozone Generator, 146 b

Wilson (Henry S.), Venomous Caterpillars, 45 ,

Winchester College, Natural History Society, 282; ScientiSc
Society, 484

Winters and Summers, 182

Wires used to Correct Echo, 120

Wise (Prof,), his propesed Balloon Voyage from America to
England, 364, 389, 436

Wood (Wallace, M.D.), ‘‘Chronos: Mother Earth’s Bio-
graphy,” 259

Wood, Phosphorescence in, 46, 103 :

Woodward (C. J.), Wave Motion, 506 "i

‘*World of Atoms,” by Marc. Antoine Gaudin, 81

Wyandotte Cave, 229

Wyoming, Geology of, Prof. Cope on, 19, 93, 116, 156, 390

Yale College, Scientific School, 252, 322

“* Vear-book of Facts,” 44

Yellowstone Exploring Expedition, 33r.

Young (Prof. C, A.), Improved Spectroscope, 172; Crust of
the Sun, 393

Zittel (Prof. Dr. K. A ), “ Aus der Urzeit,” 547

Zodiacal Light, Maxwell Hall on, 7, 181

Zoology : Zoological Gardens, Cranes, 383 ; Additions to, 14,
35, 36, 55, 76, 113, 131, 153, 173, 193, 211, 232, 253, 273,
294, 315, 335, 356, 372, 391, 405, 436, 473, 494, 515, 536, —
559; Garden, Calcutta, 34 ; Garden, Philadelphia, 55 ; **Zoo-
logical Mythology,” by Prof. De Gubernatis, 43 ; Zoological
Record, 54, 527; Society, Meetings, 18, 58, 95, 135, 195,
231; Society, Vienna, 180; Station at Naples, 34, 81, 454 ;
Zoologist, The, 335, 3953 ‘‘ Zoology, History of,” by Prof. J.
Victor Carus, 118 ; Thome’s ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Zoologie,” 193,
(See British Association, Sec. D)

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